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In 1912 Frederic Lewy described microscopic particles in affected brains , later named " Lewy bodies " . In 1919 Konstantin Tretiakoff reported that the substantia nigra was the main cerebral structure affected , but this finding was not widely accepted until it was confirmed by further studies published by Rolf Hassler in 1938 . The underlying biochemical changes in the brain were identified in the 1950s , due largely to the work of Arvid Carlsson on the neurotransmitter dopamine and Oleh Hornykiewicz on its role on PD . In 1997 , alpha @-@ synuclein was found to be the main component of Lewy bodies by Spillantini , Trojanowski , Goedert and others .
Anticholinergics and surgery ( lesioning of the corticospinal pathway or some of the basal ganglia structures ) were the only treatments until the arrival of levodopa , which reduced their use dramatically . Levodopa was first synthesized in 1911 by Casimir Funk , but it received little attention until the mid 20th century . It entered clinical practice in 1967 and brought about a revolution in the management of PD . By the late 1980s deep brain stimulation introduced by Alim @-@ Louis Benabid and colleagues at Grenoble , France , emerged as a possible treatment .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Cost = = =
The costs of PD to society are high , but precise calculations are difficult due to methodological issues in research and differences between countries . The annual cost in the UK is estimated to be between 449 million and 3 @.@ 3 billion pounds , while the cost per patient per year in the U.S. is probably around $ 10 @,@ 000 and the total burden around 23 billion dollars . The largest share of direct cost comes from inpatient care and nursing homes , while the share coming from medication is substantially lower . Indirect costs are high , due to reduced productivity and the burden on caregivers . In addition to economic costs , PD reduces quality of life of those with the disease and their caregivers .
= = = Advocacy = = =
11 April , the birthday of James Parkinson , has been designated as World Parkinson 's Day . A red tulip was chosen by international organizations as the symbol of the disease in 2005 : it represents the James Parkinson Tulip cultivar , registered in 1981 by a Dutch horticulturalist . Advocacy organizations include the National Parkinson Foundation , which has provided more than $ 180 million in care , research and support services since 1982 , Parkinson 's Disease Foundation , which has distributed more than $ 115 million for research and nearly $ 50 million for education and advocacy programs since its founding in 1957 by William Black ; the American Parkinson Disease Association , founded in 1961 ; and the European Parkinson 's Disease Association , founded in 1992 .
= = = Notable cases = = =
Actor Michael J. Fox has PD and has greatly increased the public awareness of the disease . After diagnosis , Fox embraced his Parkinson 's in television roles , sometimes acting without medication , in order to further illustrate the effects of the condition . He has written two autobiographies in which his fight against the disease plays a major role , and appeared before the United States Congress without medication to illustrate the effects of the disease . The Michael J. Fox Foundation aims to develop a cure for Parkinson 's disease . Fox received an honorary doctorate in medicine from Karolinska Institutet for his contributions to research in Parkinson 's disease .
Professional cyclist and Olympic medalist Davis Phinney , who was diagnosed with young onset Parkinson 's at age 40 , started the Davis Phinney Foundation in 2004 to support Parkinson 's research , focusing on quality of life for people with the disease .
Muhammad Ali showed signs of Parkinson 's when he was 38 , but was not diagnosed until he was 42 , and has been called the " world 's most famous Parkinson 's patient " . Whether he had PD or a parkinsonism related to boxing is unresolved .
= = Research = =
There is little prospect of significant new PD treatments in the near future . Currently active research directions include the search for new animal models of the disease and studies of the potential usefulness of gene therapy , stem cell transplants and neuroprotective agents .
= = = Animal models = = =
PD is not known to occur naturally in any species other than humans , although animal models which show some features of the disease are used in research . The appearance of parkinsonian symptoms in a group of drug addicts in the early 1980s who consumed a contaminated batch of the synthetic opiate MPPP led to the discovery of the chemical MPTP as an agent that causes a parkinsonian syndrome in non @-@ human primates as well as in humans . Other predominant toxin @-@ based models employ the insecticide rotenone , the herbicide paraquat and the fungicide maneb . Models based on toxins are most commonly used in primates . Transgenic rodent models that replicate various aspects of PD have been developed . Using the neurotoxin 6 @-@ hydroxydopamine , also known as 6 @-@ OHDA , it creates a model of Parkinson 's disease in rats by targeting and destroying dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway when injected into the substantia nigra .
= = = Gene therapy = = =
Gene therapy typically involves the use of a non @-@ infectious virus ( i.e. , a viral vector such as the adeno @-@ associated virus ) to shuttle genetic material into a part of the brain . The gene used leads to the production of an enzyme that helps to manage PD symptoms or protects the brain from further damage . In 2010 there were four clinical trials using gene therapy in PD . There have not been important adverse effects in these trials although the clinical usefulness of gene therapy is still unknown . One of these reported positive results in 2011 , but the company filed for bankruptcy in March 2012 .
= = = Neuroprotective treatments = = =
Investigations on neuroprotection are at the forefront of PD research . Several molecules have been proposed as potential treatments . However , none of them have been conclusively demonstrated to reduce degeneration . Agents currently under investigation include anti @-@ apoptotics ( omigapil , CEP @-@ 1347 ) , antiglutamatergics , monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( selegiline , rasagiline ) , promitochondrials ( coenzyme Q10 , creatine ) , calcium channel blockers ( isradipine ) and growth factors ( GDNF ) . Preclinical research also targets alpha @-@ synuclein . A vaccine that primes the human immune system to destroy alpha @-@ synuclein , PD01A ( developed by Austrian company , Affiris ) , has entered clinical trials in humans .
= = = Neural transplantation = = =
Since early in the 1980s , fetal , porcine , carotid or retinal tissues have been used in cell transplants , in which dissociated cells are injected into the substantia nigra in the hope that they will incorporate themselves into the brain in a way that replaces the dopamine @-@ producing cells that have been lost . Although there was initial evidence of mesencephalic dopamine @-@ producing cell transplants being beneficial , double @-@ blind trials to date indicate that cell transplants produce no long @-@ term benefit . An additional significant problem was the excess release of dopamine by the transplanted tissue , leading to dystonias . Stem cell transplants are a recent research target , because stem cells are easy to manipulate and stem cells transplanted into the brains of rodents and monkeys have been found to survive and reduce behavioral abnormalities . Nevertheless , use of fetal stem cells is controversial . It has been proposed that effective treatments may be developed in a less controversial way by use of induced pluripotent stem cells taken from adults .
= Evolution =
Evolution is change in the heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations . Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation , including the levels of species , individual organisms , and molecules .
All life on Earth shares a common ancestor known as the last universal common ancestor ( LUCA ) , which lived approximately 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 8 billion years ago , although a study in 2015 found " remains of biotic life " from 4 @.@ 1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all organisms living on Earth .
Repeated formation of new species ( speciation ) , change within species ( anagenesis ) , and loss of species ( extinction ) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth are demonstrated by shared sets of morphological and biochemical traits , including shared DNA sequences . These shared traits are more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor , and can be used to reconstruct a biological " tree of life " based on evolutionary relationships ( phylogenetics ) , using both existing species and fossils . The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite , to microbial mat fossils , to fossilized multicellular organisms . Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction . More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates of Earth 's current species range from 10 to 14 million , of which about 1 @.@ 2 million have been documented .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , Charles Darwin formulated the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection , published in his book On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) . Evolution by natural selection is a process demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are produced than can possibly survive , along with three facts about populations : 1 ) traits vary among individuals with respect to morphology , physiology , and behaviour ( phenotypic variation ) , 2 ) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction ( differential fitness ) , and 3 ) traits can be passed from generation to generation ( heritability of fitness ) . Thus , in successive generations members of a population are replaced by progeny of parents better adapted to survive and reproduce in the biophysical environment in which natural selection takes place . This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform . Natural selection is the only known cause of adaptation but not the only known cause of evolution . Other , nonadaptive evolutionary processes include mutation , genetic drift and gene migration .
In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics . The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology . Moreover , previously held notions about evolution , such as orthogenesis , evolutionism , and other beliefs about innate " progress " within the largest @-@ scale trends in evolution , became obsolete scientific theories . Scientists continue to study various aspects of evolutionary biology by forming and testing hypotheses , constructing mathematical models of theoretical biology and biological theories , using observational data , and performing experiments in both the field and the laboratory .
In terms of practical application , an understanding of evolution has been instrumental to developments in numerous scientific and industrial fields , including agriculture , human and veterinary medicine , and the life sciences in general . Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just in the traditional branches of biology but also in other academic disciplines , including biological anthropology , and evolutionary psychology . Evolutionary computation , a sub @-@ field of artificial intelligence , involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science .
= = History of evolutionary thought = =
The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre @-@ Socratic Greek philosophers , such as Anaximander and Empedocles . Such proposals survived into Roman times . The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura ( On the Nature of Things ) . In contrast to these materialistic views , Aristotle understood all natural things , not only living things , as being imperfect actualisations of different fixed natural possibilities , known as " forms , " " ideas , " or ( in Latin translations ) " species . " This was part of his teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order . Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the Middle Ages and were integrated into Christian learning , but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one @-@ for @-@ one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be .
In the 17th century , the new method of modern science rejected Aristotle 's approach . It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order . However , this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences , the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types . John Ray applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types , " species , " to plant and animal types , but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation . These species were designed by God , but showed differences caused by local conditions . The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the hierarchical nature of species relationships , but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan .
Other naturalists of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws . In 1751 , Pierre Louis Maupertuis wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species . Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms , and Erasmus Darwin proposed that all warm @-@ blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism ( or " filament " ) . The first full @-@ fledged evolutionary scheme was Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's " transmutation " theory of 1809 , which envisaged spontaneous generation continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency , and postulated that on a local level these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents . ( The latter process was later called Lamarckism . ) These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support . In particular , Georges Cuvier insisted that species were unrelated and fixed , their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs . In the meantime , Ray 's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by William Paley into the Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity ( 1802 ) , which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin .
The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection , which was formulated by Charles Darwin in terms of variable populations . Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population ( 1798 ) by Thomas Robert Malthus , Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a " struggle for existence " in which favorable variations prevailed as others perished . In each generation , many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources . This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism . Darwin developed his theory of " natural selection " from 1838 onwards and was writing up his " big book " on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858 . Their separate papers were presented together at a 1858 meeting of the Linnean Society of London . At the end of 1859 , Darwin 's publication of his " abstract " as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of concepts of evolution . Thomas Henry Huxley applied Darwin 's ideas to humans , using paleontology and comparative anatomy to provide strong evidence that humans and apes shared a common ancestry . Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the universe .
Precise mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery . Towards this end , Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis . In 1865 , Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements ( later known as genes ) . Mendel 's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin 's pangenesis theory . August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes ( such as sperm and egg cells ) and the somatic cells of the body , demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only . Hugo de Vries connected Darwin 's pangenesis theory to Weismann 's germ / soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin 's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cells structure . De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel 's work well @-@ known , believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline . To explain how new variants originate , de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries . In the 1930s , pioneers in the field of population genetics , such as Ronald Fisher , Sewall Wright and J. B. S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy . The false contradiction between Darwin 's theory , genetic mutations , and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled .
In the 1920s and 1930s a modern evolutionary synthesis connected natural selection , mutation theory , and Mendelian inheritance into a unified theory that applied generally to any branch of biology . The modern synthesis was able to explain patterns observed across species in populations , through fossil transitions in palaeontology , and even complex cellular mechanisms in developmental biology . The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance . Molecular biology improved our understanding of the relationship between genotype and phenotype . Advancements were also made in phylogenetic systematics , mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of evolutionary trees . In 1973 , evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that " nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution , " because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet .
Since then , the modern synthesis has been further extended to explain biological phenomena across the full and integrative scale of the biological hierarchy , from genes to species . This extension , known as evolutionary developmental biology and informally called " evo @-@ devo , " emphasises how changes between generations ( evolution ) acts on patterns of change within individual organisms ( development ) .
= = Heredity = =
Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits — the inherited characteristics of an organism . In humans , for example , eye colour is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the " brown @-@ eye trait " from one of their parents . Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism 's genome ( genetic material ) is called its genotype .
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype . These traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment . As a result , many aspects of an organism 's phenotype are not inherited . For example , suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person 's genotype and sunlight ; thus , suntans are not passed on to people 's children . However , some people tan more easily than others , due to differences in genotypic variation ; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of albinism , who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn .
Heritable traits are passed from one generation to the next via DNA , a molecule that encodes genetic information . DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases . The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specify the genetic information , in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence . Before a cell divides , the DNA is copied , so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence . Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes ; different genes have different sequences of bases . Within cells , the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes . The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus . If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals , the different forms of this sequence are called alleles . DNA sequences can change through mutations , producing new alleles . If a mutation occurs within a gene , the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls , altering the phenotype of the organism . However , while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases , most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci ( multiple interacting genes ) .
Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA . These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems . DNA methylation marking chromatin , self @-@ sustaining metabolic loops , gene silencing by RNA interference and the three @-@ dimensional conformation of proteins ( such as prions ) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level . Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalisation . Heritability may also occur at even larger scales . For example , ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment . This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations . Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors . Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and symbiogenesis .
= = Variation = =
An individual organism 's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence from the environment it has lived in . A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation . The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation . The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene . Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation — when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely .
Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population . Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics , one common hypothesis was blending inheritance . But with blending inheritance , genetic variance would be rapidly lost , making evolution by natural selection implausible . The Hardy – Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance . The frequencies of alleles ( variations in a gene ) will remain constant in the absence of selection , mutation , migration and genetic drift .
Variation comes from mutations in the genome , reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration between populations ( gene flow ) . Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow , most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species . However , even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype : for example , chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5 % of their genomes .
= = = Mutation = = =
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell 's genome . When mutations occur , they may alter the product of a gene , or prevent the gene from functioning , or have no effect . Based on studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster , it has been suggested that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene , this will probably be harmful , with about 70 % of these mutations having damaging effects , and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial .
Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming duplicated ( usually by genetic recombination ) , which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome . Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve . This is important because most new genes evolve within gene families from pre @-@ existing genes that share common ancestors . For example , the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light : three for colour vision and one for night vision ; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene .
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function . This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the redundancy of the system ; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function . Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA .
The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated , with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions . When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre @-@ existing parts , domains act as modules with simple independent functions , which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions . For example , polyketide synthases are large enzymes that make antibiotics ; they contain up to one hundred independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process , like a step in an assembly line .
= = = Sex and recombination = = =
In asexual organisms , genes are inherited together , or linked , as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction . In contrast , the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents ' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment . In a related process called homologous recombination , sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes . Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies , but instead change which alleles are associated with each other , producing offspring with new combinations of alleles . Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution .
The two @-@ fold cost of sex was first described by John Maynard Smith . The first cost is that only one of the two sexes can bear young . ( This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species , like most plants and many invertebrates . ) The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50 % of its genes to any individual offspring , with even less passed on as each new generation passes . ( Again , this applies mostly to the evolution of sexual dimorphism , which occurred long after the evolution of sex itself . ) Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms ( although more common than sexual dimorphism ) . The Red Queen hypothesis has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to coevolution with other species in an ever @-@ changing environment .
= = = Gene flow = = =
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species . It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species . Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms , as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations , or the movement of pollen between heavy metal tolerant and heavy metal sensitive populations of grasses .
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer . Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring ; this is most common among bacteria . In medicine , this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance , as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species . Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred . An example of larger @-@ scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers , which have received a range of genes from bacteria , fungi and plants . Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms , allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains .
Large @-@ scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and bacteria , during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria . It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and archaea .
= = Mechanisms = =
From a Neo @-@ Darwinian perspective , evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms . For example , the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common . Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection , genetic drift , genetic hitchhiking , mutation and gene flow .
= = = Natural selection = = =
Evolution by means of natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population . It has often been called a " self @-@ evident " mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts :
Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology , physiology , and behaviour ( phenotypic variation ) .
Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction ( differential fitness ) .
These traits can be passed from generation to generation ( heritability of fitness ) .
More offspring are produced than can possibly survive , and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction . Consequently , organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage .
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism . Fitness is measured by an organism 's ability to survive and reproduce , which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation . However , fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring : instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism 's genes . For example , if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly , but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive , this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness .
If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene , then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population . These traits are said to be " selected for . " Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity . Conversely , the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer — they are " selected against . " Importantly , the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic ; if the environment changes , previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful . However , even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way , traits that were lost in the past may not re @-@ evolve in an identical form ( see Dollo 's law ) .
Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values , such as height , can be categorised into three different types . The first is directional selection , which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time — for example , organisms slowly getting taller . Secondly , disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common , with selection against the average value . This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage , but not those of medium height . Finally , in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends , which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity . This would , for example , cause organisms to slowly become all the same height .
A special case of natural selection is sexual selection , which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates . Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species . Although sexually favoured , traits such as cumbersome antlers , mating calls , large body size and bright colours often attract predation , which compromises the survival of individual males . This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard @-@ to @-@ fake , sexually selected traits .
Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits , are more or less likely to survive . " Nature " in this sense refers to an ecosystem , that is , a system in which organisms interact with every other element , physical as well as biological , in their local environment . Eugene Odum , a founder of ecology , defined an ecosystem as : " Any unit that includes all of the organisms ... in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure , biotic diversity and material cycles ( ie : exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts ) within the system . " Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct niche , or position , with distinct relationships to other parts of the system . These relationships involve the life history of the organism , its position in the food chain and its geographic range . This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which , together , comprise natural selection .
Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation , such as genes , cells , individual organisms , groups of organisms and species . Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously . An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called transposons , which can replicate and spread throughout a genome . Selection at a level above the individual , such as group selection , may allow the evolution of cooperation , as discussed below .
= = = Biased mutation = = =
In addition to being a major source of variation , mutation may also function as a mechanism of evolution when there are different probabilities at the molecular level for different mutations to occur , a process known as mutation bias . If two genotypes , for example one with the nucleotide G and another with the nucleotide A in the same position , have the same fitness , but mutation from G to A happens more often than mutation from A to G , then genotypes with A will tend to evolve . Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes . Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution . For example , according to the phenotype @-@ first theory of evolution , mutations can eventually cause the genetic assimilation of traits that were previously induced by the environment .
Mutation bias effects are superimposed on other processes . If selection would favor either one out of two mutations , but there is no extra advantage to having both , then the mutation that occurs the most frequently is the one that is most likely to become fixed in a population . Mutations leading to the loss of function of a gene are much more common than mutations that produce a new , fully functional gene . Most loss of function mutations are selected against . But when selection is weak , mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution . For example , pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves , and tend to be lost . This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias , and / or because the function had a cost , and once the benefit of the function disappeared , natural selection leads to the loss . Loss of sporulation ability in Bacillus subtilis during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias , rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability . When there is no selection for loss of function , the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size , indicating that it is driven more by mutation bias than by genetic drift . In parasitic organisms , mutation bias leads to selection pressures as seen in Ehrlichia . Mutations are biased towards antigenic variants in outer @-@ membrane proteins .
= = = Genetic drift = = =
Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency from one generation to the next that occurs because alleles are subject to sampling error . As a result , when selective forces are absent or relatively weak , allele frequencies tend to " drift " upward or downward randomly ( in a random walk ) . This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed , either by disappearing from the population , or replacing the other alleles entirely . Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone . Even in the absence of selective forces , genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles .
It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes , including drift . The comparative importance of adaptive and non @-@ adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research .
The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift . Hence , in this model , most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift . This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned , since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature . However , a more recent and better @-@ supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory , where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population . Other alternative theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution , such as genetic hitchhiking , also known as genetic draft .
The time for a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size , with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations . The number of individuals in a population is not critical , but instead a measure known as the effective population size . The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest . The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population .
= = = Genetic hitchhiking = = =
Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated . However , the rate of recombination is low ( approximately two events per chromosome per generation ) . As a result , genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together , a phenomenon known as linkage . This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations , which is called their linkage disequilibrium . A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype . This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial : natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population ; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft . Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size .
= = = Gene flow = = =
Gene flow involves the exchange of genes between populations and between species . The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution . Due to the complexity of organisms , any two completely isolated populations will eventually evolve genetic incompatibilities through neutral processes , as in the Bateson @-@ Dobzhansky @-@ Muller model , even if both populations remain essentially identical in terms of their adaptation to the environment .
If genetic differentiation between populations develops , gene flow between populations can introduce traits or alleles which are disadvantageous in the local population and this may lead to organisms within these populations evolving mechanisms that prevent mating with genetically distant populations , eventually resulting in the appearance of new species . Thus , exchange of genetic information between individuals is fundamentally important for the development of the biological species concept .
During the development of the modern synthesis , Sewall Wright developed his shifting balance theory , which regarded gene flow between partially isolated populations as an important aspect of adaptive evolution . However , recently there has been substantial criticism of the importance of the shifting balance theory .
= = Outcomes = =
Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms . Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection . These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food , avoiding predators or attracting mates . Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other , usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis . In the longer term , evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed .
These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as macroevolution versus microevolution . Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species , in particular speciation and extinction ; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population , in particular shifts in gene frequency and adaptation . In general , macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution . Thus , the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one — the difference is simply the time involved . However , in macroevolution , the traits of the entire species may be important . For instance , a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats , lessening the chance of it going extinct , while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation , by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated . In this sense , microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels — with microevolution acting on genes and organisms , versus macroevolutionary processes such as species selection acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction .
A common misconception is that evolution has goals , long @-@ term plans , or an innate tendency for " progress , " as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism ; realistically however , evolution has no long @-@ term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity . Although complex species have evolved , they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere . For example , the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes , which form about half the world 's biomass despite their small size , and constitute the vast majority of Earth 's biodiversity . Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day , with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable . Indeed , the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to modern evolutionary research , since their rapid reproduction allows the study of experimental evolution and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time .
= = = Adaptation = = =
Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat . Also , the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism 's survival . For example , the adaptation of horses ' teeth to the grinding of grass . By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product ( the bodily part or function ) , the two senses of the word may be distinguished . Adaptations are produced by natural selection . The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky :
Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats .
Adaptedness is the state of being adapted : the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats .
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing .
Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature , or the loss of an ancestral feature . An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection , with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug , or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell . Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long @-@ term laboratory experiment , Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by @-@ products of nylon manufacturing , and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol . An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection ( increasing organisms ' evolvability ) .
Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures . Consequently , structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms . This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways . The bones within bat wings , for example , are very similar to those in mice feet and primate hands , due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor . However , since all living organisms are related to some extent , even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity , such as arthropod , squid and vertebrate eyes , or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates , can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function ; this is called deep homology .
During evolution , some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures . Such structures may have little or no function in a current species , yet have a clear function in ancestral species , or other closely related species . Examples include pseudogenes , the non @-@ functional remains of eyes in blind cave @-@ dwelling fish , wings in flightless birds , the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes , and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction . Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth , the coccyx , the vermiform appendix , and other behavioural vestiges such as goose bumps and primitive reflexes .
However , many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations : structures originally adapted for one function , but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process . One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri , which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices , as can be seen by looking at its near relatives . However , in this species , the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree — an exaptation . Within cells , molecular machines such as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of several pre @-@ existing proteins that previously had different functions . Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms ' eyes .
An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations . This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features . These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures , such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals . It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes , such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles . It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes .
= = = Coevolution = = =
Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation . When the interaction is between pairs of species , such as a pathogen and a host , or a predator and its prey , these species can develop matched sets of adaptations . Here , the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species . These changes in the second species then , in turn , cause new adaptations in the first species . This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution . An example is the production of tetrodotoxin in the rough @-@ skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator , the common garter snake . In this predator @-@ prey pair , an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake .
= = = Cooperation = = =
Not all co @-@ evolved interactions between species involve conflict . Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved . For instance , an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil . This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis . Here , the fungi actually grow inside plant cells , allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts , while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system .
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved . An extreme case is the eusociality found in social insects , such as bees , termites and ants , where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a colony that are able to reproduce . On an even smaller scale , the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism , which then supports a small number of the animal 's germ cells to produce offspring . Here , somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow , remain as they are , or die . If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately , their uncontrolled growth causes cancer .
Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of kin selection , which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative 's offspring . This activity is selected for because if the helping individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity , it is likely that its kin will also contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on . Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection , where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms .
= = = Speciation = = =
Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species .
There are multiple ways to define the concept of " species . " The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned . For example , some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms . Despite the diversity of various species concepts , these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches : interbreeding , ecological and phylogenetic . The Biological Species Concept ( BSC ) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach . Defined by Ernst Mayr in 1942 , the BSC states that " species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations , which are reproductively isolated from other such groups . " Despite its wide and long @-@ term use , the BSC like others is not without controversy , for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes , and this is called the species problem . Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species , while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species .
Barriers to reproduction between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species . Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations . Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor , it may still be possible for them to produce offspring , as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules . Such hybrids are generally infertile . In this case , closely related species may regularly interbreed , but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct . However , viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species , or possess a totally new phenotype . The importance of hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear , although cases have been seen in many types of animals , with the gray tree frog being a particularly well @-@ studied example .
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature . In sexually reproducing organisms , speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence . There are four mechanisms for speciation . The most common in animals is allopatric speciation , which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically , such as by habitat fragmentation or migration . Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms . As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species , separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed .
The second mechanism of speciation is peripatric speciation , which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment . This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population . Here , the founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase in inbreeding increases selection on homozygotes , leading to rapid genetic change .
The third mechanism of speciation is parapatric speciation . This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat , but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations . Instead , speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations . Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species ' habitat . One example is the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum , which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines . Here , plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil . Selection against interbreeding with the metal @-@ sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal @-@ resistant plants , which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation . Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause reinforcement , which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species , as well as character displacement , which is when two species become more distinct in appearance .
Finally , in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat . This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population . Generally , sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and non @-@ random mating , to allow reproductive isolation to evolve .
One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce a new hybrid species . This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile . This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair . However , it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes , to form polyploids . This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis , since each parent 's chromosomes are represented by a pair already . An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa crossbred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica . This happened about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory , which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process . Indeed , chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation , as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms .
Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short " bursts " of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis , where species remain relatively unchanged . In this theory , speciation and rapid evolution are linked , with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations . As a result , the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils .
= = = Extinction = = =
Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species . Extinction is not an unusual event , as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction . Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct , and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species . These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life , although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events . The Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , during which the non @-@ avian dinosaurs became extinct , is the most well @-@ known , but the earlier Permian – Triassic extinction event was even more severe , with approximately 96 % of all marine species driven to extinction . The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity 's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years . Present @-@ day extinction rates are 100 – 1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30 % of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century . Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event ; global warming may further accelerate it in the future .
The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered . The causes of the continuous " low @-@ level " extinction events , which form the majority of extinctions , may be the result of competition between species for limited resources ( the competitive exclusion principle ) . If one species can out @-@ compete another , this could produce species selection , with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction . The intermittent mass extinctions are also important , but instead of acting as a selective force , they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors .
= = Evolutionary history of life = =
= = = Origin of life = = =
The Earth is about 4 @.@ 54 billion years old . The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3 @.@ 48 billion @-@ year @-@ old sandstone in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3 @.@ 7 billion @-@ year @-@ old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as " remains of biotic life " found in 4 @.@ 1 billion @-@ year @-@ old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , " If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe . "
More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1 @.@ 2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described .
Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self @-@ replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago , and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed . The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions . The beginning of life may have included self @-@ replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells .
= = = Common descent = = =
All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool . Current species are a stage in the process of evolution , with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events . The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms : First , they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation . Second , the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms , but organisms that share morphological similarities . Third , vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally , that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups — similar to a family tree . However , modern research has suggested that , due to horizontal gene transfer , this " tree of life " may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species .
Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history . Fossils , along with the comparative anatomy of present @-@ day organisms , constitute the morphological , or anatomical , record . By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species , paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species . However , this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts , such as shells , bones or teeth . Further , as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies , their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry .
More recently , evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms . For example , all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids . The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms ' genomes : dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations . For example , these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98 % of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed .
= = = Evolution of life = = =
Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3 – 4 billion years ago . No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years . The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 7 billion years ago . The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells , in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis . The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution , with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes . Another engulfment of cyanobacterial @-@ like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants .
The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes , prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period . The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events , in organisms as diverse as sponges , brown algae , cyanobacteria , slime moulds and myxobacteria . In January 2016 , scientists reported that , about 800 million years ago , a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK @-@ PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells .
Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms , a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years , in an event called the Cambrian explosion . Here , the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record , as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct . Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed , including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis .
About 500 million years ago , plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals . Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species . Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago , followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago ( both from " reptile " -like lineages ) , mammals around 129 million years ago , homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around 250 @,@ 000 years ago . However , despite the evolution of these large animals , smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth , with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes .
= = Applications = =
Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology , such as natural selection , have many applications .
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms . This has been used for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals . More recently , such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering , with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA . Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection ( for example modified enzymes and new antibodies ) in a process called directed evolution .
Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism 's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body , genes which may be involved in human genetic disorders . For example , the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution . Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes , since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves . This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation .
Many human diseases are not static phenomena , but capable of evolution . Viruses , bacteria , fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences , as well as pharmaceutical drugs . These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance . It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level .
In computer science , simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection . Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s . He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems . Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John Henry Holland . Practical applications also include automatic evolution of computer programmes . Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi @-@ dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems .
= = Social and cultural responses = =
In the 19th century , particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859 , the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical , social and religious implications of evolution . Today , the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists . However , evolution remains a contentious concept for some theists .
While various religions and denominations have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as theistic evolution , there are creationists who believe that evolution is contradicted by the creation myths found in their religions and who raise various objections to evolution . As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844 , the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of human evolution that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and moral faculties of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals . In some countries , notably the United States , these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation – evolution controversy , a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education . While other scientific fields such as cosmology and Earth science also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts , evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists .
The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century . The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation , but it was gradually re @-@ introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision . Since then , the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s , but it returned in pseudoscientific form as intelligent design ( ID ) , to be excluded once again in the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case .
= Hurricane Lenny =
Hurricane Lenny is the second @-@ strongest November Atlantic hurricane on record . It was the twelfth tropical storm , eighth hurricane , and record @-@ breaking fifth Category 4 hurricane in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season . Lenny formed on November 13 in the western Caribbean Sea and maintained an unprecedented west @-@ to @-@ east track for its entire duration . It attained hurricane status south of Jamaica on November 15 and passed south of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico over the next few days . Lenny rapidly intensified over the northeastern Caribbean on November 17 , attaining peak winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) about 21 mi ( 34 km ) south of Saint Croix in the United States Virgin Islands . It gradually weakened while moving through the Leeward Islands , eventually dissipating on November 23 over the open Atlantic Ocean .
Before moving through the Lesser Antilles , Lenny produced rough surf that killed two people in northern Colombia . Strong winds and rainfall resulted in heavy crop damage in southeastern Puerto Rico . Despite the hurricane 's passage near Saint Croix at peak intensity , damage on the small island was only described as " moderate " , although there was widespread flooding and erosion . Damage in the United States territories totaled about $ 330 million . The highest precipitation total was 34 @.@ 12 in ( 867 mm ) at the police station on the French side of Saint Martin . On the island , the hurricane killed three people and destroyed more than 200 properties . In nearby Antigua and Barbuda , the hurricane killed one person ; torrential rainfall there contaminated the local water supply . Significant storm damage occurred as far south as Grenada , where high surf isolated towns from the capital city .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Lenny began as a low @-@ pressure area that was first observed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 8 . It developed an area of convection but remained poorly defined for the next few days . Thunderstorms spread across the region , producing heavy rainfall in portions of Mexico and Central America . On November 13 , the system became better organized ; a Hurricane Hunters flight later that day discovered a surface circulation and winds of about 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The data indicated the development of Tropical Depression Sixteen at 1800 UTC , about 175 mi ( 280 km ) south of the Cayman Islands . The depression 's convection was fairly disorganized , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not anticipate any strengthening for three days . For much of its existence , the tropical cyclone maintained a track from west to east across the Caribbean Sea , which was unprecedented in the Atlantic hurricane database . The path resulted from its movement along the southern end of a trough over the western Atlantic Ocean .
After its formation , the depression gradually became better organized ; the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Lenny on November 14 , based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters . When it was first upgraded to a tropical storm , the cyclone already had winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a developing eye feature . At 0000 UTC on November 15 , Lenny attained hurricane status about 175 mi ( 280 km ) southwest of Kingston , Jamaica . The quick intensification was unexpected and occurred after a large area of convection blossomed over the center . At the same time , Lenny developed an anticyclone aloft , which provided favorable conditions for the hurricane 's development . After moving east @-@ southeastward during its initial development stages , the hurricane turned more to the east on November 15 . The Hurricane Hunters reported winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , which indicated that Lenny had become a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . However , the cloud pattern subsequently became less organized as the eye disappeared , and Lenny 's winds weakened to 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) while the hurricane passed south of Hispaniola . The NHC noted the deterioration could have been due to a disruption of the storm 's small inner core by " subtle environmental changes " . After the sudden weakening , the Hurricane Hunters reported that the eye had reformed and the hurricane 's winds had reached 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . At the time , a ridge was expected to build to Lenny 's east and turn the storm northeastward into Puerto Rico 24 hours later .
Beginning on November 16 , Hurricane Lenny underwent a 24 @-@ hour period of rapid deepening , reaching major hurricane status about 165 mi ( 265 km ) south of the Mona Passage . It developed well @-@ defined banding features , good outflow , and a circular eye that was visible from the radar in San Juan , Puerto Rico . The hurricane continued to become better organized , with an eye 29 mi ( 46 km ) in diameter surrounded by a closed eyewall . Around 1200 UTC on November 17 , Lenny intensified into a Category 4 hurricane while approaching the islands of the northeastern Caribbean . It was the fifth storm of such intensity in the year , setting the record for most Category 4 hurricanes in a season . The hurricane then made its closest approach to Puerto Rico , passing about 75 mi ( 121 km ) southeast of Maunabo . Shortly thereafter , Lenny attained peak winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) while passing 21 mi ( 33 km ) south of the island of Saint Croix in the United States Virgin Islands . This made it the second @-@ strongest hurricane on record to form during the month of November . At the time , Lenny was also one of only four November major hurricanes , but it was later joined by Hurricane Michelle in 2001 and Hurricane Paloma in 2008 . Hurricane Hunters reported Lenny 's peak winds in the southeastern portion of the hurricane ; the group also reported a minimum pressure of 933 mbar , a drop of 34 mbar in 24 hours . In addition , a dropsonde recorded winds of 210 mph ( 339 km / h ) while descending to the surface , the highest dropsonde wind speed recording in a hurricane at the time .
Around the time it peaked in intensity , Lenny 's forward speed decreased in response to light steering currents between two ridges . Despite favorable conditions for strengthening , the hurricane weakened as it turned to an eastward drift , possibly due to the upwelling of cooler waters . Late on November 18 , Lenny 's eye moved over Saint Martin with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . After continued weakening , the hurricane struck Anguilla and Saint Barthélemy the next day . It turned southeastward while still drifting , bringing heavy rainfall and strong winds to the islands across the northeastern Caribbean . Late on November 19 , Lenny weakened to tropical storm intensity after increased wind shear exposed the cyclone 's center from the deepest convection . Early on November 20 , the storm made landfall on Anguilla , although by then the center had become difficult to locate . Later that day , the cyclone exited the Caribbean , continuing its southeast track . On November 21 , Lenny turned to the northeast and weakened to a tropical depression . The deep convection was located at least 100 mi ( 160 km ) east of the increasingly elongated center . Lenny turned to the east for the final time early on November 22 , dissipating the next day about 690 mi ( 1110 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles .
= = Preparations = =
Early in Lenny 's duration , a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were issued for Jamaica . Later , a hurricane watch was issued for the southern coast of Hispaniola , and a tropical storm warning was also issued for the Dominican Republic . Haitian officials declared a state of alert in three southern provinces and allocated about $ 1 million ( 1999 USD ) in hurricane funds . Residents in flood @-@ prone areas were advised to evacuate in southern Haiti and in the neighboring Dominican Republic .
A hurricane watch was issued for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands late on November 15 , which was upgraded to a hurricane warning six hours later . By that time , Lenny was projected to move over Puerto Rico . After Lenny made its closest approach to the island , the hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning on November 17 , which was discontinued the following day along with the advisories in the Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , the media maintained continuous coverage on the hurricane based on statements and warnings from the San Juan National Weather Service office . Based on the coverage , the public was well informed of the hurricane 's threat to the island . Before the storm and as a result of its impact , around 4 @,@ 700 people evacuated to 191 shelters . This included 1 @,@ 190 residents in Ponce who evacuated to 27 schools , as well as 584 people in western Puerto Rico . Officials closed all schools , banned the sale of alcohol , and ordered a freeze on the price of emergency supplies . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) activated six medical assistance teams , three medical support teams , and two advance medical assessment units . The agency stored five days ' worth of food in schools in the U.S. Virgin Islands . Before the hurricane 's arrival , U.S. Virgin Islands governor Charles Wesley Turnbull declared a state of emergency . In St. Croix , 309 people rode out the storm in shelters . Officials opened eight shelters in the British Virgin Islands . There , airlines and hotels assisted in evacuating tourists from the area .
Governments across the eastern Caribbean issued hurricane warnings as far south as Montserrat . In Anguilla , residents near the coast were advised to evacuate . Schools closed ahead of the storm , and the ferry between the island and Saint Martin was halted and moved to a safe location . In Saint Kitts and Nevis , the National Emergency Management Agency was activated on November 16 . Officials there advised residents living near ghauts to evacuate , and one shelter was located in each district of the country . In addition , stores were open for longer hours to allow people to stock up on supplies . Most businesses and schools were closed in Antigua and Barbuda during the storm , while in Dominica , the airport was closed . Further south , there was little warning for the hurricane in Grenada , and most people left their boats in the water .
= = Impact = =
Across the eastern Caribbean , Hurricane Lenny damaged vital infrastructure , including roads and piers in the tourism @-@ dependent islands . Most of the islands ' tourism areas were on western @-@ facing beaches , many of which were unprepared for the high waves and winds produced by Lenny .
= = = Central Caribbean = = =
Early in its existence , Lenny produced large waves and high tides along the Guajira Peninsula in Colombia , sinking two boats and flooding 1 @,@ 200 houses . There were also reports of flooded businesses and damaged crops . In the country , strong winds on the storm 's fringe killed a man by striking him with a beam . Although there were initial reports of nine people missing , only two were counted in the death toll for mainland Colombia . Two sailors were killed offshore when their yacht was lost in the southern Caribbean Sea .
Along the ABC Islands off the north coast of Venezuela , the hurricane produced 10 @-@ to @-@ 20 ft ( 3 @-@ to @-@ 6 m ) waves along the southwest coastlines . The waves caused heavy beach erosion and coastal damage to properties and boats .
In Jamaica , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall but left little damage . Rains in the Dominican Republic caused flooding in the country 's southwest portion . Flooding around Les Cayes in southwestern Haiti destroyed 60 percent of the rice , corn , and banana plantations , while high waves wrecked several houses in Cavaellon .
Hurricane Lenny was originally forecast to strike Puerto Rico , although it remained south of the island . Beginning on November 17 , Lenny affected Puerto Rico with gusty winds and heavy rainfall . Rainfall in the days prior to Lenny 's approach left areas susceptible to flooding , which caused many rivers in the northeastern portion of the island to overflow their banks following the storm . Such flooding forced towns to evacuate along the rivers , and also resulted in the closure of secondary and primary highways . The heavy rains also caused mudslides and rockslides . The peak rainfall on the island was 14 @.@ 64 in ( 372 mm ) in Jayuya in central Puerto Rico . Tides in San Juan were about 1 @.@ 8 ft ( 0 @.@ 55 m ) above normal . There , high seas washed a 546 @-@ ft ( 166 m ) freighter ashore . Winds in the Puerto Rican mainland were not significant , gusting to 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) in Ceiba . The storm left 22 @,@ 000 people without power and 103 @,@ 000 people without water . Because of the heavy rainfall , about 200 farmers in southeastern Puerto Rico sustained about $ 19 million in crop damage ( 1999 USD ) . In the affected region , the heavy rainfall destroyed 80 percent of the vegetables and 50 percent of the plantains . Damage throughout the island totaled $ 105 million ( 1999 US ) .
= = = Virgin Islands = = =
After passing southeast of Puerto Rico , Hurricane Lenny struck St. Croix in the United States Virgin Islands , although its strongest winds remained southeast of the island . There , gusts reached 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) , while sustained winds officially peaked around 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Strong winds damaged the roofs of many houses in eastern St. Croix and knocked down trees and power lines . The winds left severe damage to vegetation after fruits and vegetables were blown away . Rainfall peaked at 10 @.@ 47 in ( 266 mm ) , which caused widespread flooding of many properties in the island 's western portion . In Frederiksted , the hurricane produced a storm surge of 15 – 20 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 – 6 m ) along with high waves that washed out roads and damaged coastal structures . There was also severe beach erosion in western St. Croix ; high waves dumped 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 m ) of sand onto coastal roads about 100 ft ( 30 m ) inland , and also washed several boats ashore . The National Weather Service described the damage as " moderate " .
Elsewhere in the U.S. Virgin Islands , Lenny produced a storm surge of about 1 @.@ 8 ft ( 0 @.@ 55 m ) in St. Thomas . Sustained winds on the island reached 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) at the Cyril E. King Airport , with gusts to 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) . On nearby St. John , wind gusts reached 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) . Rains were not as heavy as on St. Croix ; the maximum amounts were 4 @.@ 34 in ( 110 mm ) on St. Thomas and 2 @.@ 95 in ( 75 mm ) on St. John . Both islands reported beach erosion along their southern coastlines . Damage on St. Thomas was minimal , limited to minor flooding and mudslides . The Virgin Islands National Park in St. John reported over $ 1 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 1999 USD ) . In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands , the hurricane left about $ 330 million in damage ( 1999 USD ) , but caused no deaths .
In Virgin Gorda in the nearby British Virgin Islands , the hurricane produced sustained winds of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) , with gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . Rainfall amounted to around 4 in ( 100 mm ) and caused a mudslide near Coxheath . High waves eroded a portion of Sir Francis Drake Highway , and the high winds destroyed the roof of an apartment . Property damage in the British Virgin Islands totaled $ 5 @.@ 6 million ( 1999 USD ) ; however , the damage combined with the loss of tourism and productivity yielded a loss of $ 22 million to the islands ' economy , or 3 @.@ 1 percent of the gross domestic product .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
The eye of Lenny moved over Anguilla , an island located east of the British Virgin Islands . Localized flooding was reported , including in the capital , The Valley , where waters reportedly reached a depth of 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The hurricane struck only a month after Hurricane Jose had affected the region , causing significant beach erosion along Anguilla 's coastline . Damage from Lenny amounted to $ 65 @.@ 8 million .
Saint Barthélemy and the SSS Islands , which include Saba , Sint Eustatius , and Saint Martin , were in the path of Hurricane Lenny on November 18 through 19 . On Saint Barthélemy , the hurricane produced record @-@ breaking precipitation of around 15 in ( 380 mm ) . Waves reached 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) on the island 's western portion . On Saba , there was an unofficial wind gust of 167 mph ( 268 km / h ) before the instrument blew away . The island sustained damage to several buildings , including airport facilities . The highest precipitation related to the storm occurred at the police station on the French side of Saint Martin , where a total of 34 @.@ 12 in ( 867 mm ) was recorded . This included a record 24 @-@ hour total of 18 @.@ 98 in ( 482 mm ) . On the Dutch side of the island , rainfall peaked at 27 @.@ 56 in ( 700 mm ) in Philipsburg . The rains resulted in mudslides and flooding and were the primary form of impact on the island . For 36 hours , Saint Martin experienced tropical storm conditions , and there were three times when the winds surpassed hurricane force . Sustained winds on the island peaked at 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) at the Princess Juliana International Airport ; these were the highest sustained winds observed on land . The airport also reported a wind gust of 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) .
Due to the hurricane 's unusual track from the west , it produced unparalleled waves of 10 – 16 ft ( 3 – 5 m ) along the western coast of St. Martin , which damaged or destroyed many boats . During its passage , Lenny left widespread damage to the infrastructure , including to the airport , harbor , resorts , power utilities , schools , and hospitals . As a result , the three SSS Islands sustained power and telephone outages . There was widespread destruction of the roofs of houses across the island , and over 200 houses were destroyed . Damage was estimated at $ 69 million , and there were three deaths on the Dutch side of St. Martin . Two of these deaths were from flying debris , and the other was due to a collapsed roadway .
While passing over Antigua , Hurricane Lenny dropped 18 @.@ 32 in ( 465 mm ) of rain at the V. C. Bird International Airport , while locations in the southern portion recorded over 25 in ( 640 mm ) . The rainfall caused severe flooding in Antigua , resulting in landslides in the northwestern and southern portion of the island . Flooding washed out major roadways , including one bridge . Along the coast , the storm caused severe beach erosion . About 65 percent of Barbuda experienced flooding due to the rainfall and the island 's flat topography . The flooding contaminated the water storage facilities and all private wells . About 95 percent of the crops in Barbuda were destroyed . Damage in the country of Antigua and Barbuda totaled $ 51 @.@ 3 million , and there was one death .
The hurricane 's waves reached 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along the coasts of Saint Kitts and Nevis , washing up to 600 ft ( 180 m ) inland . Several businesses were flooded , and some beach erosion was reported . The hurricane destroyed 46 homes and damaged 332 others to varying degree . Home damage forced four families to evacuate . Heavy rains caused mudslides on Saint Kitts , and heavy damage occurred in Old Road Town . Damage in the country amounted to $ 41 @.@ 4 million . In Montserrat , damage was reported along its western coastline . After high waves capsized a boat , a crew of three required rescue . Guadeloupe received record precipitation amounts in some areas , generally ranging from 6 to 12 inches ( 150 to 300 mm ) . On Grande @-@ Terre , the eastern island of Guadeloupe , the hurricane produced a significant wave height of 9 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , with estimates as high as 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . The extent of damage was from waves in the western portion of the island and from unrelated flooding inland . There were five deaths in Guadeloupe .
In Dominica , high waves damaged the island 's western coastal highway , leaving the most heavily traveled road temporarily closed . Road closures cut off links between towns on the island . The hurricane destroyed at least 50 homes , including 3 that were washed away by the waves . Hotels along the island 's west coast sustained heavy damage , and across the nation the hurricane 's impact was worse than that from Hurricane Luis four years prior . Damage on the island totaled $ 21 @.@ 5 million . Rainfall of around 3 in ( 76 mm ) reached as far south as Martinique , where one person was killed . Further south , high waves in Saint Lucia washed away beaches , a seawall , and coastal walkways . At least 40 houses were damaged along the coast , which left several families homeless . Damage in the country totaled $ 6 @.@ 6 million . In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , the hurricane washed away four buildings and damaged five others . About 50 people were left homeless in the country .
In western Grenada , high waves affected much of the coastline , destroying 21 small boats and causing significant beach erosion . The waves covered the entire Grand Anse Beach in Saint George Parish . The erosion heavily impacted tourist areas and also threatened the foundation of the runway at the Maurice Bishop International Airport . Storm damage cut off the towns in western Grenada from the capital city of Saint George 's . The cut @-@ off roads resulted in an island @-@ wide fuel shortage . In Saint John Parish , the storm knocked out the water and power supply and forced several families to evacuate their damaged houses . The small island Carriacou , located north of Grenada , sustained damage to the road to its primary airport . At least 10 homes were destroyed in the country , and damage totaled $ 94 @.@ 6 million ; this represented 27 percent of the island 's gross domestic product . Effects from the storm reached as far south as Trinidad and Tobago . In the country , storm surge caused damage to boats and coastal structures , while beach erosion was reported in Tobago .
= = Aftermath = =
Following heavy damage to the coral reef around Curaçao , workers placed reef balls to assist in replenishing the damaged structure . In Puerto Rico , workers quickly responded to power and water outages . Similarly on Saint Croix , power systems were quickly restored . On November 23 , U.S. President Bill Clinton declared the U.S. Virgin Islands a disaster area . This allocated federal funding for loans to public and private entities and provided 75 percent of the cost of debris removal . By December 10 , nearly 3 @,@ 000 residents had applied for assistance , mostly on St. Croix . In response , the federal government provided about $ 480 @,@ 000 to the affected people . The United States Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided $ 185 @,@ 000 , mostly directed toward the United Nations Development Programme , for aid to other islands in the eastern Caribbean . Other agencies , including the Caribbean Development Bank , the United Kingdom 's Department for International Development , and the European Union , provided $ 1 @.@ 1 million in assistance .
In response to the damage on Saint Martin , officials in the Netherlands Antilles issued an appeal to the European Parliament for assistance from the international community . Due to their small population and area , the small islands of the eastern Caribbean required international funding to repair the damage from the hurricane and return to normal . In Antigua and Barbuda , officials worked quickly to repair roads and clean Barbuda 's water system . However , 20 @,@ 000 people in Antigua remained without water for a week after the hurricane , and the stagnant water caused an increase in mosquitoes . The government of Dominica provided 42 families with temporary shelters . With a loan from the Caribbean Development Bank , the government worked to complete a sea wall along a highway south of its capital Roseau . The Saint Lucian government provided housing to 70 families . In Grenada , workers repaired the road system to allow fuel transportation across the island and began to reclaim land near its airport to mitigate erosion . Regions in Antigua and Grenada were declared disaster areas . Across the eastern Caribbean , local Red Cross offices provided food and shelter to affected citizens . High damage to tourist areas caused a decrease in cruise lines . A damaged hotel in Nevis left 800 people unemployed due to its closure .
Due to its effects , the name Lenny was retired by the World Meteorological Organization and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced with Lee in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season .
= The Lucy poems =
The Lucy poems are a series of five poems composed by the English Romantic poet William Wordsworth ( 1770 – 1850 ) between 1798 and 1801 . All but one were first published during 1800 in the second edition of Lyrical Ballads , a collaboration between Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge that was both Wordsworth 's first major publication and a milestone in the early English Romantic movement . In the series , Wordsworth sought to write unaffected English verse infused with abstract ideals of beauty , nature , love , longing and death .
The poems were written during a short period while the poet lived in Germany . Although they individually deal with a variety of themes , as a series they focus on the poet 's longing for the company of his friend Coleridge , who had stayed in England , and on his increasing impatience with his sister Dorothy , who had travelled with him abroad . Wordsworth examines the poet 's unrequited love for the idealised character of Lucy , an English girl who has died young . The idea of her death weighs heavily on the poet throughout the series , imbuing it with a melancholic , elegiac tone . Whether Lucy was based on a real woman or was a figment of the poet 's imagination has long been a matter of debate among scholars . Generally reticent about the poems , Wordsworth never revealed the details of her origin or identity . Some scholars speculate that Lucy is based on his sister Dorothy , while others see her as a fictitious or hybrid character . Most critics agree that she is essentially a literary device upon whom he could project , meditate and reflect .
The " Lucy poems " consist of " Strange fits of passion have I known " , " She dwelt among the untrodden ways " , " I travelled among unknown men " , " Three years she grew in sun and shower " , and " A slumber did my spirit seal " . Although they are presented as a series in modern anthologies , Wordsworth did not conceive of them as a group , nor did he seek to publish the poems in sequence . He described the works as " experimental " in the prefaces to both the 1798 and 1800 editions of Lyrical Ballads , and revised the poems significantly — shifting their thematic emphasis — between 1798 and 1799 . Only after his death in 1850 did publishers and critics begin to treat the poems as a fixed group ; anthologies since have generally presented them as a series .
= = Background = =
= = = Lyrical Ballads = = =
In 1798 , Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge jointly published Lyrical Ballads , with a Few Other Poems , a collection of verses each had written separately . The book became hugely popular and was published widely ; it is generally considered a herald of the Romantic movement in English literature . In it , Wordsworth aimed to use everyday language in his compositions as set out in the preface to the 1802 edition : " The principal object , then , proposed in these Poems was to choose incidents and situations from common life , and to relate or describe them , throughout , as far as was possible in a selection of language really used by men , and at the same time , to throw over them a certain colouring of imagination , whereby ordinary things should be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect . "
The two poets had met three years earlier in either late August or September 1795 in Bristol . The meeting laid the foundation for an intense and profoundly creative friendship , based in part on their shared disdain for the artificial diction of the poetry of the era . Beginning in 1797 , the two lived within walking distance of each other in Somerset , which solidified their friendship . Wordsworth believed that his life before meeting Coleridge was sedentary and dull , and that his poetry amounted to little . Coleridge influenced Wordsworth , and his praise and encouragement inspired Wordsworth to write prolifically . Dorothy , Wordsworth 's sister , related the effect Coleridge had on her brother in a March 1798 letter : " His faculties seem to expand every day , he composes with much more facility than he did , as to the mechanism [ emphasis in original ] of poetry , and his ideas flow faster than he can express them . " With his new inspiration , Wordsworth came to believe he could write poetry rivalling that of John Milton . He and Coleridge planned to collaborate , but never moved beyond suggestions and notes for each other .
The expiration of Wordsworth 's Alfoxton House lease soon provided an opportunity for the two friends to live together . They conceived a plan to settle in Germany with Dorothy and Coleridge 's wife , Sara , " to pass the two ensuing years in order to acquire the German language , and to furnish ourselves with a tolerable stock of information in natural science " . In September 1798 , Wordsworth , Coleridge , and Dorothy travelled to Germany to explore proximate living arrangements , but this proved difficult . Although they lived together in Hamburg for a short time , the city was too expensive for their budgets . Coleridge soon found accommodations in the town of Ratzeburg in Schleswig @-@ Holstein , which was less expensive but still socially vibrant . The impoverished Wordsworth , however , could neither afford to follow Coleridge nor provide for himself and his sister in Hamburg ; the siblings instead moved to moderately priced accommodations in Goslar in Lower Saxony , Germany .
= = = Separation from Coleridge = = =
Between October 1798 and February 1799 , Wordsworth worked on the first draft of the " Lucy poems " together with a number of other verses , including the " Matthew poems " , " Lucy Gray " and The Prelude . Coleridge had yet to join the siblings in Germany , and Wordsworth 's separation from his friend depressed him . In the three months following their parting , Wordsworth completed the first three of the " Lucy poems " : " Strange fits " , " She dwelt " , and " A slumber " . They first appeared in a letter to Coleridge dated December 1798 , in which Wordsworth wrote that " She dwelt " and " Strange fits " were " little Rhyme poems which I hope will amuse you " . Wordsworth characterised the two poems thus to mitigate any disappointment Coleridge might suffer in receiving these two poems instead of the promised three @-@ part philosophical epic The Recluse .
In the same letter , Wordsworth complained that :
As I have had no books I have been obliged to write in self @-@ defense . I should have written five times as much as I have done but that I am prevented by an uneasiness at my stomach and side , with a dull pain about my heart . I have used the word pain , but uneasiness and heat are words which more accurately express my feelings . At all events it renders writing unpleasant . Reading is now become a kind of luxury to me . When I do not read I am absolutely consumed by thinking and feeling and bodily exertions of voice or of limbs , the consequence of those feelings .
Wordsworth partially blamed Dorothy for the abrupt loss of Coleridge 's company . He felt that their finances — insufficient for supporting them both in Ratzeburg — would have easily supported him alone , allowing him to follow Coleridge . Wordsworth 's anguish was compounded by the contrast between his life and that of his friend . Coleridge 's financial means allowed him to entertain lavishly and to seek the company of nobles and intellectuals ; Wordsworth 's limited wealth constrained him to a quiet and modest life . Wordsworth 's envy seeped into his letters when he described Coleridge and his new friends as " more favored sojourners " who may " be chattering and chatter 'd to , through the whole day " .
Although Wordsworth sought emotional support from his sister , their relationship remained strained throughout their time in Germany . Separated from his friend and forced to live in the sole company of his sister , Wordsworth used the " Lucy poems " as an emotional outlet .
= = = Identity of Lucy = = =
Wordsworth did not reveal the inspiration for the character of Lucy , and over the years the topic has generated intense speculation among literary historians . Little biographical information can be drawn from the poems — it is difficult even to determine Lucy 's age . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Thomas DeQuincey ( 1785 – 1859 ) , author and one @-@ time friend of Wordsworth , wrote that the poet " always preserved a mysterious silence on the subject of that ' Lucy ' , repeatedly alluded to or apostrophised in his poems , and I have heard , from gossiping people about Hawkshead , some snatches of tragic story , which , after all , might be an idle semi @-@ fable , improved out of slight materials . "
Critic Herbert Hartman believes Lucy 's name was taken from " a neo @-@ Arcadian commonplace " , and argues she was not intended to represent any single person . In the view of one Wordsworth biographer , Mary Moorman ( 1906 – 1994 ) , " The identity of ' Lucy ' has been the problem of critics for many years . But Wordsworth is a poet before he is a biographer , and neither ' Lucy ' nor her home nor his relations with her are necessarily in the strict sense historical . Nevertheless , as the Lyrical Ballads were all of them ' founded on fact ' in some way , and as Wordsworth 's mind was essentially factual , it would be rash to say that Lucy is entirely fictitious . "
Moorman suggests that Lucy may represent Wordsworth 's romantic interest Mary Hutchinson , but wonders why she would be represented as one who died . It is possible that Wordsworth was thinking of Margaret Hutchinson , Mary 's sister who had died . There is no evidence , however , that the poet loved any of the Hutchinsons other than Mary . It is more likely that Margaret 's death influenced but is not the foundation for Lucy .
In 1980 , Hunter Davies contended that the series was written for the poet 's sister Dorothy , but found the Lucy – Dorothy allusion " bizarre " . Earlier , literary critic Richard Matlak tried to explain the Lucy – Dorothy connection , and wrote that Dorothy represented a financial burden to Wordsworth , which had effectively forced his separation from Coleridge . Wordsworth , depressed over the separation from his friend , in this interpretation , expresses both his love for his sister and fantasies about her loss through the poems . Throughout the poems , the narrator 's mixture of mourning and antipathy is accompanied by denial and guilt ; his denial of the Lucy – Dorothy relationship and the lack of narratorial responsibility for the death of Lucy allow him to escape from questioning his desires for the death of his sister . After Wordsworth began the " Lucy poems " , Coleridge wrote , " Some months ago Wordsworth transmitted to me a most sublime Epitaph / whether it had any reality , I cannot say . — Most probably , in some gloomier moment he had fancied the moment in which his Sister might die . " It is , however , possible that Wordsworth simply feared her death and did not wish it , even subconsciously .
Reflecting on the significance and relevance of Lucy 's identity , the 19th @-@ century poet , essayist and literary critic Frederic Myers ( 1843 – 1901 ) observed that :
here it was that the memory of some emotion prompted the lines on " Lucy " . Of the history of that emotion , he has told us nothing ; I forbear , therefore , to inquire concerning it , or even to speculate . That it was to the poet 's honour , I do not doubt ; but who ever learned such secrets rightly ? or who should wish to learn ? It is best to leave the sanctuary of all hearts inviolate , and to respect the reserve not only of the living but of the dead . Of these poems , almost alone , Wordsworth in his autobiographical notes has said nothing whatever .
Literary scholar Karl Kroeber ( 1926 – 2009 ) argues that Lucy " possesses a double existence ; her actual , historical existence and her idealised existence in the poet 's mind . In the poem , Lucy is both actual and idealised , but her actuality is relevant only insofar as it makes manifest the significance implicit in the actual girl . " Hartman holds the same view ; to him Lucy is seen " entirely from within the poet , so that this modality may be the poet 's own " , but then he argues , " she belongs to the category of spirits who must still become human ... the poet describes her as dying at a point at which she would have been humanized . " The literary historian Kenneth Johnston concludes that Lucy was created as the personification of Wordsworth 's muse , and the group as a whole " is a series of invocations to a Muse feared dead . As epitaphs , they are not sad , a very inadequate word to describe them , but breathlessly , almost aware of what such a loss would mean to the speaker : ' oh , the difference to me ! ' "
Scholar John Mahoney observes that whether Lucy is intended to represent Dorothy , Mary or another is much less important to understanding the poems than the fact that she represented " a hidden being who seems to lack flaws and is alone in the world . " Furthermore , she is represented as being insignificant in the public sphere but of the utmost importance in the private sphere ; in " She dwelt " this manifests through the comparison of Lucy to both a hidden flower and a shining star . Neither Lucy nor Wordsworth 's other female characters " exist as independent self @-@ conscious human beings with minds as capable of the poet 's " and are " rarely allowed to speak for themselves . "
= = The poems = =
The " Lucy poems " are written from the point of view of a lover who has long viewed the object of his affection from afar , and who is now affected by her death . Yet Wordsworth structured the poems so that they are not about any one person who has died ; instead they were written about a figure representing the poet 's lost inspiration . Lucy is Wordsworth 's inspiration , and the poems as a whole are , according to Wordsworth biographer Kenneth Johnston , " invocations to a Muse feared dead " . Lucy is represented in all five poems as sexless ; it is unlikely that the poet ever realistically saw her as a possible lover . Instead , she is presented as an ideal and represents Wordsworth 's frustration at his separation from Coleridge ; the asexual imagery reflects the futility of his longing .
Wordsworth 's voice slowly disappears from the poems as they progress , and his voice is entirely absent from the fifth poem . His love operates on the subconscious level , and he relates to Lucy more as a spirit of nature than as a human being . The poet 's grief is private , and he is unable to fully explain its source . When Lucy 's lover is present , he is completely immersed in human interactions and the human aspects of nature , and the death of his beloved is a total loss for the lover . The 20th @-@ century critic Spencer Hall argues that the poet represents a " fragile kind of humanism " .
= = = " Strange fits of passion have I known " = = =
" Strange fits " is probably the earliest of the poems and revolves around a fantasy of Lucy 's death . It describes the narrator 's journey to Lucy 's cottage and his thoughts along the way . Throughout , the motion of the moon is set in opposition to the motion of the speaker . The poem contains seven stanzas , a relatively elaborate structure which underscores his ambivalent attitude towards Lucy 's imagined death . The constant shifts in perspective and mood reflect his conflicting emotions . The first stanza , with its use of dramatic phrases such as " fits of passion " and " dare to tell " , contrasts with the subdued tone of the rest of the poem . As a lyrical ballad , " Strange fits " differs from the traditional ballad form , which emphasises abnormal action , and instead focuses on mood .
The presence of death is felt throughout the poem , although it is mentioned explicitly only in the final line . The moon , a symbol of the beloved , sinks steadily as the poem progresses , until its abrupt drop in the penultimate stanza . That the speaker links Lucy with the moon is clear , though his reasons are unclear . The moon nevertheless plays a significant role in the action of the poem : as the lover imagines the moon slowly sinking behind Lucy 's cottage , he is entranced by its motion . By the fifth stanza , the speaker has been lulled into a somnambulistic trance — he sleeps while still keeping his eyes on the moon ( lines 17 – 20 ) .
The narrator 's conscious presence is wholly absent from the next stanza , which moves forward in what literary theorist Geoffrey Hartman describes as a " motion approaching yet never quite attaining its end " . When the moon abruptly drops behind the cottage , the narrator snaps out of his dream , and his thoughts turn towards death . Lucy , the beloved , is united with the landscape in death , while the image of the retreating , entrancing moon is used to portray the idea of looking beyond one 's lover . The darker possibility also remains that the dream state represents the fulfilment of the lover 's fantasy through the death of the beloved . In falling asleep while approaching his beloved 's home , the lover betrays his own reluctance to be with Lucy .
Wordsworth made numerous revisions to each of the " Lucy poems " . The earliest version of " Strange fits " appears in a December 1798 letter from Dorothy to Coleridge . This draft contains many differences in phrasing and does not include a stanza that appeared in the final published version . The new lines direct the narrative towards " the Lover 's ear alone " , implying that only other lovers can understand the relationship between the moon , the beloved and the beloved 's death . Wordsworth also removed from the final stanza the lines :
This final stanza lost its significance with the completion of the later poems in the series , and the revision allowed for a sense of anticipation at the poem 's close and helped draw the audience into the story of the remaining " Lucy poems " . Of the other changes , only the description of the horse 's movement is important : " My horse trudg 'd on " becomes " With quickening pace my horse drew nigh " , which heightens the narrator 's vulnerability to fantasies and dreams in the revised version .
= = = " She dwelt among the untrodden ways " = = =
" She dwelt among the untrodden ways " presents Lucy as having lived in solitude near the source of the River Dove . According to literary critic Geoffrey Durrant , the poem charts her " growth , perfection , and death " . To convey the dignified , unaffected naturalness of his subject , Wordsworth uses simple language , mostly words of one syllable . In the opening quatrain , he describes the isolated and untouched area where Lucy lived , as well as her innocence and beauty , which he compares to that of a hidden flower in the second . The poem begins in a descriptive rather than narrative manner , and it is not until the line " When Lucy ceased to be " that the reader is made aware that the subject of the verse has died . Literary scholar Mark Jones describes this effect as finding the poem is " over before it has begun " , while according to writer Margaret Oliphant ( 1828 – 1897 ) , Lucy " is dead before we so much as heard of her " .
Lucy 's " untrodden ways " are symbolic of both her physical isolation and the unknown details of her thoughts and life . The third quatrain is written with an economy intended to capture the simplicity the narrator sees in Lucy . Her femininity is described in girlish terms . This has drawn criticism from those who see the female icon , in the words of literary scholar John Woolford , " represented in Lucy by condemning her to death while denying her the actual or symbolic fulfillment of maternity " . To evoke the " loveliness of body and spirit " , a pair of complementary but paradoxical images are employed in the second stanza : the solitary , hidden violet juxtaposed to the publicly visible Venus , emblem of love and first star of evening . Wondering if Lucy more resembles the violet or the star , the critic Cleanth Brooks ( 1906 – 1994 ) concludes that while Wordsworth likely views her as " the single star , completely dominating [ his ] world , not arrogantly like the sun , but sweetly and modestly " , the metaphor is a conventional compliment with only vague relevance . For Wordsworth , Lucy 's appeal is closer to the violet and lies in her seclusion and her perceived affinity with nature .
Wordsworth acquired a copy of the antiquarian and churchman Thomas Percy 's ( 1729 – 1811 ) collection of British ballads Reliques of Ancient English Poetry ( 1765 ) in Hamburg a few months before he began to compose the series . The influence of the traditional English folk ballad is evident in the metre , rhythm and structure of " She dwelt " . It follows the variant ballad stanza a4 – b3 – a4 – b3 , and in keeping with ballad tradition tells a dramatic story . As Durrant observed , " To confuse the mode of the ' Lucy ' poems with that of the love lyric is to overlook their structure , in which , as in the traditional ballad , a story is told as boldly and briefly as possible . " Kenneth and Warren Ober compare the opening lines of " She dwelt " to the traditional ballad " Katharine Jaffray " and note similarities in rhythm and structure , as well as in theme and imagery :
The narrator of the poem is less concerned with the experience of observing Lucy than with his reflections and meditations on his observations . Throughout the poem sadness and ecstasy are intertwined , a fact emphasised by the exclamation marks in the second and third verses . The critic Carl Woodring writes that " She dwelt " and the Lucy series can be read as elegiac , as " sober meditation [ s ] on death " . He found that they have " the economy and the general air of epitaphs in the Greek Anthology ... [ I ] f all elegies are mitigations of death , the Lucy poems are also meditations on simple beauty , by distance made more sweet and by death preserved in distance " .
An early draft of " She dwelt " contained two stanzas which had been omitted from the first edition . The revisions exclude many of the images but emphasise the grief that the narrator experienced . The original version began with floral imagery , which was later cut :
A fourth stanza , also later removed , included an explanation of how Lucy was to die : " But slow distemper checked her bloom / And on the Heath she died . "
= = = " I travelled among unknown men " = = =
The last of the " Lucy poems " to be composed , " I travelled among unknown men " , was the only one not included in the second edition of Lyrical Ballads . Although Wordsworth claimed that the poem was composed while he was still in Germany , it was in fact written during April 1801 . Evidence for this later date comes from a letter Wordsworth wrote to Mary Hutchinson referring to " I travelled " as a newly created poem . In 1802 , he instructed his printer to place " I travelled " immediately after " A slumber did my spirit seal " in Lyrical Ballads , but the poem was omitted . It was later published in Poems , in Two Volumes in 1807 .
The poem has frequently been read as a declaration of Wordsworth 's love for his native England and his determination not to live abroad again :
The first two stanzas seem to speak of the poet 's personal experience , and a patriotic reading would reflect his appreciation and pride for the English landscape . The possibility remains , however , that Wordsworth is referring to England as a physical rather than a political entity , an interpretation that gains strength from the poem 's connections to the other " Lucy poems " .
Lucy only appears in the second half of the poem , where she is linked with the English landscape . As such , it seems as if nature joins with the narrator in mourning for her , and the reader is drawn into this mutual sorrow .
Although " I travelled " was written two years after the other poems in the series , it echoes the earlier verses in both tone and language . Wordsworth gives no hint as to the identity of Lucy , and although he stated in the preface to Lyrical Ballads that all the poems were " founded on fact " , knowing the basis for the character of Lucy is not necessary to appreciating the poem and understanding its sentiment . Similarly , no insight can be gained from determining the exact geographical location of the " springs of Dove " ; in his youth , Wordsworth had visited springs of that name in Derbyshire , Patterdale and Yorkshire .
= = = " Three years she grew in sun and shower " = = =
" Three years she grew in sun and shower " was composed between 6 October and 28 December 1798 . The poem depicts the relationship between Lucy and nature through a complex opposition of images . Antithetical couplings of words — " sun and shower " , " law and impulse " , " earth and heaven " , " kindle and restrain " — are used to evoke the opposing forces inherent in nature . A conflict between nature and humanity is described , as each attempts to possess Lucy . The poem contains both epithalamic and elegiac characteristics ; Lucy is shown as wedded to nature , while her human lover is left alone to mourn in the knowledge that death has separated her from humanity .
= = = " A slumber did my spirit seal " = = =
Written in spare language , " A slumber did my spirit seal " consists of two stanzas , each four lines long . The first stanza is built upon even , soporific movement in which figurative language conveys the nebulous image of a girl who " seemed a thing that could not feel / The touch of earthly years " . The second maintains the quiet and even tone of the first but serves to undermine its sense of the eternal by revealing that Lucy has died and that the calmness of the first stanza represents death . The narrator 's response to her death lacks bitterness or emptiness ; instead he takes consolation from the fact that she is now beyond life 's trials , and " at last ... in inanimate community with the earth 's natural fixtures " . The lifeless rocks and stones depicted in the concluding line convey the finality of Lucy 's death .
= = Grouping as a series = =
Although the " Lucy poems " share stylistic and thematic similarities , it was not Wordsworth but literary critics who first presented the five poems as a unified set called the " Lucy poems " . The grouping was originally suggested by critic Thomas Powell in 1831 and later advocated by Margaret Oliphant in an 1871 essay . The 1861 Golden Treasury , compiled by the English historian Francis Palgrave ( 1788 – 1861 ) , groups only four of the verses , omitting " Strange fits " . The poems next appeared as a complete set of five in the collection of Wordsworth 's poems by English poet and critic Matthew Arnold ( 1822 – 1888 ) .
The grouping and sequence of the " Lucy poems " has been a matter of debate in literary circles . Various critics have sought to add poems to the group ; among those proposed over the years are " Alcaeus to Sappho " , " Among all lovely things " , " Lucy Gray " , " Surprised by joy " , " Tis said , that some have died for love " , " Louisa " , " Nutting " , " Presentiments " , " She was a Phantom of delight " , " The Danish Boy " , " The Two April Mornings " , " To a Young Lady " , and " Written in Very Early Youth " . None of the proposals have met with widespread acceptance . The five poems included in the Lucy " canon " focus on similar themes of nature , beauty , separation and loss , and most follow the same basic ballad form . Literary scholar Mark Jones offers a general characterisation of a Lucy poem as " an untitled lyrical ballad that either mentions Lucy or is always placed with another poem that does , that either explicitly mentions her death or is susceptible of such a reading , and that is spoken by Lucy 's lover . "
With the exception of " A slumber " , all of the poems mention Lucy by name . The decision to include this work is based in part on Wordsworth 's decision to place it in close proximity to " Strange fits " and directly after " She dwelt " within Lyrical Ballads . In addition , " I travelled " was sent to the poet 's childhood friend and later wife , Mary Hutchinson , with a note that said it should be " read after ' She dwelt ' " . Coleridge biographer J. Dykes Campbell records that Wordsworth instructed " I travelled " to be included directly following " A slumber " , an arrangement that indicates a connection between the poems . Nevertheless , the question of inclusion is further complicated by Wordsworth 's eventual retraction of these instructions and his omission of " I travelled " from the two subsequent editions of Lyrical Ballads .
The 1815 edition of Lyrical Ballads organised the poems into the Poems Founded on the Affections ( " Strange fits " , " She dwelt " , and " I travelled " ) and Poems of the Imagination ( " Three years she grew " and " A slumber " ) . This arrangement allowed the two dream @-@ based poems ( " Strange fits " and " A slumber " ) to frame the series and to represent the speaker 's different sets of experiences over the course of the longer narrative . In terms of chronology , " I travelled " was written last , and thus also served as a symbolic conclusion — both emotionally and thematically — to the " Lucy poems " .
= = Interpretation = =
= = = Nature = = =
According to critic Norman Lacey , Wordsworth built his reputation as a " poet of nature " . Early works , such as " Tintern Abbey " , can be viewed as odes to his experience of nature . His poems can also be seen as lyrical meditations on the fundamental character of the natural world . Wordsworth said that , as a youth , nature stirred " an appetite , a feeling and a love " , but by the time he wrote Lyrical Ballads , it evoked " the still sad music of humanity " .
The five " Lucy poems " are often interpreted as representing Wordsworth 's opposing views of nature as well as meditations on the cycle of life . They describe a variety of relationships between humanity and nature . For example , Lucy can be seen as a connection between humanity and nature , as a " boundary being , nature sprite and human , yet not quite either . She reminds us of the traditional mythical person who lives , ontologically , an intermediate life , or mediates various realms of existence . " Although the poems evoke a sense of loss , they also hint at the completeness of Lucy 's life — she was raised by nature and survives in the memories of others . She became , in the opinion of the American poet and writer David Ferry ( b . 1924 ) , " not so much a human being as a sort of compendium of nature " , while " her death was right , after all , for by dying she was one with the natural processes that made her die , and fantastically ennobled thereby " .
Cleanth Brooks writes that " Strange fits " presents " Kind Nature 's gentlest boon " , " Three years " its duality , and " A slumber " the clutter of natural object . Other scholars see " She dwelt " , along with " I travelled " , as representing nature 's " rustication and disappearance " . Mahoney views " Three years " as describing a masculine , benevolent nature similar to a creator deity . Although nature shapes Lucy over time and she is seen as part of nature herself , the poem shifts abruptly when she dies . Lucy appears to be eternal , like nature itself . Regardless , she becomes part of the surrounding landscape in life , and her death only verifies this connection .
The series presents nature as a force by turns benevolent and malign . It is shown at times to be oblivious to and uninterested in the safety of humanity . Hall argues , " In all of these poems , nature would seem to betray the heart that loves her " . The imagery used to evoke these notions serves to separate Lucy from everyday reality . The literary theorist Frances Ferguson ( b . 1947 ) notes that the " flower similes and metaphors become impediments rather than aids to any imaginative visualization of a woman ; the flowers do not simply locate themselves in Lucy 's cheeks , they expand to absorb the whole of her ... The act of describing seems to have lost touch with its goal — description of Lucy . "
= = = Death = = =
The poems Wordsworth wrote while in Goslar focus on the dead and dying . The " Lucy poems " follow this trend , and often fail to delineate the difference between life and death . Each creates an ambiguity between the sublime and nothingness , as they attempt to reconcile the question of how to convey the death of a girl intimately connected to nature . They describe a rite of passage from innocent childhood to corrupted maturity and , according to Hartman , " center on a death or a radical change of consciousness which is expressed in semi @-@ mythical form ; and they are , in fact , Wordsworth 's nearest approach to a personal myth . " The narrator is affected greatly by Lucy 's death and cries out in " She dwelt " of " the difference to me ! " . Yet in " A slumber " he is spared from trauma by sleep .
The reader 's experience of Lucy is filtered through the narrator 's perception . Her death suggests that nature can bring pain to all , even to those who loved her . According to the British classical and literary scholar H. W. Garrod ( 1878 – 1960 ) , " The truth is , as I believe , that between Lucy 's perfection in Nature and her death there is , for Wordsworth , really no tragic antithesis at all . " Hartman expands on this view to extend the view of death and nature to art in general : " Lucy , living , is clearly a guardian spirit , not of one place but of all English places ... while Lucy , dead , has all nature for her monument . The series is a deeply humanized version of the death of Pan , a lament on the decay of English natural feeling . Wordsworth fears that the very spirit presiding over his poetry is ephemeral , and I think he refuses to distinguish between its death in him and its historical decline . "
= = Critical assessment = =
The first mention of the poems came from Dorothy , in a letter sent to Coleridge in December 1798 . Of " Strange fits " , she wrote , " [ this ] next poem is a favorite of mine — i.e. of me Dorothy — " . The first recorded mention of any of the " Lucy poems " ( outside of notes by either William or Dorothy ) occurred after the April 1799 death of Coleridge 's son Berkeley . Coleridge was then living in Germany , and received the news through a letter from his friend Thomas Poole , who in his condolences mentioned Wordsworth 's " A slumber " :
But I cannot truly say that I grieve — I am perplexed — I am sad — and a little thing , a very trifle would make me weep ; but for the death of the Baby I have not wept ! — Oh ! this strange , strange , strange Scene @-@ shifter , Death ! that giddies one with insecurity , & so unsubstantiates the living Things that one has grasped and handled ! — / Some months ago Wordsworth transmitted to me a most sublime Epitaph / whether it had any reality , I cannot say . — Most probably , in some gloomier moment he had fancied the moment in which his sister might die .
Later , the essayist Charles Lamb ( 1775 – 1834 ) wrote to Wordsworth in 1801 to say that " She dwelt " was one of his favourites from Lyrical Ballads . Likewise Romantic poet John Keats ( 1795 – 1821 ) praised the poem . To the diarist and writer Henry Crabb Robinson ( 1775 – 1867 ) , " She dwelt " gave " the powerful effect of the loss of a very obscure object upon one tenderly attached to it — the opposition between the apparent strength of the passion and the insignificance of the object is delightfully conceived . "
Besides word of mouth and opinions in letters , there were only a few published contemporary reviews . The writer and journalist John Stoddart ( 1773 – 1856 ) , in a review of Lyrical Ballads , described " Strange fits " and " She dwelt " as " the most singular specimens of unpretending , yet irresistible pathos " . An anonymous review of Poems in Two Volumes in 1807 had a less positive opinion about " I travell 'd " : " Another string of flat lines about Lucy is succeeded by an ode to Duty " . Critic Francis Jeffrey ( 1773 – 1850 ) claimed that , in " Strange fits " , " Mr Wordsworth , however , has thought fit to compose a piece , illustrating this copious subject by one single thought . A lover trots away to see his mistress one fine evening , staring all the way at the moon : when he comes to her door , ' O mercy ! to myself I cried , / If Lucy should be dead ! ' And there the poem ends ! " On " A slumber did my spirit seal " , Wordsworth 's friend Thomas Powell wrote that the poem " stands by itself , and is without title prefixed , yet we are to know , from the penetration of Mr. Wordsworth 's admirers , that it is a sequel to the other deep poems that precede it , and is about one Lucy , who is dead . From the table of contents , however , we are informed by the author that it is about ' A Slumber ; ' for this is the actual title which he has condescended to give it , to put us out of pain as to what it is about . "
Many Victorian critics appreciated the emotion of the " Lucy poems " and focused on " Strange fits " . John Wilson , a personal friend of both Wordsworth and Coleridge , described the poem in 1842 as " powerfully pathetic " . In 1849 , critic Rev. Francis Jacox , writing under the pseudonym " Parson Frank " , remarked that " Strange fits " contained " true pathos . We are moved to our soul 's centre by sorrow expressed as that is ; for , without periphrasis or wordy anguish , without circumlocution of officious and obtrusive , and therefore , artificial grief ; the mourner gives sorrow words ... But he does it in words as few as may be : how intense their beauty ! " A few years later , John Wright , an early Wordsworth commentator , described the contemporary perception that " Strange fits " had a " deep but subdued and ' silent fervour ' " . Other reviewers emphasised the importance of " She dwelt among the untrodden ways " , including Scottish writer William Angus Knight ( 1836 – 1916 ) , when he described the poem as an " incomparable twelve lines " .
At the beginning of the 20th century , literary critic David Rannie praised the poems as a whole : " that strange little lovely group , which breathe a passion unfamiliar to Wordsworth , and about which he — so ready to talk about the genesis of his poems — has told us nothing [ ... ] Let a poet keep some of his secrets : we need not grudge him the privacy when the poetry is as beautiful as this ; when there is such celebration of girlhood , love , and death [ ... ] The poet 's sense of loss is sublime in its utter simplicity . He finds harmony rather than harshness in the contrast between the illusion of love and the fact of death . " Later critics focused on the importance of the poems to Wordsworth 's poetic technique . Durrant argued that " The four ' Lucy ' poems which appeared in the 1800 edition of Lyrical Ballads are worth careful attention , because they represent the clearest examples of the success of Wordsworth 's experiment . " Alan Grob ( 1932 – 2007 ) focused less on the unity that the poems represent and believed that " the principal importance of the ' Matthew ' and ' Lucy ' poems , apart from their intrinsic achievement , substantial as that is , is in suggesting the presence of seeds of discontent even in a period of seemingly assured faith that makes the sequence of developments in the history of Wordsworth 's thought a more orderly , evolving pattern than the chronological leaps between stages would seem to imply . "
Later critics de @-@ emphasised the significance of the poems in Wordsworth 's artistic development . Hunter Davies ( b . 1936 ) concluded that their impact relies more on their popularity than importance to Wordsworth 's poetic career . Davies went on to claim , " The poems about Lucy are perhaps Wordsworth 's best @-@ known work which he did in Germany , along with ' Nutting ' and the Matthew poems , but the most important work was the beginning of The Prelude " ( emphasis in original ) . Some critics emphasised the importance behind Lucy as a figure , including Geoffrey Hartman ( b . 1929 ) , when he claimed , " It is in the Lucy poems that the notion of spirit of place , and particularly English spirit of place , reaches its purest form . " Writer and poet Meena Alexander ( b . 1951 ) believed that the character of Lucy " is the impossible object of the poet 's desire , an iconic representation of the Romantic feminine . "
= = Parodies and allusions = =
The " Lucy poems " have been parodied numerous times since their first publication . These were generally intended to ridicule the simplification of textual complexities and deliberate ambiguities in poetry . They also questioned the way many 19th @-@ century critics sought to establish definitive readings . According to Jones , such parodies commented in a " meta @-@ critical " manner and themselves present an alternative mode of criticism . Among the more notable is the one by Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's son Hartley Coleridge ( 1796 – 1849 ) , called " On William Wordsworth " or simply " Imitation " , as in the 1827 version published for The Inspector magazine ( " He lived amidst th ' untrodden ways / To Rydal Lake that lead ; / A Bard whom there were none to praise / And very few to read " lines 1 – 4 ) . Parody also appears in the 1888 murder @-@ mystery reading of the poem by Victorian author Samuel Butler ( 1835 – 1902 ) . Butler believed Wordsworth 's use of the phrase " the difference to me ! " was overly terse , and remarked that the poet was " most careful not to explain the nature of the difference which the death of Lucy will occasion him to be ... The superficial reader takes it that he is very sorry she was dead ... but he has not said this . " Not every work referring to the " Lucy poems " is intended to mock , however ; the novelist and essayist Mary Shelley ( 1797 – 1851 ) drew upon the poems to comment on and re @-@ imagine the Romantic portrayal of femininity .
= = Settings = =
The " Lucy poems " ( omitting " I travelled among unknown men " but adding " Among all lovely things " ) have been set for voice and piano by the composer Nigel Dodd . The settings were first performed at St George 's , Brandon Hill , Bristol , in October 1995 at a concert marking the bicentenary of the first meeting of Wordsworth and Coleridge .
Among settings of individual poems is Benjamin Britten 's " Lucy " ( " I travelled among unknown men " ) composed in 1926 .
= Indianapolis ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Indianapolis " is the sixth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 36th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 24 , 2011 . In the episode , Leslie and Ron travel to Indianapolis to receive a commendation , while Ann suspects Chris is cheating on her . Meanwhile , Tom tries to pitch his personal fragrance to a cologne maker while simultaneously bonding with Ben .
Written by Katie Dippold and directed by Randall Einhorn , " Indianapolis " was the last of six episodes filmed almost immediately after the second season ended as part of an early shooting schedule needed to accommodate actress Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . The episodes were ultimately held for
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probably a borrowing from Romanian folklore , and may reference the fairy tale character Ileana Cosânzeana . The group 's press organ , also known as Ileana , was edited by Bacalbașa and illustrated by Luchian . Described by Vianu as a " refined art magazine " , it is also considered the first one of its kind in Romania .
In parallel , Bogdan @-@ Pitești began frequenting the country 's first socialist pressure group , the Romanian Social Democratic Workers ' Party ( PSDMR ) , and attending meetings between Bucharest workers . The PSDMR denounced him as an agent provocateur of the Conservative Party , and he stood accused of breaking the party into tolerant and antisemitic halves .
= = = Péladan 's visit = = =
As head of Ileana , Bogdan @-@ Pitești organized Joséphin Péladan 's 1898 visit to Bucharest . It was a much @-@ publicized event , which attracted the attention of high society and received ample coverage in the press ; Bogdan @-@ Pitești accompanied Péladan on visits to various Bucharest landmarks , including the Athenaeum , the Chamber of Deputies , the Orthodox Metropolitan and Domnița Bălașa churches , as well as the Roman Catholic Saint Joseph Cathedral . Among the politicians who attended the ceremonies were Nicolae Filipescu , Constantin Dissescu , Take Ionescu , Ioan Lahovary , and Constantin C. Arion ; prominent intellectuals ( Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea , Rădulescu @-@ Motru etc . ) were in the audience .
Péladan agreed to lecture in front of Societatea Ileana at the Atheneum , and his subject of choice was The Genius of the Latin Race . His mystical doctrine was received with much skepticism and amusement by the Romanian literary chroniclers . The visit then turned to scandal : Péladan issued a call for all Romanians to embrace Catholicism , and left the country on pain of being deported .
Various commentators are entirely dismissive of the visit and its importance . Th . Enescu describes its impact as " amazing " , since Péladan was merely an " unusual [ funambulesc in the original ] representative of French culture " . He also proposes that the reception , with its " noisy " and " exacerbated " fanfare , shows the " complexes of a provincial culture , confronted with the promiscuous exorbitance of a great culture " . This assessment is quoted by literary historian Paul Cernat , who also notes Péladan 's " rather modest value " should not have allowed such reactions . Cernat concedes that the Péladan visit was important for promoting new cultural trends , specifically the notions of art for art 's sake and decadence , even though this was done " through the means of politics [ italics in the original ] " .
Cultural historian Angelo Mitchievici proposes that , modelling himself on Péladan , Bogdan @-@ Pitești was becoming the " spinmeister " of oriental Symbolism . As Ion Doican ( or Duican ) , he contributed to Ileana essays praising various contemporary painters : Arthur Verona , George Demetrescu Mirea , and , most of all , Luchian . Ileana only published a few issues before closing down in 1901 . Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's collaborator Bacalbașa , known by then as a dramatist , also attended , but drifted away from the group in 1900 , giving up his position as editor of Ileana . A similar split occurred between Luchian and his patron , sparked when Bogdan @-@ Pitești made some favorable comments on Stăncescu 's work , and probably took several years to mend . Over that decade , Bogdan @-@ Pitești had also become one of Literatorul 's main financial backers .
Writing in 1910 , at a time when Romanian art came to be me more familiar with new artistic trends ( including Cubism and Fauvism , both advocated locally by art critic Theodor Cornel ) , Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești adapted his discourse to the new trends . The art patron , who probably exercised considerable influence over Cornel , publicly complained that , instead of keeping up with the times , his fellow Romanian intellectuals still regarded Impressionism as the ultimate novelty . On the occasion , he hailed the Post @-@ Impressionist French artists Paul Gauguin and Paul Cézanne as the models to follow . He was actively seeking to mend his split with Luchian , and , although he called the painter " inconsistent " , again stated that he found him to be Romania 's best young artist .
= = = Slatina revolt and Vlaici colony = = =
After his return to Romania , Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești was still noted for his political activities , although these shifted to the background during his Ileana years . According to some reports , he spent some of his free time touring the countryside , rallying up peasants , inciting them to rebel , and mapping out a radical land reform . During the general election of 1899 , he ran for a deputy seat in both Olt and Ilfov , without registering success . There was confusion as to Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's political affiliation . He was known as " the peasants ' candidate " , but both sides of the Romanian two @-@ party system , the National Liberal Party and the Conservative group , accused the other of secretly supporting his bid .
During such campaigns , he is said to have misled his voters into believing that he was a son of the deposed Domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza , and therefore a natural champion of land reform . His activity in Olt is credited with having sparked some violent incidents : in at least one account , he instigated the peasants of Slatina area to riot , and their revolt was only suppressed with use of force . Others however claim that the Romanian Land Forces randomly shot at , then charged upon , the peaceful mass of demonstrators , killing at least 35 of them .
The Slatina crisis reverberated in the capital and posed problems for the Conservative cabinet of Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino . Reportedly , both the Minister of Agriculture Nicolae Fleva and the Minister of Justice Dissescu were ready to hand in their resignations . Bogdan @-@ Pitești himself was arrested for sedition , but soon after checked himself into Filantropia Hospital . He averted sentencing when the prosecutors were unable to conclusively prove this involvement .
Overall , Bogdan @-@ Pitești claimed to have been held in judicial custody for some forty separate incidents , stressing that all these convictions were owed to political crimes — while reporting this statement , T. Vianu noted that at least some should in fact be considered punishments for various misdemeanors . In time , the anarchist boyar had also come to be known as an inveterate criminal and jailbird , which attracted him the disparaging moniker Bogdan @-@ Văcărești ( after Văcărești prison in Bucharest ) . Others twisted his birth name into the parodic Bogdan @-@ Ciupești ( from a ciupi , " to gyp " ) .
Bogdan @-@ Pitești consolidated his own estate when he inherited a manor in Vlaici village ( part of Colonești ) . It was , beginning in 1908 , the center of his activities and home to his sizable art collection , as well as one of the first locations in Romania acting as a summer camp for painters and sculptors . The events he planned were attended by the Ileana regulars , and , in time , attracted virtually all other major en plein air painters of the day : Nicolae Dărăscu , Ștefan Dimitrescu , Iosif Iser , M. H. Maxy , Theodor Pallady , Camil Ressu .
In his recollections from that period , writer Victor Eftimiu suggested that the relationship was not entirely harmonious : " Camil Ressu , like other young unknown painters , found a lot of support and encouragement with Bogdan @-@ Pitești . Truth be told , the maecenate was rather thrifty , it profited from the needs of the debuting and impoverished artist . But without it things would 've been much worse , since others did not even offer as much " . He also argued that , contrary to speculation about his wealth , Bogdan @-@ Pitești " maybe paid up so little because that is all he had to spare " . Reputedly , the Ileana boss was losing a fortune on maintaining the Vlaici manor , surrounded as it was by barren land .
= = = Știrbey @-@ Vodă circle = = =
Circa 1908 , the Bogdan @-@ Pitești villa on Bucharest 's Știrbey @-@ Vodă Street ( near the Cișmigiu Gardens ) began hosting regular gatherings of intellectuals . Among those who attended in successive stages were the writers Macedonski , Eftimiu , Tudor Arghezi , Mateiu Caragiale , Benjamin Fondane , Gala Galaction , George Bacovia , Ion Minulescu , Claudia Millian , N. D. Cocea , Ion Vinea , F. Brunea @-@ Fox , Eugeniu Ștefănescu @-@ Est , A. de Herz , Ion Călugăru , and Adrian Maniu . It also hosted the artists Luchian , Artachino , Verona , Maxy , Iser , Steriadi , Dimitrescu , Pallady , Ressu , Dărăscu , Nina Arbore , Constantin Brâncuși , Constantin Medrea , Dimitrie Paciurea , Maria Ciurdea Steurer , Oscar Han , Nicolae Tonitza , Ion Theodorescu @-@ Sion , Friedrich Storck and Cecilia Cuțescu @-@ Storck , as well as Abgar Baltazar , Alexandru Brătășanu , Alexandru Poitevin @-@ Skeletti , George Demetrescu Mirea , Rodica Maniu , and Marcel Janco . Also in 1908 , following Iser 's proposal , Bogdan @-@ Pitești sponsored a Bucharest exhibit showcasing works by the renowned European painters Demetrios Galanis , Jean @-@ Louis Forain and André Derain .
After 1910 , his patronage took on new forms . Literary critic Șerban Cioculescu notes that , at least initially , his relationship with Mateiu Caragiale included a financial aspect , since Bogdan @-@ Pitești inviting the destitute poet to dinner and provided him with funds . He was also granting lodging and material to various disadvantaged painters , as reported by his close friend Arghezi , and took a special interest in promoting the poetry of Ștefan Petică ( as well as that of Arghezi himself ) . Arghezi claimed that such influence and moral support were also " decisive " in at least one other case , that of Luchian . In his memoir of the period , linguist Alexandru Rosetti mentioned that , on a daily basis , Bogdan @-@ Pitești invited " over a dozen artists " for supper at his home .
Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's renewed his attacks on the Orthodox Church . Paul Cernat sees them as efforts to fabricate a religious alternative to the Orthodox mainstream , included in the larger phenomenon that was Symbolist cosmopolitanism . However , Galaction , who was to end his life as an Orthodox priest , recorded that the Știrbey @-@ Vodă circle accommodated people of very diverse backgrounds . At one time , they included , alongside Galaction himself , the Roman Catholic priest Carol Auner , the Protestant sculptor Storck , and the anarchist activist Panait Mușoiu . According to Cernat , Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's bohemian society also grouped people believed associated with the illegal activities , and was noted for its " libertine " atmosphere . Galaction backed such interpretations , writing that the salon was also home to " a dozen con artists and prostitutes . " The atmosphere was colloquial and free @-@ spirited , to the point of being demeaning : story goes that the artists and writers were sometimes told licentious jokes , or had to endure grotesque farces .
A dandy , Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești himself led a life of luxury , marked by excess , and had by then become a drug addict . He was a proud homosexual ( or bisexual ) , which did not prevent him from keeping as his concubine a younger woman , commonly referred to as Domnica ( " Little Lady " ) or Mica ( " Little One " ) . Born Alexandra Colanoski , she was born in 1894 to Romanian Poles from Bessarabia , and , according to memoirist Constantin Beldie , had previously been a prostitute at a nightclub .
Herself a libertine , Domnica was described by researchers as an androgynous or cross @-@ dressing presence . To other members of the Știrbey @-@ Vodă circle , painter @-@ designer Alexandru Brătășanu was introduced as Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's male lover . Theirs was a " degenerate " affair , according to Oscar Han ; Han also quotes Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's admiration for the male body , including male genitalia , as the only physical beauties which could withstand time .
= = = Cantacuzino Conservative and Seara = = =
Around 1912 , Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's political influence was on the rise . He had begun associating with an inner faction of the Conservative Party , which had as its leader Grigore Gheorghe Cantacuzino , the Mayor of Bucharest . Afterward , Bogdan @-@ Pitești became the publisher of Seara , but was reportedly a front for Cantacuzino , who used him to test the impact of his agenda on the Romanian public . Seara 's main negative campaign at the time focused on Take Ionescu and his Conservative @-@ Democrats , who , to Cantacuzino 's displeasure , had been co @-@ opted in government by the other mainstream Conservatives . The paper published gossip columns and lampoons having Ionescu , Alexandru Bădărău and Nicolae Titulescu for their main targets .
By then , like many " Germanophile " Conservatives , Bogdan @-@ Pitești had come to support the Romanian Kingdom 's alliance with the German Empire and Austria @-@ Hungary . This view was popularized by means of his literary club , and support for the Central Powers was also voiced by Arghezi at Seara . In September 1914 , a German consortium purchased the paper ( together with Cantacuzino 's other gazette , Minerva ) , and Bogdan @-@ Pitești was kept on as a simple columnist . Throughout the interval , Bogdan @-@ Pitești was himself an outspoken Germanophile . His circle , which was already hostile to the National Liberal cabinet of Ion I. C. Brătianu , welcomed the diverse groups who were alarmed by Romania 's probable entry into the war : the pro @-@ German Conservatives , the supporters of proletarian internationalism , and the committed pacifists . The artistic clientele was also represented in the Germanophile group at large , but , Cernat 's writes , did so for sheer dependency rather than actual convictions .
Suspicions soon arose that Bogdan @-@ Pitești had become a veritable agent of influence . According to Zambaccian , it was Bogdan @-@ Pitești who actually dropped a hint that his support for Germany was a lucrative employment . Through various notes in scattered diaries , most of which have been lost , Caragiale reputedly accused Bogdan @-@ Pitești taking Germany 's money to promote her interests in Romania , and to assist her foreign propaganda effort . Such assessments , like Caragiale 's allegation that Bogdan @-@ Pitești was not knowledgeable in art , reflected conflicts between the two figures , and their overall reliability remains doubtful . It is however possible that Caragiale himself borrowed , and never returned , some 10 @,@ 000 lei , siphoned out of the German propaganda funds by Bogdan @-@ Pitești .
= = = Libertatea and propaganda wars = = =
Between October 1915 and June 1916 , Bogdan @-@ Pitești managed another press venue , Libertatea ( " Freedom " ) . Its political director was retired statesman Nicolae Fleva , later replaced by Arghezi . In February 1916 , Galaction and Arghezi launched Cronica , another review with a pro @-@ German agenda , and which may itself have been published with discreet assistance from Bogdan @-@ Pitești . Although Bogdan @-@ Pitești , Domnica and Caragiale paid a mysterious visit to Berlin in early 1916 , they were never listed as foreign spies by Siguranța Statului counter @-@ intelligence . Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's name then surfaced in a February 1916 conversation between German statesman Matthias Erzberger and Raymund Netzhammer , the Catholic Archbishop of Bucharest . Erzberger asked if the Vlaici landowner could ever help advance the Germanophile cause ; the Archbishop , a loyal German subject , replied that Bogdan @-@ Pitești was unreliable . Allegations later surfaced that Bogdan @-@ Pitești was one of the men receiving payoffs from the German spy Albert E. Günther , manager of Steaua Română company . The dossier attesting this was lost , but secondary sources have it that Bogdan @-@ Pitești alone received 840 @,@ 000 lei from Günther 's hands .
The contributors to Seara and Libertatea were , in general , outspoken social and cultural critics , with diverse grievances against the establishment . Historian Lucian Boia argues that , even though Bogdan @-@ Pitești was on the German payroll , his switch from the Francophiles could have been a genuine form of conservatism . Boia thus notes that Seara was supportive of the Central Powers from the 1914 build @-@ up to the war , that is even before Cantacuzino had come to decide which side he liked best . The core group of Seara men included socialists of various hues : Arghezi , who claimed that Serbian nationalism was the spark of the war ; Felix Aderca , who depicted the German Empire as the more progressive belligerent ; and Rodion , who rendered the complains of Germanophile intellectuals from Moldavia . Others were left @-@ wing refugees from the Russian Empire , who wanted Romania to join the Central Powers and help liberate Bessarabia : Alexis Nour , from the Poporanist faction , and the old anarchist Zamfir Arbore . Seara was also a platform for some disgruntled Romanians from Transylvania region , a Romanian irredenta under Austro @-@ Hungarian rule . They included a mainstream Conservative commentator , Ilie Bărbulescu , who advised Romanians to not to focus on Transylvania , and prioritized action against the Russians . Two distinct voices were those of poet Dumitru Karnabatt , who identified the Entente Powers with Pan @-@ Slavism or British imperialism ; and Ion Gorun , the Transylvanian writer and Habsburg loyalist . Beyond politics , Seara came out with news on culture , selected for publishing by Ion Vinea and poet Jacques G. Costin .
The left @-@ wing preoccupations were also an important feature of Libertatea . Its opening manifesto called for a large @-@ scale social reform , which it claimed was more important to Romanians than any National Liberal project to recover Transylvania from its Austro @-@ Hungarian overlord . It enlisted contributions , generally less political than those at Seara , from literary figures such as Vinea , Demostene Botez , I. Dragoslav , Adrian Maniu and I. C. Vissarion .
Bogdan @-@ Pitești regularly published his own articles in the two newspapers he directed , signing them with the pseudonym Al . Dodan . The early texts express his Russophobia and commiseration over France 's alliance with Tsarist autocracy , the world 's " most savage , most ignorant and bloodiest oligarchy " . By 1915 , assessing that Romania 's national interest rested with the Habsburgs and the Germans , and arguing that Romanian peasants were worse off than their counterparts in Transylvania , he was urging his countrymen to ponder the benefits of Bessarabia 's annexation to Romania .
= = = Wartime , disgrace and death = = =
The neutrality years also rekindled controversy over Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's daily affairs . A scandal erupted in 1913 , after banker Aristide Blank brought Bogdan @-@ Pitești to court on charges of blackmail . The plaintiff enlisted the services of lawyer Take Ionescu , and the defendant , represented by Fleva , was ultimately sentenced to a jail term . Throughout the scandal , Seara hosted articles by Arghezi , professing Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's innocence . In 1916 , just before Romania entered the war as an Entente country , Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești was again involved in a legal dispute with the Francophiles Take Ionescu and Barbu Ștefănescu @-@ Delavrancea , with Constantin Dissescu as his lawyer .
The Ententist bid resulted in major initial defeats , and a Romanian theater of war was opened . The country suffered heavily , and Bucharest was taken by the Central Powers . Reputedly , the occupation forces picked up Bogdan @-@ Pitești from his cell at Văcărești , where he was still serving time . Like Arghezi , Macedonski , Galaction and Mateiu Caragiale , he remained in German @-@ occupied territory . Despite his apparent triumph over the Ententist lobby , he kept a low profile : according to popular but unverifiable rumors , he was even arrested once the occupation authorities angrily discovered his uselessness for the cause . He was however a free man as of April 12 , 1917 , the date of his marriage to Domnica Colanoski . One account has it that Bogdan @-@ Pitești proceeded to denounce his Ileana colleague , Petrescu Găină , who had published a set of anti @-@ German cartoons . As a result , the Romanian draftsman spent the war years in German captivity .
Once Romania recovered possession over its southern areas , Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești was reportedly prosecuted for treason and was again sent to Văcărești . Others however note that this last sentence , passed in 1919 , was not in fact related to his wartime dealings , but merely to his fraudulent activities , and that only by coincidence did Bogdan @-@ Pitești share a prison with the convicted collaborationist journalists ( Arghezi , Karnabatt , Ioan Slavici ) .
T. Vianu notes that Bogdan @-@ Pitești spent his last years " in ignominy " , while Cernat describes his definitive fall to the status of " a pariah " . The art promoter died four years after the war ended , at his house in Bucharest , having suffered a myocardial infarction . According to Cernat , his " grotesque " death was sudden , catching him in the middle of a telephone conversation . Reportedly , Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's last wish had been for his collection to pass into state property and be kept as a museum .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Role and influence = = =
Bogdan @-@ Pitești was the subject of fascination in the literary and artistic community . Lucian Boia writes about his seductive " legend " , which fused an " imaginative and generous intellectual " with a " con artist " who " lived life as he saw fit " . Art historian Corina Teacă notes that , like Félix Fénéon , Bogdan @-@ Pitești was in fact fabricating his own myth : " every part of his public image was a removable mask . " The art institutions he helped establish were , nevertheless , reputable . According to Paul Cernat , his influential circle was " an excellent medium of transmission for the modern spirit , an informal institution and one of the first coagulant factors for [ Romania 's ] first post @-@ symbolist modernism . " Writing earlier , Theodor Enescu proposed that , like own group , the Știrbey @-@ Vodă Street salon and Macedonski 's circle were the only trend @-@ setters active between the decline of Junimea society ( ca . 1900 ) and the establishment of the modernist literature magazine Sburătorul ( 1919 ) . Cernat additionally notes that , while the writer Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești was " neglectful and improvident " when it came to preserving his own works , those essays and prose poems that survived have a genuine value . Such judgments were also passed on his topical art essays . Art historian Petru Comarnescu writes that Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's " critical intuitions " were superior to those of fellow collectors Zambaccian and Ioan Kalinderu ; critic Nicolae Oprescu also assesses that , without Bogdan @-@ Pitești , Ștefan Luchian would be lost to Romanian art .
The Romanian art environment cherished , then despised , its anarchist patron . In his moments of glory , he received homages from many of his writer friends , as notebooks and albums compiled especially for him . At a later date , all sides of the dispute were united in expressing criticism for at least some of Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's deeds . According to Galaction , he was a " hajduk " , who " robbed away and gave away . " Zambaccian portrayed him as one " created from a mold in which the evil and the good genius were present in equal measure . [ ... ] Cynical and suave , generous on one side , a con artist on the other , Al . Bogdan @-@ Pitești relished the abjection that he served with cynicism " . As Teacă notes , both Zambaccian and sculptor Oscar Han were among those forever " seduced " by Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's duplicity . In 1970 , Han wrote : " we cannot judge [ him ] under common law . He remains an absurdity . " While nationalist journalist Pamfil Șeicaru dismissed him as " a scoundrel " , Macedonski argued that Bogdan @-@ Pitești was " a wonderful prose writer and an admirable poet " . Benjamin Fondane , the modernist poet @-@ philosopher , praised Bogdan @-@ Pitești as a man of exquisite taste , concluding that : " He was made of the greatest of joys , in the most purulent of bodies . How many generations of ancient boyars had come to pass , like unworthy dung , for this singular earth to be generated ? "
Writer and critic Eugen Lovinescu , also a modernist , was bitterly opposed to the views of Bogdan @-@ Pitești and most other intellectuals who sided with Germany : in 1922 , he published the article Revizuiri morale ( " Moral Revisions " ) , which reminded the public about the controversy surrounding the art collector and his associates ( Arghezi , N. D. Cocea ) . A socialist acquaintance and an oral historian , Constantin Bacalbașa was convinced that Bogdan @-@ Pitești was the prototype " inferior degenerate " and , in his political life , a manipulator of " the uncultured minds . " Retrospective criticism of Bogdan @-@ Pitești was also voiced by Comarnescu and co @-@ author Ionel Jianu . Although they pay homage to Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's artistic qualities , the two speak of his " reproachable faults " and " con artist coups " , finding in him " an exhibitionist determined to trick and scandalize " , or an " enfant terrible " .
Commentators have been tempted to compare Bogdan @-@ Pitești with some controversial characters in world history , most often the prototype of self @-@ seekers , Alcibiades . Others likened Bogdan @-@ Pitești to the Renaissance writer and notorious blackmailer Pietro Aretino ( Zambaccian stresses that , unlike Aretino , Bogdan @-@ Pitești never duped his artists ) . Comarnescu proposed that Bogdan @-@ Pitești and the equally controversial Arghezi were better understood through the logic of Hinduism ( " the ancient Indian ethics " ) : " good and evil are not opposed , but collocated , combined , in a state of confusion " . Taking in view Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's preference for orality , his shady political connections , and his mostly informal channels of influence , Cernat concluded that , " the necessary changes having been made " , one could compare Bogdan @-@ Pitești with Nae Ionescu , a philosopher and far right activist whose career spanned the interwar period , and who had also debuted as a Symbolist .
= = = Anecdotes = = =
Several anecdotes concerning Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's morals and extravagant lifestyle were in circulation from his lifetime . In 1912 , Macedonski published an autobiographical Christmas story . It tells how , inspired by Macedonski 's desire to feed his family a traditional turkey feast , Bogdan @-@ Pitești sent him the bird stuffed with 50 gold lei . As T. Vianu writes , such " attitudes of a grand feudal lord " made Bogdan @-@ Pitești into an " indisputably picturesque " person . The account was partly confirmed by Constantin Beldie , who also noted that , during those years , Alexandru Macedonski was " starving " and had to provide for " a house full of children " . Zambaccian however cites a contrasting story once told by actor Ion Iancovescu . It suggests that , during the wartime famine , Macedonski asked Bogdan @-@ Pitești to pay him 1 million lei for one of the few surviving copies of Bronzes ; Bogdan @-@ Pitești bluntly offered him 5 lei — Macedonski gave in , commenting that " he is capable of changing his mind , that con artist ! " Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's mood swings were also discussed by memoirist Radu Rosetti . He writes that the boyar scarcely minded when his fortune was being siphoned away by some members of his retinue , but that he publicly humiliated Galaction , and even Domnica , over random expenses .
The relationship between Mateiu Caragiale and his one @-@ time patron has attracted special interest from period historians . Early on , the aspiring poet wrote a special piece in honor of his senior friend — called Dregătorul ( " The Mandarin " ) , it is included in one of Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's albums . That accord degenerated during the late 1910s , to the point where Caragiale , whose diary spoke of Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's homosexuality in dismissive terms ( calling him " a blusterer of the anti @-@ natural vice " ) , laid out a plan to loot the Știrbey @-@ Vodă Street villa . According to the same author , Bogdan @-@ Pitești turned to passive homosexuality because he was impotent . Caragiale 's diary also sketched a portrait of Domnica Bogdan , questioning her morality in harsh terms .
Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's other relationships with his other protégés could also fluctuate between extremes . According to an anecdote of the time , he advanced Luchian a large sum of money , which the painter used for a trip to Sinaia . Luchian then upset Bogdan @-@ Pitești by not inviting him over , and was punished with a telegram addressed " To the ugliest tourist in Sinaia " ( a pun on Luchian 's proverbial bad looks ) . In the mid @-@ 1910s , Luchian had been incapacitated by multiple sclerosis . Bogdan @-@ Pitești was one of the last to visit him before his death in June 1916 , recording for posterity Luchian 's resigned remark : " I 'm going away " .
The main first @-@ hand account of Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's 1919 imprisonment comes from Ioan Slavici 's Închisorile mele ( " My Prisons " ) . According to Slavici , the art patron had a luxury cell with a view over Bucharest . Alexandru Rosetti , citing Arghezi , records one of Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's witticisms on the issue of prison life . When a Gendarme wrongly attempted to push him into Arghezi 's line of suspected traitors , Bogdan @-@ Pitești snapped : Pardon , eu sunt escroc ! ( " Pardon me , [ but ] I 'm a con artist ! " ) . Zambaccian writes that , during the first of his legal battles with Take Ionescu , Bogdan @-@ Pitești commented on Ionescu 's deposition : " He sure is talented , that crook ! " The pro @-@ Entente nationalist Octavian Goga was especially upset by Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's stances , and , in his record of 1916 events ( including the Ionescu trial ) , wrote him off as a " bandit " fed with " German money " .
= = = Fictional character = = =
After the World War , according to Beldie , actor Iancovescu introduced impressions of Bogdan @-@ Pitești to his cabaret routine . It showed the convicted Garmanophile and an unnamed German official , who looked into the mislanding of propaganda funds on supporting petty " henchmen " . To this charge , the fictional Bogdan @-@ Pitești replies : " I have consumed your money , this much is true , but I did not pull one on you ! For how is it that you could imagine me , a traitor of my country , not also being a con artist ? " According to Beldie , the account has a grain of truth : instead of using money to revive the Germanophile cause , Bogdan @-@ Pitești directed them into his art collection . A somewhat similar version of this urban legend is included in the memoirs of a National Liberal adversary , I. G. Duca , who sees Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's retort as a paradoxical sign of injured patriotism : " Did you perhaps think that you might buy off some of Romania 's honest people ? You would be dead wrong , in this land one can only buy off the con artists , only con artists such as myself . " Duca concludes : " this reply , with its admirable and atavistic national dignity , tempts me to forget , though not to forgive , the utter turpitude that we call Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's life . "
Despite their relationship having declined from friendship to hatred , Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's style and his mundane interests are occasionally seen as sources of inspiration for Caragiale 's only novel , Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche ( completed in 1928 ) . Some have noted that Bogdan @-@ Pitești has a lot in common with at least one of the three protagonists . He and his wife were both characters in Ion Vinea 's novels Venin de mai ( " May Venom " ) and Lunatecii ( " The Lunatics " ) — Alexandru as Adam Gună , Domnica as wife Iada Gună . Both novels portray the Bogdans ' cultural circle , allude to their influence in making young people reject all conventionalism , and show them promoting vice as virtue . This lifestyle has taken its toll on Adam Gună , who is a physical ruin and slowly loses his hold on reality . Vinea 's books repeat claims that Bogdan @-@ Pitești was abusing drugs , and that Domnica was originally a prostitute .
More fiction work dealing with the Bogdan @-@ Pitești circle was published from a casual contributor to Seara , Lucrezzia Karnabatt . In her 1922 novel , Demoniaca , she portrays her employer as " Basile Dan " , a sinister traitor of his country and a cynical pornographer . Ion Călugăru used Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești as the inspiration for " Alexandru Lăpușneanu " , the boyar character in his novel Don Juan Cocoșatul ( " Don Juan the Hunchback " ) . Literary historian George Călinescu notes that this fictional portrait shows : " The dignity in gossip , the boyar carriage , the refinement that the apparent vulgarity cannot bring to ruin , the blasé and cynical lechery [ ... ] . " In one episode in the book , Lăpușneanu simulates agony and receives a Catholic confession that ( he insists ) must be read in Latin instead of French ; elsewhere , Lăpușneanu 's eccentric and adulterous wife Fetița ( " Little Girl " ) shows up on a battlefield , wearing nothing more than a swimsuit .
Tudor Arghezi dedicated Bogdan @-@ Pitești some of his first poetry writings . As art critics , Arghezi and Theodor Cornel published a comprehensive biographical study on their patron ( part of their Figuri contimporane din România dictionary , 1909 ) . However , according to Corina Teacă , the encomium @-@ like and conveniently imprecise entry may have been sent in , or at least approved of , by Bogdan @-@ Pitești . Arghezi also made his sponsor the hero of a small eponymous poem , wherein he is called Lombard bastard cu ochi de rouă ( " bastard Lombard with the eyes of dew " ) .
= = = Collection and estate = = =
By the 1910s , Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's art interests gave birth to a collection of as few as 967 or as many as 1 @,@ 500 individual works , most of them hosted by his estate in Colonești . They comprised objects created by prominent Romanian visual artists , including , alongside his early associates , Nina Arbore , Constantin Brâncuși , Oscar Han , Aurel Jiquidi , Maria Ciurdea Steurer , Constantin Medrea , Ary Murnu , Dimitrie Paciurea , Nicolae Petrescu @-@ Găină , Alexandru Satmari , Francisc Șirato , Cecilia Cuțescu @-@ Storck , Jean Alexandru Steriadi , Friedrich Storck , Ion Theodorescu @-@ Sion , and Nicolae Tonitza . Of the total , around 900 works were of Romanian provenance . Among the foreign artists whose work was featured in the collection were Georges Rochegrosse and Frank Brangwyn . The section dedicated to newer works of art was designed and opened as the first the modern art museum in Romania .
The Bogdan @-@ Pitești trust included many samples of Luchian 's art . Two of his famous paintings featured there were Lăutul ( " Washing the Hair " ) — which Bogdan @-@ Pitești is said to have likened to the luminous oil paintings of Paolo Veronese , and Safta Florăreasa ( " Safta the Flower Girl " ) — originally part of the Luchian family collection . Also included was the 1907 oil portrait of Luchian 's cousin , Alecu Literatu ( " Alecu the Literary Man " ) . They were accompanied by the 1906 pastel Durerea ( " Pain " ) , which had been reproduced in a 1914 issue of Seara , and by the paintings De Nămezi ( " Lunchtime " ) and Lica , fetița cu portocala ( " Lica , the Girl with the Orange " ) . Among the works in the series were two portraits of Bogdan @-@ Pitești : an ink drawing , copies of which were circulated with Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's election manifesto of 1899 , and a since @-@ lost oil painting .
Bogdan @-@ Pitești was the subject of several anonymous sketches , including two 1896 vignettes , published in Adevărul , and a 1917 drawing signed Correggio . He is also depicted in an affectionate cartoon published in 1914 by Petrescu Găină . Domnica Bogdan herself sat as a model for various artists , and was notably depicted in works by Camil Ressu , Pallady and the Bulgarian @-@ born painter Pascin . In 1920 , Bogdan @-@ Pitești commissioned Paciurea to complete a portrait bust of Domnica . The same year , Dimitrescu painted her an oil @-@ on @-@ cardboard portrait in dominant shades of brown ( with touches of red and gray ) . Artists who illustrated works by Bogdan @-@ Pitești include , in addition to himself , George Demetrescu Mirea , Ion Georgescu and Satmari .
The Colonești manor and its art fund fell victim to neglect . According to T. Vianu , the collection was " blown over by the wind of devastation " even during the interwar years . In 1924 , in defiance of its owner 's final request , it was subject to a hasty public auction . This drew protests from literary figures such as Cezar Petrescu , Perpessicius and Victor Eftimiu . As a result of the auction , many works passed into the collections of Zambaccian , Alexandru G. Florescu , Iosif Dona and several others . Of them , Zambaccian attributed the incident to the National Liberal government 's unwillingness to accept donations from " a compromised person " . He and several other commentators place responsibility for the sales on Finance Minister Ion Lapedatu , who is believed to have either hesitated in assessing the collection or to have plotted with businessmen who wanted it sold cheaply . Zambaccian was to be the eventual owner of Lăutul . It became a feature of his own Bucharest museum , and appears with Zambaccian in an oil portrait by Pallady .
Under the communist regime , the Vlaici building was transformed into a branch for the state @-@ owned producer of agricultural machinery , and , in 2004 , belonged to its successor , Agromec ( although still largely unused ) . Beldie recounts that , under communism , the destitute Domnica Bogdan worked as a hygienist at Bucharest Central Hospital .
= Showmance ( Glee ) =
" Showmance " is the second episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on September 9 , 2009 . It was written by series co @-@ creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan and directed by Murphy . The episode sees the glee club attempt to recruit new members by performing Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa 's " Push It " in a school assembly . It advances the love triangles between Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Emma ( Jayma Mays ) , Will ( Matthew Morrison ) and Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , and sees antagonist Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) begin to conspire against the club .
The episode features covers of six songs . Studio recordings of three of the songs performed were released as singles , available for digital download . Three of the tracks also appear on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 1 . " Showmance " introduces recurring cast members Jennifer Aspen , Kenneth Choi , and Heather Morris , and guest @-@ stars Valorie Hubbard .
The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 3 million US viewers , and was the best @-@ received scripted premiere by Fox in three years . The performance of Kanye West 's " Gold Digger " in particular drew positive reviews from critics , with Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack comparing the episode favorably to the series ' pilot episode . Brian Lowry for Variety , however , received the episode poorly , deeming the show a one @-@ hit wonder , while Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times noted weaknesses in the adult characters .
= = Plot = =
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) informs glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) that New Directions must have twelve members to be eligible to compete at Regionals . Will decides to have New Directions perform in a school assembly , hoping to recruit new members . The group is opposed to his choice of song — " Le Freak " by Chic — so as a compromise , Will suggests they also learn " Gold Digger " by Kanye West . Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) crush on Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) leads her to join the celibacy club , which he attends with his girlfriend , Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , who is head of the Cheerios . Rachel soon realizes that the celibacy club is really a place where teens try to get as physically close to each other as possible without technically engaging in any kind of sexual activity , and she impresses Finn by saying celibacy club doesn 't work because it is normal for teenagers to want to have sex .
Rachel also convinces the Glee club members to secretly change their performance to " Push It " by Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa to give audience members what they want , " sex " . The song is well received by the student body , however complaints from parents lead Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) to compile a list of pre @-@ approved , sanitary songs which New Directions must choose from in future . Will is angry with Rachel for her actions , and when Quinn and fellow cheerleaders Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) audition for the club with a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rendition of " I Say a Little Prayer " , he gives Rachel 's solo on " Don 't Stop Believin ' " to Quinn . Sue later recruits Quinn to help her bring the glee club down from the inside , angered because Figgins has cut some of her funds to finance the club .
At home , Will is being pushed by his wife , Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , to find a second job so that they can afford to move into a new house before the birth of their child . He begins working at the school as a janitor after hours , and shares a romantic moment with guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) . Football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) observes them , and warns Emma not to become Will 's rebound girl . When Will asks her to meet with him after school again , Emma turns him down , having accepted a date with Ken . Terri discovers that she is actually experiencing a hysterical pregnancy , but she cannot bring herself to tell Will , so she lies to him that they are having a son . She tells him to quit working as a janitor , offering up use of her craft room as a nursery for the baby so they do not need to move .
Following a private rehearsal , Finn and Rachel kiss , and he is suddenly overwhelmed and experiences premature ejaculation . Embarrassed , he leaves , telling her to forget that their tryst happened , and goes back to Quinn . A dismayed Rachel later sings Rihanna 's " Take a Bow " with Glee club members Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) and Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) singing backup .
= = Production = =
The first public screening of " Showmance " occurred in July 2009 , at the Glee Comic @-@ Con panel . Scott Collins of the Los Angeles Times wrote that turnout for the panel was standing @-@ room only , and deemed the reception " enthusiastic " . Recurring cast members who appear in the episode are Gallagher as football coach Ken Tanaka , Iqbal Theba as Principal Figgins , Jennifer Aspen as Terri 's sister Kendra Giardi , Romy Rosemont as Finn 's mother Carole Hudson , Ken Choi as Terri 's OB / GYN Dr. Wu , and Rivera and Morris as new glee club members Santana Lopez and Brittany Pierce . Valorie Hubbard guest stars as Peggy .
It was revealed at the 2011 Glee Comic @-@ Con panel that a scene had been written for this episode that featured Rachel 's fathers , but it was subsequently cut from the script even though the actors had already been cast and reported for shooting .
= = Music = =
The episode features cover versions of Kanye West 's " Gold Digger " , Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa 's " Push It " , " Take a Bow " by Rihanna , " I Say a Little Prayer " by Dionne Warwick , Chic 's " Le Freak " , and " All by Myself " by Eric Carmen . Studio recordings of " Gold Digger " , " Take a Bow " and " Push It " were released as singles , available for download . " Gold Digger " charted at number 59 in Australia , " Take a Bow " at number 38 in Australia , 73 in Canada and 46 in America , and " Push It " at number 60 in Australia . " Gold Digger " and " Take a Bow " are included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , with a studio recording of " I Say a Little Prayer " included as a bonus track on discs purchased from iTunes . " Take a Bow " was offered for use in the episode at a reduced licensing rate , something which surprised Murphy , who believed he would not be able to secure the rights to the song . He stated : " Usually , people who have no . 1 hits , even if they give it to you , want hundreds of thousands of dollars , in my experience . But Rihanna gave it to us for a really good price . That 's been one of the cool and surprising things about this experience , that these people that the cast and we really admire and respect have found out about the show and are supportive . "
= = Reception = =
" Showmance " averaged 7 @.@ 3 million US viewers , making Glee the second most watched show of the evening after NBC 's America 's Got Talent . It achieved a 3 @.@ 5 / 9 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , making it Fox 's best scripted premiere in three years . However , as Scott Collins for the Los Angeles Times noted , the other major networks besides Fox all opened the evening by airing a speech by President Barack Obama , disrupting regular viewing patterns . Furthermore , the official fall season had yet to begin , placing Glee against weaker competition in the ratings than the remainder of the season would experience . " Showmance " was the third most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 77 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was shown straight after the pilot episode , and was watched by 1 @.@ 45 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 22 million on E4 , and 227 @,@ 000 on timeshift ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Shawna Malcom for the Los Angeles Times wrote that with " Showmance " , Glee : " admirably lived up to the promise of its pilot " . Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post wrote that " Showmance " " actually trumps the pilot in terms of sheer brilliance , laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments and heart " , while Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack called the episode " really really fun " , observing that : " The quality seen in the pilot definitely does not waver . If anything , the show seems to be finding its footing and tone . " David Hinckley of the Daily News rated the episode 4 out of 5 stars and commented : " Glee could have a hard time sustaining what it has set up . But the opening number gives us a rousing good show . " The episode 's musical numbers attracted positive reviews , particularly Will 's rendition of " Gold Digger " . Raymund Flandez for The Wall Street Journal praised this performance , also describing the group performance of " Push It " as " glorious in encapsulating every teenage horror " . Discussing the performance of " Gold Digger " , Dave Itzkoff for The New York Times wrote : " Outside of the catalog of 2 Live Crew , it 's hard to imagine a song more inappropriate for a high school glee club [ ... ] but the young misfits of the Fox comedy Glee somehow made it work . "
Brian Lowry for Variety , however , criticized the episode . He wrote that Lynch 's performance was " fitfully funny but usually just plain annoying " , calling the pregnancy subplot " credulity @-@ straining " . Lowry praised Colfer and Michele , however stated that the show 's talent was squandered by its " jokey , cartoonish , wildly uneven tone " . He deemed the show a " one @-@ hit wonder " , writing that : " the musical numbers — generally less infectious and buoyant than the first time out — can ’ t compensate for overly broad characterizations and absurdly soapy situations . " Robert Bianco for USA Today gave a mixed review , commenting : " It would be better if Glee had more control and fewer abrupt tonal shifts , but that 's not the Glee we 're getting — and maybe it wouldn 't be Glee at all . It 's not perfect , but in a sea of procedural conformity , Glee is its own weird , often enchanting little island escape . " While Hank Stuever for The Washington Post praised the show 's inclusion of adult storylines alongside teenage drama , Robert Lloyd for the Los Angeles Times felt that the adult characters " tend more to caricature than character " , writing of Sue that : " the writing flattens her toward a single note . She 's funny from line to line , but there is little to her besides tin @-@ pot contrariness . " The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan commented similarly : " there 's one big flaw in Glee [ ... ] and it may be a harbinger of bad things to come . Will 's wife , Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , manages to drain all the fun out of Glee every time she appears . " Ryan received the younger cast more positively , stating that there were " no weak links " , and praising Colfer and Michele in particular .
= Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour =
The Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour was the third concert tour by American recording artist Britney Spears . It supported her second studio album Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) and visited North America , Europe and Brazil . It marked the first time Spears toured outside North America . The tour was announced in February 2000 , while Spears was in the midst of the ( You Drive Me ) Crazy Tour . The stage was much more elaborate than her previous tours and featured video screens , pyrotechnics and moving platforms . The setlist was composed by songs from her first two studio albums , ... Baby One More Time and Oops ! ... I Did It Again . Showco was the sound company , who used the PRISM system to adapt the show to each venue . Spears used a handheld microphone and a headset during the shows , while an ADAT was used to replace her voice during energetic dance routines . All of the equipment came from the United States .
The show consisted of four segments with each segment being followed by an interlude to the next segment , and it ended with an encore . The show began with Spears descending from a giant orb . Most of the songs displayed energetic dance routines with the exception of the second segment , which featured mostly ballads . The encore consisted of a performance with pyrotechnics . The Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour received positive reviews from critics , who praised Spears 's energy onstage as well as the band . It was also a commercial success , grossing $ 40 @.@ 5 million and becoming one of the highest grossing tours of 2000 . The Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour was broadcast by many channels around the world .
= = Background = =
On February 22 , 2000 , Spears announced a summer tour in support of her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . The tour marked the first time Spears toured Europe . She commented , " I 'm going to go to Europe , and just basically go everywhere for six months , [ ... ] I 've never toured outside of the U.S. I 've never experienced other fans in other places , and performing in front of them is going to be so exciting . " Before the tour began , Forbes reported that concert promoter SFX Entertainment guaranteed her a minimum of $ 200 @,@ 000 per show . Tour sponsors from the 2000 leg of the ... Baby One More Time Tour , Got Milk ? , and Polaroid , remained . Clairol 's Herbal Essences was also added as a sponsor . Spears recorded a song for the latter called " I 've Got the Urge to Herbal " to be used on their radio campaign , though she chose to not attend a photoshoot for the product when she decided to support an 86 @-@ day strike by the Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) . She later donated $ 1 from each ticket sold from her Inglewood , California show on July 28 , 2000 to the union .
For the European Leg of the Tour , Spears originally was going joint with ' N Sync following their No Strings Attached Tour , as a co @-@ headlining tour .
= = Development = =
Jamie King was chosen as tour director . Tim Miller and Kevin Antunes served as director of production and musical director , respectively . Mark Foffano was chosen as the lightning director . Spears described the tour as " like a Broadway show " . The setlist included material from her first studio album ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) as well as seven songs from Oops ! ... I Did It Again . Spears explained , " I 've been singing the same material for so long now . It 'll be nice to change it up a little bit . " She also talked about her expectations for the tour , saying , " I can 't wait . I 'll have a world tour . I 'm going to have more dancers , a bigger stage , more pyro ... just a lot bigger " . The proscenium stage was much more elaborate than the stage of her previous tour and included video screens , movable platforms and different props . It cost $ 2 @.@ 2 million to build . The tone of the show variated from the beginning : for the performance of " Born to Make You Happy " , Spears sang in a set resembling a children 's bedroom , complete with large toys and a pillow fight routine . On the contrary , she unveiled a more sophisticated image for " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , and followed it with raunchy performances for " ... Baby One More Time " and " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " .
The sound equipment was provided by Showco who used the PRISM system , which adapted the show for each venue according to its height , width and the coverage required . The sound was mixed by Front of house engineer Monty Lee Wilkes on a combination of Yamaha PM4000 and PM3000 consoles , an unusual choice for Spears 's shows . He used dbx 903 compressors for kick and snare drums . The compressors were also used on Spears 's microphones , a Shure Beta 58A handheld and a Crown CM @-@ 311AE headset @-@ mounted capsule . Spears 's vocals were mostly live — pre @-@ recorded vocals ran in parallel on an ADAT machine during the shows , and were used to replace her live microphone when the dance routines became too energetic for good voice control . Spears 's band , backline technicians and monitor engineer Raza Sufi were all fitted with in @-@ ear monitors and headset mics , enabling rapid and clear communications around the stage area . Spears did not use them , preferring the ambient sound of a battery of eight Showco SRM wedges spread across the downstage area . These were augmented by Showco SS full @-@ range sidefills and a pair of one @-@ by @-@ 18 @-@ inch subs on each side of the stage . Sufi also used a dbx 160A to limit Spears 's louder moments , while backing vocalists were controlled by a duo of BSS DPR901 dynamic equalizers . Effects were limited to vocal and drum reverbs . Amplification for the wedges and the FOH system were all Crown @-@ based , with a pair of drum stool shakers completing the line @-@ up . All the cables used during the tour were brought from the US , even in Europe , something unusual in audio production .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show began with the video introduction " The Britney Spears Experience " , in which three images of Spears welcomed spectators to the show . Then , a giant metal orb was lowered onstage and lifted again to reveal Spears standing behind it , wearing a pink halter top ( some shows she wore an orange halter @-@ top ) , a side silver jacket , and glittery jeans . Spears started with two dance @-@ oriented performances of " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " and " Stronger " . This was followed by " What U See ( Is What U Get ) " in which she removed her silver side jacket and she danced in a stripper pole wearing a pink cowboy hat . The act ended with Spears talking to the audience and sitting on a stool to perform " From The Bottom of My Broken Heart " with her guitarist Skip .
After she left the stage , there was a video interlude hosted by * NSYNC ( via screen ) and Spears ' 2 background singers ( 2 female background dancers in Europe ) in which contestants did different games in order to meet Spears . She appeared onstage to meet the chosen fan and then welcomed the audience into her bedroom . Wearing white pajamas and slippers , she performed " Born to Make You Happy " , which included a dance segment near the end . She then continued with " Lucky " featuring her 2 background singers ( 2 female background dancers during all the European show ) helping Spears getting ready for a typical day . Halfway through the song during the dance break , her male dancers all dressed in navy sailor costumes do a routine before Spears continues the remainder of the song dressed as a ship captain . " Sometimes " , in which changed back into her white pajamas and slippers ( coincidentally an outfit similar to the one she wore in the music video of the song ) and featured Spears ' and her dancers throwing teddy bears , beach balls , and squirting the audience with water guns . At the end , she climbed the staircase and briefly spoke to the audience before moving into a performance of " Don 't Let Me Be The Last To Know " , for which she wore a long white dress trimmed with boa feathers ( pretty much dressed up like in the music video as Lucky ) .
A band interlude showcasing a mix of funk and progressive rock from her band followed , and Spears reappeared to perform her cover of Sonny & Cher 's " The Beat Goes On . " During the performance , she was lifted into the air wearing a kimono that covered most of the stage . She continued with " Don 't Go Knockin ' On My Door " ( loosing the kimono wearing a full purple jumpsuit ) and her cover of The Rolling Stones 's " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " , which ended with a dance sequence set to the original version .
Next , there was a dance interlude in which the dancers showed their individual moves while their names appeared on the screens . Spears took the stage again in a conservative schoolgirl outfit to perform " ... Baby One More Time . " She ripped it off halfway through the song to reveal a cheerleader ensemble . Spears then thanked the audience and left the stage . She returned shortly after ( wearing a black 2 piece jumpsuit imprinted with orange flames ) to perform " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , that included an extended dance break after the 2nd chorus , pyrotechnics and other special effects . She ended the performance disappearing through a tunnel of fire .
= = Reception = =
The show received generally positive reviews from critics . Andrew Miller of The Pitch stated " [ the concert ] at Sandstone proved that many [ of Spears 's ] criticisms are off @-@ base observations from people who have never actually attended one of these stars ' shows . The music came from a talented band , not a DAT , and the bass lines to such songs as " ... Baby One More Time " and " The Beat Goes On " rose to a funky growl in the live setting . For another , Spears ' vocals were the real thing , as she sang in an alluringly low tone [ ... ] but capably hit the high notes [ ... ] , however , she left the upper @-@ octave duties to her background singers [ ... ] during Spears ' most strenuous dance routines " . Richard Leiby of The Washington Post believed that the show " [ was ] great " . Dan Aquilante of the New York Post said that Spears " seemed to be enjoying the show as much as her fans . Maybe it was the Mariah @-@ like cowboy hat pushed back on her noggin or possibly the stripper 's pole borrowed from Madonna 's prop closet , [ ... ] Spears was in her element and having a ball " . Letta Tayler of Newsday said " For half the show , she remained the old Britney , the budding teen who dreamed of romance . But the rest of the time , she was a full @-@ throttle tease , with sprayed- on clothes , a hard @-@ edged attitude and a harder edge to her techno and hip @-@ hop- coated pop to match " .
Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated " What you get from this 18 @-@ year @-@ old singer is a big smile , a little voice , gushes of sincerity , hardworking dance routines , shameless advertising and a determination to play both sides of pubescence for all they 're worth " . Jim Farber of New York Daily News commented that " Despite such spicy bits , the core of Britney 's concert suffered from the familiarity and cheesiness of all teen road shows these days . The sparklers , explosions and mandatory flying dancers conformed to the corniness of theme park entertainment " . The ticket prices were set at $ 32 in North America . The reported dates averaged $ 507 @,@ 786 in grosses and 15 @,@ 841 in attendance . Susanne Ault of Billboard also reported that many of the shows sold out in one day . The tour had a total gross of $ 40 @.@ 5 million . It became the tenth highest @-@ grossing tour of the year in North America , as well as the second highest grossing tour by a solo artist , only behind Tina Turner 's Twenty Four Seven Tour . Roger Moore of The Orlando Sentinel analyzed Spears to emulate " a lot of Janet Jackson 's old concert act and cleaned it up for a younger audience " , also noting choreography resembling " Rhythm Nation " precision . "
= = Broadcasts = =
On November 30 , 2000 , the September 20 concert at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans aired on Fox . The special was titled There 's No Place Like Home . The show at London Arena was filmed and broadcast by Sky1 . The show at Rock In Rio was broadcast on DirecTV .
= = Setlist = =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy "
" Stronger "
" What U See ( Is What U Get ) "
" From the Bottom of My Broken Heart "
" Born to Make You Happy "
" Lucky "
" Sometimes "
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know "
" The Beat Goes On "
" Don 't Go Knockin ' on My Door "
" ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction "
" ... Baby One More Time "
" Oops ! ... I Did It Again "
Source :
= = Shows = =
= = Box office score data = =
= = Cancelled shows = =
= Technology Center ( Washington & Jefferson College ) =
The Technology Center is an academic building on the campus of Washington & Jefferson College housing the Information Technology Leadership program . It houses over 200 instructional computers for use by the Information Technology Leadership and related classes . A statue of a coal miner , representing the work ethic and spirit of Western Pennsylvania , sits in the green space in front of the building .
The building was known as the Vilar Technology Center , in honor of alum Alberto Vilar , who had pledged $ 18 @.@ 1 million to construct the building . After he reneged on that pledge in 2003 , the building was renamed the Technology Center and plans for it were scaled back . It is the sister building to The Burnett Center , sharing the same architect and general contractor .
= = Facilities = =
The Technology Center is a four floor Gothic granite building with 74 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 900 m2 ) of floor space , including a " Global Learning Unit , " classrooms , seminar rooms , and faculty and administrative offices . " The building had over 200 instructional computers for use by the Information Technology Leadership and related classes The ground floor has an " Open Lab " of 39 computers for use by the campus community .
In 2007 , a statue of a coal miner sculpted by local artist Alan Cottrill was erected outside the Technology Center . It is intended to represent the work ethic and spirit of Western Pennsylvania , as well as the dream that an education can allow people a chance to escape the coal mines .
= = Information Technology Leadership = =
The building was designed for , and is primarily used by , the Information Technology Leadership program . This academic discipline studies the traditional Information Technology field as a liberal art , where the core principles and interdisciplinary connections of the field are examined . Students in this program take a standard curriculum , augmented with focused study in one of 4 possible fields : computer science , data discovery , information systems , and new media technologies .
In 2002 , Pennsylvania Congressman and former student John Murtha , who was a long @-@ time chair of the House Appropriations Defense Subcommittee , procured a $ 2 @.@ 7 million defense appropriation for the Information Technology Leadership program to develop a remote educational program to would train members of the National Guard in technology skills , ranging from basic computer literacy to advanced applications .
= = Funding and name change = =
In 1999 , the college announced that it would build a new building , to be called the Vilar Technology Center , named after billionaire alum and well @-@ known opera philanthropist Alberto Vilar , who had pledged $ 15 million to the project , a pledge that would have been the largest in the college 's history . His pledges for the building eventually reached $ 18 @.@ 1 million . Amid Vilar 's falling fortunes during the stock market decreases in 2001 and 2002 , Vilar had reneged on a pledges to a number of organizations , including his pledge to the college . By 2003 , plans for the building were scaled back and the building had been opened as the Technology Center , without reference to Vilar . In 2005 , Vilar was charged with fraud and theft of money from his financial company . In a statement in 2005 , the college declined to release how much of Vilar 's pledge had been fulfilled .
Other , more successful , fundraising vehicles for the construction cost include donations through the " Revolutionary ! The Campaign for Washington & Jefferson College " fundraising campaign . Several charitable foundations donated money to the campaign , including the Eden Hall Foundation and the Hillman Foundation . Construction costs for the building were reportedly $ 29 @.@ 6 million . The college was able to issue a municipal bond through the Allegheny County Higher Education Building Authority to finance a portion of the building 's construction .
= = Planning , design , and construction = =
The plans for the four @-@ story Gothic granite building took place during the tenure of President Brian C. Mitchell . Like its sister building , The Burnett Center , the architectural plans for the Technology Center were designed by MacLachlan Cornelius & Filoni and the general contracting services were performed by The Landau Building Company .
In 2003 , the building was awarded the IMI Golen Award and was a finalist for the Master Builders ’ Association 's Excellence in Craftsmanship Award . Construction on the building was completed in fall 2003 .
= The Well of Loneliness =
The Well of Loneliness is a 1928 lesbian novel by the British author Radclyffe Hall . It follows the life of Stephen Gordon , an Englishwoman from an upper @-@ class family whose " sexual inversion " ( homosexuality ) is apparent from an early age . She finds love with Mary Llewellyn , whom she meets while serving as an ambulance driver in World War I , but their happiness together is marred by social isolation and rejection , which Hall depicts as typically suffered by " inverts , " with predictably debilitating effects . The novel portrays inversion as a natural , God @-@ given state and makes an explicit plea : " Give us also the right to our existence " .
The novel became the target of a campaign by James Douglas , editor of the Sunday Express newspaper , who wrote , " I would rather give a healthy boy or a healthy girl a phial of prussic acid than this novel . " Although its only sexual reference consists of the words " and that night , they were not divided " , a British court judged it obscene because it defended " unnatural practices between women " . In the United States the book survived legal challenges in New York state and in Customs Court .
Publicity over The Well 's legal battles increased the visibility of lesbians in British and American culture . For decades it was the best @-@ known lesbian novel in English , and often the first source of information about lesbianism that young people could find . Some readers have valued it , while others have criticized it for Stephen 's expressions of self @-@ hatred and seen it as inspiring shame . Its role in promoting images of lesbians as " mannish " or cross @-@ dressed women has also been controversial .
Although few critics rate The Well highly as a work of literature , its treatment of sexuality and gender continues to inspire study and debate .
= = Background = =
In 1926 , Radclyffe Hall was at the height of her career . Her novel Adam 's Breed , about the spiritual awakening of an Italian headwaiter , had become a bestseller ; it would soon win the Prix Femina and the James Tait Black Prize . She had long thought of writing a novel about sexual inversion ; now , she believed , her literary reputation would allow such a work to be given a hearing . Since she knew she was risking scandal and " the shipwreck of her whole career " , she sought and received the blessing of her partner , Una Troubridge , before she began work . Her goals were social and political ; she wanted to end public silence about homosexuality and bring about " a more tolerant understanding " – as well as to " spur all classes of inverts to make good through hard work ... and sober and useful living " .
In April 1928 she told her editor that her new book would require complete commitment from its publisher and that she would not allow even one word to be altered . " I have put my pen at the service of some of the most persecuted and misunderstood people in the world .... So far as I know nothing of the kind has ever been attempted before in fiction . "
= = Plot summary = =
The book 's protagonist , Stephen Gordon , is born in the late Victorian era to upper @-@ class parents in Worcestershire who are expecting a boy and who christen her with the boy 's name they had already chosen . Even at birth she is physically unusual , a " narrow @-@ hipped , wide @-@ shouldered little tadpole of a baby " . As a girl she hates dresses , wants to cut her hair short , and longs to be a boy . At seven , she develops a crush on a housemaid named Collins , and is devastated when she sees Collins kissing a footman .
Stephen 's father , Sir Phillip , dotes on her ; he seeks to understand her through the writings of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs , the first modern writer to propose a theory of homosexuality , but does not share his findings with Stephen . Her mother , Lady Anna , is distant , seeing Stephen as a " blemished , unworthy , maimed reproduction " of Sir Phillip . At eighteen , Stephen forms a close friendship with a Canadian man , Martin Hallam , but is horrified when he declares his love for her . The following winter , Sir Phillip is crushed by a falling tree ; at the last moment he tries to explain to Lady Anna that Stephen is an invert , but dies without managing to do so .
Stephen begins to dress in masculine clothes made by a tailor rather than a dressmaker . At twenty @-@ one she falls in love with Angela Crossby , the American wife of a new neighbor . Angela uses Stephen as an " anodyne against boredom " , allowing her " a few rather schoolgirlish kisses " . Then Stephen discovers that Angela is having an affair with a man . Fearing exposure , Angela shows a letter from Stephen to her husband , who sends a copy to Stephen 's mother . Lady Anna denounces Stephen for " presum [ ing ] to use the word love in connection with ... these unnatural cravings of your unbalanced mind and undisciplined body . " Stephen replies , " As my father loved you , I loved ... It was good , good , good – I 'd have laid down my life a thousand times over for Angela Crossby . " After the argument , Stephen goes to her father 's study and for the first time opens his locked bookcase . She finds a book by Krafft @-@ Ebing – assumed by critics to be Psychopathia Sexualis , a text about homosexuality and paraphilias – and , reading it , learns that she is an invert .
Stephen moves to London and writes a well @-@ received first novel . Her second novel is less successful , and her friend the playwright Jonathan Brockett , himself an invert , urges her to travel to Paris to improve her writing through a fuller experience of life . There she makes her first , brief contact with urban invert culture , meeting the lesbian salon hostess Valérie Seymour . During World War I she joins an ambulance unit , eventually serving at the front and earning the Croix de Guerre . She falls in love with a younger fellow driver , Mary Llewellyn , who comes to live with her after the war ends . They are happy at first , but Mary becomes lonely when Stephen returns to writing . Rejected by polite society , Mary throws herself into Parisian nightlife . Stephen believes Mary is becoming hardened and embittered and feels powerless to provide her with " a more normal and complete existence " .
Martin Hallam , now living in Paris , rekindles his old friendship with Stephen . In time , he falls in love with Mary . Persuaded that she cannot give Mary happiness , Stephen pretends to have an affair with Valérie Seymour to drive her into Martin 's arms . The novel ends with Stephen 's plea to God : " Give us also the right to our existence ! "
= = Autobiographical and other sources = =
Although some writers in the 1970s and 1980s treated The Well of Loneliness as a thinly veiled autobiography , Hall 's childhood bore little resemblance to Stephen 's . Angela Crossby may be a composite of various women with whom Hall had affairs in her youth , but Mary , whose lack of outside interests leaves her idle when Stephen is working , does not resemble Hall 's partner Una Troubridge , an accomplished sculptor who translated Colette 's novels into English . Hall said she drew on herself only for the " fundamental emotions that are characteristic of the inverted " .
= = = World War I = = =
Although Hall 's Author 's Note disclaims any real @-@ world basis for the ambulance unit that Stephen joins , she drew heavily on the wartime experiences of her friend Toupie Lowther , co @-@ commander of the only women 's unit to serve on the front in France . Lowther , like Stephen , came from an aristocratic family , adopted a masculine style of dress , and was an accomplished fencer , tennis player , motorist and jujitsu enthusiast . In later years she said the character of Stephen was based on her , which may have been partly true .
In The Well of Loneliness , war work provides a publicly acceptable role for inverted women . The narrative voice asks that their contributions not be forgotten and predicts that they will not go back into hiding : " a battalion was formed in those terrible years that would never again be completely disbanded " . This military metaphor continues later in the novel when inverts in postwar Paris are repeatedly referred to as a " miserable army " . Hall invokes the image of the shell @-@ shocked soldier to depict inverts as psychologically damaged by their outcast status : " for bombs do not trouble the nerves of the invert , but rather that terrible silent bombardment from the batteries of God 's good people " .
= = = Paris lesbian and gay subculture = = =
In Hall 's time , Paris was known for having a relatively large and visible gay and lesbian community – in part because France , unlike England , had no laws against male homosexuality . Marcel Proust 's ( d . 1922 ) novels continued in their influence upon 1920s Parisian society depicting lesbian and gay subculture . When Stephen first travels to Paris , at the urging of her friend Jonathan Brockett – who may be based on Noël Coward – she has not yet spoken about her inversion to anyone . Brockett , acting as tour guide , hints at a secret history of inversion in the city by referring to Marie Antoinette 's rumored relationship with the Princesse de Lamballe .
Brockett next introduces Stephen to Valérie Seymour , who – like her prototype , Natalie Clifford Barney – is the hostess of a literary salon , many of whose guests are lesbians and gay men . Immediately after this meeting Stephen announces she has decided to settle in Paris at 35 Rue Jacob ( purchased at Seymour 's recommendation ) , with its temple in a corner of an overgrown garden . Barney lived and held her salon at 20 Rue Jacob . Stephen is wary of Valérie , however , and does not visit her salon until after the war , when Brockett persuades her that Mary is becoming too isolated . She finds Valérie to be an " indestructible creature " capable of bestowing a sense of self @-@ respect on others , at least temporarily : " everyone felt very normal and brave when they gathered together at Valérie Seymour 's " . With Stephen 's misgivings " drugged " , she and Mary are drawn further into the " desolate country " of Paris gay life . At Alec 's Bar – the worst in a series of depressing nightspots – they encounter " the battered remnants of men who ... despised of the world , must despise themselves beyond all hope , it seemed , of salvation " .
Many of those familiar with the subculture she described , including her own friends , disagreed with her portrayal of it ; Romaine Brooks called her " a digger @-@ up of worms with the pretension of a distinguished archaeologist " . Hall 's correspondence shows that the negative view of bars like Alec 's that she expressed in The Well was sincerely meant , but she also knew that such bars did not represent the only homosexual communities in Paris . It is a commonplace of criticism that her own experience of lesbian life was not as miserable as Stephen 's . By focusing on misery and describing its cause as " ceaseless persecution " by " the so @-@ called just and righteous " , she intensified the urgency of her plea for change .
= = Religious , philosophical and scientific content = =
= = = Sexology = = =
Hall wrote The Well of Loneliness in part to popularize the ideas of sexologists such as Richard von Krafft @-@ Ebing and Havelock Ellis , who regarded homosexuality as an inborn and inalterable trait : congenital sexual inversion . In Krafft @-@ Ebing 's Psychopathia Sexualis ( 1886 ) , the first book Stephen finds in her father 's study , inversion is described as a degenerative disorder common in families with histories of mental illness . Exposure to these ideas leads Stephen to describe herself and other inverts as " hideously maimed and ugly " . However , later texts such as Sexual Inversion ( 1896 ) by Havelock Ellis – who contributed a foreword to The Well – described inversion simply as a difference , not as a defect . By 1901 Krafft @-@ Ebing had adopted a similar view . Hall championed their ideas over those of the psychoanalysts , who saw homosexuality as a form of arrested psychological development , and some of whom believed it could be changed .
The term sexual inversion implied gender role reversal . Female inverts were , to a greater or lesser degree , inclined to traditionally male pursuits and dress ; according to Krafft @-@ Ebing , they had a " masculine soul " . Krafft @-@ Ebing believed that the most extreme inverts also exhibited reversal of secondary sex characteristics ; Ellis 's research had not demonstrated any such physical differences , but he devoted a great deal of study to the search for them . The idea appears in The Well in Stephen 's unusual proportions at birth and in the scene set at Valerie Seymour 's salon , where " the timbre of a voice , the build of an ankle , the texture of a hand " reveals the inversion of the guests .
= = = Christianity and spiritualism = = =
Hall , who had converted to the Roman Catholic Church in 1912 , was devoutly religious . She was also a believer in communication with the dead who had once hoped to become a medium – a fact that brought her into conflict with the church , which condemned spiritualism . Both these beliefs made their way into The Well of Loneliness .
Stephen , born on Christmas Eve and named for the first martyr of Christianity , dreams as a child that " in some queer way she [ is ] Jesus " . When she discovers that Collins , object of her childhood crush , has housemaid 's knee , she prays that the affliction be transferred to her : " I would like to wash Collins in my blood , Lord Jesus – I would like very much to be a Saviour to Collins – I love her , and I want to be hurt like You were " . This childish desire for martyrdom prefigures Stephen 's ultimate self @-@ sacrifice for Mary 's sake . After she tricks Mary into leaving her – carrying out a plan that leads Valérie to exclaim " you were made for a martyr ! " – Stephen , left alone in her home , sees the room thronged with inverts , living , dead and unborn . They call on her to intercede with God for them , and finally possess her . It is with their collective voice that she demands of God , " Give us also the right to our existence " .
After Stephen reads Krafft @-@ Ebing in her father 's library , she opens the Bible at random , seeking a sign , and reads Genesis 4 : 15 , " And the Lord set a mark upon Cain ... " Hall uses the mark of Cain , a sign of shame and exile , throughout the novel as a metaphor for the situation of inverts . Her defence of inversion took the form of a religious argument : God had created inverts , so humanity should accept them . The Well 's use of religious imagery outraged the book 's opponents , but Hall 's vision of inversion as a God @-@ given state was an influential contribution to the language of LGBT rights .
= = Publication and contemporary response = =
Three publishers praised The Well but turned it down . Hall 's agent then sent the manuscript to Jonathan Cape , who , though cautious about publishing a controversial book , saw the potential for a commercial success . Cape tested the waters with a small print run of 1500 copies , priced at 15 shillings – about twice the cost of an average novel – to make it less attractive to sensation @-@ seekers . Publication , originally scheduled for autumn 1928 , was moved up when he discovered that another novel with a lesbian theme , Compton Mackenzie 's Extraordinary Women , was to be published in September . Though the two books would prove to have little in common , Hall and Cape saw Extraordinary Women as a competitor and wanted to beat it to market . The Well appeared on July 27 , in a black cover with a discreet plain jacket . Cape sent review copies only to newspapers and magazines he thought would handle the subject matter non @-@ sensationally .
Early reviews were mixed . Some critics found the novel too preachy ; some , including Leonard Woolf , thought it was poorly structured ; some complained of sloppiness in style . Others , however , praised both its sincerity and its artistry , and some expressed sympathy with Hall 's moral argument . In the three weeks after the book appeared in bookstores , no reviewer called for its suppression or suggested that it should not have been published . A review in T.P. ' s & Cassell 's Weekly foresaw no difficulties for The Well : " One cannot say what effect this book will have on the public attitude of silence or derision , but every reader will agree with Mr. Havelock Ellis in the preface , that ' the poignant situations are set forth with a complete absence of offence . ' "
= = = Sunday Express campaign = = =
James Douglas , editor of the Sunday Express newspaper , did not agree . Douglas was a dedicated moralist , an exponent of muscular Christianity , which sought to reinvigorate the church by promoting physical health and manliness . His colorfully worded editorials on subjects such as " the flapper vote " ( that is , the extension of suffrage to women under 30 ) and " modern sex novelists " helped the Express family of papers prosper in the cutthroat circulation wars of the late 1920s . These leader articles shared the pages of the Sunday Express with gossip , murderers ' confessions , and features about the love affairs of great men and women of the past .
Douglas 's campaign against The Well of Loneliness began on Saturday , August 18 , with poster and billboard advertising and a teaser in the Daily Express promising to expose " A Book That Should Be Suppressed " . In his editorial the next day , Douglas wrote that " sexual inversion and perversion " had already become too visible and that the publication of The Well brought home the need for society to " cleans [ e ] itself from the leprosy of these lepers " . For Douglas the sexological view of homosexuality was pseudoscience , incompatible with the Christian doctrine of free will ; instead , he argued , homosexuals were damned by their own choice – which meant that others could be corrupted by " their propaganda " . Above all , children must be protected : " I would rather give a healthy boy or a healthy girl a phial of prussic acid than this novel . Poison kills the body , but moral poison kills the soul . " He called on the publishers to withdraw the book and the Home Secretary to take action if they did not .
In what Hall described as an act of " imbecility coupled with momentary panic " , Jonathan Cape sent a copy of The Well to the Home Secretary for his opinion , offering to withdraw the book if it would be in the public interest to do so . The Home Secretary was William Joynson @-@ Hicks , a Conservative known for his crackdowns on alcohol , nightclubs and gambling , as well as for his opposition to a revised version of The Book of Common Prayer . He took only two days to reply that The Well was " gravely detrimental to the public interest " ; if Cape did not withdraw it voluntarily , criminal proceedings would be brought .
Cape announced that he had stopped publication , but he secretly leased the rights to Pegasus Press , an English language publisher in France . His partner Wren Howard took papier @-@ mâché molds of the type to Paris , and by September 28 , Pegasus Press was shipping its edition to the London bookseller Leopold Hill , who acted as distributor . With publicity increasing demand , sales were brisk , but the reappearance of The Well on bookstore shelves soon came to the attention of the Home Office . On October 3 Joynson @-@ Hicks issued a warrant for shipments of the book to be seized .
One consignment of 250 copies was stopped at the port of Dover . Then the Chairman of the Board of Customs balked . He had read The Well and considered it a fine book , not at all obscene ; he wanted no part of suppressing it . On October 19 he released the seized copies for delivery to Leopold Hill 's premises , where the Metropolitan Police were waiting with a search warrant . Hill and Cape were summoned to appear at Bow Street Magistrates ' Court to show cause why the book should not be destroyed .
= = = = Response = = = =
From its beginning , the Sunday Express 's campaign drew the attention of other papers . Some backed Douglas , including the Sunday Chronicle , the People and Truth . The Daily News and Westminster Gazette ran a review that , without commenting on Douglas 's action , said the novel " present [ ed ] as a martyr a woman in the grip of a vice " . However , most of the British press defended The Well . The Nation suggested that the Sunday Express had only started its campaign because it was August , the journalistic silly season when good stories are scarce . Country Life and Lady 's Pictorial both ran positive reviews . Arnold Dawson of the Daily Herald , a Labour newspaper , called Douglas a " stunt journalist " ; he said no one would give the book to a child , no child would want to read it , and any who did would find nothing harmful . Dawson also printed a scathing condemnation of the Home Office by H. G. Wells and George Bernard Shaw and started a counter @-@ campaign that helped Hall obtain statements of support from the National Union of Railwaymen and the South Wales Miners ' Federation .
Leonard Woolf and E. M. Forster drafted a letter of protest against the suppression of The Well , assembling a list of supporters that included Shaw , T. S. Eliot , Arnold Bennett , Vera Brittain and Ethel Smyth . According to Virginia Woolf , the plan broke down when Hall objected to the wording of the letter , insisting it mention her book 's " artistic merit – even genius " . The Well 's sentimental romanticism , traditional form , and lofty style – using words like withal , betoken and hath – did not appeal to Modernist aesthetics ; not all those willing to defend it on grounds of literary freedom were equally willing to praise its artistry . The petition dwindled to a short letter in the Nation and Athenaeum , signed by Forster and Virginia Woolf , that focused on the chilling effects of censorship on writers .
Mary Renault 's The Friendly Young ladies was a response , showing lesbian relationships in a more positive light .
= = = UK trial = = =
The obscenity trial began on 9 November 1928 . Cape 's solicitor Harold Rubinstein sent out 160 letters to potential witnesses . Many were reluctant to appear in court ; according to Virginia Woolf , " they generally put it down to the weak heart of a father , or a cousin who is about to have twins " . About 40 turned up on the day of the trial , including Woolf herself , Forster and such diverse figures as biologist Julian Huxley , Laurence Housman of the British Sexological Society , Robert Cust JP of the London Morality Council , Charles Ricketts of the Royal Academy of Art and Rabbi Joseph Frederick Stern of the East London Synagogue . Norman Haire , who was the star witness after Havelock Ellis bowed out , declared that homosexuality ran in families and a person could no more become it by reading books than if he could become syphilit
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Shoup favored a more frugal approach to the military budget , feeling the military was too susceptible to influence from large corporations arguing for expensive and unnecessary programs . As the Kennedy administration brought more emphasis on conventional warfare , Shoup sought to use increased funds to improve military logistics . He is credited with formulating an entirely new system of financial management , supply , and inventory management . He also created a new Data Processing Division to centralize the data processing functions of several combat service support branches .
= = = Cold War conflicts = = =
Shoup 's outlook on Cold War conflicts was greatly influenced by his upbringing , and he was frequently an opponent of military action against the Soviet Union . He refused to fall into what he referred to as the " hate the Communists movement " , indicating he would fight them if required by circumstances , but avoided undue prejudice . When U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond criticized the military for not training its troops about communism , Shoup regarded the criticism as interference . He appealed to Secretary of the Navy Fred Korth , and the matter was dropped . At the behest of the Kennedy administration , Shoup integrated counterinsurgency warfare into combat doctrine . Though he was not in favor of the idea , he appointed Major General Victor H. Krulak as an adviser on counterinsurgency .
Shoup opposed military action against Cuba , warning against any attempt to intervene militarily against Fidel Castro . He was initially not involved or aware of the plans for the Bay of Pigs invasion . He was asked by the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) to furnish an officer , but became furious when he learned the CIA was requisitioning Marine supplies without his permission . He finally learned the intent of the CIA when the officer , Colonel Jack Hawkins , contacted him on the night of the invasion , pleading with him to appeal to Kennedy for air support . Following the failure of the operation , the Joint Chiefs of Staff were blamed , which Shoup thought was unfair , as they had not been aware of the early planning .
Shoup later warned against an armed response during the Cuban Missile Crisis , noting how difficult it would be to invade the country . Still , he prepared a team of Marines to invade Cuba should it be necessary . He and the other Joint Chiefs unanimously recommended a quick airstrike to knock out the missiles once they were discovered there . Kennedy subsequently sought Shoup 's advice in evaluating the implications of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty . While his position in the Joint Chiefs of Staff was intended to be limited , he had gained Kennedy 's confidence and was often called on for private consultations . Shoup supported the test ban , seeing it as a deterrent to nuclear war .
Shoup was strongly opposed to military intervention in Indochina from the beginning . In 1961 , when the Pathet Lao threatened the American @-@ backed government of Laos , he rejected calls for armed intervention . He deployed Task Unit Shufly to Saigon in 1962 only because he was ordered to , and cautioned against further involvement in South Vietnam , which he toured in October 1962 . He opposed the Strategic Hamlet program , as well as efforts to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . He opposed any plans for combat in Vietnam , and later said " every responsible military man to my knowledge " was against the war as well . Shoup 's staunch opposition to involvement there had a great impact on Kennedy , who , before his assassination on 22 November 1963 , indicated that he wanted to end U.S. involvement in South Vietnam , seeing it as an internal struggle .
While Eisenhower appreciated Shoup 's fiscal experience and apolitical outlook , Shoup was called upon most often by Kennedy . With Kennedy 's relations with the Joint Chiefs of Staff strained , particularly following the Cuban Missile Crisis , he called upon Shoup privately for many consultations . Shoup 's biographer Howard Jablon wrote that Shoup was Kennedy 's favorite general . In turn , Shoup was the most supportive of Kennedy of all of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Kennedy had asked Shoup to remain as Commandant for a second term in 1963 , but Shoup declined in order to allow the advancement of other Marine generals .
= = Later life and opposition to the Vietnam War = =
Retiring from the military in December 1963 , Shoup took a job at a life insurance company , but remained influential in the administration . Johnson considered taking Shoup as an adviser on a February 1964 trip to Vietnam , but did not , either because he never made the invitation or because Shoup declined . Johnson appointed Shoup to the National Advisory Commission on Selective Service in early 1966 . It disbanded on 1 January 1967 after submitting a report .
Shoup was unable to directly influence the Johnson administration , which expanded U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . He became increasingly wary of what he felt was undue influence by the CIA and big businesses on foreign policy . In 1964 during the debate over the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution , Senator Wayne Morse wanted to call Shoup to testify against the measure , but was blocked by Senator J. William Fulbright . On 14 May 1966 , Shoup began publicly attacking the policy in a speech delivered to community college students at Pierce College in Woodland Hills , California , for their World Affairs Day .
I believe that if we had and would keep our dirty , bloody , dollar @-@ soaked fingers out of the business of these nations so full of depressed , exploited people , they will arrive at a solution of their own — and if unfortunately their revolution must be of the violent type because the " haves " refuse to share with the " have @-@ nots " by any peaceful method , at least what they get will be their own , and not the American style , which they don 't want and above all don 't want crammed down their throats by Americans .
The forum was relatively small and initially received little publicity , but in February 1967 Shoup submitted the speech to Senator Rupert Vance Hartke , who entered it into the Congressional Record . The speech grew in popularity , and Shoup did an interview for ABC News where he elaborated that , while he was not a pacifist , he felt the war was " not worth the life or limb of a single American . " He remained firmly opposed to the involvement in Vietnam for the rest of his life .
Although other retired high @-@ ranking officers , including generals James Gavin and Matthew Ridgway , joined Shoup in this , it was Shoup 's pointed criticisms that regularly made the front pages of newspapers , because they went beyond the war to American government , business , and military leadership . He feared the conflict had endangered the nation 's historical identity , and argued increasing the troop levels in Vietnam would only aggravate the strategic problems there . Historian Robert Buzzanco noted that Shoup may have been the most vocal former military member to oppose the war .
Shoup argued that among the Vietnamese forces involved in the civil war there were nationalists opposed to foreign military intervention . He opposed many of the strategies associated with troop escalation , notably the air campaign over North Vietnam , which he saw as an aggressive measure causing civilian casualties that could draw the People 's Republic of China or the Soviet Union into the conflict . He also feared that other American interests , including the economy , were suffering through U.S. involvement in the war , and that the U.S. was losing prestige internationally .
Shoup 's opposition to the war only increased over time ; he initially pushed for a negotiated settlement but later supported a unilateral pullout from the country . As the Vietnamization strategy took effect and the U.S. increased its air operations , he remained opposed to any strategy that risked a nuclear war with China or the Soviet Union . His criticism attracted more press as the war became a stalemate . It also became highly publicized through discourse among the anti @-@ war movement .
In 1968 , in testimony before Congress , Shoup made many of the same points as he had in his 1966 speech , saying he felt opposition to the war had likely increased since then . In April 1969 , along with retired Colonel James Donovan , he broadened his criticism to national security policy . In an article published in Atlantic Monthly , he accused America of becoming militaristic and aggressive , and was a country ready to " execute military contingency plans and to seek military solutions to problems of political disorder and potential Communist threats in areas of our interest . " He said that anticommunism had given way to a new , aggressive defense establishment in the United States .
In a book titled Militarism U.S.A. ( 1970 ) , Shoup and Donovan elaborated their criticisms . Shoup said the country was seeking military solutions to issues that could be resolved politically . He accused military leaders of propagating the war for their own career advancement , and accused the veterans group Veterans of Foreign Wars of propagandizing for the armed forces establishment . Shoup blamed the American education system for what he saw as discouraging independent thought and stressing obedience .
Shoup joined the Business Executives Move for Vietnam Peace . By 1971 , Shoup publicly endorsed the anti @-@ war veteran group Vietnam Veterans Against the War . As Vietnamization had reduced the visibility of the anti @-@ war movement , and Shoup 's criticism was not as prominent in the public arena . Fulbright and other senators urged the White House to listen to his criticisms , but Shoup 's broader critique of American society and militarism was seen as more extreme than other officers who had simply criticized the strategy of the war .
Shoup 's opposition to the war garnered resentment from many of the other officers in the Marine Corps , and was met with criticism that he was becoming mentally unfit or was treasonous in his actions . He was sharply criticized by journalist and former Marine Robert Heinl in several articles of the Detroit News where Heinl said Shoup was " going sour . " General Rathvon M.C. Thompkins , one of Shoup 's close friends , stopped speaking to him for several years . By December 1967 , he had lost favor with the Johnson administration , his activities were monitored by the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and his patriotism was called into question in the media .
After 1971 , Shoup 's speaking and writing diminished , and he faded from the public eye after the U.S. military withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973 . After the war , he stayed out of the public spotlight . He suffered from illness late in life , and he died on 13 January 1983 in Alexandria , Virginia . He was buried in section 7 @-@ A of Arlington National Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
One of General Shoup 's service dress uniforms is on display at the armory of the Artillery Company of Newport .
= = Honors and decorations = =
The Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer USS Shoup ( DDG @-@ 86 ) was named for Shoup in 1999 . Additionally , he received the following decorations :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Rank and organization : Colonel , U.S. Marine Corps , commanding officer of all Marine Corps troops on Betio Island , Tarawa Atoll , and Gilbert Islands , from 20 to November 22 , 1943 .
The President of the United States takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR to
COLONEL DAVID M. SHOUP
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
for service as set forth in the following CITATION :
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty as commanding officer of all Marine Corps troops in action against enemy Japanese forces on Betio Island , Tarawa Atoll , Gilbert Islands , from 20 to November 22 , 1943 . Although severely shocked by an exploding enemy shell soon after landing at the pier and suffering from a serious , painful leg wound which had become infected , Col. Shoup fearlessly exposed himself to the terrific and relentless artillery , machine gun , and rifle fire from hostile shore emplacements . Rallying his hesitant troops by his own inspiring heroism , he gallantly led them across the fringing reefs to charge the heavily fortified island and reinforce our hard @-@ pressed , thinly held lines . Upon arrival on shore , he assumed command of all landed troops and , working without rest under constant , withering enemy fire during the next 2 days , conducted smashing attacks against unbelievably strong and fanatically defended Japanese positions despite innumerable obstacles and heavy casualties . By his brilliant leadership , daring tactics , and selfless devotion to duty , Col. Shoup was largely responsible for the final decisive defeat of the enemy , and his indomitable fighting spirit reflects great credit upon the U.S. Naval Service .
= PRR 4859 =
PRR 4859 is a GG1 @-@ class electric locomotive located in the Harrisburg Transportation Center in Harrisburg in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . It was operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad and its successors , Penn Central and Conrail . 4859 pulled the first electrically powered train from Philadelphia to Harrisburg on January 15 , 1938 . It was used in various freight and passenger service until November 22 , 1979 , when it pulled the last GG1 @-@ powered freight train on November 22 , 1979 . Originally located in Strasburg , it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 and was moved to its current location in 1986 . It was designated the state electric locomotive of Pennsylvania in 1987 by the Pennsylvania General Assembly and was re @-@ listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004 .
= = Background = =
The GG1 was developed in 1930s by General Electric as the replacement for the Pennsylvania Railroad 's then standard electric locomotive , the P5a , and was based largely on the New Haven EP3 . The GG1 was capable of a top speed of 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , powered by its twelve 385 horsepower ( 287 kW ) traction motors . The prototype GG1 , PRR 4800 , was tested against Westinghouse 's submission , the R1 . The Pennsylvania selected the GG1 over the R1 , as the R1 was not articulated and the GG1 's traction motors were similar to ones already in use . An order for 57 GG1s was placed in November 1934 and the first locomotives were delivered in April 1935 .
Raymond Loewy was hired by the Pennsylvania to " enhance the GG1 's aesthetics . " Loewy had the production locomotives ' bodies be welded together , instead of riveted the way 4800 was , to give the GG1 a more streamlined appearance . Loewy also formulated the Brunswick green paint scheme and the gold pinstripes , nicknamed " cat 's whiskers " , which was eventually applied by the Pennsylvania to all of its locomotives for the next 20 years .
= = History = =
4859 was built in December 1937 at the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Altoona Works in Altoona , Pennsylvania . The Philadelphia – Harrisburg line was opened on January 15 , 1938 , with 4859 pulling the inaugural train , Train # 25 The Metropolitan . Its departure from Philadelphia was accompanied by a cacophony of various train whistles and fire sirens leading some residents , who were unaware of the event , to believe that Nazi Germany was invading .
4859 was regeared to have a top speed of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) when it was shifted to freight duty in 1964 . Although used primarily for freight , 4859 coninuned to pull " clockers " , or short @-@ haul passenger trains , from New York to Philadelphia and commuter trains on the New York and Long Branch Railroad . 4859 , accompanied by PRR 4887 , pulled the last freight train to be powered by a GG1 from the Enola Yard in Enola , Pennsylvania to Edgemoor , Delaware , before being retired by Conrail on November 29 , 1979 .
= = = Preservation = = =
After its retirement , 4859 was purchased in for $ 13 @,@ 000 by the Harrisburg chapter of the National Railroad Historical Society and donated to the Harrisburg Redevelopment Authority . It was sent to the Pennsylvania Railroad Museum in Strasburg in the early 1980s , where restoration of 4859 was carried by the workshops of the nearby Strasburg Rail Road . The body and chassis were sandblasted , primed and repainted back to its original 1938 appearance . The main transformer was removed and drained of the hazardous polychlorinated biphenyl ( PCBs ) used as coolant .
4859 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 19 , 1982 , while still in Strasburg . The deed to 4859 was transferred from Redevelopment Authority to the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on November 13 , 1986 . Two days later , the engine was moved into the Transportation Center and rededicated . The Pennsylvania General Assembly designated 4859 the official state electric locomotive on December 18 , 1987 , while also designating two K4s locomotives as the state steam locomotives in the same bill . 4859 was listed on National Register of Historic Places for a second time on May 5 , 2004 . " Soft " materials , like insulation , were removed from the cab in 2005 on orders from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to remove residual contamination from the PCBs . In 2010 , 4859 received some cosmetic restoration of its truck assemblies which were re @-@ painted black to eliminate a noticeable coating of rust . On April 5 , 2014 , the locomotive and its caboose were temporarily moved west of the Transportation Center , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) , to a siding , and covered with tarpaulins to allow Amtrak to perform renovation work on the station 's catenary , signals , switches and tracks . By October 17 , 2015 , the renovations were complete enough to allow 4859 to return to the station , though the project overall remains in progress .
= Obsidian Entertainment =
Obsidian Entertainment is an American video game developer whose corporate headquarters is located in Irvine , California . It was founded in 2003 by ex @-@ Black Isle employees Feargus Urquhart , Chris Avellone , Chris Parker , Darren Monahan , and Chris Jones after the closure of Black Isle Studios .
Although they have created original intellectual property , many of their games are sequels based on licensed properties . Early projects include Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic II : The Sith Lords and Neverwinter Nights 2 , both sequels to BioWare @-@ developed games . The team then developed their first original game , Alpha Protocol , in 2010 . It was met with generally mixed reviews . Other notable works from Obsidian include Fallout : New Vegas , Dungeon Siege III , and South Park : The Stick of Truth , all also licensed properties .
Throughout the studio 's history , many projects — including Futureblight , Dwarves , Aliens : Crucible , and a project codenamed North Carolina — were cancelled . Due to having so many projects cancelled , the company entered a severe financial crisis in 2012 . As a result , Obsidian decided to crowdfund their next game , Pillars of Eternity , a role @-@ playing game played from an isometric perspective , which ultimately became a success and saved the studio from closure . The team 's focus then changed from developing licensed titles to creating original games based on the studio 's own intellectual property . Obsidian has developed a close relationship with another studio that was founded by ex @-@ Interplay Entertainment employees , inXile Entertainment . The company is currently working on Tyranny , a role @-@ playing game set in a world where the war between good and evil has been fought with evil coming out on top , and Armored Warfare , a massively multiplayer online game with a focus on controlling tanks .
= = History = =
= = = 2003 : Founding = = =
Obsidian Entertainment was founded by Feargus Urquhart , Chris Avellone , Chris Parker , Darren Monahan and Chris Jones . Prior to the establishment of Obsidian , they worked for Interplay Entertainment 's subsidiary Black Isle Studios . At Black Isle they created several role @-@ playing games including Icewind Dale , Planescape : Torment , and Fallout 2 , and collaborated with BioWare on Neverwinter Nights , Baldur 's Gate , and Baldur 's Gate II . Most of these games were critically and commercially successful , but Interplay 's financial situation was poor and the studio lost its license to produce Dungeons & Dragons @-@ based games . This led to the cancellation of Baldur 's Gate III : The Black Hound . Urquhart and most of the staff members were dissatisfied and frustrated with the cancellation , as the game had already been under development for a year and a half . Urquhart became convinced that staying in Black Isle was no longer a " viable option " for the team , and decided to leave the company . He was in his early thirties at the time , and thought that if he did not start a new company soon , he may become too old to do so . Urquhart officially left Interplay in 2003 with Avellone , Parker , Monahan , and Jones , and founded Obsidian Entertainment with them the same year .
At the time of the company 's establishment there were seven employees , including the company 's five founders . Parker , Urquhart , and Monahan invested $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 125 @,@ 000 into their newly founded company . When choosing the name of the company , they had prepared a short list of names for them to choose . The list included " Scorched Earth " and " Three Clown Software " . The team eventually chose " Obsidian Entertainment " , which they thought was strong , memorable , and felt similar to name of their old studio , Black Isle .
Upon its establishment , the studio needed more capital in order to keep its operation running , and thus needed to gain support from publishers . They approached Electronic Arts , but it did not result in a project . The studio also contacted Ubisoft looking to make a Might & Magic game , but Ubisoft instead ended up contracting with Arkane Studios on that project , which became Dark Messiah of Might & Magic . Obsidian pitched a game to Take @-@ Two Interactive called Futureblight , which was described as a Fallout @-@ style game powered by the Neverwinter Nights engine . Similar to the EA and Ubisoft projects , Futureblight was never made .
= = = Late 2003 – 08 : The Sith Lords and Neverwinter Nights 2 = = =
Towards the end of 2003 the team was contacted by LucasArts president Simon Jeffrey , who requested that Obsidian make an action role @-@ playing game set in the Star Wars universe . The team suggested a game concept which featured first @-@ person lightsaber melee combat and that included established characters like R2 @-@ D2 . Their idea was rejected , and Jeffrey instead asked Obsidian to create a follow @-@ up to the BioWare @-@ developed Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , as the team at Obsidian was familiar with the technology that the original game used . The partnership between the two companies finalized in late 2003 , and development of the game , which became Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II : The Sith Lords , began in October 2003 . Obsidian was given 15 months to develop The Sith Lords . Originally set for a holiday 2004 release , LucasArts gave the studio an extension into 2005 , before shifting the release date back to holiday 2004 following the Electronic Entertainment Expo . While LucasArts did dispatch members of its own staff to help get the game out on time , a number of features wound up being cut due to time constraints . Due to the moved deadline , Obsidian also did not have enough time to polish the game , and The Sith Lords suffered from crashes and other technical issues . Despite its issues , The Sith Lords was released to positive critical reception . The cut features were eventually restored by modders , who began their effort in 2009 and finished in 2012 .
From the beginning , the studio 's goal was to be able develop multiple projects simultaneously , and the decision led the company to expand very quickly . Soon after the development of The Sith Lords began the team expanded to 20 employees . As of July 2004 it had expanded to 27 , with 18 from Black Isle , and others from Blizzard Entertainment , Electronic Arts , Taldren , Totally Games , Treyarch , and Troika .
Prior to the launch of The Sith Lords , Obsidian was approached by Atari . Atari acquired the license to produce Dungeons & Dragons @-@ based games , and wanted Obsidian to create a sequel to Neverwinter Nights , which became Neverwinter Nights 2 . Development of the game began in July 2005 with team of ten people . The development of the game was headed by Monahan and Avellone . Obsidian became the game 's lead developer , while Neverwinter Nights creator BioWare provided technical assistance . While they were developing the game , the team 's size grew to about 50 people . The team were given sufficient time for the game 's development , and Atari was willing to delay the project 's targeted release window from Christmas 2005 to October 31 , 2006 . Neverwinter Nights 2 received a generally positive critical reception . Two expansions , Mask of the Betrayer and Storm of Zehir , were released in 2007 and 2008 .
During Neverwinter Nights 2 's development , the team approached other publishers to work on additional projects . Disney Interactive Studios commissioned Obsidian to develop a prequel to Snow White and the Seven Dwarves called Dwarves , which was set to be a third @-@ person action game for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The team developed a prototype and was a year into development when the CEO of Disney was replaced . The change of CEO led Disney to head in a completely different direction , which made the Snow White franchise " untouchable " and resulted in the cancellation of the project . According to Urquhart , the team loved the game and its cancellation was a " heartbreaking " experience for them .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Alpha Protocol , Fallout : New Vegas , and Dungeon Siege III = = =
With the development of Neverwinter Nights II coming to an end , Obsidian was contacted by three different publishers . Electronic Arts wanted Obsidian to develop a role @-@ playing game to compete with The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , and another publisher was also interested in having Obsidian develop a fantasy RPG . The third publisher was Sega , who wanted the studio to develop an action role @-@ playing game set within the Alien franchise . The game , titled Aliens : Crucible , was to feature base @-@ building , dialogue choices , and character customization . In February 2009 Obsidian sent a prototype to Sega . Sega decided to cancel the game three weeks later without inspecting the demo . The cancellation was officially confirmed in June of that year . At around the same time , Atari again approached Obsidian , this time to revive Baldur 's Gate III . Obsidian requested a large budget , which Atari could not afford , and the deal between the two companies fell apart when Atari Europe was sold to Namco Bandai Games .
Despite the cancellation of Aliens : Crucible , Sega was still interested in working with Obsidian to develop another project . Instead of developing a sequel , they were asked to develop a role @-@ playing game based on a new intellectual property . The team came up with an idea of a " spy RPG " . Sega approved the idea and decided to help with the game 's funding and serve as its publisher . The game would go on to become Alpha Protocol . The game 's development was troubled ; the team did not have a precise vision for Alpha Protocol and struggled to settle on what gameplay elements to include and what the target audience should be . As a result , it suffered from an identity crisis and featured elements from multiple genres . Sega , for its part , was also unable to make decisions quickly and the publisher cut features from the game after their completion . This resulted in numerous delays and excessively long production time ; Alpha Protocol took four years to develop . It was finally released in June 2010 .
Their first original game , Alpha Protocol received mostly mixed reviews from critics . It was also a commercial failure for Sega , which led to their decision to put any plans for a sequel on hold . After the game 's launch , Urquhart admitted that there was still room for improvements . Even though the game was a commercial failure , it was well received by the community , which has often demanded that Obsidian make a sequel . Urquhart responded by saying that the team hoped that they can develop Alpha Protocol 2 , and " do better " with it . Avellone later added that they were unable to develop a sequel because the rights to the game were owned by Sega and crowdfunding would not be a suitable option .
On February 11 , 2010 , Red Eagle Games and Obsidian announced that they would co @-@ develop one or more games based on The Wheel of Time fantasy novel series by Robert Jordan . On April 25 , 2014 , however , Urquhart told Computer & Video Games that the agreement between the companies had dissolved after Red Eagle had failed to secure the necessary funding .
At the same time that Alpha Protocol was in development , Obsidian was also working on Fallout : New Vegas . Prior to working on New Vegas , they were contacted by Bethesda Softworks about developing a Star Trek game , but the idea never gained traction . After Bethesda released Fallout 3 and began to shift its own focus back towards its Elder Scrolls series , it approached Obsidian with the idea of having the later studio develop another game in the Fallout series , as several of Obsidian 's founders had worked on the franchise while at Black Isle . In developing New Vegas , the Obsidian looked at fan requests , which led to New Vegas giving a more prominent role to the in @-@ game factions . When the concept was pitched to Bethesda , it was immediately approved . The development of New Vegas began soon after the cancellation of Aliens : Crucible , and it was released in October 2010 . It received generally positive reviews , with some critics saying that the game 's quality exceeded that of the critically acclaimed Fallout 3 .
As was the case with The Sith Lords , the development team did not thoroughly assess New Vegas for bugs and glitches before it was released . Some players were unable to play the game due to constant crashes . These problems were later patched and fixed . Obsidian considered New Vegas to be a learning experience ; it was the studio 's first AAA game , and it taught the studio how to manage quality assurance . Between The Sith Lords and New Vegas , Obsidian had built a reputation for creating games with technical problems . The team was determined to change this with future titles , and made improvements to their bug @-@ tracking system , These improvements were applied to the studio 's next project , Dungeon Siege III , a sequel to the Gas Powered Games @-@ developed Dungeon Siege , published by Square Enix . The game received mixed reviews upon release in 2011 , but it enjoyed a stable launch . Dungeon Siege III was the first game to use Obsidian 's own in @-@ house Onyx engine .
In 2011 , the company began working on a third @-@ person open world game code named " North Carolina " . It was rumored that the game was being produced for the then @-@ unannounced successor to the Xbox 360 . The title was ultimately cancelled in 2012 by its publisher , Microsoft Studios , causing Obsidian to lay off between 20 and 30 people .
= = = 2012 – 15 : The Stick of Truth , financial troubles , and Pillars of Eternity = = =
In October 2009 , Obsidian was contacted by South Park Digital Studios to develop a game set within the South Park universe . The team originally thought the phone call from South Park Digital Studios was a prank carried out by another company located in the same building . Obsidian met with South Park 's creators , Matt Stone and Trey Parker , with the two parties agreeing that it was critical that the game share the television show 's construction paper @-@ like visual aesthetic . Funding was originally provided by Viacom , the parent company of the television channel that South Park is broadcast on . In 2011 , Viacom decided to let the video game publisher THQ take over as the game 's publisher . Shortly after THQ took over , they entered into financial crisis , eventually going bankrupt in late 2011 . With THQ unable to continue its publishing and funding roles , an auction was held for other publishers to acquire their titles . Obsidian was worried about that if the project were cancelled , they too would face severe financial difficulties . Eventually Ubisoft acquired the game , which was released as South Park : The Stick of Truth in March 2014 .
Obsidian has also maintained a friendly relationship with inXile Entertainment . Like Obsidian , inXile was founded by former employees of Interplay Entertainment . The two companies signed an agreement to share their technology with each other . Obsidian assisted in the development of inXile 's Wasteland 2 after its Kickstarter campaign raised $ 2 @.@ 1 million , Wasteland 2 was released in late 2014 and received generally positive reviews upon release .
While the studio managed to complete South Park : The Stick of Truth , the company faced a precarious financial position . The studio received only a small " kill fee " for their work on North Carolina . They also lost their bonus for Fallout : New Vegas , as the game failed to meet Bethesda 's standard — an aggregate review score of 85 at Metacritic — by 1 point . The team lacked sufficient resources to keep the company 's operation running . According to Adam Brennecke , an executive producer at Obsidian , if they failed to pitch a project to a publisher in time they would have exhausted their money and gone bankrupt . At that time , the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter was growing popular and Josh Sawyer , creative director of New Vegas , proposed that the studio put their cancelled game on Kickstarter and attempt to secure funding for it there . Some team members were skeptical about the idea and feared that they may not even be able to raise $ 100 @,@ 000 through the platform . The question of whether to pursue a Kickstarter campaign led to numerous debates between key members of the company . The debates ended when Double Fine Adventure 's campaign launched and saw huge success . Secure in the belief that Kickstarter was a viable funding option , the team decided to use it to fund the development a game they wanted to make for a very long time : a spiritual successor to Baldur 's Gate . The Kickstarter campaign for Pillars of Eternity was launched in September 2012 under the working name " Project Eternity " , with Obsidian requesting $ 1 @.@ 1 million . The studio approached Kickstarter with the mindset that if their campaign was successful the game could eventually be turned into a franchise , while if they were unsuccessful , they would attempt to refine their ideas and try again with another campaign . Obsidian 's campaign was hugely successful , raising $ 4 million and breaking the record set by Double Fine Adventure . Pillars of Eternity was released in March 2015 to a positive critical reception . Paradox Interactive served as the game 's publisher . Obsidian planned an expansion pack , called The White March . It was divided into two different parts , one of which was released on August 25 , 2015 , and the other on February 16 , 2016 . A board game for Pillars of Eternity titled Pillars of Eternity : Lords of the Eastern Reach was announced on May 19 , 2015 . It was developed by Zero Radius Games with input provided by Obsidian . Like the main game , it was funded through a Kickstarter campaign , and it reached its funding goal within a day .
In June 2015 , studio co @-@ founder Chris Avellone announced his departure from Obsidian . In August 2015 , Obsidian partnered with inXile and Double Fine to launch a new funding website named Fig , with Urquhart serving as a member of the company 's advising board . The new platform 's aim is to offer " equity crowdfunding " , and it will only focus exclusively on video games @-@ related projects . Obsidian is set to use Fig as its future crowdfunding platform .
= = = 2016 : Tyranny , Armored Warfare , and Pathfinder = = =
Obsidian Entertainment is currently working on three projects ; the westernization of Skyforge , and the free @-@ to @-@ play multiplayer military shooter Armored Warfare . On August 13 , 2014 , Obsidian announced that they had licensed the Pathfinder Roleplaying Game to make electronic games , starting with a tablet adaptation of the Pathfinder Adventure Card Game , which is scheduled to be released on March 29 , 2016 for iOS and Android , with releases for other platforms to be announced . Paizo CEO Lisa Stevens also confirmed plans for an Obsidian @-@ developed computer role @-@ playing game . Urquhart had stated a desire to collaborate with BioWare again on a new Star Wars game . After the release of New Vegas , there is also a desire to work on another Fallout game .
On March 15 , 2016 , Obsidian announced their new project called Tyranny , an isometric RPG set in a world where evil has already won . The game was announced for release in 2016 on Microsoft Windows , Mac and Linux , and will be published by Paradox Interactive . In April 2016 , Leonard Boyarsky joined Obsidian , becoming the second Troika Games co @-@ founder to work for the company .
= = Games = =
= = Philosophy = =
Obsidian built its reputation making sequels in well @-@ established franchises including Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , Neverwinter Nights , Fallout , and Dungeon Siege . Urquhart has stated that the company is fine with developing sequels , as they are often fun to make since the studio can " get to go play in someone else 's world " and further explore and expand upon the original games ' ideas . The studio also believes that such licensed projects are easier to develop . Obsidian considered the making of these sequels as stepping stones towards eventually making original games based on their own intellectual property . The studio 's focus did later shift towards developing their own games , which allowed Obsidian to maximize their creative freedom and escape the constraints imposed by publishers . The studio has used the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter as an indicator to see whether a game or genre is popular or not .
As an independent company , Obsidian believes that they must act and react quickly to market changes and not stagnate on any certain point . While the core focus of Obsidian was still developing character @-@ driven role @-@ playing games , the team were willing to try out projects that are smaller and are in different genres . The decision to develop Armored Warfare is one result of this strategy .
A dungeon crawler game based on the story of the company 's five founders was made . The game was housed in an arcade cabinet inside Obsidian .
= Mary Herring =
Dame Mary Ranken Herring , DBE , CStJ ( née Lyle ; 31 March 1895 – 26 October 1981 ) was an Australian medical practitioner and community worker .
A graduate of the University of Melbourne , where she studied medicine and excelled at sports , Mary qualified as a general practitioner in 1921 and became a resident surgeon at Royal Melbourne Hospital . Her work was mainly with poor women , many of whom lived in unsanitary conditions and had inadequate diets . The social mores of the time often kept young women ignorant of matters dealing with sex and pregnancy . She recognised that pregnant women in particular needed more information about what was happening to them , and provided information on birth control at a time when many doctors and a large segment of the community were opposed to it . " She broke taboos " , Della Hilton later wrote , and " made forbidden subjects not only matters for discussion , but for action " .
In addition to her medical work , Mary supported women 's sports and was patron of many charities . During World War II she helped form the AIF Women 's Association . She served on its Welfare Subcommittee , looking after the needs of soldiers ' families , and was president of the association from 1943 to 1946 . In recognition of her medical and charitable work , she was made a Commander of the Order of St John in 1953 , and a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1960 " for services to nursing in Victoria " .
= = Early life = =
Mary Ranken Lyle was born in the Melbourne suburb of Carlton on 31 March 1895 , the eldest of four children of Sir Thomas Ranken Lyle , a mathematical physicist , and his wife , Frances Isobel Clare née Millear . She attended Toorak College between 1906 and 1912 , where she excelled both academically and at sport , playing tennis , hockey , netball and cricket , and competing in swimming . She was head girl in 1911 and 1912 .
In 1913 she entered the University of Melbourne as a medical student . She was captain of the women 's tennis and hockey teams , obtaining University Sporting Blue in both sports . In 1918 she had met Edmund ( Ned ) Herring , then a young Australian captain in the British Army on leave from the Macedonian front of the Great War .
During her training , she worked with the district nurses , visiting families in the Melbourne 's less affluent suburbs . Her ambition was to become a doctor who improved the lives of women and children . Women of her own social class did not normally work after they married , so marriage was not something she had intended . In 1919 , with the war over , she wrote to Ned urging him to complete his Rhodes Scholarship studies before returning to Australia .
She met her future husband , Ned Herring , when he arrived back in Melbourne at last on 26 November 1920 . She graduated with her dual Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery ( MB , BS ) degree in March 1921 , achieving first @-@ class honours in all subjects , with a first in medicine and fourth in surgery . She won the Keith Levi Memorial Scholarship in medicine and the Sameson Prize in clinical medicine , and became a resident surgeon at Royal Melbourne Hospital under Sir Alan Newton .
Ned was so supportive of her career plans that Mary reconsidered marriage , although she knew both their parents would disapprove . With her studies completed , Mary and Ned became formally engaged at Easter in 1921 , and they were married on 6 April 1922 at Toorak Presbyterian Church . They had three daughters : Mary Cecile ( Molly ) in 1924 , Judith Ann ( Judy ) in 1926 , and Margaret Lyle in 1933 . Molly would later become a doctor like her mother .
= = Career = =
Richard Fetherston had established a Baby Health Center in Prahran in 1920 that provided post @-@ natal care . His experience soon showed that his workload would be greatly reduced if ante natal care were provided , with mothers being monitored throughout their pregnancies . He asked Mary if she would be willing to establish such a clinic , which would be open one day a week .
The new clinic opened in Prahran , not far from the shopping centre in Chapel Street in 1926 . Mary had the district nurses spread word of the clinic . The clinic was the first of its kind in Melbourne , and became a model for a similar clinic established by Mary in South Melbourne in 1940 . At the time she started work at the Prahran clinic , she was a mother herself and pregnant with Judy , a circumstance of great interest to the women who sought advice or treatment at the clinic . Her work was mainly with poor women , many of whom lived in unsanitary conditions and had inadequate diets .
Mary joined the Melbourne District Nursing Society in 1931 and was its vice president from 1943 to 1953 . She banded together with George Simpson and Victor Wallace to establish the Women 's Welfare Clinic to offer advice on birth control , at a time when many doctors and a large segment of the community were opposed to it . This clinic functioned for one day a week until 1945 when it was discontinued , as the advice it offered could by then be obtained elsewhere . The social mores of the time often kept young women ignorant of matters dealing with sex and pregnancy , but she recognised that pregnant women in particular needed more information about what was happening to them . " She broke taboos " , Della Hilton later wrote , and " made forbidden subjects not only matters for discussion , but for action " .
= = Later life = =
Ned joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) soon after the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , and Mary banded together with a number of soldiers ' wives to form the AIF Women 's Association in 1940 . She served on its Welfare Subcommittee , looking after the needs of soldiers ' families , and was president of the association from 1943 – 46 .
She became Lady Herring in May 1943 when Ned was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire . On 2 February 1944 , the Premier of Victoria , Albert Dunstan , appointed Ned as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria . For much of the next 30 years he would also serve as lieutenant governor of Victoria , this being a common additional function of the chief justice . When Ned became acting governor for eight months in February 1949 , Mary found Government House to be in a state of disrepair . She successfully lobbied James Kennedy for funds for its refurbishment , and supervised the work personally .
A foundation member of the Toorak College council in 1927 , Mary served as its president from 1947 to 1948 and again from 1960 to 1970 . She played tennis and golf , and when her two eldest daughters began playing hockey at school , Mary 's interest in hockey was rekindled . A strong believer in the principle that women and not men should administer women 's sports , she became a member of the Victorian Women 's Amateur Sports Council , and was later the patron of the Victorian Women 's Hockey Association . Players visiting from interstate would often stay at her home . This was extended to overseas visitors during the 1956 Summer Olympics , which were held in Melbourne .
In 1953 , Mary travelled to London to attend the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II , which she viewed from a seat inside Westminster Abbey . In a ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 10 July 1953 , the new Queen made Mary a Commander of the Order of St John in recognition of her charity work . This charity work was extensive . Mary was a foundation member and first president of the Victorian Council of Social Service when it was formed in 1946 , and chairman of the Vera Scantlebury Brown Memorial Trust from 1946 to 1979 . Mary and Vera Scantlebury Brown had both attended Toorak College and were medical students at the University of Melbourne together .
She was a deputy @-@ president of the Victorian division of the Australian Red Cross from 1944 to 1963 , of the Victoria League from 1945 to 1972 , and of the Australian council of the Save the Children Fund from 1962 to 1967 . On 11 June 1960 , she was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire " for services to nursing in Victoria " . Mary Herring Hall at Toorak College was named in her honour in 1964 .
= = Death = =
Before her death on 26 October 1981 , aged 86 , following a long illness , Mary planned her own funeral service , requesting that no announcements be made until after she was buried . In her final days , she moved to Ned 's nursing home in Camberwell , Victoria , to be with him . A small private service was held on 28 October 1981 . She also planned a state funeral at St Paul 's Cathedral for Ned , who died a few months after her on 5 January 1982 .
= P. S. Krøyer 's paintings of Marie =
Peder Severin Krøyer painted various portraits of his wife , Marie Krøyer née Triepcke , a fellow Danish artist who was said to be one of the most beautiful women in Copenhagen . Norwegian @-@ born Peder had met and painted Marie in Copenhagen but fell in love with her when they met in Paris in 1889 . After a honeymoon in northern Jutland and Italy , the couple settled in Skagen on the northern tip of Jutland in 1891 , joining the group of artists that became known as the Skagen Painters .
The first few years of their marriage were reasonably happy , leading to the birth of their daughter Vibeke in 1895 , but as a result of P. S. Krøyer 's periods of mental illness , by the early 1900s they spent ever more time apart . In 1902 , Marie began an affair with the Swedish composer Hugo Alfvén , with whom she became pregnant in 1905 . Thereafter she spent most of her time with Alfvén in Sweden , marrying him in 1912 , three years after Krøyer had died in Skagen .
Krøyer 's paintings of Marie between 1888 and 1906 present a record of the years they spent together . They show some of their most enjoyable times but also hint at the marital tension that increased as time went by . Among the most notable paintings of her are Summer Evening at Skagen . The Artist 's Wife and Dog by the Shore ( 1892 ) , one of Denmark 's most popular works , which shows Marie on the beach with their dog and with the moonlight reflected in the sea , Roses ( 1893 ) , which depicts her relaxing in the garden , and Summer Evening at Skagen Beach – The Artist and his Wife ( 1899 ) . Also of note are the depictions of Marie on holiday in Ravello on the Amalfi Coast of Italy in 1890 ; the portrait for the frieze in the dining room at Skagen 's Brøndums Hotel ; Chez Moi , a series of watercolours of Marie and the couple 's daughter Vibeke in the family homes in Copenhagen and Skagen ; and Midsummer Eve Bonfire on Skagen Beach , his last painting of her in which she is shown captured in the firelight with Alfvén .
= = Background and early relationship = =
The Skagen Painters were a close @-@ knit group of mainly Danish artists who gathered each summer from the late 1870s in the fishing village of Skagen in the far north of Jutland , painting the local fishermen and their own family life and celebrations . Peder Severin Krøyer ( 1851 – 1909 ) , who was born in Stavanger , Norway , but brought up in Copenhagen , first arrived in Skagen in 1882 and returned almost every summer . He had already gained a reputation for his paintings of the fishermen in Hornbæk on the north coast of Zealand and had been influenced by the Impressionist movement during his travels to France . In Skagen , he became one of the central and most enthusiastic members of the artistic community .
Marie Krøyer ( 1867 – 1940 ) came from an affluent German family who had moved to Copenhagen . From an early age she aspired to become an artist and after private training she went to study in Paris where Krøyer began to court her . It is believed Marie was subsequently reluctant to paint as she looked up to Krøyer as a far more accomplished artist . A few of her works have nevertheless survived .
Krøyer had visited the atelier where Marie was studying on several occasions , but the first of his works in which she appears is A Duet , painted in Heinrich Hirschsprung 's Copenhagen home in 1887 where she had been invited to model for him . She can be seen seated on the left of the painting in a red dress .
Krøyer next met Marie in early 1889 in Paris where she was continuing her studies . Although he was 16 years her senior , he fell madly in love with her . That July , they were married in Augsburg in southern Germany , where Marie 's parents were residing . Rather than joining the artists ' colony in Skagen directly , the Krøyers chose to spend their honeymoon alone in the little fishing village of Stenbjerg in Thy in the northwest of Jutland . They stayed at the local inn for two months , taking their easels down to the beach each day to paint . In addition to portraits of Marie in the inn , one of Krøyer 's paintings shows her seated at her easel on the beach . Measuring 35 x 24 cm , the picture of Marie in her room at the inn is titled Interior with the Artist 's Wife and signed " Til Marie . S. Krøyer , Stenbjerg Septbr 1889 " . It is now in the Hirschsprung Collection of Copenhagen .
The portrait of Marie in a midnight blue dress is believed to have been painted shortly before their stay in Stenbjerg . Krøyer presented it to his new parents @-@ in @-@ law on the occasion of their silver wedding on 17 October 1889 . Marie commented on Stenbjerg in a letter to her friends Agnes and Harald Slott @-@ Møller : " I would certainly recommend Stenbjerg to you . It is a really pleasant place for a stay , such nice people ; and the nature is impressive — but not at all pretty . Indeed it is rather desolate and saddening . "
In 1890 , the couple created the double portrait ( pictured above ) in which they painted each other . The same year they travelled to Italy where they continued their honeymoon in Ravello and Amalfi . The small oil @-@ on @-@ canvas work Interior . Marie Krøyer painting . Ravello shows Marie painting while they were there . They also visited the artist Kristian Zahrtmann who spent his summers in the house he had bought in Civita d 'Antino , high up in the mountains in the Abruzzo region some 150 km ( 90 miles ) south of Rome . Thanks to his enthusiasm , the town became a favourite destination for Scandinavian painters . In addition to Marie , the lunch scene includes Zahrtmann and Krøyer himself .
= = In Skagen = =
Most of Krøyer 's paintings featuring Marie were painted in Skagen , which attracted a considerable number of artists who preferred to paint " en plein air " rather than to be constrained by the rather rigid approaches of the Scandinavian art academies . Both Krøyers had already visited Skagen independently before they married . The summers Krøyer spent with his wife in the 1890s were clearly a source of inspiration for him , especially as Marie had a strong sense of beauty herself , often quoting Keats ' " Beauty is truth , truth beauty " .
From 1891 to 1894 , they spent their summers renting Madam Bendsen 's house in Skagen Vesterby where the writer Otto Benzon paid them a visit in 1893 . In A luncheon . The artist , his wife and the writer Otto Benzon ( 1893 ) , Marie and her husband can be seen listening to Benzon attentively . Krøyer 's own presence at the table indicates that the painting might well have been based on a photograph . He had bought his first camera in 1885 and by the 1890s had become a keen photographer . The English title of the painting is certainly a mistranslation from the Danish Ved frokosten . Kunstneren , hans hustru og forfatteren Otto Benzon . At the time " frokost " meant breakfast rather than lunch as can be seen here from the coffee pot , coffee cups and boiled eggs .
= = = Frieze portrait = = =
A portrait of Marie closely resembling a photograph by Krøyer was completed in 1891 . The following year , it was added to the frieze in the dining room at Skagen 's Brøndums Hotel which had become the artists ' favourite meeting place . Placed next to Krøyer 's own portrait , it confirmed Marie 's position as an accepted member of the Skagen Painters . The dining room was designed by the architects Ulrik Plesner and Thorvald Bindesbøll in connection with the first major expansion of the hotel in 1892 . At Krøyer 's suggestion , it was decided to incorporate Degn Brøndum 's art collection into its decoration . Over the years it became a custom that visiting artists donated portraits of each other to the hotel owner and these were placed in a frieze just under the ceiling . Today the dining room together with its frieze forms part of Skagens Museum .
= = = Roses = = =
In 1893 , Krøyer included Marie in Roses , in which she is shown relaxing in the garden at Madam Bendsen 's house . The original title is Roser . Haveparti fra Skagen med kunstnerens hustru siddende i en havestol ( Roses . Garden Scene from Skagen with the Artist 's Wife Sitting in a Deckchair ) . It too , may be based on photographs ; the Hirschsprung Collection has a number of shots showing a very similar scene . The painting is interesting in that its treatment of light and shadow shows how Krøyer had been influenced by the French Impressionists while he was in Paris . Marie , framed by the overhanging roses , is shown reading a newspaper ; to her left is another empty deckchair which was probably where Krøyer would have sat . The Krøyers ' dog , Rap , who features in a number of Krøyer 's works , lies sleeping at Marie 's feet .
The painting was sold for 3 @.@ 1 million Danish kroner in 1985 and was donated anonymously to the Skagens Museum in 2008 .
= = = On the beach = = =
Summer Evening at Skagen . The Artist 's Wife and Dog by the Shore , one of Denmark 's most popular works , was painted in 1892 . It shows Marie standing on the beach with Rap by her side and the moonlight reflected in the sea . She is shown in profile and her melancholy face and bright dress glow under the light of the setting sun . The painting is one of the works in which Krøyer tries to capture the light and mood on the Skagen shore during what he called " l 'heure bleue " ( the blue hour ) , the short period at dusk when the light casts a blue tint over the landscape . The Symbolists believed the twilight hour heralded the coming of death . The moon 's reflection adds a slight feeling of depth to the otherwise flat background which consists mostly of the monolithic blue sea . Marie is depicted as being at a similar height to the viewer , but the horizon rises above her head , emphasizing her radiance against the muted , nearly monochrome background .
Although it is an open @-@ air scene , the painting Anna Ancher and Marie Krøyer on the beach at Skagen was completed in the studio from photographs Krøyer took one evening on the beach . Krøyer was not altogether happy with the results as he had needed to illuminate the photograph in the studio and hence felt that the light in the scene was not true to nature and that the mishmash of natural and artificial light had rendered the picture " two paintings in one " . In 1990 , an exhibition by the Hirschsprung Collection revealed a number of photographs Krøyer had used as a basis for his paintings , including the one behind Anna Ancher and Marie Krøyer on the beach at Skagen .
In 1895 , Krøyer wrote to his friend Oscar Björck : " I am also thinking of painting a large portrait of my wife and me together — but for that I shall definitely need good weather , so it won 't be this year . " In fact it was four years later , in the summer of 1899 , that he finally created the large painting Summer Evening at Skagen Beach – The Artist and his Wife . The result nevertheless has a rather melancholic tone . Despite the beautiful surroundings , Marie appears distant , disappearing into the blue moonlight . Even Krøyer 's own weak figure seems to be experiencing difficulty in supporting her on his arm while the closest figure of all is Rap the dog . The painting again presents the blue half @-@ light . Krøyer particularly appreciated " l 'heure bleue " : " Skagen can look so terribly dull in the bright sunlight ... but when the sun goes down , when the moon rises up out of the sea ... in recent years this has been the time I like most of all . "
= = Watercolours of home life = =
In 1898 , Krøyer started Chez Moi , a series of watercolours of Marie and their daughter Vibeke in the family homes in Copenhagen and Skagen in a style inspired by the Art Nouveau approach adopted by Carl Larsson whom Krøyer probably met during his time in Paris . Larsson had started painting in watercolours while a member of the Grez @-@ sur @-@ Loing artists ' colony in France . On returning to Sweden , he had begun a series of pictures of family life with his wife and children in Sundborn in the mid @-@ 1890s , publishing it as Ett hem ( A home ) in 1899 . Krøyer 's paintings display no signs of disturbance or frustration but leave an impression of a happy family environment , no doubt in accordance with Krøyer 's own desires . He exhibited the three from Skagen in 1889 at Den Frie – the exhibition of the artists ' association that had been formed in 1891 with Krøyer 's support – under the collective title Fra mit Skagenshjem ( From my Skagen Home ) .
= = Sankt Hans bonfire = =
Krøyer 's Midsummer Eve Bonfire on Skagen Beach , one of the best known of his works , shows many of the Skagen artists standing around the traditional Sankt Hans Aften bonfire . He had been working on the huge painting ( 149 @.@ 5 cm × 257 cm ( 58 @.@ 9 in × 101 @.@ 2 in ) ) for years before he finally completed it in 1906 . Marie is standing next to a fishing boat with her new lover , Hugo Alfvén , the Swedish composer , just to the left of the flames that seem to stream towards them . Despite Alfvén 's affair with Marie , Krøyer had welcomed him to the house in Skagen and appeared to tolerate their relationship . The painting is Krøyer 's last major work . The preparatory pastel sketch on which it is based was produced in a couple of hours , but the painting was completed with difficulty as not only had Krøyer spent several lengthy periods in a mental hospital from 1900 but he had also begun to lose his sight , particularly in one eye . He was not altogether happy with the finished product ; he thought it had become " too dark " and felt it did not capture the " pale radiance " of the sky over Skagen on Midsummer Eve . Although it is an important work in the Skagens Museum collection it is not considered to be among the best of the group portraits produced by the Skagen Painters or even by Krøyer himself . In contrast , writing in Kristeligt Dagblad , Morten Rasmussen reports that the work is considered by many to be Krøyer 's " Magnum Opus " , representing a reflection of his own life and a tribute to the people who contributed to his success . Marie left Krøyer for Alfvén in 1902 , but it was not until 1905 when she was pregnant with Alfvén 's child that Krøyer finally agreed to a divorce .
= = Literature = =
Arnold , Anastassia ( 2010 ) . Balladen om Marie : en biografi om Marie Krøyer ( in Danish ) . Rosinante . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 638 @-@ 1229 @-@ 0 .
Arnold , Tonni ( 2003 ) . Kunsten i Marie Krøyers liv . Gyldendals Bogklubber . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 00 @-@ 69736 @-@ 2 .
Bøgh Jensen , Mette ( 2012 ) . Marie Krøyer : der skal mod til at have talent ( in Danish ) . Skagens Museum . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 91048 @-@ 30 @-@ 2 .
Halkier , Katrine ( 2011 ) . Krøyer : An International Perspective . Hirschsprung Collection . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 90597 @-@ 17 @-@ 7 .
Hornung , Peter Michael ( 2005 ) . Peder Severin Krøyer ( in Danish ) . Fogtdal . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 7248 @-@ 551 @-@ 5 .
Krøyer , Peder Severin ( 1992 ) . P. S. Krøyer : Tradition , Modernity . Aarhus Kunstmuseum . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 88575 @-@ 31 @-@ 6 .
Loerges , Margrethe ( 1980 ) . Marie Krøyer : portræt af kunstnerens hustru ( in Danish ) . Hernov . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 7215 @-@ 928 @-@ 7 .
Svanholm , Lise ( 2006 ) . Damerne på Skagen ( in Danish ) . Gyldendal A / S. ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 02 @-@ 04499 @-@ 7 .
Thage , Jacob ; Holtegaard , Gl . ( 1997 ) . Portraits of a Marriage : Marie and P.S. Krøyer . Skagens Museum . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 88499 @-@ 34 @-@ 6 .
Olsen , Claus ; Ireland , National Gallery of ( 1998 ) . Krøyer and the artists ' colony at Skagen . National Gallery of Ireland .
= Henry Taube =
Henry Taube , Ph.D , M.Sc , B.Sc. , FRSC ( November 30 , 1915 – November 16 , 2005 ) was a Canadian @-@ born American chemist noted for having been awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for " his work in the mechanisms of electron @-@ transfer reactions , especially in metal complexes . " He was the second Canadian @-@ born chemist to win the Nobel Prize , and remains the only Saskatchewanian @-@ born Nobel laureate . Taube completed his undergraduate and Masters degrees at the University of Saskatchewan , and his Ph.D from the University of California , Berkeley . After finishing graduate school , Taube worked at Cornell University , the University of Chicago and Stanford University .
In addition to the Nobel Prize , Taube also received many other major scientific awards , including the Priestley Medal in 1985 and two Guggenheim Fellowships early in his career ( 1949 and 1955 ) , as well as numerous honorary doctorates . His research focused on redox reactions , transition metals and the use of isotopically labeled compounds to follow reactions . He had over 600 publications including one book , and had mentored over 200 students during his career . Taube and his wife Mary had three children , his son Karl is an anthropologist at the University of California Riverside .
= = Education = =
At 12 , Taube left his hometown and moved to Regina to attend Luther College where he completed high school . After graduating , Taube stayed at Luther College and worked as laboratory assistant for Paul Liefeld , allowing him to take first year university classes . Taube attended the University of Saskatchewan , receiving his B.Sc. in 1935 and his M.Sc in 1937 . His thesis advisor at the University of Saskatchewan was John Spinks . While at the University of Saskatchewan , Taube studied with Gerhard Herzberg , who would be awarded the 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . He moved to University of California , Berkeley , where he completed his Ph.D studies in 1940 . His Ph.D mentor was William Bray . Taube 's graduate research focused on the photodecomposition of chlorine dioxide and hydrogen peroxide in solution .
= = Research and academic career = =
= = = Academic posts = = =
After completing his education , Taube remained in the United States , becoming an instructor in chemistry at Berkeley until 1941 . He initially wanted to return to Canada to work , but did not receive a response when he applied for jobs at the major Canadian universities . From Berkeley , he served as an instructor and assistant professor at Cornell University until 1946 . During World War II , Taube served on the National Defense Research Committee . Taube spent time at the University of Chicago as an assistant professor , associate professor and as a full professor from 1946 – 61 . He served as chair of the chemistry department in Chicago from 1956 – 59 , but did not enjoy administrative work . After leaving Chicago , Taube worked as a professor at Stanford University until 1986 , a position that allowed him to focus on research , while also teaching classes at the undergraduate and graduate levels . He became a Professor Emeritus at Stanford in 1986 , but he continued to perform research until 2001 , and visited his labs every day until his death in 2005 . In addition to his academic duties , Taube also served as a consultant at Los Alamos National Laboratory from 1956 until the 1970s .
= = = Research interests = = =
Taube 's initial research at Cornell University focused on the same areas he studied as a graduate student , oxidizing agents containing oxygen and halogens , and redox reactions featuring these species . He used isotopically labeled oxygen @-@ 18 and radioactive chlorine to study these reactions . He was recognized by the American Chemical Society in 1955 for his isotope studies .
Taube 's interest in coordination chemistry was sparked when he was chosen to develop a course on advanced inorganic chemistry while at the University of Chicago . He was unable to find much information in the textbooks available at the time . Taube realized that his work on the substitution of carbon in organic reactions could be related to inorganic complexes . In 1952 , Taube published a key paper relating the rates of chemical reactions to electronic structure in Chemical Reviews . This research was the first to recognize the correlation between the rate of ligand substitution and the d @-@ electron configuration of the metal . Taube 's key discovery was the way molecules build a type of " chemical bridge " rather than simply exchanging electrons , as previously thought . Identifying this intermediate step explained why reactions between similar metals and ions occurred at different rates . His paper in Chemical Reviews was developed while on sabbatical in the late 1940s . An article in Science called this paper " one of the true classics in inorganic chemistry " after his Nobel Prize was announced . Taube researched ruthenium and osmium , both elements have a high capacity for back bonding . This type of electron donation was key when studying the way electrons are transferred between molecules in a chemical reaction .
When looking back on his research , Taube explained that he sometimes had difficulty finding graduate students willing to work on electron transfer reactions , as they preferred to work on more " exciting " projects in his laboratory focusing on the effects of isotopic tracers and kinetics . Taube felt that a " primary flaw " with his correlation between electron configuration and ligand substitution was that it was described mainly in terms of valence bond theory , as crystal field theory and ligand field theory were not well established when he published his work in 1952 .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
= = = = Nobel Prize = = = =
Taube was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Chemistry " for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions , especially in metal complexes . " He received his award on December 8 , 1983 , with the presentation speech being delivered by Ingvar Lindqvist of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences . Taube 's Nobel Lecture was entitled " Electron Transfer between Metal Complexes - Retrospective . " His Nobel Prize was the first awarded to a Canadian @-@ born chemist . Taube 's win was the first for an inorganic chemist since 1913 ( Alfred Werner ) , breaking a long string of awards to organic chemists . His initial paper in Chemical Reviews was 30 years old at the time of his Nobel Prize victory , but the correlation he described between the rate of ligand substitution and electronic configuration for transition metal coordination complexes was still the predominant theory about the reaction chemistry of these compounds . After being awarded the Nobel Prize , Taube noticed a side benefit to the prestigious award - his students paid better attention in class .
= = = = Other awards = = = =
Taube was accepted as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1959 . President Jimmy Carter presented Taube with the 1976 President 's National Medal of Science " in recognition of contributions to the understanding of reactivity and reaction mechanisms in inorganic chemistry . " In 1985 , Taube received the American Chemical Society 's highest honor , the Priestley Medal , which is awarded to recognize " distinguished services to chemistry " . He was awarded Guggenheim Fellowships in 1949 and 1955 . Taube was made an honorary member of the College of Chemists of Catalonia and Beleares ( 1984 ) , the Canadian Society of Chemists ( 1986 ) , and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences ( 1988 ) . He was also awarded an honorary fellowship in the Royal Society of Chemistry ( 1989 ) and the Indian Chemical Society ( 1989 ) and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1988 . Taube received honorary degrees from many institutions , including the University of Saskatchewan ( 1973 ) , the University of Chicago ( 1983 ) , the Polytechnic Institute of New York ( 1984 ) , the State University of New York Stony Brook ( 1985 ) , the University of Guelph ( 1987 ) , Seton Hall University ( 1988 ) , the Lajos Kossuth University of Debrecen in Hungary ( 1988 ) and Northwestern University ( 1990 ) . A Nobel Laureate Plaza on the University of Saskatchewan 's campus in honour of Taube and Gerhard Herzberg was dedicated in 1997 .
= = = = Legacy = = = =
As of 1997 , Taube had over 600 publications , and had worked with over 250 students . He published a book , Electron Transfer Reactions of Complex Ions in Solution ( Current Chemical Concepts ) in 1970 . His students have had faculty positions at many prestigious universities , including Cornell , Rutgers , Georgetown and Georgia Tech . Together with graduate student Carol Creutz , he is the namesake of the Creutz @-@ Taube complex , a metal complex with the formula [ Ru ( NH3 ) 5 ] 2 ( C4H4N2 ) 5 + . His research contributions have been honored in several ways , including a symposium at the 1982 annual American Chemical Society meeting . The annual series Progress in Inorganic Chemistry dedicated its 30th volume to Taube , entitled " An Appreciation of Henry Taube . " Luther College in Regina , Saskatchewan offers an annual scholarship to an entering science student in honour of Taube and his science teacher , Paul Liefeld . A seminar series was created in honor of his work at Stanford . Taube gave the inaugural lecture in the series .
Colleagues remember Taube as a dedicated scientist , Jim Collman of Stanford said " Henry was a scientist 's scientist and a dominant figure in the field of inorganic chemistry . " Harry Gray , a professor at California Institute of Technology said , " He was in a class by himself , a role model and leader whom we all admired and loved . " Former student Peter Ford remembers that Taube " made chemistry not only challenging and stimulating , but a lot of fun as well . "
= = Personal life = =
Taube was born November 30 , 1915 in Neudorf , Saskatchewan as the youngest of four boys . His parents were German ethnics from Ukraine which had immigrated to Saskatchewan from the Ukraine in 1911 . Growing up , his first language was Low German . In the 1700s , Catherine the Great encouraged Central European farmers to settle in Russia . As the rights afforded to these settlers by Catherine were gradually diminished , many of the settlers headed to North America , with Saskatchewan offering good farmland , and other incentives for immigrants . Taube reflected fondly on his experiences growing up in Saskatchewan , noting : " Certainly , there is nothing about my first 21 years in Saskatchewan , taken in the context of those times that I would wish to be changed . The advantages that I enjoyed include : the marvelous experience of growing up on a farm , which taught me an appreciation of nature , and taught me also to discipline myself to get necessary jobs done ... "
After completing his graduate studies , Taube became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1942 . Taube married his wife , Mary in 1952 . They had three children , Karl , Heinrich and Linda . His stepdaughter , Marianna died of cancer in 1998 . When he stopped his active research projects in 2001 , Taube continued to be available as a reviewer and consultant
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, but his main goal was " enjoying life " . Away from chemistry , Taube had varied interests including gardening and classical music , mainly opera . In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto .
Henry Taube died in his home in Palo Alto , California on November 16 , 2005 , at the age of 89 .
= = Publications = =
Taube , H. , Jackson , J. A. & J. F. Lemons . " Oxygen @-@ 17 NMR Shifts Caused by Cr { Sup + + } in Aqueous Solutions " , Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( 1962 ) .
Taube , H. " Reactions of Solvated Ions Final Report " , University of Chicago , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 24 , 1962 ) .
Taube , H. & A. Viste . " Isotopic Discrimination of Some Solutes in Liquid Ammonia " , University of Chicago , Stanford University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( 1966 ) .
Taube , H. " Final Technical Report of Research " , Stanford University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( April 3 , 1972 ) .
= Influence of Sesame Street =
The children 's television program Sesame Street premiered in 1969 to high ratings , positive reviews , and some controversy , which have continued during its history . Even though the show aired on only 67 % of American televisions at the time of its premiere , it earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , or 1 @.@ 9 million households . By its tenth anniversary in 1979 , 9 million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . Its ratings declined in the 1990s , due to societal changes . A survey conducted in 1993 found that by the age of three , 95 % of all American children had watched it . By its fortieth anniversary in 2009 , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show .
According to writer Michael Davis , Sesame Street is " perhaps the most vigorously researched , vetted , and fretted @-@ over program " . By 2001 , there were over 1 @,@ 000 research studies regarding its efficacy , impact , and effect on American culture . Two landmark summative evaluations , conducted by the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) in 1970 and 1971 , demonstrated that Sesame Street had a significant educational impact on its viewers . Additional studies conducted throughout the show 's history demonstrated that the show continued to have a positive effect on its young viewers .
Sesame Street has also been the subjects of many controversies throughout its long run on television . In May 1970 , a commission in Mississippi voted to ban the show . The controversy surrounding the show stemmed from cultural and historical reasons regarding children and television 's effect on them . Latino and feminists groups criticized Sesame Street for its depictions of some groups , but its producers have worked to address their concerns throughout the years . By 2009 , Sesame Street had received 118 Emmy Awards , more than any other television series .
= = Ratings = =
When Sesame Street premiered in 1969 , it aired on only 67 @.@ 6 % of American televisions , but it earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , or 1 @.@ 9 million households . The Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , the organization that oversaw the production of Sesame Street , insisted that its seemingly low ratings were misleading . They found that although a small percentage of all viewers watched Sesame Street , approximately a quarter of all preschoolers watched it regularly . Ninety percent of households who viewed the show had children under the age of six .
In the winter of 1970 , partly as a response to criticism that they were not reaching their intended audience , the CTW conducted a poll of four urban neighborhoods in New York , Chicago , and Washington , D.C. The results of the poll were positive in three out of the four neighborhoods and confirmed the show 's high viewership . Sesame Street 's high ratings increased during its second season , and Nielsen reported high audience loyalty . Gerald S. Lesser , CTW 's first advisory board chair , reported rumors about the show becoming a fad among college students . Its ratings steadily increased for the first five seasons , and Nielsen reported that Sesame Street had the highest ratings of any PBS program . In 1985 , the Workshop estimated that 20 % of its regular viewers consisted of adults .
By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , 9 million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . Four out of five children had watched it over a six @-@ week period , and 90 % of children from low @-@ income inner @-@ city homes regularly viewed the show . According to a 1993 survey conducted by the US Department of Education , out of the show 's 6 @.@ 6 million viewers , 2 @.@ 4 million kindergartners regularly watched it . 77 % of preschoolers watched it once a week , and 86 % of kindergartners , first- , and second @-@ grade students had watched it once a week before starting school . The show reached most young children in almost all demographic groups , most significantly economically disadvantaged children ; 88 % of children from low @-@ income families and 90 % of both African @-@ American and Latino children watched the show before entering kindergarten . Over 80 % of children from all minority language groups watched it before starting school . Children from the poorest communities were most likely to be regular viewers , as were younger children . Children whose parents did not read to them regularly were less likely to be regular viewers , and children of highly educated parents stopped viewing earlier than children from disadvantaged households .
The show 's ratings significantly decreased in the early 1990s , when children ' viewing habits and the television marketplace had changed . In 1969 , the choices in children 's programming were limited , but the growth of the home @-@ video industry during the 1980s and the boom in children 's programming during the 90s on cable channels like Nickelodeon , which were directly influenced by Sesame Street , resulted in lower ratings for Sesame Street . In 2002 , The New York Times reported that " learning to click the remote control has become a developmental milestone , like crawling and walking " . The producers responded to these societal changes by making large @-@ scale structural changes to the show .
By 2006 , Sesame Street had become " the most widely viewed children 's television show in the world " , with 20 international independent versions and broadcasts in over 120 countries . A 1996 survey found that 95 % of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old . In 2006 , it was estimated that 75 million Americans had watched the series as children . By the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show on television .
= = Effect = =
According to Davis , Sesame Street is " perhaps the most vigorously researched , vetted , and fretted @-@ over program " . By 2001 , there were over 1 @,@ 000 research studies regarding its efficacy , impact , and effect on American culture . The CTW solicited the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) to conduct its summative research . ETS ' two " landmark " summative evaluations , conducted in 1970 and 1971 , demonstrated that Sesame Street had a significant educational impact on its viewers . These studies provided the majority of the early educational effects of Sesame Street and have been cited in other studies of the effects of television on young children . Additional studies conducted throughout Sesame Street 's history demonstrated that the show continued to have a positive effect on its young viewers .
Lesser believed that Sesame Street research " may have conferred a new respectability upon the studies of the effects of visual media upon children " . He also believed that the show had the same effect on the prestige in the television industry of producing shows for children . Historian Robert Morrow , in his book Sesame Street and the Reform of Children 's Television , which chronicled the show 's influence on children 's television and on the television industry as a whole , reported that many critics of commercial television saw Sesame Street as a " straightforward illustration for reform " . Les Brown , a writer for Variety , saw in Sesame Street " a hope for a more substantial future " for television .
The networks responded by creating more high @-@ quality television programs , but that many saw them as " appeasement gestures " . In spite of the CTW 's effectiveness in creating a popular show , commercial television " made only a limited effort to emulate CTW 's methods " , and did not use a curriculum or evaluate what children learned from them . Morrow reported that by the mid @-@ 1970s , commercial television abandoned their experiments with creating better children 's programming . Other critics hoped that Sesame Street , with its depiction of a functioning , multicultural community , would nurture racial tolerance in its young viewers .
As critic Richard Roeper has stated , perhaps one of the strongest indicators of the influence of Sesame Street have been the enduring rumors and urban legends surrounding the show and its characters , especially about Bert and Ernie .
= = Critical reception = =
Sesame Street was praised from its debut in 1969 . Newsday reported that several newspapers and magazines had written " glowing " reports about CTW and co @-@ creator Joan Ganz Cooney . Although the series had been on the air for less than a year , Time Magazine featured Big Bird , who had received more fan mail than any of the show 's human hosts , on its cover and declared , " ... It is not only the best children 's show in TV history , it is one of the best parents ' shows as well " . The press overwhelmingly praised the new show ; several popular magazines and niche magazines lauded it . A 2010 survey found that most parents supported their children 's viewing of Sesame Street and other PBS educational shows , and many educators used them as aides in the classroom .
" Sesame Street is ... with lapses , the most intelligent and important program in television . That is not anything much yet " .
-Renata Adler , The New Yorker , 1972
David Frost declared Sesame Street " a hit everywhere it goes " . An executive at ABC , while recognizing that Sesame Street was not perfect , stated that the show " opened children 's TV to taste and wit and substance " ... and " made the climate right for improvement " . By the end of the show 's first season , ratings were high , the song " Rubber Duckie " was on the music charts for nine weeks , and Big Bird appeared on The Flip Wilson Show . Also in 1970 , Sesame Street won twenty awards , including a Peabody Award , three Emmys , an award from the Public Relations Society of America , a Clio , and the Prix Jeunesse award . President Richard Nixon sent Cooney a congratulatory letter . Dr. Benjamin Spock predicted that the program would result in " better trained citizens , fewer unemployables in the next generation , fewer people on welfare , and smaller jail populations " . By 1995 , the show had won two Peabody Awards and four Parents ' Choice Awards . In addition , it was the subject of retrospectives at the Smithsonian Institution and the Museum of Modern Art . In 2011 , puppeteer Kevin Clash was the subject of the documentary Being Elmo : A Puppeteer 's Journey . The documentary , directed by Constance Marks , received several awards , including the 2011 Black Film Critics Circle Award and the Special Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival , where it premiered . By 2009 , the series had received 118 Emmy Awards , more than any other television series .
Sesame Street was not without its detractors , however . In May 1970 , a state commission in Mississippi voted to ban Sesame Street . A member of the commission leaked the vote to the New York Times , stating that " Mississippi was not yet ready " for the show 's integrated cast . Cooney called the ban " a tragedy for both the white and black children of Mississippi " . The Mississippi commission later reversed its decision , after the vote had made national news .
According to Children and Television , Lesser 's account of the development and early years of Sesame Street , there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere , but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season . Lesser put the early criticism into four categories : educational goals , how the goals were chosen and obtained , the show 's possible unintended effects , and its portrayal of minorities and women . Historian Robert W. Morrow suggested that much of the early criticism , which he called " surprisingly intense " , stemmed from cultural and historical reasons in regards to , as he put it , " the place of children in American society and the controversies about television 's effects on them " .
The " most important " studies that found negative effects of Sesame Street were conducted by educator Herbert A. Sprigle and psychologist Thomas D. Cook during its first two seasons . Both studies found that the show increased the educational gap between poor and middle @-@ class children . Morrow reported that these studies had little impact on the public discussion about Sesame Street . Social scientist and Head Start founder Urie Bronfenbrenner criticized the show for being too wholesome , stating , " The old , the ugly or the unwanted is simply made to disappear through a manhole " . He also criticized the show for presenting bland and unrealistic characters , and for failing to teach children about social relationships and how to become a part of the society around them . Psychologist Leon Eisenberg saw Sesame Street 's urban setting as " superficial " and having little to do with the problems confronted by the inner @-@ city child .
Head Start director Edward Zigler was probably Sesame Street 's most vocal critic in the show 's early years . He withdrew Head Start 's funding of the show , becoming the first of CTW 's original investors to do so . Morrow stated that the basis of Zigler 's criticism was concern that the federal government would transfer their funding of Head Start to CTW . Also according to Morrow , these studies were utilized by critics in Sesame Street 's later years , especially by child development psychologists Jerome and Dorothy G. Singer , who insisted the television shortened children 's attention spans , and by author Neil Postman in his book Amusing Ourselves to Death , who believed that television could not teach children . Postman claimed that Sesame Street also introduced children to a shallow pop culture , undermined American education , and relieved parents of their responsibility of teaching their children how to read .
Since federal funds had been used to produce the show , more segments of the population insisted upon being represented on Sesame Street . Morrow credited CTW 's commitment to multiculturalism as one source for their conflicts with the leadership of minority groups , especially Latino groups and feminists . These conflicts were resolved when the CTW added or substituted offending segments and characters . By 1977 , the cast consisted of two African American women , one of whom was single , two African American men , a Chicano man , two white men , an American Indian woman , a Puerto Rican woman , and a Deaf white woman .
Latino groups criticized the show for the lack of Hispanic characters during its early years . A committee of Hispanic activists , commissioned by the CTW in 1970 , called Sesame Street " racist " and said that the show 's bilingual aspects were of " poor quality and patronizing " . According to Morrow , Cooney admitted that the show 's bilingual elements were " not well thought out " . By 1971 , the CTW hired Hispanic actors , production staff , and researchers , and by the mid @-@ 70s , Morrow reported that " the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members , films about Mexican holidays and foods , and cartoons that taught Spanish words " . In 1989 , Sesame Street created a four @-@ year " race relations curriculum " that focused on introducing its viewers to various cultural backgrounds .
The New York Times reported that creating strong female characters " that make kids laugh , but not ... as female stereotypes " has been a challenge for the producers of Sesame Street . Davis reported that the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) expressed concerns that the show needed to be " less male @-@ oriented " . Members of NOW were " rankled by the portrayal of Susan , whom they saw as a subservient , powerless dispenser of milk and cookies " . In the spring of 1970 , Boston Globe columnist Ellen Goodman objected to what she considered Sesame Street 's portrayal of women and girls as passive . In late 1970 , the NOW threatened to boycott the show . The show 's producers satisfied these critics by making Susan a nurse and by hiring a female writer .
According to Morrow , change regarding how women and girls were depicted on Sesame Street occurred slowly . CTW 's research staff , which were mostly made up of women , worked with the mostly male production staff to raise their consciousnesses about how women and girls were portrayed in their scripts . Another source of friction between the CTW and feminists were the lack of female Muppets , for which they held Jim Henson responsible , as well as his organization of all @-@ male puppeteers , who tended to create male characters . The demanding production schedule tended to attract only men , and Henson expressed his opinion that women were incapable of withstanding it . Gikow believed that the difficulty creating breakout Muppet characters was due to children 's viewing styles : girls have tended to become attached to male characters they like , but boys did not tend to form the same attachments to female characters . The show 's inventory of material , some of which many feminists found sexist and which were shown over and over , were slowly replaced by new , less sexist segments . As more female Muppets performers like Fran Brill , Stephanie D 'Abruzzo , and Leslie Carrara @-@ Rudolph were hired and trained , stronger female characters like Abby Cadabby were created . As an interesting contrast , Sesame Street was also chastised by a Louisiana critic for the presence of strong single women on the show .
In 1995 , journalist Kay Hymowitz called Sesame Street " a triumph of appearance over substance " and credited its success not with quality , but with " a combination of savvy timing , sophisticated image making , and vigorous promotion " . She held the show partly responsible for the declining verbal abilities of American students , and accused the show of affirming negative stereotypes about women . According to Hymowitz , the show 's creators discouraged children 's natural curiosity about the world . She criticized the show for , instead of transforming television , being " devoured " by it . She took issue with its use of cultural references , stating that the show taught young children to embrace the negative values of commercialism , celebrity , and anti @-@ intellectualism . She insisted that by using television 's production values , the producers of Sesame Street emphasized their " jazzy medium " more than the educational content they were supposed to convey . Hymowitz took issue with the show 's educational claims , stating that Sesame Street diminished young children 's readiness for reading by limiting their abilities to engage in analytical and creative thinking . She reported that most of the positive research conducted on the show has been done by the CTW , and then sent to a sympathetic press . She charged that the studies conducted by the CTW " hint at advocacy masquerading as social science " .
In 2003 , one of Sesame Street 's international co @-@ productions , Takalani Sesame , caused some controversy in the US when the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , Kami , was created in response to South Africa 's AIDS epidemic . It marked the first time AIDS and the goal of confronting the disease 's stigma was included in a preschool curriculum . According to the documentary , The World According to Sesame Street , the reaction of many in the US surprised Sesame Workshop . Some members of Congress attacked Sesame Street , Sesame Workshop , and PBS . According to co @-@ producer Naila Farouky , " The reaction we got in the US blew me away . I didn 't expect people to be so horrible ... and hateful and mean " . The controversy in the US was short @-@ lived , and died down when the public discovered the facts about the South African co @-@ production , and when United Nations Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan and prominent minister and conservative political commentator Jerry Falwell praised the Workshop 's efforts . Kami went on to be named UNICEF 's Champion for Children in November 2003 .
= SMS Regensburg =
SMS Regensburg was a light cruiser of the Graudenz class built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Graudenz . The ship was built by the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen , laid down in 1912 , launched in April 1914 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in January 1915 . She was named for the German town of Regensburg . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) , though in 1917 she was rearmed with seven 15 cm SK L / 45 guns .
Regensburg served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She saw significant action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , where she served as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas that screened for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers . After the end of the war , she was ceded to France in 1920 and renamed Strasbourg . In 1928 she took part in the Arctic rescue operations searching for the Airship Italia . Removed from service in 1936 , she was used as a barracks ship in Lorient until 1944 , when she was seized by the Germans and scuttled in the harbor to protect the U @-@ boat pens there .
= = Design = =
Regensburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Irene " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1912 and was launched on 25 April 1914 ; the mayor of Regensburg , Hofrat Josef Bleyer , christened the ship . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 3 January 1915 . The ship was 142 @.@ 7 meters ( 468 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 8 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 75 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ; 7 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Regensburg carried 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 375 t ( 369 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 21 officers and 364 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . These were later replaced with seven 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . Four deck @-@ mounted launchers were added when the gun armament was upgraded , and the submerged tubes were removed . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Regensburg completed her trials on 10 March 1915 , and was then assigned to the II Scouting Group . Eleven days later , she bombarded Russian positions near Polangen and Papensee ; the operation lasted until the 24th . Captain Hans Zenker proposed that Regensburg and the liner Cap Polonio — which was to be armed with 15 cm guns — should be sent out into the Atlantic to replace the commerce raiding cruisers that had been destroyed in the early months of the war . The fleet commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , argued the ships would eventually be sunk as well , and that any possible successes for the raiders would not equal the loss of a modern light cruiser or a large passenger liner . The suggested plan was therefore abandoned . On 17 – 18 May , Regensburg took part in a mine @-@ laying operation in the area of the Dogger Bank . On 25 August , she went into the Baltic to bombard Russian positions again , this time on the island of Dagö , including the lighthouse in St. Andreasberg and the signal station on Cap Ristna . On 11 – 12 May , Regensburg participated in another mine @-@ laying operation , this time off Texel . In September , she took part in anti @-@ shipping sweeps in the Skagerrak and the Kattegat . In early 1916 , she continued supporting mine @-@ laying operations and reconnaissance sweeps into the North Sea . On 23 – 24 April , she participated in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft , conducted by the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
In May 1916 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the fleet commander , planned to lure a portion of the British fleet away from its bases and destroy it with the entire High Seas Fleet . For the planned operation , Regensburg , commanded by Commodore Paul Heinrich , was assigned to serve as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas that screened for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . The squadron left the Jade roadstead at 02 : 00 on 31 May , bound for the waters of the Skagerrak . The main body of the fleet followed an hour and a half later . At around 15 : 30 , the cruiser screens of the I Scouting Group and the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron engaged ; Regensburg was on the disengaged side of the German formation , but steamed to reach the head of the line of battle . As she was moving into position , the opposing battlecruisers opened fire ; Regensburg was some 2 @,@ 200 yd ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) from the German battlecruisers , still on the disengaged side . Her crew noted that the British shells were falling well over their targets , which placed Regensburg in greater danger than the battlecruisers at which the British were aiming . By 17 : 10 , Regensburg had reached the head of the line , and the battlecruiser HMS Tiger fired several salvos at her , mistaking her for a battlecruiser .
As the battlecruiser squadrons closed on each other , Regensburg ordered the torpedo boats to make a general attack on the British formation . The British had similarly ordered an attack with their destroyers , which led to a hard @-@ fought battle at close range between the opposing destroyer forces , supported by light cruisers and the battlecruisers ' secondary guns . Shortly after 19 : 00 , Regensburg led an attack with several torpedo boats on the cruiser Canterbury and four destroyers . She disabled the destroyer Shark and then shifted fire to Canterbury , which turned away into the mist . By 20 : 15 , the British and German main fleets had engaged , and Scheer sought a withdrawal ; he therefore ordered the I Scouting Group to charge the British line while the rest of the fleet turned away . This was in turn covered by a massed torpedo boat attack , which forced the British to turn away as well . Regensburg and her torpedo boats were ordered to join the attack , but the I Scouting Group had passed in front of his ships , and he realized the British had turned away , which put them out of range of his torpedoes .
Having successfully disengaged , Scheer ordered Regensburg to organize three torpedo boat flotillas to make attacks on the British fleet during the night . At 21 : 10 , Heinrich dispatched the II Flotilla and XII Half @-@ Flotilla from the rear of the German line to attack the British formation . In the night , the High Seas Fleet successfully passed behind the British fleet and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . At 09 : 45 , Regensburg and three torpedo boats turned around to rendezvous with the torpedo boats carrying the crew of the scuttled battlecruiser Lützow . In the course of the battle , Regensburg had fired 372 rounds of 10 @.@ 5 cm ammunition and emerged completely unscathed .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
By 1917 , Regensburg had been assigned to the IV Scouting Group , along with Stralsund and Pillau . In late October 1917 , the IV Scouting Group steamed to Pillau , arriving on the 30th . They were tasked with replacing the heavy units of the fleet that had just completed Operation Albion , the conquest of the islands in the Gulf of Riga , along with the battleships of the I Battle Squadron . The risk of mines that had come loose in a recent storm , however , prompted the naval command to cancel the mission , and Regensburg and the rest of the IV Scouting Group was ordered to return to the North Sea on 31 October .
By October 1918 , Regensburg was serving as the flagship of Commodore Johannes von Karpf , commander of the IV Scouting Group . The unit was to participate in a final , climactic attack by the High Seas Fleet . Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Hipper intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 27 October , days before the operation was scheduled to begin , Karpf ordered Regensburg 's crew to take on a full load of coal and oil . One division of sailors refused to work and a watch from the engine room personnel changed into their shore @-@ going uniforms and refused to work as well . The ship 's First Lieutenant arrested the ringleader of the strike , after which the crew returned to work . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on the battleship Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation .
As the mutinies spread , Regensburg was sent to Swinemünde , arriving on 7 November . That night , false reports of torpedo boats manned by Communist revolutionaries had sailed to attack his ships reached Karpf . He ordered his ships to be laid up ; the confidential materials carried aboard were destroyed and their ammunition magazines were flooded . When the fleet command learned of the incident , they replaced Karpf with Commodore Rohardt , who set about restoring the ships to seagoing condition . During this process , the IV Scouting Group moved to Stettin . The abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II on 9 November , however , which indicated to Rohardt that his ships could no longer fly the Imperial ensign . He therefore placed Regensburg and Brummer out of commission . A new officer arrived in Stettin to serve as Regensburg 's commander , but he had few officers and no crew . In December 1918 , Regensburg escorted the British battleship HMS Hercules , which was carrying the Allied Armistice Commission , to Kiel .
= = = French service = = =
Regensburg served in the newly reorganized Reichsmarine after the end of the war , through 1919 . She was stricken from the naval register on 10 March 1920 and placed out of service . On 4 June 1920 , the ship was surrendered to the Allies in the port of Cherbourg , France and transferred under the name " J " to the French Navy . She was renamed Strasbourg and served with the French fleet . She was initially home @-@ ported in Brest , until she was transferred to Toulon in 1923 , where she remained for the next three years . In 1925 , she underwent a major overhaul , after which she made 26 kn ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) on speed trials . Strasbourg participated in the Rif War in the mid 1920s ; on 7 September 1925 , she and the battleship Paris and the cruiser Metz supported a landing of French troops in North Africa . The three ships provided heavy gunfire support to the landing troops . In early 1928 , a major earthquake struck Corinth , Greece ; Strassbourg was among the vessels sent to aid in the relief effort . The international effort provided assistance to 15 @,@ 000 people .
Also in 1928 , she assisted in the search effort for the wrecked airship Italia , which had crashed on the polar ice northeast of Svalbard . In addition , Roald Amundsen , who had also joined the search effort , went missing himself . Strassbourg arrived in Tromsø , Norway , on 19 June , to search for both Italia and Amundsen 's aircraft . The ship 's bow was not designed to operate in an Arctic environment , and so the crew had to continually fix wood planks to the hull to protect it from the ice . While refueling from the tanker Durance , Strassbourg took on two FBA 17 seaplanes to assist in the search effort . On 30 August , Strassbourg located one of the floats from Amundsen 's aircraft , confirming the loss of the plane . The search effort was called off on 17 September , and Strassbourg returned to Brest by way of Reykjavík , arriving back in France by mid October .
She remained in service until 14 June 1936 , when she was placed in reserve . Her name was reused for the new battleship Strasbourg , so the old cruiser was renamed Strassbourg II . The cruiser was subsequently used as a barracks ship in Lorient until 1944 , when she was seized by the Germans and scuttled in the harbor to protect the U @-@ boat pens in the harbor from torpedo attack . Barrage balloons and anti @-@ torpedo nets were attached to the ship to strengthen the defenses of the U @-@ boat pens . Her wreck remains in the harbor , and is visible at low tide .
= Amazing Grace =
" Amazing Grace " is a Christian hymn published in 1779 , with words written by the English poet and clergyman John Newton ( 1725 – 1807 ) .
Newton wrote the words from personal experience . He grew up without any particular religious conviction , but his life 's path was formed by a variety of twists and coincidences that were often put into motion by his recalcitrant insubordination . He was pressed ( conscripted ) into service in the Royal Navy , and after leaving the service , he became involved in the Atlantic slave trade . In 1748 , a violent storm battered his vessel off the coast of County Donegal , Ireland , so severely that he called out to God for mercy , a moment that marked his spiritual conversion . He continued his slave trading career until 1754 or 1755 , when he ended his seafaring altogether and began studying Christian theology .
Ordained in the Church of England in 1764 , Newton became curate of Olney , Buckinghamshire , where he began to write hymns with poet William Cowper . " Amazing Grace " was written to illustrate a sermon on New Year 's Day of 1773 . It is unknown if there was any music accompanying the verses ; it may have simply been chanted by the congregation . It debuted in print in 1779 in Newton and Cowper 's Olney Hymns but settled into relative obscurity in England . In the United States , however , " Amazing Grace " was used extensively during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century . It has been associated with more than 20 melodies , but in 1835 it was joined to a tune named " New Britain " to which it is most frequently sung today .
With the message that forgiveness and redemption are possible regardless of sins committed and that the soul can be delivered from despair through the mercy of God , " Amazing Grace " is one of the most recognizable songs in the English @-@ speaking world . Author Gilbert Chase writes that it is " without a doubt the most famous of all the folk hymns , " and Jonathan Aitken , a Newton biographer , estimates that it is performed about 10 million times annually . It has had particular influence in folk music , and has become an emblematic African American spiritual . Its universal message has been a significant factor in its crossover into secular music . " Amazing Grace " saw a resurgence in popularity in the U.S. during the 1960s and has been recorded thousands of times during and since the 20th century , occasionally appearing on popular music charts .
= = John Newton 's conversion = =
According to the Dictionary of American Hymnology " Amazing Grace " is John Newton 's spiritual autobiography in verse .
In 1725 , Newton was born in Wapping , a district in London near the Thames . His father was a shipping merchant who was brought up as a Catholic but had Protestant sympathies , and his mother was a devout Independent unaffiliated with the Anglican Church . She had intended Newton to become a clergyman , but she died of tuberculosis when he was six years old . For the next few years , Newton was raised by his emotionally distant stepmother while his father was at sea , and spent some time at a boarding school where he was mistreated . At the age of eleven , he joined his father on a ship as an apprentice ; his seagoing career would be marked by headstrong disobedience .
As a youth , Newton began a pattern of coming very close to death , examining his relationship with God , then relapsing into bad habits . As a sailor , he denounced his faith after being influenced by a shipmate who discussed Characteristics of Men , Manners , Opinions , Times , a book by the Third Earl of Shaftesbury , with him . In a series of letters he later wrote , " Like an unwary sailor who quits his port just before a rising storm , I renounced the hopes and comforts of the Gospel at the very time when every other comfort was about to fail me . " His disobedience caused him to be pressed into the Royal Navy , and he took advantage of opportunities to overstay his leave and finally deserted to visit Mary " Polly " Catlett , a family friend with whom he had fallen in love . After enduring humiliation for deserting , he managed to get himself traded to a slave ship where he began a career in slave trading .
Newton often openly mocked the captain by creating obscene poems and songs about him that became so popular the crew began to join in . He entered into disagreements with several colleagues that resulted in his being starved almost to death , imprisoned while at sea and chained like the slaves they carried , then outright enslaved and forced to work on a plantation in Sierra Leone near the Sherbro River . After several months he came to think of Sierra Leone as his home , but his father intervened after Newton sent him a letter describing his circumstances , and a ship found him by coincidence . Newton claimed the only reason he left was because of Polly .
While aboard the ship Greyhound , Newton gained notoriety for being one of the most profane men the captain had ever met . In a culture where sailors commonly used oaths and swore , Newton was admonished several times for not only using the worst words the captain had ever heard , but creating new ones to exceed the limits of verbal debauchery . In March 1748 , while the Greyhound was in the North Atlantic , a violent storm came upon the ship that was so rough it swept overboard a crew member who was standing where Newton had been moments before . After hours of the crew emptying water from the ship and expecting to be capsized , Newton and another mate tied themselves to the ship 's pump to keep from being washed overboard , working for several hours . After proposing the measure to the captain , Newton had turned and said , " If this will not do , then Lord have mercy upon us ! " Newton rested briefly before returning to the deck to steer for the next eleven hours . During his time at the wheel he pondered his divine challenge .
About two weeks later , the battered ship and starving crew landed in Lough Swilly , Ireland . For several weeks before the storm , Newton had been reading The Christian 's Pattern , a summary of the 15th @-@ century The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis . The memory of his own " Lord have mercy upon us ! " uttered during a moment of desperation in the storm did not leave him ; he began to ask if he was worthy of God 's mercy or in any way redeemable as he had not only neglected his faith but directly opposed it , mocking others who showed theirs , deriding and denouncing God as a myth . He came to believe that God had sent him a profound message and had begun to work through him .
Newton 's conversion was not immediate , but he contacted Polly 's family and announced his intentions to marry her . Her parents were hesitant as he was known to be unreliable and impetuous . They knew he was profane , but they allowed him to write to Polly , and he set to begin to submit to authority for her sake . He sought a place on a slave ship bound for Africa , and Newton and his crewmates participated in most of the same activities he had written about before ; the only immorality from which he was able to free himself was profanity . After a severe illness his resolve was renewed , yet he retained the same attitude towards slavery as was held by his contemporaries . Newton continued in the slave trade through several voyages where he sailed up rivers in Africa – now as a captain – procured slaves being offered for sale in larger ports , and subsequently transported them to North America . In between voyages , he married Polly in 1750 and he found it more difficult to leave her at the beginning of each trip . After three shipping experiences in the slave trade , Newton was promised a position as ship 's captain with cargo unrelated to slavery when , at the age of thirty , he collapsed and never sailed again .
= = Olney curate = =
Working as a customs agent in Liverpool starting in 1756 , Newton began to teach himself Latin , Greek , and theology . He and Polly immersed themselves in the church community , and Newton 's passion was so impressive that his friends suggested he become a priest in the Church of England . He was turned down by John Gilbert , Archbishop of York , in 1758 , ostensibly for having no university degree , although the more likely reasons were his leanings toward evangelism and tendency to socialize with Methodists . Newton continued his devotions , and after being encouraged by a friend , he wrote about his experiences in the slave trade and his conversion . George Legge , 3rd Earl of Dartmouth , impressed with his story , sponsored Newton for ordination by John Green , Bishop of Lincoln , and offered him the curacy of Olney , Buckinghamshire , in 1764 .
= = = Olney Hymns = = =
Olney was a village of about 2 @,@ 500 residents whose main industry was making lace by hand . The people were mostly illiterate and many of them were poor . Newton 's preaching was unique in that he shared many of his own experiences from the pulpit ; many clergy preached from a distance , not admitting any intimacy with temptation or sin . He was involved in his parishioners ' lives and was much loved , although his writing and delivery were sometimes unpolished . But his devotion and conviction were apparent and forceful , and he often said his mission was to " break a hard heart and to heal a broken heart " . He struck a friendship with William Cowper , a gifted writer who had failed at a career in law and suffered bouts of insanity , attempting suicide several times . Cowper enjoyed Olney – and Newton 's company ; he was also new to Olney and had gone through a spiritual conversion similar to Newton 's . Together , their effect on the local congregation was impressive . In 1768 , they found it necessary to start a weekly prayer meeting to meet the needs of an increasing number of parishioners . They also began writing lessons for children .
Partly from Cowper 's literary influence , and partly because learned vicars were expected to write verses , Newton began to try his hand at hymns , which had become popular through the language , made plain for common people to understand . Several prolific hymn writers were at their most productive in the 18th century , including Isaac Watts – whose hymns Newton had grown up hearing – and Charles Wesley , with whom Newton was familiar . Wesley 's brother John , the eventual founder of the Methodist Church , had encouraged Newton to go into the clergy . Watts was a pioneer in English hymn writing , basing his work after the Psalms . The most prevalent hymns by Watts and others were written in the common meter in 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 8 @.@ 6 : the first line is eight syllables and the second is six .
Newton and Cowper attempted to present a poem or hymn for each prayer meeting . The lyrics to " Amazing Grace " were written in late 1772 and probably used in a prayer meeting for the first time on January 1 , 1773 . A collection of the poems Newton and Cowper had written for use in services at Olney was bound and published anonymously in 1779 under the title Olney Hymns . Newton contributed 280 of the 348 texts in Olney Hymns ; " 1 Chronicles 17 : 16 – 17 , Faith 's Review and Expectation " was the title of the poem with the first line " Amazing grace ! ( how sweet the sound ) " .
= = = Critical analysis = = =
The general impact of Olney Hymns was immediate and it became a widely popular tool for evangelicals in Britain for many years . Scholars appreciated Cowper 's poetry somewhat more than Newton 's plaintive and plain language driven from his forceful personality . The most prevalent themes in the verses written by Newton in Olney Hymns are faith in salvation , wonder at God 's grace , his love for Jesus , and his cheerful exclamations of the joy he found in his faith . As a reflection of Newton 's connection to his parishioners , he wrote many of the hymns in first person , admitting his own experience with sin . Bruce Hindmarsh in Sing Them Over Again To Me : Hymns and Hymnbooks in America considers " Amazing Grace " an excellent example of Newton 's testimonial style afforded by the use of this perspective . Several of Newton 's hymns were recognized as great work ( " Amazing Grace " was not among them ) while others seem to have been included to fill in when Cowper was unable to write . Jonathan Aitken calls Newton , specifically referring to " Amazing Grace " , an " unashamedly middlebrow lyricist writing for a lowbrow congregation " , noting that only twenty @-@ one of the nearly 150 words used in all six verses have more than one syllable .
William Phipps in the Anglican Theological Review and author James Basker have interpreted the first stanza of " Amazing Grace " as evidence of Newton 's realization that his participation in the slave trade was his wretchedness , perhaps representing a wider common understanding of Newton 's motivations . Newton joined forces with a young man named William Wilberforce , the British Member of Parliament who led the Parliamentarian campaign to abolish the slave trade in the British Empire , culminating in the Slave Trade Act 1807 . However , Newton became an ardent and outspoken abolitionist after he left Olney in the 1780s ; he never connected the construction of the hymn that became " Amazing Grace " to anti @-@ slavery sentiments . The lyrics in Olney Hymns were arranged by their association to the Biblical verses that would be used by Newton and Cowper in their prayer meetings and did not address any political objective . For Newton , the beginning of the year was a time to reflect on one 's spiritual progress . At the same time he completed a diary – which has since been lost – that he had begun 17 years before , two years after he quit sailing . The last entry of 1772 was a recounting of how much he had changed since then .
The title ascribed to the hymn , " 1 Chronicles 17 : 16 – 17 " , refers to David 's reaction to the prophet Nathan telling him that God intends to maintain his family line forever . Some Christians interpret this as a prediction that Jesus Christ , as a descendant of David , was promised by God as the salvation for all people . Newton 's sermon on that January day in 1773 focused on the necessity to express one 's gratefulness for God 's guidance , that God is involved in the daily lives of Christians though they may not be aware of it , and that patience for deliverance from the daily trials of life is warranted when the glories of eternity await . Newton saw himself a sinner like David who had been chosen , perhaps undeservedly , and was humbled by it . According to Newton , unconverted sinners were " blinded by the god of this world " until " mercy came to us not only undeserved but undesired ... our hearts endeavored to shut him out till he overcame us by the power of his grace . "
The New Testament served as the basis for many of the lyrics of " Amazing Grace " . The first verse , for example , can be traced to the story of the Prodigal Son . In the Gospel of Luke the father says , " For this son of mine was dead and is alive again ; he was lost , and is found " . The story of Jesus healing a blind man who tells the Pharisees that he can now see is told in the Gospel of John . Newton used the words " I was blind but now I see " and declared " Oh to grace how great a debtor ! " in his letters and diary entries as early as 1752 . The effect of the lyrical arrangement , according to Bruce Hindmarsh , allows an instant release of energy in the exclamation " Amazing grace ! " , to be followed by a qualifying reply in " how sweet the sound " . In An Annotated Anthology of Hymns , Newton 's use of an exclamation at the beginning of his verse is called " crude but effective " in an overall composition that " suggest ( s ) a forceful , if simple , statement of faith " . Grace is recalled three times in the following verse , culminating in Newton 's most personal story of his conversion , underscoring the use of his personal testimony with his parishioners .
The sermon preached by Newton was his last , of those that William Cowper heard in Olney , since Cowper 's mental instability returned shortly thereafter . Steve Turner , author of Amazing Grace : The Story of America 's Most Beloved Song , suggests Newton may have had his friend in mind , employing the themes of assurance and deliverance from despair for Cowper 's benefit .
= = Dissemination = =
Although it had its roots in England , " Amazing Grace " became an integral part of the Christian tapestry in the United States . More than 60 of Newton and Cowper 's hymns were republished in other British hymnals and magazines , but " Amazing Grace " was not , appearing only once in a 1780 hymnal sponsored by the Countess of Huntingdon . Scholar John Julian commented in his 1892 A Dictionary of Hymnology that outside of the United States , the song was unknown and it was " far from being a good example of Newton 's finest work " . Between 1789 and 1799 , four variations of Newton 's hymn were published in the U.S. in Baptist , Dutch Reformed , and Congregationalist hymnodies ; by 1830 Presbyterians and Methodists also included Newton 's verses in their hymnals .
The greatest influences in the 19th century that propelled " Amazing Grace " to spread across the U.S. and become a staple of religious services in many denominations and regions were the Second Great Awakening and the development of shape note singing communities . A tremendous religious movement swept the U.S. in the early 19th century , marked by the growth and popularity of churches and religious revivals that got their start in Kentucky and Tennessee . Unprecedented gatherings of thousands of people attended camp meetings where they came to experience salvation ; preaching was fiery and focused on saving the sinner from temptation and backsliding . Religion was stripped of ornament and ceremony , and made as plain and simple as possible ; sermons and songs often used repetition to get across to a rural population of poor and mostly uneducated people the necessity of turning away from sin . Witnessing and testifying became an integral component to these meetings , where a congregation member or even a stranger would rise and recount his turn from a sinful life to one of piety and peace . " Amazing Grace " was one of many hymns that punctuated fervent sermons , although the contemporary style used a refrain , borrowed from other hymns , that employed simplicity and repetition such as :
Simultaneously , an unrelated movement of communal singing was established throughout the South and Western states . A format of teaching music to illiterate people appeared in 1800 . It used four sounds to symbolize the basic scale : fa @-@ sol @-@ la @-@ fa @-@ sol @-@ la @-@ mi @-@ fa . Each sound was accompanied by a specifically shaped note and thus became known as shape note singing . The method was simple to learn and teach , so schools were established throughout the South and West . Communities would come together for an entire day of singing in a large building where they sat in four distinct areas surrounding an open space , one member directing the group as a whole . Most of the music was Christian , but the purpose of communal singing was not primarily spiritual . Communities either could not afford music accompaniment or rejected it out of a Calvinistic sense of simplicity , so the songs were sung a cappella .
= = = " New Britain " tune = = =
When originally used in Olney , it is unknown what music , if any , accompanied the verses written by John Newton . Contemporary hymnbooks did not contain music and were simply small books of religious poetry . The first known instance of Newton 's lines joined to music was in A Companion to the Countess of Huntingdon 's Hymns ( London , 1808 ) , where it is set to the tune " Hephzibah " by English composer John Jenkins Husband . Common meter hymns were interchangeable with a variety of tunes ; more than twenty musical settings of " Amazing Grace " circulated with varying popularity until 1835 when William Walker assigned Newton 's words to a traditional song named " New Britain " , which was itself an amalgamation of two melodies ( " Gallaher " and " St. Mary " ) first published in the Columbian Harmony by Charles H. Spilman and Benjamin Shaw ( Cincinnati , 1829 ) . Spilman and Shaw , both students at Kentucky 's Centre College , compiled their tunebook both for public worship and revivals , to satisfy " the wants of the Church in her triumphal march . " Most of the tunes had been previously published , but " Gallaher " and " St. Mary " had not . As neither tune is attributed and both show elements of oral transmission , scholars can only speculate that they are possibly of British origin . A manuscript from 1828 by Lucius Chapin , a famous hymn writer of that time , contains a tune very close to " St. Mary " , but that does not mean that he wrote it .
" Amazing Grace " , with the words written by Newton and joined with " New Britain " , the melody most currently associated with it , appeared for the first time in Walker 's shape note tunebook Southern Harmony in 1847 . It was , according to author Steve Turner , a " marriage made in heaven ... The music behind ' amazing ' had a sense of awe to it . The music behind ' grace ' sounded graceful . There was a rise at the point of confession , as though the author was stepping out into the open and making a bold declaration , but a corresponding fall when admitting his blindness . " Walker 's collection was enormously popular , selling about 600 @,@ 000 copies all over the U.S. when the total population was just over 20 million . Another shape note tunebook named The Sacred Harp ( 1844 ) by Georgia residents Benjamin Franklin White and Elisha J. King became widely influential and continues to be used .
Another verse was first recorded in Harriet Beecher Stowe 's immensely influential 1852 anti @-@ slavery novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin . Three verses were emblematically sung by Tom in his hour of deepest crisis . He sings the sixth and fifth verses in that order , and Stowe included another verse not written by Newton that had been passed down orally in African American communities for at least 50 years . It was originally one of between 50 to 70 verses of a song titled " Jerusalem , My Happy Home " that first appeared in a 1790 book called A Collection of Sacred Ballads :
" Amazing Grace " came to be an emblem of a Christian movement and a symbol of the U.S. itself as the country was involved in a great political experiment , attempting to employ democracy as a means of government . Shape note singing communities , with all the members sitting around an open center , each song employing a different director , illustrated this in practice . Simultaneously , the U.S. began to expand westward into previously unexplored territory that was often wilderness . The " dangers , toils , and snares " of Newton 's lyrics had both literal and figurative meanings for Americans . This became poignantly true during the most serious test of American cohesion in the U.S. Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) . " Amazing Grace " set to " New Britain " was included in two hymnals distributed to soldiers and with death so real and imminent , religious services in the military became commonplace . The hymn was translated into other languages as well : while on the Trail of Tears , the Cherokee sang Christian hymns as a way of coping with the ongoing tragedy , and a version of the song by Samuel Worcester that had been translated into the Cherokee language became very popular .
= = = Urban revival = = =
Although " Amazing Grace " set to " New Britain " was popular , other versions existed regionally . Primitive Baptists in the Appalachian region often used " New Britain " with other hymns , and sometimes sing the words of " Amazing Grace " to other folk songs , including titles such as " In the Pines " , " Pisgah " , " Primrose " , and " Evan " , as all are able to be sung in common meter , of which the majority of their repertoire consists . A tune named " Arlington " accompanied Newton 's verses as much as " New Britain " for a time in the late 19th century .
Two musical arrangers named Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey heralded another religious revival in the cities of the U.S. and Europe , giving the song international exposure . Moody 's preaching and Sankey 's musical gifts were significant ; their arrangements were the forerunners of gospel music , and churches all over the U.S. were eager to acquire them . Moody and Sankey began publishing their compositions in 1875 , and " Amazing Grace " appeared three times with three different melodies , but they were the first to give it its title ; hymns were typically published using the first line of the lyrics , or the name of the tune such as " New Britain " . A publisher named Edwin Othello Excell gave the version of " Amazing Grace " set to " New Britain " immense popularity by publishing it in a series of hymnals that were used in urban churches . Excell altered some of Walker 's music , making it more contemporary and European , giving " New Britain " some distance from its rural folk @-@ music origins . Excell 's version was more palatable for a growing urban middle class and arranged for larger church choirs . Several editions featuring Newton 's first three stanzas and the verse previously included by Harriet Beecher Stowe in Uncle Tom 's Cabin were published by Excell between 1900 and 1910 , and his version of " Amazing Grace " became the standard form of the song in American churches .
= = Recorded versions = =
With the advent of recorded music and radio , " Amazing Grace " began to cross over from primarily a gospel standard to secular audiences . The ability to record combined with the marketing of records to specific audiences allowed " Amazing Grace " to take on thousands of different forms in the 20th century . Where Edwin Othello Excell sought to make the singing of " Amazing Grace " uniform throughout thousands of churches , records allowed artists to improvise with the words and music specific to each audience . AllMusic lists more than 7 @,@ 000 recordings – including re @-@ releases and compilations – as of September 2011 . Its first recording is an a cappella version from 1922 by the Sacred Harp Choir . It was included from 1926 to 1930 in Okeh Records ' catalogue , which typically concentrated strongly on blues and jazz . Demand was high for black gospel recordings of the song by H. R. Tomlin and J. M. Gates . A poignant sense of nostalgia accompanied the recordings of several gospel and blues singers in the 1940s and 1950s who used the song to remember their grandparents , traditions , and family roots . It was recorded with musical accompaniment for the first time in 1930 by Fiddlin ' John Carson , although to another folk hymn named " At the Cross " , not to " New Britain " . " Amazing Grace " is emblematic of several kinds of folk music styles , often used as the standard example to illustrate such musical techniques as lining out and call and response , that have been practiced in both black and white folk music .
Mahalia Jackson 's 1947 version received significant radio airplay , and as her popularity grew throughout the 1950s and 1960s , she often sang it at public events such as concerts at Carnegie Hall . Author James Basker states that the song has been employed by African Americans as the " paradigmatic Negro spiritual " because it expresses the joy felt at being delivered from slavery and worldly miseries . Anthony Heilbut , author of The Gospel Sound , states that the " dangers , toils , and snares " of Newton 's words are a " universal testimony " of the African American experience . During the Civil Rights Movement and opposition to the Vietnam War , the song took on a political tone . Mahalia Jackson employed " Amazing Grace " for Civil Rights marchers , writing that she used it " to give magical protection – a charm to ward off danger , an incantation to the angels of heaven to descend ... I was not sure the magic worked outside the church walls ... in the open air of Mississippi . But I wasn 't taking any chances . " Folk singer Judy Collins , who knew the song before she could remember learning it , witnessed Fannie Lou Hamer leading marchers in Mississippi in 1964 , singing " Amazing Grace " . Collins also considered it a talisman of sorts , and saw its equal emotional impact on the marchers , witnesses , and law enforcement who opposed the civil rights demonstrators . According to fellow folk singer Joan Baez , it was one of the most requested songs from her audiences , but she never realized its origin as a hymn ; by the time she was singing it in the 1960s she said it had " developed a life of its own " . It even made an appearance at the Woodstock Music Festival in 1969 during Arlo Guthrie 's performance .
Collins decided to record it in the late 1960s amid an atmosphere of counterculture introspection ; she was part of an encounter group that ended a contentious meeting by singing " Amazing Grace " as it was the only song to which all the members knew the words . Her producer was present and suggested she include a version of it on her 1970 album Whales & Nightingales . Collins , who had a history of alcohol abuse , claimed that the song was able to " pull her through " to recovery . It was recorded in St. Paul 's , the chapel at Columbia University , chosen for the acoustics . She chose an a cappella arrangement that was close to Edwin Othello Excell 's , accompanied by a chorus of amateur singers who were friends of hers . Collins connected it to the Vietnam War , to which she objected : " I didn 't know what else to do about the war in Vietnam . I had marched , I had voted , I had gone to jail on political actions and worked for the candidates I believed in . The war was still raging . There was nothing left to do , I thought ... but sing ' Amazing Grace ' . " Gradually and unexpectedly , the song began to be played on the radio , and then be requested . It rose to number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 , remaining on the charts for 15 weeks , as if , she wrote , her fans had been " waiting to embrace it " . In the UK , it charted 8 times between 1970 and 1972 , peaking at number 5 and spending a total of 75 weeks on popular music charts .
Although Collins used it as a catharsis for her opposition to the Vietnam War , two years after her rendition , the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards , senior Scottish regiment of the British Army , recorded an instrumental version featuring a bagpipe soloist accompanied by a pipe and drum band . The tempo of their arrangement was slowed to allow for the bagpipes , but it was based on Collins ' : it began with a bagpipe solo introduction similar to her lone voice , then it was accompanied by the band of bagpipes and horns , whereas in her version she is backed up by a chorus . It topped the RPM national singles chart in Canada for three weeks , and rose as high as number 11 in the U.S. It is also a controversial instrumental , as it combined pipes with a military band . The Pipe Major of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards was summoned to Edinburgh Castle and chastised for demeaning the bagpipes . Funeral processions for killed police , fire , and military personnel have often played a bagpipes version ever since .
Aretha Franklin and Rod Stewart also recorded " Amazing Grace " around the same time , and both of their renditions were popular . All four versions were marketed to distinct types of audiences thereby assuring its place as a pop song . Johnny Cash recorded it on his 1975 album Sings Precious Memories , dedicating it to his older brother Jack , who had been killed in a mill accident when they were boys in Dyess , Arkansas . Cash and his family sang it to themselves while they worked in the cotton fields following Jack 's death . Cash often included the song when he toured prisons , saying " For the three minutes that song is going on , everybody is free . It just frees the spirit and frees the person . "
The U.S. Library of Congress has a collection of 3 @,@ 000 versions of and songs inspired by " Amazing Grace " , some of which were first @-@ time recordings by folklorists Alan and John Lomax , a father and son team who in 1932 traveled thousands of miles across the South to capture the different regional styles of the song . More contemporary renditions include samples from such popular artists as Sam Cooke and the Soul Stirrers ( 1963 ) , the Byrds ( 1970 ) , Elvis Presley ( 1971 ) , Skeeter Davis ( 1972 ) , Mighty Clouds of Joy ( 1972 ) , Amazing Rhythm Aces ( 1975 ) , Willie Nelson ( 1976 ) , and the Lemonheads ( 1992 ) .
= = In popular culture = =
Following the appropriation of the hymn in secular music , " Amazing Grace " became such an icon in American culture that it has been used for a variety of secular purposes and marketing campaigns , placing it in danger of becoming a cliché . It has been mass @-@ produced on souvenirs , lent its name to a Superman villain , appeared on The Simpsons to demonstrate the redemption of a murderous character named Sideshow Bob , incorporated into Hare Krishna chants and adapted for Wicca ceremonies . It can also be sung to the theme from The Mickey Mouse Club and to many other popular songs , as Garrison Keillor has observed . The hymn has been employed in several films , including Alice 's Restaurant , Coal Miner 's Daughter , and Silkwood . It is referenced in the 2006 film Amazing Grace , which highlights Newton 's influence on the leading British abolitionist William Wilberforce , and in the upcoming film biography of Newton , Newton 's Grace . The 1982 science fiction film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan used " Amazing Grace " amid a context of Christian symbolism , to memorialize Mr. Spock following his death , but more practically , because the song has become " instantly recognizable to many in the audience as music that sounds appropriate for a funeral " according to a Star Trek scholar . Since 1954 when an organ instrumental of " New Britain " became a bestseller , " Amazing Grace " has been associated with funerals and memorial services . It has become a song that inspires hope in the wake of tragedy , becoming a sort of " spiritual national anthem " according to authors Mary Rourke and Emily Gwathmey . For example , President Barack Obama recited and then sang the hymn at the memorial service for Clementa Pinckney , one of the victims of the 2015 Charleston church shooting .
= = Modern interpretations = =
In recent years , the words of the hymn have been changed in some religious publications to downplay a sense of imposed self @-@ loathing by its singers . The second line , " That saved a wretch like me ! " has been rewritten as " That saved and strengthened me " , " save a soul like me " , or " that saved and set me free " . Kathleen Norris in her book Amazing Grace : A Vocabulary of Faith characterizes this transformation of the original words as " wretched English " making the line that replaces the original " laughably bland " . Part of the reason for this change has been the altered interpretations of what wretchedness and grace means . Newton 's Calvinistic view of redemption and divine grace formed his perspective that he considered himself a sinner so vile that he was unable to change his life or be redeemed without God 's help . Yet his lyrical subtlety , in Steve Turner 's opinion , leaves the hymn 's meaning open to a variety of Christian and non @-@ Christian interpretations . " Wretch " also represents a period in Newton 's life when he saw himself outcast and miserable , as he was when he was enslaved in Sierra Leone ; his own arrogance was matched by how far he had fallen in his life .
The communal understanding of redemption and human self @-@ worth has changed since Newton 's time . Since the 1970s , self @-@ help books , psychology , and some modern expressions of Christianity have viewed this disparity in terms of grace being an innate quality within all people who must be inspired or strong enough to find it : something to achieve . In contrast to Newton 's vision of wretchedness as his willful sin and distance from God , wretchedness has instead come to mean an obstacle of physical , social , or spiritual nature to overcome in order to achieve a state of grace , happiness , or contentment . Since its immense popularity and iconic nature , " grace " and the meaning behind the words of " Amazing Grace " have become as individual as the singer or listener . Bruce Hindmarsh suggests that the secular popularity of " Amazing Grace " is due to the absence of any mention of God in the lyrics until the fourth verse ( by Excell 's version , the fourth verse begins " When we 've been there ten thousand years " ) , and that the song represents the ability of humanity to transform itself instead of a transformation taking place at the hands of God . " Grace " , however , to John Newton had a clearer meaning , as he used the word to represent God or the power of God .
The transformative power of the song was investigated by journalist Bill Moyers in a documentary released in 1990 . Moyers was inspired to focus on the song 's power after watching a performance at Lincoln Center , where the audience consisted of Christians and non @-@ Christians , and he noticed that it had an equal impact on everybody in attendance , unifying them . James Basker also acknowledged this force when he explained why he chose " Amazing Grace " to represent a collection of anti @-@ slavery poetry : " there is a transformative power that is applicable ... : the transformation of sin and sorrow into grace , of suffering into beauty , of alienation into empathy and connection , of the unspeakable into imaginative literature . "
Moyers interviewed Collins , Cash , opera singer Jessye Norman , Appalachian folk musician Jean Ritchie and her family , white Sacred Harp singers in Georgia , black Sacred Harp singers in Alabama , and a prison choir at the Texas State Penitentiary at Huntsville . Collins , Cash , and Norman were unable to discern if the power of the song came from the music or the lyrics . Norman , who once notably sang it at the end of a large outdoor rock concert for Nelson Mandela 's 70th birthday , stated , " I don 't know whether it 's the text – I don 't know whether we 're talking about the lyrics when we say that it touches so many people – or whether it 's that tune that everybody knows . " A prisoner interviewed by Moyers explained his literal interpretation of the second verse : " ' Twas grace that taught my heart to fear , and grace my fears relieved " by saying that the fear became immediately real to him when he realized he may never get his life in order , compounded by the loneliness and restriction in prison . Gospel singer Marion Williams summed up its effect : " That 's a song that gets to everybody " .
The Dictionary of American Hymnology claims it is included in more than a thousand published hymnals , and recommends its use for " occasions of worship when we need to confess with joy that we are saved by God 's grace alone ; as a hymn of response to forgiveness of sin or as an assurance of pardon ; as a confession of faith or after the sermon . "
= Roy Phillipps =
Roy Cecil Phillipps , MC & Bar , DFC ( 1 March 1892 – 21 May 1941 ) was an Australian fighter ace of World War I. He achieved fifteen victories in aerial combat , four of them in a single action on 12 June 1918 . A grazier between the wars , he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1940 and was killed in a plane crash the following year .
Born in New South Wales but raised in Western Australia , Phillipps joined the Australian Imperial Force as an infantryman in April 1915 , seeing action at Gallipoli and on the Western Front . Wounded twice in 1916 , he transferred to the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) and , having falsified his age , was accepted for pilot training in May 1917 . As a member of No. 2 Squadron in France , Phillipps flew mainly S.E.5 fighters , and was awarded two Military Crosses and the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions . He finished the war a major , commanding No. 6 ( Training ) Squadron in England . Returning to Australia in 1919 , he left the AFC and was managing a rural property when he enlisted in the RAAF soon after the outbreak of World War II . At his death he was ranked squadron leader , commanding No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School at Archerfield , Queensland .
= = Early life = =
Phillipps was born on 1 March 1892 in New South Wales , though sources differ on the exact location , which is variously recorded as rural Moree and metropolitan North Sydney . He was the son of William Hargreaves Phillipps , originally of Northumberland , England , and his wife Cecil . After his father died , Phillipps ' mother took him to live in Perth , Western Australia . Educated at Hale School , he studied to be an accountant and was practising on a pastoral property in the Kimberley when war broke out in 1914 .
= = World War I = =
= = = 28th Battalion = = =
Phillipps enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force in April 1915 and joined the 28th Battalion , an infantry unit raised the same month at Blackboy Camp , Western Australia . He successfully applied for a commission and departed for Egypt aboard HMAT Ascanius on 9 June as a second lieutenant . After training in Egypt , he departed with his unit for Gallipoli aboard the transport Ivernia on 4 September . He was promoted to lieutenant on 25 October . The 28th Battalion , which had been sent to Gallipoli late in the campaign as reinforcements , was not heavily engaged on the peninsula , and suffered relatively few casualties before the withdrawal in December 1915 .
In March 1916 , Phillipps deployed to France with the 28th Battalion for service on the Western Front . He participated in a raid against the forts of Armentières on the night of 6 / 7 June , and saw action during the Battle of Pozières in July . On 5 August , he was shot through the thigh , requiring evacuation to England for hospital treatment . He was promoted to captain on 12 August . Phillipps rejoined his unit in October but suffered another gunshot wound to the thigh the following month , near Gueudecourt . He returned to England once more to recover , and remained in hospital until 2 March 1917 .
= = = Australian Flying Corps = = =
Unable to take any further part in the war as an infantryman , Phillipps would normally have been repatriated to Australia , but instead engineered a transfer to the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) as adjutant of No. 2 Squadron . After getting a taste of flying as a passenger , the twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old applied for pilot training , altering his birthdate from 1892 to 1896 . The official age limit for pilots in the AFC was thirty , but the preferred age was under twenty @-@ three . Phillipps ' application was accepted in May 1917 and , after qualifying for his wings , his proficiency was considered such that in August he was attached to No. 32 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps to gain operational experience in France . Within three days of arriving he crash @-@ landed his Airco DH.5 after it was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire near Ypres , but he escaped injury ; by the time he completed his attachment in September he was leading combat patrols .
Phillipps married Ellen Robinson , daughter of Western Australia 's Attorney @-@ General , at St Mary Abbots in Kensington , London , on 8 September 1917 . Rejoining No. 2 Squadron within the month as a flight commander , he was initially engaged mainly in low @-@ level strafing and bombing missions in DH.5s as his unit , attached to the British Third Army , took part in the Battle of Passchendaele . During the subsequent Battle of Cambrai , on 22 November , he recorded his first aerial victory when he turned the tables on a German fighter that had attacked him from above , forcing it to land . He was recommended for the Military Cross on 3 December , the award being promulgated in The London Gazette on 4 February 1918 , and the full citation appearing on 5 July :
Capt. Roy Cecil Phillipps , F.C.
For conspicuous gall
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antry and devotion to duty . He has performed continuous gallant work at very low altitudes in almost impossible weather . Whilst flying alone in a mist he forced an enemy aeroplane to land . On two occasions , flying at an altitude of 200 feet , he made very valuable reconnaissances , and his reports on the general situation were of the greatest value . His leadership is excellent , and he has set a high example to his flight .
No. 2 Squadron converted to Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s in January 1918 . The unit generally conducted patrols with flights of six aircraft but found it difficult to lure enemy fighters into combat , so after a lull in fighting early in February it began flying two @-@ plane missions , which yielded better results . The following month , as the German Spring Offensive got under way , Phillipps shot down three German fighters in as many days : a Fokker Triplane on 22 March , an Albatros the next morning , and a two @-@ seater on 24 March ; the official history of Australia in the war recorded that the last @-@ mentioned enemy lost its wings to Phillipps ' machine @-@ gun fire , and " fell like a stone " . With the Allies holding clear superiority over the German fighters , the main danger to the Australians was from ground fire as most combat took place at low level , and " their machines came back full of bullet @-@ holes " . On 27 March , Phillipps achieved two more victories , a Triplane that he sent down in flames near Albert and another German fighter over Méaulte . He was recommended for a bar to his Military Cross on 31 March , and the award was gazetted on 22 June :
Capt. Roy Cecil Phillipps , M.C. , Aust . F.C. attd . R.F.C.
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . When engaged with hostile aircraft during the recent operations , he has destroyed three enemy machines , and has in addition brought down two hostile planes out of control . He has also brought back accurate and valuable information regarding hostile movements under the most adverse conditions , particularly on one occasion , when he flew through a heavy barrage at a low altitude behind the enemy 's lines . He has shown conspicuous skill and determination when escorting low @-@ flying bombing patrols .
During April 1918 , No. 2 Squadron began operating in wide @-@ ranging offensive " circus " patrols made up of large formations of fighters , often drawn from several squadrons . Phillipps destroyed a Pfalz near Bapaume on 16 May , before achieving his greatest success on 12 June when he shot down four German fighters in a single patrol over Ribécourt . His victims included two Fokker Triplanes , one of which he attacked head @-@ on , an LVG , and a Fokker D.VII flown by Fritz Loerzer , commander of Jasta 26 and an eleven @-@ victory ace , who was captured . The feat also gave Phillipps a total of eleven victories , making him the equal highest @-@ scoring ace in No. 2 Squadron along with Captain Henry Forrest . Phillipps was recommended for the Distinguished Flying Cross on 16 June , and the award was promulgated on 3 August :
Capt. Roy Cecil Phillipps , M.C. ( Australian Flying Corps ) .
Whilst on offensive patrol this officer destroyed personally four enemy aeroplanes ; he has also shown the greatest gallantry during the recent operations in attacking troops and transports on the roads , and dropping bombs from very low altitudes .
On 25 July , Phillipps was leading the escort for a raid on the Lille forts east of Armentières when he spotted a patrol of seven Fokkers . Jettisoning his bombs to lighten his load , he attacked one of the German fighters and shot away its wing ; the others retreated . During the Allies ' Hundred Days Offensive , on 12 August , he joined fellow No. 2 Squadron ace Adrian Cole and No. 4 Squadron aces Harry Cobby and Roy King to lead their combined forces in support of the British Fourth Army , Phillipps accounting for a Fokker that broke up in mid @-@ air . He was credited with two other victories in August to bring his tally to fifteen , making him No. 2 Squadron 's second most successful ace after Captain Francis Smith , who finished the war with sixteen . Later that month , Phillipps rotated back to England in accordance with Royal Air Force policy , which required pilots to be rested and serve as instructors after nine to twelve months in combat . In October , he was promoted to major and posted to command No. 6 ( Training ) Squadron at Minchinhampton ; the unit was primarily responsible for training new pilots for service with No. 2 Squadron .
= = Interbellum and World War II = =
Phillipps relinquished command of No. 6 Squadron upon its disbandment in March 1919 . He returned to Australia on 16 June aboard the troopship Kaiser @-@ i @-@ Hind , and was discharged from the Australian Flying Corps on 15 August . That month he was one of several veteran pilots , including Lieutenant Colonel Oswald Watt and Major Bill Anderson , appointed to serve on a committee examining applications for a proposed Australian air service to replace the AFC ; the Australian Air Corps , immediate precursor to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , was duly formed on 1 January 1920 under Anderson 's command .
After leaving the military , Phillipps became a grazier in New South Wales . He purchased Courallie station at Moree in 1926 , and was managing the property when Australia declared war in September 1939 . In February 1940 , he enlisted in the RAAF as a flying officer . Raised to flight lieutenant , he was posted as assistant chief ground instructor to No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 2 EFTS ) at Archerfield , Queensland , on 27 March . No. 2 EFTS was one of twelve basic flying schools established by the RAAF as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . Phillipps was appointed chief ground instructor on 17 June . Having been promoted to squadron leader , he assumed command of No. 2 EFTS on 20 October 1940 .
Phillipps died on 21 May 1941 , following an accident in a private plane . The aircraft , piloted by its owner , Flight Lieutenant J.W.F. Collins , was reported to have taken off from Archerfield at night without RAAF or Civil Aviation Department clearance , and collided with trees . Survived by his wife , son and three daughters , Phillipps was cremated at Mount Thompson Crematorium in Brisbane . He is commemorated on the Queensland Cremation Memorial , Brisbane , and on panel 116 of the Australian War Memorial , Canberra .
= Rhodesia 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence =
The Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) was a statement adopted by the Cabinet of Rhodesia on 11 November 1965 , announcing that Rhodesia , a British territory in southern Africa that had governed itself since 1923 , now regarded itself as an independent sovereign state . The culmination of a protracted dispute between the British and Rhodesian governments regarding the terms under which the latter could become fully independent , it was the first unilateral break from the United Kingdom by one of its colonies since the United States Declaration of Independence nearly two centuries before . Britain , the Commonwealth and the United Nations all deemed Rhodesia 's UDI illegal , and economic sanctions , the first in the UN 's history , were imposed on the breakaway colony . Amid near @-@ complete international isolation , Rhodesia continued as an unrecognised state with the assistance of South Africa and Portugal .
The Rhodesian government , which mostly comprised members of the country 's white minority of about 5 % , was indignant when , amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change , less developed African colonies to the north without comparable experience of self @-@ rule quickly advanced to independence during the early 1960s while Rhodesia was refused sovereignty under the newly ascendant principle of " no independence before majority rule " ( " NIBMAR " ) . Most white Rhodesians felt that they were due independence following four decades ' self @-@ government , and that Britain was betraying them by withholding it . This combined with the colonial government 's acute reluctance to hand over power to black nationalists — the manifestation of racial tensions , Cold War anti @-@ communism and the fear that a dystopian Congo @-@ style situation might result — to create the impression that if Britain did not grant independence , Rhodesia might be justified in taking it unilaterally .
Stalemate developed between the British and Rhodesian Prime Ministers , Harold Wilson and Ian Smith respectively , between 1964 and 1965 . Dispute largely surrounded the British condition that the terms for independence had to be acceptable " to the people of the country as a whole " ; Smith contended that this was met , while Britain and black nationalist leaders in Rhodesia held that it was not . After Wilson proposed in late October 1965 that Britain might safeguard future black representation in the Rhodesian parliament by withdrawing some of the colonial government 's devolved powers , then presented terms for an investigatory Royal Commission that the Rhodesians found unacceptable , Smith and his Cabinet declared independence . Calling this treasonous , the British colonial Governor Sir Humphrey Gibbs formally dismissed Smith and his government , but they ignored him and appointed an " Officer Administering the Government " to take his place .
While no country recognised UDI , the Rhodesian High Court deemed the post @-@ UDI government legal and de jure in 1968 . The Smith administration initially professed continued loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II , but abandoned this in 1970 when it declared a republic in an unsuccessful attempt to win foreign recognition . The Rhodesian Bush War , a guerrilla conflict between the government and two rival communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups , began in earnest two years later , and after several attempts to end the war Smith agreed the Internal Settlement with non @-@ militant nationalists in 1978 . Under these terms the country was reconstituted under black rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979 , but this new order was rejected by the guerrillas and the international community . The Bush War continued until Zimbabwe Rhodesia revoked UDI as part of the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979 . Following a brief period of direct British rule , the country was granted internationally recognised independence under the name Zimbabwe in 1980 .
= = Background = =
= = = A unique case = = =
The southern African territory of Rhodesia , officially Southern Rhodesia , was a unique case in the British Empire and Commonwealth — though a colony in name , it was internally self @-@ governing and constitutionally not unlike a dominion . This situation dated back to 1923 , when it was granted responsible government within the Empire as a self @-@ governing colony , following three decades of administration and development by the British South Africa Company . Britain had intended Southern Rhodesia 's integration into the Union of South Africa as a new province , but this having been rejected by registered voters in the 1922 government referendum , the territory was moulded into a prospective dominion instead . It was empowered to run its own affairs in almost all respects , including defence .
Whitehall 's powers over Southern Rhodesia under the 1923 constitution were , on paper , considerable ; the British Crown was theoretically able to cancel any passed bill within a year , or alter the constitution however it wished . These reserved powers were intended to protect the indigenous black Africans from discriminatory legislation and to safeguard British commercial interests in the colony , but as Claire Palley comments in her constitutional history of the country , it would have been extremely difficult for Whitehall to enforce such actions , and attempting to do so would have probably caused a crisis . In the event , they were never exercised . A generally co @-@ operative relationship developed between Whitehall and the colonial government and civil service in Salisbury , and dispute was rare .
The 1923 constitution was drawn up in non @-@ racial terms , and the electoral system it devised was similarly open , at least in theory . Voting qualifications regarding personal income , education and property , similar to those of the Cape Qualified Franchise , were applied equally to all , but since most blacks did not meet the set standards , both the electoral roll and the colonial parliament were overwhelmingly from the white minority of about 5 % . The result was that black interests were sparsely represented if at all , something that most of the colony 's whites showed little interest in changing ; they claimed that most blacks were uninterested in Western @-@ style political process and that they would not govern properly if they took over . Bills such as the Land Apportionment Act of 1930 , which earmarked about half of the country for white ownership and residence while dividing the rest into black purchase , tribal trust and national areas , were variously biased towards the white minority . White settlers and their offspring provided most of the colony 's administrative , industrial , scientific and farming skills , and built a relatively balanced , partially industrialised market economy , boasting strong agricultural and manufacturing sectors , iron and steel industries and modern mining enterprises . Everyday life was marked by discrimination ranging from job reservation for whites to petty segregation of trains , post office queues and the like . Whites owned most of the best farmland , and had far superior education , wages and homes , but the schooling , healthcare , infrastructure and salaries available to black Rhodesians were nevertheless very good by African standards .
In the wider Imperial context , Southern Rhodesia occupied a category unto itself because of the " special quasi @-@ independent status " it held . The Dominions Office , formed in 1925 to handle British relations with the dominions of Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Newfoundland , South Africa and the Irish Free State , also dealt with Southern Rhodesia , and Imperial Conferences included the Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister alongside those of the dominions from 1932 . This unique arrangement continued following the advent of Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conferences in 1944 . Southern Rhodesians of all races fought for Britain in the Second World War , and the colonial government gradually received more autonomy regarding external affairs . During the immediate post @-@ war years , Southern Rhodesian politicians generally thought that they were as good as independent as they were , and that full autonomy in the form of dominionship would make little difference to them . Post @-@ war immigration to Southern Rhodesia , mainly from Britain , Ireland and South Africa , caused the white community to swell from 68 @,@ 954 in 1941 to 221 @,@ 504 in 1961 . The black population grew from 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 over the same period .
= = = Federation and the Wind of Change = = =
Believing full dominion status to be effectively symbolic and " there for the asking " , Prime Minister Godfrey Huggins ( in office from 1933 to 1953 ) twice ignored British overtures hinting at dominionship , and instead pursued an initially semi @-@ independent Federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , two colonies directly administered from London . He hoped that this might set in motion the creation of one united dominion in south @-@ central Africa , emulating the Federation of Australia half a century before . The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , defined in its constitution as indissoluble , began in 1953 , mandated by the results of a mostly white referendum , with Southern Rhodesia , the most developed of the three territories , at its head , Huggins as Federal Prime Minister and Salisbury as Federal capital .
Coming at the start of the decolonisation period , the Federation of self @-@ governing Southern Rhodesia with two directly ruled British protectorates was later described by the British historian Robert Blake as " an aberration of history — a curious deviation from the inevitable course of events " . The project faced black opposition from the start , and ultimately failed because of the shifting international attitudes and rising black nationalist ambitions of the late 1950s and early 1960s , often collectively called the Wind of Change . Britain , France and Belgium vastly accelerated their withdrawal from Africa during this period , believing colonial rule to be no longer sustainable geopolitically or ethically . The idea of " no independence before majority rule " , commonly abbreviated to " NIBMAR " , gained considerable ground in British political circles . When Huggins ( who had been recently ennobled as Lord Malvern ) asked Britain to make the Federation a dominion in 1956 , he was rebuffed . The opposition Dominion Party responded by repeatedly calling for a Federal unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) over the next few years . Following Lord Malvern 's retirement in late 1956 , his successor Sir Roy Welensky pondered such a move on at least three occasions .
Attempting to advance the case for Southern Rhodesian independence , particularly in the event of Federal dissolution , the Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Sir Edgar Whitehead brokered the 1961 constitution with Britain , which he thought would remove all British powers of reservation over Southern Rhodesian bills and acts , and put the country on the brink of full sovereignty . Despite its containing no independence guarantees , Whitehead , Welensky and other proponents of this constitution presented it to the Southern Rhodesian electorate as the " independence constitution " under which Southern Rhodesia would become a Commonwealth realm on a par with Australia , Canada and New Zealand if the Federation dissolved . White dissenters included Ian Smith , MP for Gwanda and Chief Whip for the governing United Federal Party ( UFP ) in the Federal Assembly , who took exception to the constitution 's omission of an explicit promise of Southern Rhodesian independence in the event of Federal dissolution , and ultimately resigned his post in protest . A referendum of the mostly white electorate approved the new constitution by a majority of 65 % on 26 July 1961 . The final version of the constitution included a few extra provisions inserted by the British , one of which — Section 111 — reserved full powers to the Crown to amend , add to or revoke certain sections of the Southern Rhodesian constitution by Order in Council at the request of the British government . This effectively negated the relinquishment of British powers described elsewhere in the document , but the Southern Rhodesians did not initially notice it .
The black nationalist movement in Southern Rhodesia , founded and organised by urban black elites during the late 1950s , was repeatedly banned by the colonial government because of the political violence , industrial sabotage and intimidation of potential black voters that characterised its campaign . The principal nationalist group , led by the Bulawayo trade unionist Joshua Nkomo , renamed itself with each post @-@ ban reorganisation , and by the start of 1962 was called the Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) . Attempting to win black political support , Whitehead proposed a number of reforms to racially discriminatory legislation , including the Land Apportionment Act , and promised to implement these if his UFP won the next Southern Rhodesian election . But intimidation by ZAPU of prospective black voters impeded the UFP 's efforts to win their support , and much of the white community saw Whitehead as too radical , and soft on what they saw as black extremism . In the December 1962 Southern Rhodesian election , the UFP was defeated by the Rhodesian Front ( RF ) , a newly formed alliance of conservative voices headed by Winston Field and Ian Smith , in what was widely considered a shock result . Field became Prime Minister , with Smith as his deputy .
= = = Federal dissolution ; the roots of mistrust = = =
Meanwhile , secessionist black nationalist parties won electoral victories in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , and Harold Macmillan 's Conservative administration in Britain moved towards breaking up the Federation , resolving that it had become untenable . In February 1962 , the British Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations , Duncan Sandys , secretly informed the Nyasaland nationalist leader Hastings Banda that secession would be allowed . A few days later , he horrified Welensky by telling him that " we British have lost the will to govern " . " But we haven 't " , retorted Julian Greenfield , Welensky 's Law Minister . Macmillan 's Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State , R A Butler , who headed British oversight of the Federation , officially announced Nyasaland 's right to secede in December 1962 . Four months later , he informed the three territories that he was going to convene a conference to decide the Federation 's future .
As Southern Rhodesia had been the UK 's legislative partner in forming the Federation in 1953 , it would be impossible ( or at least very difficult ) for Britain to dissolve the union without Southern Rhodesia 's co @-@ operation . Field could therefore potentially hamstring the British by refusing to attend the conference until they pledged to grant his country full independence . According to Field , Smith and other RF politicians , Butler made several such guarantees orally to ensure their co @-@ operation at the conference , but repeatedly refused to give anything on paper . The Southern Rhodesians claimed that Butler justified his refusal to give a written promise by saying that binding Whitehall to a document rather than his word would be against the Commonwealth 's " spirit of trust " — an argument that Field eventually accepted . " Let 's remember the trust you emphasised " , Smith warned , according to Field 's account wagging his finger at Butler ; " if you break that you will live to regret it . " Southern Rhodesia attended the conference , which was held at Victoria Falls over a week starting from 28 June 1963 , and among other things it was agreed to formally liquidate the Federation at the end of the year . In the House of Commons afterwards , Butler flatly denied suggestions that he had " oiled the wheels " of Federal dissolution with secret promises to the Southern Rhodesians .
Field 's government was startled by Britain 's announcement in October 1963 that Nyasaland would become fully independent on 6 July 1964 . While no date was set for Northern Rhodesian statehood , it was generally surmised that it was going to follow shortly thereafter . Smith was promptly sent to London , where he held a round of inconclusive Southern Rhodesian independence talks with the new British Prime Minister , Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home . Around the same time , the presence and significance of Section 111 of the 1961 constitution emerged in Southern Rhodesia , prompting speculation in political circles that a future British government might , if it were so inclined , go against previous conventions by legislating for Salisbury without its consent , withdrawing devolved powers or otherwise altering the Southern Rhodesian constitution . Fearing what the Labour Party might do if it won the next British general election ( which was projected for late 1964 ) , the Southern Rhodesians stepped up their efforts , hoping to win independence before Britain went to the polls , and preferably not after Nyasaland . The Federation dissolved as scheduled at the end of 1963 .
= = Positions and motivations = =
= = = British government stance = = =
The British government 's refusal to grant independence to Southern Rhodesia under the 1961 constitution was largely the result of the geopolitical and moral shifts associated with the Wind of Change , coupled with the UK 's wish to avoid opprobrium and loss of prestige in the United Nations ( UN ) and the Commonwealth . By the early 1960s , general consensus in the post @-@ colonial UN — particularly the General Assembly , where the communist bloc and the Afro @-@ Asian lobby were collectively very strong — roundly denounced all forms of colonialism , and supported communist @-@ backed black nationalist insurgencies across southern Africa , regarding them as racial liberation movements . Amid the Cold War , Britain opposed the spread of Soviet and Chinese influence into Africa , but knew it would become an international pariah if it publicly expressed reservations or backed down on NIBMAR in the Southern Rhodesia question . Once the topic of Southern Rhodesia came to the fore in the UN and other bodies , particularly the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) , even maintaining the status quo became regarded as unacceptable internationally , causing the UK government a great deal of embarrassment .
In the Commonwealth context , too , Britain knew that simply granting independence to Southern Rhodesia was out of the question as many of the Afro @-@ Asian countries were also Commonwealth members . Statehood for Salisbury without majority rule would split the Commonwealth and perhaps cause it to break up , a disastrous prospect for British foreign policy . The Commonwealth repeatedly called on Britain to intervene directly should Southern Rhodesian defiance continue , while liberals in Britain worried that if left unchecked Salisbury might drift towards South African @-@ style apartheid . Anxious to avoid having to choose between Southern Rhodesia and the Commonwealth , Whitehall attempted to negotiate a middle way between the two , but ultimately put international considerations first , regarding them as more important .
At party level , the Labour Party , in opposition until October 1964 , was overtly against Southern Rhodesian independence under the 1961 constitution and supportive of the black nationalist movement on ideological and moral grounds . The Liberal Party , holding a handful of parliament seats , took a similar stance . The Conservative Party , while also following a policy of decolonisation , was more sympathetic to the Southern Rhodesian government 's position , and included members who openly supported it .
= = = Southern Rhodesian government view = = =
The Southern Rhodesian government found it bizarre that Britain was making independent states out of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , less developed territories with little experience of self @-@ rule , while withholding sovereign statehood from Southern Rhodesia , the Federation 's senior partner , which had already been self @-@ governing for four decades and which was one of the most prosperous and developed countries in Africa . The principle of majority rule , the basis for this apparent inconsistency , was considered irrelevant by the Southern Rhodesians . They had presumed that in the event of Federal dissolution they would be first in line for independence without major adjustments to the 1961 constitution , an impression confirmed to them by prior intergovernmental correspondence , particularly the oral promises they claimed to have received from Butler . When it did not prove forthcoming they felt cheated . Salisbury contended that its predominantly white legislature was more deserving of independence than the untried black nationalist leaders as it had proven its competence over decades of self @-@ rule .
The RF claimed that the bloody civil wars , military coups and other disasters that plagued the new majority @-@ ruled African states to the north , many of which had become corrupt , autocratic or communist one @-@ party states very soon after independence , showed that black nationalist leaders were not ready to govern . Influenced strongly by the white refugees who had fled south from the Congo , it presented chaotic doomsday scenarios of what black nationalist rule in Southern Rhodesia might mean , particularly for the white community . Proponents of the RF stand downplayed black nationalist grievances regarding land ownership and segregation , and argued that despite the racial imbalance in domestic politics — whites made up 5 % of the population , but over 90 % of registered voters — the electoral system was not racist as the franchise was based on financial and educational qualifications rather than ethnicity . They emphasised the colony 's proud war record on Britain 's behalf , and expressed a wish in the Cold War context to form an anti @-@ communist , pro @-@ Western front in Africa alongside South Africa and Portugal .
These factors combined with what RF politicians and supporters saw as British decadence , chicanery and betrayal to create the case they put forward that UDI , while dubious legally and likely to provoke international uproar , might nevertheless be in their eyes justifiable and necessary for the good of the country and region if an accommodation could not be found with Whitehall .
= = Road to UDI = =
= = = First steps , under Field = = =
Field 's failure to secure independence concurrently with the end of the Federation caused his Cabinet 's support for him to waver during late 1963 and early 1964 . The RF caucus in January 1964 revealed widespread dissatisfaction with him on the grounds that the British seemed to be outwitting him . The Prime Minister was put under immense pressure to win the colony 's independence . Field travelled to England later that month to press Douglas @-@ Home and Sandys for independence , and raised the possibility of UDI on a few occasions , but returned empty @-@ handed on 2 February .
The RF united behind Field after Sandys wrote him a terse letter warning him of the likely Commonwealth reaction to a declaration of independence , but the Prime Minister then lost his party 's confidence by failing to pursue a possible route to at least de facto independence devised by Desmond Lardner @-@ Burke , a lawyer and RF MP for Gwelo . During March 1964 , the Legislative Assembly in Salisbury considered and passed Lardner @-@ Burke 's motion that the Governor , Sir Humphrey Gibbs , should submit a petition to the Queen requesting alteration of Section 111 of the 1961 constitution so that the Royal Assent described therein would be exercised at the request of the Southern Rhodesian government rather than that of its British counterpart . This would both remove the possibility of British legislative interference and pave the way for an attempted assumption of independence by Order in Council .
The RF 's intention was partly to test whether or not the British would attempt to block this bill after Gibbs had granted Royal Assent to it , but this issue never came to a head because Sandys persuaded Field not to forward it to Gibbs for ratification on the grounds that it had not been unanimously passed . Lord Salisbury , one of Southern Rhodesia 's main supporters in Britain , despaired at Field 's lack of action , telling Welensky that as he saw it " the simple time to have declared independence , whether right or wrong , would have been when the Federation came to an end " . The RF hierarchy interpreted this latest backtrack by Field as evidence that he would not seriously challenge the British on the independence issue , and forced his resignation on 13 April 1964 . Smith accepted the Cabinet 's nomination to take his place .
= = = Smith replaces Field ; talks with Douglas @-@ Home = = =
Smith , a farmer from the Midlands town of Selukwe who had been seriously wounded while serving in the British Royal Air Force during the Second World War , was Southern Rhodesia 's first native @-@ born Prime Minister . Regarded in British political circles as a " raw colonial " — when he took over , Smith 's personal experience of the UK comprised four brief visits — he promised a harder line than Field in independence talks . The RF 's replacement of Field drew criticism from the British Labour Party , whose leader Harold Wilson called it " brutal " , while Nkomo described the new Smith Cabinet as " a suicide squad ... not interested in the welfare of all the people but only in their own " . Smith said he was pursuing a middle course between black nationalist rule and apartheid so that there would still be " a place for the white man " in Southern Rhodesia ; this would benefit the blacks too , he claimed . He held that the government should be based " on merit , not on colour or nationalism " , and insisted that there would be " no African nationalist government here in my lifetime " .
Salisbury 's blunt refusal to be part of the Wind of Change caused the Southern Rhodesian military 's traditional British and American suppliers to impose an informal embargo , and prompted Whitehall and Washington to stop sending Southern Rhodesia financial aid around the same time . In June 1964 , Douglas @-@ Home informed Smith that Southern Rhodesia would not be represented at the year 's Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference , despite Salisbury 's record of attendance going back to 1932 , because of a change in policy to only include representatives from fully independent states . This decision , taken by Britain to preempt the possibility of open confrontation with Asian and black African leaders at the conference , deeply insulted Smith . Lord Malvern equated Britain 's removal of Southern Rhodesia 's conference seat with " kicking us out of the Commonwealth " , while Welensky expressed horror at what he described as " this cavalier treatment of a country which has , since its creation , staunchly supported , in every possible way , Britain and the Commonwealth " .
At 10 Downing Street in early September 1964 , impasse developed between Douglas @-@ Home and Smith over the best way to measure black public opinion in Southern Rhodesia . A key plank of Britain 's Southern Rhodesia policy was that the terms for independence had to be " acceptable to the people of the country as a whole " — agreeing to this , Smith suggested that white and urban black opinion could be gauged through a general referendum of registered voters , and that rural black views could be obtained at a national indaba ( tribal conference ) of chiefs and headmen . Douglas @-@ Home told Smith that although this proposal satisfied him personally , he could not accept it as he did not believe the Commonwealth , the United Nations or the Labour Party would also do so . He stressed that such a move towards accommodation with Smith might hurt the Conservatives ' chances in the British general election the next month , and suggested that it might be in Smith 's best interests to wait until after the election to continue negotiations . Smith accepted this argument . Douglas @-@ Home assured Smith that a Conservative government would settle with him and grant independence within a year .
Attempting to form a viable white opposition to the Rhodesian Front , the UFP resurrected itself around Welensky , renamed itself the Rhodesia Party , and entered the Arundel and Avondale by @-@ elections that had been called for 1 October 1964 . Perturbed by the prospect of having to face the political heavyweight Welensky in parliament at the head of the opposition , the RF poured huge resources into winning both of these former UFP safe seats , and fielded Clifford Dupont , Smith 's deputy , against Welensky in Arundel . The RF won both seats comfortably , and the Rhodesia Party soon faded away . Spurred on by this success , Smith organised the indaba for 22 October , and called a general independence referendum for 5 November 1964 . Meanwhile , Wilson wrote a number of letters to Southern Rhodesian black nationalists , assuring them that " the Labour Party is totally opposed to granting independence to Southern Rhodesia so long as the government of that country remains under the control of the white minority " .
= = = Wilson 's Labour government ; Salisbury 's tests of opinion = = =
Labour defeated the Conservatives by four seats in the British general election on 15 October 1964 , and formed a government the next day . Both Labour and the Conservatives told Smith that a positive result at the indaba would not be recognised by Britain as representative of the people , and the Conservatives turned down Salisbury 's invitation to send observers . Smith pressed on , telling parliament that he would ask the tribal chiefs and headmen " to consult their people in the traditional manner " , then hold the indaba as planned . On 22 October , 196 chiefs and 426 headmen from across the country gathered at Domboshawa , just north @-@ east of Salisbury , and began their deliberations . Smith hoped that Britain , having taken part in such indabas in the past , might send a delegation at the last minute , but none arrived , much to his annoyance , particularly as the British government 's Commonwealth Secretary Arthur Bottomley was only across the Zambezi in Lusaka at the time .
While the chiefs conferred , Northern Rhodesia became independent Zambia on 24 October 1964 , emulating Nyasaland , which had achieved statehood as Malawi three months earlier . Reasoning that it was no longer necessary to refer to itself as " Southern " in the absence of a northern counterpart , Southern Rhodesia began calling itself simply Rhodesia . The same day , the commander of the Rhodesian Army , Major @-@ General John " Jock " Anderson , resigned , announcing publicly that he was doing so because of his opposition to UDI , which he said he could not go along with because of his oath of allegiance to the Queen . Interpreting this as a sign that Smith intended to declare independence if a majority backed it in the referendum , Wilson wrote a stiff letter to Smith on 25 October , warning him of the consequences of UDI , and demanding " a categorical assurance forthwith that no attempt at a unilateral declaration of independence on your part will be made " . Smith expressed confusion as to what he had done to provoke this , and ignored it .
When the indaba ended on 26 October , the chiefs and headmen returned a unanimous decision to support the government 's stand for independence under the 1961 constitution , attesting in their report that " people who live far away do not understand the problems of our country " . This verdict was rejected by the nationalist movement on the grounds that the chiefs received governmental salaries ; the chiefs countered that the black MPs in parliamentary opposition also received such salaries , but still opposed the government . Malvern , who was becoming perturbed by the RF 's actions , dismissed the indaba as a " swindle " , asserting that the chiefs no longer had any real power ; the British simply ignored the whole exercise . On 27 October , Wilson released a firm statement regarding Britain 's intended response to UDI , warning that Rhodesia 's economic and political ties with Britain , the Commonwealth and most of the world would be immediately severed amid a campaign of sanctions if Smith 's government went ahead with UDI . This was intended to discourage white Rhodesians from voting for independence in the referendum , for which the RF campaign slogan was " Yes means Unity , not UDI " . Wilson was pleased when Douglas @-@ Home , his leading opponent in the House of Commons , praised the statement as " rough but right " . On 5 November 1964 , Rhodesia 's mostly white electorate voted " yes " to independence under the 1961 constitution by a margin of 89 % , prompting Smith to declare that the British condition of acceptability to the people as a whole had been met .
= = = Stalemate develops between Smith and Wilson = = =
Smith wrote to Wilson the day after the referendum , asking him to send Bottomley to Salisbury for talks . Wilson replied that Smith should instead come to London . The British and Rhodesians exchanged often confrontational letters for the next few months . Alluding to the British financial aid pledged to Salisbury as part of the Federal dissolution arrangements , Wilson 's High Commissioner in Salisbury , J B Johnston , wrote to the Rhodesian Cabinet Secretary Gerald B Clarke on 23 December that " talk of a unilateral declaration of independence is bound to throw a shadow of uncertainty on the future financial relations between the two governments " . Smith was furious , seeing this as blackmail , and on 13 January 1965 wrote to Wilson : " I am so incensed at the line of your High Commissioner 's letter that I am replying directly to you ... It would appear that any undertakings given by the British government are worthless ... such immoral behaviour on the part of the British government makes it impossible for me to continue negotiations with you with any confidence that our standards of fair play , honesty and decency will prevail . "
The two premiers were brought together in person in late January 1965 , when Smith travelled to London for Sir Winston Churchill 's funeral . Following an episode concerning Smith 's non @-@ invitation to a luncheon at Buckingham Palace after the funeral — noticing the Rhodesian 's absence , the Queen sent a royal equerry to Smith 's hotel to retrieve him , reportedly causing Wilson much irritation — the two Prime Ministers inconclusively debated at 10 Downing Street . They differed on most matters , but agreed on a visit to Rhodesia the next month by Bottomley and the Lord Chancellor , Lord Gardiner , to gauge public opinion and meet political and commercial figures . Bottomley and Gardiner visited Rhodesia from 22 February to 3 March , collected a wide cross @-@ section of opinions , including some from black nationalists , and on returning to Britain reported to the House of Commons that they were " not without hope of finding a way towards a solution that will win the support of all communities and lead to independence and prosperity for all Rhodesians " . Bottomley also condemned black @-@ on @-@ black political violence , and dismissed the idea of introducing majority rule through military force .
The RF called a new general election for May 1965 and , campaigning on an election promise of independence , won all 50 " A " -roll seats ( the voters for which were mostly white ) . Josiah Gondo , leader of the United People 's Party , became Rhodesia 's first black Leader of the Opposition . Opening parliament on 9 June , Gibbs told the Legislative Assembly that the RF 's strengthened majority amounted to " a mandate to lead the country to its full independence " , and announced that the new government had informed him of its intent to open its own diplomatic mission in Lisbon , separate from the British embassy there . The British and Rhodesians argued about this unilateral act by Salisbury , described by the historian J R T Wood as the " veritable straw in the wind " , alongside the independence issue until Portugal accepted the mission in late September , much to Britain 's fury and Rhodesia 's delight . Hoping to bring Smith to heel by stonewalling him , Wilson 's ministers deliberately delayed and frustrated the Rhodesian government in negotiations . Rhodesia was again excluded from the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference in 1965 . The UK 's refusal of aid , the Lisbon mission , the informal arms embargo and other issues combined with this to cause the Rhodesian government 's sense of alienation from Britain and the Commonwealth to deepen . In his memoirs , Smith accused the British of " resorting to politics of convenience and appeasement " . Wilson , meanwhile , became exasperated by what he saw as Rhodesian inflexibility , describing the gap between the two governments as " between different worlds and different centuries " .
= = = Final steps to UDI = = =
Amid renewed rumours of an impending Rhodesian UDI , Smith travelled to meet Wilson in London at the start of October 1965 , telling the press that he intended to resolve the independence issue once and for all . Both the British and the Rhodesians were surprised by the large numbers of Britons who came out to support Smith during his visit . Smith accepted an invitation from the BBC to appear on its Twenty @-@ Four Hours evening news and current affairs programme , but Downing Street blocked this at the last minute . Following largely abortive talks with Wilson , the Rhodesian Prime Minister flew home on 12 October . Desperate to avert UDI , Wilson travelled to Salisbury two weeks later to continue negotiations .
During these discussions , Smith referred to the last resort of a UDI on many occasions , though he said he hoped to find another way out of the quandary . He offered to increase black legislative representation by expanding the electorate along the lines of " one taxpayer , one vote " — which would enfranchise about half a million , but still leave most of the nation voteless — in return for a grant of independence . Wilson said this was insufficient , and countered that future black representation might be better safeguarded by Britain 's withdrawal from the colonial government of the power it had held since 1923 to determine the size and makeup of its parliament . The Rhodesians were horrified by this prospect , particularly as Wilson 's suggestion of it seemed to them to have removed the failsafe alternative of keeping the status quo . Before the British Prime Minister left Rhodesia on 30 October 1965 , he proposed a Royal Commission to gauge public opinion in the colony regarding independence under the 1961 constitution , possibly chaired by the Rhodesian Chief Justice Sir Hugh Beadle , which would report its findings to both the British and Rhodesian Cabinets . Wilson confirmed in the House of Commons two days later that he intended to introduce direct British control over the Rhodesian parliamentary structure to ensure that progress was made towards majority rule .
Stalemate drew closer as the Rhodesian Cabinet resolved that since Wilson had ruled out maintenance of the status quo , its only remaining options were to trust in the Royal Commission or declare independence . When the terms for the commission 's visit were presented to Smith , he found that contrary to what had been discussed during the British Prime Minister 's visit , the Royal Commission would operate on the basis that the 1961 constitution was unacceptable to the British government , and that Britain would not commit itself to accepting the final report . Smith said these conditions amounted to a " vote of no confidence in [ the commission ] before they commenced " , and therefore rejected them . " The impression you left with us of a determined effort to resolve our constitutional problem has been utterly dissipated " , he wrote to Wilson on 5 November . " It would seem that you have now finally closed the door which you publicly claimed to have opened . "
Amid frantic efforts by Beadle and others on both sides to revive the Royal Commission , the Rhodesian government had Gibbs announce a state of emergency the same day on the grounds that black nationalist insurgents were reportedly entering the country . Smith denied that this foreshadowed a declaration of independence , but the publishing of his letter to Wilson in the press provoked a worldwide storm of speculation that UDI was imminent . Smith wrote again to Wilson on 8 November , asking him to appoint the Royal Commission under the terms they had agreed in Salisbury and to commit the British government to accepting its ruling , but Wilson did not immediately reply . On 9 November , the Rhodesian Cabinet sent a letter to Queen Elizabeth II , assuring her that Rhodesia would remain loyal to her personally " whatever happens " .
= = Draft , adoption and signing = =
The Rhodesian Minister for Justice and Law and Order , Desmond Lardner @-@ Burke , presented the rest of the Cabinet with a draft for the declaration of independence on 5 November 1965 . When Jack Howman , Minister of Tourism and Information , said that he was also preparing a draft , the Cabinet decided to wait to see his version too . The ministers agreed that if an independence proclamation were issued , they would all sign it . On 9 November , the Cabinet jointly devised an outline for the proclamation document and the accompanying statement to be made by Smith . The final version of the declaration of independence was prepared by a sub @-@ committee of civil servants headed by Gerald Clarke , the Cabinet Secretary , with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776 , the only other such proclamation ever issued by British colonials , used as a model . Strongly alluding to Thomas Jefferson 's text throughout , the Rhodesians used one phrase verbatim — " a respect for the opinions of mankind " — but no reference was made to the assertion that " all men are created equal " , nor to the " consent of the governed " , two omissions later stressed by a number of commentators .
Attached to the declaration of independence was a copy of the 1961 constitution amended for the circumstances , which became the 1965 constitution . In the eyes of the Smith administration , this document removed all remaining ties to Whitehall and reconstituted Rhodesia as a realm under the Crown . The new constitution created the concept of allegiance to the " Constitution of Rhodesia " , formed a separate Rhodesian monarchy ( making Elizabeth II " Queen of Rhodesia " ) , and introduced the post of Officer Administering the Government , a figure empowered to sign passed legislation into law on behalf of the monarch if she did not appoint a Governor @-@ General .
The Rhodesian Cabinet waited in vain for Wilson 's reply for the rest of 9 November and the next day . After briefly meeting Smith late on 10 November , Johnston warned Wilson that evening that the Rhodesians seemed poised to declare independence in the morning . The British Prime Minister tried repeatedly to call Smith , but did not get through until Smith was already chairing a Cabinet meeting on the independence issue around 08 : 00 Central Africa Time ( 06 : 00 in London ) on 11 November . Wilson attempted to talk Smith out of unilateral action by telling him the status quo could continue , and the two argued inconclusively about the proposed Royal Commission . Returning to his Cabinet meeting , Smith reported the conversation to his ministers , and , after debating for a while , the Cabinet came to the conclusion that Wilson was simply attempting to buy more time and that there was no sign of actual progress . Smith asked if Rhodesia should declare its independence , and had each Cabinet minister answer in turn . According to Smith 's account , " each one , quietly but firmly , without hesitation , said : ' Yes ' . "
At 11 : 00 local time on 11 November 1965 , Armistice Day , during the traditional two minutes ' silence to remember the fallen of the two World Wars , Smith declared Rhodesia independent and signed the proclamation document , with Dupont and the other 10 ministers of the Cabinet following . The timing was intended to emphasise the sacrifices Rhodesia had made for Britain in wartime . As Ken Flower later said , " the rebellion was made to appear as though it was not a rebellion " . Smith and his ministers still pledged allegiance to Queen Elizabeth II , whose official portrait hung prominently behind them as they signed ; the declaration even ended " God Save The Queen " . Four junior members of the Cabinet — Lance Smith , Ian Dillon , Andrew Dunlop and P K van der Byl — did not sign , but were included in the official photograph .
= = Text of the declaration = =
Whereas in the course of human affairs history has shown that it may become necessary for a people to resolve the political affiliations which have connected them with another people and to assume amongst other nations the separate and equal status to which they are entitled :
And Whereas in such event a respect for the opinions of mankind requires them to declare to other nations the causes which impel them to assume full responsibility for their own affairs :
Now Therefore , We , The Government of Rhodesia , Do Hereby Declare :
That it is an indisputable and accepted historic fact that since 1923 the Government of Rhodesia have exercised the powers of self @-@ government and have been responsible for the progress , development and welfare of their people ;
That the people of Rhodesia having demonstrated their loyalty to the Crown and to their kith and kin in the United Kingdom and elsewhere through two world wars , and having been prepared to shed their blood and give of their substance in what they believed to be the mutual interests of freedom @-@ loving people , now see all that they have cherished about to be shattered on the rocks of expediency ;
That the people of Rhodesia have witnessed a process which is destructive of those very precepts upon which civilization in a primitive country has been built , they have seen the principles of Western democracy , responsible government and moral standards crumble elsewhere , nevertheless they have remained steadfast ;
That the people of Rhodesia fully support the requests of their government for sovereign independence but have witnessed the consistent refusal of the Government of the United Kingdom to accede to their entreaties ;
That the Government of the United Kingdom have thus demonstrated that they are not prepared to grant sovereign independence to Rhodesia on terms acceptable to the people of Rhodesia , thereby persisting in maintaining an unwarrantable jurisdiction over Rhodesia , obstructing laws and treaties with other states and the conduct of affairs with other nations and refusing assent to laws necessary for the public good , all this to the detriment of the future peace , prosperity and good government of Rhodesia ;
That the Government of Rhodesia have for a long period patiently and in good faith negotiated with the Government of the United Kingdom for the removal of the remaining limitations placed upon them and for the grant of sovereign independence ;
That in the belief that procrastination and delay strike at and injure the very life of the nation , the Government of Rhodesia consider it essential that Rhodesia should attain , without delay , sovereign independence , the justice of which is beyond question ;
Now Therefore , We The Government of Rhodesia , in humble submission to Almighty God who controls the destinies of nations , conscious that the people of Rhodesia have always shown unswerving loyalty and devotion to Her Majesty the Queen and earnestly praying that we and the people of Rhodesia will not be hindered in our determination to continue exercising our undoubted right to demonstrate the same loyalty and devotion , and seeking to promote the common good so that the dignity and freedom of all men may be assured , Do , By This Proclamation , adopt , enact and give to the people of Rhodesia the Constitution annexed hereto ;
Given under Our Hand at Salisbury , this eleventh day of November in the Year of Our Lord one thousand nine hundred and sixty @-@ five .
= = Announcement and reactions = =
= = = Announcement = = =
Prompted by the government , the Rhodesian Broadcasting Corporation told the public to stand by for an important announcement from the Prime Minister at 13 : 15 local time . Smith went first to Government House to inform Gibbs that his Cabinet had declared independence , then to Pockets Hill Studios in east Salisbury to announce UDI to the nation . He read the proclamation aloud , then stated that independence had been declared because it had become " abundantly clear that it is the policy of the British government to play us along with no real intention of arriving at a solution which we could possibly accept ... I promised the people of this country that I would continue to negotiate to the bitter end and that I would leave no stone unturned in my endeavours to secure an honourable and mutually accepted settlement ; it now falls to me to tell you that negotiations have come to an end " .
Smith said that he believed that he would be remiss in his duty if he allowed Rhodesia to continue to " drift in its present paralysing state of uncertainty " , and that following Britain 's abandonment of the Federation his government was determined that " the same will never be allowed to happen here " . He claimed that UDI did not mark " a diminuation in the opportunities which our African people have to advance and prosper in Rhodesia " , described " racial harmony in Africa " as part of his agenda and condemned black nationalist activities as attempts to " blackmail the British government into ... handing the country over to irresponsible rule " . He then attempted to assuage fears that economic sanctions might destroy the economy , and asked Rhodesians to stand firm : " The mantle of the pioneers has fallen on our shoulders ... In the lives of most nations there comes a moment when a stand has to be made for principles , whatever the consequences . This moment has come to Rhodesia ... the first Western nation in the last two decades to say ' so far and no further ' . " He concluded with an assertion that the declaration of independence was " a blow for the preservation of justice , civilisation and Christianity " .
= = = Domestic reactions = = =
By the time Smith and Dupont arrived at Government House to see Gibbs , Whitehall had instructed the Governor to formally dismiss Smith and his ministers . This Gibbs did , accusing them of treason . Smith and his ministers ignored this , holding that under the new 1965 constitution Gibbs " no longer ha [ d ] any executive powers in Rhodesia " , and his reserve power to sack them no longer existed . The Rhodesian government hoped that Gibbs might obligingly resign in light of his impotent situation , but he did not ; following orders from London , he remained at his post at Government House . Gibbs told the Rhodesian military 's senior officers , some of whom were troubled by the perceived choice between Queen and country , to remain at their posts to maintain law and order . Wilson briefly flirted with the idea of sending Lord Mountbatten to Rhodesia to support Gibbs as a direct representative of the Queen , but this was dropped after Gibbs asked for somebody " higher up " in the royal family instead . " Not likely " , Wilson retorted .
The Rhodesian government accompanied UDI with emergency measures that it said were intended to prevent alarm , unrest and the flight of people and capital . Press censorship and petrol rationing were imposed , import licences were cancelled and emigration allowances were cut to £ 100 . News of UDI was generally received calmly by the local citizenry , apart from some isolated incidents of passing cars being stoned in the black townships outside Bulawayo . A few expected dissenters were arrested , most prominently Leo Baron , Nkomo 's lawyer , whose links with black nationalists and communists were seen by authorities as " subversive " . Baron , the younger brother of the scientist Jacob Bronowski , was arrested nine minutes after UDI was made .
Welensky , who had opposed UDI , stated that he felt it was nevertheless " the duty of every responsible Rhodesian to support the revolutionary government " as he believed the only alternative was a descent into anarchy . João de Freitas Cruz , the Portuguese consul @-@ general in Salisbury , reacted to the news with wild excitement ; visiting the Smith residence later in the day , he declared " Only Rhodesians could do this ! " A statement from ZAPU 's Jason Moyo , who was in London at the time , denounced UDI as an act of " treason and rebellion " and asserted that " the lives particularly of four million unarmed Africans are in jeopardy " . Davis M 'Gabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) said that " For all those who cherish freedom and a meaningful life , UDI has set a collision course which cannot be altered . [ It has ] marked the turning point of the struggle for freedom ... from a constitutional and political one to primarily a military struggle . " Most major Christian denominational leaders in the country publicly rejected UDI and the assertion that it defended Christianity , with the exception of the local Dutch Reformed Church , which stated that it was apolitical and thereafter refrained from comment .
A week after UDI , Smith 's government announced that Dupont , the Deputy Prime Minister , had resigned from the Cabinet to accept the post of Officer Administering the Government created by the 1965 constitution . Smith asked the Queen by letter to appoint a Governor @-@ General to supersede Gibbs , recommending Dupont , but was ignored . Dupont nevertheless effectively replaced the Governor . The Smith administration assigned him the Governor 's official residence at Government House , but no attempt was made to forcibly remove Gibbs and his entourage ; the post @-@ UDI government stated that the Officer Administering the Government would live at Governor 's Lodge instead " until Government House , at present temporarily occupied by Sir Humphrey Gibbs in a private capacity , becomes available " .
The Speaker of the Rhodesian parliament , A R W Stumbles , reconvened the Legislative Assembly on 25 November , resolving that if he did not there would be chaos . He feared that Gibbs might dramatically walk into the chamber in an attempt to stop the proceedings , but Gibbs did no such thing . The parliamentary opposition opened the meeting by asking whether the assembly was legal . Ahrn Palley , the lone white opposition MP , announced that as he saw it , " certain Honourable Members in collusion have torn up the constitution under which this House meets . The proceedings have no legal validity whatsoever " . Stumbles overruled this objection and two more interruptions from Palley , and suggested that any members with reservations might leave . Palley continued his loud protests until he was forcibly ejected by the Sergeant @-@ at @-@ Arms , shouting " This is an illegal assembly ! God save the Queen ! " Gondo and eight other opposition MPs followed Palley out ; all ten of them rejoined the Legislative Assembly in February 1966 .
Gibbs received threatening letters from the Rhodesian public , and on 26 November 1965 Smith 's government cut off the telephones at Government House , and removed the ceremonial guard , the official cars " and even the typewriters " , Wood records . Gibbs nevertheless refused to step down or to leave Government House , issuing a statement that he would remain there " as the lawful Governor of Rhodesia until such time as constitutional government is restored , which I hope will be soon . " He stayed at his post , ignored by the post @-@ UDI government , until the declaration of a republic in 1970 .
= = = British and international responses ; sanctions = = =
Wilson was astonished by Smith 's actions , and found the timing of the declaration to coincide with the Armistice Day silence deeply insulting . Describing Salisbury as " hell @-@ bent on illegal self @-@ destroying " , the British Prime Minister , supported in the Commons by the Liberals and most Conservatives , called on Rhodesians to ignore the post @-@ UDI government . Within hours of UDI , the UN General Assembly passed a condemnatory resolution , by 107 @-@ to @-@ two — South Africa and Portugal voted against , and France abstained — decrying Rhodesia 's actions and calling on Britain to end " the rebellion by the unlawful authorities in Salisbury " . The UN Security Council the next day adopted Resolution 216 , which denounced the declaration of independence as illegal and racist , and called on all states to refuse recognition and assistance to the Rhodesian government . Security Council Resolution 217 , following on 20 November , condemned UDI as an illegitimate " usurpation of power by a racist settler minority " , and called on nations neither to recognise what it deemed " this illegal authority " nor to entertain diplomatic or economic relations with it . Both of these measures were adopted by ten votes to none with France abstaining .
Black nationalists in Rhodesia and their overseas supporters , prominently the OAU , clamoured for Britain to remove Smith 's government with a military invasion , but Britain dismissed this option because of various logistical issues , the risk of provoking a pre @-@ emptive Rhodesian strike on Zambia , and the psychological problems that were likely to accompany any confrontation between British and Rhodesian troops in what Smith said would be a " fratricidal war " . Wilson instead resolved to end the Rhodesian rebellion through economic sanctions ; these principally comprised the expulsion of Rhodesia from the Sterling area , a ban on the import of Rhodesian sugar , tobacco , chrome and other goods , and an oil boycott of Rhodesia . When the Rhodesians continued to receive oil , Wilson attempted to directly cut off their main supply lines , namely the Portuguese Mozambican ports at Beira and Lourenço Marques , by posting a Royal Navy squadron to the Mozambique Channel in March 1966 . This blockade , the Beira Patrol , was endorsed the following month by UN Security Council Resolution 221 . The United Nations proceeded to institute the first mandatory trade sanctions in its history with Security Council Resolutions 232 ( December 1966 ) and 253 ( April 1968 ) , which required member states to cease all trade and economic links with Rhodesia .
Wilson predicted in January 1966 that the various boycotts would force Smith to give in " within a matter of weeks rather than months " , but the British and UN sanctions had little effect on Rhodesia , largely because South Africa and Portugal went on trading with the breakaway colony , providing it with oil and other key resources . Clandestine " sanction @-@ busting " trade with other nations also continued , initially at a reduced level , and the diminished presence of foreign competitors helped domestic industries to slowly mature and expand . Rhodesia thus avoided the economic collapse predicted by Wilson and gradually became more self @-@ sufficient . The Rhodesian government set up a string of front holding companies in Switzerland , Luxembourg and Liechtenstein to help keep trade open , with some success ; goods that had previously been imported from Britain were replaced by Japanese , French and West German equivalents . Even many OAU states , while bombarding Rhodesia with vitriol , continued importing Rhodesian food and other products . The United States created a formal exception in its embargo with the Byrd Amendment of 1971 , under which the US replaced its import of chrome from the Soviet Union with Rhodesian chrome ore . This breach of the UN sanctions , passed by the US Congress on the back of anti @-@ communist Cold War considerations , was warmly welcomed by Southern white supremacists ; it aided the Rhodesian economy until 1977 , when the newly elected President Jimmy Carter successfully pushed Congress to repeal it .
= = Recognition = =
= = = Foreign = = =
Official diplomatic recognition by other countries was key for Rhodesia as it was the only way it could regain the international legitimacy it had lost through UDI . Recognition by the UK itself through a bilateral settlement would be the " first prize " , in Smith 's words , as it would end sanctions and constitutional ambiguity and make foreign acceptance , at least in the West , far more likely . Considering their country a potentially important player in the Cold War as a " bastion against communism " in southern Africa , the RF posited that some Western countries might recognise UDI even without a prior Anglo @-@ Rhodesian rapprochement . Specifically , it expected diplomatic recognition from South Africa and Portugal , and thought that France might recognise Rhodesia to annoy Britain and create a precedent for an independent Quebec . But although South Africa and Portugal gave economic , military and limited political support to the post @-@ UDI government ( as did France and other nations , to a lesser extent ) , neither they nor any other country ever recognised Rhodesia as a de jure independent state . Rhodesia 's unsuccessful attempts to win Western support and recognition included offers to the US government in 1966 and 1967 , ignored by Lyndon B Johnson 's administration , to provide Rhodesian troops to fight alongside the Americans and other anti @-@ communist forces in Vietnam .
Britain withdrew most of its High Commission staff from Salisbury in the days following UDI , leaving a small skeleton staff to man a " residual mission " intended to help Gibbs keep the British government informed of local happenings . Several countries followed Britain 's lead and closed their consulates in Salisbury , with one prominent exception to this being the United States , which retained its consulate @-@ general in post @-@ UDI Rhodesia , relabelling it a " US Contacts Office " to circumvent the problem of diplomatic recognition . South Africa and Portugal maintained " Accredited Diplomatic Representative " offices in Salisbury , which were embassies in all but name , while Rhodesia kept its pre @-@ UDI overseas missions in Pretoria , Lisbon and Lourenço Marques . Unofficial representative offices of the Rhodesian government also existed in the US , Japan and West Germany , while a citizen of Belgium was employed to represent Rhodesian interests there . The Rhodesian High Commission in London , located at Rhodesia House on the Strand , remained under the control of the post @-@ UDI government and effectively became its representative office in the UK . Like the South African Embassy on Trafalgar Square , Rhodesia House became a regular target for political demonstrations . These continued even after Britain forced the office to close in 1969 .
Because UDI claimed to make Rhodesia independent under the Queen as an effective Commonwealth realm , many countries justified their retention of missions in Rhodesia concurrently with their non @-@ recognition of the state by pointing out that the envoys ' accreditation was to the Queen and not to Smith 's government per se . But Rhodesia moved away from its original line of independence as a constitutional monarchy and towards republicanism during the late 1960s , hoping to end ambiguity regarding its claimed constitutional status and elicit official foreign recognition . In March 1970 , after the electorate had voted " yes " in a referendum the previous year both to a new constitution and to the abandoning of symbolic ties to the Queen , Smith 's government declared Rhodesia a republic . Far from prompting recognition , this led all countries apart from Portugal and South Africa to withdraw their consulates and missions , as the justification of royal accreditation could no longer be used . After Portugal 's Carnation Revolution in 1974 , the Rhodesian mission in Lisbon was closed in May 1975 , with its counterpart in Lourenço Marques following a month later on Mozambican independence . Portugal also withdrew its own remaining officials from Rhodesia , leaving South Africa as the only country with links to Salisbury . Rhodesia 's diplomatic activities were thereafter greatly diminished .
= = = Judicial = = =
The Rhodesian High Court 's nine Appellate and General Division judges initially neither rejected UDI nor openly supported it . The Chief Justice Sir Hugh Beadle , of the Appellate Division , announced simply that the judges would go on carrying out their duties " according to the law " . This originally noncommittal stance evolved over time , largely pivoting around legal cases argued at the High Court in Salisbury between 1966 and 1968 . The first of these , Madzimbamuto v. Lardner @-@ Burke N. O. and Others , concerned Daniel Madzimbamuto , a black nationalist who was detained without trial by the Rhodesian government on 6 November 1965 , the day after the declaration of a state of emergency and five days before UDI , on the grounds that he might pose a danger to the public . Desmond Lardner @-@ Burke , the Rhodesian Minister of Justice and Law and Order , prolonged the state of emergency in February 1966 , prompting Madzimbamuto 's wife to appeal for his release , arguing that since the United Kingdom had declared UDI illegal and outlawed the Rhodesian government with the Southern Rhodesia Act 1965 , the state of emergency ( and , by extension , Madzimbamuto 's imprisonment ) had no legal basis .
The General Division of the Rhodesian High Court ruled on 9 September 1966 that legal sovereignty lay with the British government , but that to " avoid chaos and a vacuum in the law " the Rhodesian government should be considered to be in control of law and order to the same extent as before UDI . In February 1968 , ruling on Madzimbamuto 's appeal , Beadle concluded that the Smith administration would be recognised by the local judiciary as the de facto government by virtue of its " effective control over the state 's territory " , but that de jure recognition would be withheld as this was not " firmly established " . Madzimbamuto applied for the right to appeal to the British Privy Council ; the Rhodesian Appellate Division promptly ruled that he had no right to do so , but the Privy Council considered his case anyway .
In late February 1968 , considering the fate of James Dhlamini , Victor Mlambo and Duly Shadreck , three black Rhodesians convicted of murder and terrorist offences before UDI , Beadle ruled that Salisbury retained its pre @-@ UDI powers regarding executions and could carry out death sentences . Whitehall announced on 1 March that at the request of the UK government , the Queen had exercised the royal prerogative of mercy and commuted the three death sentences to life imprisonment . Dhlamini and the others applied for a permanent stay of execution on this basis . At the hearing for Dhlamini and Mlambo on 4 March 1968 , Beadle argued that he saw the statement from London as a decision by the UK government and not the Queen herself , and that in any case the 1961 constitution had transferred the prerogative of mercy from Britain to the Rhodesian Executive Council . " The present government is the fully de facto government and as such is the only power that can exercise the prerogative " , he concluded . " It would be strange indeed if the United Kingdom government , exercising no internal power in Rhodesia , were given the right to exercise the prerogative of clemency . " The Judge President Sir Vincent Quenet and Justice Hector Macdonald agreed , and the application was dismissed . Justice John Fieldsend of the High Court 's General Division resigned in protest , writing to Gibbs that he no longer believed the High Court to be defending the rights of Rhodesian citizens . Dhlamini , Mlambo and Shadreck were hanged on 6 March .
On 23 July 1968 , the Privy Council in London ruled in Madzimbamuto 's favour , deciding that orders for detention made by the Rhodesian government were invalid regardless of whether the 1961 or 1965 constitution was considered effective . It declared the latter , " revolutionary " constitution illegal , and ruled that the former was overridden by the Southern Rhodesia Act 1965 , which had effectively outlawed the Rhodesian legislative , administrative and legal authorities in British law . Lord Reid , delivering the majority opinion ( Lord Pearce dissented ) , argued that the " usurper " government , though the effective master of Rhodesia , could not be considered lawful as the UK government was still attempting to regain control and it was impossible to say whether or not it would succeed . He ruled that only Whitehall could determine what constituted the maintenance of " law and order " in Rhodesia , and that the Rhodesian emergency measures were unlawful as they had been formalised by the Officer Administering the Government , a post @-@ UDI figure who was , in British eyes , unconstitutional . Reid concluded that Madzimbamuto was illegally detained . Harry Davies , one of the Rhodesian judges , announced on 8 August that the Rhodesian courts would not consider this ruling binding as they no longer accepted the Privy Council as part of the Rhodesian judicial hierarchy . Justice J R Dendy Young resigned in protest at Davies ' ruling on 12 August and four days later was sworn in as Chief Justice of Botswana .
The Rhodesian High Court granted full de jure recognition to the post @-@ UDI government on 13 September 1968 , while rejecting the appeals of 32 black nationalists who had been a month earlier convicted of terrorist offences and sentenced to death . Beadle declared that while he believed the Rhodesian judiciary should respect rulings of the Privy Council " so far as possible " , the judgement of 23 July had made it legally impossible for Rhodesian judges to continue under the 1961 constitution . He asserted that the court therefore faced a choice between the 1965 constitution and a legal vacuum , the latter of which he felt he could not endorse . Referring to the Privy Council 's decision that the UK might yet remove the post @-@ UDI government , he said that " on the facts as they exist today , the only prediction which this court can make is that sanctions will not succeed in overthrowing the present government ... and that there are no other factors which might succeed in doing so " .
Macdonald , a member of Beadle 's ruling panel , argued that since UDI , the British government had acted unconstitutionally and illegally regarding Rhodesia by involving the United Nations in what should have been legally considered a domestic problem , and had concurrently abdicated its right to the allegiance of the Rhodesian people by waging economic war against the country and encouraging other nations to do the same . To support this argument , Macdonald referred to the assertion by the 17th @-@ century Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius that " the purpose of governing and the purpose of destroying cannot subsist together " . Since Britain was in a state of economic war against Rhodesia , the court concluded , it could not at the same time be regarded as governing it . UDI , the associated 1965 constitution and the government were thereafter considered de jure by the Rhodesian legal system .
The British Commonwealth Secretary , George Thomson , promptly accused the Rhodesian judges of breaching " the fundamental laws of the land " , while Gibbs announced that since his position as Governor existed under the 1961 constitution , which allowed appeals to the Privy Council , he could only reject the Rhodesian court ruling . The Rhodesian judges continued regardless . Their recognition of the post @-@ UDI order carried over to the 1969 republican constitution , adopted in 1970 .
= = Replacement of national symbols = =
Vestiges of British ties were removed piecemeal by the government over the decade following UDI , and replaced with symbols and terminology intended to be more uniquely Rhodesian . A silver " Liberty Bell " , based on the bell of the same name in Philadelphia , was cast during 1966 and rung by the Prime Minister each year on Independence Day ( the anniversary of UDI ) , the number of chimes signifying the number of years since the declaration of independence . The Union Jack and Rhodesia 's Commonwealth @-@ style national flag — a defaced Sky Blue Ensign with the Union Jack in the canton — continued to fly over government buildings , military bases and other official locations until 11 November 1968 , the third anniversary of UDI , when they were superseded by a new national flag : a green @-@ white @-@ green vertical triband , charged centrally with the Rhodesian coat of arms . The Union Jack continued to be ceremonially raised at Cecil Square in Salisbury on 12 September each year as part of the Pioneers ' Day holiday , which marked the anniversary of the establishment of Salisbury ( and , by extension , Rhodesia ) in 1890 .
Since Elizabeth II was still the Rhodesian head of state in the eyes of Smith 's administration until 1970 , " God Save the Queen " remained the Rhodesian national anthem , and continued to accompany official occasions such as the opening of the Rhodesian parliament . This was intended to demonstrate Rhodesia 's continued loyalty to the Queen , but the use of the unmistakably British song at Rhodesian state occasions soon seemed " fairly ironic " , as The Times put it . Salisbury started looking for a replacement anthem around the same time as its introduction of the new flag , and in 1974 , after four years without an anthem ( " God Save the Queen " was formally dropped in 1970 ) , republican Rhodesia adopted " Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia " , an anthem coupling original lyrics with the tune of Beethoven 's " Ode to Joy " . The country 's head of state under the republican constitution was the President of Rhodesia , the first of whom was Dupont .
State press censorship , which had been introduced on UDI , was lifted in early April 1968 . Decimalisation occurred on 17 February 1970 , two weeks before Rhodesia 's reconstitution as a republic , with the new Rhodesian dollar replacing the pound at a rate of two dollars to each pound . Following the republic 's formal declaration the next month , the Rhodesian military removed nomenclatural and symbolic references to the Crown — the Royal Rhodesian Air Force and Royal Rhodesia Regiment dropped their " Royal " prefixes , new branch and regimental flags were designed , and the St Edward 's Crown surmounting many regimental emblems was expunged in favour of the " lion and tusk " , a motif from the coat of arms of the British South Africa Company that had been used in Rhodesian military symbolism since the 1890s . The air force 's new roundel was a green ring with the lion and tusk on a white centre . Later that year , a system of new Rhodesian honours and decorations was created to replace the old British honours . Rhodesia 's police force , the British South Africa Police , was not renamed .
= = Ending UDI = =
Wilson told the British House of Commons in January 1966 that he would not enter any kind of dialogue with the post @-@ UDI Rhodesian government ( which he called " the illegal regime " ) until it gave up its claim of independence , but by mid @-@ 1966 British and Rhodesian civil servants were holding " talks about talks " in London and Salisbury . By November that year , Wilson had agreed to negotiate personally with Smith . The two Prime Ministers unsuccessfully attempted to settle aboard HMS Tiger in December 1966 and HMS Fearless in October 1968 . After the Conservatives returned to power in Britain in 1970 , provisional agreement was reached in November 1971 between the Rhodesian government and a British team headed by Douglas @-@ Home ( who was Foreign Secretary under Prime Minister Edward Heath ) , and in early 1972 a Royal Commission chaired by Lord Pearce travelled to Rhodesia to investigate how acceptable the proposals were to majority opinion . After extensive consultation , the commission reported that while whites , coloureds and Asians were largely in favour of the presented terms , most blacks rejected them . The deal was therefore shelved by the British government .
The Rhodesian Bush War , a guerrilla conflict pitting the Rhodesian Security Forces against the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , the respective armed wings of ZANU and ZAPU , began in earnest in December 1972 , when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia . The 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal , which over the next year replaced Portuguese support for Smith with an independent , Marxist – Leninist Mozambique on Rhodesia 's eastern frontier , greatly swung the war 's momentum in favour of the nationalists ( particularly ZANU , which was allied with Mozambique 's governing FRELIMO party ) , and caused the sanctions on Rhodesia to finally begin having a noticeable effect . Diplomatic isolation , the sanctions , guerrilla activities and pressure from South Africa to find a settlement led the Rhodesian government to hold talks with the various black nationalist factions . Abortive conferences were held at Victoria Falls ( in 1975 ) and Geneva ( 1976 ) . Despite ideological and tribal rifts , ZANU and ZAPU nominally united as the " Patriotic Front " ( PF ) in late 1976 in a successful attempt to augment overseas support for the black nationalist cause .
Smith , who was decisively re @-@ elected three times during the 1970s , announced his acceptance in principle of one man , one vote during Henry Kissinger 's Anglo @-@ American initiative in September 1976 , and in March 1978 concluded the Internal Settlement with non @-@ militant nationalist groups headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa , the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole and Chief Jeremiah Chirau . This settlement , boycotted by the PF and rejected internationally , led to multiracial elections and Rhodesia 's reconstitution under majority rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979 . Muzorewa , the electoral victor , took office as the country 's first black Prime Minister at the head of a coalition Cabinet comprising 12 blacks and five whites , including Smith as minister without portfolio . Dismissing Muzorewa as a " neocolonial puppet " , ZANLA and ZIPRA continued their armed struggle until December 1979 , when Whitehall , Salisbury and the Patriotic Front settled at Lancaster House . Muzorewa 's government revoked UDI , thereby ending the country 's claim to be independent after 14 years , and dissolved itself . The UK suspended the constitution and vested full executive and legislative powers in a new Governor , Lord Soames , who oversaw a ceasefire and fresh elections during February and March 1980 . These were won by ZANU , whose leader Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister when the UK granted independence to Zimbabwe as a republic within the Commonwealth in April 1980 .
= Pilotwings 64 =
Pilotwings 64 ( パイロットウイングス64 , Pairottouingusu Rokujūyon ) is a video game for the Nintendo 64 , originally released in 1996 along with the debut of the console . The game was co @-@ developed by Nintendo and the American visual technology group Paradigm Simulation . It was one of three launch titles for the Nintendo 64 in Japan as well as Europe and one of two launch titles in North America . Pilotwings 64 is a follow @-@ up to Pilotwings for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) , which was a North American launch game for its respective console in 1991 . Also like that game , Pilotwings 64 received production input from Nintendo producer Shigeru Miyamoto .
Pilotwings 64 is a 3D amateur flight simulator that puts the player in control of one of six pilots as they try to earn pilot licenses through various forms of aviation . The events are flying an autogyro , using a jet pack , and hang gliding . Several bonus tasks are offered , such as skydiving and a human cannonball test . The game also puts focus on allowing the player to freely explore its detailed 3D environments , most notably a miniature representation of the United States .
The game received positive review scores and praise from gaming publications and news sources alike for its visual presentation and flying controls . Similar to its SNES predecessor , Pilotwings 64 serves to demonstrate the graphical capabilities of its gaming hardware . Although the flight simulator did not enjoy the same commercial success as its fellow launch game Super Mario 64 , Pilotwings 64 nonetheless went on to sell over one million copies worldwide .
= = Gameplay = =
Pilotwings 64 is a 3D flight simulator in which the player must complete a variety of missions involving different airborne vehicles and air sports . Before each mission , the player must choose one of six character pilots , each with their own advantages and disadvantages based on factors such as weight . The tests presented to the player require him or her to complete an objective in order to earn a license for the given event . Depending on the mission , points are awarded or deducted based on time , damage , fuel usage , accuracy , softness of landing , and similar criteria . The player is awarded either a bronze , silver , or gold license based on the number of points attained . More difficult tests become available as the player progresses .
There are three main events in Pilotwings 64 required to complete the game , each of which has its own objectives and unique flight controls centered around the Nintendo 64 controller 's single analog stick . The first , hang gliding , usually requires the player to fly through a series of floating marker rings or snap a photograph of a particular piece of scenery before landing in a target area . The player 's movement is affected by wind currents and altitude can be gained by flying through thermal columns . The second event is the " Rocket Belt " , a jet pack that allows the player to move and gain height as well as hover , tilt , and rotate in the air using the belt 's equipped thrusters . Goals entail flying through rings or popping large balloons before landing . The third event , the gyrocopter , challenges the player to take off and land on a runway after completing objectives like navigating a path of rings or destroying targets with missiles . Pilotwings 64 also features several bonus events that are unlocked if the player performs well in the main missions . The player can also earn medals on many of these events . They include skydiving , a human cannonball event , and the " Jumble Hopper " , which grants the player special spring
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" Luxurious " is an R & B ballad , whose instrumentation consists of keyboards and synthesizers . It is written in common time in the key of A minor . The song uses a descending i @-@ vii @-@ VI @-@ V chord progression . The lyrics of the song include descriptions of wealth and riches , what one reviewer called " a world of Egyptian cotton , cashmere , tuberoses , and , of course , diamonds " . Stefani stated that " [ the ] song really is more about a love relationship . If you really listen to the lyrics , it has nothing to do with money or luxury . It has to do with love , being rich in love . I just wanted to think of a clever way to express how you have to work really hard for the rewards of that . " The single version of the song contains an additional verse from rapper Slim Thug for release to urban radio and clubs .
The song begins with Stefani 's then @-@ husband Gavin Rossdale speaking in French and then leads into the first verse . The lyrics describe Stefani talking about " flying first class " and " livin ' like a queen " . She talks about being luxuriously in love and calls her lover Limousine and Treasure Chest . She talks about the increasing passion between her and her partner , and says , " Our passion it just multiplies " and " got in the fifth gear , baby " . In the chorus she tells that love is getting expensive and she and her partner have to work hard night and day to be rich in love , and after working hard , when they lay back together , they get the payback . After the second verse , the song gets slower and Stefani repeats " Cha @-@ ching , cha @-@ ching " four times alternated with lines talking about getting " hooked up with the love " and " hydroponic love " . The song ends with Rossdale speaking more lines in French .
= = Critical reception = =
" Luxurious " received mixed reviews from music critics . Bill Lamb of About.com commented , " If Madonna is wishing to pass on her ' Material Girl ' title , Gwen Stefani is happy to wear it proudly " , but noted that " [ t ] hings are wearing a little thin , and this song doesn 't have the striking impact of ' Rich Girl ' or ' Hollaback Girl ' . " Sam Shepherd of musicOMH agreed , writing that " ' Luxurious ' is by no means a bad song , but it is pretty ordinary when compared to the songs that have preceded it . " PopMatters ' Jason Damas found the track uninteresting and stated that Rossdale 's appearance " sounds like a blinged @-@ out Saint Etienne " . Alex Lai from Contactmusic.com called Stefani 's performance " as seductive as ever , and the production extremely polished , but it lacks the infectiousness of her other releases " ; he found Slim Thug 's remix unnecessary and viewed the single 's release as " a money @-@ spinning exercise " .
Laura Heaps from MyVillage agreed , stating that the single " just doesn 't stand out " and that Stefani " doesn 't do hip hop as well as she does quirky pop " , and Playlouder 's Richard Smirke described the track as a " sickly sweet R & B ballad " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the lyrics " surprisingly sharp " ; Nick Sylvester of Pitchfork Media disagreed , dubbing the song a " soulless Nellee Hooper 90s R & B vanity affair " and a " zombied buy @-@ LAMB @-@ clothing mantra " . In August 2013 , Complex magazine placed " Luxurious " at number 19 on its list of " The Best R & B Songs by White Singers in the 2000s " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " Luxurious " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 80 on the issue dated November 5 , 2005 . It failed to reach the top 20 , peaking at number 21 five weeks later , and remained on the chart for 20 weeks . It performed better on the pop @-@ oriented charts , reaching number three on the Pop 100 chart , number 10 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart , and number 37 on the Adult Top 40 chart . The track also had some crossover success , charting at number nine on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number 33 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . In Canada , the single was released to radio on October 25 , 2005 , peaking at number 10 on the Canadian Singles Chart in its sixth week on the chart .
The song was released on December 5 , 2005 in Europe and Australia . It received very little promotion in the UK and continued the trend of Stefani 's lower @-@ charting singles since " Hollaback Girl " when it debuted at number 44 on the UK Singles Chart , spending three weeks on the chart . The single performed similarly throughout Europe , where it reached the top 40 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , and Switzerland , but generally did not reach the top 30 . It did particularly well in Finland , where it charted at number two , becoming the highest @-@ peaking single of Stefani 's solo career in that country , although it spent only two weeks on the chart . Stefani 's previous four singles had been successful in Australia , where all reached the top 10 ; however , " Luxurious " did not reach the top 20 and reached a peak of number 25 . In New Zealand , " Luxurious " was moderately successful , where it reached number 17 but stayed on the chart for only 10 weeks .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Luxurious " was directed by Sophie Muller . In the video , Stefani plays a chola in high school . Then Stefani , accompanied by her Harajuku Girls , receive a manicure at a beauty salon , and styling her hair and applying cosmetics in front of a mirror . She shows off gold jewellery with her name carved on it . During his rap , Slim Thug appears in sequences with either Stefani or two Harajuku Girls . It concludes with Stefani joining her friends in a block party , where they celebrate with breakdancing and a barbecue . The video is intercut with sequences of Stefani breaking open piñatas and lying on a candy @-@ covered floor , styled in a fashion resembling Mexican painter Frida Kahlo .
Stefani had generally developed music video concepts while writing the song , but since she had not expected " Luxurious " to become a single , she had not given much thought to a music video for the song . The image she had for her persona was a high school girl named Mercedes , who she described as " very inspiring " :
She 's this total like chola girl , white face , and she used to sit in class and put on tons of makeup . And I used to just watch her , mesmerized . And she would just wear this dark liner and this red lipstick and she had this safety pin and she 'd be picking her eyelashes apart . She hadn 't taken that mascara off for months .
Stefani called Muller , who had directed several videos for Stefani and No Doubt , to direct the music video . Muller did not understand Stefani 's vision for the video , so Stefani became involved in developing ideas for the video .
The video had limited success on music video programs . On MTV 's Total Request Live , the video debuted on October 25 , 2005 at number 10 . It peaked at number seven and left the countdown after only five days . After its October 21 debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it peaked nine weeks later at number 11 , remaining on the chart for 13 weeks . The video was featured on an episode of MuchMusic 's Video on Trial , where the reviewers found it a superficial attempt to market to various races .
= = Track listings = =
European and Canadian CD single
" Luxurious " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 24
" Luxurious " ( Remix featuring Slim Thug ) [ Radio Edit ] – 4 : 04
European CD maxi single and Australian CD single
" Luxurious " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 24
" Luxurious " ( Remix featuring Slim Thug ) [ Radio Edit ] – 4 : 04
" Cool " ( Richard X Remix ) – 6 : 37
" Luxurious " ( Video ) – 4 : 06
US 12 " single
A1 . " Luxurious " ( Remix featuring Slim Thug ) – 4 : 22
A2 . " Luxurious " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 24
B1 . " Luxurious " ( A Cappella ) – 3 : 42
B2 . " Luxurious " ( Instrumental ) – 4 : 24
Some vinyl copies accidentally have the Slim Thug remix twice on side A.
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
= = Charts = =
= A 29 @-@ Cent Robbery =
A 29 @-@ Cent Robbery is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film features the debut of Marie Eline in the main role as Edna Robinson , a young girl who foils an attempt by a robbery to loot her family 's home . All the thief manages to take is her toy bank , containing 29 cents . Edna ends up taking it upon herself to catch the thief after the police fail in the task . It was reviewed positively by critics and was viewed across the United States . The film was the first split @-@ reel by Thanhouser , containing this short and The Old Shoe Came Back on a single reel .
= = Plot = =
A thief sneaks into the Robinson home with the intention of looting it . He is discovered by a young girl , Edna Robinson , and flees taking only her toy bank containing the paltry sum of 29 cents USD , equivalent to $ 7 in 2015 . She is so upset about the theft of her bank that the parents decide to inform the police . They go to the police station and report the robbery , but the police laugh at them . The parents go home and inform Edna that the police will not do anything , which makes her all the more determined . So Edna goes to the police station by herself and informs the police captain of the robbery and its details . He assigns his officers to work on the case and they arrest several men carrying toy banks . They ask Edna to identify the robber , but she says he is not present . The police set the men free and Edna decides to take the task upon herself . So she gets a police whistle and starts investigating on her own , eventually finding the thief .
= = Cast = =
Marie Eline as Edna Robinson
Grace Eline
= = Production = =
The director of the film is not known for certain , but two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . The American Film Institute credits Barry O 'Neil as the director . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production , but he does credit Blair Smith as the cameraman . The film was the debut of Marie Eline , soon to be known and famous as the " Thanhouser Kid " . Her older sister , Grace Eline , later recalled being in this Thanhouser production . Grace Eline did not become an official member of the Thanhouser company until 1913 .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 750 feet ( 230 m ) , was released on Friday April 15 , 1910 . Another short , The Old Shoe Came Back was also included on the reel , making it a split @-@ reel . It was also the first split reel release from the Thanhouser Company . This release was the first Friday release of the Thanhouser company , switching from its Tuesday weekly release . According to an advertisement in the Moving Picture News , the weekly release dates were changed at the request of exhibitors .
The film received favorable reviews by critics . The Morning Telegraph said the story was too far @-@ fetched to be believable , but it was done in an amusing way . The Moving Picture World stated that the acting and camerawork was satisfactory . The film was advertised in numerous states , sometimes as a comedy , by theaters in Indiana , Kansas , New York , and Pennsylvania .
= Kirkpatrick Chapel =
The Sophia Astley Kirkpatrick Memorial Chapel , known as Kirkpatrick Chapel , is the chapel to Rutgers , The State University of New Jersey and located on the university 's main campus in New Brunswick , New Jersey in the United States . Kirkpatrick Chapel is among the university 's oldest extant buildings , and one of six buildings located on a historic section of the university 's College Avenue Campus in New Brunswick known as the Queens Campus . Built in 1873 when Rutgers was a small , private liberal arts college , the chapel was designed by architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh at the beginning of his career . Hardenbergh , a native of New Brunswick , was the great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Rutgers ' first president , the Rev. Jacob Rutsen Hardenbergh . It was the third of three projects that Hardenbergh designed for the college .
Kirkpatrick Chapel was named in honour of Sophia Astley Kirkpatrick . Kirkpatrick was the wife of Littleton Kirkpatrick , a local attorney and politician who was a member of the board of trustees of Rutgers College from 1841 until his death in 1859 . When Sophia Kirkpatrick died in 1871 , Rutgers was named as the residuary legatee of her estate . A bequest of $ 61 @,@ 054 @.@ 57 ( 2013 : US $ 1 @,@ 174 @,@ 079 @.@ 38 ) from her estate funded the construction of the chapel . According to Rutgers , this marked the first time in New Jersey history that an institution became a direct heir to an estate .
The chapel was designed in the High Victorian Gothic Revival style that was popular at the middle of the nineteenth century in the United States . Hardenbergh 's design incorporated features common to fourteenth @-@ century German and English Gothic churches . According to the New Jersey Historic Trust , the chapel ’ s stained glass windows feature " some of the first opalescent and multicolored sheet glass manufactured in America . " Four of the chapel 's windows were created by the studios of Louis Comfort Tiffany . Kirkpatrick Chapel was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places on January 29 , 1973 , and on the National Register of Historic Places on July 2 , 1973 .
For its first 30 years , the chapel was used as a college library and for holding daily chapel services . Although Rutgers was founded as a private college affiliated with the Dutch Reformed faith , today , it is a state university and nonsectarian . The chapel is available to students , alumni , and faculty of all faiths , and a variety of services are held throughout the academic term . It is also used for university events including convocation , concerts , alumni and faculty weddings , funerals , and lectures by prominent intellectuals and world leaders .
= = History = =
= = = The Kirkpatrick family and Rutgers = = =
When Sophia Astley Kirkpatrick ( 1802 – 1871 ) died on March 6 , 1871 at the age of 68 , she named Rutgers College as her estate 's residuary legatee . At that time , Rutgers was a small , private liberal arts college in New Brunswick , New Jersey , affiliated with the Dutch Reformed faith . Founded in 1766 as Queen ’ s College , Rutgers is the eighth @-@ oldest institution of higher education established in the United States . It was one of nine colleges founded in the American colonies before the Revolutionary War . Rutgers ' website states that this bequest from Sophia Kirkpatrick 's will was the first time in New Jersey legal history that an institution became a direct heir to an estate .
Sophia was the daughter of wealthy merchant and land investor Thomas Astley of Philadelphia . She married Littleton Kirkpatrick ( 1797 – 1859 ) on October 18 , 1832 . Littleton , an attorney and 1815 graduate of Princeton , was a member of a wealthy , prominent New Brunswick family and pursued a career in politics . They did not have children . During his career , Littleton Kirkpatrick was elected as county surrogate , mayor of New Brunswick , and as a Whig Party member of the United States House of Representatives during the Twenty @-@ Eighth Congress ( 1843 – 1845 ) . He served as a trustee of Rutgers College for 18 years from 1841 until his death in 1859 . Sophia remained in New Brunswick after her husband 's death . A devoted member of the city 's First Presbyterian Church , she was later described as having " adorned her profession by her Christian graces and her many deeds of charity and beneficence to the needy and suffering . "
Littleton Kirkpatrick was the son of Jane Bayard and Judge Andrew Kirkpatrick who served as Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court . He was grandson of Philadelphia merchant and statesman Colonel John Bayard ( 1738 – 1807 ) who served as speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly , delegate to the Continental Congress , judge , mayor of New Brunswick , and was a Revolutionary War hero .
The Kirkpatrick family had a long association with Queen 's College and subsequently with Rutgers . Several members of the family served as trustees or received degrees from the college , including the following :
Littleton 's father , Andrew Kirkpatrick ( 1756 – 1831 ) , a 1775 graduate of Princeton , taught at the Queen 's College Grammar School in 1782 , received an honorary Masters ( A.M. ) from Queen 's College in 1783 , and served as a trustee from 1782 to 1809 .
Littleton 's brother , John Bayard Kirkpatrick , Esq . ( 1795 – 1864 ) , was an 1815 graduate of Rutgers when it was Queen 's College .
Littleton 's nephew , Andrew Kirkpatrick ( 1844 – 1904 ) , studied at Rutgers from 1860 to 1862 before receiving a bachelor 's degree from Union College in 1863 .
Another nephew , John Bayard Kirkpatrick , Jr . ( 1844 – 1912 ) , received a bachelor 's degree in 1866 and later served as college trustee ( 1892 – 1912 ) .
John Bayard Kirkpatrick III ( 1878 – 1961 ) received his Bachelor of Science degree in 1900 .
= = = Hardenbergh 's design and construction = = =
In 1870 , the trustees of Rutgers College had decided to build a college chapel when the funds became available to do so . Previously , chapel services had been held inside Old Queen 's , but as the student body expanded in the 1850s and 1860s a larger space was needed to accommodate such events . With the death of Sophia Astley Kirkpatrick in 1871 and Rutgers receiving $ 61 @,@ 054 @.@ 57 ( 2013 : US $ 1 @,@ 174 @,@ 079 @.@ 38 ) from her estate , the trustees directed those funds to the building of a university chapel .
A young architect who had recently completed his apprenticeship and started his own firm , Henry Janeway Hardenbergh ( 1847 – 1918 ) , was hired by the trustees in 1870 to design an addition to the Rutgers College Grammar School then housed in Alexander Johnston Hall located across from the Queen 's Campus on College Avenue . He charged the college $ 312 for his work . Born and raised in New Brunswick , Hardenbergh received the contract through family connections . His great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , the Rev. Jacob Rutsen Hardenbergh ( 1735 – 1790 ) , was Rutgers ' first president and one of its founders . Further , several members of his family were graduates , trustees , or otherwise associated with the school through the nineteenth century . His grandfather , Rev. Jacob Janeway served as vice president of the college , and turned down the post of president in 1840 . Hardenbergh studied for five years as an apprentice draftsman under German @-@ American architect Detlef Lienau . Lienau was also connected with projects in the city of New Brunswick and later designed the Gardner A. Sage Library ( 1875 ) on the campus of New Brunswick Theological Seminary after Hardenbergh 's earlier design for the seminary 's Suydam Hall , built in 1873 .
After completing the addition to Alexander Johnston Hall in 1870 , Hardenbergh was hired to design a Gothic Revival @-@ style Geological Hall that was erected in 1872 on the south side of Old Queen 's ; the hall was built with funds Rutgers had received from the federal government in becoming New Jersey 's land grant college and from the university 's first fundraising campaign . The new chapel , designed by Hardenbergh to complement the Geological Hall , would be built on Old Queen 's north side . Kirkpatrick Chapel was the third of three projects that Hardenbergh designed for Rutgers College . Hardenbergh was at the beginning of his career , and later would design several hotels and skyscrapers in American cities , including designing New York City 's Plaza Hotel and the Dakota Building on Central Park among other Edwardian @-@ period buildings . After his death in 1918 , Architectural Record celebrated Hardenbergh as " one of the most august and inspiring figures that American architecture has produced . "
Kirkpatrick Chapel was erected on a hilltop on which Alexander Hamilton , then an artillery captain commanding sixty men of the New York Provincial Company of Artillery , placed his cannons to cover the retreat of George Washington 's forces after the British occupation of New York . After the British victory in taking Fort Washington in November 1776 , Washington 's forces retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania . Hamilton 's battery protected the forces as they crossed the Raritan River and passed through New Brunswick in 1776 . British forces commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis under orders from Lieutenant General William Howe , 5th Viscount Howe pursued Washington as far as New Brunswick . A historic marker erected as a gift of the Class of 1899 is located next to the chapel .
Kirkpatrick Chapel was completed at a cost of $ 52 @,@ 204 @.@ 57 ( 2013 : US $ 1 @,@ 003 @,@ 893 @.@ 88 ) , and dedicated on December 3 , 1873 . The chapel , seating 350 people , occupied the front section of the present building . The rear of the building had lecture rooms , the office of the college president , a meeting room for the trustees on the first floor , and a library on the second floor .
In August 1916 , workmen began to convert Kirkpatrick Chapel into one large assembly room to be used exclusively as the college 's chapel . William P. Hardenbergh , the brother of the architect Henry J. Hardenbergh , donated $ 10 @,@ 000 ( 2013 : US $ 212 @,@ 800 ) for this purpose in honour of his ancestor who served as the college 's first president . Work proceeded quickly and was completed in two months before the college 's planned 150th anniversary celebrations scheduled in October . The inner partitions that separated the chapel from the former library and other rooms were removed . The removal of the partitions expanded the capacity of the chapel from 350 persons to 800 . However , current fire codes limit capacity to 650 .
= = = As the college chapel ( 1873 – present ) = = =
For its first fifty years , Kirkpatrick Chapel was used for daily worship services by the Rutgers College student body . By 1926 , the increasing size of the student body had forced Rutgers to stop daily mandatory chapel services and hold services for underclassmen on Monday , Wednesday , and Friday ; and for upperclassman on Tuesday and Thursday . Within a few years , continued growth in the student body reduced that schedule to each class meeting in chapel only one day per week . Sunday chapel services were attended by all students who chose to remain on campus for the weekend . Kirkpatrick Chapel is one of two college chapels on Rutgers ' New Brunswick campuses . The other , Voorhees Chapel , was built in 1925 after a donation from Elizabeth Rodman Voorhees to the New Jersey College for Women , later Douglass College , which was later merged into Rutgers .
After Rutgers transitioned from a private church @-@ affiliated college to a non @-@ sectarian public university after World War II , the role of the chapel transitioned to less frequent worship services and religious use to providing a venue for the university 's special events — including convocations , lectures , programs , and classes . Despite this transition , the chapel still has a place in the continuing traditions of the university . Since 1876 , graduating classes would have a stone on the exterior of the chapel carved with their class year . Early classes chose the stone while today , new classes engrave stones that located next to the class that graduated 50 years before . Further , the chapel is frequently booked for weddings , baptisms , memorial services and concerts . The university 's 50 @-@ member Kirkpatrick Choir , the all @-@ male Rutgers University Glee Club , and other musical groups at the university 's Mason Gross School of the Arts frequently use the chapel for concerts .
= = = As the college library ( 1873 – 1903 ) = = =
According to Demarest , after the building was completed , college president William Henry Campbell was charged with raising $ 3 @,@ 000 to acquire reference books for the library . An 1876 survey by the U.S. Bureau of Education reported that Rutgers held 6 @,@ 814 volumes in its college library and 3 @,@ 800 in libraries of its two student literary societies — the Peithessophian Society and Philoclean Society . In 1884 , President Merrill Gates appointed a recent alumnus then serving as the college 's registrar , treasurer , and faculty secretary — Irving S. Upson ( A.B. 1881 ) — to take on additional responsibilities as librarian . Upson agreed " to devote at least one hour a day to library work , for which he received a stipend of $ 15 a month , out of which he paid an assistant $ 2 @.@ 50 per week . At this time , the library was open daily from 8 : 00 to 8 : 40 A.M. , noon to 12 : 30 P.M. , and 2 : 00 to 4 : 30 P.M. " Upson increased the holdings by 21 @,@ 000 volumes before informing the president and trustees in 1894 that the library was inadequate to house the collection . The trustees feared that the collection posed a fire hazard or would collapse the floor of the second @-@ floor library .
By 1903 the library in Kirkpatrick Chapel housed 45 @,@ 000 books that were " crowded on the shelves , many hid behind others , and piled on the floor " and that the library was fast becoming too small to accommodate . After reading of the college 's effort to build a new library in a Reformed Church publication , Ralph Voorhees and his wife Elizabeth Rodman Voorhees contacted president Austin Scott for the library plans and an estimate of construction costs . Voorhees and his wife , whose wealth came as an inheritance from her family 's shipping and importing business , donated $ 59 @,@ 000 ( 2013 : US $ 1 @,@ 552 @,@ 880 ) to erect a new library . $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 2013 : US $ 131 @,@ 600 ) was added to this total from other donors to furnish the new building . The new library , called Voorhees Hall , was built on land donated by James Nielson behind Kirkpatrick Chapel that began to extend the college campus west . Voorhees Hall was dedicated on November 10 , 1903 — the 140th anniversary of the signing of the college 's charter — and served as the school 's main library until the Archibald S. Alexander Library opened in 1956 . Voorhees , who was fully blind , gave a speech and was awarded an honorary degree at the dedication ceremony .
= = = Notable events = = =
On May 6 , 1881 , the second intercollegiate forensic debate was held at Kirkpatrick Chapel between the Peithessophian Society of Rutgers and the Philomathean Society of New York University on the topic of whether voting rights and suffrage should be limited or denied by any requirement other than age . The team from Rutgers won the debate . The first intercollegiate debate took place the night before between societies at Illinois College and Knox College .
In 1957 , American poet Robert Frost gave a poetry reading at the chapel , after an invitation by Rutgers English professor and poet John Ciardi .
In a special ceremony held in the chapel on June 28 , 1981 , Rutgers belatedly presented to Queen Beatrix a 1941 honorary Doctor of Laws ( LL.D. ) degree that the University granted to her grandmother , Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands , for her bravery at the onset of World War II during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands .
= = Architecture = =
Kirkpatrick Chapel was designed to complement the Gothic Revival brownstone exterior masonry of Geology Hall which was constructed the year before of New Jersey brownstone after Hardenbergh 's earlier proposal for brick was found to be prohibitively expensive and overbudget . Brownstone is a durable reddish @-@ brown sandstone used for many houses and buildings in New York City and New Jersey , including Old Queen 's , Geology Hall , and Kirkpatrick Chapel . Brownstone and similar materials , known as freestone , were popular for constructing stone buildings because the properties of the rock allowed it to be worked freely in every direction instead of having to be cut in one direction along a grain .
In his design for the Chapel , Hardenbergh attempted a " restrained approach to Gothic architecture " that refrained from the excesses ( " fripperies " ) of typical examples of Victorian Gothic . The facade has a porch with three archways and buttresses described in the Architectural Record of 1918 as being suggestive of German Gothic . It has lancet windows and an appearance described in the application for inclusion on the National Register as " similar to an English country church " .
Internally , the chapel has a nave and aisles with the arcade supported on slender iron columns . The roof is of open timber in black walnut and stained pine . Similarly , the former library that is presently part of the expanded chapel ( as of 1916 ) was " finished with open @-@ timbered roof in the native wood . " Both the iron columns and the walls were painted in delicate tints . The chapel was described by alumnus Michael C. Barr and architecture professor Edward Wilkens as having " a particularly graceful interior of wood " with " light , delicate proportions . "
Kirkpatrick Chapel was included as part of the Queen 's Campus on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places on January 29 , 1973 , and on the National Register of Historic Places on July 2 , 1973 .
= = Fittings and furnishings = =
= = = Organ = = =
Since 1916 , Kirkpatrick Chapel 's services have been augmented by the force of large pipe organ regarded as one of the " finest classical examples of the instrument anywhere in the state . " In 1916 , the daughter of Rutgers alumnus George Buckham ( A.B. 1832 ) , donated $ 10 @,@ 000 ( 2013 : US $ 212 @,@ 800 ) to the college for a new organ in her father 's memory . Her donation coincided with the observance of Rutgers ' 150th anniversary that year , and the completion of a renovation to remove the partitions dividing the chapel from the former library and classrooms . Previously , an organ purchased by the class of 1866 was located in the gallery above the chapel 's narthex .
Built in 1916 as the " Opus 255 " by the Ernest M. Skinner & Company of Boston , the organ featured 33 stops , 24 registers , 27 ranks , and 1606 pipes . According to Rutgers , Skinner ( 1866 – 1960 ) who was considered the nation 's premier organ @-@ builder in the early twentieth century , gave personal attention to the building of this organ . When the purchase of the organ was being considered in 1916 , Rutgers ' director of music , Howard D. McKinney ( RC 1903 ) , sought the advice of English organist T. Tertius Noble who had been installed as the organist and music director at Saint Thomas Church ( Episcopal ) on Fifth Avenue and 53rd Street in New York City . When it was dedicated on April 12 , 1917 , Noble performed an organ recital . During these years , Skinner @-@ built organs were installed in several churches across the United States , including the chapels at Harvard University , Lafayette College , Oberlin College , for Saint Thomas Church and several for the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York City . In 1931 , chimes were added to the Opus 255 organ 's ranks and some of the reeds were repaired . The organ 's components were releathered in 1957 .
From 1958 to 1961 , the organ was updated and rebuilt by the Aeolian @-@ Skinner Organ Company , the successor to Ernest M. Skinner 's company . University organist David A. Drinkwater oversaw the work as the organ — then renamed " Opus 255 @-@ C " — expanded to 59 stops , 52 ranks , and 3 @,@ 059 pipes .
As of 2013 , the chapel 's organ has " gone silent " after several years of problems and failures and has been temporarily replaced with a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art electronic organ . Rutgers has not decided whether it will restore the organ or replace it with a new pipe organ as the university considers the possibility of undertaking a larger restoration of the chapel .
= = = Stained glass windows = = =
Among the stained glass windows at Kirkpatrick Chapel are approximately twenty lancet windows along the chapel 's side aisles that were donated by graduating classes at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries ( 1890 – 1912 ) . These windows depict their class year and phrases in Ancient Greek and Latin .
Four of the chapel 's windows were designed and crafted in the studios of Louis Comfort Tiffany ( 1848 – 1933 ) . Tiffany and Hardenbergh were acquainted through their work with the Architectural League of New York . According to the New Jersey Historic Trust , the windows are " some of the first opalescent and multicolored sheet glass manufactured in America . " Opalescent glass , used often in Tiffany glass windows , is glass in which more than one colour is present and caused in the manufacture by fusing through two colors being laminated , or through a superficial application of metallic oxide solutions .
The four windows from the Tiffany studios include those donated by the college 's Class of 1899 and Class of 1900 . A window depicting Joan of Arc was donated in memory of Rutgers College sophomore Henry Janeway Weston ( 1877 – 1898 ) who committed suicide in 1898 . According to Rutgers , this window was a gift of the Tiffany studios . Weston , the grandson of Henry Latimer Janeway ( 1824 – 1909 ) — a wealthy wallpaper manufacturer , Rutgers alumnus ( A.B. 1844 , A.M. 1847 ) and long @-@ serving trustee ( 1862 – 1909 ) — killed himself after his family became aware of a romantic relationship with a woman that would have negatively affected his reputation .
Designed by Tiffany Studies , the large window in the chancel above the altar , titled " Jesus , the Teacher of the Ages " , was donated by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh after the renovation of the chapel in 1916 and dedicated to his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather and the college 's first president , the Rev. Jacob Rutsen Hardenbergh ( 1735 – 1790 ) . A large window over the narthex ( or the entrance of the chapel ) and a choir loft commemorates the signing of charter creating Queen 's College in 1766 by New Jersey 's last royal governor , William Franklin . According to Star @-@ Ledger columnist Mark DiIonno , the " Charter Window " was donated by Frelinghuysen family to commemorate the 175th anniversary of the signing , and dedicated to their ancestor the Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen ( 1692 – 1747 ) — an early advocate for establishing the college — and his sons Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen II ( 1724 – c.1760 ) and Rev. John Frelinghuysen ( 1727 – 1754 ) . Rev. Frelinghuysen , his sons , and Rev. Hardenbergh were instrumental raising funds and political support for establishing the college .
The windows of Kirkpatrick chapel underwent an eleven @-@ year restoration beginning in 2004 with the chapel 's clerestory windows under the direction of Michael Padovan and his studio Jersey Art Stained Glass in Frenchtown , New Jersey .
= = = Portraits and memorial plaques = = =
An alumnus and local attorney , Edward Sullivan Vail ( 1819 – 1889 ) , a graduate from the class of 1839 , is listed in University publications as " Collector of Portraits for Kirkpatrick Chapel " , after spearheading the effort to collecting over sixty paintings portraying Rutgers presidents , prominent trustees , professors and the chapel 's namesake , Sophia Astley Kirkpatrick . Kirkpatrick , whose portrait was painted by an American artist named G. Bruecke , is the only woman among the collection . The earliest portraits date to the eighteenth century .
The walls inside Kirkpatrick Chapel are adorned with memorial plaques recording the names of Rutgers graduates who died in war . In 1966 , Richard P. McCormick wrote that the names of 234 men and two women associated with Rutgers who died " in the line of duty " are inscribed in the chapel 's Service Book and that a number of " Gold Star scholarships " were established by the Alumni Association as a tribute . This number of alumni killed in action has increased since McCormick 's tabulation was published before the conclusion of the Vietnam War ( 1961 – 1975 ) . Several more Rutgers alumni were killed in Vietnam after McCormick 's 1966 tabulation , and during recent conflicts in the Middle East ( 2001 – present ) .
= Sheshi =
Maaibre Sheshi ( also Sheshy ) was a ruler of areas of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period . The dynasty , chronological position , duration and extent of his reign are uncertain and subject to ongoing debate . The difficulty of identification is mirrored by problems in determining events from the end of the Middle Kingdom to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt . Nonetheless , Sheshi is , in terms of the number of artefacts attributed to him , the best attested king of the period spanning the end of the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate period ; roughly from c . 1800 BC until 1550 BC . Hundreds of scaraboid seals bearing his name have been found throughout Canaan , Egypt , Nubia and as far away as Carthage where some were still in use 1500 years after his death .
Three competing hypotheses have been put forth for the dynasty to which Sheshi belonged . Egyptologists such as Nicolas Grimal , William C. Hayes and Donald B. Redford believe he should be identified with Salitis , founder of the 15th Dynasty according to historical sources and king of the Hyksos during their invasion of Egypt . Salitis is credited with 19 years of reign and would have lived some time between c . 1720 BC and 1650 BC . The Egyptologist William Ayres Ward and the archaeologist Daphna Ben @-@ Tor propose that Sheshi was a Hyksos king and belongs to the second half of the 15th Dynasty , reigning between Khyan and Apophis . Alternatively , Manfred Bietak has proposed that Sheshi was a vassal of the Hyksos , ruling over some part of Egypt or Canaan . The very existence of such vassals is debated . Finally , Sheshi could be a ruler of the early 14th Dynasty , a line of kings of Canaanite descent ruling over of the Eastern Nile Delta immediately before the arrival of the Hyksos . Proponents of this theory , such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker , credit Sheshi with 40 years of reign starting c . 1745 BC .
Ryholt proposed that Sheshi allied his kingdom with the Kushites in Nubia via a dynastic marriage with the Nubian princess Tati . Ryholt further posits that the son of Sheshi and Tati was Nehesy , whose name means " The Nubian " , whom he believes succeeded Sheshi to the throne as the pharaoh Nehesy Aasehre .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Nomen and prenomen on seals = = =
The nomen of Sheshi is inscribed on over two hundred scarab seals , which constitute the sole attestations of his reign . The number of scarabs attributed to Sheshi is paralleled in number only by those bearing the prenomen Maaibre , meaning " The righteous one is the heart of Ra " . Based on the close stylistic similarities between both groups of scarabs as well as their otherwise unmatched numbers , The consensus among Egyptologists is that Maaibre was the prenomen of Sheshi .
Consequently , Maaibre Sheshi is the best attested ruler of the Second Intermediate Period in terms of the number of artefacts attributed to him , with 396 seals and two seal impressions showing his nomen or prenomen . This figure is three times higher than the 123 seals attributed to the next best attested king of the period , Yakbim Sekhaenre .
In addition to these seals , Manfred Bietak has suggested that a scarab discovered in Avaris and inscribed with the name of a king " Shenshek " should probably be attributed to Sheshi . This conclusion is rejected by Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker , who believe that Shenshek was a separate king .
= = = Location of the finds = = =
Over 80 per cent of the seals attributed to Maaibre Sheshi are of unknown provenance , but the remaining 20 per cent have been found throughout Egypt , Nubia and Canaan , indicating widespread trade and diplomatic contacts during Sheshi 's reign .
Important finds include seals from Lachish , Gezer , Jericho , Amman and Tell el @-@ Ajjul in Canaan . In Lower Egypt , three seals have been unearthed in Tell el @-@ Yahudiya and Tell el @-@ Mashkuta and a further eight are from the wider Delta region . Four seals originate from Saqqara and a further five from the Middle Egyptian sites of Abusir el @-@ Melek , Kom Medinet Ghurab , Kom el @-@ Ahmar and Deir Rifa . To the south , in Upper Egypt , a total of twenty seals are known from Abydos , Hu , Thebes , Elephantine , Esna and Edfu , In Nubia , seals of Sheshi have been found in the Egyptian fortresses of Uronarti and Mirgissa and otherwise in Dakka , Kerma , Sayala , Aniba , Masmas , Faras , Ukma , Akasha and Sai . Finally , two seal impressions of Sheshi have been found in Carthage , in a context dated archeologically to the 2nd century BC .
The seals of Sheshi are now scattered in many different museums , including the Israel Museum , Petrie Museum , Ashmolean , British Museum , Louvre , Walters Art Museum , Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Egyptian Museum of Cairo .
= = = Historical sources = = =
No historical attestation of Sheshi is known for certain . Sheshi is absent from the Turin canon , a list of kings written on papyrus during the Ramesside period and which serves as the primary historical source for the second intermediate period . This is because the section of the papyrus covering the 13th to 17th Dynasties is heavily damaged and the problem of Seshi 's chronological position cannot be resolved from the document .
It is unclear whether Sheshi is mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . Indeed , the Aegyptiaca only reports Hellenized names for Egyptian pharaohs and the identification of Sheshi with any particular name remains controversial .
Finally , Aharon Kempinski and Donald B. Redford have proposed that Sheshi is the historical figure that gave rise to the Biblical Sheshai , one of the Anakim living in Hebron at the time of the conquest of Canaan by the Hebrews according to Numbers 13 : 22 . David Rohl goes even further and explicitly equates Sheshi with Sheshai .
= = Dynasty = =
Three competing hypotheses have been proposed regarding the dynasty to which Sheshi belonged .
= = = Hyksos ruler = = =
William C. Hayes , Nicolas Grimal , Redford and Peter Clayton identify Sheshi with Salitis ( also known as Saites ) . According to the Aegyptiaca , Salitis was the founder of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty . Alternatively , Bietak and Janine Bourriau have proposed that Salitis should be identified with Sakir @-@ Har , a poorly known ruler of the second intermediate period who , in contrast to Sheshi , is known to have borne the title of " Hyksos " .
If Sheshi is to be equated with Salitis , then the seals of Sheshi discovered in Nubia suggest that the Hyksos allied themselves with the Nubians against the native Egyptian 13th Dynasty as soon as they arrived in the Nile Delta , an event which Grimal places c . 1720 BC . Grimal envisions Sheshi 's kingdom as comprising the entire Nile Delta and the Nile valley north of Gebelein . According to Manetho as reported by Josephus in Against Apion , Salitis reigned from Memphis , and fortified the existing town of Avaris , which was to become the Hyksos ' seat of power .
Grimal and Hayes further equate Sheshi with Sharek , a king whose sole attestation is found on a stone slab detailing the genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet , a priest who lived at the end of the 21st Dynasty c . 950 BC , some 700 years after Sheshi 's estimated lifetime .
William Ayres Ward and the archaeologist Daphna Ben @-@ Tor rely on seriations of the seals of Sheshi and other kings of the second intermediate period to date Sheshi to the second half of the 15th Dynasty , between the great Hyksos pharaohs Khyan and Apophis .
= = = Vassal of the Hyksos = = =
Jürgen von Beckerath is less assertive about Sheshi 's identity and assigns him to his combined 15th / 16th Dynasty , where he regroups Hyksos rulers whose chronological position is uncertain together with kings whom he sees as vassals of the Hyksos . Von Beckerath 's analysis relies on the hypothesis that Manetho 's 16th Dynasty comprised minor rulers of the Nile Delta region , called lesser Hyksos , who served the great Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty such as Khyan and Apophis .
For Manfred Bietak , the large number of attestations of Sheshi suggests that he was an important Hyksos ruler , yet his inclusion in the 15th Dynasty may be doubtful given the total absence of monuments attributable to him . Thus , Bietak concludes that Sheshi should be placed in a group of West Semitic rulers who coexisted with the 15th Dynasty , possibly as vassals or partly independently from it , and some of whom even bore the title of " Hyksos " .
The existence of lesser Hyksos kings in Egypt is currently debated . Ryholt has shown that a statement in Eusebius ' epitome of the Aegyptiaca indicating that the Hyksos had vassals contains a corruption of Manetho 's original text . Thus , he rejects the hypothesis that the 16th Dynasty comprised vassals of the Hyksos and maintains instead that it was a native Egyptian dynasty independently reigning over the Theban region between the fall of the 13th Dynasty and the advent of the 17th Dynasty . These conclusions on the 16th Dynasty have been accepted by many scholars , including Ben @-@ Tor , James Peter Allen , Susan Allen , Baker and Redford . Yet , for both Redford and Bietak " without doubt , there were , under the umbrella of the fifteenth dynasty rulers , a series of vassals in southern and coastal Palestine , in Middle Egypt , and in Thebes . ... Such was the political system of the Hyksos , and typical of the Amorite kingdoms in Syria and the city @-@ states in Palestine " .
= = = King of the 14th Dynasty = = =
Ryholt and Baker reject the idenfication of Sheshi as a 15th Dynasty ruler . Ryholt observes that early Hyksos kings , such as Sakir @-@ Har and Khyan , are known to have adopted the title Heqa khasewet meaning " ruler of the foreign countries " , a title which Sheshi did not bear . In addition , the later of these two kings , Khyan , only adopted an Egyptian prenomen during the second half of his reign – a practice that was followed by subsequent Hyksos kings . In contrast , if Sheshi is to be identified with Maaibre , then Sheshi bore a prenomen . This implies either that he was a Hyksos king reigning after Khyan , in contradiction with Khyan 's known successors Apophis and Khamudi ; or that he belonged to another dynasty .
Consequently , Ryholt suggests that Sheshi was actually a 14th Dynasty ruler , the 14th Dynasty being a line of kings of Canaanite descent possibly ruling over the Eastern Nile Delta immediately before the arrival of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty . Many Egyptologists accept the existence of the 14th Dynasty based on archaeological evidence and on the fact that circa 50 kings are recorded in the Turin canon between the 13th Dynasty and the later Hyksos rulers . At the opposite , Redford proposed that these 50 kings constitute the genealogy of the Hyksos rulers and that the 14th Dynasty is chimerical .
Based on a seriation of the scarab seals of the Second Intermediate Period available in 1900 , George Willoughby Fraser was able to date Sheshi 's reign to " a short dynasty before the Hyksos invasion " . More recently , Ryholt obtained a similar result using his own seriation and places Sheshi before Yaqub @-@ Har and the great Hyksos rulers Khyan and Apophis and after Yakbim Sekhaenre , Ya 'ammu Nubwoserre , Qareh Khawoserre and ' Ammu Ahotepre . Rolf Krauss independently reached the same conclusion . Given that the earliest 14th Dynasty ruler mentioned on the Turin canon is Nehesy , a king who left several attestations of his reign in the Delta region , and that there is only space for one predecessor for Nehesy on the canon , Ryholt concludes that the earlier document from which the canon was copied had a lacuna preceding Nehesy . Such lacunae are noted as wsf on the canon and could cover any number of kings . Thus , Ryholt sees no obstacle with having Sheshi succeed ' Ammu Ahotepre and immediately precede Nehesy .
= = Dating = =
= = = Mid 18th century BC = = =
Ryholt dates Sheshi 's reign to the mid 18th century BC . His main argument is the presence of seals of Sheshi and of two kings of the mid 13th Dynasty Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and Djedkheperew in the Egyptian fort of Uronarti in Nubia . The fort of Uronarti was abandoned at some point in the 13th Dynasty , an event which Ryholt dates to the reign of Djedkheperew given the lack of seals attributable to subsequent kings . Ryholt thus proposes that Sheshi reigned from c . 1745 BC until 1705 BC and was a contemporary of Khabaw and Djedkheperew .
Ryholt 's hypothesis regarding Sheshi comes with his dating the start of the 14th Dynasty around 1805 BC , over 90 years earlier than accepted by most Egyptologists . They propose instead that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the two decades of Merneferre Ay 's reign , which is dated to between 1700 BC and 1660 BC , depending on the scholar . Ay is the last 13th Dynasty pharaoh to be attested in Lower Egypt , and most scholars therefore contend that he abandoned Itjtawy , the capital of Egypt since the reign of Amenemhat I ( c . 1980 BC ) , in favor of Thebes as he lost control of the Delta region to the 14th Dynasty .
= = = Mid to late 17th century BC = = =
If Sheshi is to be identified with Salitis , the founder of the 15th Dynasty after Manetho , then he would have lived around 1650 BC , the date agreed upon by most Egyptologists , including Ryholt , for the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt . If Sheshi lived during the second half of the 15th Dynasty between the reigns of Khyan and Apophis as Ben @-@ Tor and Ward favor then Sheshi would have reigned c . 1600 BC .
= = = Reign length = = =
The Egyptologists identifying Sheshi with Salitis follow Josephus , Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius who report that Manetho credited Salitis with 19 years of reign in his Aegyptiaca . Ryholt relies instead on a statistical method and estimates the duration of Sheshi 's reign to have been between 20 and 53 years . The method consists in tallying the seals of Yakbim Sekhaenre , Ya 'ammu Nubwoserre , Qareh Khawoserre and ' Ammu Ahotepre with those of Sheshi . Then , knowing that the first four of these kings reigned for at least c . 30 years , implies that they have left between 7 @.@ 5 and 20 seals per year on throne . Consequently , Sheshi 's nearly 400 scarabs would correspond to 20 to 53 years , which Ryholt gives as c . 40 years .
= = Family = =
Ryholt proposes that Sheshi had at least two consorts ; Tati with whom he fathered his successor pharaoh Nehesy , and an unknown queen with whom he fathered a prince Ipqu . Ryholt reached this conclusion on noting that scarabs of queen Tati and Princes Ipqu and Nehesy bear stylistic markers which are found on those of Sheshi and thus that they must have been contemporaries . In addition , " Tati " is attested as a feminine Nubian name in earlier execration texts , which would explain the peculiar name of Nehesy meaning " the Nubian " . For Ryholt , Sheshi 's motivation behind a dynastic marriage with a Kushite princess was to ally his kingdom with the Nubians . Ryholt 's hypothesis concerning Nehesy may be vindicated by a number of scarabs giving Nehesy the titles of " king 's son " and of " eldest king son " , indicating that Nehesy 's father was a king as well . In addition , both Nehesy and Ipqu bore the titles of " king 's son of Ra " , a conflation of the titles " son of Ra " and " king 's son " , which could indicate that were appointed junior coregents by Sheshi .
These conclusions are shared by Baker but rejected by Ben @-@ Tor , who argues not only that Nehesy reigned before Sheshi but also that the Nehesy referred to as " king 's son " was a later Hyksos prince . In 2005 a stele of Nehesy was discovered in the fortress city of Tjaru , the starting point of the Way of Horus , the major road leading out of Egypt into Canaan . The stele shows a " king 's son Nehesy " offering oil to the god Banebdjedet and also bears an inscription mentioning the " king 's sister Tany " . A woman with this name and title is known from other sources around the time of the Hyksos pharaoh Apophis c . 1570 BC . This suggests that the " king 's son Nehesy " of the stela lived c . 1570 BC as well , over 100 years after King Nehesy 's estimated lifetime . This could be confirmed by Ben @-@ Tor 's observation that the scarabs referring to the " king 's son Nehesy " are different in style from those referring to king Nehesy . In this situation , the " king 's son Nehesy " would be a Hyksos prince different from the better known king Nehesy .
= Star Fox Adventures =
Star Fox Adventures is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the GameCube as part of the Star Fox series . It was released in North America on 23 September 2002 , Japan on 27 September , Australia on 15 November and Europe on 22 November . Along with being Rare 's only GameCube title , it was Rare 's final game for any Nintendo home console before the company was acquired as a first @-@ party developer for Microsoft 's Xbox division the day after the game 's release in North America . It is the third installment in the series and the direct sequel to Star Fox 64 .
The plot centers on Dinosaur Planet ( known as " Sauria " in subsequent games ) of the Lylat System , where Fox McCloud is dispatched by General Pepper to restore the planet after pieces of it have broken off and pose a risk to the System . After arriving , Fox discovers a mystical staff from a blue fox named Krystal and sets off to save the planet . The game began development as an unrelated game named " Dinosaur Planet " , initially intended to be Rare 's last standalone title for the Nintendo 64 system . The game endured a number of dramatic changes during development before Shigeru Miyamoto noticed similarities between the original game and Star Fox and convinced Rare to re @-@ brand it into a Star Fox title for the upcoming GameCube .
The game received mostly positive praise from critics upon release . Notable topics of praise included its detailed graphics , new character design for Fox , dynamic environments and The Legend of Zelda @-@ influenced gameplay . However , the game was criticized for its aforementioned gameplay being too much of a departure from previous Star Fox games , while mixed reactions came from critics and fans alike for Rare 's departure from Nintendo .
= = Gameplay = =
Star Fox adventures is a 3D action @-@ adventure game with platforming elements . Its gameplay is frequently compared to that of the The Legend of Zelda series , especially The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time . Like Ocarina of Time , Star Fox Adventures has a day @-@ and @-@ night phase , but a more gradual one . The game also has a widescreen mode , designed for widescreen television sets .
The game includes thirteen different locations , each of which is unlocked when the player completes parts of the story . Unlike other Star Fox games in which most of the player 's time is spent in air combat , playable protagonist Fox McCloud is on foot for most of the game . He pilots his Arwing aircraft only to reach other parts of the planet , although the game includes a few space battles involving the Arwing . The game 's combat system is melee @-@ orientated , as General Pepper forbids Fox from using any sort of blaster , telling him " This mission is about saving the planet , not blowing it up ! " Fox instead relies on a magical staff belonging to a native named Krystal that he discovered on the planet . The staff can be used to attack and defeat enemies as well as interact with the surrounding environment . While Fox uses the staff primarily for melee combat , he can later gain power @-@ ups for the staff which allow it to fire projectiles , freeze enemies or help him reach high up areas that are normally inaccessible . Fox homes in on his targets automatically when he approaches them , after which combat begins . Fox cannot jump unless he runs off the edge of an object or a cliff , but can roll after landing on the ground .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters and setting = = =
Star Fox Adventures features both the established main characters of the Star Fox series — Fox , Falco Lombardi , Slippy Toad , and Peppy Hare , although Falco is absent for the majority of the game — and a host of new characters . Major additions are a quiet , mysterious blue fox named Krystal and the small dinosaur Prince Tricky , Fox 's helper during the game . The entire planet is populated with dinosaurs , like the tyrannical General Scales , and other prehistoric animals such as pterosaurs and mammoths .
The entire game takes place on the world of Dinosaur Planet ( known as " Sauria " in subsequent games ) and a number of detached pieces of the planet that are suspended in orbit around it . Dinosaur Planet is ruled by the EarthWalker tribe , which resemble Triceratops , and the rival CloudRunner tribe , similar to pterosaurs and birds . The SharpClaw tribe , which are the major antagonists in Adventures , are humanoid theropods .
= = = Story = = =
The game takes place eight years after the events of Star Fox 64 , after Andross has been killed by Fox McCloud . Krystal , a mysterious fox looking for answers to the destruction of her home planet , Cerinia , and the murder of her parents , lands on Krazoa Palace after receiving a distress call from the planet . She discovers that the planet had been attacked by General Scales and his SharpClaw army , and is persuaded by a wounded EarthWalker in the Palace to help by collecting all of the Krazoa Spirits and returning them to the palace , which would supposedly tilt the war in the dinosaurs ' favor and stop Scales . However , after releasing the first one , a mysterious being pushes Krystal into the spirit 's path , trapping her in a floating crystal atop the Krazoa Palace until all the spirits can be returned .
Meanwhile , General Pepper contacts the Star Fox Team and asks them to investigate a planet on the edge of the Lylat System called Dinosaur Planet , which is falling apart . Since the team is in desperate need of money for maintenance on the Great Fox , their aircraft , Fox McCloud agrees to take a look , arriving unarmed at Pepper 's request to avoid trouble with the locals . On the planet 's surface , Fox comes across Krystal 's magic staff , which Krystal had lost earlier when she was attacked by General Scales at the beginning of the game , and it becomes his sole weapon in the game .
Fox learns from the Queen of the EarthWalker Tribe that General Scales has stolen the four Spellstones from the planet 's two Force Point Temples . To prevent the planet from breaking up further and restore it to its original unity , Fox must restore the Spellstones to the temples , with the help of the Queen 's son , Prince Tricky . As Fox retrieves the Spellstones , he discovers that he must also retrieve the other five Krazoa Spirits to repair the planet and save Krystal 's life .
When Fox finds the last of the Krazoa Spirits , he discovers that it is guarded by General Scales himself . However , just before Fox and Scales engage in combat , a mysterious voice that Fox seems to recognize orders Scales to surrender the spirit , to which he reluctantly agrees . Fox takes the spirit to the Krazoa Shrine and frees Krystal . The spirits are forced into a Krazoa statue , which reveals itself to be Andross , the mastermind behind the spirit scheme , who flies off to resume his conquest of the Lylat System . Fox pursues him in his Arwing , and , with the help of Falco Lombardi , who arrives during the battle , defeats Andross , restoring the Krazoa spirits to the planet and repairing it . Afterwards , Falco rejoins the Star Fox team . Krystal flies to the Great Fox to thank the team , particularly Fox , in person , subsequently joining the team .
= = Development = =
What would become Star Fox Adventures was initially developed by Rare as Dinosaur Planet , a Nintendo 64 game unrelated to the Star Fox series . According to lead software engineer Phil Tossell , development of Dinosaur Planet began after the release of Diddy Kong Racing , with two teams to work on the latter title and Jet Force Gemini towards the end of the Nintendo 64 's lifespan . The game was changed many times during early development before Rare settled on the eventual idea of a open world adventure @-@ game based around two interwoven stories . The plot concerned Sabre ( whose role was given to Fox ) and Krystal , along with sidekicks Tricky and Kyte ( who both appear in the finished game ) , and Randorn , a wizard who was Sabre 's father and Krystal 's adoptive father ( who was dropped entirely ) . The game featured elements such as the ' SwapStone ' , which would let the player switch between Krystal and Sabre . Dinosaur Planet was intended to be Rare 's last game for the Nintendo 64 and was adorned with gameplay and cinematics introduced by The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time . Dinosaur Planet initially utilised the Nintendo 64 's Expansion Pak and was housed in a 512 @-@ megabit ( 64 megabyte ) cartridge , which would have placed it among the largest Nintendo 64 games by stored data .
Shigeru Miyamoto mentioned in a retrospective interview that , after reviewing content of Dinosaur Planet , the similarities of Rare 's anthropomorphic design of Sabre to Nintendo 's Fox McCloud design were striking . The title was later changed to be a Star Fox @-@ brand launch game for the Nintendo GameCube . According to Tossell , the sudden change was not " accepted willingly by all " of the team as the plot had to be entirely re @-@ written in places to accommodate the Star Fox canon . The updated title was originally named Star Fox Adventures : Dinosaur Planet , but " Dinosaur Planet " was later removed . The team later realized the potential of using the Star Fox licence in hopes of boosting awareness , and decided to switch development from the Nintendo 64 to the upcoming GameCube console . Before the change , Rare released downloadable , limited full length MP3s from the unreleased game — many of which did appear in Star Fox Adventures — to video game websites , along with numerous trailers and screenshots of gameplay .
With the Star Fox theme established , Rare begun re @-@ working the game for the upcoming GameCube and was subsequently met with little interference from Nintendo . During development , the team was invited to Nintendo 's headquarters in Kyoto to discuss progress and certain changes ; in return Star Fox creator Takaya Imamura came to stay at Rare 's Twycross studio to oversee development . Tossell stated that " without a doubt " , Nintendo strengthened their relationship through trust and respect , despite Nintendo only owning 49 % of the company at the time .
The game was Rare 's final console video game released under Nintendo before the Leicestershire @-@ based studio was sold and became a first @-@ party developer for Microsoft . Shortly after the game 's release , Microsoft purchased Rare for £ 375 million , thus ending Rare 's entire association with Nintendo . Many fans and critics do not consider Star Fox Adventures to be an " essential " Rare title , as the negativity was attributed to Microsoft 's takeover , which led to some fans speculating that Microsoft were " buying out competition " .
David Wise used Peter Siedleczek 's Advanced Orchestra library in creating the music for Star Fox Adventures . Wise said the tracks that referenced the music for the previous Star Fox games came very late into development , which was after the developers created Dinosaur Planet into Star Fox Adventures .
= = Reception = =
Star Fox Adventures received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . It sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies in Japan following its release , and was the fastest @-@ selling GameCube game at the time . Star Fox Adventures was eventually designated a Player 's Choice game by Nintendo , signifying over 250 @,@ 000 copies sold , and was thus available at a reduced retail price .
The visuals were very well received . Edge wrote that the " visual splendour is immense " , whilst in a similar fashion Matt Casamassina of IGN noted that the game is a " perfect companion " to The Legend of Zelda series , to which Adventures is often compared . Casamassina noted that elements of its graphical rendering were sophisticated for its time , in particular the advanced real @-@ time rendering of the movement of the characters ' fur . NGC Magazine praised the game 's vibrant atmosphere and detailed textures , adding that Adventures had " the best real time graphics on the GameCube so far " . The game 's combat system garnered some accolades , with GameSpot adding that the combat is simplistic , despite being " good looking " and not " frustrating " . Casamassina also praised the combat system , calling it " a beneficial addition " . NGC Magazine similarly praised the use of the combat system , however they noted that the battles did not require any skill and eventually " felt like a dull chore " . The voice acting was viewed negatively , with Casamassina remarking that it is " over the top " in some places . NGC Magazine felt that the accents of most of the characters did not suit that of the Star Fox world , in particular they noted the use of a Scottish accent for the Warpstone Master was " awful " .
Despite the mostly positive reviews , Star Fox Adventures is often criticized for its setting being too much of a departure from the other Star Fox games . Casamassina said that " Fans expecting a true Star Fox experience akin to the older games are in for a disappointment " . He also added that the Star Fox license has been utilized sparingly to the point where the game felt " out of place within the confines of the Star Fox game universe " . Casamassina asserted that Fox was " clearly only on ' Dinosaur Planet ' at Nintendo 's request , not because he belongs " . NGC Magazine similarly expressed concern on why Fox was added to the game , adding that Adventures was " one game Fox himself would probably want to forget " and further speculating that Nintendo only added the Star Fox license to prevent Dinosaur Planet from appearing on the Xbox .
= 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania =
The 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania was an ultimatum delivered to Lithuania by Poland on March 17 , 1938 . The Lithuanian government had steadfastly refused to have any diplomatic relations with Poland after 1920 , protesting the annexation of the Vilnius Region by Poland . As pre @-@ World War II tensions in Europe intensified , Poland perceived the need to secure its northern borders . Five days earlier , Poland , feeling supported by international recognition of the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany , decided it was imperative to deliver an ultimatum to Lithuania . The ultimatum demanded that the Lithuanian government unconditionally agree to establish diplomatic relations with Warsaw within 48 hours , and that the terms be finalized before March 31 . The establishment of diplomatic relations would mean a de facto renunciation of Lithuanian claims to the region containing its historic capital , Vilnius ( known in Polish as Wilno ) .
Lithuania , preferring peace to war , accepted the ultimatum on March 19 . Although diplomatic relations were established as a result of the ultimatum , Lithuania did not agree to recognize the loss of Vilnius de jure . The government of Poland made a similar move against the Czechoslovak government in Prague on September 30 , 1938 , when it took advantage of the Sudeten Crisis to demand a portion of Zaolzie . On both occasions , Poland used the international crises to address long @-@ standing border disputes .
= = Vilnius dispute = =
Lithuania severed its diplomatic ties with Poland after the Polish general Lucjan Żeligowski staged a mutiny in October 1920 by order of Józef Piłsudski . He invaded Lithuanian @-@ held territory , captured the disputed city of Vilnius ( known to Poles as Wilno ) , and established the short @-@ lived Republic of Central Lithuania . This entity was incorporated into Poland in 1922 . In demographic terms Vilnius was the least Lithuanian of Lithuanian cities , divided almost evenly between the Polish @-@ speaking population and Jews , with Lithuanian @-@ speaking inhabitants constituting about 2 – 3 % of the population , according to Russian ( 1897 ) and German ( 1916 ) censuses . Lithuania demanded that Polish troops withdraw behind the line drawn in the Suwałki Agreement , while Poland falsely maintained that it had not authorized Żeligowski 's actions . The League attempted to mediate the dispute and Paul Hymans presented concrete proposals to form a federation . However , both sides were unwilling to make compromises and negotiations collapsed in January 1922 . In January 1923 , Lithuanian troops crossed over to the Allied @-@ held Memelland and staged the " Klaipėda revolt " . The Lithuanian occupation of Memel ( Klaipėda ) was one of the main factors that led to the decision of the Conference of Ambassadors to award Vilnius to Poland in March 1923 .
The result was a state of " no war , no peace " as Lithuania avoided recognizing any Polish claims to the city and the region , as well as refusing to undertake any actions that would recognize Poland 's control of Vilnius even de facto . Lithuania broke off all diplomatic relations with Poland and continuously emphasized that Vilnius remained its permanent capital ( Kaunas was designated as the temporary capital ) . Poland refused to formally recognize the existence of any dispute regarding the region , since that would have lent legitimacy to the Lithuanian claims . Railroad traffic and telegraph lines could not cross the border , and mail service was complicated . For example , a letter from Poland to Lithuania needed to be sent to a neutral country , repackaged in a new envelope to remove any Polish signs , and only then delivered to Lithuania . The conflict over Vilnius remained the most important foreign policy issue in Lithuania , but it became increasingly marginalized in the international arena . There were unsuccessful informal attempts to normalize the situation , most notably by the Lithuanian Prime Minister Augustinas Voldemaras between 1927 and 1928 and by Foreign Minister Stasys Lozoraitis between 1934 and 1936 , who asked Smetona to re @-@ establish the diplomatic relations with Poland . Both sides engaged in emotional and nationalistic rhetoric .
= = Rationale = =
On March 11 , a day before Austria was annexed into Greater Germany following the Anschluss , Justas Lukoševičius , a Lithuanian border patrol , shot Stanisław Serafin , a Polish soldier , on the demarcation line in the village of Trasninkai near Merkinė . The exact circumstances are not clear as the obscure event was variously portrayed as a Lithuanian provocation , a Polish provocation , or as an unfortunate accident . During the 1920s and 1930s , similar incidents had occurred : between 1927 and 1937 seven Lithuanian border guards were killed during the course of 78 events . Usually , such incidents were handled at the local level in an attempt to forestall escalation . On this occasion , however , Polish radio and newspapers picked up the story and fanned anti @-@ Lithuanian sentiment . Protests were held in Warsaw , Vilnius , and four other cities where the crowds shouted for military action against Lithuania . There is evidence that the Camp of National Unity was involved in organizing the protests .
On March 13 , the Polish government issued a threatening statement accusing Lithuania of provocation . On the following day , the Senate of the Republic of Poland called for the establishment of diplomatic relations and for the Lithuanian renunciation of claims to Vilnius . Upon receiving news that Poland was considering extreme measures , President Antanas Smetona was verging towards agreeing to discuss diplomatic relations , but changed his mind at almost the last minute . On the night of March 14 , the Lithuanians , acting through France 's envoy to Warsaw , proposed a commission to investigate the shooting incident and to agree on measures to avoid such incidents in the future . This was a partial measure that clearly did not satisfy Poland , which responded by refusing , in the first paragraph of the ultimatum delivered three days later , to establish such a commission . At the same time Lithuanian diplomats approached foreign powers in a bid for international support .
= = Initial version = =
The first version of the ultimatum , as drafted by Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły , Prime Minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski , and Jan Szembek , contained six demands :
Establish normal diplomatic and consular relations with Poland
Allow normal railway and road traffic and direct telephone and telegraph lines across the demarcation line
Amend the Lithuanian constitution to acknowledge that Vilnius was no longer the capital of Lithuania
Conclude the convention protecting the rights of the Polish minority in Lithuania in full
Conclude a trade and tariff agreement
Fully investigate the incident in Trasnykai
The Polish Foreign Minister Józef Beck , who had just returned from a trip to Sorrento , called for a government meeting on the night of March 16 , . During the meeting he argued that the ultimatum needed to contain only one demand : the establishment of diplomatic relations . In his view , such an ultimatum would not have violated any genuine Lithuanian interests and would offer much @-@ improved prospects for peaceful resolution of the conflict and a speedy relief of tension . It was in accordance with Beck 's vision for Eastern Europe , which was based on a Warsaw @-@ dominated Polish – Baltic – Scandinavian bloc free of Soviet or German influence , a modified version of Józef Piłsudski 's Międzymorze , which required the normalization of relations with Lithuania . The removal of the other demands also reflected political pressure on Poland from the Soviet Union , France , and the United Kingdom to prevent the conflict from escalating into warfare .
The Polish government agreed to Beck 's proposal , and the ultimatum was toned down . However , at the same time , Beck ordered military preparations . Poland assembled four divisions along the demarcation line ; about 50 @,@ 000 Polish troops were present , and just over 20 @,@ 000 Lithuanian troops . The Polish troops were reinforced by armored vehicles , by two air force regiments , consisting of about one hundred aircraft , and by the Polish fleet in the waters of the Baltic Sea along the Lithuanian shore .
= = The ultimatum = =
The final text of the ultimatum , completed by Józef Beck and delivered through a Polish envoy in Tallinn to Bronius Dailidė , the Lithuanian envoy in Tallinn , was as follows :
1 . " The proposition of the Lithuanian Government of 14 March cannot be accepted for it does not give sufficient guarantees concerning the security of the frontier in view of the negative results of all Polish – Lithuanian negotiations made up to the present time . "
2 . " For this reason the Polish Government declares that it considers as the only solution corresponding to the gravity of the situation the immediate establishment of normal diplomatic relations without any previous condition . This is the only way to regulate the neighborly questions for a Government animated by good faith to avoid events dangerous to peace . "
3 . " The Polish Government allows the Lithuanian Government 48 hours from the moment the note is presented for the acceptance of this proposition in making it known that diplomatic representations at Kaunas and Warsaw will be accredited not later than March 31 , of this year . Until that date all discussions of a technical or other character between the Polish and Lithuanian Governments shall be continued by the envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary at Tallinn .
The exchange of notes attached concerning the establishment of diplomatic relations shall take place , before the expiration of the period of 48 hours mentioned , at Tallinn between the Polish and Lithuanian Ministers at Tallinn . "
4 . " The proposition above mentioned will not be the subject of discussion with regard to its content or form — it is an unchangeable proposition .
The failure to respond or the presentation of any supplements or reservations shall be considered by the Polish Government as a refusal . In the event of a negative reply the Polish Government will guarantee the just interest of the state by its proper means . "
The ultimatum contained an attachment : a draft of what would be deemed an acceptable response to the ultimatum . The proposed response stated only that Lithuania agreed to establish regular diplomatic relations , send a legation to Warsaw , and guarantee normal conditions of operation for a Polish legation in Kaunas .
= = International reaction = =
After the Soviet – Lithuanian Peace Treaty was ratified in 1920 , the Russian SFSR recognized Lithuanian claims to the Vilnius Region and continued to support them . In its responses to the 1938 ultimatum , the Soviet Union expressed concerns over Lithuania 's independence and threatened to abrogate the Soviet – Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact of 1932 . It made it clear , though , that it did not wish to be drawn into an armed conflict . This stance has been attributed to the growth of a threat from Japan ; armed assistance to Lithuania would have required the Red Army to invade either Poland or Latvia and could have resulted in a war on two fronts . The Soviets urged France , a major ally of Poland at the time , to de @-@ escalate the conflict and encourage a more moderate version of the ultimatum . France and the United Kingdom , preoccupied with the Anschluss , pressured Lithuania to normalize the relationship with Poland as soon as possible . They feared that the ultimatum had been approved by Nazi Germany .
Germany , led by Adolf Hitler , now turned its attention to the Klaipėda Region , then held by Lithuania . In April 1938 , Hitler stated that control of the Port of Klaipėda ( German : Memel ) and its surrounding area was Germany 's second @-@ most important issue , following the status of the Sudeten area . In the event of armed hostilities between Poland and Lithuania , German troops were to defend and occupy the Klaipėda region and significant portions of western Lithuania . The Polish ambassador to Nazi Germany , Józef Lipski , was informed of these plans . The Poles agreed to cooperate with German troops and to respect German interests in Klaipėda if such an armed conflict were to arise . However , in Hitler 's assessment , an immediate bid for Klaipėda was impolitic ; he wished to maintain the status quo until more time had passed after the Anschluss . The German suggestion was that Lithuania concede to the Polish demands .
Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia , the three Baltic states , had formed the Baltic Entente in 1934 . Its principal purposes were coordination of joint foreign policy and mutual international diplomatic support ; it was not a military alliance . In Latvian and Estonian opinion , the Polish – Lithuanian dispute over Vilnius was outside the scope of the Entente , but they wished for a resolution , considering the conflict detrimental to the stability of the region . Latvia attempted to persuade Estonia to exert mutual pressure on Lithuania for a speedy acceptance of the ultimatum . This reaction from an ally was unexpected .
= = Acceptance = =
President Smetona held a government meeting late on the night of March 18 , to decide whether to accept the ultimatum . Lithuania clearly lacked international support and the demand was rather tame . A refusal would have cast Lithuania in an unfavorable light as an unreasonable disputant that had irrationally rejected peaceful diplomatic relations for eighteen years . Lithuanian diplomats were divided on the issue , while popular opinion was strongly against accepting the ultimatum . Various campaigns for the Lithuanian liberation of Vilnius had attracted massive participation . " Mourning of Vilnius Day " ( October 9 , when Żeligowski invaded Lithuania and captured Vilnius ) , had become an annual event , and the largest social organization in interwar Lithuania was the League for the Liberation of Vilnius ( Vilniaus vadavimo sąjunga , or VVS ) , with some 25 @,@ 000 members . Passionate feelings about Vilnius were expressed in a popular slogan " Mes be Vilniaus nenurimsim " ( we will not rest without Vilnius ) , part of a poem by Petras Vaičiūnas . While Paul Hymans ' regional peace plans at the League of Nations were under negotiation , Lithuanian Prime Minister Ernestas Galvanauskas barely survived an assassination attempt . A government decision to open over 80 Polish schools in Lithuania was a probable factor in the 1926 Lithuanian coup d 'état . Any government making concessions to Poland at that time risked an ouster .
President Smetona received memoranda from nine nationalistic organizations urging the government to reject the ultimatum . However , a decisive comment was made by General Stasys Raštikis , the commander of the Lithuanian army : He testified that a military victory over Poland was impossible and argued for a peaceful resolution . The government 's decision was confirmed by the Fourth Seimas with minimal discussion . On March 19 , Dailidė relayed acceptance of the ultimatum to the Poles , who gave a 12 @-@ hour extension to decide on the ultimatum as a show of good faith .
= = Aftermath = =
The ultimatum contributed to the general atmosphere of tension and fear in Europe . It relieved some of the pressure on Germany that had arisen in the aftermath of the Anschluss and tested the Soviets ' willingness to defend their interests in Eastern Europe . Fears were expressed , both in Lithuania and abroad , that the establishment of diplomatic relations was not the only goal of Warsaw and that more far @-@ reaching ultimata might follow . Speculations arose that Poland might seek to resurrect the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , using Germany 's annexation of Austria as a precedent . Poland announced that it planned to create a neutral bloc comprising Poland , Lithuania , Latvia , Estonia , and Romania to counter both fascism and communism . It stated that it had no wish to incorporate Lithuanian territories and maintained that the bloc would be formed on the basis of bilateral non @-@ aggression and economic treaties . According to The New York Times , the impact of the ultimatum was felt on Wall Street ; on March 17 , the foreign currency and bond markets sagged , in some cases reaching the lowest points seen in several years . These markets recovered on March 19 , after the ultimatum was accepted .
The acceptance triggered a government crisis in Lithuania : on March 24 , Prime Minister Juozas Tūbelis , who held uncompromising positions over Vilnius and at the time of the ultimatum was undergoing medical treatment in Switzerland , stepped down . His successor , Vladas Mironas , who was in favor of normalizing relations with Poland , assembled a new cabinet of ministers . Despite increasing pressure to form a broader coalition , the new cabinet was composed solely of members of the Lithuanian Nationalists Union . The unconditional acceptance hurt Lithuanian pride and damaged the reputation of the party . The suppressed opposition used this damage as an opportunity to renew its activities and formed a group called Ašis ( Axis ) . In Poland the acceptance was greeted with enthusiasm , described as a " great bloodless victory " , and celebrated by a military march in Vilnius .
A few days after the ultimatum , both Lithuania and Poland named their ambassadors . Kazys Škirpa was sent to Warsaw , and Franciszek Charwat was sent to Kaunas before March 31 , the deadline indicated in the ultimatum . Negotiations over practical matters began on March 25 , in Augustów , and by June three agreements covering rail transit , mail service , and river navigation had been concluded . The railroad , torn apart for several kilometers at the border , was repaired . A customs post was established in Vievis , and consulates were opened in Klaipėda and Vilnius . Lithuania closed the League for the Liberation of Vilnius and the Vilnius Foundation ; the latter organization had given financial support to Lithuanian activities in the Vilnius Region . Nevertheless , Lithuania continued to claim Vilnius as its de jure capital . In May 1938 a new constitution was adopted , which echoed the previous constitution 's statement that Vilnius was the permanent capital of Lithuania and that Kaunas was merely a temporary capital . Poland continued to suppress Lithuanian organizations in Vilnius .
A thaw in Polish – Lithuanian relations began in spring 1939 . After the German – Czech and German – Lithuanian crises , Poland made more active efforts to ensure Lithuania 's assistance , or at least neutrality , in the event of a war with Nazi Germany . Lithuanian General Stasys Raštikis and Polish Foreign Minister Józef Beck made high @-@ profile visits to each other 's countries , and Poland improved the conditions of Lithuanians in the Vilnius Region . However , Lithuania did not believe that Poland and its western allies were strong enough to resist Germany and the Soviet Union . When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939 , Lithuania maintained a policy of strict neutrality , refusing repeated German offers for a joint attack on Poland to capture Vilnius . Instead , Lithuania interned about 15 @,@ 000 Polish soldiers and accepted about 35 @,@ 000 Polish civilian refugees . The Soviet Union returned Vilnius to Lithuania after the Soviet invasion of Eastern Poland in September 1939 . Neither country was aware at the time of the secret protocols of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , signed in August 1939 , in which Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to divide the region into their spheres of influence . In June 1940 , the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Lithuania in accordance with the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact . A year later Russia was attacked by Nazi Germany leading to the Nazi occupation of Lithuania .
= Starvin ' Marvin ( South Park ) =
" Starvin ' Marvin " is the eighth episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 19 , 1997 . In the episode , Cartman , Kenny , Kyle and Stan send money to an African charity hoping to get a sports watch , but are instead sent an Ethiopian child whom they dub " Starvin ' Marvin " . Later , Cartman is accidentally sent to Ethiopia , where he learns activist Sally Struthers is hoarding the charity 's food for herself . In an accompanying subplot , after genetically engineered turkeys attack South Park residents , Chef rallies the residents to fight back , in a parody of the film Braveheart .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . " Starvin ' Marvin " was the first South Park Thanksgiving @-@ themed episode . The episode simultaneously served as a satire on American indifference toward impoverished countries and the humanitarianism industry .
The episode received generally positive reviews and several commentators have described it as a classic South Park episode . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was viewed by about 2 @.@ 2 million households during its original broadcast , which at the time was roughly eight times Comedy Central 's average viewership . Parker and Stone said they were unhappy with the turkey subplot , which they wrote only because they felt obligated to include a B story . Sally Struthers was reportedly deeply offended by her portrayal in the episode . In addition to Starvin ' Marvin , who became a popular minor character , the episode introduced regular characters Kyle 's father Gerald Broflovski and Kenny 's family members Stuart , Carol and Kevin McCormick .
= = Plot = =
After seeing a commercial about starving children in Africa , Cartman , Stan , Kenny and Kyle send money to Sally Struthers ' charity organization , the Christian Children 's Fund . They do not care about the cause , but want the free sports watch that comes with the sponsorship . However , due to a miscommunication , an Ethiopian boy is delivered to the boys instead of the watch . Although initially shocked , the four boys befriend him , and Cartman names the boy Starvin ' Marvin ( " Marvin " being given to him by the apparent pronunciation of the name when he was talking in his native language ) . Meanwhile , mobs of wild turkeys begin attacking and killing South Park residents . Mad scientist Dr. Mephisto tries to warn Mayor McDaniels that genetically engineered turkeys he had been breeding to feed to the poor have gone crazy and are now attacking humans . Mephisto is instead ignored and ridiculed by McDaniels .
The boys take Marvin to an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat buffet , where he is shocked by how much food the townsfolk consume compared to his home country , and by how wasteful Cartman is with his food . Back at school , Mr. Garrison announces the food drive is a failure because students have brought in only a few cans of creamed corn . The boys present Marvin to the class during show and tell , after which Mr. Garrison and Principal Victoria tell the boys they will have to call Red Cross and send Marvin home . Meanwhile , Dr. Mephisto shows Chef that the turkey DNA is growing so rapidly that the turkeys might take over the world if they are not stopped .
The FBI arrives to take Marvin back to Ethiopia , but Marvin tricks them into taking Cartman instead . Cartman , who had previously cared little for the impoverished in Africa , is unable to bear the lack of food and poor living conditions there ; furthermore , he attempts to convince the Red Cross there that he 's not one of the Africans , but it fails . While praying to God in Addis Ababa , Cartman says he is sorry he made fun of poor people . He eventually finds a Red Cross shack , where Sally Struthers is hoarding all the food meant for charity . After a brief argument , Cartman exposes all of Miss Struthers 's hoarding of the food supply to the Ethiopians , who then take control of the food supply .
Back in South Park , Chef rallies the townspeople ( in a parody of Braveheart ) to fight the genetically engineered turkeys ; humorously , one of the turkeys also rallies the other turkeys to fight the townspeople . A massive battle ensues in which Kenny is killed ( his eye is poked and gouged out ) , but eventually the South Park residents kill all the turkeys and claim victory . The FBI returns Cartman to South Park and takes Marvin home , but not before he brings the bodies of the dead turkeys back to Ethiopia for everyone to eat . Marvin is then hailed as a hero by his people while they pass Struthers being bound and gagged over a fire .
In the end , back in South Park , Kenny 's family give their Thanksgiving blessings as they prepare to eat a can of green beans , but realize afterward that they do not have a can opener .
= = Production = =
" Starvin ' Marvin " was written by Trey Parker , Matt Stone and Pam Brady . Directed by Parker , it was the first official South Park Thanksgiving episode . Parker and Stone said " Starvin ' Marvin " , like other holiday episodes , proved difficult to make because they felt a responsibility to constantly top other previous holiday shows . Stone provided the voice of Marvin . According to the official South Park website , the character was not named after the Starvin ' Marvin 's brand of American gas stations , and that the similarity between the two names is just a coincidence . Jerry Seinfeld , comedian and star of the popular sitcom Seinfeld , contacted Parker and Stone and asked if he could record a guest voice performance because he was a fan of the show . Parker and Stone offered Seinfeld the throwaway background part of one of the turkeys , but Seinfeld 's agent was " a bit put off " by the offer and did not accept .
The episode was partially inspired by the commercials for the Christian Children 's Fund , in which Sally Struthers encourages viewers to donate money to provide food for starving children in Africa . Parker said he did not really believe Struthers was hoarding food from the charity , but he came up with the concept because he found it funny that such an obese woman would make a public plea for food for others . Parker said he had always wondered how a starving African child would react if they were taken to a large buffet dinner at an American restaurant , with " people leaving tons of food on their plates " , which served as further inspiration for the episode . Parker and Stone originally planned for Struthers to die at the end of the episode and have the African children eat her and live off her fat ; Comedy Central executives told the duo they could not kill Struthers , although celebrities have been killed off in subsequent episodes without any objections from the network .
Parker and Stone were unhappy with the turkey attack subplot , which they felt " never really went anywhere " and ended abruptly without any satisfying conclusion . They nevertheless included it because they felt obligated to include a B story , since every episode in the season so far had included one . Later in the series , they said they realized this was not necessary and made many episodes without a B story . Although the duo liked the " payoff " of the Starvin ' Marvin main plot , they did not know how to end the turkey subplot , so they simply had the characters kill all the turkeys and claim that there were none left ; they decided this sudden ending was the funniest possible option . Stone said of the subplot , " The turkeys were just an excuse to have the Braveheart sequence . " The animators enjoyed creating the turkey battle scene , which was designed to be shown in widescreen aspect ratio while the rest of the episode was animated normally . However , the animation proved to be very difficult and took a long time to do because it involved a larger number of characters and animals in one scene than had ever been featured previously in the show . Some of the characters in the far background were animated as gray and shadowy , which Parker said was not so much a visual effect as it was a " lighting effect meaning we didn 't want to draw all these people " .
In addition to Starvin ' Marvin himself , the episode included the first appearances of several regular characters : Kyle 's father Gerald Broflovski , as well as Stuart , Carol and Kevin McCormick , father , mother and brother ( respectively ) of Kenny , who were portrayed as incredibly poor and unhygienic . In a continuity error , the couple killed by the turkeys at Stark 's Pond can be seen alive and unharmed during the turkey battle scene .
= = Themes = =
Psychologists Gilbert Reyes and Gerard Jacobs have cited " Starvin ' Marvin " as one example of popular culture voicing criticisms of humanitarianism " as an overblown industry leeching off others ' suffering and harming its purported beneficiaries " . The episode also highlights America 's consumerist society and American indifference toward impoverished countries . The moral of the episode , explained by Stan in the final scene , encourages viewers to see suffering citizens of impoverished countries as real people , rather than images on television screens , which tend to make the viewers feel detached and alienated from them .
" Starvin ' Marvin " explores and satirizes gluttony in the US , particularly through its unflattering portrayal of Sally Struthers , who gorges on donated food meant for starving children . The greed and wastefulness shown in the buffet scene , as well as Cartman 's overall greediness and lack of understanding regarding the plight of starving African children , has been said to demonstrate an over @-@ abundance and decadence typically associated with Americans . The destructive rampage of the turkeys provides a commentary on genetic engineering . Scott Calef , a philosophy professor who studies popular culture , said the destruction sown by the turkeys , despite the best of intentions by Dr. Mephisto , are indicative of the unpredictable nature and ethical ambiguity of the use of genetic engineering for the betterment of humankind .
= = Cultural references and impact = =
Starvin ' Marvin proved to be a popular minor character , even though he would only appear in one more episode , the third season episode " Starvin ' Marvin in Space " . The character was later featured in South Park Rally , a 2000 racing video game from developer Acclaim , in which Marvin races the other characters in a motorized wheat sack . Marvin is also featured in South Park 10 : The Game , a platform mobile game featuring a number of South Park characters . Eric Cartman 's line , " That 's a bad Starvin ' Marvin ! " , became one of the most popular lines from the first season of the show . Starvin ' Marvin is from the African nation Ethiopia , which experienced two famines in the mid @-@ 1980s . The American authorities who address his parents identify his family 's surname as " Click Click Derk " .
The scenes in which Chef , and later the lead turkey , don blue and white war paint and speak inspirational words to their armies are a parody of Braveheart , the 1995 Mel Gibson @-@ directed film about Scottish historical hero William Wallace . Parker said it was the first of many times a film was spoofed in a South Park episode , even though both said they enjoyed Braveheart . During class , Mr. Garrison incorrectly tells the children the internationally known English pop singer Engelbert Humperdinck was the first man to walk on the moon . Also in the classroom , when it is suggested some poor people would rather die than go to a poorhouse , Cartman says , " Well then perhaps they should – and decrease the surplus population ! " The line is lifted word @-@ for @-@ word from the Charles Dickens novella A Christmas Carol , prompting Mr. Garrison to respond , " Okay , kids , that 's enough Dickens for one day . " Kyle incorrectly tells Stan that Sally Struthers appeared on Full House , an American sitcom that ran from the late 1980s to early 1990s ; she actually starred in the 1970s series All in the Family . When Dr. Mephisto asks Chef to look into his microscope , Chef says he sees " an extreme close @-@ up of Vanessa Redgrave 's private parts " , a reference to the Academy Award @-@ winning English actress . At the end of the episode , Stan said it is important to remember the images of starving children on television are " just as real as you or I " . Kyle says by that logic , MacGyver is a real person too , a reference to the secret agent protagonist from the 1980s television series of the same name .
Tom Vogt , who served as the editor of South Park for several years , was inspired to join the show after watching a bootleg copy of " Starvin ' Marvin " . He had never seen the show before , but was so impressed by the episode he decided to drive to Colorado and seek a job with Parker and Stone . He was hired as the show 's editor after contacting one of the South Park animators who used to work for the same company as he had .
= = Release and reception = =
" Starvin ' Marvin " first aired in the United States on Comedy Central on November 19 , 1997 . In its original American broadcast , " Starvin ' Marvin " received a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 8 , meaning the episode was seen by about 2 @.@ 2 million households in the US . Television journalists described the rating as " astonishing " by Comedy Central standards ; at the time , the network averaged a 0 @.@ 6 rating ( 276 @,@ 000 households ) during prime time , and prior to South Park , the channel 's highest rating was a 2 @.@ 7 ( 1 @.@ 24 million households ) for the second season premiere of Absolutely Fabulous . Several reviewers have described " Starvin ' Marvin " as one of South Park 's " classic episodes " . Parker said the emotional moment when Starvin ' Marvin returned home with all the turkeys made his mother cry , marking the first time he and Stone heard of an emotional reaction to their show .
After the episode aired , Parker and Stone received feedback that audiences felt " Starvin ' Marvin " was especially unkind to Struthers . Although they did not speak to her themselves , the duo received word that Struthers was a fan of the show until " Starvin ' Marvin " aired , after which she was very upset and reportedly reacted emotionally over her portrayal . Struthers was particularly saddened by the fact that her character steals food from the same starving children she had been working to help . Parker and Stone were slightly remorseful when they learned of her reaction and have said they did not have anything against Struthers personally . Nevertheless , Struthers was portrayed in an even less flattering way in the third season episode " Starvin ' Marvin in Space " as a Jabba the Hutt @-@ like creature . In a DVD commentary track , Parker said of Struthers , " Dude , you 're really setting yourself up if you 're going to be that fat and go on the air talking about [ starving children ] . ... We don 't think she 's a bad person , she 's probably nice to try to do this , but cut down on the Twinkies a little bit before going on the air . "
Tom Carson , television critic for The Village Voice , praised the episode , which he said " featured some amazing sick jokes about American affluence and obliviousness " . Dianne Williamson of the Telegram & Gazette praised " Starvin ' Marvin " for taking a chance with the source material , and said , " Often I 'm in awe at the courage of these [ South Park ] creators . " The Advertiser of Lafayette , Louisiana , called the episode " hysterical " and particularly praised its satire of American consumerism . The St. Paul Pioneer Press described the episode as " hilarious " and said , " We know we shouldn 't laugh , but we can 't help it . " Vicki Englund of The Courier @-@ Mail complimented the " really bizarre storyline " and the moral of the episode , and especially praised the jokes about Struthers : " It might be a good idea not to eat during the hilarious second episode . Enough said . "
Vern Perry , a reviewer with The Orange County Register , called " Starvin ' Marvin " his favorite South Park episode . The " Starvin ' Marvin " episode was featured in a 1998 Chicago Tribune list of the top ten reasons for the popularity of South Park . The Chicago Tribune also included " Starvin ' Marvin " in a 2003 list of the top ten funniest episodes . Bill Ward , of the Star Tribune , described " Starvin Marvin " as Cartman 's " finest half @-@ hour " . Not all reviews were positive ; Boston Globe writer Matthew Gilbert , who described South Park as immature and low @-@ brow , called " Starvin ' Marvin " a particularly " uncuddly episode " . Brian Boyd of The Irish Times criticized the episode for making jokes at the expense of starving African children .
" Starvin ' Marvin " was released , along with eleven other episodes , in a three @-@ DVD set in November 1998 . It was included in the third volume , which also included the episodes " Mecha @-@ Streisand " , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " and " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " . " Starvin ' Marvin " was also one of six episodes included on a
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1998 VHS called " South Park Festival Special " , which included " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , " Merry Christmas , Charlie Manson ! " , " Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics " , " Korn 's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery " and " Pinkeye " . The episode , along with the other twelve from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD separate from the DVDs . In 2008 , Parker and Stone made " Starvin ' Marvin " and all South Park episodes available to watch for free on the show 's official website , " South Park Studios " .
= Gordon Bennett ( general ) =
Lieutenant General Henry Gordon Bennett CB , CMG , DSO , VD ( 15 April 1887 – 1 August 1962 ) was a senior Australian Army officer who served in both World War I and World War II . Despite highly decorated achievements during World War I , during which he commanded at both battalion and brigade level and became the youngest general in the Australian Army , Bennett is best remembered for his role in the Battle of Singapore in February 1942 in the Pacific War , as commander of the 8th Australian Division , he escaped while his men became prisoners of the Imperial Japanese Army . After this , Bennett 's military career waned and although he rose to command a corps , he never commanded troops in battle again . In 1945 , his escape caused controversy and resulted in a Royal Commission , which found that he had been unjustified in relinquishing his command .
A citizen soldier , before World War I Bennett had worked in the insurance industry and at the conclusion of hostilities pursued his commercial interests while continuing to serve in the military in a part @-@ time capacity , commanding at brigade and divisional level . He retired from the Army after World War II and turned to farming in the Blue Mountains . He remained active in the world of business and as military commentator , before dying at the age of 75 .
= = Early life = =
Bennett ( who was always known as Gordon ) was born in Balwyn , Melbourne , on 15 April 1887 , to George Bennett , a South African @-@ born school teacher , and his Australian @-@ born wife , Harriet . He was the sixth of nine children and attended Balwyn State School , where his father taught , and then Hawthorn College as a teenager having been given a three @-@ year scholarship . While at Hawthorn , he did well at mathematics and in 1903 , as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , after completing a competitive examination he was accepted into the AMP Society to train as an actuary . In May 1908 , just after he turned 21 , Bennett volunteered to serve in the Militia , Australia 's reserve military force , joining the 5th Australian Infantry Regiment as a " recruit officer " . After completing a six @-@ month part @-@ time course , he was appointed as a provisional second lieutenant , and posted to the regiment 's ' B ' Company , in Carlton , Victoria . He continued to work at AMP during this time , but devoted most of his spare time to his military duties and rose in rank quickly , reaching major in 1912 , at the age of 25 , when he became adjutant of his regiment .
At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Bennett volunteered to serve with the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and , after securing his release from AMP on full pay , was appointed second @-@ in @-@ command of the 6th Battalion , which was part of the 2nd ( Victorian ) Infantry Brigade , assigned to the 1st Division . After a short period of training , the 1st Division began to embark for Europe . Just prior to his departure overseas , Bennett became engaged to Bess Buchanan , who he had met at a dance in Canterbury . As an engagement gift , Bess bought her betrothed a miniature photo of herself , set in a gold frame . Bennett carried the picture in his jacket pocket while serving overseas and it later saved his life on the Western Front , deflecting a German bullet .
= = Gallipoli = =
While in transit , as a result of overcrowding in training camps in the United Kingdom , the 1st Division was diverted to Egypt with the intention that it would complete its training there before moving to the Western Front at a later date . The decision by the Allies to force a passage through the Dardanelles interrupted this process , as the 1st Division was allocated to take part in the Gallipoli Campaign . During the landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , Bennett fought on the southern flank of the Anzac beachhead . He led 300 men of his battalion to an advanced position on Pine Ridge , south of Lone Pine . While directing the defence of this position , Bennett was wounded in the shoulder and wrist and forced to retire to the beach for treatment . When the Turkish forces counter @-@ attacked in the evening , the 6th Battalion force on Pine Ridge was isolated and killed to the last man , including Bennett 's younger brother , Godfrey . Instead of accepting evacuation on a hospital ship , after having his wounds treated , Bennett returned to his battalion .
In early May , the 2nd Brigade was selected to move to Cape Helles to reinforce the British forces for the Second Battle of Krithia . After being transferred by boat , on 8 May , Bennett advanced with his battalion in impossible conditions . Bennett was the only officer of the 6th , and one of few in the 2nd Brigade , to survive the advance unscathed , although he was lucky do so ; as he led the charge , a Turkish bullet hit the ammunition pouch he wore , exploding the ammunition in it . He was knocked off his feet , but otherwise unharmed . With a handful of men , he achieved the furthest advance of the attack . He became commander of the 6th Battalion the next day . The battalion was then returned to Anzac by a trawler , and shortly afterwards , Bennett 's command of the battalion was confirmed and he was promoted to lieutenant colonel .
Throughout June and July , Bennett 's battalion occupied the front line during a period of reduced tempo fighting as a stalemate developed . On 7 August , when the Allies launched their August Offensive to break the stalemate , the 6th Battalion was involved in one of the supporting attacks at the start of the Battle of Sari Bair . While the best known attack was made by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek , the 6th was required to make a similar attack against a neighbouring Turkish position known as German Officers ' Trench from which machine guns enfiladed the Australian positions as far north as the Nek . Two attempts to capture the trench failed . A third attempt was organised and Bennett resolved to lead it himself but the commander of the 1st Division , Major General Harold Walker , after consulting with the corps commander , Lieutenant General William Birdwood , agreed to abandon the attack . The 6th Battalion 's losses totalled 80 killed and 66 wounded .
Following the attack on the German Officers ' Trench , Bennett 's battalion was withdrawn from the front line briefly , before relieving the 1st Brigade , which had successfully captured Lone Pine . The August Offensive failed and a further lull in the fighting occurred . The following month , as reinforcements in the shape of the 2nd Division arrived at Anzac , the original Australian units were relieved on a rotational basis , including the 6th Battalion , which was sent back to Lemnos . While there , Bennett was hospitalised with paratyphoid and during his stay in hospital , he received word that he had been appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) . When the 6th Battalion was returned to Gallipoli , Bennett sought to return with them , but was ordered to sail to England aboard the transport Aquitania for further treatment . As well as his CMG , Bennett was also mentioned in despatches twice for his service at Gallipoli .
= = Western Front = =
Bennett spent Christmas in Southampton , before returning to Egypt early in January 1916 . There , he rejoined his battalion , which was stationed around Gebel Habeita , defending the Suez Canal . He arrived just as the AIF began a period of reorganisation and expansion , which saw the experienced units of the 1st Division being split to provide cadres to the newly formed 5th Division ; as a part of this , the 6th Battalion was split to help form the 58th Battalion in late February .
In March 1916 , the 1st Division moved to France as part of the transfer of the AIF 's infantry formations to the Western Front . Bennett subsequently led the 6th Battalion through the Battle of Pozières . After the 1st and 3rd Brigades had captured the town on 24 July 1916 , the 6th and 8th Battalions of the 2nd Brigade moved in to occupy the ruins where they had to endure a prolonged artillery bombardment . Bennett 's battalion headquarters was in a log hut . The hut received six direct hits from shells but survived due to the debris that had accumulated around it . Shortly after Bennett relocated his HQ the hut was finally demolished . On 26 July Bennett protested at the conditions his men had to endure , reporting : " My men are being unmercifully shelled . They cannot hold out if an attack is launched . The firing line and my headquarters are being plastered with heavy guns and the town is being swept by shrapnel . I myself am O.K. but the front line is being buried . " In the capture of Pozières , Bennett 's 6th Battalion suffered 190 casualties , the least by a considerable margin of the 12 battalions in the 1st Division .
After this , Bennett continued to serve as the commanding officer of the 6th Battalion , as well as acting as the 3rd Brigade commander . In mid @-@ November , Bennett took a brief leave in London , where he was reunited with his fiancee , Bess , who had sailed from Melbourne with her father to meet him . On 16 November , they were married in Chelsea , and after a short honeymoon in Scotland , Bennett returned to the front . On 3 December 1916 , he was given command of the 3rd Infantry Brigade and promoted to brigadier general , becoming at 29 the youngest general in the Australian Army . He commanded the brigade for the remainder of the war on the Western Front , leading the brigade through several notable actions , including at Bullecourt , Menin Road , and Passchendaele during 1917 , and several actions against the Hindenburg Line in 1918 . While Bennett was serving at the front , his wife remained in England ; he returned to her briefly in November 1917 and again in July 1918 . Just after the war ended , Bess returned to Australia with the couple 's 10 @-@ month @-@ old daughter , while Bennett remained in Europe until June 1919 , briefly touring the Rhine and then viewing the London victory parade , where he escorted Lady Birdwood while her husband , Lord Birdwood , the former commander of the Australian Corps , marched .
For his service on the Western Front , Bennett received many awards . He received the Order of Danilo from Montenegro in 1917 , was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1918 , received a Distinguished Service Order in 1919 and mentioned in despatches a further six times . His attitude towards regular officers and temperament , as well as his tendency to act without clearing his actions with superiors , though , resulted in criticism from senior officers .
= = Between the wars = =
Upon his return to Australia , Bennett lived at Canterbury with his wife and daughter , while he sought to return to civilian life after his appointment to the AIF was terminated . He was offered his old position at AMP back , having been on full @-@ time leave with pay while serving overseas , but was unhappy with this . He was eventually offered a position in the Commonwealth Bank in Sydney and he moved there with his family . Later , he purchased a textile factory and worked as a clothing manufacturer and public accountant before being appointed chairman of the New South Wales Repatriation Board in 1922 , in which role he was able to help returned soldiers . In 1928 , he was appointed as an administrator of the City of Sydney , along with two other commissioners . He was president of the Chamber of Manufactures of New South Wales between 1931 and 1933 and the Associated Chambers of Manufactures of Australia between 1933 and 1934 , and was involved in several conservative political groups such as the All for Australia League and the Defence of Australia League .
Bennett remained active in the military , continuing to serve as part of the Militia , which was reorganised in 1921 following the conclusion of the demobilisation process . From then until 1926 , he served as commander of the 9th Infantry Brigade , before being appointed to command the 2nd Division . In 1930 , he was promoted to the rank of major general and over the ensuing years became increasingly parochial against the small permanent Staff Corps . He was transferred to the unattached list in 1932 . In 1937 , amidst increasing tensions in Europe , he came into conflict with the Military Board after he wrote a number of newspaper articles expressing his concerns about complacent defence policy and the efficiency of regular officers .
= = World War II = =
When World War II broke out in 1939 , although only 52 , Bennett was passed over for command of the Second Australian Imperial Force , the position going to General Thomas Blamey . The Chief of the General Staff , General Sir Brudenell White , seems to have been opposed to Bennett being given an active command . A. B. Lodge , Bennett 's biographer in the Australian Dictionary of Biography ( ADB ) comments : " Because of his temperament , he was considered unsuitable for a semi @-@ diplomatic command , and one that involved subordination to British generals . Bennett was as scathing of British officers as he was of Australian regulars . "
Bennett was instead given a command in the Volunteer Defence Corps , the Australian version of the British Home Guard . In July 1940 , he took over command of the Eastern Command Training Depot . After White 's death in the Canberra air disaster in August 1940 , Bennett was appointed commander of the newly formed 8th Division , replacing Vernon Sturdee , who was promoted to White 's former role . In February 1941 , the 8th Division 's headquarters , along with one of its brigades – the 22nd – was posted to Malaya in February 1941 , after a request from the British for Australia to contribute troops to bolster the garrison there amid growing concerns of war with the Japanese as part of plans that had been formulated as the pre @-@ war Singapore strategy . The 27th Brigade was also dispatched in August , but the division 's third brigade , the 23rd Brigade remained in Australia . Relations between Bennett and his superiors , and also his subordinate brigade commander , Brigadier Harold Taylor , were not good . Lodge comments : " Bennett 's dealings with British senior officers , especially with the general officer commanding , Malaya , Lieutenant General A.E. Percival , were devoid of harmony . "
In December 1941 , the Japanese invasion of Malaya began . Bennett found himself in command of an ad hoc force known as " Westforce " , which included the Australian 27th Brigade – but not the 22nd , which had been transferred to III Indian Corps – and several Indian units . Bennett 's command was not engaged in the early stages of the fighting as the initial Japanese attacks fell on British and Indian units around Kota Bharu and the Thai – Malay border , but as the Japanese pushed the defenders back and advanced into Johore , the Australians fought several actions throughout January . The most significant of these came around Gemas and Muar , where the Australians experienced some local success before being forced to withdraw to Singapore along with the rest of the Allied forces at the end of the month .
On Singapore , Bennett 's command once again included the two Australian brigades – the 22nd and 27th – which were allocated the task of defending the north @-@ western sector of the island . On 8 February 1942 , the Japanese launched an assault across the Johore Strait , concentrating upon the sector held by Bennett 's troops . The weight fell on the 22nd Brigade 's area , and as they fought to fend off two Japanese divisions , they were eventually forced to withdraw towards the centre of the island . The 27th Brigade initially managed to hold its sector , but it was subjected to a follow @-@ up assault on 10 February and as the 22nd fell back , it was also forced to withdraw . Heavy fighting followed over the next week , but eventually the Allied troops were pushed across the island to Singapore 's urban areas . On 15 February , Percival began surrender negotiations with the Japanese . That night , Bennett decided that it was his duty to escape from Singapore rather than surrender . He handed over command of the 8th Division to Brigadier Cecil Callaghan . With a few junior officers and some local Europeans , Bennett commandeered a sampan and crossed the Strait of Malacca to the east coast of Sumatra , where they transferred to a launch in which they sailed up the Batang Hari River . They then proceeded by car to Padang , on the west coast of Sumatra . From there Bennett flew to Java and then to Australia , arriving in Melbourne on 2 March 1942 .
The fall of Singapore – the largest capitulation in British military history – shocked Australians , resulting in the capture of almost 15 @,@ 000 Australians and many more Indian and British soldiers . Nevertheless , Bennett 's escape was initially regarded as praiseworthy , at least publicly . Prime Minister John Curtin issued a statement that read :
I desire to inform the nation that we are proud to pay tribute to the efficiency , gallantry and devotion of our forces throughout the struggle . We have expressed to Major General Bennett our confidence in him . His leadership and conduct were in complete conformity with his duty to the men under his command and to his country . He remained with his men until the end , completed all formalities in connection with the surrender , and then took the opportunity and risk of escaping .
Within the military , particularly its senior echelons , Bennett was criticised for leaving his troops . In April 1942 , he was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of III Corps in Perth . At the time , this was an important post , but by 1943 , as the possibility of a Japanese invasion of Australia faded , it became a backwater . Bennett was told by Blamey that he would not be given another active command , and he transferred to the Reserve of Officers in May 1944 . He soon published his account of the Malayan campaign , Why Singapore Fell , which was critical of Percival and other British officers , although his opinions were later challenged by several Australian officers , including Callaghan . Blamey unsuccessfully tried to prevent the book 's publication . Upon retirement from active service , Bennett began writing for a Sydney newspaper and as a correspondent for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . He remained concerned about his soldiers , though , and met the first group of recently freed 8th Division prisoners of war when they arrived in Sydney on the transport Manunda . For their part , the majority of his former soldiers welcomed him , some even hung a sign over the side of the ship , which read : " We want Bennett " . They later put it in his car as a gesture of their support .
= = Postwar inquiries = =
The controversy over Bennett 's actions became public in mid @-@ 1945 , when the war ended and Percival and Callaghan were released from Japanese captivity . Percival , who had never got on with Bennett , wrote a letter accusing him of relinquishing his command without permission . Callaghan delivered the letter to Blamey upon his release and Blamey convened a court of enquiry under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead , and Major Generals Victor Stanke and George Wootten , which found that Bennett was not justified in handing over his command , or in leaving Singapore . Veterans of the 8th Division , who were generally loyal to Bennett , protested against this finding .
In November 1945 , Prime Minister Ben Chifley appointed a Royal Commission under Justice George Ligertwood . The Commission concluded that Bennett had disobeyed Percival 's order to surrender . Lodge wrote :
While never questioning Bennett 's personal courage , Ligertwood concluded that his action had been unjustified . Bennett 's stated reason for leaving Singapore was that he had learned how to defeat the Japanese ( but had been let down by British and Indian troops ) and he was obliged to communicate his knowledge to military authorities . Yet , he had proved no more proficient than other commanders in Malaya and his tactics were outdated . Just as important to him was his wish to lead the Australian army , a consuming aspiration which had been sharpened by not being given an early command . His prejudice against regular officers and his ambition clouded his professional judgement at the most important point in his career . When his most cherished goals were in tatters , he convinced himself that blame for his failure lay with others .
In 1948 , Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Fry , a military lawyer , published the opinion : " The Royal Commissioner based his report on an interpretation of international law , and did not discuss General Bennett 's action from the standpoint of Australian military law , which placed him under no inflexible obligation to remain on Singapore Island . "
= = Post military and retirement = =
Bennett later became an orchardist , purchasing a property and living at Glenorie in the Blue Mountains , until 1955 when , due to deteriorating health following a coronary occlusion , he sold his orchard and moved to Sydney . He travelled to Singapore in 1957 with his wife to attend the opening of the Kranji War Memorial and then in 1960 , travelled to Japan to meet with officers who had fought in Malaya . He wrote a number of articles on military topics and served on the board of a number of companies . From 1960 to 1962 , he was Chairman of Directors of MMI Insurance . He died on 1 August 1962 at Dural , survived by hs wife and daughter . After a state funeral at St Andrew 's Cathedral , his body was cremated . The diary that Bennett kept while serving in Malaya is held at the State Library of New South Wales .
= New Jersey Route 120 =
Route 120 is a state highway located in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States . It extends 2 @.@ 65 mi ( 4 @.@ 26 km ) from an interchange with Route 3 in East Rutherford to another interchange with Route 17 in Carlstadt , where it continues to the west as County Route 120 . NJ 120 serves the Meadowlands Sports Complex , which consists of MetLife Stadium , Meadowlands Racetrack , and the Izod Center . It heads north from Route 3 as a six @-@ lane freeway through the sports complex to an interchange with the southern terminus of County Route 503 . From here , Route 120 heads northwest along the northern edge of the sports complex as a four @-@ lane divided at @-@ grade Paterson Plank Road , passing through industrial and commercial areas .
In 1927 , Route 3 was legislated along the Paterson Plank Road portion of present @-@ day Route 120 . It was eventually designated along the entire portion of current Route 120 . In 1953 , Route 3 was moved to its current freeway alignment , replacing Route S3 , and a portion of Route 20 was designated to run from current Route 3 north to Paterson Plank Road while Paterson Plank Road was removed from the state highway system . The portion of Paterson Plank Road that lost its state highway status in 1953 gained it back in 1972 , when it became an extension of Route 20 as a result of the construction of the Meadowlands Sports Complex . As this route was not connected to the mainline of Route 20 , it was designated Route 120 by the 1990s . As a result of the construction of American Dream Meadowlands , the interchange between Route 3 and Route 120 was improved . An overpass between eastbound Route 3 and northbound Route 120 was completed in 2009 and a flyover from southbound Route 120 to eastbound Route 3 was completed in 2010 .
= = Route description = =
Route 120 begins at an interchange with Route 3 in East Rutherford , heading to the north on a six @-@ lane freeway with a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) speed limit . The freeway heads north @-@ northeast into the Meadowlands Sports Complex . Here , MetLife Stadium is on the west side of the road while the Izod Center and the construction site of American Dream Meadowlands are on the east side of the road . Here , the route becomes a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) freeway that has two interchanges that provide access to the sports complex . The route comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of County Route 503 ( Washington Avenue ) and Paterson Plank Road , where Route 120 becomes a four @-@ lane divided surface road that merges with Paterson Plank Road as it heads northwest along the border of Carlstadt to the northeast and East Rutherford to the southwest . Meanwhile , County Route 503 continues north @-@ northeast to head into the eastern part of Carlstadt .
Route 120 passes between the Meadowlands Racetrack and New Jersey Transit 's Meadowlands Rail Line on the East Rutherford side of the road and commercial and industrial areas on the Carlstadt side of the road , intersecting with Gotham Parkway . The route has a southbound exit and entrance to the Meadowlands Sports Complex before it crosses Berrys Creek . Upon crossing the creek , Route 120 continues northwest through industrial and commercial areas , intersecting with Murray Hill Parkway . A short distance past this intersection , the road becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road that crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s Pascack Valley Line before coming to an interchange with Route 17 . Here , Route 120 ends and County Route 120 continues to the west as Paterson Avenue .
= = = County Route 120 = = =
After crossing the Passaic River into Bergen County , the road is called Paterson Avenue and designated as County Route 120 , in Wallington , in a residential and light @-@ density commercial area . The road becomes the border between Wallington to the north and East Rutherford to the south . At the end of Wallington , Paterson Avenue is the border between Carlstadt and East Rutherford for a short distance but then the road dips into East Rutherford to avoid a hill ( the bypass , which goes over the hill , is called Hoboken Road ) . The road returns to the Carlstadt / East Rutherford border at Route 17 which it crosses over via an overpass , and is then designated as Route 120 and Paterson Plank Road for a distance .
= = History = =
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 3 was legislated to run along the Paterson Plank Road portion of today ’ s Route 120 as part of its route between Secaucus and Greenwood Lake . By 1947 , Route 3 had been designated along the entire alignment of current Route 120 . When New Jersey renumbered its state highways in 1953 , Route 3 was moved to a new freeway alignment that was Route S3 . As a result of this realignment , the portion of the route between modern Route 3 and Paterson Plank Road became a portion of Route 20 while the section along Paterson Plank Road was removed from the state highway system . Paterson Plank Road between County Route 503 and Route 17 joined the state highway system again as an extension of this portion of Route 20 in 1972 when the Meadowlands Sports Complex was slated to be built . At this point , Route 20 had consisted of three disconnected segments . Since none of these segments were connected , this portion of road was redesignated Route 120 by the 1990s .
With the construction of American Dream Meadowlands , several improvements are taking place to Route 120 . The interchange with Route 3 is being reconstructed with an overpass between eastbound Route 3 and northbound Route 120 that was completed in May 2009 at a cost of $ 38 @.@ 1 million . Also , a flyover from southbound Route 120 to eastbound Route 3 was completed in early 2010 at a cost of $ 13 million .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bergen County . All exits are unnumbered .
= Ngo Dinh Diem presidential visit to the United States =
Ngô Đình Diệm , the President of South Vietnam , made a state visit to the United States , the main ally of his government , in 1957 . Diệm received a glowing welcome and was heaped with praise as a leader of a " free country " in the midst of the Cold War . The receptions during the visit were in large part organized by the American Friends of Vietnam ( AFV ) , a lobby group dedicated to resolute US support of South Vietnam and which included many politicians from both major parties . The visit was mainly celebratory and ceremonial , rather than being a policy or planning mission . It was part of a year of travelling for Diệm , as he made a visit to Australia in September , as well as to fellow anti @-@ communist countries South Korea and Thailand .
Prior to the visit , the US government and the AFV made thorough preparations to make Diệm 's visit pleasant , and the AFV successfully lobbied the media to write favourable reports on the South Vietnamese leader . Diệm was trumpeted as a champion of democracy , and mentions of his autocratic style and election rigging were avoided . Diệm arrived by plane in Washington , D.C. on May 8 , and was personally greeted at the airport by President Dwight D. Eisenhower — an honor Eisenhower accorded to only one other visiting head of state . Diệm 's motorcade was greeted by 50 @,@ 000 wellwishers and his address to the US Congress and his policies were heartily endorsed by both sides of politics . During his time in the US capital , Diệm also attended receptions , and had private meetings with both Eisenhower and the US Secretary of State , John Foster Dulles , to discuss American support for South Vietnam , although the meeting with Dulles was ineffectual as Diệm spoke continuously , rendering two @-@ way discussions impossible .
Diệm then visited New York City , where he was given a tickertape parade through Manhattan , which was attended by 250 @,@ 000 . He was presented with several honors by the city council and given a civic reception , before attending several functions with business leaders , marketing his country as a favorable location for foreign investment . The South Vietnamese president also made stops at the city 's main Roman Catholic institution , St Patrick 's Cathedral — a Catholic , Diệm had been helped to power by the lobbying of Cardinal Francis Spellman and American Catholic politicians . He also returned to Maryknoll Seminirary where he had stayed while in exile , and to the Catholic Seton Hall University to receive an honorary doctorate . Diệm later received an honorary degree from Michigan State University , where he had stayed in exile earlier in the decade and the day was dedicated in his honor . The South Vietnamese president then traveled westwards across to the pacific coast before returning to Vietnam .
The visit was the high point of relations between Diệm and Washington , as in later years , the US government and members of the AFV became increasingly disillusioned with Diệm 's failure to liberalize his government and enact changes to make South Vietnam more democratic . The once @-@ supportive media began to report on South Vietnam without overlooking problems in Diệm 's administration . In 1963 , American support for Diệm collapsed during the Buddhist crisis as Washington concluded that Diệm was incapable of offering a solid alternative to the communists , and he was overthrown in a US @-@ backed military coup and executed after being captured .
= = Background = =
In 1933 , Diệm had been the Interior Minister of Vietnam , serving under Emperor Bảo Đại . However , he resigned after a few months because the French colonial authorities would not give Vietnam any meaningful autonomy , and became a private citizen for the next decade . During World War II , Imperial Japan attacked Indochina and wrested control from France , but when they were defeated by the Allies in 1945 , a power vacuum emerged . The communist @-@ dominated Viet Minh of Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and fought for independence , while the French attempted to regain control of their colony , and created the State of Vietnam under Bảo Đại , which was an associated free state within the French Union . A staunch anti @-@ communist nationalist , Diệm opposed both and attempted to create his own movement , with little success . With both the French and the communists hostile to him , Diệm felt unsafe and went into self @-@ imposed exile in 1950 , leaving Vietnam for the first time in his life . He did so as the communists had sentenced him to death in absentia , while the French refused to give him protection , claiming that they had no resources . Diệm spent most of the next four years in the United States and Europe enlisting support , particularly among fellow Catholic politicians in America and Vatican officials . Diệm 's success with the latter group was helped by the fact that his elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the leading Catholic cleric in Vietnam and had studied with high @-@ ranking priests in Rome .
Diệm had a chance meeting with Wesley Fishel , a political science professor from America during a stopover in Japan . A proponent of the " third force " ideology that opposed communism and colonialism , Fishel quickly befriended Diệm . The American academic organized contacts for Diệm in the US , and he was given an audience with the Acting US Secretary of State James Webb . Diệm made little impression in the first meeting , but continued to meet with lower ranking officials . Thuc introduced his younger brother to Cardinal Francis Spellman , the most politically powerful priest of his time and former classmate of Thuc . Later , Diệm was given a meeting with Pope Pius XII . In early 1951 , Diệm was given an audience with US Secretary of State Dean Acheson . The success of his presentation to Acheson prompted Diệm to stay in the US to campaign , basing himself at Spellman 's seminary in New Jersey . Diệm travelled across the nation , speaking at universities , and he was given a faculty position at Fishel 's institution , the Michigan State University . Diệm then gained the support of US Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas and Senators John McCormack , Mike Mansfield and John F. Kennedy . McCormack later became the Senate Majority Leader , while Mansfield — a Democrat from Montana — had been a professor of Asian history before entering politics ; as a result his opinions about Vietnam were more influential and held in high regard by his fellow senators .
In 1954 , the French lost the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Conference was held to determine the future of Indochina . The Viet Minh were given control of North Vietnam , while the State of Vietnam controlled the territory south of the 17th parallel . The Geneva agreements , which the State of Vietnam did not sign , called for reunification elections to be held in 1956 . Bảo Đại appointed Diệm as his Prime Minister , hoping Diệm would be able to attract American aid as the French withdrew from Southeast Asia . Diệm returned to Vietnam in June 1954 and took up the post on July 7 , 1954 . After a series of disagreements , Diệm deposed Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum on October 23 , 1955 , and declared himself president of the newly @-@ proclaimed Republic of Vietnam three days later . Diệm received support from the US and other anti @-@ communist countries in the midst of the Cold War . He refused to hold national reunification elections scheduled in 1956 , and asserted that Ho would rig the ballots in the north , although he had done so himself in deposing Bảo Đại . In the meantime , Diệm continued to consolidate his rule and stabilize his new nation .
= = Preparation = =
Diệm 's trip came after two years of American attempts to schedule a state visit . In 1955 , Washington made two attempts to organise a trip while Diệm was still prime minister , but he was too busy quelling opposition groups and his grip on power was tenuous . Diệm took care of this by crushing the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate in the Battle for Saigon in May 1955 , and then deposed Bảo Đại and proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam after his brother Ngô Đình Nhu rigged a referendum that made him head of state . Diệm was credited with 98 @.@ 2 % of the votes and 133 % in the capital Saigon . The South Vietnamese leader 's visit was organized after he indicated interest in February 1957 to US Ambassador to South Vietnam Frederick Reinhardt .
The Eisenhower administration prepared for Diệm 's arrival in great detail . A memorandum from the Office of Protocol ( OP ) of the State Department gave its personnel detailed information on ceremonial intricacies , such as the correct pronunciation of Diệm 's name . It went further in briefing staff on the toasting procedure . The OP printed and distributed a manual detailing Diệm 's personal traits and idiosyncrasies . It said the South Vietnamese leader was " an introverted , lonely figure ... He is , however , a man with an almost messianic sense of mission " . In 1963 , Diệm held a military parade in honour of his ascension to power in front of empty grandstands , barring the public . The OP warned that Diệm could be " both intransigent and almost brutal in pursuing and applying policies he has decided upon , and ... has a violent temper " .
In contrast to public announcements describing the South Vietnamese president was a freedom @-@ loving democrat , the manual also explained Diệm 's authoritarian attitude , as exhibited by his ability to formulate legislation by decree and the police state mechanisms run by Nhu 's Cần Lao Party : In 1955 , Nhu 's agents had beaten those who voted for Bảo Đại instead of Diệm . The manual said that " Vietnam in its present situation and given its own heritage is not yet ready for a democratic government as it is known in the West . The interplay of all shades of opinion in the policy @-@ making process is considered a luxury Vietnam cannot yet afford . " It advised public servants to shun any mention of Diệm 's autocracy and the fact that he regularly killed or jailed dissidents , noting that " He is most sensitive to such charges . "
= = = Media campaign = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the visit , the American Friends of Vietnam ( AFV ) engaged in a promotional campaign encouraging newspapers to cover Diệm 's visit and imploring them to give the South Vietnamese president favourable coverage . The AFV also drafted many of Diệm 's speeches , making sure that there were analogies made between South Vietnam and various events in American history , so that he would make a good impression on the American public and decision @-@ makers . For this purpose they employed the services of the political consultancy firm Harold Oram .
The media prepared for Diệm 's arrival by writing about and praising the South Vietnamese leader in great detail . The Washington Post devoted four pages to its profile of Diệm and titled it " Diệm — Symbol of Free New Asia . " The Washington Evening Star ran the headline " Welcome to a Champion " and described Diệm as " a valiant and effective fighter against communism " . The New York Times praised the visiting president for " advancing the cause of freedom and democracy in Asia " . The Boston Globe dubbed him " Vietnam 's Man of Iron " . Various papers favourably commented on Diệm 's overt opposition to communism , juxtaposing it to non @-@ aligned Asian leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru of India and Sukarno of Indonesia . Nehru and Sukarno attempted to steer clear of both the US @-@ led anti @-@ communist world and the Soviet bloc , and sought to recruit other countries into their movement . The newspapers compared South Vietnam to a beacon of light in a dark sea of communism .
= = Visit = =
Diệm arrived at noon on May 8 at the National Airport in Washington , D.C. aboard the plane of U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Columbine III , a silver Constellation . Diệm 's plane landed and he was personally received at the airport by Eisenhower , Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Nathan Twining . It was only the second time in his presidency that Eisenhower had personally gone to the airport to greet a visiting head of state . Diệm was then given a 21 @-@ gun salute and driven by limousine to his residence . A crowd estimated at more than 50 @,@ 000 lined the route taken by the Vietnamese leader 's motorcade . On the day of his arrival , The New York Times editorialized that " President Diệm ... is a substantial partner in a going enterprise on behalf of free men in his country and in ours . We honor him and make him doubly welcome on that account . " Attempting to put a positive spin on the South Vietnamese leader 's lack of emotion towards the crowd , Andrew Tully of The Washington Daily News informed his readers that Diệm 's " air of modest solemnity was far more impressive than any grinning , arm @-@ waving performance could have been " . Diệm 's failure to respond to the greetings of the masses was not new ; when he arrived back in Vietnam from exile to become prime minister in 1954 , he did not bother to wave to well @-@ wishers at Tan Son Nhut Airport .
= = = Washington D. C. = = =
The next day , Diệm addressed a joint sitting of the US Congress , with both the House of Representatives and the Senate in attendance . He thanked the US for its ongoing support , particularly when his government had been in a perilous state in 1954 and 1955 , and went on to explain his political platform
We affirm that the sole legitimate object of the state is to protect the fundamental rights of human beings to existence , to the free development of his [ sic ] intellectual , moral , and spiritual life . ... We affirm that democracy is neither material happiness nor the supremacy of numbers . Democracy is essentially a permanent effort to find the right political means in order to assure to all citizens the right of free development and the maximum initiative , responsibility , and spiritual life .
Diệm also thanked the Americans for " the efforts being made to safeguard liberal democracy " as part of Washington 's foreign policy . He compared the million @-@ strong exodus of refugees from communist North Vietnam into the South to that of the pilgrims who had left the British Isles aboard the Mayflower and sailed to Massachusetts to escape religious persecution . This was put in the speech by AFV advisers as the flight of the North Vietnamese refugees had received a great deal of attention in the US due to the statements of Catholic activists . Diệm received a standing ovation and his speech was persistently interrupted by loud applause by legislators . Despite his assertion that the weight of numbers was not the measure of democracy , the American media widely praised his attitude to democracy . Both major parties lavished Diệm with praise . Senator Mansfield said " The chief credit for holding back the communist aggression not only in Vietnam , but , because of that , in Southeast Asia as well , lies in the determination , the courage , the incorruptibility , and the integrity of President Diệm , who has shown such great ability and has accomplished so much against tremendous odds . " Mansfield 's praise was given more weight than that of other senators because of his academic qualifications before entering politics . Senator Jacob Javits , a Republican from New York , dubbed Diệm " one of the real heroes of the free world " .
Eisenhower said " President Ngô Đình Diệm stands for the highest qualities of heroism and statesmanship ... The president of Vietnam , by his inspiring leadership , is opening up vast new areas for the peaceful progress of mankind . " In a nationally @-@ televised speech , Secretary of State Dulles said " I am very much impressed by Prime Minister Diệm . He is a true patriot and dedicated to independence , " referring to his defeat of the Bình Xuyên in the 1955 Battle for Saigon . The Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs Walter Robertson said " Asia has given us in President Diệm another great figure , and the entire Free World has become the richer for his example of determination and moral fortitude . "
At the time the Commercial Import Program ( CIP ) appeared to be working successfully and North Vietnam had not decided to attack the South after Diệm had canceled the planned 1956 reunification elections . The glowing press coverage of the period contrasted to that of the later decades of the 1960s and 1970s , in which the American media engaged in investigative journalism that undermined the official line presented by Washington in relation to Vietnam . This was particularly true during Diệm 's downfall in 1963 . Journalists such as David Halberstam , Malcolm Browne and Neil Sheehan all won Pulitzer Prizes for their work on the Buddhist crisis , in which mass protests erupted after years of discrimination against the Buddhist majority .
On his third day in Washington , Diệm was the keynote speaker and guest at a National Press Club lunch . He attacked Asian leaders who advocated neutralism , saying that " Since communism is not neutral , we cannot be neutral " . This impressed the media , who prominently noted Diệm 's unequivocal stance in their reports . The Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning Marguerite Higgins of the New York Herald Tribune said that " it is a refreshing — almost startling — experience to hear this Asian hero assert forthrightly : ' communism isn 't neutral , therefore we cannot be neutral . ' ... He made himself unique among recent Asian visitors ... by the decisiveness with which he publicly chose up sides with the United States and against the communists " . In her critique , Higgins again criticized the stances of Nehru and Sukarno . Such was the impact of Diệm 's soundbite that the AFV thereafter used it as a headline quote in their mailouts and campaigns .
Diệm went on to answer a question about his religious convictions by declaring his adherence to Catholicism and saying " I have always found the principles of my religion a great inspiration , and , if I have achieved anything in my political career , I owe it all to those principles " . His comments were widely trumpeted in Catholic newspapers , which cited it as the reason why he was able to stop a communist takeover of South Vietnam .
The visit was largely ceremonial and mainly focused on mutual praise rather than specific policy planning and negotiations . Diệm stayed in the capital for four days , meeting with Eisenhower and high @-@ ranking members of the State Department on the last of these days . However , the meeting with Dulles turned into a farce after the Secretary of State and his subordinates decided to visit Diệm at Blair House . Diệm , notorious for monologues that often lasted for up to six hours , talked endlessly and as a result the American diplomats were unable to raise whatever issues they had wanted to discuss .
During the meeting with Eisenhower , Diệm asked about the American commitment towards the defense of South Vietnam . At the time , communist guerrillas had begun a low @-@ level campaign against Diệm in an attempt to reunify Vietnam under their rule . In response , Diệm began a widespread campaign to crush the communist remnants . Diệm felt that the cloud cover over Indochina would make it difficult for air bombings against communist guerrillas to be effective . He predicted that the communists would try to enter South Vietnam through Laos , which turned out to be the case when the Ho Chi Minh trail came into full usage . Diệm asked the US for a guarantee of continuing aid ; at the time , two thirds of South Vietnam 's budget came from the CIP , which was mainly abused by the urban elite to buy consumer goods . Diệm knew that the Eisenhower administration and Congress wanted to make budget savings and implored them to refrain from cutting the CIP expenditure , fearing a deterioration in the Vietnamese economy . Eisenhower said that Vietnamese security was ensured by the South East Asian Treaty Organization , but Diệm remained anxious , believing that the other member states were too weak and lacking in resources to stand by their pledges to defend his country . Upon Diệm 's departure from the capital , the White House released a statement praising " the remarkable achievements of the Republic of Viet @-@ Nam under his leadership . " '
= = = New York City = = =
After leaving Washington , Diệm traveled to New York City , and disembarked from the Columbine III at LaGuardia Airport . New York had a large Irish Catholic population , and Diệm received an even greater reception than in the capital . Diệm was taken in a seven @-@ car motorcade to St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York City , where Bishop Joseph Flannelly delayed the mass to await the South Vietnamese president . After leading Diệm to a point of honor in the cathedral 's sanctuary , Bishop Flannelly said " We are delighted and we are proud to have ... His Excellency Ngô Đình Diệm . The whole world acclaimed him when this God @-@ fearing anti @-@ communist and courageous statesman saved Vietnam ! ... [ Y ] our fellow Catholics join our hearts and souls with you at this altar of God . "
Diệm then visited the Maryknoll Seminary . In the early 1950s , when Diệm 's political fortunes were at a low ebb , he had gone into self @-@ imposed exile and stayed there for a period , engaging in religious practice and building up his political contacts among Catholics , most notably Cardinal Spellman . Diệm was given a strongly supportive reception by the seminarians . He then went to South Orange , New Jersey , where he was conferred with an honorary law degree from the Catholic Seton Hall University , on the grounds that he , " more than anyone else , stopped the communists in their hour of partial conquest of Vietnam " . Diệm had stayed at Seton Hall during his period in exile and claimed partial credit for the creation of an Oriental Studies Department at the university . He said that the new department would " help to salvage what must be salvaged of the values of Asia in the tornado that befell this large portion of the world . "
The next day , Diệm was given a tickertape parade from Lower Broadway to City Hall , and given a reception by the Mayor Robert Wagner . Around 250 @,@ 000 people cheered him during the parade . Wagner called Diệm " a man to whom freedom is the very breath of life " , referred to the Republic of Vietnam as a " political miracle " , and said that " the principal credit ... should go to President Ngô Đình Diệm , a man history may yet adjudge as one of the great figures of the twentieth century . " Diệm was bestowed the city 's Medal of Honor and a scroll for " Distinguished and Exceptional Service " . In turn , Diệm praised New York City at a lunch hosted by Wagner in his honor . Diệm praised New York City for successfully integrating large numbers of immigrants of different backgrounds , describing the city as a symbol of " human brotherhood " . Again on the advice of AFV consultants , he compared this to recent events in Vietnam .
Diệm then met the Council on Foreign Relations , where he promoted Vietnamese businese interests and touted his country as an ideal place for foreign investment . He described Vietnamese people as industrious workers who focused on developing farmland rather than building monuments and palaces . Diệm was given a dinner in his honor at the Ambassador Hotel . It was organized by the AFV and the International Rescue Committee ( IRC ) . The AFV had been formed by Joseph Buttinger , an IRC member who had worked in Saigon in assisting with Operation Passage to Freedom , the mass evacuation of North Vietnamese refugees to the south after the partition of Vietnam in 1954 .
Diệm was given an award commemorating Richard Byrd , a polar explorer who previously served as the honorary chairman of the IRC 's board of directors . The master of ceremonies was Henry Luce , the boss of Time magazine , which had been a fervent backer of Diệm . Spellman delivered the speech and the dignitaries included John D. Rockefeller , Senators Mansfield and Kennedy , Eleanor Roosevelt , and William Randolph Hearst , Jr .. Diệm thanked America generally and Luce and his media operations in particular for its support of Vietnam . The dinner was also attended by IRC chairman Leo Cherne , who read a telegram from Eisenhower , extolling Diệm for exhibiting " the highest qualities of heroism and statesmanship . " The day after , Diệm attended mass with Spellman and was the guest of honor at a business lunch hosted by the Far East @-@ America Council of Commerce and Industry at the Waldorf Astoria . Diệm promoted South Vietnam as a business opportunity for American entrepreneurs , saying that the populace was pro @-@ American , unlike other countries , and that they welcomed foreign investment .
= = = Closing stages = = =
Diệm then left New York City and traveled to Michigan State University , where he had stayed during a self @-@ imposed exile in the early @-@ 1950s . Fishel worked at the university and helped Diệm secure a position there . On May 15 , the South Vietnamese leader gave a speech to 4 @,@ 000 people and received an honorary degree ; Governor Mennen Williams decreed that day to be " Ngô Đình Diệm Day " . Diệm then visited Tennessee before stopping at Los Angeles for a banquet hosted by the Los Angeles World Affairs Council .
Diệm left the mainland on May 19 , and his final stop was in Hawaii , where he was a guest of Admiral Felix Stump , the commander of United States Pacific Fleet . The reason for the visit was to discuss Diệm 's concerns over America 's reaction if South Vietnam came under communist attack . Stump reiterated Washington 's opinions that nuclear weapons would be used to defend any anti @-@ communist country that was attacked by communists , in accordance with public statements made by Eisenhower and Dulles . He said the Americans would do so by dropping nuclear weapons on communist China .
= = Aftermath = =
The visit to the US was the high point in Diệm 's relations with his primary sponsor . The Americans began to place increasing pressure on Diệm to carry out democratic reforms and liberalize the political system , particularly during ambassadorship of Elbridge Durbrow . Diệm resisted the calls to broaden the base of his government and continued to rig elections . Meanwhile in the US , his support among the AFV also declined , in part due to his ongoing authoritarianism , and also because of his persistent complaints to them about negative media depictions of his regime ; many Vietnamese leaders of various persuasions did not understand that western governments did not control their own media . Pressure also increased on Diệm at home , as the communists intensified their insurgency against him . In November 1960 , discontent in his own army prompted a failed coup attempt by paratroopers . Although Diệm eventually organized for loyalists to put down the coup , he was angered by Durbrow 's calls for him to try to negotiate a settlement , regarding the lack of support for his zero tolerance policy as a betrayal .
In 1963 , as mass civil disobedience broke out due to discontent from the Buddhist majority over Diệm 's pro @-@ Catholic discrimination , sparked by the fatal shootings of nine people who were demonstrating against the ban on the Buddhist flag . The US began to lose confidence in Diệm 's ability to run the country effectively and prevent the growth of the communist insurgency , and concluded that he was an obstacle to religious and thus national stability . During this time , the American press corps wrote unvarnished stories about the South Vietnamese government 's policies and actions , in contrast to the supportive pieces of the 1950s , and Diệm 's attempt to physically intimidate correspondents backfired . After Diệm tried to settle the Buddhist crisis by launching synchronized raids on Buddhist temples across the country to round up those monks who were leading protests against him , the Americans began to look for alternative leadership , sending Cable 243 to their embassy in Saigon to authorise the search for someone to replace Diệm . In November 1963 , Diệm was overthrown in a US @-@ backed coup and he and Nhu were captured and executed .
= Terra Nova Expedition =
The Terra Nova Expedition , officially the British Antarctic Expedition , was an expedition to Antarctica which took place between 1910 and 1913 . It was led by Robert Falcon Scott and had various scientific and geographical objectives . Scott wished to continue the scientific work that he had begun when leading the Discovery Expedition to the Antarctic in 1901 – 04 . He also wanted to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole . He and four companions attained the pole on 17 January 1912 , where they found that the Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen had preceded them by 34 days . Scott 's entire party died on the return journey from the pole ; some of their bodies , journals , and photographs were found by a search party eight months later .
The expedition , named after its supply ship , was a private venture , financed by public contributions augmented by a government grant . It had further backing from the Admiralty , which released experienced seamen to the expedition , and from the Royal Geographical Society . The expedition 's team of scientists carried out a comprehensive scientific programme , while other parties explored Victoria Land and the Western Mountains . An attempted landing and exploration of King Edward VII Land was unsuccessful . A journey to Cape Crozier in June and July 1911 was the first extended sledging journey in the depths of the Antarctic winter .
For many years after his death , Scott 's status as tragic hero was unchallenged , and few questions were asked about the causes of the disaster which overcame his polar party . In the final quarter of the 20th century the expedition came under closer scrutiny , and more critical views were expressed about its organization and management . The degree of Scott 's personal culpability , and more recently , the culpability of certain expedition members , remains a matter of controversy among commentators .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Background = = =
After Discovery 's return from the Antarctic in 1904 , Scott eventually resumed his naval career , but continued to nurse ambitions of returning south , with the conquest of the Pole as his specific target . The Discovery Expedition had made a significant contribution to Antarctic scientific and geographical knowledge , but in terms of penetration southward had reached only 82 ° 17 ' and had not traversed the Great Ice Barrier . In 1909 Scott received news that Ernest Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition had narrowly failed to reach the Pole . Starting from a base close to Scott 's Discovery anchorage in McMurdo Sound , Shackleton had crossed the Great Ice Barrier , discovered the Beardmore Glacier route to the Polar Plateau , and had struck out for the Pole . He had been forced to turn for home at 88 ° 23 ' S , less than 100 geographical miles ( 112 statute miles , 180 km ) from his objective . Scott had claimed prescriptive rights to the McMurdo Sound area , describing it as his own " field of work " , and Shackleton 's use of the area as a base was in breach of an undertaking he gave Scott not to do so . This soured relations between the two explorers , and increased Scott 's determination to surpass Shackleton 's achievements .
As he made his preparations for a further expedition , Scott was aware of other polar ventures being planned . A Japanese expedition was being planned ; the Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Douglas Mawson was to leave in 1911 , but would be working in a different sector of the continent . Meanwhile , Roald Amundsen , a potential rival , had announced plans for an Arctic voyage .
= = = Personnel = = =
Sixty @-@ five men ( including replacements ) formed the shore and ship 's parties of the Terra Nova Expedition . They were chosen from 8 @,@ 000 applicants , and included seven Discovery veterans together with five who had been with Shackleton on his 1907 – 09 expedition . Lieutenant Edward Evans , who had been the navigating officer on Morning , the Discovery expedition 's relief ship in 1904 , was appointed Scott 's second @-@ in @-@ command . He abandoned plans to mount his own expedition , and transferred his financial backing to Scott .
Among the other serving Royal Navy ( RN ) personnel released by the Admiralty were Lieutenant Harry Pennell , who would serve as navigator and take command of the ship once the shore parties had landed , and two Surgeon @-@ Lieutenants , George Murray Levick and Edward L Atkinson . Ex @-@ RN officer Victor Campbell , known as " The Wicked Mate " , was one of the few who had skills in skiing , and was chosen to lead the party that would explore King Edward VII Land . Two non @-@ Royal Navy officers were appointed : Henry Robertson Bowers , known as " Birdie " , who was a lieutenant in the Royal Indian Marine , and Lawrence Oates ( " Titus " ) , an Army captain from the 6th ( Inniskilling ) Dragoons . Oates , independently wealthy , volunteered his services to the expedition and paid £ 1 @,@ 000 ( 2009 value approximately £ 75 @,@ 000 ) into its funds .
The Admiralty also provided a largely naval lower deck , including the Antarctic veterans Edgar Evans , Tom Crean and William Lashly . Other seamen in the shore party included Patrick Keohane and Robert Forde , Thomas Clissold ( cook ) and Frederick Hooper ( domestic steward ) . Two Russians , Dimitri Gerov ( dog driver ) and Anton Omelchenko ( groom ) , also landed .
To head his scientific programme , Scott appointed Edward Wilson as chief scientist . Wilson was Scott 's closest confidant among the party ; on the Discovery expedition he had accompanied Scott on the Farthest South march to 80 ° S. As well as being a qualified medical doctor and a distinguished research zoologist , he was also a talented illustrator . His scientific team – which Scott 's biographer David Crane considered " as impressive a group of scientists as had ever been on a polar expedition " — included some who would enjoy later careers of distinction : George Simpson the meteorologist , Charles Wright , the Canadian physicist , and geologists Frank Debenham and Raymond Priestley . T. Griffith Taylor , the senior of the geologists , biologist Edward W. Nelson and assistant zoologist Apsley Cherry @-@ Garrard completed the team . Cherry @-@ Garrard had no scientific training , but was a protege of Wilson 's . He had , like Oates , contributed £ 1 @,@ 000 to funds . After first being turned down by Scott , he allowed his contribution to stand , which impressed Scott sufficiently for him to reverse his decision . Scott 's biographer David Crane describes Cherry @-@ Garrard as " the future interpreter , historian and conscience of the expedition . " Herbert Ponting was the expedition 's photographer , whose pictures would leave a vivid visual record . On the advice of Fridtjof Nansen , Scott recruited a young Norwegian ski expert , Tryggve Gran .
= = = Transport = = =
Scott had decided on a mixed transport strategy , relying on contributions from dogs , motor sledges and ponies . He appointed Cecil Meares to take charge of the dog teams , and recruited Shackleton 's former motor specialist , Bernard Day , to run the motor sledges . Oates would be in charge of the ponies , but as he could not join the expedition until May 1910 , Scott instructed Meares , who knew nothing of horses , to buy them — with unfortunate consequences for their quality and performance .
A " polarised " motor car had been unsuccessfully tried in the Antarctic by Shackleton , on his 1907 – 09 expedition , while his pioneering use of ponies had transported him as far as the foot of the Beardmore Glacier . Scott believed that ponies had served Shackleton well , and he thought he could resolve the motor traction problem by developing a tracked snow " motor " ( the forerunner of the Snowcat and of the tank ) . However , Scott always intended to rely on man @-@ hauling for the polar plateau , believing it impossible to ascend the Beardmore Glacier with motors or with animals . The motors and animals would be used to haul loads only across the Barrier , enabling the men to preserve their strength for the later Glacier and Plateau stages . In practice , the motor sledges proved only briefly useful , and the ponies ' performance was affected by their age and poor condition . As to dogs , while Scott 's experiences on Discovery had made him dubious of their reliability , his writings show that he recognised their effectiveness in the right hands . As the expedition developed , he became increasingly impressed with their capabilities .
= = = Finance = = =
Unlike the Discovery expedition , where fundraising was handled jointly by the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society , the Terra Nova Expedition was organised as a private venture without significant institutional support . Scott estimated the total cost at £ 40 @,@ 000 ( £ 3 million at 2009 values ) , half of which was eventually met by a government grant . The balance was raised by public subscription and loans . The expedition was further assisted by the free supply of a range of provisions and equipment from sympathetic commercial firms . The fund @-@ raising task was largely carried out by Scott , and was a considerable drain on his time and energy , continuing in South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand after Terra Nova had sailed from British waters .
By far the largest single cost was the purchase of the ship Terra Nova , for £ 12 @,@ 500 . Terra Nova had been in Antarctica before , as part of the second Discovery relief operation . Scott wanted to sail her as a Naval vessel under the White Ensign ; to enable this , he obtained membership of the Royal Yacht Squadron for the sum of £ 100 . He was thus able to impose Naval discipline on the expedition , and as a registered yacht of the Squadron , Terra Nova became exempt from Board of Trade regulations which might otherwise have deemed her unfit to sail .
= = = Objectives = = =
Scott defined the objects of the expedition in his initial public appeal : " The main objective of this expedition is to reach the South Pole , and to secure for The British Empire the honour of this achievement . " There were other objectives , both scientific and geographical ; the scientific work was considered by chief scientist Wilson as the main work of the expedition : " No one can say that it will have only been a Pole @-@ hunt ... We want the scientific work to make the bagging of the Pole merely an item in the results . " Wilson hoped to continue investigations , begun during the Discovery expedition , of the penguin colony at Cape Crozier , and to fulfil a programme of geological , magnetic and meteorology studies on an " unprecedented " scale . There were further plans to explore King Edward VII Land , a venture described by Campbell , who was to lead it , as " the thing of the whole expedition " , and Victoria Land .
= = First season , 1910 – 11 = =
= = = Voyage out = = =
Terra Nova sailed from Cardiff , Wales , on 15 June 1910 . Scott , detained by expedition business , sailed later on a faster passenger liner and joined the ship in South Africa . In Melbourne , Australia , he left the ship to continue fund @-@ raising , while Terra Nova proceeded to New Zealand . Waiting for Scott in Melbourne was a telegram from Amundsen , informing Scott that the Norwegian was " proceeding south " ; the telegram was the first indication to Scott that he was in a race . When asked by the press for a reaction , Scott replied that his plans would not change and that he would not sacrifice the expedition 's scientific goals to win the race to the Pole . In his diary he wrote that Amundsen had a fair chance of success , and perhaps deserved his luck if he got through .
Scott rejoined the ship in New Zealand , where additional supplies were taken aboard , including 34 dogs , 19 Siberian ponies and three motorised sledges . Terra Nova , heavily overladen , finally left Port Chalmers on 29 November 1910 . During the first days of December the ship was struck by a heavy storm ; at one point , with the ship taking heavy seas and the pumps having failed , the crew had to bail her out with buckets . The storm resulted in the loss of two ponies , a dog , 10 imperial tons ( 10 @,@ 200 kg ) of coal and 65 imperial gallons ( 300 L ) of petrol . On 10 December Terra Nova met the southern pack ice and was halted , remaining for 20 days before breaking clear and continuing southward . The delay , which Scott attributed to " sheer bad luck " , had consumed 61 tons of coal .
= = = Cape Evans base = = =
Arriving off Ross Island on 4 January 1911 , Terra Nova scouted for possible landing sites around Cape Crozier at the eastern point of the island , before proceeding to McMurdo Sound to its west , where both Discovery and Nimrod had previously landed . After Scott had considered various possible wintering spots , he chose a cape remembered from the Discovery days as the " Skuary " , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of Scott 's 1902 base at Hut Point . Scott hoped that this location , which he renamed Cape Evans after his second @-@ in @-@ command , would be free of ice in the short Antarctic summer , enabling the ship to come and go . As the seas to the south froze over , the expedition would have ready access over the ice to Hut Point and the Barrier . At Cape Evans the shore parties disembarked , with the ponies , dogs , the three motorised sledges ( one of which was lost during unloading ) , and the bulk of the party 's stores . Scott was " astonished at the strength of the ponies " as they transferred stores and materials from ship to shore . A prefabricated accommodation hut , measuring 50 ft x 25 ft ( 15 m x 7 @.@ 7 m ) , was erected and made habitable by 18 January .
= = = Amundsen 's camp = = =
Scott 's programme included a plan to explore and carry out scientific work in King Edward VII Land , to the east of the Barrier . A party under Campbell was organised for this purpose , with the option of exploring Victoria Land to the north @-@ west if King Edward VII Land proved inaccessible . On 26 January 1911 Campbell 's party left in the ship and headed east . After several failed attempts to land his party on the King Edward VII Land shore , Campbell exercised his option to sail to Victoria Land . On its return westward along the Barrier edge , Terra Nova encountered Amundsen 's expedition camped in the Bay of Whales , an inlet in the Barrier .
Amundsen was courteous and hospitable , willing for Campbell to camp nearby and offering him help with his dogs . Campbell politely declined , and returned with his party to Cape Evans to report this development . Scott received the news on 22 February , during the first depot @-@ laying expedition . According to Cherry @-@ Garrard , the first reaction of Scott and his party was an urge to rush over to the Bay of Whales and " have it out " with Amundsen . However , Scott recorded the event calmly in his journal . " One thing only fixes itself in my mind . The proper , as well as the wiser , course is for us to proceed exactly as though this had not happened . To go forward and do our best for the honour of our country without fear or panic . "
= = = Depot laying , 1911 = = =
The aim of the first season 's depot @-@ laying was to place a series of depots on the Barrier from its edge ( Safety Camp ) down to 80 ° S , for use on the polar journey which would begin the following spring . The final depot would be the largest , and would be known as One Ton Depot . The work was to be carried out by 12 men , the 8 fittest ponies , and two dog teams ; ice conditions prevented the use of the motor sledges .
The journey started on 27 January , " in a state of hurry bordering on panic " , according to Cherry @-@ Garrard . Progress was slower than expected , and the ponies ' performance was adversely affected because Oates was opposed to using Norwegian snowshoes and had left them behind at Cape Evans . On 4 February the party established Corner Camp , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Hut Point , when a blizzard held them up for three days . A few days later , after the march had resumed , Scott sent the three weakest ponies home ( two died en route ) . As the depot @-@ laying party approached 80 ° , Scott became concerned that the remaining ponies would not make it back to base unless the party turned north immediately . Against the advice of Oates , who wanted to go forward , killing the ponies for meat as they collapsed , Scott decided to lay One Ton Depot at 79 ° 29 ' S , more than 30 miles ( 48 km ) short of its intended location .
Scott returned to Safety Camp with the dogs , after risking his own life to rescue a dog @-@ team that had fallen into a crevasse . When the slower pony party arrived , one of the animals was in very poor condition and died shortly afterwards . Later , as the surviving ponies were crossing the sea ice near Hut Point , the ice broke up . Despite a determined rescue attempt , three more ponies died . Of the eight ponies that had begun the depot @-@ laying journey , only two returned home .
= = = Winter quarters , 1911 = = =
On 23 April 1911 the sun set for the duration of the winter months , and the party settled into the Cape Evans hut . Under Scott 's naval regime the hut was divided by a wall made of packing cases , so that officers and men lived largely separate existences , scientists being deemed " officers " for this purpose . Everybody was kept busy ; scientific work continued , observations and measurements were taken , equipment was overhauled and adapted for future journeys . The surviving ponies needed daily exercise , and the dogs required regular attention . Scott spent much time calculating sledging rations and weights for the forthcoming polar march . The routine included regular lectures on a wide range of subjects : Ponting on Japan , Wilson on sketching , Oates on horse management and geologist Frank Debenham on volcanoes . To ensure that physical fitness was maintained there were frequent games of football in the half @-@ light outside the hut ; Scott recorded that " Atkinson is by far the best player , but Hooper , P.O. Evans and Crean are also quite good . " The South Polar Times , which had been produced by Shackleton during the Discovery expedition , was resurrected under Cherry @-@ Garrard 's editorship . On 6 June a feast was arranged , to mark Scott 's 43rd birthday ; a second celebration on 21 June marked Midwinter Day , the day that marks the midpoint of the long polar night .
= = Main expedition journeys , 1911 – 12 = =
= = = Northern Party = = =
After reporting Amundsen 's arrival to Scott at Cape Evans , Campbell 's Eastern party became the " Northern Party " . On 9 February 1911 they sailed northwards , arriving at Robertson Bay , near Cape Adare on 17 February , where they built a hut close to Norwegian explorer Carstens Borchgrevink 's old quarters .
The Northern Party spent the 1911 winter in their hut . Their exploration plans for the summer of 1911 – 12 could not be fully carried out , partly because of the condition of the sea ice and also because they were unable to discover a route into the interior . Terra Nova returned from New Zealand on 4 January 1912 , and transferred the party to the vicinity of Evans Cove , a location approximately 250 miles ( 400 km ) south of Cape Adare and 200 miles ( 320 km ) northwest of Cape Evans . They were to be picked up on 18 February after the completion of further geological work , but due to heavy pack ice , the ship was unable to reach them . The group , with meagre rations which they had to supplement by fish and seal meat , were forced to spend the winter months of 1912 in a snow cave which they excavated on Inexpressible Island . Here they suffered severe privations — frostbite , hunger , and dysentery , with extreme winds and low temperatures , and the discomfort of a blubber stove in confined quarters .
On 17 April 1912 a party under Edward Atkinson , in command at Cape Evans during the absence of the polar party , went to relieve Campbell 's party , but were beaten back by the weather . The Northern Party survived the winter in their icy chamber , and set out for the base camp on 30 September 1912 . Despite their physical weakness , the whole party managed to reach Cape Evans on 7 November , after a perilous journey which included a crossing of the difficult Drygalski Ice Tongue . Geological and other specimens collected by the Northern Party were retrieved from Cape Adare and Evans Cove by Terra Nova in January 1913 .
= = = Western geological parties = = =
= = = = First geological expedition , January – March 1911 = = = =
The objective of this journey was geological exploration of the coastal area west of McMurdo Sound , in a region between the McMurdo Dry Valleys and the Koettlitz Glacier . This work was undertaken by a party consisting of Griffith Taylor , Debenham , Wright and Edgar Evans . They landed from Terra Nova on 26 January at Butter Point , opposite Cape Evans on the Victoria Land shore . On 30 January , the party established its main depot in the Ferrar Glacier region , and then conducted explorations and survey work in the Dry Valley and Taylor Glacier areas before moving southwards to the Koettlitz Glacier . After further work there , they started homewards on 2 March , taking a southerly route to Hut Point , where they arrived on 14 March .
= = = = Second geological expedition , November 1911 – February 1912 = = = =
This was a continuation of the work carried out in the earlier journey , this time centring on the Granite Harbour region approximately 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Butter Point . Taylor 's companions this time were Debenham , Gran and Forde . The main journey began on 14 November , and involved difficult travel over sea ice to Granite Harbour , which was reached on 26 November . Headquarters were established at a site christened Geology Point , and a stone hut was built . During the following weeks , exploration and surveying work took place on the Mackay Glacier , and a range of features to the north of the glacier were identified and named . The party was due to be picked up by Terra Nova on 15 January 1912 , but the ship could not reach them . The party waited until 5 February before trekking southward , and were rescued from the ice when they were finally spotted from the ship on 18 February . Geological specimens from both Western Mountains expeditions were retrieved by Terra Nova in January 1913 .
= = = Winter journey to Cape Crozier = = =
This journey was conceived by Wilson . He had suggested the need for it in the Zoology section of the Discovery Expedition 's Scientific Reports , and was anxious to follow up this earlier research . The journey 's scientific purpose was to secure emperor penguin eggs from the rookery near Cape Crozier at an early embryo stage , so that " particular points in the development of the bird could be worked out " . This required a trip in the depths of winter to obtain eggs in an appropriately early stage of incubation . A secondary purpose was to experiment with food rations and equipment in advance of the coming summer 's polar journey . Scott approved , and a party consisting of Wilson , Bowers and Cherry @-@ Garrard set out on 27 June 1911 .
Travelling during the Antarctic winter had not been previously tried ; Scott wrote that it was " a bold venture , but the right men have gone to attempt it . " Cherry @-@ Garrard later described the horrors of the 19 days it took to travel the 60 miles ( 97 km ) to Cape Crozier . Gear , clothes , and sleeping bags were constantly iced up ; on 5 July , the temperature fell below − 77 ° F ( − 60 ° C ) – " 109 degrees of frost – as cold as anyone would want to endure in darkness and iced up clothes " , wrote Cherry @-@ Garrard . Often the daily distance travelled was little more than a single mile .
After reaching Cape Crozier on 15 July the party built an igloo from snow blocks , stone , and a sheet of wood they had brought for the roof . They were then able to visit the penguin colony and collect several emperor penguin eggs . Subsequently their igloo shelter was almost destroyed in a blizzard with force 11 winds . The storm also carried away the tent upon which their survival would depend during their return journey , but fortunately this was recovered , half a mile away . The group set out on the return journey to Cape Evans , arriving there on 1 August . The three eggs that survived the journey went first to the Natural History Museum in South Kensington , and thereafter were the subject of a report from Dr. Cossar Stewart at the University of Edinburgh . The eggs failed , however , to provide proof of Wilson 's theories .
Cherry @-@ Garrard afterwards described this as the " worst journey in the world " , and used this as the title of the book that he wrote in 1922 as a record of the entire Terra Nova Expedition . Scott called the Winter Journey " a very wonderful performance " , and was highly satisfied with the experiments in rations and equipment : " We are as near perfection as experience can direct . "
= = = South polar journey = = =
On 13 September 1911 , Scott revealed his plans for the South Pole march . Sixteen men would set out , using the two remaining motor sledges , ponies and dogs for the Barrier stage of the journey , which would bring them to the Beardmore Glacier . At this point the dogs would return to base and the ponies would be shot for food . Thereafter , twelve men in three groups would ascend the glacier and begin the crossing of the polar plateau , using man @-@ hauling . Only one of these groups would carry on to the pole ; the supporting groups would be sent back at specified latitudes . The composition of the final polar group would be decided by Scott during the journey . For the return journey , Scott ordered that the dogs teams set off again from the base camp to replenish depots and meet the Polar party between latitude 82 and 82 @.@ 30 on March 1 to assist the party home .
The Motor Party ( Lt. Evans , Day , Lashly and Hooper ) started from Cape Evans on 24 October with two motor sledges , their objective being to haul loads to latitude 80 ° 30 ' S and wait there for the others . By 1 November both motor sledges had failed after little more than 50 miles ( 80 km ) of travel , so the party man @-@ hauled 740 pounds ( 336 kg ) of supplies for the remaining 150 miles ( 240 km ) reaching their assigned latitude two weeks later . Scott 's main party , which had left Cape Evans on 1 November with the dogs and ponies , caught up with them on 21 November .
Scott 's initial plan was that the dogs would return to base at this stage . However , because of the slower than expected progress Scott decided to take the dogs on further . Day and Hooper were dispatched to Cape Evans with a message to this effect for Simpson , who had been left in charge there . On 4 December the expedition had reached the Gateway , the name given by Shackleton to the route from the Barrier on to the Beardmore Glacier . At this point a blizzard struck , forcing the men to camp until 9 December and to break into rations intended for the Glacier journey . When the blizzard lifted , the remaining ponies were shot as planned , and their meat deposited as food for the return parties . On 11 December , Meares and Dimitri turned back with the dogs , carrying a message back to base that " things were not as rosy as they might be , but we keep our spirits up and say the luck must turn . "
The party began the ascent of the Beardmore , and on 20 December reached the beginning of the polar plateau where they laid the Upper Glacier Depot . There was still no hint from Scott as to who would be in the final polar party . On 22 December , at latitude 85 ° 20 ' S , Scott sent back Atkinson , Cherry @-@ Garrard , Wright and Keohane . Scott reminded Atkinson " to take the two dog @-@ teams south in the event of Meares having to return home , as seemed likely " to assist the polar party on its return journey the following March .
The remaining eight men continued south , in better conditions which enabled them to make up some of the time lost on the Barrier . By 30 December they had " caught up " with Shackleton 's 1908 – 09 timetable . On 3 January 1912 , at latitude 87 ° 32 ' S , Scott made his decision on the composition of the polar party : five men ( Scott , Wilson , Oates , Bowers and Edgar Evans ) would go forward while Lt. Evans , Lashly and Crean would return to Cape Evans . The decision to take five men forward involved recalculations of weights and rations , since everything had been based on four @-@ men teams .
The polar group continued towards the Pole , passing Shackleton 's Furthest South ( 88 ° 23 ' S ) on 9 January . Seven days later , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from their goal , Amundsen 's black flag was spotted and the party knew that they had been forestalled . They reached the Pole the next day , 17 January 1912 : " The Pole . Yes , but under very different circumstances from those expected ... Great God ! This is an awful place and terrible enough for us to have laboured to it without the reward of priority . Well , it is something to have got here " Scott still hoped to race Amundsen to the telegraph cablehead in Australia : " Now for a desperate struggle to get the news through first . I wonder if we can do it . " However , on 18 January 1912 they discovered Amundsen 's tent , some supplies , a letter to King Haakon VII of Norway ( which Amundsen politely asked Scott to deliver ) and a note stating that Amundsen had arrived there with four companions on 16 December 1911 .
After confirming their position and planting their flag , Scott 's party turned homewards . During the next three weeks they made good progress , Scott 's diary recording several " excellent marches " . Nevertheless , Scott began to worry about the physical condition of his party , particularly of Edgar Evans who was suffering from severe frostbite and was , Scott records , " a good deal run down . " The condition of Oates 's feet became an increasing anxiety , as the group approached the summit of the Beardmore Glacier and prepared for the descent to the Barrier . On 7 February , they began their descent and had serious difficulty locating a depot . In a brief spell of good weather , Scott ordered a half @-@ day 's rest , allowing Wilson to " geologise " ; 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) of fossil @-@ bearing samples were added to the sledges . These plant fossils are now known to prove the theory of continental drift . Edgar Evans 's health was deteriorating ; a hand injury was failing to heal , he was badly frostbitten , and is thought to have injured his head after several falls on the ice . " He is absolutely changed from his normal self @-@ reliant self " , wrote Scott . Near the bottom of the glacier he collapsed , and died on 17 February .
On the Barrier stage of the homeward march , Scott reached the 82 @.@ 30 ° S meeting point for the dog teams , three days ahead of schedule , noting in his diary for 27 February 1912 " We are naturally always discussing possibility of meeting dogs , where and when , etc . It is a critical position . We may find ourselves in safety at the next depot , but there is a horrid element of doubt . " The party then met with three , ultimately critical , difficulties : the non @-@ appearance of the dog teams , a large unexpected drop in temperature , and a shortage of fuel in the depots . The low temperatures caused poor surfaces which Scott likened to " pulling over desert sand " ; he described the surface as " coated with a thin layer of woolly crystals , formed by radiation no doubt . These are too firmly fixed to be removed by the wind and cause impossible friction on the [ sledge ] runners . " The low temperatures were accompanied by an absence of wind , something Scott had expected to assist them on their northern journey .
The party were further slowed down by the frostbite in Oates ' left foot - daily marches were now down to less than five miles , which was insufficient given the lack of oil . Furthermore , by March 10 it became evident the dog teams were not coming : " The dogs which would have been our salvation have evidently failed . Meares [ the dog @-@ driver ] had a bad trip home I suppose . " In a farewell letter to Sir Edgar Speyer , dated March 16 , Scott wondered whether he had overshot the meeting point and fought the growing suspicion that he had in fact been abandoned by the dog teams : " We very nearly came through , and it 's a pity to have missed it , but lately I have felt that we have overshot our mark . No @-@ one is to blame and I hope no attempt will be made to suggest that we had lacked support . " On the same day , Oates , who " now with hands as well as feet pretty well useless " , voluntarily left the tent and walked to his death . Scott wrote that Oates ' last words were " I am just going outside and may be some time " .
Oates ' sacrifice increased the team 's speed but it was too late to save them , especially since Scott 's right toes were now becoming frostbitten . Scott , Wilson and Bowers struggled on to a point 11 miles ( 18 km ) south of One Ton Depot , but were halted on 20 March by a fierce blizzard . Although each day they attempted to advance , they were unable to do so . Scott 's last diary entry , dated 29 March 1912 , the presumed date of their deaths , ends with these words :
Every day we have been ready to start for our depot 11 miles away , but outside the door of the tent it remains a scene of whirling drift . I do not think we can hope for any better things now . We shall stick it out to the end , but we are getting weaker , of course , and the end cannot be far . It seems a pity but I do not think I can write more . R. Scott . Last entry . For God 's sake look after our people .
= = Attempts to relieve the polar party , 1912 = =
= = = Orders concerning dogs = = =
Before setting out on the South Pole journey , Scott had made arrangements intended to help the polar party home , with the use of dogs . Meares , who was expected to have returned to Cape Evans by 19 December , had been instructed that in late December or early January he should transport to One Ton Depot " Five XS rations [ XS = " Extra Summit Ration " , food for four men for one week ] , 3 cases of biscuit , 5 gallons of oil and as much dog food as you can conveniently carry " . If this mission could not be carried out by dogs , then " at all hazard " a man @-@ hauling team was to carry the XS rations to the depot . Meares had been further instructed that in about the first week in February , depending on news received from returning units , he should set out , with dogs , with a view to meeting the returning polar party between latitudes 82 ° or 82 ° 30 ' on about 1 March . The objective of these orders was to hasten the party back to Cape Evans before Terra Nova left , so that news of the polar conquest could be carried immediately to New Zealand . Scott placed greater emphasis on the former journey than on the latter : " Whilst the object of your third journey is important , that of the second is vital " .
The substance of these orders was reiterated to Atkinson when he left Scott at the top of the Beardmore Glacier on 22 December 1911 .
Several events occurred to obscure and ultimately frustrate this order . The fact that Meares had turned back from the polar march much later than originally planned meant that he did not return to Cape Evans until 5 January . Huntford suggests he resigned at this point because he was " disgusted " with Scott 's expedition . Fiennes in contrast quotes from a letter by Cherry Garrard in 1938 that Meares had been ready at Cape Evans to resupply One Ton Depot as ordered , when he had seen the ship arrive in the bay and so stayed at base - the " ship " however turned out to be a mirage , and the real ship did not arrive until the middle of February . According to Fiennes , Meares was preoccupied with his late father 's estate , and was anxious to leave on the ship as soon as he could . Three of the XS rations required for One Ton Depot had been man @-@ hauled there by a party which left Cape Evans on 26 December , but neither Meares nor anyone else transported the missing rations or the dog food to One Ton Depot .
= = = Atkinson 's aborted journey to meet Scott = = =
When Atkinson arrived back at Cape Evans from the Beardmore Glacier at the end of January , he was the senior officer present and thus in command of the base camp , a role to which he was not accustomed . Terra Nova arrived from her winter mooring in New Zealand on 9 February , and instead of setting off for Scott , Atkinson used the shore party for the arduous task of unloading the ship – a mistake , Cherry @-@ Garrard thought , since these men might be required to sledge again . Belatedly , on 13 February , Atkinson set out with Dimitri Gerov and the dog teams for the scheduled meeting with Scott on the Barrier , arriving and pausing at Hut Point on 19 February .
Meanwhile , however , during the final returning party 's journey , Lt Evans had become seriously ill with scurvy . After One Ton Depot he was unable to march , and was carried on the sledge by Crean and Lashly to a point 35 miles ( 56 km ) south of Hut Point . At that point he appeared likely to die . On 18 February , Crean walked on alone to reach Hut Point ( covering 35 miles of difficult terrain in only 18 hours ) , where he found Atkinson and Dimitri with their dogs , pausing in their journey to meet Scott . Atkinson diverted his attention to the rescue of Evans , whom he brought to Hut Point , barely alive , on 22 February . From that point , Atkinson 's priority was to bring Evans to the safety of the ship .
= = = Cherry @-@ Garrard 's journey to One Ton Depot = = =
With Atkinson thus occupied , an alternative arrangement to pick up Scott was necessary . Disregarding Meares , who was " not available for work " , the most qualified person available to meet Scott 's party was the physicist Wright , an experienced traveller and navigator , but the chief scientist Simpson insisted Wright 's scientific work be given priority . Atkinson therefore chose Cherry @-@ Garrard , who could however not navigate , had never handled a dog before and who was moreover short @-@ sighted . Lt Evans wrote later that he thought Scott would have approved the decision to keep Wright at the base camp , whereas Wright later stated " It always worries me - I should have had that job " . Cherry @-@ Garrard would be accompanied by Dimitri . In his 1922 book The Worst Journey , Cherry @-@ Garrard recalled the controversial verbal orders given by Atkinson . He was to travel to One Ton Depot as fast as possible , where he was to leave food for the returning polar party . If Scott had not arrived before him , Cherry @-@ Garrard should decide " what to do " . Atkinson also emphasised that this was not a rescue party , and added that Scott had given instructions that the dogs were " not to be risked in view of the sledging plans for next season " . In the standard edition of his book , Cherry omitted any mention of Scott 's request to be picked up at 82 ° or 82 ° 30 ' on March 1 . But after Atkinson 's and Lady Scott 's deaths in 1929 and 1947 respectively , in a postscript to his privately published 1948 edition , Cherry acknowledged the existence of Scott 's order and provided reasons why Atkinson , and later he himself , failed to comply : Cherry @-@ Garrard in 1948 stated that Atkinson was too exhausted at the beginning of February to set off to meet Scott , and that the lack of dog food at One Ton Depot made a timely start impractical . Karen May of the Scott Polar Research Institute goes further by suggesting that the instruction about saving the dogs for the following season was Atkinson 's own invention .
Cherry @-@ Garrard left Hut Point with Dimitri and two dog teams on 26 February , arriving at One Ton on 4 March and depositing the extra rations . Scott was not there . With supplies for themselves and the dogs for 24 days , they had about eight days ' time before having to return to Hut Point . The alternative to waiting was moving southwards for another four days . Any travel beyond that , in the absence of the dog food depot , would mean killing dogs for dog food as they went along , thus breaching Atkinson 's " not to be risked " order . Cherry @-@ Garrard argued that the weather was too poor for further travel , with daytime temperatures as low as − 37 ° F ( − 38 ° C ) , and that he might miss Scott if leaving the depot , and thus decided to wait for Scott . On 10 March , in worsening weather , with his own supplies dwindling , Cherry @-@ Garrard turned for home . Meanwhile , Scott 's team were fighting for their lives less than 70 miles ( 110 km ) away . Atkinson would later write , " I am satisfied that no other officer of the expedition could have done better " . Cherry @-@ Garrard was troubled for the rest of his life by thoughts that he might have taken other actions that could have saved the polar party .
= = = Atkinson 's final relief effort = = =
When Cherry @-@ Garrard returned from One Ton Depot without Scott 's party , anxieties rose . Atkinson , now in charge at Cape Evans as the senior naval officer present , decided to make another attempt to reach the polar party when the weather permitted , and on 26 March set out with Keohane , man @-@ hauling a sledge containing 18 days ' provisions . In very low temperatures ( − 40 ° F , − 40 ° C ) they had reached Corner Camp by 30 March , when , in Atkinson 's view , the weather , the cold and the time of year made further progress south impossible . Atkinson recorded , " In my own mind I was morally certain that the [ polar ] party had perished " .
= = Search party , October 1912 = =
The remaining expedition members still at Cape Evans waited through the winter , continuing their scientific work . In the spring Atkinson had to consider whether efforts should first be directed to the rescue of Campbell 's party , or to establishing if possible the fate of the polar party . A meeting of the whole group decided that they should first search for signs of Scott . The party set out on 29 October , accompanied by a team of mules that had been landed from the Terra Nova during its resupply visit the previous summer . On 12 November the party found the tent containing the frozen bodies of Scott , Wilson and Bowers , 11 miles ( 18 km ) south of One Ton Depot . Atkinson read the relevant portions of Scott 's diaries , and the nature of the disaster was revealed . After diaries , personal effects and records had been collected , the tent was collapsed over the bodies and a cairn of snow erected , topped by a cross fashioned from Gran 's skis . The party searched further south for Oates 's body , but found only his sleeping bag . On 15 November , they raised a cairn near to where they believed he had died .
On returning to Hut Point on 25 November the search party found that Campbell 's Northern Party had rescued itself and had returned safely to base .
Early in the morning of 10 February 1913 Dr Edward Atkinson and Lieutenant Harry Pennell rowed into the New Zealand port of Oamaru , from where they sent a coded message back to the expedition 's New Zealand agent , Joseph Kinsey , informing him of the fate of Scott and his party . Atkinson and Pennell then boarded a train to meet the Terra Nova in Lyttelton near Christchurch .
= = Aftermath = =
As Campbell was now the senior Naval officer of the expedition , he assumed command for its final weeks , until the arrival of Terra Nova on 18 January 1913 . Before the final departure a large wooden cross was erected on the slopes of Observation Hill , overlooking Hut Point , inscribed with the five names of the dead and a quotation from Tennyson 's Ulysses : " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " .
The loss of Scott and his party overshadowed all else in the British public 's mind , including Amundsen 's feat in being first at the Pole . For many years the image of Scott as a tragic hero , beyond reproach , remained virtually unchallenged , for although there were rifts among some who were close to the expedition , including relatives of those who died , this disharmony was not public . There was no real change in public perceptions until the 1970s , by which time nearly all those directly concerned with the expedition were dead .
Controversy was ignited with the publication of Roland Huntford 's book Scott and Amundsen ( 1979 , re @-@ published and televised in 1985 as The Last Place on Earth ) . Huntford was critical of Scott 's supposedly authoritarian leadership style and of his poor judgment of men , and blamed him for a series of organisational failures that led to the death of everyone in the polar party . Scott 's personal standing suffered from these attacks ; efforts to restore his reputation have included the account by Ranulph Fiennes ( a direct rebuttal of Huntford 's version ) , Susan Solomon 's scientific analysis of the weather conditions that ultimately defeated Scott , David Cranes 's 2005 biography of Scott , and Karen May 's new analysis of Scott 's disobeyed orders specifying that the dog teams transport his returning party swiftly back to the base camp .
In comparing the achievements of Scott and Amundsen , most polar historians generally accept that Amundsen 's skills with ski and dogs , his general familiarity with ice conditions , and his clear focus on a non @-@ scientific expedition gave him considerable advantages in the race for the Pole . Scott 's verdict on the disaster that overtook his party , written when he was close to death , lists the initial loss of pony transport , weather conditions , " a shortage of fuel in our depots for which I cannot account " , and the sickening of Evans and Oates , but ultimately Scott concludes that " our wreck is certainly due to this sudden advent of severe weather [ ... ] on the Barrier [ ... ] − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) in the day , − 47 ° F ( − 44 ° C ) at night " . Presumably with regard to the failed rendez @-@ vous with the dog teams requested for 1 March 1912 , Scott furthermore wrote " No @-@ one is to blame and I hope no attempt will be made to suggest that we have lacked support " . Cherry @-@ Garrard , whom Atkinson placed in charge of the dog teams which started late , failed to meet Scott and turned for home , observes that " the whole business simply bristles with ' ifs ' " ; an accumulation of decisions and circumstances that might have fallen differently ultimately led to catastrophe . But " we were as wise as anyone can be before the event . "
Thirty @-@ one years later , after suffering irreversible damage while carrying supplies to base stations in Greenland , the SS Terra Nova was set on fire and later sunk by gunfire off the southern coast of Greenland on 13 September 1943 , at 60 ° 15 ′ 15 ″ N , 45 ° 55 ′ 45 ″ W. Its submerged remains were found in 2012 .
= James E. Boyd ( scientist ) =
James Emory " Jim " Boyd ( July 18 , 1906 – February 18 , 1998 ) was an American physicist , mathematician , and academic administrator . He was director of the Georgia Tech Research Institute from 1957 to 1961 , president of West Georgia College ( now the University of West Georgia ) from 1961 to 1971 , and acting president of the Georgia Institute of Technology from 1971 to 1972 .
A graduate of the University of Georgia and Duke University , Boyd began in academia as a professor of physics at West Georgia College . He then became a professor at Georgia Tech and a prominent researcher at the Engineering Experiment Station , now known as the Georgia Tech Research Institute . At the Engineering Experiment Station , Boyd helped spur the organization 's mainstay : federally funded electronics research and development . Along with fellow Georgia Tech researchers Gerald Rosselot and Glen P. Robinson , Boyd was influential in the founding of Scientific Atlanta , where he was a board member for 25 years . As director of the Engineering Experiment Station , Boyd focused on the recruitment of talented engineers and an increase in physical space available to the organization , including the establishment of nuclear research at Georgia Tech with a radioisotopes laboratory and the construction of the Frank H. Neely Research Reactor .
While he was the third president of West Georgia College , Boyd increased faculty , degrees , programs , and both undergraduate and graduate enrollment on the campus . Boyd racially integrated the campus in 1963 , unprompted by a court order , and oversaw immense construction projects that dramatically expanded the campus to support the increased ( and future ) enrollment . Hired away to serve as the University System of Georgia 's Vice Chancellor for Academic Development in 1970 , he was almost immediately reassigned to be Georgia Tech 's interim president . During his tenure at Georgia Tech from 1971 to 1972 , Boyd resolved difficult issues in the attempted takeover of the Engineering Experiment Station by previous Georgia Tech president Arthur G. Hansen and the poor performance of ( and corresponding alumni calls to remove ) head football coach Bud Carson .
= = Early career = =
= = = Education = = =
Boyd was born to Emory Fortson and Rosa Lee ( née Wright ) Boyd on July 18 , 1906 in Tignall , Georgia , a small town near the eastern border of the state of Georgia . He had two brothers , John and Ellis , and a sister , Sophia . In 1927 , he received a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from the University of Georgia , where he was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society . In 1928 , he received a Master of Arts in mathematics from Duke University . From 1928 to 1930 , Boyd was an instructor of physics at the University of Georgia . He entered graduate school at Yale University in 1930 , and was a graduate assistant there from 1930 – 1931 and a Loomis Fellow from 1931 – 1933 . He received his PhD in physics from Yale in 1933 , with a thesis entitled Scattering of X @-@ Rays by Cold @-@ Worked and by Annealed Beryllium . In his thesis , Boyd described the effects of reflecting radiation through samples of powdered , cold @-@ worked and annealed beryllium with differing particle sizes . The experiment showed that beryllium crystals are " rather imperfect " , that annealing caused " no appreciable change " in beryllium 's lattice structure , and that the mass absorption coefficient of beryllium found in the experiment was reasonably close to the theoretical value calculated using Compton 's empirical formula .
Boyd was appointed as head of the Mathematics and Science Department at West Georgia College in 1933 . In 1935 , he joined the faculty at the Georgia Institute of Technology as an assistant professor of physics . Boyd married Elizabeth Reynolds Cobb , daughter of Betty Reynolds Cobb and Hiram Felix Cobb , on June 2 , 1934 . James and Elizabeth went on to have two children : a daughter , Betty Cobb Boyd ( born August 26 , 1939 ) and a son , James Fortson Boyd ( born October 9 , 1942 ) . With World War II under way , Boyd joined the United States Navy in 1942 , serving as a lieutenant and later lieutenant commander in the Bureau of Ordnance , performing research on radar . From 1945 to 1946 , he was a commander in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations where he worked on radar and electronics .
= = = Researcher and entrepreneur = = =
In 1946 , Boyd returned to Georgia Tech 's physics department and its Engineering Experiment Station , where he worked as Assistant Project Director under Frank Lawrence ( and , after Lawrence 's departure , as Project Director ) on an Army Air Corps @-@ sponsored project studying microwave propagation . As part of the project , he conducted long @-@ range line @-@ of @-@ sight experiments between Georgia Tech and Mount Oglethorpe in North Georgia . In 1947 , Boyd co @-@ authored a study entitled Propagation Studies of Electromagnetic Waves , which resulted in a series of related research contracts , including a large one obtained from the Navy Bureau of Ordnance on radar @-@ directed fire control . Boyd was promoted to professor of physics in 1948 . Around 1950 , under the authority of his rank of commander in the U.S. Navy Reserve , Boyd created a U.S. Navy Research Reserve Unit at Georgia Tech that included officers from both Georgia Tech and the Atlanta metropolitan area . In the 1950s , Boyd was promoted to captain and ran this unit until his departure from Georgia Tech .
In 1950 , Boyd was named the first head of the newly created Physics Division of the Engineering Experiment Station ( now known as the Georgia Tech Research Institute ) . Boyd recruited his former student Glen P. Robinson to the station . In late 1951 , Robinson , station director Gerald Rosselot and Boyd helped start Scientific Associates ( now Scientific Atlanta , part of Cisco ) with $ 700 in seed money to produce and market antenna products that were developed at the station , as the station 's leadership did not think Georgia Tech should be involved in the manufacturing business . Georgia Tech vice president Cherry Emerson believed that EES employees ' affiliation with Scientific Atlanta constituted a conflict of interest and asked Boyd , Rosselot , and Robinson to choose between the two organizations . Boyd resigned from his post at Scientific Atlanta and remained with Georgia Tech , but chose to retain his position on Scientific Atlanta 's Board of Directors . According to Robinson , " Dr. Boyd is really considered the founder of Scientific Atlanta . "
= = Administrator = =
= = = Experiment Station director = = =
Boyd was promoted to Assistant Director of Research at the Engineering Experiment Station in 1954 . He served as director of the station from July 1 , 1957 , until 1961 . While at Georgia Tech , Boyd wrote an influential article about the role of research centers at institutes of technology , which argued that research should be integrated with education ; Boyd applied this by involving undergraduates in his day @-@ to @-@ day research . Boyd was known for his recruitment of faculty capable of both teaching and performing notable research . He was influential enough to be able to override the wishes of Joseph Howey , director of the School of Physics , on occasion : for example , Boyd successfully hired physicist Earl W. McDaniel in 1954 over Howey 's determined opposition .
Under Boyd 's purview , the Engineering Experiment Station was awarded many electronics @-@ related contracts , to the extent that an Electronics Division was created in 1959 ; it focused on radar and communications . In 1955 , Georgia Tech president Blake R. Van Leer appointed Boyd to Georgia Tech 's Nuclear Science Committee . The committee recommended the creation of a Radioisotopes Laboratory Facility and the construction of a large research reactor . The former was built and dedicated on January 7 , 1959 , and could receive , store , and process radioactive materials . The Frank H. Neely Research Reactor was completed in 1963 and was operational until 1996 , when the fuel was removed because of safety concerns related to the nearby 1996 Summer Olympics events . In 1961 , Boyd was succeeded in the directorship by Robert E. Stiemke , who had previously been the director of Georgia Tech 's School of Civil Engineering .
= = = West Georgia College president = = =
Boyd became the third President of West Georgia College in 1961 after William H. Row died of a heart attack . Boyd is most known for his peaceful racial integration of the campus ( without waiting for a court order ) in 1963 by inviting a young black woman , Lillian Williams , to attend the college ; she eventually earned two degrees in education and in 1985 received the college 's highest honor , the Founder 's Award . In May 1964 , Boyd invited Robert F. Kennedy to the dedication of the campus chapel as the Kennedy Chapel , which was named after Robert 's brother , U.S. President John F. Kennedy , who had been assassinated in November 1963 . During his visit , Robert Kennedy promoted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which was then under debate in the United States Senate .
Boyd dramatically expanded the college during his tenure , both in terms of headcount and academic diversity . Enrolment grew from 1 @,@ 089 students upon his arrival in 1961 to 5 @,@ 503 students on his departure in 1971 . In 1959 , there were two degrees and five programs available ; in 1969 – 70 there were seven degrees and 45 programs . There were 94 graduate students in 1961 ; the first master 's programs were offered in 1967 , and by 1969 the number of graduate students had risen to 741 . In 1969 alone , 80 new faculty members were hired , a number larger than the total number of faculty members a decade earlier . Several new buildings were constructed , including nine dormitories and five academic buildings . Policy changes occurred as well : in 1966 , the curfew for junior and senior women was abolished , and fraternities and sororities were allowed on campus . In 1970 , Boyd was named the University System of Georgia 's first vice chancellor for academic development , effective once his successor ( Emory graduate Ward B. Pafford ) was appointed in 1971 .
= = Georgia Tech president = =
In a little under a month after Boyd had assumed the vice chancellorship , then @-@ Georgia Tech president Arthur G. Hansen resigned . Chancellor George L. Simpson appointed Boyd as Acting President of the Georgia Institute of Technology , a post he held from May 1971 to March 1972 .
= = = Engineering Experiment Station = = =
Simpson 's selection of Boyd as interim president was influenced by Boyd 's previous experience as an academic administrator , his experience as director of the Engineering Experiment Station , and Boyd 's ongoing position on the station 's board of directors . The chancellor hoped this combination would help resolve a brewing controversy over whether the Engineering Experiment Station should be integrated into Georgia Tech 's academic units to improve both entities ' competitiveness for federal money . The station had sizable and growing support from the state of Georgia and its Industrial Development Council , which developed products and methods and provided technical assistance for Georgia industry . However , due in part to efforts made by Boyd and previous station director Gerald Rosselot , the station increasingly relied on electronics research funding from the federal government . In 1971 , funding to both Georgia Tech 's academic units and the Experiment Station began to suffer due to a combination of a sharp decline in state funds and cuts to federal science , research , and education funding after the end of the Space Race funding boom . Similar institutions , such as the Battelle Memorial Institute , Stanford Research Institute , and the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute had weathered this storm by becoming exceedingly good at obtaining research contracts .
Boyd 's predecessor Arthur G. Hansen 's " bold and controversial " solution to both entities ' problems was to completely integrate the station into Georgia Tech 's academic units . On paper , this would dramatically increase Georgia Tech 's stated research funding ( as all of it would be performed through the academic units ) , and it would increase options and financial aid for graduate students . Another , less publicized , reason was that Georgia Tech would gain access to the contract organization 's reserve fund , which was said to be over $ 1 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 1 million in 2015 ) . Thomas E. Stelson , Dean of the College of Engineering at Georgia Tech , was named to " reorganize " the station . Publicly , Stelson 's task was simply to recommend a plan for reorganization , but the administration clearly intended for Georgia Tech and the Engineering Experiment Station to be closely integrated . Maurice W. Long , who was director of the station at the time , viewed the move as a violation of the EES 's charter as legislatively established by the Georgia General Assembly in 1919 , and asserted that Georgia Tech did not have the authority to merge the two institutions . EES employees and business executives involved with the station appealed to the Georgia Board of Regents and to Governor of Georgia ( and future United States President ) Jimmy Carter ( himself a Georgia Tech alumnus ) ; the controversy received coverage in both The Technique and the Atlanta Constitution .
This was the climate into which Boyd entered as interim institute president after Hansen had announced , on April 27 , 1971 , that he would be departing Georgia Tech to become president of Purdue University on July 1 of that year . Boyd stopped the plan for absolute absorption of the station , but did allow plans for closer control and more aggressive contract solicitation to proceed . Among these measures were increased resource @-@ sharing , including increased sharing of physical assets and research staff . The latter was evidenced by the increase in joint faculty appointments between the EES and Georgia Tech . The move paid off , and the fiscal year 1970 – 1971 saw EES win new contracts and grants , totaling a record $ 5 @.@ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 30 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) .
= = = Athletic Association = = =
Boyd had to deal with intense public pressure to fire the then Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football coach , Bud Carson . Georgia Tech alumni – accustomed to success under football legends John Heisman ( whose career wins – losses – draws statistics were 185 – 70 – 17 ) , William A. Alexander ( 134 – 95 – 15 ) and Bobby Dodd ( 165 – 64 – 8 ) – made repeated calls for Carson 's dismissal . The complaints were based on a long list of infractions , including " mistreating and humiliating students " and " unsportsmanlike conduct " , but the most important issue was his 27 – 27 record . The last straw was his 6 – 6 season in 1971 , which included both a loss to Georgia Tech 's longtime rival , the Georgia Bulldogs , and to the Mississippi State Bulldogs in the 1971 Peach Bowl . As institute president , Boyd chaired the Board of Directors of the Georgia Tech Athletic Association , which had been suffering both in win percentage and in finances .
Traditional sources of Athletic Association income , primarily ticket sales , had declined as a result of both the Yellow Jackets ' poor record and the relatively recent establishment of professional football in Atlanta , namely the Atlanta Falcons . Bobby Dodd , then athletic director , had warned for years that Georgia Tech 's rising academic standards and its limited curriculum would affect the athletic program . At a meeting on January 8 , 1972 , the Athletic Association board , led by Boyd , ignored a 42 @-@ page list of " charges " drafted by an alumnus , but nevertheless voted to not renew Carson 's contract , making him the first Georgia Tech coach to be fired . The board also voted to not accept Bobby Dodd 's resignation , which had been offered at the meeting . Carson went on to have a successful career , particularly with the Pittsburgh Steelers . On January 21 , 1972 , Boyd announced that Bill Fulcher had been selected as the new football head coach . This would not change the Georgia Tech Athletic Association 's fortunes , however ; after Carson 's departure , the on @-@ field and financial problems remained .
= = Retirement and legacy = =
Joseph M. Pettit was selected as the next president of Georgia Tech in March 1972 , after which Boyd returned to his position as vice chancellor for academic development for the University System of Georgia . Boyd retired from professional life in 1974 . Upon retirement , he was named an honorary member of Georgia Tech 's ANAK Society .
In 1997 , the Georgia Board of Regents approved the naming and dedication of the math and physics building at the University of West Georgia as the " James E. Boyd Building " . Two scholarships were created in his honor at the University of West Georgia ; one for the top geology student , and one for a graduate of Bremen High School . Boyd died at the age of 91 on February 18 , 1998 , at his home in Carrollton , Georgia . The funeral was on February 20 , 1998 , at St. Margaret 's Episcopal Church in Carrollton , Georgia , and he was interred at Carrollton City Cemetery , Georgia .
= U.S. Route 40 Scenic =
U.S. Route 40 Scenic ( US 40 Scenic ) is a scenic route of US 40 in the U.S. state of Maryland . US 40 Scenic , which is known for most of its route as National Pike , is the old alignment of US 40 over Town Hill in eastern Allegany County and Sideling Hill in far western Washington County . The highway was originally constructed as part of a turnpike connecting Baltimore with the eastern end of the National Road at Cumberland in the early 19th century . The highway was paved as a modern road in the mid @-@ 1910s and designated US 40 in the late 1920s . US 40 was relocated over Sideling Hill in the early 1950s and over Town Hill in the mid @-@ 1960s . The US 40 Scenic designation was first applied to the old highway over Town Hill in 1965 . Following the completion of Interstate 68 ( I @-@ 68 ) at Sideling Hill , US 40 Scenic was extended east along old US 40 's crossing of the mountain in the late 1980s . US 40 Scenic is the only scenic route in the U.S. Highway System ; formerly , there was a second , US 412 Scenic in Oklahoma , but this has since been redesignated to a more conventional " Alternate " route .
The scenic route includes an officially @-@ referenced and fully state @-@ maintained section that runs 9 @.@ 50 miles ( 15 @.@ 29 km ) from Fifteen Mile Creek Road in Green Ridge State Forest near Exit 62 of I @-@ 68 and US 40 to the Washington County line within eastern Allegany County . US 40 Scenic also includes an unofficial but signed section in western Washington County that has a concurrency with I @-@ 68 and has sections maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration and Washington County . The solely signed section runs from the official section at High Germany Road near I @-@ 68 Exit 72 just west of the Allegany – Washington county line east to MD 144 near I @-@ 68 Exit 77 west of Hancock . The signed section between Fifteen Mile Creek Road and MD 144 is 16 @.@ 1 miles ( 25 @.@ 9 km ) eastbound and 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) westbound . The difference in mileage is due to the westbound scenic route following Mountain Road , which is unsigned MD 903 , to its entrance to I @-@ 68 .
= = Route description = =
US 40 Scenic begins as Fifteen Mile Creek Road on the edge of Green Ridge State Forest 0 @.@ 05 miles ( 0 @.@ 080 km ) south of the eastbound ramps for Exit 62 of I @-@ 68 and US 40 ( National Freeway ) . Fifteen Mile Creek Road continues south as an unimproved road through Green Ridge State Forest . US 40 Scenic passes over I @-@ 68 and passes by the westbound Exit 62 ramps before intersecting the eastern end of MD 144 ( Old National Pike ) , which heads west as the local complement to the National Freeway . The scenic route continues as National Pike , crosses Fifteenmile Creek , then makes a sharp curve to the east , intersecting another section of Fifteen Mile Creek Road and beginning the short climb to the top of Green Ridge . After a short descent , the highway begins its curvy ascent of Town Hill , which has no climbing lanes . US 40 Scenic , which passes through the Billmeyer Wildlife Management Area , descends the mountain to the community of Piney Grove , where the highway intersects Orleans Road . At Mann Road , the highway turns south to cross over I @-@ 68 . The scenic route turns east again at Turkey Farm Road and parallels the eastbound side of I @-@ 68 until the highway reaches High Germany Road , which is unsigned MD 948Y , in the hamlet of Bellegrove .
The referenced portion of US 40 Scenic continues east to its official terminus at Sideling Hill Creek at the Washington County line . Signed US 40 Scenic turns north onto High Germany Road and joins I @-@ 68 in a concurrency at Exit 72 . The scenic route crosses Sideling Hill Creek into Washington County and begins its ascent of Sideling Hill on I @-@ 68 . US 40 Scenic exits I @-@ 68 at Exit 74 , a partial interchange ( eastbound exit and westbound entrance ) on the western slope of the mountain . Eastbound US 40 Scenic exits the freeway on a sweeping curve ramp that ends at the southern end of Mountain Road . Mountain Road is a two @-@ lane road that heads north as a state highway , signed as US 40 Scenic west and unsigned as 0 @.@ 91 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 46 km ) long MD 903 . MD 903 's northern terminus is at US 40 Scenic 's ramp onto westbound I @-@ 68 .
US 40 Scenic continues south as National Pike from the junction of its two directions as a county @-@ maintained , three @-@ lane road , two lanes eastbound and one lane westbound , ascending Sideling Hill . During the climb , the scenic route intersects McFarland Road , the original alignment of US 40 that heads west to the official eastern terminus of US 40 Scenic . As US 40 Scenic approaches the top of Sideling Hill , the eastbound climbing lane ends . The scenic route makes a hairpin turn to the north and begins to descend the mountain , again a three @-@ lane road but with two lanes westbound . US 40 Scenic curves to the east and then to the southeast , paralleling and gradually approaching I @-@ 68 . The westbound climbing lane ends just west of the scenic route 's eastern terminus at MD 144 ( Western Pike ) just south of I @-@ 68 Exit 77 .
= = History = =
US 40 Scenic is the old alignment of US 40 over Town Hill and Sideling Hill , two of the many north – south ridges of the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians between Cumberland and Hancock that needed to be crossed first by the Baltimore and Cumberland Turnpike , then US 40 , and most recently I @-@ 68 . The portion of US 40 Scenic from its western terminus over Town Hill to Sideling Hill Creek follows the original alignment of the turnpike and US 40 except for deviations at both ends due to construction of the new alignments of US 40 and I @-@ 68 . The Baltimore and Cumberland Turnpike and later US 40 rose abruptly from Sideling Hill Creek to climb the west flank of Sideling Hill , following what is today McFarland Road east , turning south at Hixon Road , and continuing south along the same line , now abandoned , to join the present line at the top of the mountain . On the east flank , the old road began along the current alignment , then turned east a short distance south of the present curve to the east for a steeper descent that followed Western Pike before joining the present alignment a short distance west of MD 144 .
The original state road between Cumberland and Hancock was paved from Fifteen Mile Creek to Green Ridge in 1913 , Green Ridge to Sideling Hill Creek in 1915 , and from Sideling Hill Creek to the modern MD 144 junction in 1914 . Early improvements to the state road included a new bridge over Fifteen Mile Creek in 1917 , a new bridge over Sideling Hill Creek in 1925 , and the modification of a nasty curve just east of the new Sideling Creek Bridge at the same time . The road became part of US 40 in 1927 . The highway was widened and curves banked and modified in 1929 and 1930 as part of improvements over 47 miles ( 76 km ) of US 40 between Cumberland and Hagerstown . Passing lanes 800 to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 240 to 300 m ) in length were added on Sideling Hill around 1942 .
Despite the improvements , Sideling Hill remained a formidable obstacle to traffic between Cumberland and Hancock until a construction project began in 1949 to build a new highway over the mountain . US 40 was relocated for 6 @.@ 94 miles ( 11 @.@ 17 km ) from just west of Sideling Hill Creek east over the mountain to just west of the modern MD 144 intersection . The relocation involved a box culvert over Little Bear Creek and a high level bridge over Sideling Hill Creek . The new roadway was held to a maximum gradient of 6 percent and had a third climbing lane for 90 percent of the length of the relocation . By the time the project was completed in 1952 , over 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 990 @,@ 000 m3 ) of earth had been excavated .
US 40 Scenic was assigned to old US 40 from Fifteen Mile Creek Road over Town Hill to the Mann Road intersection when US 40 was moved to its and I @-@ 68 's present alignment over Town Hill in 1965 . US 40 was expanded to a divided highway and moved to a new alignment from High Germany Road to the sweeping curve that is now Exit 74 in 1983 . The section of old US 40 from the 1949 – 1952 Sideling Hill relocation immediately around Sideling Hill Creek was dismantled . The upgraded US 40 became a part of I @-@ 68 that passes through a cut in Sideling Hill around 1987 . The old alignment over Sideling Hill was transferred to county maintenance and designated US 40 Scenic around 1989 . However , US 40 Scenic temporarily followed the old McFarland Road alignment of US 40 on the west side of Sideling Hill until the completion of Exit 74 in 1991 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire officially referenced portion of US 40 Scenic is in a sparsely @-@ populated area of eastern Allegany County .
= Hermes o Logios =
Hermes o Logios , also known as Logios Ermis ( Greek : Ἑρμῆς ὁ Λόγιος , " Hermes the Scholar " ) was a Greek periodical printed in Vienna , Austria , from 1811 to 1821 . It is regarded as the most significant and longest running periodical of the period prior to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence , containing contributions by key scholars and intellectuals . Hermes o Logios aimed at creating intellectual contacts between the Greek communities of the Ottoman Empire and the Diaspora in Western Europe , as well as the preparing national awakening of the Greek people .
The periodical started its circulation after a proposal by Adamantios Korais , a leading figure of the modern Greek Enlightenment , who had stressed the need of a printed medium , written in vernacular Greek . This initiative was supported by the Philological Society in Bucharest , an organization consisting of Greek
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intellectuals . Hermes o Logios reflected the style of other European periodicals of early 19th century and reviewed developments in arts and sciences , being an important channel for bringing contemporary intellectual movements to the attention of the Greeks that lived in the Ottoman Empire . It was closed down by the Austrian authorities when the Greek War of Independence broke out .
= = Background = =
During the 18th century the ideals of the Western European Enlightenment and the French Revolution became widely known to the Greek scholars . They soon realized the potential of these new ideals , and especially of popular freedom and sovereignty for their own national struggle against Ottoman rule . Adamantios Korais , a humanist scholar and leading figure of the modern Greek Enlightenment , had stressed the desirability of a printed medium , written in the vernacular language , in order to spread these ideas to the Greek people , that lived in the Ottoman Empire and the Diaspora in Western Europe as well . Korais explained about the necessity of a periodical that would gather material from political and philological newspapers of the enlightened peoples of Europe and contain reports from Ottoman @-@ ruled Greece . He also stressed that this should be edited by a man of learning , and proposed that his friend Anthimos Gazis , scholar and Orthodox priest in Vienna , would be the most suitable person .
Vienna became the right place for such an initiative , since it was already the most important publishing centre for the Greek diaspora . In 1783 the Austrian Emperor had authorized the free printing of Greek books in the city , while in 1790 the first Greek newspaper , named Ephimeris , was published there .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment ( 1811 – 1813 ) = = =
Hermes o Logios was established with the support of the Philological Society in Bucharest , an organization consisting of Greek intellectuals headed by the local Greek Orthodox Bishop , Ignatios II . The Society ’ s goals , as published in the first issue of the periodical , were " the awakening to the progress of learning " and " the cultivation of the newer Greek language " . Apart from Hermes o Logios , the Society supervised also a Greek @-@ language school , financed translations of schoolbooks into modern Greek and provided scholarships for students to study abroad . Ignatios has already stated the need for a philological newspaper , in which each man of learning could publish his ideas , adding that " This is what the wise man Korais advises us to do and he has wisely chosen a worthy man , archimandrite Anthimos Gazis " . The members of the Society then all agreed to cover part of the printing expenses .
The first issue of Hermes o Logios was published on January 1 , 1811 , under the full title Ἑρμῆς ὁ Λόγιος , ἥ Φιλολογικαί Ἀγγελίαι ( Hermes the Scholar , or Philological Reports ) . In the first three years of its existence ( 1811 – 1813 ) , Hermes o Logios appeared twice a month and each issue usually consisted of 16 pages . In April 1813 , Anthimos Gazis left Vienna and the editorship of the periodical was taken over by Theoklitos Farmakidis , another priest and an even more fanatical supporter of Korais .
= = = Crisis and revival ( 1814 – 1820 ) = = =
Hermes o Logios faced serious financial problems during this period . When the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1806 – 1812 ended , Ignatios was forced to resign and leave Bucharest and its main sponsor , the Philological Society , ceased to exist . In an announcement published as an appendix to the issues of 1813 ( dated April 1 , 1813 ) , Alexandros Vasileiou , a supporter of Korais and influential personality within the Greek community of Vienna , states this fact , as well as that the periodical had too few subscribers . He therefore called on all readers to canvass for new subscribers ; moreover he called upon all scholars to send in their contributions .
During the period 1814 – 1815 , Hermes o Logios reached an absolute low , with seven issues in 1814 and only one in 1815 , which consisted of 16 pages written by Korais and directed against his ideological adversary , the conservative scholar , Neophytos Doukas . On the other hand , Gazis returned . In the following years , however , the periodical was subsidized by the princes of Moldavia , Scarlat Callimachi and Michael Soutzos . Apart from the difficulties faced , 1816 was a turning point , as two scholars and adherents of Korais , Theoklitos Farmakidis and Konstantinos Kokkinakis , were placed in charge . Consequently , Hermes o Logios actually became an outlet for Korais and continued to appear without interruption until the Greek War of Independence .
= = = Outbreak of the Greek War of Independence ( 1821 ) = = =
In 1821 , the year that the War of Independence broke out , nine issues appeared between January and May . There is a special appendix to the issue of April 1 , 1821 , containing a Greek translation of an article dated March 29 , taken from the Wiener Zeitung , which reports on the uprising of Alexandros Ypsilantis and Tudor Vladimirescu in the Danubian Principalities , that marked the beginning of the Greek War of Independence , and also states the official Austrian standpoint . In the issue of May 1 , while Ypsilantis ’ campaign was in full swing , the Austrian authorities required the editors to publish the excommunication issued by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople , Gregory V , against the architects of this uprising . This was the last issue of Hermes o Logios which then was closed down by the local authorities and Kokkinakis was arrested as a member of the patriotic organization Filiki Etaireia .
= = Contents = =
Hermes o Logios is regarded as the most important Greek periodical of the era of modern Greek Enlightenment , also known as Diafotismos . It appeared regularly over a period of ten and a half years and was the longest @-@ running periodical prior to the outbreak of the Revolution . All volumes cover a total of 5131 pages , with texts on various subjects written by 918 contributors .
= = = Arts and sciences = = =
Its primary goal was to inform the Greek @-@ speaking public within the Ottoman Empire and in the diaspora . Moreover , in favouring the views of Adamantios Korais it reflected the style of other European periodicals of that era . It reviewed developments in arts and sciences and was an important channel for bringing contemporary intellectual movements to the attention of the Ottoman @-@ ruled Greeks . Additionally , it reproduced catalogues of European scientific books , and exhorted Greek scholars to translate and publish them , like those of Louis Jacques Thénard . The journal also published comments on astronomical observations , experiments and various articles on natural philosophy , which alternated with articles on history and philosophy . Greek scholars used as sources German or French educational books on physics , or translated and published texts on natural philosophy with large circulations in Europe , like the works of Antoine Fourcroy , René Just Haüy , and Jérôme Lalande .
= = = Possible revolutionary background = = =
Although Hermes o Logios was the most important publication for the transmission of progressive ideas to the Greek people , which should ultimately lead to the emancipation and independence , there was hardly any information of signs of an ongoing revolution , at least on the surface . There was the Austrian censure to be reckoned with , as the reactionary minister Klemens von Metternich and his secret police kept a very close eye on the activities of the local Greek community . The lack of items on politics , polity , law and social structures does not indicate an immanent revolution . Several editors were also members of the patriotic organization Filiki Etaireia and staunch supporters of the struggle for independence , but one can hardly maintain that this fervent patriotism is reflected in the subjects treated inside the periodical . Even in the last years , on the eve of the Greek War of Independence , in the fields of philology , sciences , philanthropy , etc . , nothing out of the ordinary was published . On the other hand , there is no doubt that the contributors of Hermes o Logios dreamed of the liberation of the Greek nation and of an independent state .
= = = Positions in the Greek language question = = =
In respect to the Greek language question , it becomes obvious that from the very beginning Hermes o Logios adhered to Korais ’ views . Korais claimed that the appropriate language for the Greek nation should be a vernacular ( Demotic ) language without foreign words and accepted some views by conservative scholars to retain a tincure of archaism . On the other hand , some of Korais ' opponents , both conservatives and vernacularists , published their own magazines in which they attacked his linguistic views .
= Caffo =
Caffo was a sixth @-@ century Christian in Anglesey , north Wales , who is venerated as a saint and martyr . The son of a king from northern Britain who took shelter in Anglesey , Caffo was a companion of St Cybi , and is mentioned as carrying a red @-@ hot coal in his clothes to Cybi without his clothes getting burnt . After leaving Cybi , Caffo was killed by shepherds in the south of Anglesey , possibly acting in retaliation for insults Caffo 's brother had paid to the local ruler . The area where he died has a village , Llangaffo , named after him , as well as the parish church of St Caffo , Llangaffo .
= = Life and martyrdom = =
Little is known for certain about Caffo ; his dates of birth and death are not given in the sources . He is said to have been one of the sons of St Caw , a king in northern Britain who lost his lands and sought safety with his family in Anglesey ; the ruler Maelgwn Gwynedd gave him land in the north @-@ east of the island , in the district known as Twrcelyn . Other relatives of Caffo included his uncles St Iestyn and St Cyngar ( brothers of Caw ) , his sister St Cwyllog and various brothers including St Gildas ( although the number of his siblings varies from 10 to 21 in different manuscripts ) .
Caffo was a companion and cousin of St Cybi , a Christian from Cornwall who was active in the mid @-@ 6th century . Cybi established himself in Anglesey within a disused Roman fort in what is now called Holyhead : the town 's Welsh name is Caergybi , or " Cybi 's fort " ) . Caffo is mentioned in connection with Cybi in a manuscript written in about 1200 , which contains two accounts of Cybi 's life . Caffo is not mentioned in the accounts of Cybi 's life until an incident when he was sent to fetch fire from a blacksmith . He returned to Cybi carrying a red @-@ hot coal in his clothes , which were not burnt .
At some point , Cybi and Caffo parted company , possibly because of a disagreement between them , but possibly because his brother Gildas had insulted Maelgwn , who then forced Cybi to dismiss Caffo – both versions appear in the manuscript accounts . Thereafter , Caffo moved towards the south of Anglesey , where he was killed by shepherds from the area now called Newborough , perhaps avenging the insult on their king .
= = Commemoration = =
The area of Caffo 's death became known at some point as Llangaffo , and a church was established there : the Welsh word " llan " originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -gaffo " is a modified form of the saint 's name . It is thought that there may have at one point been a monastery in this location , known as " Merthyr Caffo " ( Merthyr being the Welsh word for " martyr " ) . Caffo is venerated as a saint , although he was never canonized by a pope : as the historian Jane Cartwright notes , " In Wales sanctity was locally conferred and none of the medieval Welsh saints appears to have been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church " .
It is uncertain when the name " Llangaffo " was first used or when the first church was established here , but it was before 1254 , when the church and community were recorded in the Norwich Taxation ( a national survey of church names and property ) . There is still a church dedicated to Caffo in the village , used for worship by the Church in Wales .
Caffo is reported to have had a bubbling " holy well " in the area , called Crochan Caffo ( " Caffo 's cauldron " ) or Ffynnon Caffo ( " Caffo 's well " ) . Parents would offer fowls to be eaten by the attendant priest , in order to stop their children from peevishness . A nearby farm is still named after the well , although the well itself has been lost .
= ECW One Night Stand ( 2005 ) =
ECW One Night Stand ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Presented by THQ 's Destroy All Humans ! , it was held on June 12 , 2005 , at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York , New York .
The main event was a tag team match between The Dudley Boyz ( Buh Buh Ray and D @-@ Von Dudley ) and the team of Tommy Dreamer and The Sandman . Two of the matches on the undercard were Chris Benoit versus Eddie Guerrero , and Mike Awesome versus Masato Tanaka .
= = Production = =
Although the build @-@ up for the pay @-@ per @-@ view began in the middle of May , plans were in the works behind the scenes for several months in advance . Tommy Dreamer was in charge of organizing the event and getting ECW Originals to participate . He contacted several people , including The Sandman , Sabu , Justin Credible , and ECW commentator Joey Styles . Reports later stated that Paul Heyman was working with Dreamer to help prepare the event . Other ECW related wrestlers were later added to the pay @-@ per @-@ view . The event was publicly confirmed by WWE through a Dish Network magazine in March 2005 . In an interview with SLAM ! Sports days before One Night Stand , ECW Original Rob Van Dam announced he had asked Vince McMahon about the idea of holding an ECW reunion event .
According to reports , many people backstage were very happy with the way One Night Stand went and many former ECW wrestlers that had worked the pay @-@ per @-@ view described it as a " fun " event . 325 @,@ 000 people bought the event on pay @-@ per @-@ view . Many tried to order it through WWE 's official website , but the website was shut down because not enough bandwidth was available .
WWE adopted One Night Stand as an annual pay @-@ per @-@ view event . The event returned to the Hammerstein Ballroom for ECW One Night Stand 2006 , and the " One Night Stand " name ( dropping the " ECW " name in 2007 ) was used as a yearly pay @-@ per @-@ view until 2009 when its name was changed to WWE Extreme Rules .
= = Background = =
Although many of the individual matches on the One Night Stand card were announced weeks before the pay @-@ per @-@ view occurred , none of them got any build @-@ up on any of WWE 's weekly programs , with WWE choosing to focus on an " invasion " angle , with several Raw and SmackDown ! superstars feuding against wrestlers from the original ECW .
The invasion angle began on the May 9 episode of Raw , when Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff made a statement regarding the pay @-@ per @-@ view , saying that he would " squash ECW like a bug . " The following week , on the May 16 episode of Raw , Tajiri agreed to an Extreme Rules match with Chris Benoit . In the middle of the contest , however , Bischoff came out to stop it , and announced anything related to ECW was banned from Raw . He also vowed to " destroy " ECW with the help of the Raw superstars chosen to compete at the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Bischoff planned an ECW funeral for the May 23 episode of Raw but was interrupted by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon . McMahon spoke of his support for the ECW reunion and his financial interest in bringing back the promotion . Paul Heyman then came out and reminded McMahon that , while Heyman did not own ECW , he still had control of it . Heyman also said that he welcomed Bischoff 's invasion , claiming , " You may light a fire that you can ’ t put out . " and proceeded to light the funeral wreath ablaze . In a rematch from the previous week 's RAW , Benoit defeated Tajiri in an Extreme Rules match after locking in the Crippler Crossface . The following week , Bischoff set up a Tables match between Edge and Benoit . During the match , Benoit attempted a diving headbutt with Edge on a table , but failed after Lita moved Edge off it . At that point , Bischoff sent several Raw superstars to the ring to assault Benoit , with Gene Snitsky booting Benoit in the face and Edge powerbombing Benoit through the table for the victory .
The feud between the RAW superstars and ECW originals also spread over to SmackDown ! . On the May 26 episode of SmackDown ! , Kurt Angle stated that ECW was a low @-@ class promotion , that he would be part of the WWE invasion of One Night Stand , and that he would take SmackDown ! volunteers with him . A week later , Angle asked Tazz to join him in the invasion and on the same episode of SmackDown ! , John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) announced he would be joining Angle in invading the pay @-@ per @-@ view . When Tazz rejected the offer , Angle reacted by assaulting Tazz and leaving him bleeding in the ring .
On the June 6 episode of Raw , Benoit defeated Snitsky in an Extreme Rules match by performing a diving headbutt and pinning him . The ECW Originals made their debut on WWE programming , as Tommy Dreamer , Rhyno , Balls Mahoney , Axl Rotten , The Sandman , and other ECW Originals attacked Bischoff 's Raw invaders , with ECW Originals , The Dudley Boyz , hitting a 3D on Raw invader Maven . Benoit was drafted to SmackDown ! on its June 9 , 2005 episode , and faced JBL in the main event with the ECW Originals at ringside cheering him on . JBL 's Cabinet was also at ringside , as well as Carlito , Matt Morgan and Kurt Angle . After Benoit locked in the Crossface on JBL , Angle interfered and broke the submission hold , resulting in a disqualification and a brawl breaking out between the ECW Originals and WWE Invaders , with ECW coming out on top .
= = Event = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an episode of Extreme Heat aired on Spike TV , showing footage from the build @-@ up to the event . The event started with a speech from ECW commentator Joey Styles , who was greeted with an " ECW " chant . Styles welcomed the fans to One Night Stand before introducing the color commentator for the evening , Mick Foley .
The first match of the event was Lance Storm versus Chris Jericho . Storm was accompanied to the ring by Dawn Marie in what would be his last match before retirement . During the match , a " Chris Candido " chant broke out , a reference to the recently deceased wrestler who was a tag team partner of Lance Storm in ECW . Jericho locked in the Walls of Jericho on Storm , but Marie jumped on the ring apron and distracted the referee . Jason and Justin Credible interfered , with Credible hitting Jericho with a kendo stick . Storm got the pinfall on Jericho for the victory .
A tribute video played next , highlighting the wrestlers from ECW that had died between the promotion 's end in 2001 and One Night Stand . A three @-@ way dance was next , with Tajiri facing Little Guido Maritato and Super Crazy . Tajiri was accompanied to the ring by The Sinister Minister and Mikey Whipwreck , and Guido was accompanied by his fellow F.B.I. members . One of the highlights of the match occurred when Super Crazy hit a moonsault off the balcony onto all the members of the F.B.I. Guido was the first eliminated when Whipwreck hit a Whipper Snapper while the referee was distracted . Tajiri picked up the three count to eliminate Guido . Super Crazy won the match after hitting a moonsault off the top rope onto Tajiri , getting the three @-@ count in the process .
Next came singles Luchador action , as Psychosis faced SmackDown ! superstar and ECW Original Rey Mysterio , Jr . Mysterio won the match at the seven @-@ minute mark after hitting his signature move , the 619 , followed by the West Coast Pop . The two later revealed that they were disappointed with the way their match panned out . After the contest , the SmackDown ! crusaders entered the Hammerstein Ballroom . They consisted of Kurt Angle , JBL and his Cabinet , Carlito and Matt Morgan . The crowd chanted , " You Suck Dick " and " Fuck You SmackDown ! " as they entered the arena . Joel Gertner attempted to interview the invaders , but Angle took the microphone out of his hand and JBL pushed him to the ground . JBL and Angle cut a promo , with the crowd continuing to chant , " You Suck Dick " , to which Angle replied with " Your MOTHER taught me how " . Angle stated , " The last time I was at an ECW event I walked out halfway through because it sucked " . The crowd continued to chant , " Shut the Fuck Up " , while JBL spoke .
Rob Van Dam ( RVD ) and Bill Alfonso interrupted the promo , with RVD stating it had nothing to do with SmackDown ! . RVD claimed that WWE deserved no credit , that the interview was a shoot with no scripts , and that missing One Night Stand was worse than missing WrestleMania . The promo was interrupted when Rhino hit Van Dam with a Gore . Van Dam 's former tag team partner Sabu then appeared following the lights turning off , and had a match with Rhino . Sabu won the match with Van Dam 's help as he hit a Van Daminator on Rhino before Sabu hit the Arabian Skullcrusher on Rhino through the table for the victory .
The Raw crusaders , which included Eric Bischoff , Jonathan Coachman , Edge , Christian , Tyson Tomko , Snitsky , La Résistance and William Regal , entered the building . Chris Benoit versus Eddie Guerrero followed , with Benoit making Guerrero tap out with the Crippler Crossface . During this match , several anti @-@ Lita chants could be heard , including " Lita 's Got Herpes " and " I Fucked Lita " . After the Benoit versus Guerrero match was over , Gertner again tried to interview the crusaders and begged Bischoff for a job . He was not successful , and Bischoff poured his drink over Gertner , saying , " ECW Sucks " .
Mike Awesome versus Masato Tanaka followed , and Joey Styles made comments during the match about Awesome over his controversial departure from ECW . At one point , after Awesome hit a high @-@ flying suicide dive , Styles said , " And it 's a shame he didn 't succeed in taking his own life . " Nearly two years after the match , Awesome committed suicide . Styles has confirmed that this comment , as well as several other comments he made , were actually shoots . He said if the Original ECW was ending he was " going to say whatever the hell I wanted . " Awesome won the match after powerbombing Tanaka through a table on the outside of the ring and followed it with a Suicide Dive , getting the pinfall .
ECW booker Paul Heyman then cut a promo in the ring , with the crowd chanting , " Thank You Paul " and rising for a standing ovation . After thanking several people , including Tod Gordon , Heyman turned his attention to the Raw and SmackDown ! invaders . He first spoke to Eric Bischoff , stating that Bischoff was in " our ( ECW 's ) house " . Heyman turned to Edge and said , " Hide your wives , its Edge " . Heyman shouted at Edge , " Matt ' Freaking ' Hardy " , a reference to his legitimate heat with the wrestler who was not contracted with WWE at the time . A huge " We Want Matt " broke out in the Hammerstein Ballroom . He then commented that the only reason JBL was WWE Champion for a year was because Triple H did not want to work Tuesdays ( a reference to the day SmackDown ! is taped ) .
The Dudley Boyz then faced Tommy Dreamer and The Sandman in the main event . As the match was about to begin , the bWo , a stable consisting of Hollywood Nova , Stevie Richards and The Blue Meanie entered the ring . Kid Kash interfered , and Balls Mahoney and Axl Rotten then came to the ring with steel chairs and took out the bWo . They attacked all three members of the bWo before hitting Nova with a steel chair twice . Styles made a reference to Simon Dean , the character Nova played with WWE , by stating " That 's more painful than being Simon Dean on national TV . " When the match eventually started , it involved trash cans , cheese graters and street signs . The Impact Players interfered , attacking Dreamer and Sandman . Francine , Dreamer 's former manager , entered the ring and delivered a low blow to Dreamer . Dreamer 's other valet and real life wife , Beulah McGillicutty , returned to wrestling for the first time in over seven years , sparking a catfight with Francine . The Dudley Boyz eventually won with the help of Spike Dudley , who had just turned heel . They sent Dreamer through a flaming table with a Powerbomb to get the victory . The Dudleyz attempted to attack McGillicutty before Sandman attacked them with a Singapore cane . Sandman shouted for a beer repeatedly . Stone Cold Steve Austin then made his way to the ring , with the ECW Originals coming out moments later . Austin referenced his time in ECW and then asked the crusaders to come to the ring . A huge brawl occurred , with the Originals fighting the Crusaders . The crowd chanted " We Want Taz " , which brought Taz to the ring and he then locked Kurt Angle in the Tazmission . During the brawl , JBL legitimately attacked Blue Meanie , causing him to bleed . The Originals came out on top , as The Dudley Boyz hit the Dudley Death Drop on the Crusaders ' leader , Benoit hit Bischoff with a diving headbutt and Mysterio hitting the 619 on the Raw General Manager . Austin asked for Bischoff 's thoughts on the event while on the ground , and Bischoff replied , " Fuck ECW " . Austin then hit the Stone Cold Stunner on Bischoff to end the show .
After the show went off the air , the ECW wrestlers left the ring one at a time , but Dreamer stayed in the ring . He bowed to the ECW logo as the crowd chanted , " Thank You Tommy " . The Dudley Boyz came back to the ring and hugged Dreamer , with Bubba Ray saying to Dreamer , " This is all for you " .
= = Results = =
= Number Ones ( video ) =
Number Ones is a video album by American recording artist Michael Jackson . It was released on DVD on November 13 , 2003 under the Epic Records record label , in conjunction with the promotion for Jackson 's greatest hits album , of the same name ( although the album and DVD have different songs ) . The DVD , which is Jackson 's fourth DVD album , contained fifteen music videos , which was directed and produced by various people . It consists of music videos filmed and released by Jackson from 1979 's Off the Wall to 2001 's Invincible . Just like the album , the DVD has four different covers .
Notable music videos included on the DVD were " Beat It " , " Billie Jean " and Thriller — which received heavy rotation on MTV in the 1980s , and are credited as having transformed the music video from a promotional tool and into an art form , and " Black or White " and " Scream " which were also prominent on channels like MTV in the 1990s . Number Ones received praise from contemporary music critics and was commercially successful internationally . The DVD peaked at number one on the Australian Top 40 Music DVD in Australia . Number Ones has been certified twenty two times platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association and is the best selling music DVD ever by a male solo artist in Australia . It is also thirteen times platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = Background = =
In 1972 , while still a member of the band The Jackson 5 , Michael Jackson released his first of what would be ten studio albums , Got to Be There . Four singles were taken from the album , although they were not promoted by music videos , and this pattern continued for his next three studio albums , Ben ( 1972 ) , Music & Me ( 1973 ) and Forever , Michael ( 1975 ) . Unlike in the past , Jackson released his debut music video for the lead single , " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , from his 1979 album , Off the Wall . Jackson subsequently began releasing music videos for his singles to promote both the song itself and the album . His music videos from the 1980s — particularly the music videos for " Billie Jean " and Thriller — received heavy rotation on channels like Music Television ( MTV ) . The popularity of his music videos that aired on MTV , such as " Beat It " , " Billie Jean " and Thriller — credited for transforming the music video from a promotional tool and into an art form — helped bring the relatively new channel to fame . Music videos such as " Black or White " and " Scream " made Jackson an enduring staple on MTV in the 1990s . Due to length , some of Jackson 's music videos are considered to be short films . Some of them drew criticism for their violent and sexual content , others were lauded by critics and awarded Guinness World Records for their length , success and expense . From 1979 to 2003 , Jackson released thirty @-@ six music videos .
= = Content and release = =
Number Ones was released in conjunction with Jackson 's greatest number one hits of the same name on November 18 , 2003 . The DVD was released worldwide on November 13 , 2003 . Number Ones is the fourth DVD album to be released by Jackson , the previous three were Dangerous – The Short Films , Video Greatest Hits – HIStory and HIStory on Film , Volume II . The DVD contained ninety one minutes of music video Jackson had already released from as early as 1979 , to as late as 2001 . This compilation was also released in Asia on double Video CD format .
Music videos from Jackson 's studio albums , which were Off the Wall ( 1979 ) , Thriller ( 1982 ) , Bad ( 1987 ) , Dangerous ( 1991 ) , HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I ( 1995 ) , Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix ( 1997 ) and Invincible ( 2001 ) , were featured on the DVD . The DVD consisted of fifteen music videos , both long and short form versions . " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " ( 1987 ) , " Break of Dawn " ( 2001 ) , the then newly recorded " One More Chance " ( 2003 ) and a live version of " Ben " ( 1972 ) did not make it onto the DVD , while " Blood on the Dance Floor " ( 1997 ) , which was on the DVD , was not on the American version of the album of the same name , same with " Man in the Mirror " for the international version of the album .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial reception = = =
Number Ones peaked at number one the ARIA Top 40 Music DVD chart in Australia . It was ranked at number two , charting behind only Funhouse Tour : Live In Australia by Pink , on the Australian Highest Selling Music DVD chart for 2009 . It also peaked at number three on the Swedish DVD Albums Chart . In Czech Republic , Number Ones peaked at number fourteen on the DVD chart . Number Ones peaked at number three on the Hungarian Top 20 DVD chart . In Italy , Number Ones peaked at number nine on the country 's DVD album chart , as of the first week of May 2010 , it has stayed on the chart for forty five weeks . The DVD album was certified thirteen times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for the sales of over 1 @.@ 3 million units in the United States . Number Ones was also certified twenty two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for the sales of over 330 @,@ 000 units in Australia . Recording Industry Association of Japan certified the DVD gold for the sales of over 100 @,@ 000 units in Japan . For the sales of over 25 @,@ 000 units in Spain , Productores de Música de España gave the album two times platinum certification . Number Ones was also certified six times platinum for the sales of 30 @,@ 000 units in New Zealand , as well as gold by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry for the sales of at least 5 @,@ 000 units in Poland .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Number Ones was generally well received by contemporary music critics . William Ruhlmann , a writer for Allmusic , stated that watching the videos in order made him ' experience ' Jackson 's changing appearance over the year ; noting things such as Jackson 's skin becoming lighter ( a result of his Vitiligo ) . Ruhlmann commented that seeing Jackson 's changing appearance , as well as the videos itself helped him understand Jackson 's career more , commenting , " Number Ones was released at what appeared to be the end of Michael Jackson 's long , troubled reign as a pop star , and it contained many clues to both his success and his downfall . " Ruhlmann further noted that " a messianic theme ran through many of the videos " like the relatively modest " Beat It , " which is about stopping violence , to " Earth Song , " in which Jackson restored ravaged rain forests and even brought the dead back to life . Dan LeLuca of the Philadelphia Inquirer described Number Ones as being a " reminder " of the " MTV era " . Jeff Mires of News Pop Music Critic felt that the release of both the Number Ones CD and DVD was a good opportunity to " revisit Jackson 's music " .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Notes :
^ A The short version of the music video is featured on Number Ones .
^ B The ' speed @-@ up ' version of the music video is featured on Number Ones .
^ C " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , " Smooth Criminal " , and " Blood on the Dance Floor " were excluded on the Chinese version .
= = = Formats = = =
The DVD album has been released in one version , as a one disc release .
Keep case — DVD size packaging
The video was also available on double Video CD ( in the Asian market only ) .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits
= HMS Romney ( 1762 ) =
HMS Romney was a 50 @-@ gun fourth rate of the Royal Navy . She served during the American War of Independence , and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in a career that spanned forty years .
Launched in 1762 , the Romney spent most of her early career in North American waters , serving on the Newfoundland station , often as the flagship of the commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The ship was involved in the tensions leading up to the American Revolution when she was sent to support the Boston commissioners enforcing the Townshend Acts in 1768 . Her actions involved impressing local sailors , confiscating a vessel belonging to John Hancock and providing a refuge for the unpopular commissioners when rioting broke out . She remained in American waters for part of the ensuing war , but towards the end operated in European waters after the French entry to the conflict .
The Romney was laid up in ordinary or under repair for most of the subsequent years of peace , but returned to active service on the outbreak of war with Revolutionary France . She was in the Mediterranean supporting Lord Hood 's occupation of Toulon in 1793 , and remained there for several years . During this time she captured the 44 @-@ gun French Sibylle . The Romney briefly returned to North America and then served in the Red Sea . Assigned to blockade the Dutch coast , the Romney ran aground in November 1804 while sailing to join the fleet off Den Helder . She broke up after attempts to float her off failed .
= = Design and construction = =
HMS Romney was built to a unique design by Sir Thomas Slade , which was based on William Bately 's plans for HMS Warwick , but altered to make the ship shorter . She was ordered from Woolwich Dockyard on 20 July 1759 , and laid down there on 1 October 1759 . Built by Master Shipwright Israel Pownoll , she was launched on 8 July 1762 , and completed by Joseph Harris by 4 September 1762 . She was given the name Romney in November 1760 .
= = Career = =
= = = North America = = =
HMS Romney was commissioned in August 1762 under her first commander , Captain Robert Walsingham , but was paid off by February the following year . When she recommissioned in June 1763 , it was under the command of Captain James Ferguson . Romney became the flagship of the commander of the North American station , Rear @-@ Admiral Lord Colvill , and served in this capacity for the next three years . After a brief refit at Portsmouth The Romney recommissioned in March 1767 under Captain John Corner , as part of a squadron sent to North America under Samuel Hood . While serving off North America , Romney achieved a degree of notoriety after being sent to Boston Harbour to support the commissioners , who had asked Hood for help in enforcing the Townshend Acts . She arrived on 17 May 1768 , but being short of men , Captain Corner began to impress seamen from the harbour . This was unpopular with the locals , who took to attacking the press gangs . Events escalated when the commissioners in the town ordered the seizure of the merchant vessel the Liberty , which belonged to John Hancock . When sailors and marines from the Romney attempted to seize the vessel , mobs attacked them and then turned on the commissioners . Many of the officials took refuge aboard the Romney , before transferring to Castle William . These incidents heightened tensions that would eventually lead to the Boston Massacre in 1770 .
= = = American War of Independence = = =
In 1770 Romney was briefly under Captain Hyde Parker , followed by Captain Robert Linzee in October that year . She was paid off in March 1771 and repaired and refitted at Deptford between 1773 and 1775 , recommissioning under Captain George Elphinstone in April and becoming the flagship of the commander of the Newfoundland station , Rear @-@ Admiral Robert Duff . Duff was succeeded by Vice @-@ Admiral John Montagu the following year . Montagu retained the Romney , by now under the command of Captain Elliott Salter , as his flagship . Salter was replaced by Captain George Montagu , the son of Vice @-@ Admiral Montagu , in February 1777 , who remained in command of the ship for the next two years .
Captain George Johnstone took over in early 1779 and served in the English Channel . On Johnstone 's advancement to commodore in April that year , Captain Robert Nicholas took over as the Romney 's commander , though she remained part of Johnstone 's squadron and flew his broad pendant . After a refit she returned to sea in 1779 as Sir John Ross 's flagship , with Johnstone back as captain . She was involved in the operations in the Channel during the attempted Franco @-@ Spanish invasion , after which she sailed to Lisbon . On 11 November 1779 she and HMS Tartar captured the 34 @-@ gun Spanish frigate Santa Margarita , which was subsequently taken into the navy as HMS Santa Margarita . With Johnstone 's return to the post of commodore in December 1779 , command passed to Captain Roddam Home , though Johnstone remained aboard . On 1 May 1780 , Romney was involved in an incident with the cartel ship Sartine . The Romney captured two French ships off Cape Finisterre in July , the 38 @-@ gun Artois on 1 July , and the 18 @-@ gun Perle five days later on 6 July .
Johnstone sailed to the East Indies with a convoy in March 1781 , and the Romney saw action at the Battle of Porto Praya on 16 April 1781 . The battle was inconclusive , but on 21 July the ship was part of Johnstone 's squadron which succeeded in capturing several Dutch East Indiamen in Saldanha Bay .
HMS Romney returned to Britain in November that year , at which point Captain Robert McDougall took command . By March 1783 she was sailing in the Western Approaches under Captain John Wickey and flying the broad pendant of Captain John Elliot . Wickey was replaced by Captain Thomas Lewes in July 1782 , who went on to capture the 12 @-@ gun privateer Comte de Bois @-@ Goslin off Ushant on 17 October 1782 . The Romney 's next commander was Captain Samuel Osborn , from January to April 1783 , after which she was paid off . After a period spent in ordinary , she underwent a repair and refit at Woolwich , eventually recommissioning in March 1792 under Captain William Domett , as the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Samuel Goodall . She served in the Mediterranean until the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , recommissioning under Captain William Paget in March 1793 , and returning to the Mediterranean to take part in the British occupation of Toulon .
= = = French Revolutionary Wars = = =
While sailing off Mykonos on 17 June 1794 , Paget spotted a French frigate in the harbour with three merchantmen . Paget approached and demanded that the French surrender . The French captain refused , whereupon Paget approached and the two exchanged broadsides for an hour and ten minutes . The French ship , which was discovered to be the 44 @-@ gun French frigate Sibylle , then struck her colours , having suffered casualties of 46 dead and 112 wounded , nine mortally . The Romney had suffered casualties of eight dead and thirty wounded , two mortally in the Battle of Mykonos . In 1847 this action earned for the survivors the Naval General Service Medal with clasp " Romney 17 June 1794 " .
Command then passed to Captain Charles Hamilton . Henry Inman was briefly in command for her return to Britain in March 1795 , whereupon Captain Frank Sotheron took over in June when the Romney became the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral Sir James Wallace and returned to Newfoundland . The vessel spent the next several years sailing to and from Newfoundland , under the command of Captain Percy Fraser from June 1797 , and then Captain John Bligh from July 1797 when Vice @-@ Admiral William Waldegrave took over the station .
= = Final years = =
Captain John Lawford took command in March 1798 , and in August the following year the Romney was assigned to Vice @-@ Admiral Andrew Mitchell 's squadron in Den Helder during the Vlieter Incident . Captain Sir Home Popham took over in August 1800 and sailed Romney to the Red Sea to support the British forces working to expel the French from Egypt . Because Romney served in the navy 's Egyptian campaign ( 8 March to 2 September 1801 ) , her officers and crew qualified for the clasp " Egypt " to the Naval General Service Medal that the Admiralty issued in 1847 to all surviving claimants .
After a refit at Chatham in 1803 Captain William Brown recommissioned her for operations on the African coast and in the West Indies . Captain John Colville replaced Brown in October 1804 .
= = Loss = =
On 18 November 1804 Romney sailed from Yarmouth to join the force under Rear @-@ Admiral Russell blockading the Texel . She ran aground when her pilots lost their way in thick fog while sailing off the Haak bank the following day . Attempts to float her off failed .
Realising that his ship was doomed , Colvill attempted to save his men and sent out two boats to seek help from nearby merchant vessels . One boat overturned while returning to the Romney , drowning the boat 's crew . The other made for shore , hoping to summon assistance from the Dutch authorities . The following morning , and with the Romney fast breaking up , Colvill supervised the construction and launching of a number of rafts . As the final raft was being launched , seven boats approached from shore . On reaching the Romney , the Dutch commander of the boats called on Colvill to surrender , promising that he would endeavour to save the British sailors . Colvill agreed and the Dutch rescued the remaining members of the crew . The total loss of life in the wreck was between nine and eleven men .
The Dutch conveyed the British to shore , where Dutch Admiral Kirkhurt treated them well . Kirkhurt then sent Colvill and eight of his officers back to join Russell .
As was standard practice , Colvill was subsequently tried by court martial aboard the Africaine on 31 December for the loss of his ship . The court acquitted him , his officers and his men of all blame . The court found the cause of the accident to be the thick fog and the ignorance of the pilots . The court required the pilots to forfeit their pay , barred them from piloting any of His Majesty 's ships , and imprisoned them for a time in the Marshalsea .
= Cloud Strife =
Cloud Strife ( Japanese : クラウド ・ ストライフ , Hepburn : Kuraudo Sutoraifu ) is a fictional character and the main protagonist of Square 's ( now Square Enix 's ) role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII and several of its sequels and spin @-@ offs . He was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , a character artist for the Final Fantasy series , whose role expanded during the title 's development to include supervision over Cloud 's personality . Yoshinori Kitase , director of VII , and Kazushige Nojima , one of the game 's event planners , developed the story and wanted to create a mysterious character who acted atypically for a hero . After VII , Nomura assumed greater responsibility over Cloud 's development , and his design was revised to better conform with the series ' shift to a more realistic style . Cloud 's appearance is marked by spiky blond hair , striking blue eyes , dark clothing and his Buster Sword ( バスターソード , Basutā Sōdo ) ; the sword previously belonged to his friend , Zack Fair .
In Final Fantasy VII , Cloud is a mercenary claiming to be formerly of SOLDIER , a group of elite supersoldiers employed by the Shinra Electric Power Company , a megacorporation responsible for draining the life from the planet . Fighting against Shinra in the resistance group AVALANCHE , and driven by a feud with the primary antagonist , Sephiroth , Cloud learns to accept his troubled past and adapts to his role as a leader . Cloud reappears as the protagonist in the computer @-@ animated film , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , which serves as a sequel to the original game . He acts in a supporting role in other Compilation of Final Fantasy VII titles , and is featured in several other games outside the Final Fantasy VII continuity , such as Ehrgeiz , Final Fantasy Tactics , Itadaki Street Special , Dissidia Final Fantasy , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , and the Kingdom Hearts series .
Cloud has garnered a primarily positive reception from critics . Described as " iconic " , Cloud has been cited favorably as an example of complex character writing in video games and as one of its first unreliable narrators . He has ranked highly in various character lists compiled by video game publications , and remains popular among fans , continuing to place highly in popularity polls conducted by Famitsu , Guinness , and other organizations . He has also become the basis for a variety of merchandise , such as action figures and jewelry .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Final Fantasy VII = = =
Cloud is introduced as a mercenary employed by AVALANCHE , an eco @-@ terrorist group opposed to the Shinra Company . Beginning the game with the placeholder name " Ex @-@ SOLDIER " ( 元ソルジャー , Moto Sorujā ) , Cloud assists AVALANCHE 's leader , Barret Wallace , in bombing a Mako reactor , power plants which drain the planet 's " Lifestream " . Cloud claims to be formerly of SOLDIER 1st Class , an elite Shinra fighting unit . Cloud takes pride in his past and boasts of the abilities of its members . However , his background produces misgivings as to his allegiances and trustworthiness , and Cloud 's blasé attitude towards the goals of AVALANCHE creates further tension . Despite appearing detached , Cloud demonstrates moments of camaraderie , and players can choose to interact in a friendlier manner with AVALANCHE 's members . When approached by his childhood friend and AVALANCHE member , Tifa Lockhart , about accepting another job , Cloud at first refuses . However , when confronted with his boyhood promise to protect her were he to become a famous hero , Cloud agrees to continue helping AVALANCHE , despite neither having become famous nor a hero .
While working for AVALANCHE , Cloud encounters Aerith Gainsborough , a resident of Midgar 's slums . Agreeing to serve as her bodyguard in exchange for a date , Cloud helps Aerith evade Shinra , who pursue her because she is the sole survivor of a race known as the Cetra . Aerith notes that Cloud reminds her of an old boyfriend of hers , who is implied to be Zack Fair . During the course of their travels , a love triangle develops between Cloud , Tifa and Aerith , often exploited to humorous effect . Dialogue choices impact the strength of Cloud 's relationship with Tifa and Aerith , as well as with Barret and Yuffie Kisaragi . These interactions determine who accompanies Cloud through the Gold Saucer , an amusement park . If Aerith joins Cloud , she reflects on how strongly Cloud 's physical appearance and mannerisms resemble Zack 's , and struggles to put into words how she is still " searching for [ Cloud ] " . Irrespective of who accompanies Cloud at the Gold Saucer , how the player interacts with Tifa may also result in a more sexually suggestive scene playing out during the night she spends with Cloud before the game 's conclusion . Tifa worries instead that the party saw , rather than overheard , the two the morning after .
Following the player 's departure from Midgar , Cloud is appointed group leader by the other members of the party , upsetting Barret . Shortly thereafter , Cloud narrates his history with Sephiroth , a legendary member of SOLDIER and the game 's primary antagonist , and the events that led to Sephiroth 's disappearance five years prior . According to Cloud , the two were " war buddies " . Joining SOLDIER to emulate Sephiroth , Cloud explains that he would sign up for a " big mission " whenever they became available , as the conclusion of Shinra 's war with the people of Wutai ended his chances for military fame . Cloud explains that Sephiroth started questioning his humanity after accompanying him on a job to Cloud 's hometown of Nibelheim , which suffered from a malfunctioning Mako reactor responsible for producing monsters . Discovering documents concerning Jenova , an extraterrestrial lifeform and Sephiroth 's " mother " , Sephiroth mistakes himself for a Cetra and blames their downfall on humans . Razing Nibelheim , Sephiroth leaves for the Mt . Nibel Mako reactor , and Cloud gives chase . There , Cloud finds Tifa gravely wounded by Sephiroth outside the chamber where Jenova is stored . Cloud says that he then confronted Sephiroth , but that he is unable to remember or explain how he survived the encounter given Sephiroth 's strength .
However , numerous clues suggest the unreliability of Cloud 's memory . Various visual and audio cues , such as the screen flashing white or red and the sound of static , play when Cloud attempts to recall details about his identity . Cloud will spontaneously remember words or scenes from his past , sometimes collapsing to the ground while cradling his head . An unidentified voice questions Cloud in his sleep about why he and Tifa never met alone during his mission to Nibelheim despite their history . Additionally , Tifa makes various remarks suggesting that Cloud 's version of events troubles her , and she feigns ignorance of who Zack is . Cloud 's behavior grows increasingly erratic after searching the Temple of the Ancients for the Black Materia , an item capable of casting the destructive magic Meteor . After its retrieval , Cloud loses control of himself , handing over the Black Materia to Sephiroth and attacking Aerith . Alarmed that Sephiroth can manipulate him , Cloud realizes that he is " afraid to find out the truth " and becomes fearful of himself . Later , Sephiroth takes advantage of Cloud 's insecurities , telling him that his past is merely a fiction and that Shinra created Cloud in an attempt to clone Sephiroth . Although Cloud is initially dismissive , when Tifa is unable to corroborate Cloud 's account of the Nibelheim incident , Cloud realizes he cannot remember things like how or when he joined SOLDIER . Cloud , resigning himself as a " failed experiment " , goes missing after Sephiroth summons Meteor . The party later discovers a comatose Cloud suffering from Mako poisoning , and Tifa helps Cloud reconstruct his past after the two fall into the Lifestream .
It is revealed that Cloud never qualified for SOLDIER , and instead enlisted as an infantryman in Shinra 's army . During the mission to Nibelheim , Cloud served under Sephiroth and Zack , a SOLDIER 1st Class , hiding his identity from the townspeople out of embarrassment . Following Sephiroth 's defeat of Zack at the Mt . Nibel Mako reactor , Cloud took up Zack 's sword , catching Sephiroth off guard and stabbing him . Zack urges Cloud to kill Sephiroth after Sephiroth emerges alive , but when Cloud pursues him , he is run through by Sephiroth 's sword . Cloud , to Sephiroth 's shock , summons the strength to grab hold of the blade and lift Sephiroth off the ground , tossing him into a Mako vat below . Cloud and Zack are then imprisoned by Shinra 's lead scientist , Hojo , for experimentation . Zack later escapes with Cloud , bringing him to the outskirts of Midgar before Shinra soldiers gun Zack down . Due to exposure to Mako radiation and the injection of Jenova 's cells , in addition to the shame stemming from his personal failures , Cloud 's mind fabricated a story blending together his own memories with accounts of Zack 's heroics , creating a false personality . After piecing back together his identity , Cloud resumes his role as leader . At the game 's conclusion , Sephiroth reappears in Cloud 's mind a final time , but he is defeated in a one @-@ on @-@ one fight .
= = = In Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
Cloud appears in a minor role in the cellphone game Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , a prequel set six years before Final Fantasy VII . The player , a member of the Shinra covert operatives group , the Turks , encounters Cloud during his time as a Shinra infantryman working to join SOLDIER . The game portrays Cloud 's natural talent for swordsmanship , and recounts his role during Nibelheim 's destruction .
In the computer @-@ animated film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , set two years following the conclusion of Final Fantasy VII , Cloud lives with Tifa in the city of Edge , along with Marlene , Barret 's adopted daughter , and Denzel , an orphan afflicted with a rampant and deadly disease called Geostigma . Having given up his life as a mercenary , Cloud works as a courier for the " Strife Delivery Service " that Tifa set up in her new bar . Confronted by Tifa following the disappearance of Denzel and Marlene , it is revealed that he also suffers from the effects of Geostigma , and he responds that he is unfit to protect his friends and new family . However , when urged by Tifa to let go of the past , Cloud sets out for the Forgotten City in search of the children . There , Cloud confronts Kadaj , Loz and Yazoo , genetic remnants of Sephiroth left behind before he diffused into the Lifestream completely . Cloud 's battle with Kadaj later takes them back to Aerith 's church , where Cloud recovers from his Geostigma with Aerith 's help . Kadaj , merging with the remains of Jenova , resurrects Sephiroth . Cloud , having overcome his doubts , defeats Sephiroth once more , leaving a dying Kadaj in his place . At the film 's conclusion , Cloud , seeing Aerith and Zack , assures the two that he will be fine and reunites with his friends .
Cloud appears in On the Way to a Smile , a series of short stories set between Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children . " Case of Tifa " serves as an epilogue to VII , and portrays Cloud 's life alongside Tifa , Marlene , and Denzel . " Case of Denzel " relates how Cloud first met Denzel , and was later adapted as a short original video animation for the release of Advent Children Complete , On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel .
Cloud acts in a supporting role in the PlayStation 2 game Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII . A year after the events of Advent Children , Cloud , working alongside Barret and Tifa , lends his support to the ground forces of the World Regenesis Organization and Vincent Valentine in their siege of Midgar and counterattack against the rogue Shinra military unit , Deepground .
In the PlayStation Portable game Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , Cloud is presented as a young Shinra infantryman who befriends Zack . During the game 's conclusion , a dying Zack gives Cloud his Buster Sword , telling him that he is his legacy . The game ends with Cloud heading to Midgar , reprising the start of Final Fantasy VII .
= = = In other media = = =
The OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII serves as an alternate retelling of Nibelheim 's destruction and Zack and Cloud 's escape from Shinra imprisonment . Animated and produced by Madhouse , based on a script by Kazuhiko Inukai , several scenes diverge from Final Fantasy VII 's depiction of events , such as reinterpreting Cloud 's rescue of Tifa by having her view his face . Although it is associated with and makes references to the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , Last Order is considered an outside work .
Cloud 's character has also appeared in various games outside of the Final Fantasy VII continuity . He is a playable character in the PlayStation version of Ehrgeiz , but like the other Final Fantasy VII characters present in the game , he has no storyline . Cloud and Tifa are the only Final Fantasy VII characters with a third costume or a story mode title : Cloud 's third alternate appearance depicts him in his Shinra infantryman attire , and his title is " Guardian " . In Chocobo Racing , Cloud is a hidden character that rides a motorcycle . Cloud is one of several playable Final Fantasy VII characters in Itadaki Street Special for the PlayStation 2 and Itadaki Street Portable for the PlayStation Portable . LittleBigPlanet 2 features Cloud as a downloadable character model . Cloud is a playable character representing Final Fantasy VII in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy . Players in Final Fantasy Explorers can briefly transform into Cloud , enabling use of his Omnislash Limit Break from Final Fantasy VII . Cloud is the protagonist of Final Fantasy VII G @-@ Bike , a mobile game for which Nomura designed a new costume for him .
Cloud appears as a playable guest character in the 2014 Nintendo crossover fighting games Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , sporting his character designs from both Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children . He was revealed in the November 2015 Nintendo Direct broadcast and was made available as in @-@ game downloadable content alongside a stage based on Midgar and a Mii Fighter hat based on a Chocobo on December 15 , 2015 .
In the PlayStation game Final Fantasy Tactics and its PlayStation Portable update , Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , Cloud is accidentally pulled into the world of Ivalice by an ancient machine called " the Celestial Globe " , which was activated by Ramza Beoulve . Cloud is disoriented after arriving in Ramza 's world , and after a short exchange with Ramza and the others , he leaves . He wanders into Zarghidas Trade City , where he encounters a flower girl named Aerith . As Cloud is leaving the area , Aerith is accosted by a man demanding payment . Cloud returns to help Aerith escape , and Ramza and his party catch up to him . After the battle , he joins Ramza 's party as a playable character , although he cannot perform any of his signature attacks until the player tracks down his sword . Cloud also appears as an enemy unit in the " Brave Story " series of battles as part of Rendezvous , the unlockable cooperative multiplayer mode in The War of the Lions .
In Kingdom Hearts , Cloud appears in the Olympus Coliseum world . Hired by Hades to kill Hercules , Cloud must fight Sora as a prerequisite . After the fight , Hades sends Cerberus to attack Cloud and Sora , who are then saved by Hercules . Cloud meets with Sora afterward and explains that he is searching for someone . In Kingdom Hearts : Final Mix there is an additional scene where he battles Sephiroth . During the credit roll at the end of the game , Cloud is shown reuniting residents of Hollow Bastion . A memory @-@ based version of Cloud appears in the Game Boy Advance sequel Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories as a boss in the Olympus Coliseum and later as a summon card for Sora . Cloud features again in Kingdom Hearts II , depicted in his Advent Children attire . He is searching for Sephiroth , and is himself being sought out by Tifa . Cloud fights alongside Leon 's team during the Heartless invasion of Hollow Bastion . Should the player choose to engage Sephiroth and win the battle , Cloud returns and fights Sephiroth , which ends with both of them disappearing in a flash of light after Tifa gives Cloud her support . Sora concludes that Cloud is still fighting with Sephiroth , and will not stop until he is defeated . A digital replica of Cloud also appears in Kingdom Hearts coded in the Olympus Coliseum , helping Sora and Hercules to battle Hades .
Cloud serves as the representative Final Fantasy VII character in Dissidia Final Fantasy , a fighting game featuring characters from the Final Fantasy series . He is depicted in his Final Fantasy VII outfit , while his Advent Children appearance is also available . His fight against Sephiroth in this game is based on their battles from Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children . Along with the entire cast , Cloud reappears in the prequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy as a Warrior of Chaos . Concerned for Tifa , who is on the opposing side , Cloud tries to defeat Chaos alone but is nearly killed . He is later saved by the goddess Cosmos and becomes one of her warriors . Cloud 's main outfit is based on Yoshitaka Amano 's original artwork concept , while his Kingdom Hearts outfit is offered as downloadable content .
= = Concept and creation = =
Conceptualized as one of only three playable characters in early planning stages for the game , Cloud was one of the first two characters designed for Final Fantasy VII by Tetsuya Nomura . Nomura worked to strike an orthodox balance of varied designs for the game . Because he only started receiving character profiles prior to composing their appearances during later game productions , Nomura thought of the characters ' stories first before tackling their designs . Nomura 's first draft of Cloud featured slicked @-@ back , black hair . The depiction served both as a contrast to the long silver hair of the game 's chief antagonist , Sephiroth , and to minimize the model 's polygon count . However , to make Cloud stand out more and emphasize his role as the game 's lead protagonist , Nomura altered Cloud 's design to give him spiky , bright blond hair . Miyamoto Musashi and Sasaki Kojirō served as bases for Cloud and Sephiroth 's appearances , respectively , and in particular influenced the look of their swords . Early renditions of Cloud 's weapon , the Buster Sword , depicted a smaller blade . Its size grew over the course of several revisions , and Nomura called it " the Giant Kitchen Knife " , envisioning it as unrefined steel . The sword at one point featured a small chain connected to the pommel , while magnets would secure the blade to Cloud 's back . More deeply involved with Cloud 's creation than with other characters ' from previous Final Fantasy projects , Nomura also provided supervision over Cloud 's personality traits .
Yoshinori Kitase and Kazushige Nojima developed Cloud 's backstory and his relationship to Sephiroth . The idea for Cloud 's false persona arose after Nojima saw event planner Motomu Toriyama 's standing animation depicting " Cloud showing off " , which impressed him and inspired the basis for the scenario . Nojima created the character of Zack so as to expand upon the mysteries in Cloud 's backstory . Kitase remained unaware of the addition 's significance until playtesting , as Nojima left the unfolding of events concerning Cloud 's identity unwritten . In emphasizing Cloud 's individuality , the staff made repeated use of elements that they believed made the character interesting , such as Cloud 's phrase " not interested " and Toriyama 's standing animation . Kitase felt Cloud 's character was fresh in reviewing Nojima 's scenario , observing that he possessed an atypical personality for a hero by being neither single @-@ minded nor righteous . The love triangle between Cloud , Tifa and Aerith was also viewed as novel for the series , and Nojima likened Cloud 's relationship to Tifa as one of childhood friends since nursery school , whereas Aerith was akin to a transfer student arriving mid @-@ term .
In early drafts , Cloud would act as an alter ego for Sephiroth , influenced to believe he was a creation of Sephiroth 's will . As in the finished game , Cloud would later realize that he is the real Cloud , and that the reason Sephiroth could control his mind and body was because of his weakened will and Shinra 's experiments . Additionally , Cloud would have scarred Tifa prior to the game 's events , although the reasons for as to why were unknown . Early materials listed Cloud 's job as magic swordsman ( 魔法剣士 , mahō kenshi ) and berserker ( バーサーカー , bāsākā ) . Masato Kato , one of the event planners , proposed a scene involving Cloud walking out of the Highwind 's Chocobo stable followed by Tifa the morning before the final battle . Kitase rejected it as too extreme , but maintained a scene written by Kato depicting the night before , in which a risqué line is spoken by Tifa followed by a fade to black . In an interview , Nojima stated that none of the staff thought it would become an important issue at the time .
Nojima has explained that the relationship between the player and the main character in a Final Fantasy title is a dynamic he has always been concerned about . With VII , Cloud 's subdued nature led him to write scenes with the character in such a way that the players would be placed in the position of deciding for themselves what the character was thinking . Cloud 's foggy memories served both to help players " become " the character , and to introduce them to a world which other inhabitants would otherwise share common knowledge of . Nomura believes that the reason Cloud has become so popular with audiences is due to the impact his personality made in Nojima 's scenario .
= = = Further development = = =
Nomura redesigned Cloud for his appearance in Kingdom Hearts . He is depicted with a claw and a crimson cape , and the blade of his sword is wrapped in bandages . Stating that Cloud 's left arm was inspired by Vincent Valentine , Nomura explained that he wanted to give the character a more demon @-@ like appearance due to his ties to the dark side in the game . Nomura stated that he wanted to leave the question of whether Cloud was searching for Aerith open to the player 's interpretation . Teruaki Sugawara , the game 's voice director , recommended Takahiro Sakurai , Cloud 's Japanese voice actor , to Nomura for the role . Nomura had originally asked Sakurai to play the protagonist of The Bouncer , Sion Barzahd , but found that his voice best suited Cloud after hearing him speak . Sakurai received the script without any accompanying visuals , and first arrived for recording under the impression that he would be voicing a different character than the one featured in Final Fantasy VII .
For Advent Children , Nomura agreed to direct the project largely because of his attachment to the character of Cloud . Although Nomura stated that Cloud was a more positive character in Final Fantasy VII than in Advent Children , he did not believe that such an " ' upbeat ' image of him is what stuck in the minds of the fans " , and the script was written to explain why Cloud returned to a state of mind " consistent with the fans ' view of him . " Nomura describes Cloud 's life as peaceful but , hurt by the losses he experienced during the original game , one which he grew scared of losing . Blaming himself for things outside of his control , Cloud , Nomura elaborated , needed to overcome himself . In contrast to other heroes , who , in Nomura 's view , typically possess character defects amounting only to quirks , Nomura believed Cloud 's weakness to be humanizing . Nojima viewed the theme of the story as one of forgiveness , which he believed required hardship . Cloud , by taking up his sword and fighting , struggles to achieve it . Nojima sought to establish Cloud 's withdrawn personality by depicting him with a cell phone , but never answering any calls . He originally intended for Aerith 's name to be the last of those displayed while the backlog of ignored messages appears as Cloud 's cell phone sinks into the water , but Nojima altered the scene because it " sounded too creepy " . The wolf which Cloud imagines " represents the deepest part of Cloud 's psyche " and " appears in response to some burden that Cloud is carrying deep in his heart " , vanishing at the film 's end . Nomura cites one of the film 's final scenes , in which Cloud smiles , as his favorite , highlighting the lack of dialogue and Cloud 's embarrassment . The scene influenced composer Nobuo Uematsu 's score , who grew excited after coming across it in his review of the script , commenting on the difficulty players who had finished Final Fantasy VII would have had imagining Cloud 's smile .
Nomura sought to make Cloud 's design " distinctly different from the other characters . " About thirty different designs were made for Cloud 's face , and his hair was altered both to give it a more realistic look and to illustrate that two years had passed since the game 's conclusion . The staff attempted rendering Cloud based on the game 's original illustrations , but concluded that doing so left his eyes unrealistically big , which " looked gross . " Further revisions were made to Cloud 's face after completion of the pilot film , which featured a more realistic style . In contrast to his hair , Cloud 's clothes were difficult to make in the film . Deciding to give Cloud a simple costume consistent with the concept of " clothes designed for action " , the staff began with the idea of a black robe , eventually parring it down to a " long apron " shifted to one side . Cloud 's weaponry was based on the joking observation that because his sword in the original game was already enormously tall , in the sequel , he should use sheer numbers . Referred to as " the fusion swords " during the film 's development , early storyboard concepts included Cloud carrying six swords on his back , although the idea was later modified to six interlocking swords . While the idea wasn 't " logically thought out " and the staff didn 't think that they could " make it work physically " , it was believed to provide " an interesting accent to the story . " Cloud 's new motorcycle , Fenrir ( フェンリル ) , was designed by Takayuki Takeya , who was asked by the staff to design an upgraded version of Cloud 's " Hardy @-@ Daytona " motorcycle from Final Fantasy VII . As development continued , the bike got bigger , with Takeya feeling its heaviness provided an impact that worked well within the film .
For Advent Children , Nomura wanted to contrast Cloud and Vincent 's voices given their similar personalities . As a sequel to the highly popular Final Fantasy VII , Sakurai felt greater pressure performing the role than he did when he voiced Cloud for Kingdom Hearts . Sakurai received comments from colleagues revealing their love of the game , some of them jokingly threatening that they would not forgive Sakurai if he did not meet their expectations . During recording , Sakurai was told that " [ n ] o matter what kind of odds are stacked against him , Cloud won 't be shaken . " Sakurai says that while he recorded most of his work individually , he performed alongside Ayumi Ito , who voiced Tifa , for a few scenes . These recordings left him feeling " deflated " , as the " exchanges he has with Tifa can be pretty painful " , Sakurai commenting that Cloud — whom he empathized with as his voice actor — has a hard time dealing with straight talk . Sakurai says that there were scenes that took over a year to complete , with very precise directions being given requiring multiple takes . According to Sakurai , Cloud 's silence conveys more about the character than when he speaks . While possessing heroic characteristics , Sakurai describes Cloud 's outlook as negative , and says that he is delicate in some respects . A fan of VII , Sakurai had believed Cloud to be a colder character based on his original impression of him , but later came to view him as more sentimental . After the final product was released , Sakurai was anxious to hear the fans ' response , whether positive or negative , and says that most of the feedback he received praised him . While recording Crisis Core , Sakurai felt that Cloud , though still introverted , acted more like a normal teenager , and modified his approach accordingly . Cloud 's scream over Zack 's death left a major impression on Sakurai , who says that he worked hard to convey the emotional tone of the ending . Sakurai has come to regard Cloud as an important role , commenting that Cloud reminds him of his own past , and that , as a Final Fantasy VII fan himself , he is happy to contribute .
In English adaptations , Cloud is voiced by Steve Burton . Burton 's work as Cloud in Advent Children served as his first feature length role , an experience he enjoyed . Calling the character a rare opportunity for him as an actor , Burton describes Cloud as having a " heaviness about him " . Burton says he is surprised when fans recognize him for his work as Cloud , whom he has referred to as " [ one of the ] coolest characters there is , " and he too considers himself lucky for having voiced him .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Cloud has been merchandised extensively , in many different forms , including figurines and jewelry . In commemoration of the franchise 's 20th anniversary , Square released figurines of him alongside other Final Fantasy protagonists . Square Enix 's manager of merchandise , Kanji Tashiro , said at the 2008 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International that Cloud 's likeness has produced some of the company 's best @-@ selling items , and that fans could look forward to further adaptations of the character in the future . Popular models at the time included Cloud 's Advent Children figurine and Final Fantasy VII Hardy @-@ Daytona bike set , both of which sold particularly well in European and North American markets . Square has also released two promotional books primarily focusing on Cloud 's character : Cloud vol.1 , which was released in 2007 , and Cloud message , in 2008 . In 2013 , a replica of the Buster Sword was created by blacksmith Tony Swatton for the webseries Man at Arms .
= = = Reception = = =
Cloud has been mostly well received by critics . In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly placed Cloud seventh in their list of top video game characters . He was named best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStation 's 2007 " Den @-@ Play Awards " . IGN in 2008 ranked him third in both their lists of top Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy series characters . GameSpot published a video titled " Greatest Game Hero : Cloud Strife " for his inclusion in their 2009 " All Time Greatest Game Hero " poll , showcasing scenes of Cloud as he appears in Advent Children . UGO placed him first in their 2010 list of top Japanese RPG characters , stating " Cloud is the cloth from whom the great majority of JRPG characters were cut . " That same year , GamesRadar listed Cloud as the second best Final Fantasy hero of all the time , describing him as " one of the most well @-@ rounded and thought @-@ out characters in the series . " He was also ranked as the second best Final Fantasy character in a 2010 list by VideoGamer.com , who called him a " poster boy for the entire JRPG genre " . In 2011 , Empire ranked Cloud as the 13th greatest video game character , stating : " He is , and always will be , the definitive FF poster child - an enduring axiom of character desgn [ sic ] . " GameZone ranked Cloud second in their 2012 list of top Final Fantasy characters , attributing the success of Final Fantasy VII largely to his character . In 2013 , Complex named him the greatest Final Fantasy character of all time , citing his " killer backstory , iconic weaponry , and a great game to the boot . "
In his review of the 1998 PC release of Final Fantasy VII , Ron Dulin of GameSpot commented that " a simple understatement will have to suffice : Cloud is easily the most interesting and complex character ever presented in a game . " RPGamer 's Abadi Aujang called Cloud " one of the most complex characters Square has created , " as well as " the first truly complicated main character . " Unicorn Lynx of MobyGames described him as " one of the most complex characters ever seen in a game , " citing the struggle Cloud faces in assuming responsibility as a leader while confronting " his own deep psychological problems " and " the truth about his very existence . " Kurt Kalata of Gamasutra stated that he is " neither hero nor anti @-@ hero " , but rather " somewhat of a weakling " suffering from grandiose delusions and other psychological issues . He also called Cloud one of the first unreliable narrators in a role @-@ playing video game . Chi Kong Lui , writing for GameCritics , stated that while Final Fantasy VII features " some of the most complex characters ever created , by video game standards , " their personalities are " paper @-@ thin " . He criticized Cloud 's " childish motivations " , stating that Final Fantasy VII could not " match the depth of screenplay in Orson Welles ' Citizen Kane or the complexities of characters exhibited in Martin Scorsese 's Taxi Driver . "
IGN stated that Cloud set a trend for role @-@ playing video game heroes , describing his " spiky blond hair " and " gigantic Buster Sword " as " instantly identifiable icons , recognized by gamers around the world . " Edge described Cloud as an example of " excellent design and characterization " . Famitsu in 2010 published a seven @-@ page tribute to Cloud , showcasing his many appearances throughout the years .
Cloud has appeared in various other lists . These include IGN 's " Worst Videogame Haircuts " ( 2006 ) and " Top Videogame Sword Masters " ( 2008 ) , and ScrewAttack 's " Top Ten Coolest Characters " ( 2007 ) . 1UP.com featured Cloud in their list of top Final Fantasy character types , citing him as an example of " The Sullen Asshole " alongside Squall Leonhart from Final Fantasy VIII and Cecil from Final Fantasy IV . GameDaily ranked him fifth on their list of top " gaming hunks " , praising his design and weapon . GamesRadar included his name among the 50 " most gloriously stupid " in video game history , and featured him in its " RPG Emo @-@ Off " , listing Cloud as the second " most emo character of all JRPGs " behind Genesis Rhapsodos from Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . GamesRadar also listed Cloud 's Buster Sword as one " the most ludicrously impractical RPG weapons " and included his cross @-@ dressing scene in its list of " [ g ] aming 's most piss poor disguises " , commenting that " it makes Cloud look so damn feminine , the escort @-@ loving baddie chooses him over ... Aeries [ sic ] and Tifa " . Cloud and Aerith 's relationship ranked third in GamesRadar 's 2008 list of top Square Enix couples , who called it " a classic love story " , while IGN ranked it ninth in their 2006 list of best video game couples overall . In 2013 , Complex ranked Cloud as the eighth greatest soldier in video games .
In an Oricon poll conducted in 2008 , Cloud placed second overall for most popular video game character , ranking second among men and third with women . In a 2010 ASCII Media Works poll asking fans which video game or manga character they would like to name their children after , Cloud 's name ranked third for male characters . That same year , Famitsu readers voted Cloud as the third best video game character of all time . In one of IGN 's 2007 " Hero Showdowns " , Cloud was pitted against Link and lost . The character placed similarly in contests by GameFAQs , winning the " Character Battle II " ( 2003 ) and finishing second in the " Character Battle III " ( 2004 ) and the " Battle Royale " ( 2006 ) . In the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition of 2011 , Cloud was voted as the fifth best video game character .
PSXextreme praised Cloud 's redesign in Kingdom Hearts as one of the best in the game , describing it is a " hybrid " of his and Vincent Valentine 's designs . According to AnimeFringe , Cloud 's appearance in Kingdom Hearts was one of the things that excited Final Fantasy VII fans the most . His development in Advent Children was praised by DVD Talk as one of the best parts from the film . James Mielke of 1UP.com commented that Cloud 's guilt over Aerith 's death was effective enough to move viewers , but regarded such scenes as " manipulative " . Michael Beckett , writing for RPGamer , referred to Cloud overcoming Aerith 's death as central to the film , and called his fight sequences " the most creative and impressive scenes " . Mielke also described the characters as " beautiful ; perfect almost " , commenting that Cloud possessed " unbreakably perfect hair " . Briana Lawerence of Mania Entertainment , however , listed Cloud second in her article " 10 Male Headaches of Anime " , criticizing his feeling of guilt about Aerith 's death . Joystiq 's Andrew Yoon opined that the director 's cut version of the film provides more depth to Cloud 's development , taking advantage of its longer runtime by better " humanizing [ him ] " . A 2010 GamesRadar article showcasing classic game character redesigns contrasted Cloud 's appearances in Advent Children and Final Fantasy VII , stating that the move away from low polygon models necessitated the change , and commenting that Square Enix alters the design with each title he features in .
Tasked with creating a " female version of Cloud " for Final Fantasy XIII , Nomura designed Lightning with Cloud 's success in mind , stating that he " desired for her to be ... loved for a long time , like Cloud . " After Lightning was voted as the most popular female character in the series by Japanese fans , Mollie Patterson of EGMNOW commented : " Some have also brought up that Lightning is kind of the female equivalent to Cloud , which might be why she gets so much love . "
= FIFA World Cup Trophy =
The World Cup is a gold trophy that is awarded to the winners of the FIFA World Cup association football tournament . Since the advent of the World Cup in 1930 , two trophies have been used : the Jules Rimet Trophy from 1930 to 1970 , and the FIFA World Cup Trophy from 1974 to the present @-@ day .
The first trophy , originally named Victory , but later renamed in honour of former FIFA president Jules Rimet , was made of gold plated sterling silver and lapis lazuli and depicted Nike , the Greek goddess of victory . Brazil won the trophy outright in 1970 , prompting the commissioning of a replacement . The Jules Rimet Trophy was stolen in 1983 and never recovered .
The subsequent trophy , called the " FIFA World Cup Trophy " , was introduced in 1974 . Made of 18 karat gold with a malachite base , it stands 36 @.@ 8 centimeters high and weighs 6 @.@ 1 kilograms . The trophy was made by Stabilimento Artistico Bertoni company in Italy . It depicts two human figures holding up the Earth . The current holder of the trophy is Germany , winner of the 2014 World Cup .
= = Jules Rimet Trophy = =
The Jules Rimet Trophy was the original prize for winning the Football World Cup . Originally called " Victory " , but generally known simply as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde , it was officially renamed in 1946 to honour the FIFA President Jules Rimet who in 1929 passed a vote to initiate the competition . It was designed by Abel Lafleur and made of gold @-@ plated sterling silver on a white / yellow marble base . In 1954 this base was replaced with a high base made of lapis lazuli . It stood 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) high and weighed 3 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 4 lb ) . It comprised a decagonal cup , supported by a winged figure representing Nike , the ancient Greek goddess of victory . The Jules Rimet Trophy was taken to Uruguay for the first FIFA World Cup aboard the Conte Verde , which set sail from Villefranche @-@ sur @-@ Mer , just southeast of Nice , on 21 June 1930 . This was the same ship that carried Jules Rimet and the footballers representing France , Romania and Belgium who were participating in the tournament that year . The first team to be awarded the trophy was Uruguay , the winners of the 1930 World Cup .
During World War II , the trophy was held by 1938 winners Italy . Ottorino Barassi , the Italian vice @-@ president of FIFA and president of FIGC , secretly transported the trophy from a bank in Rome and hid it in a shoe @-@ box under his bed to prevent Adolf Hitler and the Nazis from taking it . The 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden marked the beginning of a tradition regarding the trophy . As Brazilian captain Hilderaldo Bellini heard photographer requests for a better view of the Jules Rimet Trophy , he lifted it up in the air . Every Cup @-@ winning captain ever since has repeated the gesture .
On 20 March 1966 , four months before the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England , the trophy was stolen during a public exhibition at Westminster Central Hall . The trophy was found just seven days later wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a suburban garden hedge in Upper Norwood , South London , by a dog named Pickles .
As a security measure , The Football Association secretly manufactured a replica of the trophy for use in exhibitions rather than the original . This replica was used on subsequent occasions up until 1970 when the original trophy had to be handed back to FIFA . Since FIFA had explicitly denied the FA permission to create a replica , the replica also had to disappear from public view and was for many years kept under its creator 's bed . This replica was eventually sold at an auction in 1997 for £ 254 @,@ 500 , when it was purchased by FIFA . The high auction price , ten times the reserve price of £ 20 @,@ 000 – £ 30 @,@ 000 , was led by speculation that the auctioned trophy was not the replica trophy but the original itself . Subsequent testing by FIFA , however , confirmed the auctioned trophy was indeed a replica and FIFA soon afterwards arranged for the replica to be lent for display at the English National Football Museum , which was then based in Preston but is now in Manchester .
The Brazilian team won the tournament for the third time in 1970 , allowing them to keep the real trophy in perpetuity , as had been stipulated by Jules Rimet in 1930 . It was put on display at the Brazilian Football Confederation headquarters in Rio de Janeiro in a cabinet with a front of bullet @-@ proof glass .
On 19 December 1983 , the wooden rear of the cabinet was pried open with a crowbar and the cup was stolen again . Four men were tried and convicted in absentia for the crime . The trophy has never been recovered , and it is widely believed to have been melted down and sold . Only one piece of the Jules Rimet Trophy has been found , the original base which FIFA had kept in a basement of the federation 's Zurich headquarters prior to 2015 .
The Confederation commissioned a replica of their own , made by Eastman Kodak , using 1 @.@ 8 kg ( 3 @.@ 97 lb ) of gold . This replica was presented to Brazilian military president João Figueiredo in 1984 .
The trophy was the subject of a 2014 documentary " Mysteries of the Rimet Trophy " shown as part of ESPN 's 30 for 30 : Soccer Stories films series during the 2014 World Cup .
= = New Trophy = =
A replacement trophy was commissioned by FIFA for the 1974 World Cup . Fifty @-@ three submissions were received from sculptors in seven countries . Italian artist Silvio Gazzaniga was awarded the commission . The trophy stands 36 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 14 @.@ 4 inches ) tall and is made of 5 kg ( 11 lb ) of 18 carat ( 75 % ) gold with a base ( 13 centimetres [ 5 @.@ 1 inches ] in diameter ) containing two layers of malachite . It has been asserted by Sir Martyn Poliakoff that the trophy is hollow ; if , as is claimed , it were solid , the trophy would weigh 70 – 80 kg and would be too heavy to lift . Produced by Bertoni , Milano in Paderno Dugnano , it weighs 6 @.@ 175 kg ( 13 @.@ 6 lb ) in total and depicts two human figures holding up the Earth . Gazzaniga described the trophy thus , " The lines spring out from the base , rising in spirals , stretching out to receive the world . From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory . "
The trophy has the engraving " FIFA World Cup " on its base . After the 1994 FIFA World Cup a plate was added to the bottom side of the trophy on which the names of winning countries are engraved , and are therefore not visible when the trophy is standing upright . The inscriptions state the year in figures and the name of the winning nation in its national language ; for example , " 1974 Deutschland " or " 1994 Brasil " . In 2010 , however , the name of the winning nation was engraved as " 2010 Spain " , in English , not in Spanish . As of 2014 , ten winners have been engraved on the base . The plate is replaced and rearranged the winners of the trophy into a spiral to accommodate future winners , with Spain this time written in Spanish ( España ) . FIFA 's regulations now state that the trophy , unlike its predecessor , cannot be won outright : the winners of the tournament receive a Bronze replica which is gold plated rather than solid gold . Germany was the first nation to win the new trophy for the third time in 2014 .
= = Winners = =
Jules Rimet Trophy
Brazil – 1958 , 1962 , 1970
Uruguay – 1930 , 1950
Italy – 1934 , 1938
Germany – 1954
England – 1966
FIFA World Cup Trophy
Germany – 1974 , 1990 , 2014
Argentina – 1978 , 1986
Italy – 1982 , 2006
Brazil – 1994 , 2002
France – 1998
Spain – 2010
= Tropical Storm Emily ( 2011 ) =
Tropical Storm Emily was a weak Atlantic tropical cyclone that brought torrential rains to much of the northern Caribbean in 2011 . The fifth named storm of the annual hurricane season , Emily developed from a strong but poorly organized tropical wave that tracked the open Atlantic for several days in late July . On August 1 , it approached the Lesser Antilles and became better defined , producing inclement weather over much of the area . Two days later , the disturbance developed a closed wind circulation center , marking the formation of Tropical Storm Emily . The storm remained fairly disorganized as it proceeded into the Caribbean , though it generated strong thunderstorms and gusty winds along its path . On August 4 , Emily was declassified as a tropical cyclone , after the mountainous areas of Hispaniola disrupted its weak circulation . Upon exiting the northeastern Caribbean on August 6 , its remnants regenerated into a tropical storm , ultimately dissipating the next day .
Despite its poor organization , Emily wrought havoc across many Caribbean nations . Gusty winds felled trees and heavy rains triggered widespread flooding throughout the Lesser Antilles ; any significant damage in those islands was confined to Martinique , however , where one fatality occurred . In Puerto Rico , similar floods affected residences and roads , with infrastructural losses in the territory estimated at $ 5 million . Even after dissipating , the remnants of Emily continued to produce prolonged rainfall over much of Hispaniola . Extensive floods and mudslides in the Dominican Republic displaced over 7 @,@ 000 residents , and three people drowned in the capital of Santo Domingo . In neighboring Haiti , hundreds of homes were flooded in the department of Artibonite , prompting evacuations . Only minor wind damage occurred throughout the country 's southern peninsula , but one death was reported in the region .
= = Meteorological history = =
The cyclogenesis of Tropical Storm Emily was complicated , extending over several days from late July into early August . An easterly tropical wave — an equatorward trough of low pressure — exited the west African coast in the fourth week of July , at which point it became largely embedded within the monsoon trough . Located to the south of a ride of high pressure , the wave moved west @-@ northwestward across the open Atlantic ; it retained a broad circulation with little to no precipitation for a day or two . Over time , clusters of convection increased around the broad system , and it developed two distinct centers of circulation on July 30 . During the morning of July 31 , the large low markedly gained in organization , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted it was close to becoming a tropical depression . Later that day , however , the main circulation became increasingly elongated ; its westernmost component soon detached to form a separate tropical wave . This new disturbance featured widely scattered convection and rainbands , which briefly affected the Lesser Antilles . The next day , a new area of deep convection with a dominant center formed as the circulation became better defined . It passed through the Leeward Islands with some improvement in its structure , and the surface winds rose to near tropical storm force . A reconnaissance flight into the system revealed the circulation center had become well defined near the deep convection . The system was upgraded to tropical storm status and given the name Emily at 0000 UTC on August 2 , when it was located to the south of Dominica . During the initial stages of its existence , the storm accelerated toward the west @-@ northwest in response to the strong high pressure to its north .
With a relatively dry environment along its projected path , Emily was expected to strengthen only gradually until its predicted passage through the Greater Antilles . For several hours into August 2 , the cyclone fluctuated little in intensity and organization as it developed banding features . Emily 's appearance later improved on satellite images , and it developed a ragged central dense overcast ; the NHC estimated that the storm had reached its peak sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) by 0000 UTC on August 3 . Nevertheless , reconnaissance revealed that its circulation remained poorly organized , and at the time , several forecast models even supported dissipation prior to landfall in Hispaniola . An increase in upper wind shear removed the deepest convection from the circulation center , and it would remain so for the rest of the storm 's duration . On August 4 , the cloud pattern and convective banding became better organized near the center as the upper outflow over the cyclone expanded . Emily proceeded to track just south of the Dominican Republic , where its weak circulation became increasingly disrupted due to the adjacent high terrain and increasing vertical wind shear . The cyclone accelerated over Hispaniola and degenerated into an open trough around 2100 UTC that day .
The remnant trough proceeded northwestward into the Bahamas , where the NHC assessed a high chance of redevelopment based on relenting upper wind shear . Over the next couple of days , it moved over the Bahamas and proceeded east of southern Florida . Late on August 6 , the trough developed a new center of circulation and regenerated into a weak tropical depression by 1800 UTC near Grand Bahama . Emily briefly reattained tropical storm strength six hours later , although it once again dissipated to a remnant low the next day owing to increasing wind shear . The low took on an accelerated east @-@ northeastward motion , bypassing Bermuda before heading eastward over the open Atlantic . It briefly retained a broad area of gale @-@ force winds with deep convection , which prompted the NHC to remonitor the system . The combination of strong wind shear and its rapid forward speed inhibited significant development , and the remnant dissipated around 1200 UTC on August 11 , about 980 mi ( 1 @,@ 565 km ) west of the Azores .
= = Preparations = =
Because of the high potential for tropical cyclone development , Météo @-@ France declared yellow cyclone alerts for Guadeloupe and Martinique , warning of imminent squally weather . Due to the presence of Emily , a state of emergency was declared for all of Puerto Rico . Officials ordered the preparation of over 400 storm shelters and ensured adequate water supply . The morning before the storm , government workers were dismissed , and national courtrooms remained closed . The United States Coast Guard issued a statement urging residents of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands to avoid recreational boating and swimming until Emily had passed . JetBlue Airways waived fees for flights into the Dominican Republic because of the inclement weather conditions . Four cruise ships , Oasis of the Seas , Freedom of the Seas , Carnival Dream and Carnival Liberty altered their courses through the Caribbean to avoid the storm .
In Haiti , about 630 @,@ 000 people were still living in tents across areas devastated by the January 2010 earthquake prior to Emily 's arrival . Due to the lack of sturdy structure to ride out a storm , fears arose over how they would fare with a tropical cyclone passing through the country . Emergency officials in the country set aside 22 large buses to evacuate thousands of people at the risk of flooding . Additionally , residents were urged to conserve food and safeguard their belongings . The United Nations placed 11 @,@ 500 troops in the country on standby to assist in recovery efforts should they be necessitated . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies also put emergency teams on standby to deliver food support in addition to the 125 @,@ 000 people already assisted . In advance of the storm , authorities closed all airports and landing sites in country .
= = Impact = =
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
Intense rainbands produced gusty winds and heavy precipitation totaling to 5 @.@ 90 in ( 150 mm ) in Martinique , causing street flooding and inundating homes . Roughly 5 @,@ 000 residences lost power at the height of the storm , though the outages were brief and confined to the southeast of the island . A large landslide occurred in the capital of Fort @-@ de @-@ France due to excessive soil saturation , prompting some 40 families to evacuate the area . Across the city , deep flood waters affected 29 houses ; a man was electrocuted and killed by an exposed wire in his flooded home .
In Guadeloupe , damage from the storm was limited ; potent gusts uprooted numerous trees and blew debris onto streets throughout Basse @-@ Terre . One road was blocked off to traffic during its passage as a precautionary measure , but was reopened soon thereafter . Gale @-@ force winds downed some electricity lines in Saint Kitts and Nevis , causing two island @-@ wide outages . The storm enhanced moisture to produce intermittent torrents over the Virgin Islands , with localized totals of no more than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . Winds in the area were also limited ; the highest gust was experienced on Buck Island , measuring 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) .
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
While moving little near Puerto Rico , Emily brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to many parts of the island . The heaviest rainfall occurred in southern regions ; Caguas recorded a total of 8 @.@ 22 in ( 209 mm ) of rain during the storm . High winds damaged an electrical grid , cutting off power to about 18 @,@ 500 customers ; roughly 6 @,@ 000 people were left without drinking water during the storm . Dozens of residents evacuated to shelters , in particular those living near risk zones . Torrential rains of up to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) overflowed three rivers , which resulted in the flooding and subsequent closure of the PR @-@ 31 highway and PRI @-@ 3 intersection . Throughout the island , multiple other roads were made impassable by landslides and fallen objects ; infrastructural damage surmounted $ 5 million , according to preliminary estimates . The two @-@ day suspension of about 280 @,@ 000 employees — about 30 percent of the territory 's workforce — affected the local economy significantly , with capital losses estimated at $ 55 million .
In San Lorenzo , 25 families became isolated when a bridge threatened to collapse . Flooded homes and cluttered streets were reported in Ceiba , with one residential gate collapsing in the municipality . The agricultural sector also sustained losses from the storm ; in Yabucoa , heavy rains washed out 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 490 ha ) of banana seedlings .
= = = Hispaniola = = =
Albeit disorganized , Emily and its remnants dropped extensive precipitation across the Dominican Republic , with maximum totals of up to 21 inches ( 528 mm ) recorded in Neiba . Among other consequences , severe flooding and isolated mudslides left 56 communities isolated from surrounding areas . The storm displaced up to 7 @,@ 534 people throughout the country , of which 1 @,@ 549 sought refuge in storm shelters . Consecutive hours of rainfall resulted in the overflow of some rivers , although no significant damage was reported to adjacent areas . Offshore , squalls generated rough waves that briefly affected boating operations and oceanside homes . To the east of Santo Domingo , two men drowned after getting caught in a swollen river . A third drowning fatality occurred elsewhere in the capital due to flooding .
Owing to the timing of its dissipation , Emily spared neighboring Haiti from the devastation initially anticipated . At least 235 people in Jacmel and Tabarre , as well as 65 prisoners from Gonaïves and Miragoâne , required evacuation at the height of the storm . In Artibonite , civil protection teams evacuated roughly 300 residents . Rainfall triggered floods that damaged over 300 homes throughout the country , while several cholera treatment centers were destroyed . At the risk of new outbreaks , special sterilizers were distributed to sanitize possibly contaminated waters . A body was recovered from a ravine near Les Cayes , but the exact cause of death was disputed ; another person in the area sustained injuries after being hit by a fallen tree . High winds caused some property damage in Léogâne and Jacmel .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
The successor trough to Emily produced torrential rains over eastern Cuba , causing some rivers to overflow . Damaging flood waters spread across roads in Santiago de Cuba , where 37 homes were affected by mud . While regenerating into a tropical depression , Emily dropped prolonged rainfall in the Bahamas ; a severe thunderstorm warning was accordingly issued for Grand Bahama and adjacent waters . Precipitation totals of up to 7 @.@ 9 in ( 200 mm ) were recorded during the time .
= Fantastic Four in film =
The fictional superhero team Fantastic Four featured in Marvel Comics publication has appeared in four live @-@ action films since its inception . The plots deal with four main characters , known formally as Reed Richards , Susan Storm , Ben Grimm and Johnny Storm , and how they adapt to the superpowers they attain .
Constantin Film bought the film rights for the characters in 1986 . A low @-@ budget film was produced in 1992 by New Horizon Studios owned by Roger Corman . In 2004 , with a distribution deal from 20th Century Fox , a second Fantastic Four film entered production . Fantastic Four was released in 2005 and the sequel Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer was released in 2007 . Both films received negative reviews from critics , yet earned a combined US $ 619 million worldwide at the box office . Due to 20th Century Fox 's disappointment with the box @-@ office return of Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer , a potential third Fantastic Four film and a Silver Surfer spin @-@ off film were canceled .
In 2009 , the development for a reboot was announced . Directed by Josh Trank , Fantastic Four was released on August 7 , 2015 and received negative reviews from both critics and public , and Trank himself . A sequel to the reboot was scheduled to be released on June 9 , 2017 , but it was removed from Fox 's upcoming slate .
= = Films = =
= = = The Fantastic Four ( 1994 ) = = =
The story of the film focused on four astronauts that were bombarded with cosmic rays from a comet while on an experimental space craft . In the process , they acquired extraordinary abilities .
In 1986 , Bernd Eichinger of Constantin Film acquired the film rights of the Fantastic Four from Marvel Comics . In 1992 , Eichinger hired Roger Corman to produce a low @-@ budget film in order to keep the rights . In 1994 , the adaptation , titled The Fantastic Four , had its trailer released to theaters , and its cast and director went on a promotional tour , however the film was not officially released . The film was accused of being an ashcan copy , meaning it was only made to keep the license . Stan Lee and Eichinger stated that the actors had no idea of the situation , instead believing they were creating a proper release . Marvel Comics paid in exchange for the film 's negative , so 20th Century Fox could go ahead with the big @-@ budget adaptation . While the film was never released to theaters and home @-@ video , it was released by bootleg video distributors .
= = = Original film series = = =
= = = = Fantastic Four ( 2005 ) = = = =
The story features Reed Richards , Ben Grimm , Susan Storm , Johnny Storm and Victor von Doom getting hit by a space storm after boarding into a space station . As a result , by the radiation from the storm , they get new abilities and powers that they have deal with in their own ways .
Chris Columbus was hired by 20th Century Fox to write and direct the film in 1995 . In 1997 , Peter Segal was attached to a script which had been written by Columbus and Michael France . Segal later left the project in the same year . Phillip Morton worked on the script , and Sam Hamm did rewrites in 1998 . The following year , Raja Gosnell signed on as director . The film was announced in August 2000 as being aimed for a July 4 , 2001 release date . Gosnell decided to leave the project to film Scooby @-@ Doo . Peyton Reed served as replacement in April 2001 . Reed contemplated making the film as a period piece set in the early 1960s during the space race . He later dropped out from the film . In April 2004 , Tim Story was hired to direct and principal photography began in August in Vancouver , Canada with re @-@ shoots carried on until May 2005 . Starring Ioan Gruffudd , Jessica Alba , Chris Evans , Michael Chiklis and Julian McMahon , the film was released on July 8 , 2005 .
= = = = Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer ( 2007 ) = = = =
The story , both inspired by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby 's Fantastic Four comic @-@ book storyline " The Galactus Trilogy " and Warren Ellis 's comic @-@ book Ultimate Extinction , features the Silver Surfer , whose cosmic energy has been affecting the planet Earth and leaving craters around the planet . Set against an impending wedding between Reed and Susan , the U.S. Army recruits the Fantastic Four to help stop the Silver Surfer , and separately gain help from Doom .
With Fantastic Four grossing $ 330 @.@ 5 million worldwide , 20th Century Fox hired director Tim Story and screenwriter Mark Frost in December 2005 to return to work for the sequel . Don Payne was also hired to write the screenplay . Principal photography began on August 28 , 2006 in Vancouver , Canada . The film was released on June 15 , 2007 .
Due to 20th Century Fox 's disappointment in the box @-@ office performance of the film , a potential third Fantastic Four film and a Silver Surfer spin @-@ off film were canceled .
= = = Reboot = = =
= = = = Fantastic Four ( 2015 ) = = = =
The story , loosely based on the Ultimate Fantastic Four comic @-@ books , features four people teleporting to an alternate universe , which alters their physical form and grants them new abilities . They must learn to harness their abilities and work together as a team to save the Earth from a familiar enemy .
In August 2009 , the development for the reboot of the Fantastic Four film franchise was announced by 20th Century Fox . In July 2012 , Josh Trank was hired to direct . Michael Green , Jeremy Slater , Seth Grahame @-@ Smith and Simon Kinberg were hired to write the screenplay with Slater and Kinberg receiving credit . Casting began in January 2014 with the announcement of the cast occurred in the following months . Principal photography began in May 2014 in Baton Rouge , Louisiana and ended in August the same year . Starring Miles Teller , Kate Mara , Michael B. Jordan , Jamie Bell and Toby Kebbell , the film was released on August 7 , 2015 . A sequel was originally planned for 2017 , but was removed from the studio 's schedule in November 2015 .
= = Recurring cast and characters = =
List indicator ( s )
This table only includes characters which have appeared in more than one film .
A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film , or that the character 's presence in the film has not yet been announced .
= = Crew = =
= = Home media release = =
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released Fantastic Four and Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and digital download . The films were also released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray box sets :
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
The Fantastic Four film series is the fourth highest @-@ grossing film series based on Marvel Comics characters after the Marvel Cinematic Universe , the Spider @-@ Man films and the X @-@ Men film series respectively grossing over $ 342 million in North America and over $ 787 million worldwide .
= = = Critical and public response = = =
None of the Fantastic Four films to date have been positively received by critics . Scott Weinberg of eFilmCritic called the 1994 film " [ a ] painfully silly film , one with more heroic intentions than actual assets . "
Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald gave negative reviews to the Fantastic Four films directed by Tim Story . Regarding Rise of the Silver Surfer , he stated , " Story does the same sort of efficient , impersonal job he did on the first film , keeping things at such a basic , almost childish level that it seems the movie is aimed squarely , if not exclusively , at the 12 @-@ and @-@ under set . " However , Roger Moore of Orlando Sentinel gave Story 's Fantastic Four films good reviews . He called the first film as a " popcorn popper " and a " cinematic sugar buzz " and the second film an " entertaining film that doesn 't overstay its welcome . "
The 2015 Fantastic Four film was the weakest reviewed of the series ; it was criticised for its dark , humorless tone , its character arcs , designs ( especially that of Dr. Doom ) , bland acting , and poorly written story . Josh Trank , who directed the film , was himself not satisfied , posting a message on Twitter stating he had a better version of the film , but was ruined by Fox ; he later deleted the message .
= The Checkers ( restaurant ) =
The Checkers , is a restaurant with rooms in Montgomery , Powys , Wales . Historically , the building was used as a coaching inn dating from the 17th century . Until the 2000s , it was used as a pub / hotel . It was converted into a French restaurant in 2012 and under chef Stephane Borie , it was awarded a Michelin star later that year . There are two main rooms in the restaurant , and three hotel rooms . It has received a mixed reception from critics , who have praised particular dishes but criticised the atmosphere . It serves both modern and classic French dishes , and in 2016 , switched to only using set menus .
= = Description = =
The restaurant is located on Broad Street in the town of Montgomery , Powys , a short distance from Montgomery Castle . There is a separate dining room and bar / lounge area in the restaurant . The dining room has low @-@ slung beams , and an open brick fireplace , around which are placed Laura Ashley sofas . The chestnut wood flooring of the restaurant was created from a fallen tree on the Francis family farm . There is room to serve up to 40 diners , with 12 members of staff working there . There are three en @-@ suite rooms available to hire on a hotel basis .
= = = Menu = = =
The menu uses locally grown produce from Powys and Shropshire , and is a combination of classic and modern French cuisine with seasonal changes . Dishes include a pork belly main from the nearby Neuadd Fach baconry , which is served with an apple mousseline , pear and au jus . A monkfish main course comes served with a langoustine consommé and a brussel sprout purée . Other French courses include a French onion soup and a cheese soufflé . Desserts served include a nougat tube filled with white chocolate and passion fruit mousse , and a trio of lemon pots .
In early 2016 , the a la carte menu was stopped and the restaurant moved to serving only set menus . This was attributed to a desire to reduce the food waste produced by the restaurant , which staff hoped that could drop by half as a result of the change . The children 's menu consists of smaller portions of the main menu .
= = History = =
The building dates from the 17th century , and was originally used as a coaching inn . References to the Checkers Inn in Montgomery within the British Newspaper Archives appear as far back as 1855 , when Rebecca Davies ' annual ball was due to take place in the large room there . In 1870 , the inn was run by Charles Williams . During the early 2000s , the building was operated as a hotel and pub , . with Eric Whittingham as landlord .
Head chef Stephane Bor
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tornado — as well as crossing over them after forming elsewhere . More than a dozen tornadoes have crossed the Mississippi River in recorded history . Regarding mountains , tornadoes have been observed on terrain as high as 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) above sea level , and have been known to pass up a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) ridge unaffected .
These myths have been debunked in the past . The devastating Tri @-@ State Tornado crossed two major rivers along a record 219 @-@ mile ( 352 km ) or longer path . In 1944 , a violent tornado cut a continuous path at least 60 miles ( 97 km ) through heavily forested and mountainous territory in West Virginia , killing at least 100 people . A hill known as Burnett 's Mound on the southwest end of Topeka , Kansas was purported to protect the city from tornadoes , according to an old legend . However , in 1966 , an F5 tornado passed directly over the hill through downtown , killing 18 people and causing $ 100 million ( 1966 USD ) in damage . Downtown Memphis , Tennessee was believed by residents to be protected from tornadoes and other severe weather by the Chickasaw Bluff along the Mississippi River . During the 1974 Super Outbreak , violent tornadoes crossed dozens of rivers , including the Ohio , Detroit River as well as crossing over mountains and ridges hundreds of feet high . Another example of tornadoes hitting mountainous regions of the United States is the April , 2011 " Super " outbreak , which hit mountainous parts of East Tennessee , Northeast Alabama , Southwest Virginia and North Georgia , killing many people , including an entire family of 4 in Ringgold , Georgia .
= = = Attraction to mobile homes and / or trailer parks = = =
The idea that manufactured housing units , or mobile homes , attract tornadoes has been around for decades . This may appear to be true at first from looking at tornado fatality statistics : from 2000 to 2008 , 539 people were killed by tornadoes in the US , with more than half ( 282 ) of those deaths in mobile homes . Only around 6 @.@ 8 % of homes in the US are " manufactured / mobile homes " .
However , it is highly unlikely that single @-@ story structures such as mobile homes can have a substantial effect on tornado development or evolution . More people are killed in trailer parks because mobile homes are less able to withstand high winds than permanent structures . Winds which can demolish or roll a mobile home may only cause roof damage to a typical one- or two @-@ family permanent residence . Another likely contributing factor to the continued propagation of this myth is confirmation bias : whenever a new instance of a tornado hitting a mobile home park occurs , media outlets report on it more extensively , ignoring damage to the surrounding area which may not have produced as many casualties .
= = = Downtown areas = = =
Some people believe that , for various reasons , large cities cannot be struck by tornadoes . More than 100 tornadoes have struck downtown areas of large cities in recorded history . Many cities have been struck twice or more , and a few — including Lubbock , Texas ; St. Louis , Missouri ; Topeka , Kansas ; and London , England — have been struck by violent tornadoes ( F4 or stronger ) .
Tornadoes may seem rare in downtown areas because downtown areas cover such a small geographical area . Considering the size of a central business district is very small compared to the city limits , tornadoes will strike outside of the downtown area more often .
The misconception , like most , has a small basis in truth . Research has been done in a few metropolitan areas suggesting that the urban heat island effect may discourage the formation of weak tornadoes in city centers , due to turbulent warm air disrupting their formation . This does not apply to significant tornadoes , however , and it is possible that the presence of tall buildings may actually intensify storms which move into downtown areas .
= = = During winter = = =
Because they generally require warm weather to form , tornadoes are uncommon in winter in the mid @-@ latitudes . However , they can form , and tornadoes have even been known to travel over snow @-@ covered surfaces . Deadly tornadoes are no exception : from 2000 to 2008 , 135 of the 539 US tornado deaths occurred during meteorological winter ( December through February ) . Tornadoes in winter may be more dangerous , since they tend to move faster than tornadoes at other times of the year .
= Homer the Moe =
" Homer the Moe " is the third episode of The Simpsons ’ thirteenth season . The episode first aired on the Fox Network on November 18 , 2001 . In the episode , Moe , following advice of his former bartending professor , decides to modernize his bar . The bar 's new image attracts several customers , but leaves Moe 's four regular customers , Homer , Lenny , Carl , and Barney , feeling alienated , which in turn prompts Homer to open his own private bar , disguising it as a hunting club to avoid liquor license restrictions .
The episode was directed by Jen Kamerman and was the first episode Dana Gould wrote for The Simpsons . Gould based the part about Homer 's bar on his own father , who opened a hunting club in order to sell alcohol without having to acquire a liquor license . The episode featured the musical group R.E.M. , who appeared as themselves . It received mixed reviews from critics following the thirteenth season 's release on DVD and Blu @-@ Ray .
= = Plot = =
After Homer tells a story about Bart digging a hole in the backyard for no apparent reason other than to make it deeper and bigger , Moe complains about the monotony at his tavern . Recalling his days at Swigmore University , he decides to return there for some inspiration , and leaves Homer in temporary charge of the bar . At the university , Moe finds his old professor , who is dying . After advising Moe to modernize his bar , the professor drowns himself in the campus lake . Soon , the tavern is renovated by Formico , the self proclaimed " Dean of Design " , into a swanky nightclub renamed " M " and with a post @-@ modern decor .
Homer and his bar @-@ buddies Lenny , Carl and Barney find that they do not fit in with the new , affluent crowd , and miss their old tavern experience . Homer decides to convert his garage into a new tavern for himself and his friends . Meanwhile , Moe realizes that he does not fit in with his new clientele either , and leaves to find Homer . Arriving at the Simpsons ’ home , he finds that the new garage bar has quickly become quite popular , and even has the alternative rock band R.E.M. playing . When confronted by Moe with the fact that it is illegal to operate a bar in a private residence , Homer claims that it is in fact a hunting club , citing a law book that states that a hunting club may provide refreshing beverages . Moe consults the book and determines that the club must engage in the sport of hunting . Homer decides that he will hunt for a turkey for Thanksgiving dinner , and Lisa exclaims , " Hunting ? Dad , no ! "
Homer sets out the next day to find a turkey ( though he exclaims " What the hell is that ? " upon seeing one ) but Lisa and Moe scare off his quarry , using a whistle that sounds like a cougar . However , Homer mistakes the whistle for an actual cougar , and shoots Moe in the leg ( and faints into a bear trap upon being informed of this by Lisa ) . After Homer apologizes , he , along with Moe , R.E.M. and the rest of the Simpson family return to Moe ’ s tavern , reverted to its original decor , for a Thanksgiving meal of a turkey , made " entirely of tofu and gluten " and provided by Michael Stipe , who is an environmentalist .
= = Production = =
Jen Kamerman directed " Homer the Moe " , which was the first episode Dana Gould wrote for the show . It was first broadcast on Fox in the United States on November 18 , 2001 , four days before Thanksgiving .
In the DVD commentary for the episode , Gould says that , when the team were thinking of a way to start the show , George Meyer said , " I like how kids will just dig a hole " . Homer 's story ends with a Chinese satellite spying on Bart. This was an attempt by Gould to write a bizarre joke in the style of fellow Simpsons writer John Swartzwelder . Moe 's plot in the second act was also created by Meyer , who suggested that the bartending school that Moe attended would resemble the law school on the 1970s television series The Paper Chase , and that the school 's professor would be based on the professor from the earlier series .
Gould remembered how his father opened a hunting club and could sell alcohol without having to obtain a liquor @-@ license . This inspired the idea of Homer 's club . Also , the " crossed @-@ fishing @-@ pole @-@ and @-@ rifle " insignia that can be seen in Homer 's garage is the same insignia that Gould 's father uses for his hunting club . Homer 's bar was originally the center of the episode , but became the third act when the writers came up with the renovation of Moe 's bar and made it the main storyline .
Alternative rock band R.E.M. guest @-@ starred as themselves in the episode . " We had been told that R.E.M. were big fans of the show " , says executive producer and showrunner for the episode , Mike Scully , adding that their appearance in the episode was a " fairly last @-@ minute addition " . Unlike The Who , who made an appearance in the episode " A Tale of Two Springfields " , R.E.M. did not want their former drummer Bill Berry to be animated in the episode . The drummer seen in the episode was instead drawn to resemble one of their session drummers at the time . Moe 's professor at Swigmore University was voiced by the series ' regular voice actor Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer among many others . Formico , who renovated Moe 's tavern , was portrayed by Hank Azaria , who also voices Moe as well as several other characters in the show .
= = Cultural references = =
Swigmore University , which Moe attends in the episode , is a parody of Skidmore College . The professor working at Swigmore University is based on Professor Charles W. Kingsfield , Jr. from the television series The Paper Chase . Moe 's new bar M is a parody on the luxury boutique hotel W in New York that Gould had visited once . The monitors showing eyeballs are based on similar decorations found in the elevators in the St Martin 's Lane hotel , where the Simpsons ' staff hosted a Simpsons festival . The doorman in front of M was modeled after special effects creator and actor Greg Nicotero . The dance that Homer , Carl and Lenny perform in Moe 's bar is a takeoff on the dancing in the comedy / drama film Coyote Ugly , in which the dancers performed on the bar counter , much like Homer , Carl and Lenny do in the episode .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on November 18 , 2001 , " Homer the Moe " was watched by 14 @.@ 5 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched television show of its timeslot that night . The episode received a 7 @.@ 1 rating / 17 share among adult viewers between ages 18 and 49 , meaning it was seen by 7 @.@ 1 % of the population between ages 18 and 49 , and 17 % of people in this demographic watching television at the time of its broadcast . On September 14 , 2004 , " Homer the Moe " was released , along with the episodes " Homer 's Night Out " , " The Mansion Family " and " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " on a DVD set entitled The Simpsons – Gone Wild . The episode was later included in The Simpsons : The Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ Ray set , released August 24 , 2010 .
Giving the episode a rating of C − , Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict described the episode as a " tepid remix of previous Simpsons plots " . Ron Martin of 411Mania called the plot " unimaginative " and wrote " I suppose there ’ s only enough episodes you can go through before Moe ’ s has to modernize in the most hideous way " . IGN reviewer R.L. Shaffer wrote that " Homer the Moe " , " The Frying Game " , " The Old Man and the Key " , and " Sweets and Sour Marge " were some of the worst episodes of the whole series . However , Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that , even though the episode was too similar to the third season episode " Flaming Moe 's " , the episode " works reasonably well " . He gave the episode a favorable review overall , calling it " one of the year 's best episodes " . Adam Rayner of Obsessed With Film wrote that the story was " told very well and continued to show the strength of the character of ‘ Moe ’ , who would go on to be one of the only genuinely funny characters in the following barren years for the show " . Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com described the episode as one of the best of the season , and Aaron Peck of High @-@ Def Digest stated that the episode was one of his personal favorites .
In 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed R.E.M 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . Andrew Martin of Prefix Mag named R.E.M. his tenth favorite musical guests on The Simpsons out of a list of ten in 2011 .
= Thunderstorm =
A thunderstorm , also known as an electrical storm , lightning storm , or thundershower , is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth 's atmosphere , known as thunder . Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus . They are usually accompanied by strong winds , heavy rain , and sometimes snow , sleet , hail , or , in contrast , no precipitation at all . Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband , known as a squall line . Strong or severe thunderstorms , known as supercells , rotate as do cyclones . While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy , vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction .
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm , moist air , sometimes along a front . As the warm , moist air moves upward , it cools , condenses , and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature , water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice , reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell . Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth 's surface . As the droplets fall , they collide with other droplets and become larger . The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it , and this cold air spreads out at the Earth 's surface , occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms .
Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the mid @-@ latitude , where warm , moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes . Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena . Thunderstorms , and the phenomena that occur along with them , pose great hazards . Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds , large hailstones , and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation . Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts .
There are four types of thunderstorms : single @-@ cell , multi @-@ cell cluster , multi @-@ cell lines , and supercells . Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena . Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes . Dry thunderstorms , with no precipitation , can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning that accompanies them . Several means are used to study thunderstorms : weather radar , weather stations , and video photography . Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century . Beyond the Earth 's atmosphere , thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and Venus .
= = Life cycle = =
Warm air has a lower density than cool air , so warmer air rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom ( this effect can be seen with a hot air balloon ) . Clouds form as relatively warmer air , carrying moisture , rises within cooler air . The moist air rises , and , as it does so , it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air condenses . When the moisture condenses , it releases energy known as latent heat of vaporization , which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler surrounding air continuing the cloud 's ascension . If enough instability is present in the atmosphere , this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning and thunder . Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds . Generally , thunderstorms require three conditions to form :
Moisture
An unstable airmass
A lifting force ( heat )
All thunderstorms , regardless of type , go through three stages : the developing stage , the mature stage , and the dissipation stage . The average thunderstorm has a 24 km ( 15 mi ) diameter . Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere , each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes .
= = = Cumulus stage = = =
The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage . During this stage , masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere . The trigger for this lift can be solar illumination , where the heating of the ground produces thermals , or where two winds converge forcing air upwards , or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation . The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude , which appear as cumulus clouds . As the water vapor condenses into liquid , latent heat is released , which warms the air , causing it to become less dense than the surrounding , drier air . The air tends to rise in an updraft through the process of convection ( hence the term convective precipitation ) . This process creates a low @-@ pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunderstorm . In a typical thunderstorm , approximately 5 × 108 kg of water vapor are lifted into the Earth 's atmosphere .
= = = Mature stage = = =
In the mature stage of a thunderstorm , the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther . Often this ' cap ' is the tropopause . The air is instead forced to spread out , giving the storm a characteristic anvil shape . The resulting cloud is called cumulonimbus incus . The water droplets coalesce into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles . As these fall , they melt to become rain . If the updraft is strong enough , the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large that they do not melt completely but fall as hail . While updrafts are still present , the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it , creating downdrafts as well . The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds . During this stage , considerable internal turbulence can occur within , which manifests as strong winds , severe lightning , and even tornadoes .
Typically , if there is little wind shear , the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and ' rain itself out ' , but , if there is sufficient change in wind speed and / or direction , the downdraft will be separated from the updraft , and the storm may become a supercell , where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours .
= = = Dissipating stage = = =
In the dissipation stage , the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft . If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development , this stage occurs rather quickly , approximately 20 – 30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm . The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm , hit the ground and spread out . This phenomenon is known as a downburst . The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm , the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate . Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions , which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm , moist air , and kills the thunderstorm 's further growth . The downdraft hitting the ground creates an outflow boundary . This can cause downbursts , a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through , as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs , resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft . The stronger the outflow boundary is , the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes .
= = Classification = =
There are four main types of thunderstorms : single @-@ cell , multi @-@ cell , squall line ( also called multi @-@ cell line ) and supercell . Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ( " wind shear " ) . Single @-@ cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20 – 30 minutes . Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters / lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear , which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather . The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms , most commonly associated with large hail , high winds , and tornado formation .
= = = Single @-@ cell = = =
This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft . Also known as air @-@ mass thunderstorms , these are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales . They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front from the sea during winter . Within a cluster of thunderstorms , the term " cell " refers to each separate principal updraft . Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation , as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development . Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability ; hence the term " air mass thunderstorm " . When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them , it is known as a pulse severe storm . Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space , making them difficult to forecast . Single @-@ cell thunderstorms normally last 20 – 30 minutes .
= = = Multi @-@ cell clusters = = =
This is the most common type of thunderstorm development . Mature thunderstorms are found near the center of the cluster , while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side . Multicell storms form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines . While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes , the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time . They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries , such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure . These type of storms are stronger than the single @-@ cell storm , yet much weaker than the supercell storm . Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate @-@ sized hail , flash flooding , and weak tornadoes .
= = = Multicell lines = = =
A squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along and / or ahead of a cold front . In the early 20th century , the term was used as a synonym for cold front . The squall line contains heavy precipitation , hail , frequent lightning , strong straight line winds , and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts . Severe weather in the form of strong straight @-@ line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a bow echo , within the portion of the line that bows out the most . Tornadoes can be found along waves within a line echo wave pattern , or LEWP , where mesoscale low pressure areas are present . Some bow echoes in the summer are called derechos , and move quite fast through large sections of territory . On the back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines , a wake low can form , which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy , which are sometimes associated with a heat burst . This kind of storm is also known as " Wind of the Stony Lake " ( Traditional Chinese : 石湖風 – shi2 hu2 feng1 , Simplified Chinese : 石湖风 ) in southern China .
= = = Supercells = = =
Supercell storms are large , usually severe , quasi @-@ steady @-@ state storms that form in an environment where wind speed or wind direction varies with height ( " wind shear " ) , and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts ( i.e. , where its associated precipitation is not falling through the updraft ) with a strong , rotating updraft ( a " mesocyclone " ) . These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud ( or anvil ) can break through the troposphere and reach into the lower levels of the stratosphere , and supercell storms can be 15 miles ( 24 km ) wide . Research has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause severe weather . These storms can produce destructive tornadoes , sometimes F3 or higher , extremely large hailstones ( 4 inches or 10 centimetres diameter ) , straight @-@ line winds in excess of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , and flash floods . In fact , research has also shown that most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm . Supercells are the strongest type of thunderstorm , even stronger than the most severe thunderstorms .
= = = Severe thunderstorms = = =
A thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour ( 58 mph ) , hail is 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in diameter or larger , or if funnel clouds or tornadoes are reported . Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm , a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning . A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe , or will soon turn severe . In Canada , a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) in one hour , or 75 millimetres ( 3 in ) in three hours , is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms . Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell . However , multicell , supercell , and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather .
= = = Mesoscale convective systems = = =
A mesoscale convective system ( MCS ) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones , and normally persists for several hours or more . A mesoscale convective system 's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape , and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones , squall lines , lake @-@ effect snow events , polar lows , and Mesoscale Convective Complexes ( MCCs ) , and they generally form near weather fronts . Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day . The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America , Europe , and Asia , with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours .
Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon troughs , generally within the warm season between spring and fall . More intense systems form over land than over water . One exception is that of lake @-@ effect snow bands , which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water , and occurs from fall through spring . Polar lows are a second special class of MCS . They form at high latitudes during the cold season . Once the parent MCS dies , later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale convective vortex ( MCV ) . Mesoscale convective systems are important to the United States rainfall climatology over the Great Plains since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall .
= = Motion = =
The two major ways thunderstorms move are via advection of the wind and propagation along outflow boundaries towards sources of greater heat and moisture . Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth 's troposphere , the lowest 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) of the Earth 's atmosphere . Weaker thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth 's surface than stronger thunderstorms , as the weaker thunderstorms are not as tall . Organized , long @-@ lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical wind shear vector . If the gust front , or leading edge of the outflow boundary , races ahead of the thunderstorm , its motion will accelerate in tandem . This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation ( HP ) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation ( LP ) . When thunderstorms merge , which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other , the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the merged cell . The stronger the mean wind , the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion . On weather radar , storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan .
= = = Back @-@ building thunderstorm = = =
A back @-@ building thunderstorm , commonly referred to as a training thunderstorm , is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side ( usually the west or southwest side in the Northern Hemisphere ) , such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction . Though the storm often appears stationary on radar , or even moving upwind , this is an illusion . The storm is really a multi @-@ cell storm with new , more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side , replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind . When this happens , catastrophic flooding is possible . In Rapid City , South Dakota , in 1972 , an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped an enormous quantity of rain upon the same area , resulting in devastating flash flooding . A similar event occurred in Boscastle , England , on 16 August 2004 .
= = Hazards = =
Each year , many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning . While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer , they can occur at just about any time of the year .
= = = Cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning = = =
Cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations . One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting . Under a regime of low precipitation ( LP ) thunderstorms , where little precipitation is present , rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat . Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion . In areas with a high frequency for cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning , like Florida , lightning causes several fatalities per year , most commonly to people working outside .
Precipitation with low potential of hydrogen levels ( pH ) , otherwise known as acid rain , is also a frequent risk produced by lightning . Distilled water , which contains no carbon dioxide , has a neutral pH of 7 . Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic , and those with a pH greater than 7 are basic . “ Clean ” or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5 @.@ 2 , because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid , a weak acid ( pH 5 @.@ 6 in distilled water ) , but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals . Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena , caused by the splitting of nitrogen molecules , can result in the production of acid rain , if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation , thus creating acid rain . Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or other solid chemical compounds containing carbon . In ecosystems , acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in soil , resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms .
= = = Hail = = =
Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm . Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration . Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards ( known as orographic lifting ) , thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely . One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India , which reported one of the highest hail @-@ related death tolls on record in 1888 . China also experiences significant hailstorms . Across Europe , Croatia experiences frequent occurrences of hail .
In North America , hail is most common in the area where Colorado , Nebraska , and Wyoming meet , known as " Hail Alley . " Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours , with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September . Cheyenne , Wyoming is North America 's most hail @-@ prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season . In South America , areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá , Colombia .
Hail can cause serious damage , notably to automobiles , aircraft , skylights , glass @-@ roofed structures , livestock , and most commonly , farmers ' crops . Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft . When hail stones exceed 0 @.@ 5 inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter , planes can be seriously damaged within seconds . The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft . Wheat , corn , soybeans , and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage . Hail is one of Canada 's most costly hazards . Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history . One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund , Uttarakhand , India . The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora , Nebraska , United States .
= = = Tornadoes and waterspouts = = =
A tornado is a violent , rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud ( otherwise known as a thundercloud ) or , in rare cases , the base of a cumulus cloud . Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel , whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust . Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph ( 64 and 177 km / h ) , are approximately 250 feet ( 76 m ) across , and travel a few miles ( several kilometers ) before dissipating . Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph ( 480 km / h ) , stretch more than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) across , and stay on the ground for dozens of miles ( more than 100 km ) .
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused . An EF0 tornado , the weakest category , damages trees but not substantial structures . An EF5 tornado , the strongest category , rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers . The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes . Doppler radar data , photogrammetry , and ground swirl patterns ( cycloidal marks ) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating .
Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes , characterized by a spiraling funnel @-@ shaped wind current that form over bodies of water , connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds . Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes , or more specifically , non @-@ supercelled tornadoes that develop over large bodies of water . These spiralling columns of air are frequently developed within tropical areas close to the equator , but are less common within areas of high latitude .
= = = Flash flood = = =
Flash flooding is the process where a landscape , most notably an urban environment , is subjected to rapid floods . These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding and are frequently ( though not always ) associated with intense rainfall . Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow @-@ moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it . Flash floods are most common in densely populated urban environments , where few plants and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water . Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure , such as bridges , and weakly constructed buildings . Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water . Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced . Soil erosion can occur as well , exposing risks of landslide phenomena .
= = = Downburst = = =
Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms . Downburst winds are generally very powerful , and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes , due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight @-@ horizontal characteristic . Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable , incomplete , or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings . Agricultural crops , and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged . Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash . Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds . Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it , due to their higher density . When these downdrafts reach the surface , they spread out and turn into the destructive straight @-@ horizontal winds .
= = Safety precautions = =
Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully ; however , any thunderstorm can become severe , and all thunderstorms , by definition , present the danger of lightning . Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before , during , and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage .
= = = Preparedness = = =
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm . Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness ( as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year ) . Preparing a family emergency plan , for example , can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly . Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees , which can be blown over in high winds , can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury .
The National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur :
Know the names of local counties , cities , and towns , as these are how warnings are described .
Monitor forecasts and weather conditions and know whether thunderstorms are likely in the area .
Be alert for natural signs of an approaching storm .
Cancel or reschedule outdoor events ( to avoid being caught outdoors when a storm hits ) .
Take action early so you have time to get to a safe place .
Get inside a substantial building or hard @-@ topped metal vehicle before threatening weather arrives .
If you hear thunder , get to the safe place immediately .
Avoid open areas like hilltops , fields , and beaches , and don 't be or be near the tallest objects in an area when thunderstorms are occurring .
Don 't shelter under tall or isolated trees during thunderstorms .
If in the woods , put as much distance between you and any trees during thunderstorms .
If in a group , spread out so that you increase the chances for survivors who could come to the aid of any victims from a lightning strike .
= = = Safety = = =
While safety and preparedness often overlap , “ thunderstorm safety ” generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm . The American Red Cross recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress :
Take action immediately upon hearing thunder . Anyone close enough to the storm to hear thunder can be struck by lightning .
Avoid electrical appliances , including corded telephones . Cordless and wireless telephones are safe to use during a thunderstorm .
Close and stay away from windows and doors , as glass can become a serious hazard in high wind .
Do not bathe or shower , as plumbing conducts electricity .
If driving , safely exit the roadway , turn on hazard lights , and park . Remain in the vehicle and avoid touching metal .
The NWS stopped recommending the " lightning crouch " in 2008 as it doesn 't provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike .
= = Frequent occurrences = =
Thunderstorms occur throughout the world , even in the polar regions , with the greatest frequency in tropical rainforest areas , where they may occur nearly daily . At any given time approximately 2 @,@ 000 thunderstorms are occurring on Earth . Kampala and Tororo in Uganda have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth , a claim also made for Bogor on Java , Indonesia and Singapore . Other cities known for frequent storm activity include Darwin , Caracas , Manila and Mumbai . Thunderstorms are associated with the various monsoon seasons around the globe , and they populate the rainbands of tropical cyclones . In temperate regions , they are most frequent in spring and summer , although they can occur along or ahead of cold fronts at any time of year . They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water . Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures .
Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the Southern states . These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes . Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the West Coast of the United States , but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas , particularly the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California . In spring and summer , they occur nearly daily in certain areas of the Rocky Mountains as part of the North American Monsoon regime . In the Northeast , storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest , but with less frequency and severity . During the summer , air @-@ mass thunderstorms are an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida .
= = Types of lightning = =
Lightning is an electrical discharge that occurs in a thunderstorm . It can be seen in the form of a bright streak ( or bolt ) from the sky . Lightning occurs when an electrical charge is built up within a cloud , due to static electricity generated by supercooled water droplets colliding with ice crystals near the freezing level . When a large enough charge is built up , a large discharge will occur and can be seen as lightning .
The temperature of a lightning bolt can be five times hotter than the surface of the sun . Although the lightning is extremely hot , the duration is short and 90 % of strike victims survive . Contrary to the popular idea that lightning does not strike twice in the same spot , some people have been struck by lightning over three times , and skyscrapers like the Empire State Building have been struck numerous times in the same storm .
The loud bang that is heard is the super heated air around the lightning bolt expanding at the speed of sound . Because sound travels much more slowly than light the flash is seen before the bang , although both occur at the same moment .
There are several types of lightning :
In @-@ cloud lightning is the most common . It is lightning within a cloud and is sometimes called intra @-@ cloud or sheet lightning .
Cloud to ground lightning is when a bolt of lightning from a cloud strikes the ground . This form poses the greatest threat to life and property .
Ground to cloud lightning is when a lightning bolt is induced from the ground to the cloud .
Cloud to cloud lightning is rarely seen and is when a bolt of lightning arcs from one cloud to another .
Ball lightning is extremely rare and has several hypothesized explanations . It is seen in the form of a 15 to 50 centimeter radius ball .
Cloud to air lightning is when lightning from a cloud hits air of a different charge .
Dry lightning is a misnomer that refers to a thunderstorm whose precipitation does not reach the ground .
Heat Lightning refers to a lightning flash that is seen from the horizon that does not have accompanying thunder .
Upper @-@ atmospheric lightning occurs above the thunderhead .
Clear @-@ air lightning is used widely to describe lightning that occurs with no apparent cloud close enough to have produced it . In the U.S. and Canadian Rockies , a thunderstorm can be in an adjacent valley and not be observable , ( either visually or audibly ) , from the valley where the lightning bolt strikes . European and Asian mountainous areas experience similar events . Also in clear areas where the storm cell is on the near horizon ( within 26 km ( 16 mi ) a strike can occur , and as the storm is so far away , the strike is referred to as clear @-@ air .
= = Energy = =
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known , then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated . In a typical thunderstorm , approximately 5 × 108 kg of water vapor are lifted , and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 1015 joules . This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone , and more energy than that released during the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima , Japan in 1945 .
The Fermi Gamma @-@ ray Burst Monitor results show that gamma rays and antimatter particles ( positrons ) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms . It is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in terrestrial gamma @-@ ray flashes ( TGF ) . TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning . The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays . About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide , but mostly go undetected .
= = Studies = =
In more contemporary times , thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity . Every spring , storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping . Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms . More organized meteorological projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors , such as the Doppler on Wheels , vehicles with mounted automated weather stations , weather balloons , and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather . Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres ( 820 ft ) of their point of origin .
= = Mythology and religion = =
Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations . Greeks believed that they were battles waged by Zeus , who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus . Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with the Thunderbird , who they believed was a servant of the Great Spirit . The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to fight Jötnar , with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir . Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of rain and thunderstorms . Christian doctrine accepted the ideas of Aristotle 's original work , called Meteorologica , that winds were caused by exhalations from the Earth and that fierce storms were the work of God . These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century .
Martin Luther was out walking when a thunderstorm began , causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk .
= = Outside of Earth = =
The clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning much like the clouds on Earth . The lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth . A thin layer of water clouds appears to underlie the ammonia layer within Jupiter 's atmosphere , where thunderstorms evidenced by flashes of lightning have been detected . ( Water is a polar molecule that can carry a charge , so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning . ) These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth . The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior .
= Characters of the Final Fantasy XIII series =
Final Fantasy XIII - a role @-@ playing game released by Square Enix in 2009 - revolves around the struggles of a group of humans over a predestined fate . The game 's two sequels , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , build on the first game 's story and mythos . In video game publications and among the staff at Square Enix , the three games have come to be referred to as the " Lightning Saga " , and the core concepts they contain are drawn from the mythos of the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries . The visuals of the original characters were designed by Tetsuya Nomura and Nao Ikeda , while many later characters were created by other designers , including Hideo Minaba , Yusuke Naora and Toshiyuki Itahana . Their original stories were created by Motomu Toriyama and written up by Daisuke Watanabe .
The series ' central characters are Lightning , a former soldier and the core character in all three games ; Serah Farron , Lightning 's sister and the second game 's main protagonist ; Snow Villiers , an optimistic young man engaged to Serah ; Hope Estheim , a young man who develops a strong bond with Lightning ; Sazh Katzroy , a former airship pilot ; Oerba Dia Vanille and Oerba Yun Fang , two women who inadvertently set the first game 's events in motion . Three further characters appear in XIII @-@ 2 : Noel Kreiss , a hunter who sets out to change his bleak future ; Caius Ballad , a man from Noel 's past who wishes to bring about a predestined apocalypse ; and Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul , a seeress reincarnated through history . In Lightning Returns , two more are added : Lumina , a doppelganger of Serah ; and Bhunivelze , the main deity of the Final Fantasy XIII universe .
The characters in the games have been the basis of several pieces of merchandise produced by Square Enix , such as statues , action figures , apparel , and jewelry . They have been subject to mostly positive reviews ; most observers favorably compared the characters to those in the previous games and praised the voice acting , however some critics have stated that the plot line of the characters have been confusing when introduced . In XIII @-@ 2 , the shift to new or secondary characters and the change in importance and story role of the previous game 's main cast grated with some reviewers , while others applauded the new characters ' development and interactions . In Lightning Returns , the characters ' stories were often criticized for being underdeveloped , or simply included for the sake of ending their stories .
= = Creation and development = =
The overarching theme of the games was the effects the deities of the core mythos on the human population , especially the fate that was forced upon the main characters . Yuji Abe , a designer on Lightning Returns , defined it as " A battle with destiny " , with the burden of destiny growing progressively heavier for the main characters over the course of the games . The setting and story was written around and drawn from the official mythology for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series , which also includes Final Fantasy XV and Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . For Final Fantasy XIII and its sequels , Toriyama created a story focusing on the existing deities within the mythos and their influence on the world . Different deities from the mythos were focused on in each installment , such as the goddess Etro in XIII @-@ 2 . One of the defining features of the cast is the game 's central protagonist : Lightning . Toriyama wanted Lightning to be an exceptional female protagonist for the Final Fantasy series , with her having great strength and combat ability , as opposed to the gentler figures of Aerith from Final Fantasy VII or Yuna from Final Fantasy X. Unlike those characters , Lightning 's personality was conceived well before her outfit was designed or her voice actresses were cast . How the character was portrayed and how her story and personality was evolved became one of the driving forces of the series .
Most of Final Fantasy XIII 's characters were designed by Tetsuya Nomura , who also served as the character designer for Final Fantasy VII , VIII and X. The stories of the characters were created by Motomu Toriyama and Daisuke Watanabe . The main story concept was " characters at the mercy of a predetermined , unjust fate " . Nao Ikeda designed Snow , Jihl Nabaat and Gadot , Lebreau , and Maqui . The cast , along with the world 's characters , were intended to mimic the multi @-@ ethnic feel of the United States rather than Asia or Europe . During production of the first game , Toriyama wanted the cast to be a group that was originally combative with one @-@ another , and designed the game 's narrative with several key points which would bring them together : these included the scene between Sazh and Vanille in the city of Nautilus , and the reconciliation between Snow and Hope in the town of Palumpolum . The characters went through several changes in the early stages of development , the two noted examples being Sazh 's ethnic origin and Fang 's gender .
For XIII @-@ 2 , Toriyama wanted a dark and serious tone to the world and story , in contrast to the jovial atmosphere of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , and the story was scripted to play out as " pieces of drama " like a television series . Its story and characters were focused around the concepts of mortality and , in Toriyama 's words , the " wish for rebirth " : the latter theme was directly inspired by the Great East Japan earthquake . Watanabe stayed as one of the game 's writers , with writer and novelist Emi Nagashima , better known under her pen name of Jun Eishima , coming on as a story consultant . Lightning 's outfit for the game was designed by Isamu Kamikokuryo , who worked from a rough outline done by Nomura , who also designed the characters ' facial features . Two new character designers were brought in : Hideo Minaba , who contributed to new character outfits such as Hope and Alyssa 's , and Yusuke Naora , who designed outfits for Serah , Noel and Caius . Lightning and Serah 's designs were created to directly reflect the environments they start out from . The character of Noel was added at a later stage in the original planning , since the original plan for Serah to travel alone with the moogle Mog seemed to clash too much with the game 's serious nature . For Lightning Returns , the developers decided to have Lightning as the sole protagonist so that players could get to know her better . The story was created to bring closure for the characters of the series . The core themes of the game were the " salvation of souls " , and the " rebirth of Lightning " , the latter being the main reason the game was not called XIII @-@ 3 . Norura returned to design Lightning and Snow 's new looks and Kamikokuryo returned to design new outfits for Lightning and help with the world design . Two new designers brought in were Toshitaka Matsuda , an artist for Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , and Toshiyuki Itahana , who had worked on Final Fantasy IX and the Crystal Chronicles series . Both designed multiple battle costumes for Lightning , many of them inspired by the artwork of Yoshitaka Amano . Itahana and Matsuda also respectively designed Lumina and Bhunivelze . Watanabe returned as the main scenario writer , while also receiving ideas for scenes from Toriyama and other members of staff . His work on the script was slow , causing problems from the rest of the development team : in response to this , he worked hard to create an appropriate finale . During his work , he had a strong nostalgic feeling while writing the characters ' lines .
In order to reduce the delay between the local and international releases , the English voice acting for XIII was done while the game was in development . Unfortunately , it lacked the infrastructure needed to support simultaneous development and localization . The lack of deadlines , poor communication and synchronization between the various departments , and continuing changes to the script and to cutscenes led to a turbulent development . One of the most notable knock @-@ on effects was that the game 's script needed to be re @-@ translated as the various cutscenes changed , and large parts of the dialogue had to be rerecorded , party because they lacked proper emotional drive at the right moments . For XIII @-@ 2 , a tool called Moomle , developed by English translator Tom Slattery and his Japanese counterpart Teruaki Sugawara from their experience with the first game , was used to make sure all parts of the localization process were synchronized . For Lightning Returns the Japanese voice actors recorded their dialogue well after their characters ' scenes had been created , as opposed to the normal procedure of recording lines before cutscene creation . For the English version , the amount of dialogue translation and recording was so large that there was over two months ' delay between the game 's local and international releases .
Eidolons ( 召喚獣 , Shōkanjū , Summon Beasts ) , beings who aid the protagonists after being tamed in battle , are the game 's versions of summons . The ones featured in the games are series staples Odin , Shiva , Alexander , and Bahamut , and newcomers Hecatoncheir and Brynhildr . Their summon sequences were designed to be flashy , but also mixed with gameplay : this approach was inspired by comments from players of previous titles who had not wanted to wait as long for the summons to take effect as in previous titles . The Eidolons , which could transform into vehicle @-@ like forms for their masters to ride , were built around the game 's theme of " transformation " . They were to have been featured in XIII @-@ 2 as part of a DLC episode , but the idea was scrapped and the gameplay was folded into one of the title 's minigames . For Lightning Returns , although the Eidolons still exist , they were not available in gameplay and merely served as an element of the story . Carried over from the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos are the fal 'Cie , demigods who work to find a way of bringing their respective deities back into the world . The fal 'Cie can choose people to become l 'Cie , servants given magical powers and a task to complete within a given time , called a Focus . Those who succeed go into crystal stasis , while those that fail become monsters called Cie 'th .
= = Playable characters = =
= = = Lightning = = =
Lightning ( ライトニング , Raitoningu ) is the key protagonist of Final Fantasy XIII and its sequels , serving as a primary protagonist in XIII , a supporting character of XIII @-@ 2 and the sole playable character of Lightning Returns . Born as Claire Farron , or Éclair Farron ( エクレール ・ ファロン , Ekurēru Faron ) in the original Japanese @-@ language version , she lost her parents when she was 15 years old . She takes a new name to become a stronger person to help her younger sister Serah , only to cause tensions between them as a result . In the first game , she is a former Sanctum soldier who sets out to save her sister from the fal 'Cie , then strives to save Cocoon from destruction . At the beginning of XIII @-@ 2 , she is whisked away to Valhalla , capital of the Unseen World , to act as the Goddess Etro 's protector , sending messages to her allies and guiding Serah through time to put things right . She fails , causing the death of Etro and the release of Chaos , a dark energy kept trapped by the goddess . In Lightning Returns , Lightning ends up serving the god Bhunivelze as the savior for the inhabitants of Nova Chrysalia during its final days , fighting old friends and enemies alike to save their souls . She is voiced by Ali Hillis in English and by Maaya Sakamoto in Japanese .
= = = Serah Farron = = =
Serah Farron ( セラ ・ ファロン , Sera Faron ) is an 18 @-@ year @-@ old human from Cocoon . After their parents die years prior to the start of the game , Lightning , then still called Claire , raises Serah and sets out to become a protector for her , but her devotion to that goal causes tensions between them . Eventually , Serah becomes engaged to Snow days prior to the start of the game , and Lightning strongly objects to their relationship . Serah eventually reveals to Snow and Lightning that , while exploring the Pulse Vestage where the fal 'Cie Anima was kept , she has been made a Pulse l 'Cie . However , Lightning discovers too late that Serah is captured by Anima after disbelieving her sister . Although given the Focus to become Ragnarok , she changes her Focus through her own will , then imparts her new mission , to save Cocoon , to Lightning and Snow before turning to crystal after being found . The change of her Focus eventually inspires the other l 'Cie to do the same . After the party defeats Orphan at the end of the game , Serah , along with Dajh , resumes her life as a human . Serah reconciles with Lightning , who accepts her relationship with Snow afterwards .
In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , Serah is the only one who remembers Lightning being on Gran Pulse after she is taken to Valhalla , with all the others believing she sacrificed herself to save Cocoon . She eventually becomes a teacher in the village of New Bodhum , the town she and Snow help build on Gran Pulse , before it is invaded by monsters three years after the fall of Cocoon . Serah is aided by Noel Kreiss , who tells her of Lightning 's fate and his own mission . After Serah accepts Noel 's offer to be brought to Lightning , the two embark on a journey across time to find her sister . In the process , Serah encounters Caius Ballad , while learning from Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul that she possesses the same detrimental ability as her to see the future . Despite learning that she would die herself if she continues seeing visions of the future , Serah resolves to change the future for everyone 's sake . However , after Caius 's defeat and returning to Gran Pulse five hundred years in her future , Serah has another vision and dies moments before Gran Pulse is infected by Valhalla 's chaos . Serah appears to Lightning in Valhalla as a spirit , telling her she knew that she could have died from her visions but still took the risk regardless . Serah promises Lightning that they will see each other again as long as Lightning promises to remember her . In Lightning Returns , Serah 's soul , which has been kept safe within Lightning , is removed and cast away by Bhunivelze . Lumina acts as a shelter for Serah 's soul , resulting in the two being similar in appearance . Bhunivelze also creates a false version of Serah to keep Lightning in line . This false Serah , who develops feelings for her ' sister ' arrives when Lightning intends to become the protector of the new world and persuades her to accept her vulnerabilities and call for aid . The real Serah reunites with Lightning and her allies , and travels with them to the new world .
Early in the development of XIII , Serah was meant to be a playable character , but was eventually delegated to a supporting character because of technical issues . Tetsuya Nomura , in an interview , said that he designed Serah 's hair so that her silhouette would mirror Lightning 's . For XIII @-@ 2 , the developers decided to change Serah and Lightning 's roles , with Serah becoming the game 's main protagonist , while Lightning was the object of her quest . Yusuke Naora was told to design Serah 's new costume like the " plug suit " outfits from Neon Genesis Evangelion and was asked to give her a necklace for plot reasons . Part of the challenge for the game was making Serah more active , but maintaining her femininity , which is the reason she was given a bow as her weapon . Another reason behind the design of her weapon was the fact that the developers wanted to give the characters means to attack both up close and at long range . Aside from Naora 's design , Yuko Oshima of AKB48 was asked to design two potential DLC outfits for Serah : a black combat outfit titled " Exposure and Defense " ( later retitled " Style and Steel " ) , and a second red @-@ and @-@ white outfit titled " Little Red Riding Hood " , meant to be indicative of Serah 's change into an adult . After a popular vote , the former costume was chosen and released in April 2012 . Serah is voiced by Laura Bailey in English and by Minako Kotobuki in Japanese .
= = = Snow Villiers = = =
Snow Villiers ( スノウ ・ ヴィリアース , Sunō Viriāsu ) is a 21 @-@ year @-@ old human from Cocoon . Snow proposes to Serah Farron two days prior to the start of Final Fantasy XIII . During the Purge ( a mass exodus of Cocoon citizens after the activation of the Pulse fal 'Cie Anima ) , Snow and his group NORA engages in a battle with PSICOM , the security force of Cocoon . After becoming a l 'Cie and finding Serah in crystal stasis , he despairs and is forced to tame his Eidolon , the Shiva Sisters . After meeting up with Cid Raines and Oerba Yun Fang , Snow pairs up with Hope while oblivious to the boy 's grudge against him . Once Hope gets Snow alone , he unsuccessfully tries to murder him for his part in his mother 's death and reconciles with him soon after . Snow then reconciles with Lightning and receives forgiveness from Hope 's father . He and the others then rescue Sazh and Vanille before eventually escaping to Gran Pulse , where Lightning and Snow resolve to see Serah together after destroying Orphan . After Orphan 's death , Snow and Lightning reunite with Serah , then start planning to set up a new town on Gran Pulse .
In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , Snow left a year prior to its events promising Serah to find Lightning for her . His search would eventually result with him traveling through time while seeing Lightning in a dream telling him to protect the crystal pillar holding Cocoon , seeing a vision of the world 's fate , and becoming a l 'Cie once more with the Focus of fighting beside Serah at the final battle . Appearing on Cocoon three hundred years in his future , Snow attempts to destroy a monster threatening Cocoon 's supporting pillar . Serah and Noel come to Snow 's aid and help him defeat it by negating the anomaly causing its growth . With the threat gone , Snow entrusts Noel with Serah 's care and dissolves from the moment in time while promising Serah that they will meet again . Snow then travels to the Coliseum , a fighting arena separated from the flow of time , and after Serah and Noel challenge him to combat and win , he is forced to remain due to being bound to the Coliseum by the Chaos .
In Lightning Returns , after being released from his imprisonment , Snow meets up with Noel and Hope before coming upon the city of Yusnaan and becomes its protector and patron . Over the next five hundred years , he becomes jaded and depressed , brooding on Serah 's death and being weighed down by guilt at his inability to stop the world decaying . When Lightning meets up with him , his changed appearance and attitude makes her fear that he has gone insane . When they next meet , Snow reveals his intention to absorb a massive cloud of Chaos at the center of Yusnaan 's palace , transform into a Cie 'th and have Lightning kill him as a punishment for his failure . He performs this act and Lightning does battle him , but she manages to reverse the transformation and convince him to keep hoping and help guide Serah to the new world .
Snow was designed by Nao Ikeda and Tetsuya Nomura . He was designed around a motif of ice , with his bandanna inspired by an unused costume element from Kingdom Hearts coded designed by Kamikokuryo . For XIII @-@ 2 , the bandanna was removed and he was given a new hairstyle . Originally to have been called " Storm " , the development team nicknamed the character " Mr. 33 cm " in reference to his shoe size while his name was still a secret . Nomura designed his darker look in Lightning Returns . Snow 's personality in XIII , which carried over to XIII @-@ 2 , was created to be passionate , optimistic and impulsive , opposing and acting as a foil for Lightning 's cold mannerisms . He has also been described in interviews as the " tough guy " type , and not having a jealous side to him . He was originally to have been a more negative delinquent athletic type , but this was changed to his " big brother " persona . Concerning his stance in Lightning Returns , Kitase described Snow as " struggling with all his might to keep himself from falling apart from the sadness of losing Serah . " His design was intended to reflect the state of the world , as he had changed from his lighthearted former self because of the world 's fate . His darker portrayal was emulated by his weapon in the opening cinematic . Watanabe enjoyed writing the character 's story , as he was able to give Snow scenes where he appeared " cool " , rather than taking on a " thankless " roles . VideoGamer.com 's Wesley Yin @-@ Poole called his relationship with Lightning and Hope , and the way he coped with Serah 's fate , one of the most interesting aspects of the original game . Aside from his appearance in the XIII games , the character was featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a subcharacter representing Final Fantasy XIII , and his outfit from that game was featured as an optional character costume in Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn along with Lightning 's Guardian Corps uniform . Snow is voiced by Troy Baker in English and by Daisuke Ono in Japanese .
= = = Hope Estheim = = =
Hope Estheim ( ホープ ・ エストハイム , Hōpu Esutohaimu ) is a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy who is an exile at the start of Final Fantasy XIII . At the beginning of the game , Hope and his mother Nora , on vacation in the town of Bodhum , are selected for the Purge . Under Snow 's leadership , Nora joins the resistance in the Hanging Edge , but falls to her death during the battle while trying to protect Hope and after saving Snow 's life : this event angers Hope greatly . After he becomes a l 'Cie , and being separated from the main party , Hope follows Lightning while plotting his assassination attempt on Snow . Despite Lightning 's objections , Hope tries to kill Snow once he gets him alone , but after coming to the realization that he had just been blaming Snow to cope with his mother 's death , they settle their differences . When Hope returns home to his father , Bartholomew , he tells him what happened to Nora and repairs their relationship . When on Gran Pulse , he tells the others to leave him , afraid they will get hurt because of him , but inadvertently summons his Eidolon Alexander . After the defeat of Orphan , Hope tells Lightning that Fang and Vanille had changed their fate by fulfilling their Focus of transforming into Ragnarok to save Cocoon rather than destroying it .
In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Hope is leader of the scientific expedition group known as the Academy a decade after the events of Final Fantasy XIII . He helps Noel and Serah in their journey to find Lightning when they arrive in his time . Other than knowing that time travel is possible and wishing to undo events of the past , Hope is planning on reviving Cocoon with a different power source . Originally planning to create an artificial fal 'Cie , he is dissuaded upon seeing a vision of Serah fighting his creation . He and his assistant Alyssa Zaidelle then use a time capsule to go three hundred and eighty seven years into the future to oversee Hope 's New Cocoon Project , a plan to build a man @-@ made Cocoon in preparation for Cocoon 's destined fall in the next century . When the old Cocoon does fall , Hope and Sazh manage to rescue Vanille and Fang from the crystal pillar before it crumbles .
In Lightning Returns , Hope resides in a special base constructed within the new Cocoon called the Ark , communicating with Lightning via a wireless com @-@ link . Hope is returned to his 14 @-@ year @-@ old image and stripped of his emotions by Bhunivelze , but retains his memories from the past two games . He is instrumental in keeping the world going , for as Lightning completes quests and fulfills missions , he uses energy generated from those acts to prolong the world 's life . On the final day , Hope reveals that he acted as Bhunivelze 's eyes and ears , and will now be disposed of . Bhunivelze then uses Hope as an avatar , speaking with Lightning and capturing her allies . During the final battle Lightning frees him from Bhunivelze 's control , then Hope aids her in defeating Bhunivelze for good .
At the 2009 TGS event , it was revealed that Hope 's silver hair was meant for Lightning , but when her hair color was decided as pink , Hope received the silver hair coloring instead . Hope 's Academy uniform for XIII @-@ 2 was designed by Hideo Minaba . While he was portrayed as sensitive and vulnerable in XIII , for XIII @-@ 2 , the game 's director wished to portray Hope as a more mature , authoritative person . According to Toriyama , how Hope matured , as seen through Lightning 's eyes , formed one of the main story themes for Lightning Returns . He was originally going to have a third unique design for the game , but the team eventually decided to settle on his original teenage appearance . In a later interview , he said that while the character was much liked by the team , he felt that Hope lacked the heroic image that could make him a leading character . Watanabe later said that he felt Hope helped complete Lightning 's character and enable her to grow as a person . Hope is voiced by Vincent Martella in English and Yūki Kaji in Japanese .
= = = Sazh Katzroy = = =
Sazh Katzroy ( サッズ ・ カッツロイ , Sazzu Kattsuroi ) is a 40 @-@ year @-@ old human former airship pilot . His son , Dajh , is taken by the Sanctum in the aftermath of him becoming a Cocoon l 'Cie three days earlier when Sazh bought him a chocobo chick . Along with Lightning , he derails the train carrying the Cocoon exiles at the start of Final Fantasy XIII . After the party splits up following Anima 's defeat , Sazh goes with Vanille as he tells her about his son . However , Jihl Nabaat reveals Vanille 's part in his son becoming a l 'Cie , causing him to summon the Eidolon Brynhildr . Unable to kill Vanille , Sazh unsuccessfully attempts suicide . Sazh and Vanille are then captured by Nabaat . Before Lightning 's party rescues Sazh and Vanille , he reconciles with her for her role in Dajh 's fate . After traveling to Pulse , Sazh eventually forgives Fang for what happened to Dajh . After Vanille and Fang transform to Ragnarok and prevent Cocoon from colliding with Pulse , Sazh is reunited with Dajh .
After these events , Sazh leaves to help the civilians of Cocoon , then decides to move onto Gran Pulse . At some point during the events of XIII @-@ 2 , Sazh is sucked through a rip in time , is separated from Dajh and ends up in Serendipity , a palace in the Void Beyond . While there , he meets Chocolina and learns of the fate facing the world from Serendipity 's owner . Reuniting with Dajh and deciding to fight no matter what the future holds , they go through a time gate and help Serah and Noel in their battle against Caius . Sazh then helps Hope save Fang and Vanille from the crystal pillar before Cocoon falls . In Lightning Returns , Sazh has set up his home in the Wildlands . After Dajh 's soul is lost and his body falls into a coma , Sazh becomes tormented by his seeming failure to protect his son . Lightning helps retrieve the fragments of Dajh 's soul , lifting Sazh 's burden .
In the May 2009 edition of Official PlayStation Magazine , Yoshinori Kitase said that Sazh was intended to be an Eddie Murphy @-@ style comic @-@ relief character as well as a sympathetic character . Toriyama was initially worried about the unconventional afro hairstyle . Due to the character having the largest amount of dialogue in the game , an experienced voice actor was chosen for him . His early look was , as revealed in the a special Ultimania guide released during 25th anniversary celebrations for the series , very different from his final design , with him being white with long brown hair , and wielding a shoulder @-@ cannon rather than machine pistols . He was also named " Baz " . He is voiced by Reno Wilson in English and by Masashi Ebara in Japanese .
= = = Oerba Dia Vanille = = =
Oerba Dia Vanille ( ヲルバ ＝ ダイア ・ ヴァニラ , Woruba @-@ Daia Vanira ) is a 19 @-@ year @-@ old l 'Cie from the village of Oerba on Gran Pulse and the narrator of Final Fantasy XIII . Thirteen days before the start of the game , she and Oerba Yun Fang wake from crystal stasis in the Pulse Vestige holding the fal 'Cie Anima , initiating events that would lead to the Sanctum 's Purge . When she is with the Purgees of Cocoon along with Nora and Hope Estheim during their exile , she is rescued by Snow Villiers ' group , NORA . However , after Nora dies , she encourages Hope to follow Snow to confront him , and she sees them become l 'Cie . After the party splits up , Vanille , along with Sazh , resolve to run away from their fate . However , both she and Sazh are captured by Jihl Nabaat . After Lightning and the party rescue the two , Vanille reunites with Fang . On Gran Pulse , Fang regains her memory and remembers it was she who became Ragnarok , a monster designed to bring down Cocoon during a conflict between the two worlds called the War of Transgression . When Vanille enters a state of emotional distress , she summons and defeats the Eidolon Hecatoncheir . After the defeat of Orphan , she and Fang transform into Ragnarok and form a crystal pillar to prevent Cocoon colliding with Pulse .
After this event , Vanille remains with Fang in crystal stasis within the pillar : from there , the two end up seeing everything that is going on , remaining unaffected by the changes in the timeline . In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , though still held in the pillar , Vanille and Fang appear to help Serah escape from the endless dream in the Void Beyond that Caius placed her in . At the end of the game , they are rescued from the collapsing pillar . In Lightning Returns , Vanille has awoken from crystal stasis with Fang , gaining the ability to hear the voices of the dead . She is dubbed a saint and lives in the city of Luxerion in the protective care of the Order , a religious organization devoted to the deity Bhunivelze . Because of her ability , Vanille is key to a ritual to destroy the dead that will kill her in the process : not knowing the truth about the ritual , she decides to go through with it to atone for her past actions . On the final day , Lightning and Fang persuade Vanille to use her power to free the dead and enable them to be reborn .
In Final Fantasy XIII , Vanille was originally going to be the main character , but after the game was shown off with Lightning in the central role , the decision was scrapped . In an interview with Siliconera , Vanille 's English voice actor stated that she found it relatively easy connecting with the character because of the similarities in their basic personalities . Vanille is voiced by Georgia van Cuylenburg in English , and by Yukari Fukui in Japanese .
= = = Oerba Yun Fang = = =
Oerba Yun Fang ( ヲルバ ＝ ユン ・ ファング , Woruba @-@ Yun Fangu ) is a 21 @-@ year old l 'Cie from Oerba on Gran Pulse who wakes from crystal stasis thirteen days prior to the start of Final Fantasy XIII along with Oerba Dia Vanille : this event perpetuates the branding of Serah Farron by the fal 'Cie Anima , which in turn starts off the events of Final Fantasy XIII . After she escapes from Anima 's Vestage with Vanille , Fang begins serving as Cid Raines 's subordinate in the Cavalry . She eventually meets Snow and becomes his partner as part of Cid 's plan to overthrow the Sanctum . She later befriends Lightning . After rescuing Sazh and Vanille on board the Palamecia , she and Vanille reunite . Later , after being told about their focus and resolving to fulfill it even if she has to fight her friends , Fang has to fight and tame the Eidolon Bahamut . On Gran Pulse , despite Vanille 's protests , Fang reveals that she was responsible for scarring Cocoon 's shell centuries earlier and bringing deadly recriminations on the population of Gran Pulse .
When they face Orphan , despite the party 's pleas for Fang to not transform into Ragnarok , Fang eventually transforms into an incomplete version and fights the fal 'Cie alone , but gets tortured as a result of her failure , only to be saved by Lightning 's group . After Orphan 's destruction , Fang and Vanille complete their Focus by becoming Ragnarok to save Cocoon from crashing into Gran Pulse . In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , Fang and Vanille appear to help Serah escape from the endless dream in the Void Beyond that Caius placed her in , and at the end they are rescued from Cocoon 's pillar when it finally collapse . By the events of Lightning Returns , after awakening and seeing Vanille being used by the Order , Fang has taken up residence in the Dead Dunes and becomes the leader of a bandit group bent on thwarting the Order from obtaining a relic within the desert . She attempts to destroy the relic so Vanille can be saved from being killed by the ritual . Fang appears on the final day , helping Lightning dissuade Vanille from going through with the ritual and helps her guide the souls of the dead to the new world .
Fang was originally scripted to be a male character during the early stages of Final Fantasy XIII 's development , but early in the writing stage , was rewritten as a female character . Along with this , the sex appeal that was originally going to be part of Lightning 's look was transferred to Fang to give Lightning a more hard @-@ edged persona . Fang is voiced by Rachel Robinson in English , and Mabuki Andou in Japanese .
= = = Noel Kreiss = = =
Noel Kreiss ( ノエル ・ クライス , Noeru Kuraisu ) is the 18 @-@ year @-@ old male protagonist of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . One of the last remaining humans in a devastated future , Noel is a friend and student of Caius Ballad before the two grew apart due to the latter 's wish to destroy time . After the incarnation of Yeul in his time dies , Noel sets out to find Valhalla , intending to change Yeul 's fate . On the point of death , he is brought to Valhalla , where he sees Lightning and Caius in battle . Lightning gives Noel the task of finding Serah and bringing to her to Valhalla . Traveling to Serah 's time , Noel sets out with her to find Lightning , repair the timeline and change his future at any cost , even erasing himself from existence . Upon meeting Snow , Noel develops a hatred of him because of the former 's impulsive attitude . Eventually , Noel gains respect for Snow . As they travel , his memories are restored , and he tries to dissuade Serah from continuing , as her visions of the future would soon kill her . When she decides to go on , he comes too after seeing an image of him and the Yeul of his time meeting again . Though he and Serah finally defeat Caius in Valhalla , Noel is forced into a situation that ends with Caius 's death . Soon after returning , to 500 AF , forced to watch Serah die , Noel realizes too late that his actions have triggered the apocalypse Caius wished for .
By the events of Lightning Returns , forced to protect the people as the " Shadow Hunter " after the Order of Salvation take over Luxerion , Noel becomes obsessed with a fabricated prophecy that if he kills Bhunivelze 's savior , he will bring about a new world where he can live in peace with Yeul . Ultimately , he has become burdened by guilt because of his actions in causing the world to fall into its current state . Noel 's belief in the prophecy is reinforced when Lightning appears as the savior . They briefly ally to rout an extremist sect of the Children of Etro , who have been killing women who resemble Lightning . They later fight at Noel 's hideout . Lightning provokes Noel into fully expressing his rage and engaging him in battle . After the battle , Noel destroys the oracle drive playing the fabricated prophecy , finally freeing himself from his guilt . After Bhunivelze 's defeat , Noel offers his life to give Yeul a chance to live in the new world , and Caius allows the final incarnation of Yeul to go with him .
Noel was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , who did the face , and Yusuke Naora , who designed the rest of the body and clothes . When designing his clothes , Naora took into account he was a hunter , while his swords were based on a Final Fantasy III illustration by Yoshitaka Amano . Noel 's weapon , which changes from two swords into a javelin , was designed so that the character could have both short and long @-@ range attacks . In an interview , Toriyama said that Noel was intended to be a grave young man burdened by a heavy responsibility , but also , because of his upbringing on Gran Pulse , with a naivety about the world Serah and Lightning are used to , and certainly about Cocoon . Yoshinori Kitase , in an interview with Impress Watch , described Noel as one of the Final Fantasy series ' few " orthodox " protagonists . Noel is voiced by Jason Marsden in English and by Daisuke Kishio in Japanese .
= = = NORA = = =
NORA ( ノラ , Nora ) is a resistance group led by Snow Villiers and is an acronym for " No Obligation , Rules or Authority " . The team consists of Gadot ( ガドー , Gadō ) , Snow 's childhood friend ; Lebreau ( レブロ , Reburo ) , another friend who runs a local bar in Bodhum for gathering monetary resources ; Maqui ( マーキー , Mākī ) , a teenager who provides mechanical assistance ; and Yuj ( ユージュ , Yūju ) , a young man obsessed with fashion . Gadot and Lebreau join as guest characters when Snow is leading NORA to battle the PSICOM soldiers during the opening level . Eventually , they meet up with the party before they enter Orphan 's cradle . The group reappears in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , living in the town of New Bodhum and acting as its neighborhood watch . Due to not traveling through time , the members of NORA are dead by the events of Lightning Returns . In the supplementary novel Final Fantasy XIII Reminiscence : tracer of memories , it is revealed that all the members were reincarnated in the new world .
Gadot , Lebreau , and Maqui were designed by Nao Ikeda , who based their clothing on the athletic clothing styles of basketball , beach volleyball , and snowboarding , respectively . Gadot , Lebreau , Maqui and Yuj are respectively voiced by Zack Hanks , Anndi McAfee , Daniel Samonas and Jeff Fischer in English , and by Biichi Satō , Yū Asakawa , Makoto Naruse and Wataru Hatano in Japanese .
= = Antagonists = =
= = = Galenth Dysley / Barthandelus = = =
Galenth Dysley ( ガレンス ・ ダイスリー , Garensu Daisurī ) is the Primarch ( ruler ) of the Sanctum government in Cocoon and serves as the main antagonist of Final Fantasy XIII . His true form is Barthandelus ( known as Baldanders ( バルトアンデルス , Barutoanderusu ) in the Japanese version ) , lord of the Cocoon fal 'Cie created by the fal 'Cie deity Lindzei . Dysley 's ultimate goal is summon back the Maker , a term for a creator god associated with Bhunivelze who created Lindzei , back into their world . This plan involved using the l 'Cie @-@ forged beast Ragnarok to destroy Cocoon with the countless deaths from the crash to cause Etro 's Gate to manifest in the physical world . He even goes so far as to use anti @-@ Pulse propaganda to instil fear in the citizens of Cocoon . The first attempt , the War of Transgression , fails through the intervention of Etro . In the battle of Cocoon at the end of the game , Dysley manipulates Cid to cause a coup d 'état in Cocoon . When confronted by the team in Orphan 's Cradle , Dysley plays on their emotions with illusions of Serah and Dajh before being mortally wounded by the party as Barthandelus . His body is then assimilated into Orphan and he ceases to be an independent entity . Dysley is voiced by S. Scott Bullock in English and Masaru Shinozuka in Japanese .
= = = Orphan = = =
Orphan ( オーファン , Ōfan ) is a wheel @-@ like , sun @-@ elemental fal 'Cie who serves as the chief power source of Cocoon , kept within Eden . Both Orphan and the Cocoon fal 'Cie had been planning its demise in order to reunite with their creator in the aftermath of the resulting mass genocide of every human in Cocoon . After Orphan assimilates the dying Barthandelus , it fights the party , and seemingly transforms the Cocoon @-@ based members into Cie 'th . It then proceeds to torture Fang and Vanille to invoke Ragnarok . However , Lightning and the others gain a new focus for a peaceful world and force Orphan into its true form before the party defeats it in the game 's final battle . Orphan 's shell is voiced by Julia Fletcher and S. Scott Bullock in English , and by Mie Sonozaki and Masaru Shinozuka in Japanese . Its true form is voiced by Michael Sinterniklaas in English and by Hiro Shimono in Japanese .
= = = Yaag Rosch = = =
Yaag Rosch ( ヤーグ ・ ロッシュ , Yāgu Rosshu ) is a Lieutenant Colonel of the Sanctum who acts as a secondary antagonist in Final Fantasy XIII . He serves as the director of the government 's military branches and pilots his personal fighter , the Proudclad . Despite questioning the Sanctum 's motives , he follows their orders for the sake of Cocoon 's people . He first meets Lightning 's party in Palumpolum , resulting in a fight that he loses . The party escapes with the help of the Cavalry . When the party escapes from the Palamecia , Rosch attempts to attack piloting the Proudclad , but fails as a result . Rosch again confronts Lightning 's party in Eden , but he survives the fight and escapes . He and his troops go into Eden to defeat Orphan , only for his troops to be turned to Cie 'th . He confronts the party once more while there , and loses once again . After the battle , Rosch reveals to the party that he knew the fal 'Cie were in control the entire time , feeling their guidance and anti @-@ Pulse propaganda was the best for Cocoon without realizing their true intentions . Rosch orders the Sanctum troops to suspend l 'Cie operations and allows the party to enter Orphan 's Cradle to save Cocoon before sacrificing himself by using a grenade , unleashing an explosion which annihilates him and the monsters pursuing the party . Rosch is voiced by Jon Curry in English and Hiroki Tōchi in Japanese .
= = = Jihl Nabaat = = =
Jihl Nabaat ( ジル ・ ナバート , Jiru Nabāto ) is a minor antagonist in Final Fantasy XIII , a Lieutenant Colonel of the PSICOM branch who also serves as Galenth Dysley 's subordinate , commanding the airship Palamecia . Days earlier , Nabaat takes Dajh from Sazh so the Sanctum can determine his Focus . Later , using Dajh to lead her to Sazh in the pleasure capital of Nautilus , Nabaat plays on Sazh 's emotions by revealing Vanille 's part in his son becoming a l 'Cie with the intention of killing Vanille . Nabaat 's attempt fails , however , and she captures Vanille and Sazh . Nabaat enrages Sazh by her intent to use Dajh as a memorial before detaining them aboard the Palamecia . Lightning 's group later infiltrates the Palamecia and rescues Sazh and Vanille , much to Nabaat 's dismay . When the party confronts Dysley , Nabaat prepares to fight them to cover Dysley 's escape . Dysley states that Nabaat has outlived her usefulness , and kills her using his fal 'Cie magic . Though dead , Nabaat 's spirit regains physical form during the events of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 as a combatant in the Coliseum . Nabaat is voiced by Paula Tiso in English and Mie Sonozaki in Japanese .
= = = Caius Ballad = = =
Caius Ballad ( カイアス ・ バラッド , Kaiasu Baraddo ) appears in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 as the main antagonist . Hailing from the distant past prior to the War of Transgression , Caius is a former Pulse l 'Cie who became the Guardian of the seeress Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul . At some point , to protect the seeress and her city from an invading army , Caius transforms himself into a Bahamut Eidolon , thus killing himself to save her . Etro , touched by his sacrifice , gives him her own heart , the Heart of Chaos , so he could become Yeul 's eternal guardian and eventually as the living repository for his visions . However , this gift soon turns into a curse , as seeing Yuel die repeatedly makes him hateful towards Etro , attempting to condition Noel to be his killer before deciding to enter Valhalla and kill the goddess personally . As Serah and Noel encounter the past versions of him during their journey , Caius uses his knowledge of the timeline to create the various paradoxes they deal with while he battles Lightning in Valhalla . After barely managing to defeat her , Caius enters a final battle with Noel and Serah . Eventually , after being defeated in his Eidolon form and with Noel still refusing to kill him , Caius manages to force Noel 's blade through himself , destroying Etro 's heart . Though he seems to die , he is later seen in the game 's secret ending , seated on Etro 's throne and saying that he and Yeul can begin their lives in the " new world " .
In Lightning Returns , it is revealed that the contradicting desires of Yeul 's incarnations have brought Caius back , with his body and soul becoming one with chaos and thus being beyond salvation . Lightning engages in a fight in the remains of Valhalla before learning of Caius 's condition , along with his intention to stay in Nova Chrystalia to serve as custodian of the new Unseen Realm to guide the dead . Caius is seen after Bhunivelze 's defeat , where he explains that the Yeuls intend to become the new goddess of the dead . As a final act before the new Unseen Realm is completely formed , Caius allows the final incarnation of Yeul to depart with Noel for the new world .
Caius Ballad was designed by Yusuke Naora , with the final design being selected from several ones offered . Watanabe called Caius a " unique " villain for the series , due to his almost @-@ noble goal of saving Yeul from her perpetual curse of early death and reincarnation , as opposed to many other Final Fantasy villains who sought destruction . His role in XIII @-@ 2 earned the character the title of " Best Villain " in Game Informer 's 2012 RPG of the Year awards . Caius is voiced by Liam O 'Brien in the English version and Hiroshi Shirokuma in the Japanese version .
= = = Adam = = =
Proto fal 'Cie Adam ( デミ ・ ファルシ ＝ アダム , Demi Farushi Adamu , Demi fal 'Cie Adam ) is a minor antagonist in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . It is a man @-@ made fal 'Cie created to re @-@ levitate Cocoon . However , utilising a crossroads between time periods , Adam is able to use the AI that helped design it to kill the humans and seize control of the city of Academia . When Noel and Serah fight Adam , it uses the crossroads to continually rebuild itself after each defeat : finally , Serah uses the crossroads to send a warning to Hope , who halts the project in his time and erases Adam from existence .
= = = Bhunivelze = = =
Bhunivelze ( ブーニベルゼ , Buniberuzei ) is the key deity of the Final Fantasy XIII universe and the main antagonist of Lightning Returns . He plays a key role in the world 's history , being the creator of the world 's main deities and the indirect creator of both humanity and the fal 'Cie . While the attempts by the Cocoon fal 'Cie to revive him in Final Fantasy XIII failed , Bhunivelze awakens in the aftermath of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 when Granpulse is being transformed into Nova Chrysalia from its mingling with the Unseen Realm . Though Bhunivelze attempts to stop corruption , he gradually accepts that the Nova Chrysalia is beyond saving and makes Lightning the savior to saves the souls of those still alive in preparation for the birth of a new world . His wish is to purge humanity of their memories by destroying the dead , leaving them free of all burdens and knowing only happiness in the new world . While having the Order of Salvation carry out his plans for humanity , he makes Hope his host and conditions Lightning to become the replacement for Etro . When Lightning chooses to rebel and thwarts the Order 's mission , allowing the souls of the dead to mingle with the living , Bhunivelze decides to destroy all souls along with his new world with the intent to create his own version of humanity that are practically extensions of himself . Lightning fights Bhunivelze , wounding him and freeing Hope 's soul before uniting with the souls of humanity to defeat him . After his defeat , Lightning states that even if he survived , humanity would defeat him once again .
Bhunivelze 's physical form for Lightning Returns was designed by Toshitaka Matsuda . Matsuda made his design elaborate and detailed as a representation of both Nova Chrysalia and the entire universe . This design motif carried over to him being fused to the arena floor during the final battle . The character is voiced by Daniel Riordan in English and Yūki Kaji in Japanese .
= = Other characters = =
= = = Dajh Katzroy = = =
Dajh Katzroy ( ドッジ ・ カッツロイ , Dojji Kattsuroi ) is the 6 @-@ year @-@ old son of Sazh Katzroy . Four days prior to the start of Final Fantasy XIII , Sazh visits a store to get a baby chocobo for his son . After Dajh becomes a l 'Cie , Jihl Nabaat captures him and uses him to sense the energy of " Pulse " to track down other l 'Cie . After finding his father , he turns to crystal , having completed his Focus . Dajh , along with Serah , returns to normal after the defeat of Orphan and is reunited with Sazh . In XIII @-@ 2 , Dajh is separated from his father when they are sucked into the Void Beyond , a limbo between time periods . After Sazh reunites with him , the two travel to Academia and are witness to the unleashing of chaos after Etro 's death . In Lightning Returns , Dajh 's soul has fragmented and he has fallen into a coma . As his father is driven into despair trying to awaken him , Dajh becomes frightened of waking . Lightning manages to retrieve the fragments of his soul and rekindle Sazh 's happiness , enabling Dajh to wake .
Dajh was originally meant to be a nine @-@ year @-@ old , but was made younger by designer Nao Ikeda to gain more sympathy with the player , saying she wanted someone the player would " want to pick up and [ give ] a hug " . In an interview with Famitsu , Ikeda said that Dajh 's afro hairstyle was meant to be a baby version of Sazh 's own hair . Dajh is voiced by Connor Villard in English and by Shōtarō Uzawa in Japanese in XIII . In Lightning Returns , he is voiced by Andre Robionson in English and Wataru Sekine in Japanese .
= = = Cid Raines = = =
Cid Raines ( シド ・ レインズ , Shido Rainzu ) is a supporting character in Final Fantasy XIII , a Sanctum Air Force Brigadier and leader of the Sanctum 's Calvary branch . Like Rosch , Cid has doubts about the Sanctum in its current state , and believes that Cocoon should be run by its people . Recruiting Fang after she gets separated from Vanille , Cid has her and his subordinate Rygdea capture Snow and use him to find the other l 'Cie under the impression that the Calvary would back them up as he helps the party escapes from Yaag Rosch in Hope 's home town , and then stage a rescue mission on the Palamecia to save Sazh and Vanille . However , it later turns out that Cid is actually a Cocoon l 'Cie , aiding the group under orders from Dysley before acting on his own to kill them for the safety of Cocoon 's people . Defeated , Cid returns to Dysley to replace him as Primarch under orders to create chaos in Eden , Cocoon 's capital city . After being confronted by the Calvary when the party invades Eden , Cid tells Rygdea to kill him and end his misery . In Lightning Returns , the dead use Cid 's visage to communicate with Lightning . Through Cid , they tell her the truth about the Order 's plans and that Vanille can save the dead , though in doing so she would be rebelling against Bhunivelze . A character named Cid appears or is mentioned in every main Final Fantasy ; this appearance is the second Final Fantasy game to feature a Cid character in an antagonistic role , after Final Fantasy XII . Cid is voiced by Erik Davies in English and by Yuichi Nakamura in Japanese .
= = = Rygdea = = =
Rygdea ( リグディ , Rigudi ) is a supporting character from Final Fantasy XIII . He is a member of the Sanctum Cavalry , a unit loyal to Cid Raines and secretly opposed to the fal 'Cie . It is he who extracts Snow and Serah in her crystal form after Anima made them l 'Cie , then he helps save them again when the l 'Cie are ambushed at Hope Estheim 's house . During the battle that erupts on Cocoon with Cid 's appointment as Primarch , Rygdea takes command of the Cavalry and confronts Cid , then ends up fulfilling Cid 's request to end his life as a l 'Cie . Although he is never encountered during XIII @-@ 2 , the novels Fragments Before and Fragments After , confirm that Rygdea survives when the rest of the Cavalry is turned into Cie 'th . He eventually exposes the Sanctum 's secrets and establishes the Academy with Bartholomew Estheim . Rygdea is voiced by Josh Robert Thompson in English and Yasuyuki Kase in Japanese .
= = = Bartholomew and Nora Estheim = = =
Bartholomew Estheim ( バルトロメイ ・ エストハイム , Barutoromei Esutohaimu ) and his wife Nora ( ノラ , Nora ) are Hope 's parents and supporting characters in Final Fantasy XIII . Prior to the first game 's events , Nora takes Hope to see a festival in Bodhum , and the two end up being selected for the Purge . When Snow and his group NORA free the refugees , Nora chooses to join their efforts . During an attack , Nora saves Snow from a missile attack but a counterattack leaves her gravely injured and she only has time to ask him to get her son home before she dies . When Hope , Lightning , and Fang arrive at Hope 's house with a wounded Snow , Bartholomew allows them to take shelter there , managing to forgive Snow for failing to save Nora as he fulfilled her final wish to get Hope home . When the Cavalry help the four escape , Hope restrains his father , making him appear a victim and thus protecting him from Cocoon 's authorities . After the fall of Cocoon , Bartholomew helps set up the provincial government after the fall of the Sanctum . He dies of natural causes some years later . A thousand years after Cocoon 's fall , the spirits of Nora and Bartholomew appear to Hope after Lightning frees him from Bhunivelze 's control . Nora is voiced by Komina Matsushita in Japanese and Mary Elizabeth McGlynn in English , while Bartholomew is voiced by Masaki Aizawa in Japanese and André Sogliuzzo in English .
= = = Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul = = =
Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul ( パドラ ＝ ヌス ・ ユール , Padora Nusu @-@ Yūru ) is a Pulsian seeress hailing from the city @-@ state of Paddra on Gran Pulse prior to the time of the War of Transgression , having written Analects relating to the event , Etro , Ragnarok , and the Eidolons . In the novel Fragments After , it is shown that Yeul was the first human created , and that for some unknown reason her soul does not fade after reaching the afterlife . Taking pity on her , Etro gives Yeul the ability to see the future , called the Eyes of Etro , and enables her to be continuously reincarnated throughout history . Though meant for the best , Yeul 's ability to see the future becomes a curse , since each vision drains her lifeforce and she consequently always dies in her teens . Because of her fate , Caius Ballad , who had seen each Yeul live and die since before the War of Transgression , makes it his goal to destroy Etro and end time itself so Yeul would no longer die . Despite this , Yeul remains supportive of Noel and Serah 's quest , and it is later revealed that she allowed herself to be reborn in order to be with Caius . Only one manifestation of Yeul is openly hostile towards the travelers and resentful of her fate . In Lightning Returns , the many versions of Yeul take up residence in the ruins of Etro 's temple , with Caius as their guardian . It is revealed that Yeul 's constant reincarnation caused her soul to fragment , with each previous life mingled with the Chaos and triggered the events of XIII @-@ 2 . As the world ends , the souls of Yeul choose to stay and become the new goddess of death to restore the cycle of life Etro established . The final incarnation , who shares a strong bond with Noel and wishes for a new life , is allowed to leave and live as a normal human . Yeul is voiced by Amber Hood in English and Mariya Ise in Japanese .
= = = Mog = = =
Mog ( モーグリ , Mōguri , Moogle ) is a moogle ( a creature frequently found in the Final Fantasy series ) who acts as a supporting character in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . Mog comes from a place called the Ocean of Time , where moogles seem to live in some numbers . After the events of Final Fantasy XIII , Mog is pulled from his home into a paradox , losing his memories in the process , and eventually finds his way into Valhalla . There , he helps Lightning defeat a Bahamut Eidolon , then is sent with Noel to become Serah 's " good luck charm " . While traveling with Serah and Noel , he acts as Serah 's weapon @-@ to @-@ hand and helps them in their quest . At one point , while resolving a paradox , Mog recovers his memories and is given the chance to return home . Instead , he chooses to remain by Serah 's side . In Lightning Returns , Mog has moved to the Wildlands and become the leader of the last moogle community to exist in the world . When Lightning meets him , he feels guilty because of Serah 's death , but he is revived by Lightning 's promise to rescue Serah 's soul .
Mog was designed by Toshitaka Matsuda , who was asked to make the character into a mascot for the game . He designed Mog in the image of an infant , and redrew it repeatedly until he was satisfied with the balance of features . Mog was originally designed to be Serah 's sole companion during XIII @-@ 2 , but this was changed at a late stage when it was decided that it would clash too much with the game 's general atmosphere . Mog 's voice proved a challenge for the sound designers in terms of non @-@ verbal answers and noises : eventually , they created several different versions of " Kupo " , the Moogle 's trademark sound , with one signifying each of Mog 's possible moods . At one point , Mog was talking too much in @-@ game and the designers had to go through the game toning down the amount of dialogue he had . In XIII @-@ 2 Mog is voiced by Ariel Winter in English and Sumire Morohoshi in Japanese . For Lightning Returns , Mog is voiced in English by Bailey Gambertoglio .
= = = Alyssa Zaidelle = = =
Alyssa Zaidelle ( アリサ ・ ザイデル , Arisa Zaideru ) is a supporting character from Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . Originally a young woman from Cocoon , she is involved in the Purge , hiding the ruined city of Bresha with a group of survivors . During the events at the end of Final Fantasy XIII , the roof of their hiding place collapses . Though Alyssa was meant to die , when time becomes distorted and the paradoxes erupted , she is resurrected , though she is still haunted by dreams of her true fate . She joins the Academy and works as an assistant to Hope , going into hibernation with him after he initiates the construction of the new Cocoon . Although she is initially supportive of Noel and Serah 's quest , she eventually betrays the two to Caius after learning that their quest to correct the timeline dooms her to vanish . But they escape and , while planning to kill Hope , the part of the timeline that brought her back is corrected , causing her to fade from existence . She is voiced by Kim Mai Guest in English and Yōko Hikasa in Japanese .
= = = Chocolina = = =
Chocolina ( チョコリーナ , Chokorīna ) is a supporting character that first appears in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . In Sazh 's DLC episode , it is revealed that Chocolina is the chocobo chick that Sazh bought for his son before the events of the first game , with Dajh choosing her name after those events . While Sazh is whisked away to Serendipity , the chocobo gets separated from him and makes a wish to help others . This is granted by Etro and she is given a human body that can exist across all of time . After that , she serves as a merchant and helper to Serah and Noel on their journey . She returns as a supporting character in Lightning Returns , minding the Canvas of Prayers , and also appears in her original chick form during the quest to save Sazh 's soul .
Chocolina was originally meant to be a waitress in Serendipety , but her design impressed Toriyama enough that he expanded her role into something akin to a shop clerk , and the director wrote a new backstory and new dialogue for her . Isamu Kamikokuryo said that though Chocolina 's jovial manner and scanty outfit at times clashed with the game 's overall atmosphere , he felt she was a good inclusion . Chocolina is voiced by Julie Nathanson in English and Seiko Ueda in Japanese .
= = = Lumina = = =
Lumina ( ルミナ , Rumina ) is a supporting character in Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . Initially appearing as a doppelganger of Serah , she is eventually revealed to be an embodiment of Lightning 's personal trauma as a child that created a physical form from the Chaos to contain Serah 's soul . Lumina meddles in Lightning 's journey , aiding her or being a hindrance , before eventually revealing her true identity and integrating back into Lightning 's mind once she comes to terms with her need to be helped by her friends .
Lumina was designed by Toshiyuki Itahana , who had worked on multiple titles in the Final Fantasy series . Her look has been described as a " Gothic lolita " style . She came about when the team were asking themselves how to portray Lightning 's hidden self . Her appearance is a young version of Serah , but her inner feelings reflect Lightning 's hidden emotions . Her personality and actions were made to be unpredictable , with her both aiding and hindering Lightning on her journey . In creating her childlike appearance and extravagant movements , the development team tried to make them as realistic as possible . Lumina is voiced by Jessica DiCicco in English and Kanae Ito in Japanese .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
In conjunction with the game 's release , Square Enix produced a lineup of merchandise including jewelry , action figures and other goods related to the characters . Most of the merchandise is released in Japan . The items produced include Lightning 's necklace , Snow 's necklace , a l 'Cie @-@ themed lighter and a l 'Cie @-@ themed card case . Three full @-@ colored action figures of Hope , Fang and Odin have also been displayed in the Square Enix Japan merchandise page , along with character posters . To promote the game and its heroine , Square Enix also licensed production of a perfume branded as " ~ Lightning ~ eau de toilette " . In 2012 , in what Yoshinori Kitase called " a very exciting opportunity " , the April issue of Arena Homme + magazine showed multiple characters from XIII @-@ 2 modeling outfits for Prada 's spring and summer collections . Characters from the games appeared on the packaging of snacks produced by Ezaki Glico to promote Lightning Returns .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The characters of Final Fantasy XIII have received mixed and positive opinions from reviewers . Ben Dutka of PSX Extreme said that the voice acting for the characters are " interesting " and that the cast was " a competent one , even if some characters can begin to chafe after a while . " He also said that the player " might grow tired of Lightning ’ s gruffness and Vanille ’ s bounciness in the early goings but they begin to show new emotions as [ the player ] progress [ es ] . " 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish applauded the characters as " the best @-@ defined group of protagonists the series has ever seen " and also praised them for their development in the story . Parish also commented that the characters " worked through their differences and demons and feel like comrades " during the story 's development . IGN editor Ryan Clements drew a favorable comparison to the characters of Final Fantasy VI and enjoyed the characters ' multi @-@ story approach and the flashbacks in the storyline . Adriaan den Ouden of RPGamer said the characters were " fantastic " and also praised the voice acting . However , den Ouden said that in the introduction to the game , the characters " lacked any kind of development for the first few hours [ of the game ] , and the result is a confusing plotline with uninteresting characters that leaves a terrible first impression " .
The characters introduced in XIII @-@ 2 received a mixed reception , with some praising their inclusion and others saying they were too weak . Ryan Clements felt that the characters seemed to have no clear focus , with the only driving force being the quest for Lightning . VanOrd thought the characters were good , but said that the game focused too much on Serah and Noel , rather than the more engaging characters of Lightning and Caius . Dale North of Destructoid was the most positive , finding the characters very well fleshed out , understandable and well @-@ voiced by the cast. den Ouden thought that the characters alright and well voiced , but " [ fell ] flat when the actors [ had ] awkward dialogue to work with " . Juba was extremely critical of the characters and their story , seeing the company taking the " weakest " characters and placing them center stage , while the " best " characters , such as Lighting and Fang , were relegated to the background . Parish was disappointed in the character 's development , saying that Serah was never given any true power within the game 's narrative , and that Noel was under @-@ developed beyond his original premise , with the " stronger " characters from the original game being a noticeable loss . On top of this , he disliked how the two " least liked " characters from XIII ( Serah and Hope ) were given such large roles . Parkin was especially critical , saying the characters were " irritating or forgettable , full of fuzzy or weak motivations and stuffed with tortuous , posturing dialogue " . Despite this , he said that Serah 's warmth endowed the game with a comforting atmosphere .
The characters ' resolutions in Lightning Returns received much criticism . Marty Silva of IGN found the writing for the characters uninteresting , and that the game had " forgotten why we ever liked these characters in the first place . " VanOrd stated that every character was " defined by the most basic of traits , all of which serve the needs of the plot , rather than the plot flowing from the needs of the characters . " He also felt that their dialogue was overly frequent and poorly written . GamesRadar 's Ryan Taljonick found Lightning off @-@ putting , and saw the inclusion of the other characters as " more like a ham @-@ fisted attempt at fan @-@ service than a critical plot element . " Kotaku 's Mike Fahey was also unimpressed both with Lightning and how the other characters had stayed very much the same between XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns , with them needing Lightning to move on . Dave Riley of Anime News Network found that the characters had improved slightly over their previous appearances , saying " Dropping the pretense of stoic seriousness transmutes some of the sub @-@ series 's most insufferable elements into something marginally more tolerable , especially as it regards its main character . "
= Kellee Santiago =
Kellee Santiago is a Venezuelan @-@ American video game designer and producer . She is the co @-@ founder and former president of thatgamecompany . Santiago was born in Caracas , Venezuela and was raised in Richmond , Virginia , where she played video games from a young age and was encouraged by her software engineer father to experiment with computers . While attending New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts , she became active in experimental theater , and intended to pursue it after earning a master 's degree in the Interactive Media Program of the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California . While there , however , she became involved in video game design , and produced Cloud , a game developed by Jenova Chen and a student team . Its success sparked her and Chen to found thatgamecompany upon graduating , and she became the president .
Santiago produced the studio 's first two games , Flow and Flower , moving more into her president role during the development of the company 's latest game , Journey . In addition to her work at thatgamecompany , Santiago is one of the backers of the Indie Fund , a group which invests in the development of independent video games , and is a TED fellow . She married fellow University of Southern California graduate Mike Stein in 2010 . After the release of Journey in 2012 , Santiago left the company ; as of 2015 , in addition to serving on several advisory boards , she works for Google Play Games .
= = Biography = =
Santiago was born in Caracas , Venezuela , and was raised in Richmond , Virginia . She played video games from a young age , cooperatively playing them with her younger brother ; one of her earliest games was Sleuth , which she describes as " simple , but so effective and so evocative " in instilling emotion in the player . Her father , a software engineer , had a computer in the house from when she was young , and encouraged Santiago to experiment with it . She moved to New York City at the age of 18 to attend the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University , where she was involved in amateur theater . She focused in theater on developing new works , rather than adapting older ones , and was especially drawn towards incorporating interactive digital media into her works . She ascribes this to her father 's work in software engineering and her experiments with computers , which drove her into using them in her performances as she had more experience than the others in her group .
She moved to Los Angeles in 2003 when she was 24 , and studied towards a master 's degree in the Interactive Media Program of the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California . Her intention was to remain in theater , but in her second semester took a class taught by Tracy Fullerton on the history of game design , which inspired her to focus her studies on video game design instead . The class caused her to realize " how much hadn 't been done " in the realm of communication and expression in video games and the lack of established structure and rules as to how it was best to make games , which appealed to the part of her that was interested in experimental theater . While at school she produced the award @-@ winning game Cloud , developed by Jenova Chen and a student team , and also worked on other video games such as Darfur is Dying .
Cloud was intended as an experiment by the group to see if they could create a game that " expressed something different than video games had in the past " , as well as determine the level of interest in the gaming community for video games of that nature . The game received over 400 @,@ 000 downloads in the first four months after release , " more than every single person in every single theater [ she ] had ever worked in , " which convinced Santiago to remain in the video game industry indefinitely . The strong response to the game , released in 2005 , inspired her and Chen to consider founding their own company to continue making games like it after they left school — where the design was based on the emotions they wanted to inspire rather than gameplay mechanics .
= = = thatgamecompany = = =
Upon graduating , Santiago and Chen founded thatgamecompany in May 2006 , with a contract with Sony Computer Entertainment to develop three games for the PlayStation Network . In addition to her role as president of the company , she also initially served as the producer for the studio . Despite her job title title , she was still involved in the design of the games as well . The first game by the studio was Flow , an adaptation of a game that Chen had made for his thesis at USC , which was released in 2007 . The game caused the studio to be noted as a key figure of independent video game development ; in 2008 , Gamasutra recognized the studio as one of the " 20 Breakthrough Developers " of the year , emphasizing Santiago 's key role . The second game for the studio , and the first to be completely original to the company , was Flower , released in 2009 . Both titles were heavily praised by critics and received several awards , as well as garnering high sales . For the studio 's third game , Journey , thatgamecompany hired Robin Hunicke as the producer , allowing Santiago to focus more on directing the company as a whole . Journey was released on March 13 , 2012 ; two weeks later on March 29 , 2012 , Santiago announced her departure from thatgamecompany , not specifying what her plans were for the future .
During the development of Journey , in 2009 , Santiago became a TED fellow , giving a talk at a USC conference where she discussed whether video games were art , which was responded to a year later by Roger Ebert . Santiago was one of the backers of the Indie Fund , started in March 2010 , a group which invests in the development of independent video games . In October 2010 , Santiago married Mike Stein , whom she met while they were both at the University of Southern California . In 2011 she was named as one of the top 100 most influential women in technology by Fast Company .
In March 2013 , Santiago joined Ouya to lead developer relations . She also joined the Women in Games International advisory board in May 2014 . In 2014 she also became an official adviser for Night Light Interactive . In October 2015 , following the sale and dissolution of the company , Santiago left Ouya for Google Play Games .
= = Influences and philosophy = =
Santiago described her work at thatgamecompany as creating emotional responses , in order to demonstrate that video games can create a wider range of experiences than are typically shown . She felt that thatgamecompany 's goal during her tenure there was " to create games that push the boundaries of videogames as a communicative medium , and to create games that appeal to a wide variety of people . " Through this she hopes to change the rest of the industry to also approach making videogames as a " creative medium " rather than a product . She , both independently with the Indie Fund and through thatgamecompany has tried to support the independent video game development industry by funding and connecting independent game developers .
= = Video game credits = =
Santiago is credited on the following games :
WWE Smackdown vs. Raw 2006 ( 2005 ) . THQ Inc .
Karaoke Revolution Party ( 2005 ) , Konami Digital Entertainment , Inc .
Guitar Hero ( 2005 ) , RedOctane , Inc .
Cloud ( 2005 ) , USC Interactive Media
Happy Feet ( 2006 ) , Midway Home Entertainment , Inc .
Darfur is Dying ( 2006 )
CMT Presents : Karaoke Revolution Country ( 2006 ) , Konami Digital Entertainment , Inc .
The Ant Bully ( 2006 ) , Midway Home Entertainment , Inc .
The Winter Solstice ( 2007 ) , Vertigo Games
Braid ( 2008 ) , Microsoft Game studios
Flower ( 2009 ) , Sony Computer Entertainment Europe Ltd .
The Misadventures of P.B. Winterbottom ( 2010 ) , 2K Play
Q.U.B.E. ( 2011 ) , Toxic Games
The Unfinished Swan ( 2012 ) , Sony Computer Entertainment America , Inc .
Journey ( 2012 ) , Sony Computer Entertainment America , Inc .
Dear Esther ( 2012 ) , thechineseroom
Monaco : What 's Yours is Mine ( 2013 ) , Majesco Entertainment Company
Gone Home ( 2013 ) , The Fulbright Company LLC
= Dances with Smurfs =
" Dances with Smurfs " is the thirteenth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 194th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 11 , 2009 . In the episode , Cartman becomes the reader of the elementary school announcements , and starts making politically charged accusations against student body president Wendy . The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States and M ( as ) in Australia .
" Dances with Smurfs " served as a parody of the political commentary style of Glenn Beck , a nationally syndicated radio show host and former Fox News Channel pundit . The episode also satirized the 2009 James Cameron film Avatar , suggesting the plot of that film borrows heavily from the 1990 film Dances with Wolves , and comparing Avatar 's blue aliens to the cartoon Smurfs . It also included references to the Tea Party protests , radio personality Casey Kasem , and former @-@ vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin . The episode received generally positive reviews . According to Nielsen ratings , " Dances with Smurfs " was seen by 1 @.@ 47 million households among viewers aged between 18 and 34 .
= = Plot = =
Gordon Stoltski , a third grader who reads the South Park Elementary morning announcements , is shot to death by a jealous husband mistaking him for a 40 @-@ year @-@ old truck driver with a similar name ( Gordon Saltski ) who had an affair with his wife , which the entire school hears due to it being heard over the intercom . During a memorial service at the gymnasium , guidance counselor Mr. Mackey announces the school will seek a replacement . Cartman gets the job after sabotaging the efforts of a talented student named Casey Miller . However , during his first announcement , Cartman is very critical of the school and makes politically charged accusations against student body president Wendy Testaburger . Principal Victoria asks Cartman to stick to the script during announcements , but he accuses her of trying to silence him , and brings in the American Civil Liberties Union to ensure his freedom of speech . Cartman 's announcements are soon broadcast as the politically themed " EC " show on televisions placed in each classroom . On his set 's chalkboard he uses the first letters of keywords that he writes to spell out Wendy 's intent to " kill Smurfs " which concerns Butters and some other students . When they confront Wendy , she simply refuses to acknowledge Cartman .
Cartman starts selling copies of his book , What Happened to My School ? , outside the cafeteria where Stan confronts him . Angry because of Cartman 's outrageous sexual lies about Wendy in his book , Stan tries to convince Cartman to stop selling his books to no avail . Principal Victoria and Mr. Mackey again confront Cartman , and force him to stop selling his books on school grounds . This upsets Cartman , who accuses them of turning the school into a " socialist horrorland " , and insists he is leaving the school . The next day , however , he appears on his show and spins a portrayal of himself in blue face @-@ paint and suspenders , having somehow found Smurfland , becoming part of Smurf culture and eventually falling in love with Smurfette . Cartman then claims that Wendy bulldozed Smurfland and slaughtered the Smurfs to get their valuable Smurfberries , the complete story of which he has chronicled in his DVD , " Dances with Smurfs " . Despite the fact that it is extremely obvious that the footage of " Wendy " was Cartman in disguise , Butters and a furious mob of students go to Wendy 's house to confront her . Butters pees on her front door and demands that she go on Cartman 's morning announcements show to answer his questions .
On the " EC " set the next morning a reluctant Wendy joins a gray side @-@ burned Cartman who promises he will stick to school @-@ related questions and go easy on her . However , as soon as filming begins , he immediately asks about her rumoured promiscuity and involvement in the Smurf genocide . To Cartman 's surprise , Wendy claims she indeed bulldozed Smurfland to get the valuable Smurfberries , but alludes that Cartman was involved with the plot , and that the Smurfs would have left Smurfland if Cartman had not integrated himself with them . She steps down as student body president , turning the title over to Cartman , and announces her own new book Going Rogue on the Smurfs . Cartman is angry that she has turned the tables on him and stolen his Smurf idea , particularly when she announces she sold the movie rights to director James Cameron , who turned the book into his new film , Avatar . With being the student body president , Cartman can 't do the morning announcements anymore because a student can 't hold both positions at the same time . Cartman , much to his anger , also learns that being the student body president is a meaningless position with no real power . The episode ends with Casey Miller reading the announcements , which include a student 's explicit letter of disgust for Cartman 's performance as president , causing him to run out the room crying , " I 'm doing the best I can ! "
= = Production = =
" Dances with Smurfs " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It first aired on November 11 , 2009 , in the United States on Comedy Central . The episode marked the final appearance of Gordon Stoltski , the third grade student who read the morning announcements for South Park Elementary . The day after " Dances with Smurfs " was originally broadcast , four T @-@ shirts based on the episode were made available at South Park Studios , the official South Park website . All four featured Cartman wearing a suit and tie , saying a quote from the episode . These included " I 'm not some dog on a leash " , " We 're in the poop box , my friends " , " I 'm a normal kid ... I just ask questions " , and " I ask questions " .
= = Theme = =
" Dances with Smurfs " served as a parody and social commentary of the political commentary style of Glenn Beck , a nationally syndicated radio show host and former Fox News Channel political pundit . Cartman makes outrageous claims with no basis for fact under the guise that he is simply asking rhetorical questions and seeking further discussion . Beck has been criticized for utilizing a similar style of commentary in his radio and television shows .
Cartman 's televised morning announcements are patterned after the Glenn Beck television program , using the same types of music and imagery , as well as a logo with the initials " EC " that closely resemble the logo of Beck 's show , which use the initials " GB " . Cartman also writes comments about Wendy on a blackboard , which is a prop often used by Beck on his television program . The day after " Dances with Smurfs " originally aired , Beck himself discussed the episode on his radio program . Beck said he had not watched the episode himself but took the parody as a compliment , and that he particularly enjoyed Cartman 's hair , which was combed in a style similar to Beck . Steve " Stu " Burguiere , the executive producer of Beck 's radio show , also complimented the episode , and said of Parker and Stone , " These guys skewer everybody and they are always very good at it . "
= = Cultural references = =
" Dances with Smurfs " satirized Avatar , the 2009 science @-@ fiction epic film directed by James Cameron , which tells the story of humans in the distant future mining for minerals on an alien planet inhabited by blue natives . Although Avatar had not yet been released in theaters by the time the episode aired , the script of " Dances with Smurfs " compares the plot of Avatar to that of Dances with Wolves , a 1990 drama epic film in which a United States soldier becomes integrated with a tribe of Native Americans . At the end of " Dances with Smurfs " , Cartman watches Avatar at a movie theater and grows angry that his idea was stolen , expressing the idea that Avatar borrows from other previous films . Avatar had already been compared to Dances with Wolves prior to the broadcast of " Dances with Smurfs " , and James Cameron said he welcomed the comparison . Cartman 's movie prominently features the Smurfs , a fictional group of small blue cartoon creatures , which draws a further parallel to the blue alien creatures in Avatar . The use of the cartoon Smurfs has also been interpreted as a joke that although Avatar had a famously large budget of hundreds of millions of dollars , the film amounted to little more than a Smurfs @-@ like cartoon . On the commentary Trey Parker and Matt Stone described the Na 'vi who are natives of Pandora in Avatar as " ten foot tall sexy Smurfs " .
When Wendy resigns as student body president , she announces the publication of her book , Going Rogue on the Smurfs . This is a reference to Going Rogue : An American Life , the 2009 autobiography of former United States Vice President candidate Sarah Palin , who had recently announced her resignation as Governor of Alaska .
Casey Miller , the student who competes against Cartman for the morning announcements , heavily resembles and speaks in a manner similar to radio personality Casey Kasem .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on November 11 , 2009 , " Dances with Smurfs " was watched by 1 @.@ 47 million overall households among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , according to Nielsen ratings . It ranked behind a special 90 @-@ minute episode of Sons of Anarchy , the FX series about an outlaw motorcycle club , which was the most watched cable program of the week with 2 @.@ 5 million households among 18 – 49 viewers .
The episode received generally positive reviews . Ramsey Isler of IGN said Cartman worked well for a Beck satire , and said , " The real accomplishment of this episode is how it totally roasted a semi @-@ political figure , without being political at all . " However , Isler said the script loses focus with the appearance of the Smurfs , and that Gordon 's death was disturbing and inappropriate in the light of recent school shootings in the United States . The A.V. Club writer Sean O 'Neal , a vocal critic of Beck , said mocking Beck is an easy task , but the episode " handled it with just enough of the show 's usual surrealist bent that it was never wholly predictable " . He praised some of the episode 's unexpected elements , like Cartman 's Smurf film and Wendy 's surprise resignation . Carlos Delgado of iF magazine said " Dances with Smurfs " became " a little strange " starting with Cartman 's Smurf story , but he called the episode " smart , sharp , and poignant " . Delgado said the episode had less " laugh out loud " humor than traditional South Park episodes , in favor of intelligent satire . AOL Television writer Donald Deane called it one of the funniest episodes of the season .
= = Home release = =
" Dances with Smurfs " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park
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: there were still rumors of an attack from Spain , and if needed the navy would move to Buenos Aires and fight the Spanish ships . The civil war resumed and San Martín attempted once more to mediate , to no effect . Rondeau again requested the return of the Army of the Andes , without success . San Martín returned to Chile and prepared to take part in the naval actions against Peru , ignoring Buenos Aires . The Army of the North refused to join the conflict as well , revolting in Arequito and disbanding . Without either reinforcements , Rondeau was defeated by federal forces in the Battle of Cepeda . The Congress of Tucumán and the office of the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata were dissolved and the country turned into a confederation of 13 provinces , without a central state . This period is known as the Anarchy of the year XX . The rebellion of Spanish general Rafael del Riego and an outbreak of yellow fever in the punitive expedition organized in Cádiz ended the royalist threat to Buenos Aires . The Act of Rancagua invested San Martín with the full authority over the Army of the Andes , as it now lacked a national authority over it .
= = = Peru = = =
Peru had armed forces nearly four times the strength of those of San Martín : 6 @,@ 244 soldiers in Lima , 8 @,@ 000 at the northern provinces , 1 @,@ 263 in the coast , 1 @,@ 380 in Arequipa and 6 @,@ 000 in the Upper Peru ; nearly 23 @,@ 000 soldiers in total . The Army of the Andes had 4 @,@ 000 soldiers instead , and Cochrane 's navy another 1 @,@ 600 . With this disparity of forces , San Martín tried to avoid battles . He tried instead to divide the enemy forces in several locations , as he did during the Crossing of the Andes , and trap the royalists with a pincer movement with either reinforcements of the Army of the North from the South or the army of Simón Bolívar from the North . He also tried to promote rebellions and insurrection within the royalist ranks , and promised the emancipation of any slaves that deserted their Peruvian masters and join the army of San Martín . The spreading of the news of the Liberal Triennium , a liberal rebellion in Spain that reinstated the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , also sought to undermine royalist loyalty .
The navy sailed from Chile on 20 August 1820 . It was composed of eight warships , eleven gunboats , 247 cannons and a crew of 1 @,@ 600 , most of them Chileans . There were 12 frigates , and a brig with the 4 @,@ 000 soldiers of the Army of the Andes . San Martín was the leader of the military expedition . They landed in Paracas , 200 km to the south of Lima , on 7 September , and occupied the nearby city of Pisco , which was abandoned by the royalists .
= = = = Expedition of Peru = = = =
Peruvian viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela had instructions from Spain to negotiate with the patriots . Under an armistice the opponents celebrated a meeting in Miraflores . The viceroy 's deputies proposed to adopt the liberal Spanish constitution if San Martín left the country , but his deputies requested instead that Spain grant the independence of Peru . The negotiations did not bear fruit .
San Martín isolated Lima from the surrounding countryside , and sent Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales to promote rebellions among the natives . The Army of the Andes moved north of Lima by sea . San Martín and Arenales besieged the city from two directions , and Cochrane attacked the port of El Callao . Cochrane captured the ship " Esmeralda " , and the royalist regiment Numancia . Nearly 700 expeditionary soldiers of New Granada deserted and joined the patriots . Several populations in the north of Peru supported San Martín , and Arenales defeated the royalists at the battle of Pasco . More than 300 royalists joined the patriots , including Andrés de Santa Cruz .
However , the plans did not fully work as intended . The native populations that joined Arenales could not resist the royalist counter @-@ attacks , and the slaves did not join the army in the expected numbers . The Argentine provinces could not send the supporting army that San Martín had requested earlier , and the Army of the North no longer existed . As a result , he wrote to Simón Bolívar , trying to coordinate actions with him .
Pezuela was deposed by a military @-@ liberal coup , and José de la Serna e Hinojosa became the new viceroy . De la Serna called San Martín to negotiate an end of hostilities . The result was the same than with Pezuela : De la Serna proposed to enact the 1812 Spanish constitution ( Perú inside Spain ) , and San Martín demanded the independence of Peru ( with an independent monarchy ) . The rejection of the Spanish constitution was motivated by the disproportional representation of the Americas in the Constituent Assembly that wrote it . Both armies agreed a temporary armistice . San Martín proposed to establish an constitutional monarchy with a European monarch , with a regency ruling in the interim . The proposal was rejected , on the grounds that they could not accept it without Ferdinand 's approval .
= = = = Protector of Peru = = = =
As hostilities renewed , San Martín organized several guerrilla groups in the countryside , and laid siege to Lima , but did not force his entry , as he did not want to appear as a conqueror to the local population . However , De la Serna suddenly left the city with his army , for unknown reasons . San Martín called for an open cabildo to discuss the independence of the country , which was agreed . With this approval , the authority in Lima , the support of the northern provinces and the port of El Callao under siege , San Martín declared the independence of Peru on 28 July 1821 . The war , however , had not ended yet .
Unlike Chile , Peru had no local politicians of the stature of O 'Higgins , so San Martín became the leader of the government , even though he did not want to . He was appointed Protector of Peru . As Peruvian society was highly conservative , San Martín did not take the liberal ideas too far immediately . The provisional statutes contained few changes and ratified several existing laws . All the types of servitude imposed on the natives , such as mita and yanaconazgo , were abolished , and the natives received citizenship . He did not abolish slavery completely , as Peru had 40 @,@ 000 slaveowners , and declared " freedom of wombs " instead , which emancipated the sons of slaves ; he emancipated as well the slaves of the royalists who left Lima . He also abolished the Inquisition and corporal punishment , and enacted freedom of speech . During his stay in Peru , San Martín had a romance with Rosa Campuzano , a woman from Guayaquil .
The royalist armies that stayed in the Peruvian countryside headed to Lima , led by Canterac . In a confusing episode , there was no battle , as neither one attacked . Canterac changed his path to El Callao , took resources from it , and returned to his base . There was no battle during their return either . Without resources , El Callao surrendered in a few days . Both armies took inadvisable actions : San Martín allowed Canterac to receive reinforcements , and Canterac left a key military objective incapable to resist . There is no known documentation that provides a reasonable explanation of those events .
Cochrane had several disputes with San Martín . He discussed several of his actions and tried to bypass his authority . During the blockade of El Callao , he proposed that O 'Higgins take control of the mission and send any spoils of battle to Chile . As San Martín was appointed Protector of Peru , Cochrane reasoned that San Martín was no longer under Chilean command , and took the navy away . In later years Cochrane made accusations against San Martín in Chile .
Bolívar took control of Caracas with his victory at the battle of Carabobo , and the Congress of Cúcuta issued laws similar to those in Perú . Guayaquil declared independence , and Bolivar sent Antonio José de Sucre to reinforce them . Sucre 's forces were not enough , and requested help from San Martín . Peru sent a military force of 1 @,@ 300 men . Bolívar entered the city a month later , and claimed that for historical reasons Quito should be part of Colombia . San Martín and Bolívar sought to generate Latin American integration , but disagreed on the type of government : Bolívar proposed a republic , and San Martín a constitutional monarchy , reasoning that it would be easier to receive international recognition for the now @-@ independent South American nations . Peru and Colombia signed a treaty of integration , to be proposed to Chile , the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and Paraguay , and at a later point to the United Provinces of Central America and the Empire of Brazil .
= = = Guayaquil conference = = =
San Martín thought that if he joined forces with Bolívar he would be able to defeat the remnant royalist forces in Peru . Both liberators would meet in Quito , so San Martín appointed Torre Tagle to manage the government during his absence . Bolivar was unable to meet San Martín at the arranged date , so San Martín returned to Lima , but still left Tagle in government . Bolívar moved from Quito to Guayaquil , which secured its independence . There were discussions on the future of the region : some factions wanted to join Colombia , others to join Peru , and others to become a new nation . Bolívar ended the discussion by annexing Guayaquil into Colombia . There was Peruvian pressure on San Martín to do a similar thing , to annex Guayaquil to Peru .
The Guayaquil conference took place on 26 July 1822 . They had two private meetings , on that day and the following one . As there were no witnesses or minutes , the content of their discussions can only be inferred from their later actions and their letters to other people . Some likely topics of discussion may have been a request of reinforcements , and an offer to combine the armies into a single one , with San Martín ranked second to Bolívar .
The minister Bernardo Monteagudo was removed from office by a Peruvian rebellion , during San Martín 's absence . San Martín resigned as Protector of Peru a few days later and returned to Valparaíso , Chile . Several reasons influenced him to resign . The military discipline of the Army of the Andes was compromised , but San Martín was reluctant to take drastic action against his officers . The authority of San Martín and Bolívar , and the local rivalry of their respective countries Peru and Colombia , limited their options for joint work : Colombians would not have liked Bolívar to give many of his forces to San Martín , whilst Peruvians would not have liked their Protector to be second in command to Bolívar , and a joint command would complicate the maintenance of military discipline . Unlike Bolívar , backed up by the Colombian government , San Martín did not have more resources than those he already had : Buenos Aires denied him any support , the other Argentine governors ( such as Juan Bautista Bustos ) supported him but did not have resources to provide , O 'Higgins was about to be deposed in Chile , and Cochrane took the navy and left him without naval power . Finally , he felt that only a very strong authority would be able to prevent balkanization , but refused to rule as a dictator himself .
= = Later life = =
After his retirement , San Martín intended to live in Cuyo . Although the war of independence had ended in the regions , the Argentine Civil Wars continued . The unitarians wanted to organize the country as a unitary state centered on Buenos Aires , and the federals , who preferred a federation of provinces . San Martín had good relations with the federal caudillos and a personal feud with unitarian leader Bernardino Rivadavia , but tried to stay neutral . San Martín 's wife , María de los Remedios de Escalada , died in 1823 , so he returned to Buenos Aires . He took his daughter Mercedes Tomasa , who was living with her mother 's family , and sailed to Europe .
After a failed attempt to settle in France , he moved to Britain and then to the capital of present @-@ day Belgium , Brussels , where he settled . He intended to live there until Mercedes completed her education and then return to Argentina . Rivadavia visited Brussels and San Martín intended to challenge him to a duel , but was dissuaded by Diego Paroissien .
Despite his feud with Rivadavia , who was appointed President of Argentina , San Martín offered his military services in the War with Brazil , but received no response . He sailed to the country when Rivadavia was deposed and replaced by the federal Manuel Dorrego , and the war ended in the interim . He intended to return anyway , as a federal government would spare him the persecution he would otherwise have received from the unitarians . He was unable to do as he planned . When his ship docked in Río de Janeiro he was informed that the unitarian Juan Lavalle had deposed Dorrego , and when he reached Montevideo he was informed that Lavalle had captured and executed Dorrego and begun a campaign of terror against all federals in the country . The ship arrived in Buenos Aires , but San Martín did not leave it , instead returning to Montevideo . Lavalle was unable to put down the federal rebellion against him , and offered San Martín the government . San Martín declined and returned to Brussels .
By this time the federal Juan Manuel de Rosas had begun to pacify the civil war started by Lavalle and earned San Martín 's admiration . They began to exchange friendly letters . The Belgian Revolution and the cholera epidemic of 1831 made San Martín leave Brussels and move to Paris , where both San Martín and his daughter became ill . They were helped by Mariano Balcarce . Mariano married Mercedes , and they had a daughter , María Mercedes .
In 1837 France began a blockade of the Rio de la Plata against Rosas . San Martín offered his military services to Rosas , which was declined because of San Martín 's advanced age , and condemned the role of the unitarians in that conflict , as they had allied themselves with France against their own nation . San Martín bequeathed his curved saber to Rosas , because of his successful defense of the country . The conflict between France and Argentina renewed in the Anglo @-@ French blockade of the Río de la Plata , which San Martín condemned as well . During this time he met Florencio Varela and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento .
During the 1848 revolution , San Martin left Paris and moved to Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , a small city in northern France . He was almost blind and had many health problems because of his advanced age , but continued to write letters and keep in touch with the news from South America . Shortly after receiving the news of the Argentine victory against the Anglo @-@ French blockade , he died , three o 'clock on 17 August 1850 .
= = Remains = =
José de San Martín died on 17 August 1850 , in his house at Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , France . Between 1850 and 1861 , his corpse was buried in the crypt of the Basilica of Notre @-@ Dame de Boulogne . He requested in his will to be taken to the cemetery without any funeral , and to be moved to Buenos Aires thereafter . Balcarce informed Rosas and the foreign minister Felipe Arana of San Martín 's death . Balcarce oversaw the embalming of his remains and their temporary stay in a chapel of the city . He also sent San Martin 's saber to Rosas .
However , the rebellion of Justo José de Urquiza against Rosas in 1851 , Rosas ' defeat at the battle of Caseros and the resulting chaos delayed the move of San Martín 's remains to Buenos Aires . Still , both Rosas and Urquiza organized public homages to San Martín , despite the conflict . Buenos Aires seceded from Argentina as the state of Buenos Aires , dominated by Unitarians who despised San Martín . Thus , the move of his remains was postponed indefinitely . Aware that there were no favorable conditions for the project , Balcarce arranged a creation of a tomb in the Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer cemetery .
San Martín 's remains were finally repatriated on 29 May 1880 , during the presidency of Nicolás Avellaneda . The mausoleum was placed inside the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral . As San Martín was suspected of being a freemason , the mausoleum was placed in an expanded wing of the Cathedral .
= = Legacy = =
San Martín was first acclaimed as a national hero of Argentina by the Federals , both during his life and immediately after his death . The unitarians still resented his refusal to aid the Supreme Directors with the Army of the Andes and his constant support to Rosas . The unitarian Bartolomé Mitre wrote a biography of San Martín , " Historia de San Martín y de la emancipación sudamericana " ( Spanish : History of San Martín and the South American emancipation ) . By that time , several accounts of San Martín were under way in many countries : Valentín Ledesma from Lima wrote in 1853 about San Martín 's campaign in Peru , and Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna from Chile wrote in 1856 about the Chilean War of Independence . With Mitre 's book , San Martín was universally acclaimed as the Liberator of Argentina , but his work introduced several inaccuracies to make San Martín 's campaign support Mitre 's political project . These inaccuracies were detected and fixed by later historians .
Statues of San Martín appear in most cities of Argentina , as well as in Santiago and Lima . There is also a bust of San Martin at the Intramuros or Walled City of Manila , which was erected in 1950 at the request of the Perón government as a reminder that San Martin 's brother , Juan Fermin , served in the Philippines from 1801 to 1822 . José Gil de Castro made the first portrait of San Martín , and several other artists made works about him . The most important films featuring San Martín are the 1970 El Santo de la Espada and the 2010 Revolución : El cruce de los Andes .
An equestrian statue of the General was erected in Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer ; the statue was inaugurated on October 24 , 1909 , at a ceremony attended by several units from the Argentine military . The statue was erected through purely private initiative , with the support of national government of Argentina , the municipal council of Buenos Aires and a public funding campaign . The statue is 10m high , on a 4m by 6m base ; it is well known to locals . Located on the beach , it was virtually untouched by the numerous bombings campaigns during both world wars .
There is also an equestrian statue of General San Martín in New York City , on the southern side of Central Park . It was dedicated in 1951 and was donated by the City of Buenos Aires , Argentina .
There is also an equestrian statue in Washington D.C. along NW Virginia Street . It is a copy of a statue in Buenos Aires . It was gifted in 1925 from Argentina .
General Liberator San Martin Drive roadway in the Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai National Park north of Sydney Australia is named in his honour .
= 1910 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1910 Giro d 'Italia was the second edition of the Giro d 'Italia , a cycling race organized and sponsored by the newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport . The race began on 18 May in Milan with a stage that stretched 388 km ( 241 mi ) to Udine , finishing back in Milan on 5 June after a 277 @.@ 5 km ( 172 mi ) stage and a total distance covered of 2 @,@ 987 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @,@ 856 mi ) . The race was won by the Italian rider Carlo Galetti of the Atala @-@ Continental team , with fellow Italians Eberardo Pavesi and Luigi Ganna coming in second and third respectively .
Eberardo Pavesi was the first rider to lead the race after winning the first stage into Udine . After the second stage , Carlo Galetti took the lead of the race . Galetti then successfully defended the lead all the way to the race 's finish in Milan . En route to his overall victory , Galetti won two stages . The Atala @-@ Continental team finished as winners of the team classification .
= = Changes from the 1909 Giro d 'Italia = =
One major change was made to the calculation for the general classification before the start of the second Giro d 'Italia . Originally a point was given to each rider for his placing on each stage , but the organizers chose to give the riders who placed 51st or higher in a stage 51 points and keep the point distribution system the same for the riders who placed 1st through 50th in a stage .
The organizers chose to increase the length of their race after the success from the first edition . The original race was eight stages long and the 1910 edition was increased by two stages , to ten . The overall length of the race was increased to close to 3 @,@ 000 kilometers , which made the race close to 500 kilometers longer than the inaugural edition of the race .
= = Participants = =
A total of 101 riders started the second Giro d 'Italia out of the 118 that signed up to participate . Of the 101 riders that began the Giro d 'Italia on 18 May , twenty of them made it to the finish in Milan on 5 June . Riders were allowed to ride on their own or as a member of a team . There were six teams that competed in the race : Atala @-@ Continental , Atena @-@ Dunlop , Bianchi @-@ Dunlop , Legnano @-@ Dunlop , Otav @-@ Pirelli , and Stucchi @-@ Pirelli .
The notable participants included the reigning champion of the Giro d 'Italia , Luigi Ganna . The peloton also contained some of the most famous Italian cyclists at the time in Carlo Galetti , Ezio Corlaita , Giovanni Rossignoli , and Eberardo Pavesi . Two @-@ time Tour de France champion Lucien Petit @-@ Breton rode the Giro for the second straight year , along with his fellow countryman Jean @-@ Baptiste Dortignacq who had been successful in the Tour . The Giro also saw its first German participants , neither of whom completed the race .
= = Race overview = =
The first stage of the second Giro d 'Italia began with a large send off in the start city of Milan . The finish in Udine was hotly contested as five riders came to the finish line in a pack . Ernesto Azzini managed to out @-@ sprint the other four riders in the leading group to win the stage . The next stage saw the first non @-@ Italian stage winner in the history of the Giro d 'Italia , the Frenchman Jean @-@ Baptiste Dortignacq . Dortignacq managed to breakaway from his fellow group member Carlo Galetti and then solo to the stage victory while five other riders chased close behind . Galetti 's second @-@ place finish on the stage was high enough for him to take the lead of the race . The French success enraged the Italian fans and led the competing riders to ban unite against the foreign riders . The third stage saw three major Italian riders , Luigi Ganna , Carlo Galetti , and Eberardo Pavesi , and attack early on in the stage . The three riders then rode together all the way to the finish in Teramo . Galetti went on to win the stage , with Ganna and Pavesi following in quick succession .
The Giro 's fourth stage saw a tough stage with poor conditions for the riders , which ultimately led to the withdrawal of many riders including the likes of Lucien Petit @-@ Breton - who was ranked third overall at the time . The peloton 's pace was slower due to the w poor conditions , which caused the riders to arrive two hours later than expected in Naples . Pierino Albini beat out the Frenchman Maurice Brocco by 36 seconds for stage victory . Prior to the fifth stage 's start , Frenchman Jean @-@ Baptiste Dortignacq withdrew from the race after citing an illness . The police suspected foul play and looked into the situation , but their results are disputed through contradicting stories . Due to impassable roads , the start of the fifth stage was moved from Naples to Capua and decreased the distance of the stage from 224 @.@ 1 km ( 139 mi ) to 192 @.@ 3 km ( 119 mi ) . Eberardo Pavesi won the fifth stage after leading for most of the race .
The peloton remained intact for roughly the first half of the sixth stage . Luigi Ganna and Carlo Galetti broke away from the pack and made it to the finish in Rome where Ganna then edged out Galetti for the stage victory . During the next stage , a group of six riders lead for the most part before Galetti and Ganna broke away again . The two riders made their way to the finish in Genoa , where a large crowd of spectators came to see the finish . Ganna went on to win his second consecutive stage , while Galetti extended his lead over the rest of the field . The race 's eighth stage contained some harsh climbs , most notably the Giovi . The finish of the stage was hotly contested as Galetti , Ganna , and Eberardo Pavesi finished at the same time , with Galetti winning the stage in the end .
Eberardo Pavesi dominated the difficult ninth stage that contained the major climbs of the Nava , Tenda , and San Bartolomeo . Pavesi went on to win the stage by close to six minutes over the second @-@ place finisher Luigi Ganna . The race 's tenth and final stage was marred by rain . Race leader Carlo Galetti crashed into a hay wagon early on in the stage and sustained some heavy wounds , he would get back on his bike and finish the stage in fifth place . Despite the rain in Milan , many spectators still came to watch the riders arrive . Luigi Ganna was the first rider to cross the finish line in Milan and in doing so , he won his third stage of the 1910 Giro d 'Italia . Carlo Galetti won the Giro d 'Italia by a margin of eighteen points over Pavesi . Galetti and his team , Atala @-@ Continental , won the team classification .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Stage results = = =
= = = General classification = = =
There were 20 cyclists who had completed all ten stages . For these cyclists , the points they received from each of their stage placing 's were added up for the general classification . The cyclist with the least accumulated points was the winner .
= St Deiniol 's Church , Llanddaniel Fab =
St Deiniol 's Church , Llanddaniel Fab , is a small 19th @-@ century parish church in the centre of Llanddaniel Fab , a village in Anglesey , north Wales . The first church in this location is said to have been established by St Deiniol Fab ( to whom the church is dedicated ) in 616 . He was the son of St Deiniol , the first Bishop of Bangor . The current building , which is in Early English style , incorporates some material and fittings from an earlier church on the site , including the font and an 18th @-@ century memorial in the porch . The vestry door has medieval jambs and the keystone of its arch , which is also medieval , is a carved human face . Some parts of the nave walls may also come from a previous building here .
The church is no longer used for worship , and the village is now served by a church in Llanfairpwll . As of 2011 , the building ( without the surrounding grounds ) was for sale . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a good example of a simple 19th @-@ century rural church " .
= = History and location = =
St Deiniol 's Church is near the centre of Llanddaniel Fab , a village in the south of Anglesey , north Wales . It is reached from the street by passing through a lychgate by the local war memorial . The village takes its name from the church ; the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and -ddaniel is a modified form of the saint 's name .
The date of first construction of a Christian place of worship in the area is uncertain , but it is said by 19th @-@ century writers that a son of St Deiniol ( the first Bishop of Bangor ) established a church here in 616 . The son , also a saint , was known as Deiniol Fab ( Welsh for " Deiniol the son " ) , to distinguish him from his father . No part of a building from that time survives . A later edifice , dating from the 16th century or perhaps earlier , was replaced in the 19th century . Some parts of that structure may have been reused in the current church , as the 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire considered that sections of the walls of the nave may be from the older building .
In 1833 , the antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the old church as " a very ancient and dilapidated structure " , which had " some good specimens of the architecture of a very remote period " . Writing in 1846 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones described it as one " so much altered by successive reparations , that little of its original architectural character has been preserved " . Repairs were carried out to the new church , and a vestry added to the north side , in 1873 . The work was overseen by Henry Kennedy , architect of the Diocese of Bangor .
St Deiniol 's is no longer in use ; in 2006 , a guide to the churches of Anglesey noted that no services had been held for a number of years , and added that ivy was growing across the building . The church 's former parish has been merged with that of the adjoining village of Llanfairpwll , served by St Mary 's , Llanfairpwll . As of January 2011 , the church ( without the grounds ) was on sale for £ 50 @,@ 000 ; it was suggested by the estate agents handling the sale that it could be used as a studio or for storage , subject to necessary consents being obtained .
People associated with St Deiniol 's include the clergymen Henry Rowlands and Isaac Jones . Rowlands , who wrote a history of Anglesey ( Mona Antiqua Restaurata ) in 1723 , served as priest here and in nearby parishes from 1696 onwards . Jones , a translator , was curate of St Deiniol 's from 1840 until his death in 1850 .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The Gothic Revival church is in the Early English style . It is built from rubble masonry dressed with limestone and has a slate roof . The vestry is partially built from material used in the old church . The door in the vestry 's north wall has medieval doorjambs , and the keystone of the pointed arch , which is also medieval , is a carved human face .
The nave of the church ( where the congregation sat ) has no aisle . The chancel ( site of the altar ) is at the east end of the nave . There is a porch , which contains an 18th @-@ century memorial , on the south side of the nave towards the west end , and a vestry to the north . Each section is steeply gabled , with the west end terminating in a bellcote surmounted by a cross and containing a single bell . The windows in the nave have two lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) , save for one to the west of the porch , which has one light . The east end of the chancel has three adjoining lancet windows , the tallest in the middle .
Internally , the walls have panelling at the bottom and painted plasterwork above . The roof has exposed timbers . There is a pointed chancel arch and three steps between the nave and chancel , with a further step to the sanctuary , which has a mosaic floor . The east windows and those on the north have stained glass . Fittings include the rectangular pulpit , the pews , and the altar table , which are all made of pine wood , and the octagonal font , made of granite with carvings on each side . The 1937 Royal Commission survey recorded that the church owned a plain silver cup , dated 1796 – 1797 . A visual inspection of the church in 2006 determined that there were many cobwebs inside , but also that the pews and organ remained in place .
= = Assessment = =
St Deiniol 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and has been listed because it is regarded as " a good example of a simple 19th @-@ century rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) states that it is " coherently designed in an early Gothic style which is apt for its scale " .
= Song Without Words =
Song Without Words : A Book of Engravings on Wood is a wordless novel of 1936 by American artist Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) . Executed in twenty @-@ one wood engravings , it was the fifth and shortest of the six wordless novels Ward completed , produced while working on the last and longest , Vertigo ( 1937 ) . The story concerns the anxiety an expectant mother feels over bringing a child into a world under the threat of fascism — anxieties Ward and writer May McNeer were then feeling over McNeer 's pregnancy with the couple 's second child .
= = Content and style = =
A woman conceives a child and suffers anguish over whether to give birth to it . She imagines one nightmare image of fascism and death after another , filled with such imagery as skulls , concentration camps , and an infant impaled on a bayonet . She ends standing defiant against the forces that threaten her , and her male partner joins her and the baby in an image of hope for the future .
Ward employs symbols much as he had in previous works , such as towering buildings representing capitalism . Vermin swarm in the pictures , heightening the expectant mother 's fears — nightmare images of vultures , ants crawling over an impaled infant , and rats scuttering around a Nazi concentration camp filled with children .
= = Background = =
Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) was a son of Methodist minister and social activist Harry F. Ward ( 1873 – 1966 ) . Throughout his career the younger Ward displayed in his work the influence of his father 's interest in social injustice . Ward married writer May McNeer in 1926 and the couple left for Europe , where Ward spent a year studying wood engraving in Leipzig , Germany . There he encountered German Expressionist art and read the wordless novel The Sun ( 1919 ) by Flemish woodcut artist Frans Masereel ( 1889 – 1972 ) .
Ward returned to the United States and freelanced his illustrations . In 1929 , he came across German artist Otto Nückel 's wordless novel Destiny ( 1926 ) in New York City . The work inspired Ward to create a wordless novel of his own , Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) , which he followed with Madman 's Drum ( 1930 ) , Wild Pilgrimage ( 1932 ) , and the short Prelude to a Million Years ( 1933 ) .
Ward began engraving on Song Without Words while working on his longest wordless novel , Vertigo ( 1937 ) , which took two years to complete . McNeer was pregnant with their second child and the couple were facing the same anxieties as the book 's protagonist , and having worked through these issues they carried through the birth of daughter Robin . Into adulthood Robin kept a wall of her home decorated with prints from Song Without Words .
Ward returned to the themes of Song Without Words in Hymn for the Night , a retelling of the birth of Christ in Nazi Germany . The book was to have been Ward 's seventh wordless novel , but he abandoned it in 1940 after engraving twenty blocks of it after finding the story too removed from his personal experiences .
= = Production and publication = =
Ward produced 21 wood engravings for the book , sized 5 5 ⁄ 8 × 3 5 ⁄ 8 inches ( 14 @.@ 3 × 9 @.@ 2 cm ) . It appeared in 1936 in a limited edition from Random House of 1250 copies . The pages were printed from the original engravings by Equinox Press co @-@ founder Lewis F. White . The original woodblocks are in the Lynd Ward Collection in the Joseph Mark Lauinger Memorial Library at Georgetown University in Washington , DC .
= I 'll Still Love You =
" I 'll Still Love You " is a song written by English musician George Harrison and first released in 1976 by his former Beatles bandmate Ringo Starr . Produced by Arif Mardin , the track appeared on Starr 's debut album for Atlantic Records and Polydor , Ringo 's Rotogravure . The composition had a long recording history before then , having been written in 1970 as " Whenever " , after which it was copyrighted with the title " When Every Song Is Sung " .
Harrison originally intended the song for Welsh singer Shirley Bassey , who had a hit in the summer of 1970 with a cover version of his Beatles composition " Something " . Although Harrison recorded " When Every Song Is Sung " himself during the sessions for All Things Must Pass that year , it was not included on his album . He went on to produce recordings of the track by former Ronette Ronnie Spector in February 1971 , and Cilla Black in August 1972 , but neither version was completed for release . Mary Hopkin and Leon and Mary Russell also attempted the song during the first half of the 1970s , with Harrison participating in the Russells ' recording . A later version by Black – produced by David Mackay and titled " I 'll Still Love You ( When Every Song Is Sung ) " – appeared on her 2003 compilation Cilla : The Best of 1963 – 78 .
Together with John Lennon and Paul McCartney 's respective contributions , the song 's inclusion on Rotogravure marked the second occasion when Starr 's former bandmates had each supplied a song for one of his albums , after Ringo in 1973 . While Starr 's rendition is often held in low regard , some commentators consider " When Every Song Is Sung " to be one of Harrison 's finest love songs and on a par with " Something " . Author Ian Inglis describes the song as " an unfinished masterpiece " .
= = Background and composition = =
In late 1969 , after George Harrison 's song " Something " had been issued on the A @-@ side of a single by the Beatles – the first time that one of his compositions had been given that honour – he remarked in an interview : " There 's a lot of songs like that in my head . I must get them down . Maybe even other people would like to sing them . " In the summer of 1970 , " Something " gave Welsh singer Shirley Bassey her biggest UK hit in nine years , an achievement that led her to tell the press that she and Harrison could become a singer @-@ and @-@ songwriter pairing on the scale of Dionne Warwick and Burt Bacharach . Although he would later be dismissive of Bassey 's version of " Something " , Harrison wrote a new song for her to record after reading these comments . Originally titled " Whenever " , it became " When Every Song Is Sung " and later " I 'll Still Love You " .
As he had with " Something " , Harrison composed the melody on a piano , part @-@ way through a recording session – in this case , while working on his first post @-@ Beatles solo album , All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) . As reproduced in his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison 's original lyrics carried the title " WHENEVER ( by Shirley Bassey ) " . He recalls in the book : " I got the chord sequence , and ' When every song is sung ' were the first words to come out of my mouth , and it developed from there . "
Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , considers it to be an " emotionally complex lyric that ponders how love will even survive , ' when every soul is free ' " . Christian theologian Dale Allison interprets the subject matter of the song as moksha , or liberation from rebirth , in the Hindu faith . He writes : " ' I 'll Still Love You ( When Every Song Is Sung ) ' looks forward to the time when all souls are ' free , ' when all eyes will ' see , ' and when all human beings will be of the same mind . ' All Things Must Pass , ' but no one really ever passes away . "
Author Robert Rodriguez describes the musical tone as that of a " moody torch song " . Leng notes that the verses have the same descending semitone pattern as " Something " and , structurally , it features a middle eight that is " harsher " and " dramatic " compared to the verses , just like the middle eight in Harrison 's 1969 composition .
= = Pre @-@ Ringo 's Rotogravure recording history = =
= = = George Harrison = = =
Still using the title " Whenever " , Harrison recorded " When Every Song Is Sung " for All Things Must Pass in 1970 but did not include it on the album . The sessions took place between late May and August that year , at London 's Abbey Road and Trident studios . According to bootlegs subsequently compiled from the sessions , 44 takes of the song were taped . The recordings reveal a musical arrangement featuring acoustic guitars , piano , bass , drums and horns .
Along with other unreleased material from the All Things Must Pass sessions , Harrison 's " When Every Song Is Sung " became available in the 1990s on unofficial outtake compilations such as Songs for Patti , some of which list the track as " I 'll Still Love You " . AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger describes this early version of the song as " haunting " and " a noteworthy find " among outtakes from Harrison 's 1970 triple album .
= = = Ronnie Spector = = =
" When Every Song Is Sung " was one of up to six Harrison compositions recorded in February 1971 for what was intended to be a debut solo album by Ronnie Spector . The latter was the former lead singer of the Ronettes and the wife of Harrison 's All Things Must Pass co @-@ producer , Phil Spector . As in 1970 , Harrison and Spector co @-@ produced the sessions .
Basic tracks for this and the other songs were taped at Abbey Road Studios with some of the musicians who had played on All Things Must Pass – including Jim Gordon , Klaus Voormann and Gary Wright – along with Leon Russell on piano . The recording was not completed , however , since Phil Spector 's erratic behaviour led to the project being abandoned . Issued on Apple Records in April 1971 , the single " Try Some , Buy Some " was the only official Ronnie Spector release from these sessions .
= = = Cilla Black = = =
Due to his commitment to the Bangladesh relief effort , Harrison 's music @-@ making was limited for much of 1971 and the following year . In early August 1972 , shortly after the UK release of the Concert for Bangladesh film , he resumed his role as a record producer with a session for a new Cilla Black single , the A @-@ side of which was to be " When Every Song Is Sung " . The recording took place at Apple Studio in London , during Black 's day off from her summer variety season in Blackpool . Among the support musicians were Voormann , Ringo Starr and Eric Clapton .
A second Harrison composition , " You Got to Stay With Me " , was also attempted at the session , but as with the Ronnie Spector solo album , the project was not completed . Black told radio presenter Spencer Leigh that her ability to record that day was hindered by her discomfort following a dental appointment just before the session began . The B @-@ side that Harrison started writing for her similarly took an alternative route , ending up as the autobiographical " The Light That Has Lighted the World " , which he chose to include on his 1973 album Living in the Material World .
According to author Alan Clayson , former Apple artist Mary Hopkin also recorded a version of " When Every Song Is Sung " during this period . Black still thought the song was " super " , she told Leigh , and so re @-@ recorded it over 1974 – 75 , this time with producer David Mackay . She said of this later recording : " even then , [ the song ] didn 't have the magic it deserved . It should have had a ' Yesterday ' -type arrangement . "
In his book The Beatles Diary Volume 2 , Keith Badman writes that Harrison and Black met in a London restaurant over Christmas in 1982 and discussed completing their recordings from ten years before . Black 's Mackay @-@ produced version of the song was eventually released in May 2003 , as " I 'll Still Love You ( When Every Song Is Sung ) " , on her three @-@ CD compilation Cilla : The Best of 1963 – 78 .
= = = Leon and Mary Russell = = =
After their various projects together between 1969 and 1971 , including the Concert for Bangladesh , Harrison renewed his musical association with Leon Russell in 1975 , while recording Extra Texture in Los Angeles . Aside from contributing to that album , Russell made a new recording of " When Every Song Is Song " with his wife Mary – formerly Mary McCreary of the vocal group Little Sister , and subsequently a solo artist signed to Russell 's Shelter record label . The couple married in June 1975 , after which they began recording the first of their two albums together , titled Wedding Album .
Harrison participated in the session for " When Every Song Is Sung " . According to Tom Petty , who was a Shelter artist at the time , recording took place at Russell 's home studio in Encino , with Ringo Starr also at the session . As before , this attempt failed to produce a finished recording of the song .
= = Ringo 's Rotogravure recording = =
Starr was another admirer of the song , describing it in an NME interview as " a big ballady thing " and a track " I 've always loved " . In April 1976 , John Lennon and Paul McCartney had each agreed to donate a song and participate in the sessions for Ringo 's Rotogravure , Starr 's first album on Atlantic Records and Polydor . While he had been Starr 's most frequent collaborator out of all of Starr 's former bandmates after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , Harrison was unable to attend the sessions , since he was under pressure to deliver his first Dark Horse Records album , after being waylaid by hepatitis . Starr instead received his permission to record " When Every Song Is Sung " , now titled " I 'll Still Love You " . Ringo 's Rotogravure thereby became the second album by an ex @-@ Beatle , after Starr 's Ringo in 1973 , to feature compositions by all four former members of the band .
The Rotogravure sessions took place between April and July 1976 , mostly at Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles . Arif Mardin produced the album , since Richard Perry , Starr 's usual producer , was committed to another project . The musicians on " I 'll Still Love You " included pianist Jane Getz and a rhythm section comprising Starr and Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) and Voormann ( on bass ) . Lon Van Eaton , a former Apple Records signing , played lead guitar on the track .
As further contributions to a recording that Rodriguez describes as a " dramatic ballad " , Mardin added a string synthesizer part , played on an ARP String Ensemble , and Gene Orloff arranged and conducted orchestral strings . Mardin recorded these overdubs at Atlantic Studios in New York , without Starr . According to Keith Badman , Harrison was " not pleased " with Starr 's version of the song and took legal action against him , which was soon settled out of court .
= = Release and reception = =
Ringo 's Rotogravure was issued on 17 September 1976 in Britain and ten days later in the United States , with " I 'll Still Love You " sequenced as the second track on side two of the LP . The US release coincided with heightened speculation regarding the possibility of a Beatles reunion , following promoter Sid Bernstein 's offer of $ 230 million for a single concert by the group . While Starr was often asked about his former bandmates ' contributions to the album , he was frustrated by the media 's preference for discussing the Beatles . Starr also dismissed the idea that Harrison 's non @-@ appearance on " I 'll Still Love You " was to avoid Rotogravure being seen as a work by " The New Beatles ' " , as one interviewer had suggested . Although it was not selected for release as a single , Starr made a promotional film for the song , along with two other tracks from the album . The film clip , which was rarely seen at the time , shows Starr and a woman dancing together in a park in Hamburg .
As with its parent album , " I 'll Still Love You " received a mixed response from music critics . In one of the more favourable reviews , Ray Coleman of Melody Maker admired Rotogravure as " a pleasing album of uncomplicated pop music " and added that the song was " simplicity itself " , likening it to " Something " . Less impressed , Bob Woffinden of the NME said : " ' I 'll Still Love You ' is a song Harrison wrote some years back . Lyrics are dreadful , but the melody 's quite pretty . " In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner described the contributions from Starr 's former bandmates as " sound [ ing ] more like throwaways " , in contrast with their " inspired work " on Ringo . Schaffner lamented that the treatment of " I 'll Still Love You " was almost a " Harrison parody " , complete with Van Eaton 's " fluid imitation " of the guitarist 's playing style .
Writing more recently , Robert Rodriguez describes " I 'll Still Love You " as one of the highlights of Ringo 's Rotogravure , and evidence that " when it came to George , Ringo was the recipient of his strongest giveaways " . In his book on Harrison , for the Praeger Singer @-@ Songwriter Collection , Ian Inglis writes dismissively of Starr 's " boisterous shouts " of " Yes I will " and finds Mardin 's production similarly unsuitable . Inglis laments that Harrison never revisited the song himself , adding : " It has the potential , lyrically and musically , to become one of his loveliest creations . As it stands , it is an unfinished masterpiece . " In Simon Leng 's estimation , " When Every Song Is Sung " is among Harrison 's finest love songs and it " deserved better " than the " sub @-@ Spector production " of Starr 's version . Alan Clayson similarly describes it as a Harrison composition that " [ satisfied ] every musical and lyrical qualification required of an evergreen like ' Yesterday ' or his own ' Something ' " , yet the song received " its burial " beside the " makeweight bagatelles " on side two of Rotogravure .
= = Personnel = =
As listed in the musicians ' credits on the Ringo 's Rotogravure LP :
Ringo Starr – vocals , drums
Lon Van Eaton – electric guitar
Jane Getz – piano
Arif Mardin – ARP string synthesizer
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Gene Orloff – string arrangement and direction
David Lasley – backing vocals
= U.S. Route 9 in New Jersey =
U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) is a U.S. highway in the northeast United States , running from Laurel , Delaware north to Champlain , New York . In New Jersey , the route runs 166 @.@ 80 mi ( 268 @.@ 44 km ) from the Cape May – Lewes Ferry terminal in North Cape May , Cape May County , where the ferry carries US 9 across the Delaware Bay to Lewes , Delaware , north to the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee , Bergen County , where the route along with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and US 1 continue into New York City . US 9 is the longest U.S. highway in the state . From North Cape May north to Toms River in Ocean County , US 9 is mostly a two @-@ lane undivided road that closely parallels the Garden State Parkway and runs near the Jersey Shore . Along this stretch , it passes through the communities of Rio Grande , Cape May Court House , Somers Point , Pleasantville , Absecon , Tuckerton , Manahawkin , and Beachwood . In the Toms River area , US 9 runs along the Garden State Parkway for a short distance before heading northwest away from it and the Jersey Shore into Lakewood Township . Upon entering Monmouth County , the route transitions into a multilane suburban divided highway and continues through Howell Township , Freehold Township , Manalapan Township , Marlboro Township , Old Bridge Township , Sayreville , and South Amboy . In Woodbridge Township , US 9 merges with US 1 and the two routes continue through northern New Jersey as US 1 / 9 to the George Washington Bridge .
Prior to 1927 , the current alignment of US 9 had been legislated as parts of several state highways , including pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 from Cape May to Seaville , pre @-@ 1927 Route 19 between Seaville and Absecon , pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Absecon and Lakewood and South Amboy and Rahway , a spur of pre @-@ 1927 Route 7 between Lakewood and Freehold , and pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 between Rahway and Jersey City . US 9 was signed through New Jersey in 1926 to run from US 30 in Absecon north to the New York border in Alpine , where it became US 9W ; it ran more to the east of its current alignment between Lakewood and South Amboy . In 1927 , US 9 became Route 4 between Absecon and Lakewood and South Amboy and Rahway , Route 35 between Lakewood and Belmar and Eatontown and South Amboy ( now Route 88 south of Point Pleasant ) , Route 4N ( now Route 71 ) between Belmar and Eatontown , Route 27 between Rahway and Newark , Route 25 between Newark and Jersey City , and New Jersey Route 1 north of Jersey City .
By the 1940s , US 9 had been extended south on Route 4 to Cape May and rerouted to current Route 4 between Lakewood and South Amboy . In addition , the route was moved to its current alignment between South Amboy and Jersey City , following Route 35 and Route 25 , and routed to cross the Hudson River on the George Washington Bridge , using a part of Route 6 . The state highway concurrencies were removed in 1953 and two realignments occurred to the route as a result of the construction of the Garden State Parkway in the 1950s . In the 1970s , US 9 was extended across the Cape May – Lewes Ferry to continue into Delaware with the former route into Cape May becoming Route 109 . Also around this time , two freeways were proposed for US 9 in Atlantic and Monmouth counties , but never built . The Beesley 's Point Bridge over Great Egg Harbor Bay was closed in 2004 , with US 9 rerouted to use the Great Egg Harbor Bridge along the Garden State Parkway .
= = Route description = =
= = = Cape May County = = =
From the dock of the Cape May – Lewes Ferry , which carries US 9 across the Delaware Bay to Lewes , Delaware , US 9 continues eastward on four @-@ lane divided Lincoln Boulevard , which is under the maintenance of the Delaware River and Bay Authority . It runs between the residential community of North Cape May to the north and wetlands to the south within Lower Township , Cape May County . The road becomes Sandman Boulevard at the intersection with CR 603 , where it enters woodland and narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road . After a turn southeast , US 9 comes to a crossroads with CR 626 , which heads south to cross the Cape May Canal as Route 162 . After crossing the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad tracks , US 9 turns north onto Shore Road , while Route 109 continues straight to head into Cape May . Shore Road , which is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation , carries the route northward through a mix of woods and marshland containing some development , with the Cape May Seashore Lines tracks running immediately to the west and the Garden State Parkway a short distance to the east . The road passes near Historic Cold Spring Village prior to a brief bend farther to the east of the railroad tracks as the route continues through Erma .
US 9 crosses into Middle Township , where it continues northeast into the commercial community of Rio Grande . Here , the road briefly widens to four lanes as it has an intersection with Route 47 , which runs up the west bank of the cape . From this point , the two @-@ lane route continues into a mix of woods and development . Continuing into Burleigh , US 9 intersects Route 147 and CR 618 . Route 147 / CR 618 , as well as Route 47 , provide access to The Wildwoods resort area on the Jersey Shore . North of the Route 147 intersection , US 9 draws alongside the Garden State Parkway as it passes near the Wildwood Golf and Country Club . Shortly after pulling away from the Garden State Parkway once again , the highway continues into Cape May Court House , the county seat of Cape May County .
In this community , US 9 runs past a mix of homes and businesses , intersecting Shellbay Avenue and CR 657 , both of which provide access to the Garden State Parkway at at @-@ grade intersections . At the CR 657 intersection , US 9 briefly gains a center left @-@ turn lane and passes by Cape Regional Medical Center . Upon leaving Cape May Court House , the route runs into more rural surroundings , passing the Cape May County Park & Zoo prior to an intersection with CR 609 that connects to the Garden State Parkway . Past here , the road again draws closer to the parkway and comes to a ramp that provides access to the southbound direction of the parkway . Continuing northeast through more wooded development , US 9 intersects CR 601 before passing by Leaming 's Run Gardens and entering Dennis Township .
A short distance later , in the community of Clermont , Route 83 splits off to the northwest . Past this intersection , US 9 continues northeast through more rural areas , reaching an intersection with CR 625 after passing by Magnolia Lake . Following the CR 625 intersection , the road comes to CR 550 , which heads to the west . Not long after the CR 550 intersection , US 9 continues into Upper Township , where it passes rural development before reaching Seaville . Here , there is an intersection with the southern terminus of Route 50 and a ramp providing access to and from the southbound direction of the Garden State Parkway . At this intersection , the route is briefly a divided highway . Past this junction , the road continues northeast , where residential development becomes more constant alongside the road as it passes through Palermo .
US 9 reaches the community of Marmora , where it heads into commercial areas and briefly becomes a divided highway as it intersects CR 623 . At this intersection , US 9 turns southeast to join CR 623 on Roosevelt Boulevard , while Shore Road continues north into Beesleys Point to the site of the former Beesley 's Point Bridge . US 9 / CR 623 runs southeast as five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that passes businesses . The road comes to an interchange with the Garden State Parkway , at which point US 9 heads northeast on the four @-@ lane limited @-@ access parkway . The parkway , which has a wide median , carries the route through wooded areas between Beesleys Point to the west and marshland to the east . The median narrows as the highway comes to the Great Egg Harbor Bridge over the Great Egg Harbor Bay .
= = = Atlantic County = = =
The highway crosses the Great Egg Harbor Bay into Egg Harbor Township , Atlantic County , where it runs across marshy Drag Island into Somers Point before passing over the Drag Channel . The parkway has a southbound toll plaza before US 9 leaves the roadway at a partial interchange . Now called New Road , the route runs through developed areas prior to crossing CR 559 . The road winds east through the Greate Bay Golf Club before turning north and intersecting the northern terminus of Route 52 and Laurel Drive , the latter of which provides access to and from the northbound Garden State Parkway . At this intersection , the road contains a median . From this point , the two @-@ lane undivided US 9 is lined with businesses and continues northeast , gaining a center left @-@ turn lane prior to the CR 559 Alternate intersection . Here , the route enters Linwood and the turn lane ends as it heads through suburban areas . The road continues into Northfield , where it comes to CR 563 . US 9 enters Pleasantville , intersecting US 40 / US 322 ( Black Horse Pike ) , a surface route to nearby Atlantic City to the east . The road turns more north @-@ northeast past this intersection , crossing a former railroad line used as a rail trail . The route reaches an interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway , the toll road leading into Atlantic City .
After this interchange , US 9 crosses CR 646 and enters Absecon . The route crosses the marshy Absecon Creek prior to passing businesses . After crossing under New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line , another route into Atlantic City , US 30 ( White Horse Pike ) , crosses US 9 . After US 30 , the road turns east into wooded neighborhoods , becoming Wyoming Avenue . Route 157 intersects US 9 from the south , with US 9 making a left turn to head northeast onto Shore Road . The road continues into Galloway Township , with residential development becoming less dense as it runs a short distance to the west of inland bays , intersecting the southern terminus of CR 561 .
Past this intersection , US 9 draws farther from the inland bays and becomes New York Road . The road continues through dense woodland with some residences prior to reaching Smithville . Here , the road crosses CR 561 Alternate . Upon leaving the Smithville area , the land gets much more forested . The road turns slightly to the north @-@ northwest as it crosses the marshy Nacote Creek , entering Port Republic and continuing north . After intersecting CR 575 , the road passes a monument for the Battle of Chestnut Neck as it intersects Route 167 . Following this intersection , US 9 turns west and merges onto the Garden State Parkway at an interchange . The limited @-@ access parkway , which is four lanes wide , carries US 9 north through marshland to a crossing of the Mullica River .
= = = Pine Barrens = = =
This river crossing takes the two roads into Bass River Township , Burlington County , where US 9 merges off the Garden State Parkway . The route heads northwest onto two @-@ lane undivided New York Road through woods , intersecting the northern terminus of the northern segment of Route 167 . At this point , the route turns north and comes to a junction with CR 542 . US 9 turns east into residential New Gretna before crossing under the Garden State Parkway without an interchange and passing over the marshy Bass River . This section runs along the eastern edge of the heavily forested Pine Barrens , with occasional areas of development .
The road crosses the Balanger Creek into Little Egg Harbor Township in Ocean County , where US 9 becomes an unnamed road . Continuing east , the roadway enters Tuckerton and passes more dense development and the Tuckerton Seaport as " Main Street " . US 9 crosses the Tuckerton Creek near Pohatcong Lake prior to intersecting the southern terminus of CR 539 . From this point , the road resumes a north @-@ northeast bearing , passing more areas of the Pine Barrens as it continues back into Little Egg Harbor Township and runs through Parkertown . Upon entering Eagleswood Township , US 9 passes through the residential community of West Creek . Continuing into Stafford Township , the route reaches Manahawkin , where development increases . In Manahawkin , Route 72 , the main route to Long Beach Island , meets US 9 at a cloverleaf interchange . In the vicinity of the interchange , the road is a four @-@ lane divided highway .
After this interchange , the two @-@ lane road passes more development before becoming more wooded . US 9 enters Barnegat Township , where it reaches the community of Barnegat , located a short distance to the west of the Barnegat Bay . In this community , there is an intersection with the eastern terminus of CR 554 . Past this intersection , the route enters Ocean Township . In this area , US 9 comes to Waretown , where it intersects CR 532 in a commercial area . Leaving Waretown , the road heads north through areas of woodland and businesses before crossing the Oyster Creek into Lacey Township . Here , the road passes to the east of the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station before crossing over a branch of the Forked River . At this point , US 9 runs past businesses in the community of Forked River , turning back to the north @-@ northeast .
The land gets more built up as the road enters Lanoka Harbor . A crossing of the Cedar Creek takes the route into Berkeley Township and US 9 continues north as Atlantic City Boulevard . At Bayville , the route is lined with businesses and makes a turn to the northwest . The road briefly forms the border between Berkeley Township to the southwest and Pine Beach to the northeast prior to crossing into Beachwood . In Beachwood , Route 166 heads north as the route widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . Past Route 166 , US 9 turns more to the west past residential neighborhoods as a four @-@ lane undivided road , entering South Toms River , where it widens into a divided highway . US 9 crosses CR 530 prior to merging onto the Garden State Parkway again at another interchange . At this interchange , the southbound direction of US 9 briefly runs concurrent with eastbound CR 530 .
= = = Toms River to Freehold = = =
Joined with the eight @-@ lane Garden State Parkway , US 9 briefly passes through Berkeley Township again before crossing the Toms River and entering Toms River . Here , the road reaches the exit for CR 527 . Past CR 527 , the road comes to a cloverleaf interchange with Route 37 at exit 82 . US 9 leaves the Garden State Parkway again at the next exit , just before the Toms River toll barrier . At this point , the route intersects the northern terminus of Route 166 and heads north along Lakewood Road , a four @-@ lane divided road that comes to an intersection with CR 571 . Following this intersection , the road passes wooded suburban areas , turning more to the north @-@ northwest . After a turn to the north , US 9 reaches an interchange with Route 70 , a route connecting the northern part of the Jersey Shore to the Philadelphia area .
After this junction , the road takes the name River Avenue as it comes into Lakewood Township . Upon entering Lakewood , the road passes commercial establishments containing Kimball Medical Center and running through tree @-@ covered residential neighborhoods . After crossing a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line , the road passes to the east of Lake Carasaljo as it intersects CR 528 / CR 547 . At this intersection , CR 547 forms a concurrency with US 9 and the two routes continue north on Madsion Avenue , crossing the Metedeconk River , which Lake Carasaljo is formed from . After intersecting the western terminus of Route 88 , Madison Avenue continues north through the commercial and residential center of Lakewood as a four @-@ lane undivided road , with CR 547 splitting from US 9 by turning east . Entering a business area , the route crosses CR 526 , turning into a divided highway called the Lila W. Thompson Memorial Highway .
US 9 enters Howell Township , Monmouth County at the point where it crosses over the North Branch Metedeconk River . The road runs north , lined with businesses and shopping centers as it has several intersections with jughandles . In this area , the route reaches an interchange with I @-@ 195 , where US 9 begins a northwestward slant . After this interchange , the highway continues north and enters Freehold Township . In this area , the highway crosses CR 524 .
Past this intersection , the route turns north and has an intersection with Route 79 before the interchange with the Route 33 freeway . Following Route 33 , the highway continues northwest and enters Freehold , the county seat of Monmouth County , as it has an interchange with CR 537 . US 9 enters Freehold Township again as it passes between the Freehold Raceway Mall to the west and the Freehold Raceway to the east . The route turns north , widens to eight lanes , and intersects Route 33 Business at the former Freehold Circle . From this point , US 9 runs west of Freehold and east of Monmouth Battlefield State Park as a six @-@ lane highway before crossing over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line and CR 522 , with ramps providing access to the latter . After this interchange , the highway narrows back to four lanes .
= = = Freehold to US 1 = = =
Continuing into Manalapan Township , the route runs through more suburban areas and passes to the east of the former Manalapan Mall , which is now a big – box complex . US 9 reaches an interchange with CR 3 before passing a mix of farmland and development as it crosses into Marlboro Township . In Marlboro Township , businesses predominate the road as it reaches an interchange with Union Hill Road . Following this , US 9 continues north and crosses CR 520 .
The road enters Old Bridge Township , Middlesex County , where it becomes the Joann H. Smith Memorial Highway and interchanges with the Route 18 freeway . Within this interchange , the travel lanes of US 9 split . From Route 18 , the route widens to six lanes as it eventually comes to interchanges with Throckmorton Lane / Ticetown Road and CR 516 . Past CR 516 , the highway passes a mix of woodland and farm fields . Route 34 intersects US 9 at a directional interchange , and the highway continues past shopping centers , with an exit ramp to one . From Route 34 through to the US 1 / 9 concurrency in Avenel , there are no jughandles or other intersections , just right @-@ in / right @-@ out access and interchanges . US 9 enters Sayreville , where it passes more suburban areas , interchanging with CR 673 and CR 615 . A short distance after the latter , the road comes to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway at exit 123 ; this interchange only has access from the Parkway southbound to US 9 south and from US 9 north to the northbound parkway . US 9 narrows to four lanes past this interchange and runs northeast as it enters South Amboy . The route comes to an interchange with Route 35 , merging onto that route for a concurrency .
The concurrent US 9 and Route 35 head northwest on a four @-@ lane divided highway through commercial areas and woodland , crossing over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations before turning north and interchanging with Raritan Street and Kearney Road , crossing back into Sayreville at the interchange with the former . At this point , the road widens to six lanes . The two routes split at an interchange ( the former Victory Circle ) that has access to the southbound Garden State Parkway and from the northbound Parkway by way of Chevalier Avenue . From here , US 9 closely parallels the east side of the Garden State Parkway as it crosses the Raritan River on the Edison Bridge , with the parkway crossing the river on the Driscoll Bridge . Upon crossing the Raritan River , US 9 enters Woodbridge Township , where it reaches a complex interchange with the Garden State Parkway , Route 440 , and CR 656 . Within this interchange , the Garden State Parkway ’ s travel lanes run in between the travel lanes of US 9 , with this configuration continuing past the interchange for a short distance . Along this stretch , there are ramps to and from CR 616 and to the parkway and the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) .
After US 9 heads east away from the parkway , it reaches a cloverleaf interchange with Route 184 / CR 501 and continues into a business district . A short distance later , the highway crosses over the access road between the Garden State Parkway and the New Jersey Turnpike just east of the toll plaza and then the New Jersey Turnpike itself . From this point , the highway passes several office parks , reaching an interchange with CR 514 . After CR 514 , the route passes some residential neighborhoods before passing to the east of the Woodbridge Center shopping mall . After passing under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line , US 9 junctions with CR 604 prior to merging with US 1 .
= = = The US 1 / 9 concurrency = = =
US 1 and US 9 become concurrent upon merging in Woodbridge Township and continue through developed areas , interchanging with Route 35 . Soon after this interchange , jughandles and other traffic light @-@ controlled intersections resume . Upon entering Union County , US 1 / 9 pass through Rahway and Linden , interchanging with I @-@ 278 in Linden . The road continues into urban Elizabeth , crossing Route 439 before turning into a freeway prior to meeting Route 81 near Newark Liberty International Airport . US 1 / 9 continue along the west end of the airport into Newark , Essex County , reaching the Newark Airport Interchange with I @-@ 78 , US 22 , and Route 21 . From this interchange , the road continues northeast through industrial areas to an interchange with US 1 / 9 Truck that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) .
US 1 / 9 continue onto the Pulaski Skyway , which carries the route over the Passaic River into Hudson County , crossing over Kearny and the Hackensack River before coming into Jersey City . Trucks are banned from the Pulaski Skyway and must use US 1 / 9 Truck to bypass it .
The Pulaski Skyway ends at the Tonnele Circle with US 1 / 9 Truck and Route 139 , and US 1 / 9 continue north along at @-@ grade Tonnelle Avenue toward North Bergen , where the road intersects Route 3 and Route 495 . Crossing into Bergen County , Broad Avenue carries US 1 / 9 through Fairview and Ridgefield before heading into Palisades Park . Here , the two routes join US 46 , and the combined road heads north into Fort Lee . US 1 / 9 / 46 come to an interchange with I @-@ 95 , US 9W , and Route 4 , where it joins I @-@ 95 to head east to the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River . At this point , US 46 ends and I @-@ 95 and US 1 / 9 continue into Manhattan , New York City on the Trans @-@ Manhattan Expressway .
= = Route 9 BBS = =
The Route 9 BBS , or bus bypass shoulder , are a part of the express bus system in Monmouth and MIddlesex counties . The road is used by New Jersey Transit 's routes 63 , 64 , 67 to Hudson County , the 130 , 132 , 136 , 139 to Port Authority Bus Terminal , and Academy Bus to Lower Manhattan . The bus lanes run for approximately 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 83 km ) in Old Bridge Township and are the first component of a planned 20 @-@ mile ( 32 @.@ 19 km ) BBS corridor into Monmouth and northern Ocean counties . An extensive analysis by consulting and planning firm Stantec released in 2010 includes recommendations regarding design , construction , and implementation of the BBS extension . The 2nd phase of the project would start at the project 's southern end near the Lakewood Bus Terminal near Route 88 . The third phase and final phase would connect the northern and southern segments passing though Freehold Township and proximate towns , where work would include some widening and deepening of the roadbed to handle bus traffic .
= = History = =
What would become US 9 was legislated as part of several state routes in the 1910s and 1920s . Between Cape May and Seaville , the road was legislated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 in 1917 . Pre @-@ 1927 Route 19 was designated to run along the current route between Seaville and Absecon , but was never built . From Absecon north to Lakewood , and from South Amboy to Rahway , pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 was designated in 1916 along the current route . Between Lakewood and Freehold , a spur of pre @-@ 1927 Route 7 , created in 1925 , was to run on the present US 9 alignment . Between Rahway and Elizabeth , pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 was created in 1916 ; an extension north to the Holland Tunnel was planned in 1922 .
When the U.S. Highway System was created in 1926 , US 9 was designated in New Jersey to run from US 30 in Absecon north to the New York border in Alpine , where it continued into New York as US 9W . In New Jersey , the route followed the entirety of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Absecon and Rahway , bending farther to the east of its current alignment between Lakewood and South Amboy by running closer to the Atlantic Ocean . In Rahway , US 9 joined US 1 and pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 for a concurrency north toward Newark . Past Newark , the road followed current US 1 / 9 Truck toward Jersey City , where US 1 and US 9 split . At this point , US 9 continued north on its current alignment in Fort Lee , where it then ran north on present @-@ day CR 501 toward the New York border . US 9 was designated along this alignment to the New York border as the original numbering plans called for it to continue up the west bank of the Hudson River to Albany , New York , with US 109 running along the east bank of the river . However , it was instead split into two suffixed routes in New York , with US 9W running along the west bank and US 9E running along the east bank , New Jersey had kept its alignment of US 9 to US 9W at the border in Alpine .
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the present @-@ day routing of US 9 between Cape May and Woodbridge became part of Route 4 , while the portion along the US 1 / 9 concurrency south of the Tonnele Circle became part of Route 25 and north of there to the George Washington Bridge became Route 1 and Route 6 . Meanwhile , what had been signed as US 9 at the time was Route 4 from Absecon to Lakewood , Route 35 between Lakewood and Belmar and Eatontown and South Amboy ( now Route 88 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant ) , Route 4N ( now Route 71 ) between Belmar and Eatontown , Route 4 ( now Route 35 ) between South Amboy and Rahway , Route 27 between Rahway and Newark , Route 25 between Newark and Jersey City , and Route 1 north of Jersey City . After the Pulaski Skyway opened in 1932 , US 9 , along with US 1 and Route 25 , was routed onto it . By the 1940s , US 9 was extended south along Route 4 to Cape May , with the small southern piece leading to US 30 in Absecon becoming an unnumbered road that is now Route 157 . In addition , US 9 was moved to its current routing between South Amboy and the George Washington Bridge . By 1947 , US 9 and Route 4 were moved to a new alignment between Freehold and Old Bridge Township , with the old alignment becoming Route 4A ( now Route 79 and a part of Route 34 ) .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the state highways running concurrent with US 9 were removed . In addition , US 1 / 9 Truck was created as a truck bypass of the Pulaski Skyway , replacing Route 25T , and US 1 / 9 Business ( now Route 139 ) was signed along the former Route 25 approach to the Holland Tunnel .
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After the Garden State Parkway was completed through the Toms River area in 1954 , US 9 was moved to it to bypass the center of the community and the former route became US 9 Alternate ( now Route 166 ) . Also in 1954 , a new bridge for the Garden State Parkway was built over the Mullica River at the site of the US 9 bridge ; the old bridge carrying US 9 was dismantled , and the route was designated to follow the Garden State Parkway over the Mullica River from two interchanges . The approaches to the former bridge became Route 167 .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , a limited @-@ access toll road called the Garden State Thruway was planned along the US 9 alignment between Toms River and Woodbridge . This freeway was intended to serve all vehicles and provide a shortcut to the Garden State Parkway and US 9 through central New Jersey but was never built . In the early 1970s , another plan surfaced for a US 9 freeway from Route 34 in Madison Township ( now Old Bridge Township ) north to Route 35 in Sayreville . The freeway , which was to cost $ 17 million , was not built due to financial problems . A freeway was also proposed for US 9 in Atlantic County in the late 1960s , running from the proposed Route 60 freeway in Somers Point to CR 575 in Smithville . This freeway , which was to cost $ 35 million and intended to alleviate traffic on the current US 9 and the Garden State Parkway , was also never built due to financial and environmental issues .
In 1972 , US 9 was relocated from its southern terminus in Cape May to head west to its new southern terminus at the Cape May – Lewes Ferry terminal in North Cape May , with the former route into Cape May becoming Route 109 . US 9 was extended across the ferry to US 13 in Laurel , Delaware in 1974 . In 2001 , a new span was added to the Edison Bridge over the Raritan River in a $ 60 million project . The Victory Circle at the north end of the Route 35 concurrency in Sayreville was replaced with an interchange between 2003 and 2006 .
The Beesley 's Point Bridge over the Great Egg Harbor was closed to traffic in 2004 because of a crumbling deck , with the bridge owner , the Beesley ’ s Point Bridge Company , unable to fund repairs . US 9 was detoured around the closure on the Garden State Parkway . In 2008 , Cape May County acquired the bridge from the Beesley ’ s Point Bridge Company and planned to restore it by 2012 , with an estimated cost of $ 20 million . However , the Beesley 's Point Bridge was slated to be demolished in 2013 as part of a project that will also replace the Great Egg Harbor Bridge . As of 2011 , a $ 588 million project for expansion of the 7 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 59 km ) segment of Route 9 between Toms River and Lakewood was in a " design concept " phase with funding earmarked for 2016 @-@ 2017 construction .
The segment of US 9 in New Jersey was mentioned in the Bruce Springsteen song " Born to Run " in the lines " Sprung from cages on Highway 9 / Chrome wheeled , fuel injected and steppin ' out over the line . "
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
There is one remaining bannered spur of US 9 in the state of New Jersey :
U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Truck in Jersey City
The following state highways were also formerly designated as bannered spurs of US 9 :
Route 139 in Jersey City was formerly U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Business
Route 166 in Toms River was formerly U.S. Route 9 Alternate
Additionally , the following state highways are former alignments of U.S. Route 9 :
Route 109 in Cape May
Route 157 in Absecon
Route 167 near Bass River Township
= Joe Nieuwendyk =
Joseph " Joe " Nieuwendyk ( born September 10 , 1966 ) is a Canadian former National Hockey League ( NHL ) player . He was a second round selection of the Calgary Flames , 27th overall , at the 1985 NHL Entry Draft and played 20 seasons for the Calgary Flames , Dallas Stars , New Jersey Devils , Toronto Maple Leafs , and Florida Panthers . He is one of only 10 players in NHL history to win the Stanley Cup with three different teams , winning titles with Calgary in 1989 , Dallas in 1999 and New Jersey in 2003 . A two @-@ time Olympian , Nieuwendyk won a gold medal with Team Canada at the 2002 winter games . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2011 and his uniform number 25 was honoured by the Flames in 2014 . Joe Nieuwendyk was inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 2014 .
An accomplished box lacrosse player , Nieuwendyk led the Whitby Warriors to the 1984 Minto Cup national junior championship before focusing exclusively on hockey . He played university hockey with the Cornell Big Red where he was a two @-@ time All @-@ American . He won the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL rookie of the year in 1988 after becoming only the second first @-@ year player to score 50 goals . He was a four @-@ time All @-@ Star , won the King Clancy Memorial Trophy in 1995 for his leadership and humanitarian work , was named the Conn Smythe Trophy winner in 1999 as most valuable player of the post @-@ season . Nieuwendyk played 1 @,@ 257 games in his career , scoring 559 goals and 1 @,@ 126 points .
Chronic back pain forced Nieuwendyk 's retirement as a player in 2006 . He then began a new career in management , acting first as a consultant to the general manager with the Panthers before moving onto the Maple Leafs where he was an assistant to the general manager . Nieuwendyk was the General Manager of the Dallas Stars between 2009 and 2013 . He is currently working as a pro scout and advisor for the Carolina Hurricanes .
= = Early life = =
Nieuwendyk was born September 10 , 1966 in Oshawa , Ontario , and grew up in Whitby . He is the youngest of four children to Gordon and Joanne Nieuwendyk , who immigrated to Canada from the Netherlands in 1958 . Gordon owned a car repair shop in Whitby . Joe grew up in a sporting family . His brother Gil was a box lacrosse player , while his uncle Ed Kea and cousin Jeff Beukeboom also played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . His best friend growing up was future NHL teammate Gary Roberts .
He played both hockey and lacrosse growing up and the latter considered his better sport . At one point , Nieuwendyk was considered the top junior lacrosse player in Canada . He earned a spot with the Whitby Warriors junior A team at the age of 15 , and was named the most valuable player of the Minto Cup tournament in 1984 when he led the Warriors to the national championship . The Ontario Lacrosse Association later named its junior A rookie of the year award after Nieuwendyk .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
Nieuwendyk went undrafted by any Ontario Hockey League team , and so played a season of junior B for the Pickering Panthers in 1983 – 84 . Eligible for the 1984 NHL Entry Draft but unselected , he chose to attend Cornell University where he played hockey and lacrosse for the Big Red . He was named the Eastern College Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) hockey rookie of the year in 1984 – 85 after scoring 39 points in 23 games . At the 1985 NHL Entry Draft , the Calgary Flames selected him in the second round , 27th overall , with a pick obtained that day in a trade with the Minnesota North Stars for Kent Nilsson . The disappointment in Calgary over the trade of Nilsson resulted in some criticism of Nieuwendyk 's selection , famously leading to a local newspaper to question the moves with the headline " Joe Who ? "
Returning to Cornell for the 1985 – 86 season , Nieuwendyk chose to give up lacrosse in order to focus on hockey . He was named an ECAC first team All @-@ Star in 1985 – 86 and an NCAA All @-@ American after scoring 42 points in 21 games . In his final season at Cornell , he was named the team 's most valuable player and led the ECAC in scoring with 52 points . He was again named an ECAC All @-@ Star and NCAA All @-@ American , and a finalist for the 1987 Hobey Baker Award .
Nieuwendyk chose to forgo his senior year in favour of turning professional . In 81 games with Cornell , Nieuwendyk scored 73 goals and 151 points , both among the highest totals in the school 's history . His number 25 jersey was retired by Cornell in 2010 , shared with Ken Dryden 's number 1 as the first such numbers retired by the hockey team , and believed the first in any sport in the school 's varsity sports history . In 2011 he was named one of the 50 greatest players in ECAC history .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Once his junior season at Cornell ended , Nieuwendyk joined the national team for five games before turning professional with the Flames . He made his NHL debut on March 10 , 1987 , against the Washington Capitals and scored his first NHL goal against goaltender Pete Peeters . He appeared in nine regular season games in the 1986 – 87 NHL season , scoring five goals and one assist , and appeared in six playoff games . Playing his first full season in 1987 – 88 , Nieuwendyk captured the attention of the sports media by scoring 32 goals in his first 42 games to put him on a pace to surpass Mike Bossy 's rookie record of 53 goals . Nieuwendyk finished two goals short of Bossy 's record , but led the team with 51 goals and was the second first @-@ year player to score at least 50 goals in one season . He played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , was named to the All @-@ Rookie Team and was voted the winner of the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's top rookie .
Nieuwendyk again scored 51 goals in 1988 – 89 and marked the 100th of his career in his 144th career game . At the time , he was the third fastest player to reach the milestone , behind Bossy ( 129 games ) and Maurice Richard ( 134 games ) , and was the third player in league history to score 50 goals in each of his first two seasons ( Bossy and Wayne Gretzky ) . He led the league with 11 game @-@ winning goals and set a Flames franchise record on January 11 , 1989 , when he scored five goals in one game against the Winnipeg Jets . Nieuwendyk appeared in his second of three @-@ consecutive All @-@ Star Games . In the 1989 Stanley Cup Playoffs , he scored 10 goals and four assists to help the Flames win their first Stanley Cup championship in franchise history . In the clinching game against the Montreal Canadiens , Nieuwendyk set up Lanny McDonald 's final NHL goal with a quick pass after receiving the puck from Håkan Loob .
A 45 @-@ goal season in 1989 – 90 was enough for Nieuwendyk to lead the team in goal scoring for the third consecutive season . He missed he first 11 games of the 1991 – 92 NHL season after suffering a knee injury during a summer evaluation camp for the 1991 Canada Cup . Nieuwendyk began the season as the 11th captain in the Flames franchise history . He was limited to 22 goals and 56 points on the season , but scored his 200th career goal on December 3 , 1991 , against the Detroit Red Wings . His 230th career goal , scored against the Tampa Bay Lightning on November 13 , 1992 , established a Flames franchise record for career goals ( since broken ) .
Nieuwendyk entered the 1995 – 96 season unhappy with his contract status . Unable to come to terms with the Flames , he had gone to arbitration , and was awarded a contract worth C $ 1 @.@ 85 million , but insisted on renegotiating the deal into a long @-@ term contract extension . He refused an offer of a three @-@ year , $ 6 million contract from the Flames , and as the dispute dragged on , chose not to join the team when the season began . He remained a holdout until December 19 , 1995 , when the Flames traded him to the Dallas Stars in exchange for Jarome Iginla and Corey Millen .
= = = Dallas Stars = = =
The Stars immediately signed Nieuwendyk to a new deal worth US $ 11 @.@ 3 million over five years . Bob Gainey , the team 's general manager , hoped that the acquisition of Nieuwendyk would help the franchise , which had relocated from Minnesota three years previous , establish its place in Dallas . Nieuwendyk scored 14 goals and 32 points in 52 games with the Stars to finish the 1995 – 96 season .
Nieuwendyk improved to 30 goals in 1996 – 97 despite missing the first month of the season with fractured rib cartilage . A 39 @-@ goal season followed , but he was again sidelined by injury after appearing in only one game of the 1998 Stanley Cup playoffs . In the opening game of the Stars ' first @-@ round series against the San Jose Sharks , he suffered a torn ACL as a result of a check by Bryan Marchment . The injury required two knee surgeries to repair and six months to heal , which caused him to miss the beginning of the 1998 – 99 NHL season .
He finished the regular season with 28 goals and 55 points in 67 games , and added 11 goals and 10 assists in the 1999 Stanley Cup Playoffs to help the Stars win the first Stanley Cup in their franchise history . Six of his playoff goals were game winners , and he was voted the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as most valuable player of the playoffs . Injuries again limited Nieuwendyk in 1999 – 2000 . He missed ten games due to a bruised chest then suffered a separated shoulder a week after his return that kept him out of the lineup for several weeks . He played only 47 regular season games , but added 23 more in the playoffs as the Stars reached the 2000 Stanley Cup Finals . They lost the series in six games to the New Jersey Devils , however .
Nieuwendyk played in his 1,000th career game on January 20 , 2002 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . Two months later , on March 19 , 2002 , he was traded to the Devils , along with Jamie Langenbrunner , in exchange for Jason Arnott , Randy McKay and a first round selection in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft .
= = = New Jersey , Toronto and Florida = = =
New Jersey , who had won the Stanley Cup in 2000 and reached the finals the following year , acquired Nieuwendyk for their playoff run in 2002 . He scored 11 points in 14 regular season games for the Devils following the trade , but New Jersey was eliminated in the first round of the 2002 Stanley Cup Playoffs by the Carolina Hurricanes . Nieuwendyk reached two offensive milestones in 2002 – 03 . He scored his 500th career goal on January 17 , 2003 , against Carolina 's Kevin Weekes . On February 23 , he scored his 1,000th point in a win over the Pittsburgh Penguins . He and the Devils reached the 2003 Stanley Cup Finals , but Nieuwendyk suffered a hip injury in the sixth game of the Eastern Conference Final that prevented him from appearing in the championship series . The Devils defeated the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the final , capturing the franchise 's third Stanley Cup . For Nieuwendyk , it was his third title with his third different team .
The Toronto Maple Leafs signed Nieuwendyk to a one @-@ year contract for the 2003 – 04 season . He scored 22 goals for Toronto in a season marred by abdominal and back injuries that limited him to 64 games played , and a groin injury that forced him out of the lineup for much of Toronto 's second @-@ round series loss to the Philadelphia Flyers . He signed another one @-@ year deal for 2004 – 05 , but the season was cancelled due to a labour dispute that was feared would mark the end of the 38 @-@ year @-@ old Nieuwendyk 's career .
When NHL play resumed in 2005 – 06 , the Florida Panthers sought to bolster their lineup with veteran players . They signed both Nieuwendyk and Roberts , who had played together in Calgary and Toronto and wanted to finish their careers together , to two @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 5 million contracts . Nieuwendyk appeared in 65 games during the season , scoring 26 goals and 56 points . He appeared in 15 games in 2006 – 07 before chronic back pain forced him onto injured reserve . After missing 14 games , Nieuwendyk announced his retirement on December 7 , 2006 .
= = = International = = =
As a member of the Canadian national junior team at the 1986 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , Nieuwendyk scored five goals in seven games to help Canada win a silver medal . His 12 points in the tournament tied him for third in scoring for Team Canada and fourth overall in the tournament . One year later , Nieuwendyk joined the senior national team for the Calgary Cup , a four @-@ team exhibition tournament that served as a preview event for the 1988 Winter Olympics . He scored a goal in each of the first two games , losses to the United States and Czechoslovakia , for the Canadian team that won the bronze medal . He joined the senior team again for the 1990 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships , but appeared in only one game after suffering a knee injury . He was invited to Team Canada 's summer camp for the 1991 Canada Cup tournament but suffered a knee injury that caused him to miss the entire tournament .
NHL players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament in 1998 . Nieuwendyk was among the players named to join Canada 's " dream team " . He scored two goals and three assists in six games , but was one of several Canadian players stopped by Czech goaltender Dominik Hašek in a shootout loss in the semifinals . Canada then dropped a 3 – 2 decision to Finland to finish fourth . Nieuwendyk played alongside Brendan Shanahan and Theoren Fleury on Canada 's checking line at the 2002 Olympic tournament . He scored one goal and helped Canada win its first Olympic hockey gold medal in 50 years .
= = Playing style = =
Cliff Fletcher , who drafted him into the NHL , described Nieuwendyk as being a " pre @-@ eminent two @-@ way guy who had 50 @-@ goal seasons " , adding that " he had a great stick around the net , he had a great shot , he saw the ice well , he could skate , he had the size – he had everything you needed to have . History has indicated that wherever he went , the team was competitive . The more that was on the line in big games , the better Joe played . " He was an offensive centre in Calgary and power play specialist , able to withstand the physical punishment required to stand in front of the net and battle defencemen for the puck . He led the NHL in power play goals in 1987 – 88 with 31 and finished in the top ten on four other occasions . Wayne Gretzky , who also played box lacrosse in his youth , argued that the skills Nieuwendyk learned dodging opposing players in that sport aided his development as a hockey player . Nieuwendyk was regarded as a top faceoff man , a skill that Team Canada relied on during the Olympics . He was a checking @-@ line centre at the 2002 Olympics , relied on for his defensive and faceoff abilities .
Nieuwendyk was regarded as a leader throughout his career . He was the captain of the Flames for four seasons , and his teammates in Dallas praised him as a player who would help guide the younger players as they began their careers . His presence was considered an important factor in New Jersey 's 2003 Stanley Cup championship . Devils ' general manager Lou Lamoriello praised his impact both on and off the ice : " Certainly ( the tangibles were ) the quality player he was even at that time , how good he was defensively as well as always finding a way to get big goals . It was also about how good he was on faceoffs . And the intangibles , which are really more tangible than anything , are what he brought in the locker room from leadership and unselfishness . It was obvious that when he didn 't play he was still so active in his support . He 's genuine in every sense of the word . He was a true team player . " Nieuwendyk was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2011 , and his uniform number 25 was honoured by the Calgary Flames on March 7 , 2014 , as was named to the organization 's " Forever a Flame " program .
= = Management career = =
Remaining in hockey following the end of his playing career , Nieuwendyk joined the Florida Panthers ' front office as a consultant to general manager Jacques Martin in 2007 . He left the Panthers after one year to join the Maple Leafs as special assistant to general manager Cliff Fletcher in 2008 . He served as assistant general manager for the silver @-@ medal winning Canadian national team at the 2009 World Championships , and on June 1 , 2009 , was named General Manager of the Dallas Stars . His ability to make moves was at times limited by the financial difficulty of team owner Tom Hicks . Among Nieuwendyk 's decisions in his first two seasons as general manager was to allow popular former captain Mike Modano to leave the organization after 22 years with the franchise in 2010 . Nieuwendyk stated such moves were difficult , as he played with Modano and considered him a friend . Nieuwendyk was released as Stars ' general manager at the conclusion of the 2012 – 13 NHL season as team owner Tom Gaglardi stated that the team wanted to " take this organization in a different direction " . On September 3 , 2014 , the Carolina Hurricanes announced they had hired him as a pro scout and advisor .
= = Personal life = =
Nieuwendyk and his wife Tina have three children : daughters Tyra and Kaycee and son Jackson . In 1995 , while a member of the Flames , Nieuwendyk won the King Clancy Memorial Trophy given annually to the player " who best exemplifies leadership qualities on and off the ice and who has made a significant humanitarian contribution to his community " . He was honoured by the league for his contributions to the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( SPCA ) , and was a spokesman and honorary chairman of the Foothills Hospital Foundation . He remained active with the SPCA after his trade to Dallas , and following the September 11 attacks , organized a charity softball game that raised $ 115 @,@ 000 for charitable groups in the aftermath of the attack . While a member of the Maple Leafs during the lockout , he participated in a charity hockey game organized by cancer survivor and former NHL player Keith Acton that raised $ 30 @,@ 000 for cancer and leukemia charities in southern Ontario .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= HMS Hasty ( H24 ) =
HMS Hasty was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the mid @-@ 1930s . She was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet until the beginning of World War II . The ship transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , in October 1939 to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. Hasty returned to the British Isles in early 1940 and covered the evacuation of Allied troops from Namsos in early May 1940 during the Norwegian Campaign . She was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly afterwards and participated in the Battle of Calabria and the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940 . The ship took part in the Battle of Cape Matapan in March and evacuated British and Australian troops from both Greece and Crete in April and May . In June , Hasty participated in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign and was escorting convoys and the larger ships of the Mediterranean Fleet for the next year . During the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 she defended a convoy from an Italian battleship and several cruisers . While covering another convoy from Alexandria to Malta in June 1942 during Operation Vigorous , Hasty was torpedoed by a German motor torpedo boat and was so badly damaged that she had to be scuttled .
= = Description = =
Hasty displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hasty carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hasty had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
Beginning in mid @-@ 1940 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased , although when exactly the modifications were made is not known . The rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and the quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers mounts were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon . Two more Oerlikon guns were also added in the forward superstructure .
= = Service = =
Hasty was laid down by William Denny and Brothers , of Dumbarton in Scotland on 15 April 1935 , launched on 5 May 1936 and completed on 11 November 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 248 @,@ 611 . She was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hasty was refitted in Devonport Dockyard in June – July 1939 and she returned to the Mediterranean afterwards .
Hasty escorted convoys between Port Said , Egypt and Gibraltar immediately after World War II began in September . In October the ship was transferred to Freetown to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. The ship and her sisters , Hardy , Hereward , and Hostile , rendezvoused with the battlecruiser Renown , the aircraft carrier Ark Royal , and the light cruiser Neptune on 17 December . They refuelled in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , before proceeding to the estuary of the River Plate in case the damaged German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee attempted to escape from Montevideo , Uruguay , where she had taken refuge after losing the Battle of the River Plate . Hasty was ordered to the UK in January 1940 to refit and captured the German blockade runner SS Morea in the North Atlantic on 12 February en route .
The ship was assigned to the Home Fleet after completing her refit in March . Together with the destroyer Vivien , Hasty escorted the destroyer Jervis into Newcastle upon Tyne on 19 – 20 March after the latter ship had collided with a Swedish merchant ship in the North Sea . Weather damage prevented the ship from participating in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , but she escorted the aircraft carriers Glorious and Ark Royal from 21 April as their aircraft attacked German targets in Norway . Hasty was one of Glorious 's escorts when the carrier returned to Scapa Flow to refuel on 27 April . Two days later , the ship escorted the convoy that evacuated British and French troops from Namsos in early May .
Hasty and the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla were ordered to the Mediterranean on 16 May , and the ship escorted the French battleship Lorraine and three British cruisers as they bombarded Bardia during the night of 20 / 21 June . On 9 July Hasty participated in the Battle of Calabria as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers and suffered no damage . During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July , the ship escorted Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney and rescued some 525 survivors from the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni together with the other escorting destroyers . Hasty and her sister Havock sank the Italian submarine Berillo on 2 October off the coast of Egypt and rescued 47 survivors between them . The ship escorted the carrier Illustrious during the Battle of Taranto on the night of 11 / 12 November . During the bombardment of Valona , Albania , on the night of 18 / 19 December , Hasty escorted the battleships Valiant and Warspite .
The ship participated in Operation Excess in January 1941 , during which she escorted a convoy and then escorted the battleship Barham from Souda Bay , Crete to Alexandria . In late February , the ship evacuated British commandos from the island of Kastelorizo , off the coast of Turkey , in the Italian Dodecanese . The commandos had defeated the small garrison in Operation Abstention , but the Italians were able to land troops on the island over the next several days and overwhelm the British forces . During the Battle of Cape Matapan on 28 / 29 March , Hasty escorted the four light cruisers of Force B , but was not seriously engaged during the battle . On 15 April the ship and the light cruiser Gloucester bombarded Italian positions between Bardia and Fort Capuzzo . In mid @-@ April she escorted the fast transport Breconshire and three battleships from Alexandria to Malta , before going on to escort the battleships as they bombarded Tripoli on 20 April . After refuelling in Alexandria on 23 April , Hasty sailed for Greece to begin evacuating British and Australian troops from the beaches . On 8 May , the ship again escorted the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet as they covered another convoy from Alexandria to Malta . Hasty escorted the light cruisers HMS Orion and Dido as they intercepted a German convoy attempting to land troops on Crete during the night of 21 / 22 May . The ship evacuated British and Commonwealth troops from Crete in late May .
Hasty bombarded Vichy French positions in Lebanon on 4 July during the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign , and then spent most of the rest of the year escorting convoys to Tobruk . On 25 November she was escorting the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet when the battleship Barham was torpedoed and sunk by German submarine U @-@ 331 . While escorting a convoy , Hasty and her sister , Hotspur , sank U @-@ 79 on 23 December north of Sollum . In January 1942 , the ship escorted Convoys MF.3 and MF.4 from Alexandria to Malta , but was switched to the covering force for Convoy MF.5 in mid @-@ February . She was transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla on 24 February Hasty was escorting the merchants ships of Convoy MW.10 when the Second Battle of Sirte began on 22 March , but defended the convoy against the Italian battleship Littorio and three cruisers by threatening torpedo attacks from under the cover of a severe storm and a smoke screen . Hasty was torpedoed by the German E @-@ Boat S @-@ 55 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Horst Weber as she covered a large convoy to Malta during Operation Vigorous , killing 13 men . The torpedo blew off most of the bow structure and both boiler rooms started to flood . Hotspur took off her crew and scuttled her with a torpedo during the morning of 15 June 1942 .
= Applause ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Applause " is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her third studio album , Artpop ( 2013 ) . It was released as the album 's lead single through Interscope Records on August 12 , 2013 . Written and produced by Gaga , DJ White Shadow , Dino Zisis and Nick Monson , additional songwriters included Martin Bresso , Nicolas Mercier , Julien Arias and William Grigahcine . " Applause " was inspired by the cheering of her fans , which kept her motivated during the months she toured with the Born This Way Ball in pain , before cancelling it due to a hip injury . It is an electropop and Eurodance song built around synthesizers and hi @-@ NRG beats , with lyrics addressing how Gaga is dependent upon her fan 's adoration and how she lives to perform .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised its catchy chorus and favorably compared it to the material featured on Gaga 's debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) . " Applause " achieved commercial success in a number of major music markets . In the United States , it peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Gaga 's twelfth top @-@ ten single . " Applause " has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
An accompanying music video directed by fashion photography duo Inez and Vinoodh was released on August 19 , 2013 , and broadcast on jumbotrons across Times Square . The video received positive reviews from critics , who saw it as a profile of Gaga herself and noted references to German Expressionist cinema and Andy Warhol . To promote the record , Gaga opened the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards with a performance of the song in which she represented her career through several on @-@ stage wardrobe changes . She also performed it live on Good Morning America , Saturday Night Live , her residency show at Roseland Ballroom , and on her tour ArtRave : The Artpop Ball .
= = Background and writing = =
Development of Artpop began shortly after the release of Born This Way ( 2011 ) , and by the following year , the album 's concepts started building as Gaga collaborated with producers Fernando Garibay and DJ White Shadow . Initial recording sessions for Artpop coincided with the Born This Way Ball : up to fifty songs were written and considered for inclusion . Gaga herself admitted that she intended to make audiences have " a really good time " with Artpop , engineering the album to mirror " a night at the club " . Meanwhile , the singer began presenting tracks to her record company and hoped to reveal the album 's working title by September , instead was announced one month in advance .
A hip surgery in February 2013 caused the singer to take a six @-@ month hiatus , during which she studied literature and music with the Haus of Gaga . It also allowed her to review and enhance her musical direction , which she described as a meticulous " gazing process " . " Applause " was written and produced by Gaga and DJ White Shadow , along with Nick Monson and Dino Zisis while on the road for her Born This Way Ball tour in 2012 . Other songwriters working on the track included Martin Bresso , Nicolas Mercier , Julien Arias and William Grigahcine . Talking to Sirius XM Radio , Gaga explained the inspiration behind the songwriting of " Applause " :
" I realized it was the applause of the fans that really kept me going . Because I would be ready to go onstage and just be crying hysterically not understanding even how I was feeling . I was feeling very dizzy , I had a lot of vertigo , I had pain but it 's like fuck if I know what hurts the most because I 'd been on tour for a year . But I didn 't want to let them down and I just couldn 't cancel because the thought of leaving 50 @,@ 000 kids in the arena just broke my heart . So I went out every night and I played and I played and I played until I couldn 't walk one night . "
= = Recording and composition = =
Recording sessions for the song took place at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood , California , and Platinum Sound Recording Studio , New York City by Dave Russell , with Benjamin Rice and Andrew Robertson working as assistants . Russell also did the mixing of the track at Record Plant and at Heard It ! Studios . Additional mixing was carried out by Bill Malina , with assistance from Rice and Ghazi Hourani . Rick Pearl performed the additional programming and Gene Grimaldi completed the audio mastering at Oasis Mastering Studios in Burbank , California .
" Applause " is set in the time signature of common time and has a tempo of 140 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of G minor , following the chord progression of Gm – F – E ♭ – Cm – F – Gm , with Gaga 's vocals spanning from F3 to D5 . The record has been pinned to the electropop and Eurodance music genres , and has been cited as returning Gaga to her career roots by mirroring the sounds of her debut album . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters described it as " closer to ' Just Dance ' in style over any of her Born This Way @-@ era hits , but in a much more aggressive fashion , catering to the gradual EDM @-@ stranglehold of pop radio . " Erin Coulehan of Rolling Stone concurred , calling it " a throwback to ' LoveGame ' -era Gaga . "
The song 's production is primarily centered around hi @-@ NRG beats , " stuttering synthesizers " , and hard snares . Robbie Daw of Idolator noted that the " opening , pulsating synths are a straight @-@ up throwback to the ' Poker Face ' intro — albeit slightly sped up — while the handclap @-@ laden chorus swells and soars with the same pop frenzy that made ' Paparazzi ' such a delight . " The Guardian 's Michael Cragg described the song 's composition as " brilliantly camp – all squelchy synths and juddering beats " and likened it to a " ridiculous glam @-@ rock song given a techno makeover " . The chorus has been noted to contain " a solid mixture of EDM @-@ influenced pop , glitchy k @-@ pop @-@ lite euphoria and just a twinkle of that original joy of The Fame " and features Gaga singing the lines , " Give me the thing that I love ( I 'll turn the lights on ) / Put your hands up make ' em touch ( Make it real loud ) " . Her vocal acrobatics during the song 's verses have been compared to those of David Bowie , Annie Lennox , and Grace Jones .
Lyrically , " Applause " is about how Gaga is dependent upon her fan 's adoration , while also serving as " a kiss @-@ off to critics " . Bradley Stern of MuuMuse opined that " Unlike ' Born This Way ' , ' Applause ' is about celebrating no one but Mother Monster herself " . According to Gaga , the song 's lyrics highlight the difference between an artist and a celebrity . She elaborated , " I live for the applause but I don 't live for the attention in the way that people just love you because you 're famous . I live for actually performing for people and then them applauding because they 've been entertained . "
= = Artwork and release = =
During the process of picking the lead single from Artpop , Gaga played numerous songs for Jimmy Iovine , an executive at Interscope Records . Of the 40 songs she played for Iovine , he preferred " Applause " , the last song played . Gaga revealed that " Applause " was almost excluded from the final cut of Artpop , due to an abundance of recorded material , until the meeting with Iovine . Gaga confirmed " Applause " as the upcoming single , and announced that it would be released on August 19 , 2013 . The official artwork for " Applause " was debuted on Women 's Wear Daily 's website on July 29 , 2013 . The cover features Gaga 's face smeared with multi @-@ colored paint and surrounded by a white sheet . Gaga explained that she chose the smeared makeup look for the cover to symbolize the moment at the end of a show when the performer is vulnerable and longing for the audience 's approval . The artwork was compared to the cover of David Bowie 's 1980 album Scary Monsters ( And Super Creeps ) .
On August 10 , 2013 , two snippets of the song leaked online . Gaga urged fans to " please take these down as much as possible " and provided instructions on how to report information regarding the unauthorized distribution of her song to her label 's parent company , Universal Music Group . In response , fans reported websites seen distributing or linking to the snippets of the single , with nearly 2 @,@ 500 individuals sending a singular link to Universal 's takedown page . However , despite such efforts , a leak was eminent . So Gaga released the song a week early onto various radio stations across America . The single was made available in most countries just before midnight ( EST ) on the iTunes Store , coupled with a pre @-@ order of Artpop . Following day , Gaga was seen in goth costume with clown @-@ like face paint similar to the " Applause " artwork , at various promotional events . The Huffington Post compared the style @-@ shift to Marilyn Manson , saying : " With her black hair slicked back , a face full of white powder and her black blazer and shirt combo , Gaga could have easily been mistaken for Manson if it wasn 't for her towering heels . " Gaga also premiered a short clip of " Applause " that quoted harsh journalism that attacked her credibility as an artist . In the video , Gaga was seen sitting naked in a white room and wearing a transparent visor . The sound of an audience booing and jeering was heard in the background . Direct quotations from critics and detractors appeared at the bottom of the video , which included : " Lady Gaga is over " and " Do not buy Lady Gaga 's new single ' Applause ' " . The clip was construed as an attempt at reverse psychology .
Due to the proximity of the single 's leak to fellow pop singer Katy Perry 's " Roar " , " Applause " was fervently compared to it . Gaga received negative press after news arose of her attempting to artificially increase the single 's placement on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , which some sources reported as an attempt to beat the sales of " Roar " . She was criticized for tweeting fans and encouraging them to purchase numerous copies of the single , with the chance to meet the singer in London offered as an incentive . The tweet provoked criticism from Billboard 's Editorial Director Bill Werde , who opined that " An artist tweeting out and Facebooking a link that enables a fan to hit play and leave their computer is not in the spirit of what we chart " . Following this , Gaga stated that she would be rewarding the fans with the most creative ideas , and not those who purchased the most copies of " Applause " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Applause " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Chris Richards of The Washington Post wrote , " It 's good . Maybe even slow clap good . Because while so many ( too many ! ) of Gaga 's songs have been designed to boost the esteem of her flock , this song finds her openly pining for the mass @-@ adulation that all superstars need to survive . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard lauded the song 's hook and remarked , " As always , Gaga has turned a lofty idea into a jingle for the masses . " Lewis Corner from Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , stating that " Lady Gaga makes no secret that she 's after mass adoration , and as far as lead singles go , her next grand spectacle is off to a strong start . " Carl Williot of Idolator praised the track , saying that it " ticks all the right boxes when it comes to being a balls @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wall pop delight ... this is pop doing what good pop songs should do , which is grab you by the collar from the first listen and make you fall in love on the spot . " The Huffington Post writer Baggers described it as " pop at its best : instant , euphoric , joyful and impossible to get out of your head " .
Bradley Stern of MuuMuse gave the song a positive review and concluded , " Is it a solid start ? I ’ d say so . On par with " Bad Romance " ? Well , let ’ s not get ahead of ourselves . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine believed the song lacked " the bigness " of Gaga 's previous lead singles but noted that " it proves she can still craft a catchy hook " . Mof Gimmers of The Quietus noted that the song was " a bit sticky in places " but explained " if you stop expecting too much of Gaga , you 'll realise it has a furiously irresistible chorus . " Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast was critical of the song 's " disjointed verses " but noted that they were " increasingly forgivable every time the song ’ s unshakable chorus blasts " and praised it as a fitting climax to the album . Melinda Newman of Hitfix gave the song a B + rating and labelled it " a layered , dance twirler " . Positive feedback also came from Mike Driver from Clash who highlighted " Applause " as one of the tracks on Artpop that ticks " all of the prerequisite Gaga boxes – dazzling production , a clutch of clever couplets , choruses you can demolish a tower block with " , but found that it did not represent a notable musical progression for the singer . Hilary Hughes from Esquire offered similar commentary , feeling that Gaga was playing it safe and that " the song doesn 't break new ground for the reigning Queen of Pop " .
In a mixed review , Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called the song generic and that " were it not for her heady lyrics and warped lead @-@ in synth line , " Applause " wouldn ’ t stand out all that much in radio , which makes it an even more curious choice as a lead single . " Spin 's Marc Hogan criticized the song 's " bland dance @-@ bot foundations " as " a bit behind the times at a pop moment where the biggest song @-@ of @-@ the @-@ summer candidates have moved back toward ' 70s @-@ inflected guitars . " Another mixed review came from Harry Hawcroft of Contactmusic.com , who wrote " I can 't give it more than a polite clap . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , Nielsen SoundScan predicted " Applause " to sell upwards of 400 @,@ 000 units in their first week . By the end of the week , Nielsen SoundScan and Billboard had lowered the estimated amount of " Applause " ' s first week sales from 400 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 – 225 @,@ 000 . " Applause " did not enter the Billboard 's Hot 100 in its first week . It also ranked below the top 75 threshold of the US Radio Songs chart , with 16 million audience impressions across 210 stations , with the track officially impacting radio stations on August 19 , 2013 . " Applause " reached number one on the Dance / Electronic Songs chart , and entered the US Pop Songs Chart at number 20 ; the highest debut on that chart , by a solo female artist in 2013 . The following week , " Applause " debuted at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 . Following its radio and retail release the track charted on Digital Songs at number three , Streaming Songs at number nine and Radio Songs at number forty .
On its second week on the Hot 100 , the song climbed to number four while reaching number three on Streaming Songs ( due the release of the music video ) , and number thirty @-@ five on Radio Songs , and falling to number five on Digital Songs with sales of 163 @,@ 000 . In its sixth week , the song sold 160 @,@ 000 copies and reached sales of 1 million copies , becoming her eleventh song to do so . In the same week , it rose to number nine on the Radio Songs chart , becoming her tenth single to reach the top @-@ ten there . It managed to stay in the top @-@ ten of the Billboard Hot 100 for 14 consecutive weeks . As of April 2016 , the song had sold 2 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , and has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
According to the Official Charts Company , " Applause " sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies within a few hours in the UK . It debuted and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart , making it her highest charting single since " Born This Way " ( 2011 ) . " Applause " sold 38 @,@ 042 copies by the end of the first week , and dropped to number nine on its second week . It was present for a total of 20 weeks within the top @-@ 100 of the chart . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it Silver , and as of November 2013 , it had sold 234 @,@ 979 copies . " Applause " was also certified Gold in other international markets including Italy , New Zealand , and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " Applause " was directed by fashion photography duo Inez and Vinoodh , who had previously collaborated with Gaga on a series of fashion films in 2011 and a photoshoot for V magazine . The video was filmed at Paramount Pictures studio in Hollywood , California on two different sets over three days . Gaga was inspired by silent film and early horror films and explained that the concept behind the video is that of her passion for shape @-@ shifting and transforming . She described it as " Iconography in motion , as magic . " Gaga and her team decided to use several different looks for the video , with each being representative of different facets of her as a performer . Attires worn in the video included designs by Gareth Pugh , vintage John Galliano , as well as outfits crafted by the Haus of Gaga .
Inez and Vinoodh explained that the video symbolizes " this idea that she goes through this struggle to go back onstage , which is in that pink laser tower . And she 's sort of dragging that leg as a trophy and making it back on stage as a fully @-@ realized , complete new person " . Jo Ratcliffe , a London @-@ based illustrator known for her hand @-@ drawn graphic design , was hired to provide animation effects for the video . She described Gaga as " really tough " during filming and added that she had " never seen anyone push themselves so hard . " Gaga spoke of this intensity during an interview with the radio station Z100 New York , explaining that it was difficult for her to quickly mould herself into the different personalities portrayed in the video .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
Prior to the release of the music video , Gaga debuted a lyric video for the song . The lyrics were displayed over footage shot by Gaga at the drag nightclub Micky 's in Los Angeles . On August 19 , 2013 , Gaga announced that she would be debuting the music video for " Applause " and filming a live interview on ABC 's morning television show Good Morning America later that day . The singer arrived at the Times Square Studios in New York City , where the show is filmed , wearing a dress made entirely out of paper . The video premiered on the show after Gaga 's live interview and was broadcast on jumbotrons across Times Square in Midtown Manhattan simultaneously .
The video itself includes shots taken in both color and black @-@ and @-@ white . It drew heavy inspiration from the arts and featured references to Sandro Botticelli 's The Birth of Venus and Andy Warhol 's Marilyn Diptych . The video included artistic and complex scenes such as Gaga 's head on a swan , a scene in a bird cage , and the singer seated in a large top hat , as well as more simplistic scenes including Gaga walking in a black outfit wearing a headscarf , and the singer dancing with a white cloth in bright make @-@ up , in a scene similar to the cover art of the single . Throughout the video bursts of color are shown theatrically . As Gaga sings the line " One second I 'm a Koons then suddenly the Koons is me " , she is transformed into a black swan / human hybrid . Gaga also wears hand @-@ shaped lingerie and a seashell bra with matching shell decoration . Near the climax , the singer features in a violet , crystal @-@ like scene , and at the end , Artpop is spelled using hand gestures .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
The video received generally positive reviews . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday described it as a barrage of artistic images that continued the song 's theme of combining art with pop culture . Erin Coulehan of Rolling Stone magazine noted that the video was in " typical Gaga fashion " , further calling it a spectacle of flashing lights , vivid colors and intricate choreography . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly also echoed Coulehan 's statements about the video being in Gaga fashion , adding that it " makes the song sound infinitely better ... It doesn 't quite hit the high notes of ' Paparazzi ' or ' Bad Romance ' , but it 's definitely a step up from the middling clips from the Born This Way era . " A writer of Billboard described the video as " a collection of arty postures and scenarios " and compared the black @-@ glove bra look to Janet Jackson 's 1993 Rolling Stone magazine cover . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times saw the video as " basically like 20 different Vogue shoots documented and spliced . There is no plot other than the basic lyrical premise , " I need you to pay more attention to me , " given heft by a syllabically rocky first @-@ person observation about pop culture , fame and art that Andy Warhol noted 50 years ago . " Chiderah Monde of New York Daily News described the video as " a straight @-@ forward profile of the artist herself . "
A writer of Rolling Stone compared the black @-@ and @-@ white look of the video with Madonna 's " Vogue " , 1920s German Expressionist cinema and Ingmar Bergman 's The Seventh Seal . He further noted influences from Liza Minnelli , Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers ' " Don 't Come Around Here No More " , and Sandro Botticelli 's The Birth of Venus . A writer of The Independent wrote , " Showing Gaga in a number of guises ( as a Beatnik performance artist , her face smeared with clown make @-@ up , sporting David Bowie @-@ esque androgyny while wearing a bra made of black , leather gloves and as various winged creatures ) , the high energy accompaniment to her new track is a hotch @-@ potch of imagery that seems to highlight the pop princess ' ever changing appearance . " Chris Rovzar of Vanity Fair described the video as a moving photo shoot for Interview magazine " except with more sanity " . Rovzar concluded that it also featured " the standard Gaga nonsense " and praised Gaga 's smile during several scenes of the video as a highlight . James Montgomery of MTV News saw the video as Gaga " pulling the curtain back on her creative process , showing the viewer how she 's willing to do anything to please the public . " Melinda Newman of Hitfix felt Gaga " continues her one @-@ woman performance art with the very theatrical video " and interpreted it as showing that " there is nothing Lady Gaga won ’ t do to get your attention " .
Conversely , Spin 's March Hogan wrote , " ' Some of us just like to read ' , she sings , and hey , that includes us . But it 's easier to clap for something that moves or touches you , rather than serves as an advertisement for Gaga as incomprehensible high @-@ end brand . " Consequence of Sound wrote in their review , " Gaga 's head appears on a black swan and she boogies down in a clam bikini . If this doesn 't bump up her sales , I no longer believe in art . " Hilary Hughes of Esquire said that the video " hits all the marks of Gaga @-@ esque eccentricity : glitter , boob grabs , weird animals , space , severed limbs , devotional imagery , nudity , neon , etc . It just doesn 't redefine those marks , as previous music videos of Gaga 's — namely " Bad Romance , " " Paparazzi " and " Judas " — have " . Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic believed that Gaga was parodying herself with the video and suggested that her aim was " to make a video both celebrating and poking fun at her career thus far . " However , he considered it forgettable when compared to Gaga 's previous efforts .
= = Live performances and media appearances = =
The song was performed live for the first time at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . Gaga began the performance wearing a square @-@ shaped head piece and an all @-@ white cape as pre @-@ recorded boos were quickly replaced by sound of cheers . Gaga then glided across the stage and was assisted by her dancers as she changed into a black sequin leotard and performed the intricate choreography seen in the song 's corresponding music video . Throughout the performance she cycled through costumes and wigs she had previously employed throughout her career . After dancing with a Jeff Koons blue gazing ball , she concluded the performance by emerging from behind jungle @-@ like scenery dressed in a seashell bikini ensemble and taking a bow . Gaga collaborated with experimental theater director Robert Wilson on the performance . His designed set featured a shimmering white jungle background with letters spelling " Applause " suspended from tree branches . Gaga characterized the performance as : " So beautiful , it is so indicative of me as an artist . I feel in many ways that the performance is like a giant metaphor for me . " She also commented that the production was " the most physically challenging performance I 've done , ever . "
" Applause " was the final song Gaga performed at London 's Roundhouse as part of a show that was broadcast live online on September 1 , 2013 for the month @-@ long iTunes Festival . Gaga completed her last look of the show with " a green ringmaster jacket , top hat and sparkly silver boots " and performed the song alongside " an endless supply of supple dancers in gothy fetish wear " who danced behind her on chairs . On September 9 , 2013 , Gaga performed the song on Good Morning America and appeared dressed as multiple characters from The Wizard of Oz . " Applause " served as the encore during the singer 's Artpop launch party event , dubbed the ArtRave , held in the Brooklyn Navy Yard in New York during the early hours of November 11 , 2013 . The singer was the host of the November 16 , 2013 episode of Saturday Night Live , where she opened the program with a Chicago @-@ style performance of " Applause " , which subsequently morphed into a rendition of " New York , New York " . Later that month , Gaga also performed the song on the television special Lady Gaga and the Muppets ' Holiday Spectacular as both a solo and a reprise with The Muppets . Another performance took place at the Jingle Bell Ball on December 8 , 2013 , where she sang " Applause " along with other songs from her discography .
Gaga reprised " Applause " at the South by Southwest ( SXSW ) music festival in Austin , Texas in March 2014 , where she was joined onstage by her opening acts and friends , the Dirty Pearls , Semi Precious Weapons and Lady Starlight . " Applause " was later included in the setlist of Gaga 's Manhattan residency show at Roseland Ballroom . Gaga appeared in a purple sequin studded two @-@ piece with a matching face @-@ mask and green colored wig during the performance . The song was included on the set list of her ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour . Following " Bad Romance " , Gaga joined her dancers on the catwalks , where she performed a choreographed dance routine in a rave inspired outfit . Brad Wheeler of The Globe and Mail described Gaga 's performance as " unstoppable and enthralling " but criticized the show 's production for drowning out Gaga 's vocals and said : " She ’ s not like Jennifer Lopez or Britney Spears or even Madonna , who were raised as dancers and lime @-@ lighters , not musicians . And yet , she prefers to perform spectacles that , by design , fail to showcase all of her abilities . "
The song was performed by the members of glee club in the Glee episode " A Katy or a Gaga " The track was also featured on the fictional radio station Non @-@ Stop @-@ Pop FM in the PS4 , Xbox One and PC versions of Grand Theft Auto V. In 2016 , it was featured in a lip sync battle ( known as the " Lipsync for Your Life " segment ) between drag queens Naysha Lopez and Laila McQueen on the season premiere of RuPaul 's Drag Race ( season 8 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood , California and Platinum Sound Recording Studio , New York City , New York
Mastered at Oasis Mastering Studios , Burbank , California
Stefani Germanotta P / K / A Lady Gaga ( BMI ) Sony ATV Songs LLC / House of Gaga Publishing , LLC / GloJoe Music Inc . ( BMI ) , Maxwell and Carter Publishing , LLC ( ASCAP ) , administered by Universal Music Publishing Group and Maxwell and Carter Publishing , LLC ( BMI ) administered by Universal Music Publishing Group , Etrange Fruit ( SACEM ) , Mercer Music ( SACEM ) , Guess Publishing ( SACEM ) , Fuzion ( SACEM ) Administered by Get Familiar Music ( ASCAP )
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Artpop .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Vernon Treatt =
Sir Vernon Haddon Treatt KBE , MM , QC ( 15 May 1897 – 20 September 1984 ) was an Australian lawyer , soldier , Rhodes Scholar and politician . Born in Singleton , New South Wales and educated at Shore School , Treatt interrupted his studies at the University of Sydney to enlist at the outbreak of the First World War . Serving in the Royal Australian Artillery , Treatt served in France and was awarded the Military Medal . Upon returning to Australia he was awarded a Rhodes scholarship and further educated at New College , Oxford .
After briefly practising law in 1923 in Britain , Treatt returned to Australia and was admitted to the New South Wales bar that same year , serving as a Crown Prosecutor at the supreme court . Treatt also was the Challis law lecturer at the University of Sydney . Treatt entered the New South Wales Legislative Assembly on 26 March 1938 , representing the Electoral district of Woollahra for the United Australia Party ( UAP ) . When UAP Premier Bertram Stevens was ousted from the leadership in August 1939 and Alexander Mair became Premier , Mair appointed Treatt , after serving only a few months in Parliament , as the Minister for Justice . He served in this office until the UAP lost power in 1941 .
During this time Treatt witnessed the break @-@ up of the UAP into the various parties including the Democratic Party , which he joined , and then the establishment of the Liberal Party of Australia as the major conservative political force in Australia in 1945 . When the second leader of the party , Alexander Mair , resigned in March 1946 , Treatt was elected to succeed him . As the third leader of the new party , Treatt became the first leader to contest an election . After serving eight years and almost winning government at the 1950 election , Treatt resigned as Leader in August 1954 following a July attempt to depose him . He continued as a member of parliament until he was defeated in 1962 and thereafter served in various organisations and posts , including as a Chief Commissioner of the City of Sydney in 1969 , until his death in 1984 .
= = Early life = =
Vernon Treatt was born in Singleton , New South Wales , in 1897 , the youngest son of Frank Burford Treatt ( 1845 – 1923 ) , a Police Magistrate and migrant from Devon , England , and Kate Ellen Walsh ( 1856 – 1936 ) , and was first educated at Young District School . When the Treatts moved to Sydney , he attended the Sydney Church of England Grammar School from 1913 to 1914 , becoming a Prefect and Cadet Lieutenant . Treatt then took up residence in 1915 at St. Paul 's College while studying for a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) at the University of Sydney . During the First World War in 1916 , Treatt interrupted his studies and enlisted as a Gunner in the Royal Australian Artillery , 6th Field Artillery Battery . He was sent over on 5 November 1917 to the Western Front and was later promoted to Sergeant . For his service he received the Military Medal on 14 May 1919 .
Upon returning from the military he completed his studies in 1920 and was awarded a Rhodes scholarship in the same year , at New College , Oxford . At Oxford , Treatt gained a Master of Arts and a Bachelor of Civil Law in 1923 and was briefly admitted to the Bar at Lincoln 's Inn in that year . When he returned to Australia , Treatt was appointed to the New South Wales Bar and also as the Sub Warden of St Paul 's College , University of Sydney from 1925 to 1930 . In 1927 , he played first grade Rugby Union for the Drummoyne DRFC . He married Dorothy Isabelle Henderson ( 1902 – 1992 ) on 5 June 1930 and had four children : George Vernon , John Vernon ( 1930 – 1935 ) , Rosemary Vernon ( 1930 – 1944 ) , and Diana Vernon .
In 1927 , Treatt was given the position of Challis lecturer in criminal law at the University of Sydney , a position he was to hold until 1959 . One of his students was the future Justice of the High Court of Australia , Michael Kirby : " I can still see Mr Vernon Treatt QC coming on to the stage of the Phillip Street Theatre where we took some of our lectures . Treatt 's task was to instruct a hundred first year law students in that most important discipline , criminal law . I can see him toss his hat onto the chair , open his notes and begin reading his latest lesson . I can hear him talking about the sections of the Crimes Act 1900 of New South Wales dealing with ' unnatural offences ' . I can recall his rasping voice as he intoned the old provisions of section 79 , spitting out the exceptionally ugly words of denunciation in the parliamentary prose " . In March 1928 , Treatt was appointed and served as a Crown Prosecutor for the Supreme Court of New South Wales and the Court of Quarter sessions for the metropolitan district .
= = Political career = =
Treatt first entered politics at the 1927 state election as an Independent Nationalist candidate for the Legislative Assembly seat of Willoughby . He narrowly lost on a margin of 49 @.@ 47 % . After several years Treatt tried again to enter parliament at the 26 March 1938 state election as the United Australia Party candidate for the seat of Woollahra . On this occasion he was successful , gaining 53 @.@ 62 % of the vote .
= = = Minister of the Crown = = =
On 16 August 1938 , after only serving a few months as a member of parliament , Treatt was appointed as the Minister for Justice in the government of Alexander Mair , who had become Premier after Bertram Stevens was defeated in a motion of no confidence in the house . In 1940 , he was made a King 's Counsel ( KC ) .
As Minister for Justice , Treatt generated controversy when it was alleged that he had acted to reduce a fine imposed on the Abbco Bread Company who had sold short @-@ weight bread to the Department of Defence . It resulted in a Royal Commission in the matter from March to August 1941 , chaired by Justice Maxwell , after a censure motion introduced by Labor Leader William McKell was defeated . He was removed of any suspicion in the findings with the Royal Commissioner finding that : " There is no evidence , nor any thing even remotely to suggest that the Minister was guilty of any misconduct or irregularity either in the conclusion reached by him , and fully shared by the permanent head of his department , that the fine was too severe or in the manner of his dealing with the company 's application . From start to finish I can discover nothing suggesting any irregularity in any action by the Minister . "
= = = Opposition = = =
He served as Minister until the 10 May 1941 election when the Mair Government was defeated in a landslide defeat , losing 20 seats . Despite this , Treatt retained his seat with a significant margin increase of 67 @.@ 68 % . With the very poor results of the federal United Australia Party under Billy Hughes at the 1943 Federal election , the UAP disintegrated . A large number of former UAP members , including Treatt , then formed the Democratic Party in New South Wales , led by Alexander Mair , while others moved into the Commonwealth Party and the Liberal Democratic Party . The Democratic Party then merged with the Commonwealth Party in January 1944 . Mair resigned in 1944 to be replaced by Reginald Weaver , who then led the hopelessly divided conservative forces to defeat at the 27 May 1944 election , losing another three seats . Treatt retained his seat with 50 @.@ 50 % .
In 1945 , the divided conservative parties formed together to form the Liberal Party of Australia , which Treatt then joined . Party Leader Weaver died in office in November 1945 and was succeeded by Mair , with Treatt succeeding Athol Richardson as Deputy Leader . After five months as Leader , Mair resigned in March 1946 and Treatt was then elected to succeed him as Liberal Party Leader and hence , Leader of the Opposition .
= = = Leadership = = =
The third Leader of the New South Wales Liberal Party , Treatt became the first to contest an election . At the election on 3 May 1947 , Treatt 's Liberals and Michael Bruxner 's Country Party failed to defeat the Labor Government , now under new Premier James McGirr , despite an overall swing of 4 @.@ 5 % and a gain of seven seats . Treatt retained his seat with an increased 69 @.@ 75 % .
As opposition leader , Treatt proved effective in attacking the shortcomings of the McGirr 's Labor Government and in the Labor Party on a national level , particularly in areas of economics : " Because of the inflationary pressure , which is largely a result of the Socialists ' own low production policy , continuation of subsidies is necessary on basic everyday goods ... " and utilities : " The public is sick of seeing Ministers hunting up alibis , shifting about from one explanation to another and washing their hands of responsibility for powershortages on some flimsy pretext . " In matters of ideology , Treatt supported Federal Liberal Leader Robert Menzies in his virulent opposition to communism , particularly from the Soviet Union , China and Korea . After returning from the Empire Parliamentary Conference in London in December 1948 , Treatt declared " The Communists are on the move throughout the world . Australians must sit up and take just as much notice of what is happening across our narrow northern waters ... It is of outstanding importance to Australia that the Western Powers ' should secure some uniform policy to combat the Communist Asian menace . "
Treatt led the Coalition again at the 17 June 1950 election , which resulted in a hung parliament , with Treatt 's Coalition gaining 12 seats and a swing of 6 @.@ 7 % for a total of 46 seats . With the Labor Party also holding 46 seats , the balance of power lay with the two re @-@ elected Independent Labor members , James Geraghty and John Seiffert , who had been expelled from the party for disloyalty during the previous parliament . Under a legalistic interpretation of the ALP rules , Seiffert was readmitted to the party and , together with the support of Geraghty , McGirr and Labor were able to stay in power . On 20 June , Treatt declared that he and his party would not make any concessions or compromises to the Labor Party , particularly in regards to the election of a speaker . Treatt retained his seat with 76 @.@ 09 % .
In his third term as Leader , Treatt criticised government cuts in transport services , but supported reductions in death duty taxes . At a Remembrance Day address in 1952 , Treatt criticised radical student politics embodied by the " long @-@ haired intellectual types " : " My belief in the value of university life and in higher education generally is a strong and abiding one ... the sort of long @-@ haired type I am thinking about may not even have a university degree . He is encased in self satisfied assurance of his own mental superiority . " In his speech at the Lyceum Hall , Treatt warned of Australia 's attitudes on its success : " A sort of mental haze seems to obscure the vision splendid that lies before this country . We are proud of being a British country , a country with British traditions , institutions , and all those things which go to make up what we call our ' British heritage . But this pride is not matched by a pride in being Australian . This seems to me one of the strongest sources of our weakness . "
The near loss of the election by Labor further weakened McGirr 's position and he was replaced as premier by Joseph Cahill in April 1952 . Cahill had won popular support as a vigorous and impressive minister who had resolved problems with New South Wales ' electricity supply and in his first 10 months as premier had reinvigorated the party . He appeared decisive and brought order to the government 's chaotic public works program . In addition , he attacked the increasingly unpopular federal Coalition government of Robert Menzies . All this contributed to Treatt 's Coalition being defeated at the 14 February 1953 election , with a total loss of ten seats and a swing against them of 7 @.@ 2 % . Treatt retained his seat with 67 @.@ 61 % . On 3 February 1954 , Treatt received , along with Premier Cahill , Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II , Queen of Australia , at Farm Cove , Sydney , at the beginning of her first visit to Australia and the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had set foot on Australian soil . He was also present the next day on 4 February when Her Majesty opened the Parliament of New South Wales , the first time a monarch had opened an Australian parliament .
With confidence in his leadership demolished , Treatt 's Liberal Party descended into factional in @-@ fighting culminating in the resignation of Deputy Leader Walter Howarth on 22 July 1954 , who publicly announced it on 4 July citing that he felt that Treatt doubted his loyalty . He was replaced by Party Whip Robert Askin . The resignation split the party and sparked a leadership challenge from Pat Morton , who criticised his " lack of aggression " towards the Labor Government . At the party meeting on 6 July , Treatt narrowly defeated Morton with 12 votes to 10 .
With party support eroded , Treatt did not remain long as leader afterwards . On Friday 6 August 1954 , Treatt announced that he would resign as leader on 10 August : " Following the unsuccessful challenge for the Parliamentary leadership , it was expected that there would be an end to activities so damaging to the party 's morale and effectiveness . Unfortunately these activities have continued . The responsibilities of a political leader , particularly at the present time in New South Wales , are very heavy , and a leader giving of his best is infilled to receive the fullest support from every member of the party . This support has not been forthcoming , and without it the burdens on health and effectiveness would prove too much for any man . " At the following party meeting , after a deadlocked vote between Askin and Morton , Askin asked Murray Robson to nominate and subsequently he was elected to succeed Treatt . On 17 June 1955 , Queen Elizabeth II granted him retention of the title " The Honourable " for life , for having served as Leader of the Opposition and the Executive Council of New South Wales .
= = Later life = =
Robson was soon replaced in 1955 by Morton , who then led the Coalition to another defeat at the 3 March 1956 election , while Treatt increased his majority to 70 @.@ 84 % . Morton contested the next election in March 1959 , which resulted in another defeat with Cahill winning his final term in office . Treatt retained his seat uncontested . Divorcing his first wife , Treatt remarried to Frankie Jessie Embleton Wilson on 16 May 1960 . Frankie Wilson was a lawyer who attended St Mary 's Anglican Girls ' School in Perth and was the granddaughter of Frank Wilson who twice served as Premier of Western Australia .
Treatt stayed in Parliament until his seat was abolished before the upcoming election in 1962 , at which point he stood for the new seat of Bligh . At the 1962 election , Treatt was defeated by the Labor candidate , Tom Morey , gaining only 45 @.@ 29 % of the vote . Treatt then joined local government circles , becoming Chair of the Boundaries Commission from 1964 to 1969 and was later appointed as the Chief Commissioner for the dismissed City of Sydney from 1967 to 1969 , overseeing the redistribution of council boundaries and reorganisation of council agencies . He also served as the President of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust from 1965 to 1967 . For his service as Chief Commissioner , he was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in 1970 . Treatt died on 20 September 1984 in Sydney , New South Wales .
= Fontey
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came under Dutch control . The Dutch lost control of the territory to the British in 1664 and Dutchess County was established . In 1688 , Pieter Schuyler was granted a title to the land through which the Fonteynkill runs . He split that land and sold the Fonteynkill tract ( soon to be known as Het Oosten or " Eastward Neighborhood " ) in 1699 to Myndert Harmense and Robert Sanders .
A mill was built along the stream before 1714 ; in that year , Sanders 's son Thomas sold the structure to Isaac Tietsoort who in turn sold it to March Van Bommel in 1717 . In 1721 , an accurate survey of the land was conducted . The mill on the Fonteynkill was discovered to be the property of Catharine Brett who claimed the land and sold a farm parcel that included the mill in 1754 to Johannes Swartwout . The land remained in Swartwout 's hands until he died in 1805 . From his heirs , the land came to be owned in 1812 by Matthew Westervelt and then Reuben Tanner in 1815 . Tanner controlled the Fonteynkill land until 1844 when Caleb Morgan acquired the title to the space . In 1854 , the land was transferred to Matthew Vassar , for whom " the presence of fresh water was an important factor in deciding the college 's location " . In 1861 , the year of Vassar College 's founding , the land through which the Fonteynkill runs came under the ownership of the college proper . A millstone from the Fonteynkill mill is preserved on the Vassar College campus in front of Rockefeller Hall .
As Vassar developed , the area around the Fonteynkill was gradually built up . The old mill became the college 's pumping station , capable of pumping 20 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 76 @,@ 000 l ; 17 @,@ 000 imp gal ) each day . An ice house was also in place just south of the kill by 1867 , along with a garden storehouse upstream of Vassar Lake on the stream 's west side . During the winter , ice was cut from Vassar Lake and moved to the college 's Main Building to keep the school 's supply of food cold . Conflict occasionally arose between students who desired a smooth skating rink and staff at the college who were tasked with refrigerating Vassar 's foodstuffs . In 1916 , the college built its Shakespeare Garden , using seeds from many plants referenced in William Shakespeare 's plays , just north of the stream . In the 1920s and 1930s , the Edith Roberts Environmental Laboratory was developed south of the kill , across from the Shakespeare Garden . The college constructed Olmsted Hall along the stream in 1972 and more recently , the Bridge for Laboratory Sciences which opened in 2016 .
= = = Etymology = = =
The name " Fonteynkill " is derived from the Dutch Fonteyn Kil , literally meaning " Spring Brook " . The stream 's name is also sometimes written with a space as " Fonteyn Kill " . The kill has also been known as the Fountain Kill , a hybrid name of English and Dutch origins . In the 1800s , the stream was also recorded as Mill Cove Brook .
= = Recreation = =
The Fonteynkill and Vassar Lake have been used recreationally since Vassar College 's establishment in the 1860s . Benson John Lossing recorded Vassar students in 1867 using Vassar Lake , then known as " Mill Cove Lake " , for rowing and boating in the summer months ; a simple dock was built to allow access to the water . In the winter , the lake froze over and students at the college would ice skate upon the surface . The shallowness of the lake became an obstacle to recreational use , and while it was suggested by Vassar 's Miscellany News that the lake be dredged or removed entirely , neither of these options were employed and the lake is no longer a recreation site . By the 1920s , the Fonteynkill 's source spring was being dammed in wintertime , flooding a nearby hollow to create an ice skating pond .
= = = Cited = = =
Bruno , M. ; Daniels , E. A. ( 2001 ) . Vassar College . Charleston , SC : Arcadia Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7385 @-@ 0454 @-@ 4 .
Lossing , B. J. ( 1867 ) . Vassar College and Its Founder . New York City : C. A. Alvord Printer .
Reynolds , H. W. ( 1924 ) . Poughkeepsie : The Origin and Meaning of the Word . Poughkeepsie , NY : Dutchess County Historical Society .
Van Lengen , K. ; Reilly , L. ( 2004 ) . The Campus Guide : Vassar College . New York City : Princeton Architectural Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 56898 @-@ 349 @-@ 2 .
= And the Mountains Echoed =
And the Mountains Echoed is the third novel by Afghan @-@ American author Khaled Hosseini . Published in 2013 by Riverhead Books , it deviates from Hosseini 's style in his first two works through his choice to avoid focusing on any one character . Rather , the book is written similarly to a collection of short stories , with each of the nine chapters being told from the perspective of a different character . The book 's foundation is built on the relationship between ten @-@ year @-@ old Abdullah and his three @-@ year @-@ old sister Pari and their father 's decision to sell her to a childless couple in Kabul , an event that ties the various narratives together .
Hosseini stated his intentions to make the characters more complex and morally ambiguous . Continuing the familial theme established in his previous novels , The Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns , And the Mountains Echoed centers on the rapport between siblings . Besides Abdullah and Pari , Hosseini introduced two other sibling and sibling @-@ like relationships — the children 's stepmother Parwana and her disabled sister Masooma and an Afghan @-@ American doctor named Idris and his cousin Timur .
As it was Hosseini 's first novel to be published in six years , And the Mountains Echoed was reportedly in high demand . It received favorable pre @-@ publication reviews and was anticipated as another strong success , reaching the top 10 on Amazon.com before its release and later becoming a bestseller . Five months after the publication of And the Mountains Echoed , it was reported that three million copies had been sold .
= = Composition and publication = =
Khaled Hosseini was born in Afghanistan but left the country in 1976 at the age of 11 , eventually moving to the United States where he worked as a doctor . He wrote his first novel , The Kite Runner , in 2003 and became a full @-@ time writer a year and a half later . He published his second book , A Thousand Splendid Suns , in 2007 . Both novels were successful , and by the time of his third publication they had together sold over 38 million copies across 70 countries .
Hosseini first began to consider the plot of And the Mountains Echoed during a 2007 trip to Afghanistan with the UN Refugee Agency . While there , he heard stories from several village elders about the deaths of young , impoverished children during the winters , which gave the foundation for the fundamental event of the novel : a parent 's choice to sell a child to prevent this from occurring . " The novel began very , very small , and it began with a single image in my head that I simply could not shed , " he relayed . " It was the image of a man walking across the desert and he 's pulling a little Radio Flyer red wagon , and in it there 's a little girl about 3 years old , and there 's a boy walking behind him , and these three people are walking across the desert . " Hosseini originally planned for it to be written in a linear fashion similar to his previous novels , but , during the writing process , it was expanded to cover a series of interconnected stories surrounding a large number of characters not directly related to each other . Comparing the process to a tree , he stated that story " just branched out " and " got bigger and bigger as it went along " .
As is his pattern , Hosseini drew on his early experiences in Afghanistan to create the foundation of the book . He states that his travels to Afghanistan later in life also influenced his writing , albeit involuntarily . For example , during a 2009 visit he met two young sisters in a remote village outside Kabul . The older one , who he estimated to be around six years old , acted as a mother figure to the younger girl . Hosseini stated that their bond formed the foundation of the relationship between Abdullah and Pari in the novel .
And the Mountains Echoed became the first to not deal directly with the Taliban , which featured prominently in both of his previous works . Though Hosseini did not consciously decide to avoid that topic , he stated that he was glad that he had moved away from it in order to keep the storyline fresh . The characters ' struggles were largely personal and unrelated to the political turmoil in Afghanistan . Hosseini added , " I hope a day will come when we write about Afghanistan , where we can speak about Afghanistan in a context outside of the wars and the struggles of the last 30 years . In some way I think this book is an attempt to do that . "
The title was derived from a line from " The Nurse 's Song " by English poet William Blake : " And all the hills echoed " . In January 2013 , Publishers Weekly announced the publication date as May 21 of that year , and Riverhead Books released a statement that the novel was about " how we love , how we take care of one another , and how the choices we make resonate through generations " . First printed in hardback , And the Mountains Echoed was priced at $ 28 @.@ 95 in the United States and £ 14 @.@ 99 in the United Kingdom . Hosseini went on a five @-@ week tour to 41 cities across America to promote the book . In October 2013 , plans were confirmed to translate And the Mountains Echoed into 40 languages , among them Icelandic and Malay .
= = Plot = =
The novel opens in the year 1952 . Saboor , an impoverished farmer from the fictional village of Shadbagh , decides to sell his three @-@ year @-@ old daughter Pari to a wealthy , childless couple in Kabul . The choice devastates his ten @-@ year @-@ old son , Abdullah , who raised Pari following their mother 's death in childbirth .
Subsequent chapters expound on how the arrangement came to be : the children 's stepmother , Parwana , grew up as the less @-@ favored child to her beautiful twin sister Masooma . One day , in a flash of jealousy , she caused Masooma to suffer a debilitating injury that resulted in paraplegia . Parwana subsequently spent several years caring for her sister until the latter asked her to help her commit suicide and to then marry Saboor . Their older brother , Nabi , left to work for Mr. Wahdati , a wealthy man in Kabul , and became infatuated with his wife , Nila . After Nila expressed dismay about her inability to have children , Nabi arranged for Pari to be sold to the couple .
In the ensuing years , Abdullah leaves Afghanistan and Mr. Wahdati suffers a stroke , prompting Nila to take Pari and move to Paris , France . Nabi , while assuming the role of Wahdati 's primary caregiver , finds a number of sketchbooks in Wahdati 's closet filled with pictures of him drawn before the stroke . Unnerved by the discovery of his employer 's apparent obsession with him , he resolves to leave but decides against it after he is unable to find someone suitable to take over for him . Nabi subsequently spends the next 50 years working for Mr. Wahdati before ultimately assisting in the latter 's suicide .
Wahdati 's neighbors , meanwhile , move to the United States with their children after the Soviet invasion . Cousins Idris and Timur return to Afghanistan over two decades later in 2003 to reclaim their family 's property . While there , Timur makes a great show of publicly distributing money to street beggars while Idris privately bonds with Roshi , an Afghan girl who suffers from a horrific injury and whose family was murdered by her uncle . Idris at first promises to arrange for Roshi to undergo the operations needed for her recovery but distances himself from her and Afghanistan on returning to the States . Several years later , Idris comes across Roshi signing copies of her bestselling memoir , which she has dedicated to her adoptive mother and Timur , who paid for her surgery .
Nila , now living in Paris , is unhappy for much of her life , taking up a number of lovers and beginning to refer to the plain and practical Pari as her " punishment " . She commits suicide in 1974 after giving a detailed interview about her early life . Pari suspects that she is not Nila 's biological daughter and plans a trip to Afghanistan to explore her heritage . However , she postpones it indefinitely after marrying and becoming pregnant . After having three children and being widowed at the age of 48 , she receives a posthumous letter from Nabi in 2010 detailing the circumstances of her adoption by the Wahdatis .
Later chapters focus on Adel , a boy learning that his father is a war criminal and that his house is built on the land that previously belonged to Saboor , and Markos , a Greek aid worker in Afghanistan and acquaintance of Nabi . In the final chapter , narrated by Abdullah 's daughter , Abdullah and Pari are reunited in California . However , he is suffering from Alzheimer 's disease and is unable to remember her .
= = Characters = =
Khaled Hosseini chose to tell the story in a " fragmented and fluid " form ; each of the nine chapters is told from a different character 's perspective , and each narrative provides an interconnection with the others ' . Los Angeles Times critic Wendy Smith compared this style to the classic One Thousand and One Nights .
Abdullah is an Afghan growing up in the fictional village of Shadbagh . After his father 's choice to sell his younger sister to a couple in Kabul , he resolves to leave Afghanistan , travelling to Pakistan and eventually the United States . He opens an Afghan restaurant there and has a daughter , whom he names after his sister . Following his wife 's death , Abdullah is diagnosed with Alzheimer 's and is later unable to remember his sister after being reunited with her .
Pari is Abdullah 's younger sister who , at the age of three , is sold by her father to the wealthy Wahdati couple in Kabul . She and Abdullah are portrayed as having an unusually close relationship during her early years , though she forgets him along with the rest of her biological family following her adoption . She spends her adolescence and adulthood in France following her adoptive father 's stroke and eventually becomes aware of her history through a posthumous letter from her uncle Nabi , who had arranged for her to be sold as a child . When she is finally reunited with Abdullah , he is unable to remember her due to his Alzheimer 's . " I could see that if the reunion were to occur , it would occur on these terms and it wouldn 't be the reunion we 'd expect and perhaps the one we want , " Hosseini explained .
Nila Wahdati is a young Afghan woman renowned for her sexually charged poetry who is married off to a wealthy Kabul businessman . According to Hosseini , many aspects of her character were derived from women he encountered during parties his parents hosted in Kabul in the 1970s , many of whom he recalls as " beautiful , very outspoken , temperamental ... drinking freely , smoking " . At some point prior to the beginning of the story , she was apparently sterilized while undergoing treatment for an illness , leading her to buy Pari as an adopted daughter . Described as unusually beautiful and discontent , she later relocates to Paris following her husband 's stroke and eventually commits suicide . Hosseini explained that he was unconcerned with making Nila likable — " I just wanted her to be real – full of anger and ambition and insight and frailty and narcissism . "
Parwana is the stepmother of Abdullah and Pari . She grew up in Shadbagh with her brother , Nabi , and twin sister , Masooma . Parwana is ill @-@ favored for most of her life as opposed to the strikingly beautiful Masooma . This eventually results in what Rafia Zakaria describes as a " poignant tale of a plain twin whose single act of vengeance , of pushing her pretty sister off a swing results in a lifelong moral burden " . Masooma 's accident leaves her paralyzed , leaving Parwana tortured by guilt and forced to care for her from then on . After several years , Masooma persuades Parwana to leave her in the desert to die and marry Saboor , Abdullah and Pari 's father .
Nabi is the older brother of Parwana and Masooma . Despite being " a character who slips beneath the notice of many of the novel 's noisier characters " , he organizes the event that serves as the primary plot of the story : the adoption of Pari . After being hired as a chauffeur for the Wahdatis , he becomes infatuated with the childless Nila and arranges for Pari to be sold to her in hopes that she will become his lover . After Nila 's husband suffers a stroke and Nila leaves for Paris , he realizes that he had been foolish to think so and becomes the primary caregiver for his bedridden employer .
Amra Ademovic is a Bosnian nurse working in a hospital in Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban . She cares for and later adopts Roshi , a critically wounded Afghan orphan . Amra , according to Hosseini , was created to represent the foreign aid workers serving in Afghanistan . While visiting the country in 2003 , he had encountered a number of people who had left comfortable lifestyles to help provide relief aid , and he had wanted to pay tribute to them through the portrayal of Amra . Hosseini described the character as one of his favorites and said , " She has seen humanity at its worst , having worked in war zones most of her career , and yet she has retained great capacity for compassion and mercy . She is also very street smart , fiercely intelligent , and brutally honest . "
Idris is an Afghan @-@ American doctor who left Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion . He later returns to Afghanistan , along with his narcissistic and childish cousin Timur , in 2003 to reclaim their family 's land . While there , Idris meets Roshi and befriends her , moved by her tragic story . Hosseini stated that Idris ' experience as an Afghan expatriate was partly based on his own . " He was a vehicle to describe what it 's like to be an Afghan in exile , to return to see how divergent my experience was from other Afghans , " Hosseini said . Idris begins to set up plans to pay for her surgery in America , but upon returning home , he loses that drive . It is later revealed Timur pays for Roshi 's surgery .
Markos Varvaris is a plastic surgeon from the Greek island of Tinos . His childhood best friend , Thalia , suffered from severe facial disfigurement after being attacked by a dog and undergoing a botched surgery . This motivated Markos to become a surgeon and work in various developing countries , including Afghanistan .
Adel is the son of a wealthy war criminal who has turned Shadbagh into " Shadbagh @-@ e @-@ Nau " or " New Shadbagh " . Adel is raised in an isolated mansion with the belief that his father is a hero , witnessing him donate money and fund the building of schools . When he discovers the truth , he is deeply upset but aware of " [ t ] he part of him that over time would gradually , almost imperceptibly , accept this new identity that at present prickled like a wet wool sweater . "
= = Themes = =
Whereas The Kite Runner focused on the dynamic between fathers and sons , and Splendid Suns on that between mothers and daughters , this novel tells its story through the prism of sibling relationships — a theme refracted through the lives of several pairs of brothers and sisters .
Khaled Hosseini considers pain , love , and familial love to be the primary themes of And the Mountains Echoed . The separation of the two siblings , Abdullah and Pari , is " the heart of the book " . Both subsequently become " victims of the passage of time " : Abdullah , who is older and remembers Pari , agonizes over her loss for most of his life , while Pari is younger and able to forget her brother after losing him . However , towards the end of the book , Pari is informed that she was adopted and that she has a brother , Abdullah ; she locates him in the United States only to discover that he is suffering from Alzheimer 's disease and has forgotten her . Hosseini stated , " The question is raised a number of times about whether memory is a blessing — something that safeguards in all the things that are dear to you — or is memory a curse — something that makes you relive the most painful parts of your life , the toil , the struggle , the sorrows . " Thus , the combination of these events make And the Mountains Echoed " kind of like a fairytale turned on its head " .
I think at the core , all three of my books have been love stories — and they haven 't been traditional love stories in the sense that a romantic love story between a man and a woman , you know , they 've been stories of love between characters where you would not expect love to be found . So it is always these intense relationships that form under unexpected circumstances .
Rafia Zakaria , a director for Amnesty International USA , wrote that the themes of guilt and gratitude also feature prominently . She used the backstory of Parwana , Abdullah and Pari 's stepmother , and her sister Masooma as an example : " We find a poignant tale of a plain twin whose single act of vengeance , of pushing her pretty sister off a swing results in a lifelong moral burden . The sister , who was to be married to a man both sisters love , becomes an invalid for life , and both serve the sentence , the healthy one tending to the other and wrecked within by the knowledge that she was the cause of their collective misfortune . " She stated the theme of dependence also extended to the story of Nabi , the brother of Parwana who arranges the selling of Pari and who is later left as the sole caretaker of his paralyzed employer .
= = Critical reviews = =
Three million copies of And the Mountains Echoed were sold within five months of its publication . In general , the novel was received well , with Los Angeles Times critic Wendy Smith finding it " painfully sad but also radiant with love " . Fran Hawthorne of The National described the book as " masterful storytelling " and a " haunting portrayal of war @-@ ravaged Afghanistan and insight into the life of Afghan expatriates " . Susan Balee from Philly.com wrote that it " [ captures ] at the personal level the history of his war @-@ torn homeland : Fierce loyalties alternate with bloody betrayals " . The Guardian 's Philip Hensher gave a more mediocre review and said , " I enjoyed this novel in a very undemanding sort of way . The shifts of viewpoint would be ambitious if the novel had any interest in varieties of psychology . But it serves its purpose in providing amusement for two and a half hours ; a day after finishing it , I had forgotten everything about it . "
Reviewers agreed that Hosseini 's succeeded in making his characters complex . Alexander Linklater from The Guardian wrote , " From the moment the realisation dawns that Saboor is going to give Pari to the wife of a wealthy man in Kabul , Hosseini saturates the various layers and characters of his novel with a yearning for the moment that brother and sister will reunite . " Soniah Kamal of Atlanta Arts was particularly favorable towards Amra , the Bosnian aid worker who cares for and adopts Roshi , as she " stuns with her hope in humanity no matter what callousness she has witnessed " . USA Today critic Kevin Nance found the story of Abdullah and Pari " devastating " but thought the large cast of characters , " including some introduced fairly late in the proceedings , when the reader just wants to return to the core cast " , was excessive .
The structure of the book drew mixed reactions , with Toronto Star 's Kim Hughs describing it as " the novel 's most defining feature and its most exasperating conceit " . She believed that Pari was meant to be the protagonist of the story but that the shifting focus on the numerous other personalities left her " barely [ squeaking ] through the clutter " . The Independent 's Arifa Akbar stated , " The changing points of view and leaps in time can confuse and confine , leaving characters clearly defined but lacking depth . Decades gallop by and it is as if the story of these interconnected , cross -enerational lives will simply go on echoing the original crime of Abdullah and Pari 's separation . " Michiko Kakutani from The New York Times thought the novella @-@ like storytelling was handled well and wrote , " Khaled Hosseini 's new novel , And the Mountains Echoed , may have the most awkward title in his body of work , but it 's his most assured and emotionally gripping story yet , more fluent and ambitious than The Kite Runner ( 2003 ) , more narratively complex than A Thousand Splendid Suns ( 2007 ) . " Kamal agreed , saying that the structure was " exquisitely crafted " . Scoop Empire 's Sherine El Banhawy added that the focus on multiple characters allowed to readers to gain a better understanding of the diversities of Afghan culture .
= Ni no Kuni mobile games =
There are two mobile games in the Ni no Kuni series , developed and published by Level @-@ 5 . The mobile games were released in Japan , alongside main Ni no Kuni titles Dominion of the Dark Djinn and Wrath of the White Witch , and were developed and published in partnership with mobile distribution companies . The first game , Ni no Kuni : Hotroit Stories , is a role @-@ playing game set before the events of the main games . It follows the story of Oliver and his friend Mark , and their attempts to construct a car . The first chapter was released in December 2010 through Level @-@ 5 's Roid service . The second title , Ni no Kuni : Daibouken Monsters , is a social card role @-@ playing game in which players collect cards and use them in battles , and use the abilities of characters who have been trapped in the cards . It was released in a partnership with the GREE mobile service in May 2012 .
= = Ni no Kuni : Hotroit Stories = =
Ni no Kuni : Hotroit Stories ( 二ノ国 ホットロイトストーリー ) is an episodic role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Level @-@ 5 . The first chapter was released for mobile devices through the Roid service on December 9 , 2010 .
A prequel to Dominion of the Dark Djinn and Wrath of the White Witch , Hotroit Stories follows Oliver and his friend Mark , who create a custom car by finding parts around the town of Hotroit , eventually making their way to an abandoned factory in their search . They are accompanied by a cat . Throughout their search , Oliver and Mark encounter creatures similar to the imajinn / familiars of the main game , which they must fight to proceed . Unlike the main games , Hotroit Stories does not feature magic ; characters instead attack using items such as dry ice for similar effects . Anne Lee of Chic Pixel noted that the game features a similar art style to EarthBound ( 1994 ) .
The game was first teased at a press conference in June 2010 , as well as at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2010 , before its formal reveal at the Level @-@ 5 Vision conference in October 2010 . The first chapter , titled " Oliver and Mark " ( 第1章 〜 オリバーとマーク ) , was released in December 2010 . Since its release , there has been no news regarding the development or release of subsequent chapters .
= = Ni no Kuni : Daibouken Monsters = =
Ni no Kuni : Daibouken Monsters ( 二ノ国 大冒険モンスターズ ) is a social card role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Level @-@ 5 . It was released for mobile devices through the GREE service on May 11 , 2012 .
In the game , players travel to a different world and collect cards featuring creatures known as " Imajinn " , of which there are over 200 . An occupant of the other world is trapped in every card ; by flipping the card , players can use the occupant 's abilities during battles . Rare cards are also available , granting players powers such as improved recovery and special attacks . The game also features a cooperative multiplayer mode , in which two players defend against a boss encounter in a " Raid " battle ; there are over 40 bosses in the game . All of the cards were redesigned in June 2012 .
The team at GREE initially contacted Level @-@ 5 to create individual games for the platform ; this eventually developed into a comprehensive partnership between the two companies , resulting in Level @-@ 5 developing three titles for GREE . Early registrations for the game began on March 21 , 2012 . The game was available for iOS and Android devices , through a membership with the GREE service . The game 's servers were terminated on September 28 , 2012 .
= 2009 ACC Championship Game =
The 2009 ACC Championship Game was a college football game between the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets and the Clemson Tigers . The game , sponsored by Dr. Pepper , was the final regular @-@ season contest of the 2009 college football season for the Atlantic Coast Conference . Georgia Tech defeated Clemson , winning the Atlantic Coast Conference football championship , 39 – 34 . However , Georgia Tech was forced to vacate the game victory and the conference title in 2011 due to sanctions stemming from an NCAA investigation .
According to a statement by ACC Commissioner John Swofford , there will not be a 2009 ACC Champion in football .
The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets were selected to represent the Coastal Division by virtue of a 7 – 1 record in conference play and a 10 – 2 record overall . Representing the Atlantic Division was Clemson , which had an 8 – 4 record ( 6 – 2 ACC ) . The game was a rematch of a contest played September 10 in Atlanta , Georgia . In that first game , Georgia Tech won a close 30 – 27 matchup .
The game was held at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa , Florida on December 5 , 2009 . Tampa had been chosen to host the game after poor attendance at the game 's previous location , Jacksonville , Florida , led conference officials to seek an alternative . The 2009 championship was the last to be hosted in Tampa , as the game moved to Charlotte , North Carolina in 2010 .
From the start of the game , the 2009 ACC championship had a large amount of offense . Throughout the contest , neither team punted : Every offensive drive ended in a score or a turnover . Clemson scored first , a touchdown on its opening drive , and held a 7 – 3 lead at the end of the first quarter . In the second quarter , Georgia Tech scored 13 points to Clemson 's six , and the Yellow Jackets entered halftime with a 16 – 13 lead . They extended that lead in the third quarter , scoring 17 points to Clemson 's lone touchdown and extra point . In the fourth quarter , Clemson closed the gap and took a 34 – 33 lead with 6 : 11 remaining , but Georgia Tech drove down the field and scored a touchdown with 1 : 20 remaining , giving the Yellow Jackets a 39 – 34 lead that was the game 's final margin . In recognition of his significant performance despite the loss , Clemson running back C. J. Spiller was named the game 's most valuable player .
By winning , Georgia Tech earned a spot in the 2010 Orange Bowl football game , and Clemson was selected for the 2009 Music City Bowl . Several players that participated in the ACC championship later played in postseason all @-@ star games and were later selected in the 2010 NFL Draft .
= = Selection process = =
The ACC Championship Game features the winners of the Coastal and Atlantic divisions of the Atlantic Coast Conference . In the early 2000s , the conference underwent an expansion to add three former Big East members : the University of Miami and Virginia Tech in 2004 , and Boston College in 2005 . With the addition of a twelfth team , the ACC was allowed to hold a conference championship game under National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) rules .
The inaugural 2005 game featured a Florida State win over Virginia Tech , 27 – 22 . In 2006 , two different teams made their first appearances in the game , which was held in Jacksonville , Florida . Wake Forest defeated Georgia Tech , 9 – 6 . In 2007 , one team new to the championship game and championship @-@ game veteran featured in the contest as Virginia Tech faced off against Boston College . The game resulted in a 30 – 16 Virginia Tech victory . In 2008 , Virginia Tech and Boston College again played in the championship game . Virginia Tech won the rematch , 30 – 12 .
= = = Site selection = = =
Before the 2007 game , cities other than Jacksonville ( site of the 2007 ACC Championship Game ) presented their plans to be the site of the 2008 ACC Championship Game . After poor attendance in the ACC Championship Game at Jacksonville for the second straight year , ACC officials and representatives of the conference 's member schools elected not to extend the Gator Bowl Association 's contract to manage and host the game for another year . On December 12 , less than two weeks after Jacksonville had hosted the 2007 ACC Championship Game , the ACC announced that Tampa , Florida would host the game in 2008 and 2009 and Charlotte , North Carolina would host the game in 2010 and 2011 .
The cities were chosen based on bids presented to the ACC and its member schools . Each city requested and was granted a two @-@ year contract . Tampa was chosen as the site of the 2008 game because Charlotte was scheduled to hold the annual convention of the Association for Career and Technical Education at the same time as the game , and adequate hotel space would not be ready in time for the two events . As a result , Charlotte 's two @-@ year span of hosting the game was pushed back to 2010 .
= = = Team selection = = =
Before the beginning of the 2009 college football season , the annual poll by media members who cover ACC football predicted Virginia Tech to win the Coastal Division and Florida State to win the Atlantic Division . Virginia Tech received 78 of a possible 87 first @-@ place votes in its division , while Florida State received 56 in the other division . In regards to predicting the championship game 's outcome , 69 of the 87 voters chose Virginia Tech to win . Georgia Tech and Clemson were predicted to finish second in the Coastal and Atlantic divisions , respectively .
= = = = Georgia Tech = = = =
The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets entered the 2009 season after a 2008 campaign that saw them finish 9 – 4 , including a season @-@ ending 38 – 3 loss to the LSU Tigers in the 2008 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Georgia Tech head coach Paul Johnson , entering his second season as head of the Yellow Jackets , had high hopes that Georgia Tech would be able to improve upon its 2008 performance . Others agreed with Johnson 's assumption , as the Yellow Jackets were ranked No. 15 in the preseason Associated Press and USA Today coaches ' polls .
In Georgia Tech 's first game , the Yellow Jackets defeated lightly regarded Jacksonville State , 37 – 17 . Five days later , in Tech 's first competitive game of the season , the Yellow Jackets narrowly defeated Clemson , 30 – 27 , on the basis of a fake field goal for a touchdown and a late field goal . One week after the Clemson win , Tech — by then raised to No. 14 in the national polls — suffered its first loss of the season , to No. 20 Miami .
That loss turned out to be Georgia Tech 's last to a conference opponent during the 2009 regular season . Nine days after the Miami loss , Georgia Tech defeated No. 22 North Carolina , then followed that with a win over Southeastern Conference foe Mississippi State . Wins over Florida State and No. 4 Virginia Tech followed in subsequent weeks . The latter victory was the Yellow Jackets ' first win over a top @-@ five team since 1962 and gave Georgia Tech a lead in the divisional standings . Following the Virginia Tech win , Georgia Tech defeated Virginia , Vanderbilt , Wake Forest ( in overtime ) and Duke . The Duke victory raised Georgia Tech to 10 wins , the school 's first time at that mark since 1990 , and the Yellow Jackets were ranked No. 7 , their highest position in the national polls since that year . But following the Duke game , the Yellow Jackets faced Georgia in the rivalry known as Clean , Old @-@ Fashioned Hate . During that game , the unranked Georgia Bulldogs upset Tech , 30 – 24 . Though Georgia Tech had clinched its ACC Championship Game slot with the win over Duke , the loss was nevertheless a " huge letdown " for the team .
= = = = Clemson = = = =
The Clemson Tigers began the 2009 season after finishing 7 – 6 in 2008 , including a season @-@ ending loss in the 2009 Gator Bowl to Nebraska . Heading into 2010 , Clemson returned many of its 2009 players , but faced questions about whether those players would perform better with another year of experience . Also under question was head coach Dabo Swinney , who was beginning his first full season as head coach of the Tigers after assuming control in the seventh game of 2008 . Clemson attempted to answer some of the questions about the team 's potential in the first game of the season , a 37 – 14 win against Middle Tennessee State .
Clemson lost its first real test , a conference game at 15th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech , but recovered to win the following week against Boston College . The Boston College win was Clemson 's last for almost a month , however , as Clemson lost to nonconference opponent Texas Christian on September 26 , then was defeated by ACC divisional foe Maryland .
The two losses , piled upon the loss to Georgia Tech , left Clemson with a 2 – 3 record . An anonymous report said coach Swinney became involved in a shouting match with a position coach , while players called a private meeting in an effort to turn the team 's season around . On October 17 , The Tigers rallied from their losing streak by defeating Wake Forest , 38 – 3 , and moved back into the middle of the competition for the Atlantic Division championship . One week after defeating Wake Forest , the Tigers traveled to Miami , Florida , to play the Miami Hurricanes , who were ranked No. 10 in the Bowl Championship Series Poll . The Tigers played the Hurricanes into overtime , then upset Miami with a touchdown , 40 – 37 .
The Miami win tied Clemson for the lead in the division standings with Boston College , whom the Tigers had already defeated and held a head @-@ to @-@ head tiebreaker over . After the Miami game , Clemson defeated nonconference Coastal Carolina , then reeled off three wins over ACC teams . Clemson beat Florida State on November 7 , NC State on November 14 , and Virginia on November 21 . On the same day Clemson defeated Virginia , Boston College was defeated in an ACC game , giving Clemson the Atlantic Division championship outright . After the Virginia game , Clemson faced longtime in @-@ state rival South Carolina . In that game , South Carolina defeated Clemson , ending the Tigers ' winning streak just before the ACC Championship Game .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Following the last week of regularly scheduled conference games , both teams fell in the national college football polls because of their rivalry losses . Georgia Tech , which had been No. 7 in the Bowl Championship Series Poll , No. 7 in the Associated Press Poll , and No. 7 in the USA Today Coaches ' Poll , dropped to No. 10 in the BCS Poll , No. 12 in the AP Poll , and No. 12 in the coaches ' poll . Clemson , which had been No. 18 in the BCS , No. 15 in the AP , and No. 16 according to the coaches , dropped out of the BCS and coaches ' polls and was No. 25 according to the AP . Spread bettors predicted Georgia Tech would win the game . Various betting organizations favored the Yellow Jackets by one point .
The game was a rematch of an early regular @-@ season contest , but even though Georgia Tech won that game , there were questions about whether the victory would be repeated . Twice before , the two teams matched in the ACC Championship Game had played earlier that season . Both times , the loser of the first matchup won the second . There also were questions about each team 's quality because of their losses in rivalry games against Southeastern Conference foes .
= = Game summary = =
The 2009 ACC Championship Game kicked off at 8 : 06 pm EST on December 5 , 2009 , at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa , Florida . The weather at kickoff was cloudy , with 88 percent humidity , an air temperature of 53 ° F ( 12 ° C ) and a north wind of 6 miles per hour ( 9 @.@ 7 km / h ) . Approximately 42 @,@ 815 people were in the stands , according to turnstile attendance figures , out of 57 @,@ 227 tickets sold . The game also was seen by approximately 2 @.@ 541 million viewers on ESPN , which broadcast the game with Brad Nessler , Todd Blackledge , and Erin Andrews . The 2 @.@ 5 million viewers brought the lowest @-@ ever TV rating for an ACC Championship Game , even though the broadcast was the first ACC Championship Game to be played in prime time since 2005 . The game 's referee was Jeff Flanagan , its umpire was Keith Roden , and its linesman was Mike Owens .
= = = First quarter = = =
The Clemson Tigers began the game with first possession . After Georgia Tech 's kickoff and a short return , the Tigers ' offense began work at their 33 @-@ yard line . Three short plays advanced the ball to the Clemson 41 @-@ yard line and gained the Tigers a first down . On the next play , Clemson running back C. J. Spiller broke free for a 40 @-@ yard rush to the Georgia Tech 19 @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Clemson quarterback Kyle Parker completed a 15 @-@ yard pass to Jacoby Ford . On the next play , Spiller ran forward three yards , across the goal line for a touchdown and the game 's first points .
Clemson 's post @-@ score kickoff was returned to the Georgia Tech 15 @-@ yard line , where the Yellow Jackets began their first offensive possession . On the first two plays of the game , Georgia Tech running back Roddy Jones escaped the Clemson defense for gains of 21 yards and 22 yards , respectively . Those plays advanced the Yellow Jackets to the Clemson 42 @-@ yard line , where Georgia Tech began advancing by small gains . In three plays , Georgia Tech gained a first down , but two subsequent plays lost yardage before kicker Scott Blair came onto the field to attempt — and convert — a 48 @-@ yard field goal . The score narrowed Clemson 's lead to 7 – 3 with the quarter exactly half elapsed .
The Tigers began their second drive of the game from their 26 @-@ yard line and advanced the ball through short gains . The Tigers needed three plays to gain a first down , then running back Andre Ellington advanced 18 yards and into Georgia Tech territory . Clemson could not gain another first down , and kicker Richard Jackson missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal attempt . After the miss , Georgia Tech 's offense resumed the field . From the Tech 35 @-@ yard line , the Yellow Jackets advanced to the Clemson 48 @-@ yard line before running back Jonathan Dwyer gained 20 yards to the 28 @-@ yard line . Two plays later , as the Yellow Jackets advanced to the 18 @-@ yard line , the quarter ended with Clemson leading , 7 – 3 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Georgia Tech facing first down , in possession of the ball at the Clemson 18 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , Dwyer gained 10 yards and a first down with a running play to the Clemson eight @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Dwyer completed the Yellow Jackets ' scoring drive with a run into the end zone . The touchdown and extra point gave Georgia Tech its first lead of the game , 10 – 7 , with 13 : 30 remaining .
Clemson returned Georgia Tech 's kickoff to its 43 @-@ yard line , but despite the good field position , Clemson was unable to take advantage . On the first play of the drive , Clemson quarterback Parker threw an interception to Georgia Tech defender Dominique Reese , who went out of bounds at the Tech 45 @-@ yard line . Georgia Tech 's offense returned to the field at that point and began driving down the field . In two plays , Tech passed the 50 @-@ yard line . In six more , it penetrated the Clemson 10 @-@ yard line . Once there , however , the Yellow Jackets ' drive stalled . Three consecutive penalties against Georgia Tech pushed the Yellow Jackets back 20 yards , and Tech was unable to score a touchdown or gain a first down after that setback . Kicker Blair again returned to the field and scored a 49 @-@ yard field goal . With 5 : 35 remaining in the first half , Georgia Tech extended its lead to 13 – 7 .
Clemson 's offense returned to the field at its 35 @-@ yard line after Georgia Tech 's kickoff and a 30 @-@ yard return by C. J. Spiller . During the ensuing drive , Spiller was the key player for the Tigers . On five consecutive plays , he received the ball during rushing plays . He gained 3 , 13 , 6 , 2 , and 41 yards , respectively , on each of these plays en route to the end zone and a touchdown . Clemson attempted a two @-@ point conversion , but the try failed and the Tigers simply tied the Yellow Jackets , 13 – 13 .
Georgia Tech 's offense began the final drive of the first half with 2 : 55 remaining . The Yellow Jackets started from their 36 @-@ yard line and began slowly : Their first play gained no yards , and their second gained eight before a fumble that was recovered by a fellow Yellow Jacket . A short running play gained three yards , enough for a first down , and the drive continued . Consecutive rushing plays gained few yards at a time , and Georgia Tech used its timeouts to stop the game clock and prevent time from running out in the half . A 10 @-@ yard pass interference penalty pushed Georgia Tech inside the Clemson 20 @-@ yard line , and kicker Blair again converted a field goal . The successful kick gave Georgia Tech a 16 – 13 lead heading into halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Clemson received the ball to begin the game , Georgia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Chris Tanner returned the kickoff to the Tech 29 @-@ yard line , and the Yellow Jackets began the first offensive drive of the half . Jones opened the drive with a 16 @-@ yard run , then the Yellow Jackets converted a fourth down to continue down the field . Six plays after the fourth @-@ down conversion , Tech quarterback Nesbitt ran into the end zone for a touchdown . The following extra point gave Tech a 23 – 13 lead with 9 : 12 remaining .
Clemson fielded the following kickoff , and its offense continued with the success it found in its final drive of the first half . As in that drive , C. J. Spiller was a key performer . Clemson 's drive began at its 40 @-@ yard line , and it took just five plays for the Tigers to score a touchdown . Four of those plays , including the culminating one , came from Spiller , who covered 40 yards during them . Spiller 's touchdown cut Georgia Tech 's lead to 23 – 20 . But as quickly as Clemson scored , Georgia Tech moved even more quickly . From its 30 @-@ yard line , the Yellow Jackets needed only three plays , the keystone coming on a 70 @-@ yard throw from Nesbitt to Thomas for a touchdown . With 5 : 10 remaining in the quarter , the Yellow Jackets restored the 10 @-@ point margin , 30 – 20 .
Beginning from their 26 @-@ yard line after a kickoff , Clemson attempted to again cut into Tech 's lead . The Tigers , again guided by the running offense of Spiller and Jamie Harper , advanced to the 37 @-@ yard line , where Parker 's passing attack took over . Parker completed two passes before Georgia Tech defender Jerrard Tarrant ran in front of a long throw downfield . He intercepted Parker 's pass and returned it 50 yards to the Clemson 28 , where Tech 's offense began anew . Despite the good field position , Tech was unable to gain a first down but still was within range of a 40 @-@ yard field goal from Blair , who extended the Yellow Jackets ' lead to 33 – 20 .
With time running out in the third quarter , Clemson 's offense entered the field of play at its 28 @-@ yard line . After a five @-@ yard penalty for delay of game , the Tigers ' Andre Ellington gained 41 yards on two plays , pushing into Georgia Tech territory . Those plays all but exhausted the quarter 's remaining moments , however , and the third quarter ended with Georgia Tech still leading , 33 – 20 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and facing second and nine from the Georgia Tech 35 @-@ yard line . The Tigers ' first two plays of the quarter failed to gain a first down , setting up a critical fourth @-@ down conversion opportunity for them . Rather than attempt a field goal , the Tigers attempted to gain a first down and were successful as Parker completed a seven @-@ yard throw . Though Georgia Tech sacked Parker on a subsequent play , the yardage loss was offset by a pass interference penalty against the Yellow Jackets . One play after the penalty , Spiller ran nine yards for a touchdown . It and the subsequent extra point cut Georgia Tech 's lead to 33 – 27 with 12 minutes remaining in the game .
With a solid lead and time running down in the game , Georgia Tech began a sequence of running plays intended to keep the game clock running while gaining ground . From their 25 @-@ yard line , the Yellow Jackets gained 38 yards on seven plays , advancing into Clemson territory in the process . Facing fourth down at the Clemson 37 @-@ yard line , the Yellow Jackets attempted to gain a first down rather than kick a long field goal . When they were stopped short of the first @-@ down line , Clemson 's offense returned to the field . Spiller again drove the Tigers down the field , opening the drive with a 54 @-@ yard run on its first play . Three plays later , Ellington capitalized the drive with a one @-@ yard run for a tying touchdown . The following extra point gave Clemson a one @-@ point lead , 34 – 33 , with 6 : 11 remaining in the game .
Clemson 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was returned to the Tech 14 @-@ yard line , where the Yellow Jackets began their game @-@ winning drive . The offense began slowly ; Georgia Tech gained only nine yards in three plays , setting up a crucial fourth @-@ down conversion . A failed try would give Clemson the ball deep in Georgia Tech territory , with little time remaining in the game for Georgia Tech to reply to any score . Instead , the Yellow Jackets converted the fourth down , keeping their drive alive . On the first play after the fourth @-@ down conversion , Nesbitt completed a 21 @-@ yard pass to Dwyer , pushing Tech to near midfield . Eight plays later , Dwyer breached the Clemson defense for a 15 @-@ yard gain and the go @-@ ahead score . A false start penalty on Georgia Tech 's two @-@ point conversion try prevented any extra points , but the touchdown 's six points were enough to give Georgia Tech a 39 – 34 lead .
Clemson received Georgia Tech 's kickoff with 1 : 20 remaining in the game . On the Tigers ' first play , they committed a 10 @-@ yard penalty . Two incomplete passes followed from Parker , who then completed an 18 @-@ yard throw to Xavier Dye . This set up a fourth @-@ and @-@ two for the Tigers , who needed to gain a first down to keep their potential game @-@ winning drive going . Instead , Parker was stymied in his attempt to run for the needed yards , and Clemson turned the ball over on downs . Georgia Tech 's offense ran out the remaining seconds on the clock and ensured their 39 – 34 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of his performance despite a losing effort , Clemson running back C. J. Spiller was named the game 's most valuable player . Spiller set several ACC Championship game records : most yards , most yards per carry , most touchdowns , and longest run from scrimmage . Spiller finished the game with 233 rushing yards , more than Georgia Tech 's two leading rushers combined . The Yellow Jackets ' Jonathan Dwyer had 110 rushing yards and two touchdowns , while Josh Nesbitt rushed for 103 yards and one touchdown .
As quarterback , Georgia Tech 's Josh Nesbitt was the top performer . In addition to his rushing performance , Nesbitt completed 9 of 16 pass attempts for 136 yards and one touchdown . On the opposite side of the field , Clemson 's Kyle Parker was successful on 10 of his 17 pass attempts for 91 yards , but also had two interceptions , the game 's only turnovers . Nesbitt set an ACC Championship Game record for longest pass play with his 70 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Demaryius Thomas in the third quarter . The two teams also set records for total offense : Georgia Tech 's 469 total yards and Clemson 's 414 total yards each broke the previous record for total offense , as did each team 's rushing total break the previous team rushing record .
On defense , Clemson defensive end Da ’ Quan Bowers led all defenders with 11 total tackles , including one for loss . Bowers ' performance was a personal best for him and was the second @-@ most in ACC Championship Game history . For Georgia Tech , Mario Edwards was the leading tackler with seven , including two assisted tackles . Tech 's Jerrard Tarrant , who had five tackles , the second @-@ most on the team , also had one interception and returned it 50 yards . The interception and return , Tarrant 's first of the season , was the longest in ACC Championship Game history . Georgia Tech 's other interception was fielded by Dominique Reese , for no return .
= = Postgame effects = =
Georgia Tech 's win brought it to a record of 11 – 2 , while Clemson 's loss dropped it to 8 – 5 . The win ensured Georgia Tech 's first outright conference championship since 1990 , and as a reward for winning the conference , Georgia Tech received a spot in the 2010 Orange Bowl , a Bowl Championship Series game . In that game , the Iowa Hawkeyes defeated the Yellow Jackets , 24 – 14 . Clemson also was selected to participate in a postseason bowl game . The Music City Bowl , played in Nashville , Tennessee , selected the Tigers to play against the Kentucky Wildcats . In that game , the Tigers defeated the Wildcats , 21 – 13 .
Three Florida State players were selected by NFL teams in the subsequent draft : Robinson was selected with the 32nd overall pick , Rolle with the 207th , and Watson with the 217th . For Georgia Tech , defensive end Derrick Morgan was taken 16th , wide receiver Demaryius Thomas 22nd , safety Morgan Burnett 71st , and running back Jonathan Dwyer 188th . Several players from each team participated in postseason all @-@ star games in preparation for the 2010 NFL Draft . Georgia Tech lineman Cord Howard played in the East @-@ West Shrine Game , while Florida State had several players in the annual Senior Bowl . Florida State defensive backs Myron Rolle and Patrick Robinson and linebacker Dekoda Watson each played in the latter game .
= = Vacated = =
On July 14 , 2011 , Georgia Tech was forced to vacate the win due to an NCAA investigation . The NCAA accused Tech of fielding an ineligible player during the game , and although they were unable to obtain evidence that an ineligible player had been played , the NCAA concluded that the investigation had been hampered by Georgia Tech 's administration . This was taken as evidence of wrongdoing , and penalties for playing an ineligible player were imposed .
= Wells Cathedral =
The Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew , commonly known as Wells Cathedral , is an Anglican cathedral in Wells , Somerset . The cathedral , dedicated to St Andrew the Apostle , is the seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells . It is the mother church of the diocese and contains the bishop 's throne ( cathedra ) . It was built between 1175 and 1490 , replacing an earlier church built on the same site in 705 . It is moderately sized among the medieval cathedrals of England , between those of massive proportion such as Lincoln and York and the smaller cathedrals in Oxford and Carlisle . With its broad west front and large central tower , it is the dominant feature of its small cathedral city and a landmark in the Somerset countryside . Wells has been described as " unquestionably one of the most beautiful " and as " the most poetic " of English cathedrals .
The cathedral 's architecture presents a harmonious whole which is entirely Gothic and mostly in the Early English style of the late 12th and early 13th centuries . In this respect Wells differs from most other English medieval cathedrals , which have parts in the earlier Romanesque style introduced to Britain by the Normans in the 11th century .
Work commenced in about 1175 at the eastend with the building of the choir . The historian John Harvey considers it to be the first truly Gothic structure in Europe , having broken from the last constraints of Romanesque . The stonework of its pointed arcades and fluted piers is enriched by the complexity of pronounced mouldings and the vitality of its carved capitals in a foliate style known as " stiff leaf " . Its exterior has an Early English façade displaying more than 300 sculpted figures , described by Harvey as " the supreme triumph of the combined plastic arts in England " . The east end retains much ancient stained glass , which is rare in England .
Unlike many English cathedrals of monastic foundation , Wells has an exceptional number of surviving secular buildings associated with its chapter of secular canons , including the Bishop 's Palace and Vicars ' Close , a residential street that has remained intact since the 15th century . The cathedral is a Grade I listed building .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The earliest remains of a building on the site are of a late @-@ Roman mausoleum , identified during excavations in 1980 . An abbey church was built in Wells in 705 by Aldhelm , first bishop of the newly established Diocese of Sherborne during the reign of King Ine of Wessex . It was dedicated to Saint Andrew and stood at the site of the cathedral 's cloisters , where some excavated remains can be seen . The font in the cathedral 's south transept is from this church and is the oldest part of the present building . In 766 Cynewulf , King of Wessex , signed a charter endowing the church with eleven hides of land . In 909 the seat of the diocese was moved from Sherborne to Wells .
The first Bishop of Wells was Athelm ( 909 ) , who crowned King Æthelstan . Athelm and his nephew Dunstan both became Archbishops of Canterbury . During this period a choir of boys was established to sing the liturgy . Wells Cathedral School , which was established to educate these choirboys , dates its foundation to this point . There is , however , some controversy over this . Following the Norman Conquest , Bishop John de Villula moved the seat of the bishop from Wells to Bath in 1090 . The church at Wells , no longer a cathedral , had a college of secular clergy .
= = = Seat of the bishop = = =
The cathedral is thought to have been conceived and commenced in about 1175 by Bishop Reginald Fitz Jocelin , who died in 1191 . Although it is clear from its size that from the outset , the church was planned to be the cathedral of the diocese , the seat of the bishop moved between Wells and the abbeys of Glastonbury and Bath , before settling at Wells . In 1197 Bishop Reginald 's successor , Bishop Savaric FitzGeldewin , with the approval of Pope Celestine III , officially moved his seat to Glastonbury Abbey . The title of Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury was used until the Glastonbury claim was abandoned in 1219 .
Bishop Savaric 's successor , Jocelin of Wells , again moved the bishop 's seat to Bath Abbey , with the title Bishop of Bath . Jocelin was a brother of Bishop Hugh II of Lincoln and was present at the signing of the Magna Carta . Bishop Jocelin continued the building campaign begun by Bishop Reginald and was responsible for the Bishop 's Palace , the choristers ' school , a grammar school , a hospital for travellers and a chapel . He also had a manor house built at Wookey , near Wells . Jocelin saw the church dedicated in 1239 but , despite much lobbying of the Pope by Jocelin 's representatives in Rome , did not live to see cathedral status granted . The delay may have been a result of inaction by Pandulf Verraccio , a Roman ecclesiastical politician , papal legate to England and Bishop of Norwich , who was asked by the Pope to investigate the situation but did not respond . Jocelin died at Wells on 19 November 1242 and was buried in the choir of the cathedral ; the memorial brass on his tomb is one of the earliest brasses in England . Following his death the monks of Bath unsuccessfully attempted to regain authority over Wells .
In 1245 the ongoing dispute over the title of the bishop was resolved by a ruling of Pope Innocent IV who established the title as the " Bishop of Bath and Wells " , as it has remained until this day , with Wells as the principal seat of the bishop . Since the 11th century the church has had a chapter of secular clergy , like the cathedrals of Chichester , Hereford , Lincoln and York . The chapter was endowed with 22 prebends ( lands from which finance was drawn ) and a provost to manage them . On acquiring cathedral status , in common with other such cathedrals , it had four chief clergy , the dean , precentor , chancellor and sacristan , who were responsible for the spiritual and material care of the cathedral .
= = = Building the cathedral = = =
The building programme , begun by Bishop Reginald Fitz Jocelin in the 12th century , continued under Jocelin of Wells , who was a canon from 1200 , then bishop from 1206 . Adam Locke was master mason from about 1192 until 1230 . It was designed in the new style with pointed arches , later known as Gothic , which was introduced at about the same time at Canterbury Cathedral . Work was halted between 1209 and 1213 when King John was excommunicated and Bishop Jocelin was in exile , but the main parts of the church were complete by the time of the dedication by Bishop Jocelin in 1239 .
By the time the cathedral , including the chapter house , was finished in 1306 , it was already too small for the developing liturgy , and unable to accommodate increasingly grand processions of clergy . Bishop John Droxford initiated another phase of building under master mason Thomas of Whitney , during which the central tower was heightened and an eight @-@ sided Lady chapel was added at the east end by 1326 . Bishop Ralph of Shrewsbury followed , continuing the eastward extension of the choir and retrochoir beyond . He oversaw the building of Vicars ' Close and the Vicars ' Hall , to give the men who were employed to sing in the choir a secure place to live and dine , away from the town and its temptations . He had an uneasy relationship with the citizens of Wells , partly because of his imposition of taxes , and he surrounded his palace with crenellated walls , a moat and a drawbridge .
Bishop John Harewell raised money for the completion of the west front by William Wynford , who was appointed as master mason in 1365 . One of the foremost architects of his time , Wynford worked for the king at Windsor , Winchester Cathedral and New College , Oxford . At Wells , he designed the western towers of which north @-@ west was not built until the following century . In the 14th century , the central piers of the crossing were found to be sinking under the weight of the crossing tower which had been damaged by an earthquake in the previous century . Strainer arches , sometimes described as scissor arches , were inserted by master mason William Joy to brace and stabilise the piers as a unit .
= = = Tudors and Civil War = = =
By the reign of Henry VII the cathedral was complete , appearing much as it does today ( though the fittings have changed ) . From 1508 to 1546 , the eminent Italian humanist scholar Polydore Vergil was active as the chapter 's representative in London . He donated a set of hangings for the choir of the cathedral . While Wells survived the Dissolution of the Monasteries better than the cathedrals of monastic foundation , the abolition of chantries in 1547 resulted in a reduction in its income . Medieval brasses were sold , and a pulpit was placed in the nave for the first time . Between 1551 and 1568 , in two periods as dean , William Turner established a herb garden , which was recreated between 2003 and 2010 .
Elizabeth I gave the chapter and the Vicars Choral a new charter in 1591 , creating a new governing body , consisting of a dean and eight residentiary canons with control over the church estates and authority over its affairs , but no longer entitled to elect the dean ( that entitlement thenceforward belonged ultimately to the Crown ) . The stability brought by the new charter ended with the onset of the Civil War and the execution of Charles I. Local fighting damaged the cathedral 's stonework , furniture and windows . The dean , Walter Raleigh , a nephew of the explorer Sir Walter Raleigh , was placed under house arrest after the fall of Bridgwater to the Parliamentarians in 1645 , first in the rectory at Chedzoy and then in the deanery at Wells . His jailer , the shoe maker and city constable , David Barrett , caught him writing a letter to his wife . When he refused to surrender it , Barrett ran him through with a sword and he died six weeks later , on 10 October 1646 . He was buried in an unmarked grave in the choir before the dean 's stall . During the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell no dean was appointed and the cathedral fell into disrepair . The bishop went into retirement and some of the clerics were reduced to performing menial tasks .
= = = 1660 – 1800 = = =
In 1661 , after Charles II was restored to the throne , Robert Creighton , the king 's chaplain in exile , was appointed dean and was bishop for two years before his death in 1672 . His brass lectern , given in thanksgiving , can be seen in the cathedral . He donated the nave 's great west window at a cost of £ 140 . Following Creighton 's appointment as bishop , the post of dean went to Ralph Bathurst , who had been chaplain to the king , president of Trinity College , Oxford and fellow of the Royal Society . During Bathurst 's long tenure the cathedral was restored , but in the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685 , Puritan soldiers damaged the west front , tore lead from the roof to make bullets , broke the windows , smashed the organ and furnishings , and for a time stabled their horses in the nave .
Restoration began again under Bishop Thomas Ken who was appointed by the Crown in 1685 and served until 1691 . He was one of seven bishops imprisoned for refusing to sign King James II 's " Declaration of Indulgence " , which would have enabled Catholics to resume positions of political power , but popular support led to their acquittal . Ken refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary because James II had not abdicated and with others , known as the Nonjurors , was put out of office . His successor , Bishop Kidder , was killed in the Great Storm of 1703 when two chimney stacks on the palace fell on him and his wife , while they were asleep in bed .
= = = Victorian era to present = = =
By the middle of the 19th century , a major restoration programme was needed . Under Dean Goodenough , the monuments were moved to the cloisters and the remaining medieval paint and whitewash removed in an operation known as " the great scrape " . Anthony Salvin took charge of the extensive restoration of the choir . Wooden galleries installed in the 16th century were removed and the stalls were given stone canopies and placed further back within the line of the arcade . The medieval stone pulpitum screen was extended in the centre to support a new organ .
In 1933 the Friends of Wells Cathedral were formed to support the cathedral 's chapter in the maintenance of the fabric , life and work of the cathedral .
The late 20th century saw an extensive restoration programme , particularly of the west front . The stained glass is currently under restoration , with a programme underway to conserve the large 14th @-@ century Jesse Tree window at the eastern terminal of the choir .
= = Ministry = =
Since the 13th century , Wells Cathedral has been the seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells . Its governing body , the chapter , is made up of five clerical canons ( the dean , the precentor , the canon chancellor , the canon treasurer , and the archdeacon of Wells ) and four lay members : the administrator ( chief executive ) , Keeper of the Fabric , Overseer of the Estate and the chairman of the cathedral shop and catering boards . The current Bishop of Bath and Wells is Peter Hancock , who was installed in a service in the Cathedral on 7 June 2014 . The present dean is John Clarke .
Employed staff include the organist and master of choristers , head virger , archivist , librarian and the staff of the shop , café and restaurant . The chapter is advised by specialists such as architects , archaeologists and financial experts .
More than a thousand services are held every year . There are daily services of Matins , Holy Communion and Choral Evensong , as well as major celebrations of Christian festivals such as Christmas , Easter , Pentecost and saints ' days . The cathedral is also used for the baptisms , weddings and funerals of those with close connections to it . In July 2009 the cathedral undertook the funeral of Harry Patch , the last British Army veteran of World War I , who died at the age of 111 .
Three Sunday services are led by the resident choir ( during the school terms ) and choral services are sung on weekdays . The cathedral hosts visiting choirs and is involved in outreach work with local schools as part of its Chorister Outreach Project . It is also the venue for musical events such as an annual concert by the Somerset Chamber Choir .
Each year about 150 @,@ 000 people attend services and another 300 @,@ 000 visit as tourists . Entry is free , but visitors are encouraged to make a donation towards the annual running costs which were around £ 2 million ( approx . US $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) in 2010 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Dates , styles and architects = = =
Construction of the cathedral began in about 1175 , to the design of an unknown architect . Wells is the first cathedral in England to be , from its foundation , built in the Gothic style . According to art historian John Harvey , it is the first truly Gothic cathedral in the world , its architects having entirely dispensed with all the features that bound the contemporary east end of Canterbury Cathedral and the earlier buildings of France , such as the east end of the Abbey of Saint Denis , to the Romanesque . Unlike these churches , Wells has clustered piers rather than columns and has a gallery of identical pointed arches rather than the typically Romanesque form of paired openings . The style , with its simple untraceried lancet arches and convoluted mouldings , is known as Early English Gothic .
From about 1192 to 1230 , Adam Lock , the earliest architect at Wells for whom a name is known , continued the transept and nave in the same manner as his predecessor . Lock was also the builder of the north porch , to his own design .
The Early English west front was commenced around 1230 by Thomas Norreys , with building and sculpture continuing for thirty years . Its south @-@ west tower was begun 100 years later and constructed between 1365 and 1395 , and the north @-@ west tower between 1425 and 1435 , both in the Perpendicular Gothic style to the design of William Wynford , who also filled many of the cathedral 's early English lancet windows with delicate tracery .
Between 1275 and 1310 the undercroft and chapter house were built by unknown architects , the undercroft in the Early English and the chapter house in the Geometric style of Decorated Gothic architecture . In about 1310 work commenced on the Lady Chapel , to the design of Thomas Witney , who also built the central tower from 1315 to 1322 in the Decorated Gothic style . The tower was later braced internally with arches by William Joy . Concurrent with this work , in 1329 – 45 Joy made alterations and extensions to the choir , joining it to the Lady Chapel with the retrochoir , the latter in the Flowing Decorated style .
Later changes include the Perpendicular vault of the tower and construction of Sugar 's Chapel , 1475 – 90 by William Smyth . Also , Gothic Revival renovations were made to the choir and pulpitum by Benjamin Ferrey and Anthony Salvin , 1842 – 57 .
= = = Plan = = =
Wells has a total length of 415 feet ( 126 m ) . In common with Canterbury , Lincoln and Salisbury cathedrals , it has the distinctly English arrangement of two transepts , with the body of the church divided into distinct
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parts : nave , choir , and retro @-@ choir , beyond which extends the Lady Chapel . The façade is wide , with its towers extending beyond the transepts on either side . There is a large projecting porch on the north side of the nave forming an entry into the cathedral . To the north @-@ east is the large octagonal chapter house , entered from the north choir aisle by a passage and staircase . To the south of the nave is a large cloister , unusual in that the northern range , that adjacent the cathedral , was never built .
= = = Elevation = = =
In section , the cathedral has the usual arrangement of a large church : a central nave with an aisle on each side , separated by two arcades . The elevation is in three stages , arcade , triforium gallery and clerestory . The nave is 67 feet ( 20 m ) in height , very low compared to the Gothic cathedrals of France . It has a markedly horizontal emphasis , caused by the triforium having a unique form , a series of identical narrow openings , lacking the usual definition of the bays . The triforium is separated from the arcade by a single horizontal string course that runs unbroken the length of the nave . There are no vertical lines linking the three stages , as the shafts supporting the vault rise above the triforium .
= = = Exterior = = =
The exterior of Wells Cathedral presents a relatively tidy and harmonious appearance since the greater part of the building was executed in a single style , Early English Gothic . This is uncommon among English cathedrals where the exterior usually exhibits a plethora of styles . At Wells , later changes in the Perpendicular style were universally applied , such as filling the Early English lancet windows with simple tracery , the construction of a parapet that encircles the roof , and the addition of pinnacles framing each gable , similar to those around the chapter house and on the west front . At the eastern end there is a proliferation of tracery with repeated motifs in the Reticulated style , a stage between Geometric and Flowing Decorated tracery .
= = = = West front = = = =
The west front is 100 feet ( 30 m ) high and 147 feet ( 45 m ) wide , and built of Inferior Oolite of the Middle Jurassic period , which came from the Doulting Stone Quarry , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east . According to the architectural historian Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor , it is " one of the great sights of England " .
West fronts in general take three distinct forms : those that follow the elevation of the nave and aisles , those that have paired towers at the end of each aisle , framing the nave , and those that screen the form of the building . The west front at Wells has the paired @-@ tower form , unusual in that the towers do not indicate the location of the aisles , but extend well beyond them , screening the dimensions and profile of the building .
The west front rises in three distinct stages , each clearly defined by a horizontal course . This horizontal emphasis is counteracted by six strongly projecting buttresses defining the cross @-@ sectional divisions of nave , aisles and towers , and are highly decorated , each having canopied niches containing the largest statues on the façade .
At the lowest level of the façade is a plain base , contrasting with and stabilising the ornate arcades that rise above it . The base is penetrated by three doors , which are in stark contrast to the often imposing portals of French Gothic cathedrals . The outer two are of domestic proportion and the central door is ornamented only by a central post , quatrefoil and the fine mouldings of the arch .
Above the basement rise two storeys , ornamented with quatrefoils and niches originally holding about four hundred statues , with three hundred surviving until the mid @-@ 20th century . Since then , some have been restored or replaced , including the ruined figure of Christ in the gable .
The third stages of the flanking towers were both built in the Perpendicular style of the late 14th century , to the design of William Wynford ; that on the north @-@ west was not begun until about 1425 . The design maintains the general proportions , and continues the strong projection of the buttresses .
The finished product has been criticised for its lack of pinnacles , and it is probable that the towers were intended to carry spires which were never built . Despite its lack of spires or pinnacles , the architectural historian Banister Fletcher describes it as " the highest development in English Gothic of this type of façade . "
= = = = = Iconography of the west front = = = = =
The sculptures on the west front at Wells include standing figures , seated figures , half @-@ length angels and narratives in high relief . Many of the figures are life @-@ sized or larger , and together they constitute the finest display of medieval carving in England . The figures and many of the architectural details were painted in bright colours , and the colouring scheme has been deduced from flakes of paint still adhering to some surfaces . The sculptures occupy nine architectural zones stretching horizontally across the entire west front and around the sides and the eastern returns of the towers which extend beyond the aisles . The strongly projecting buttresses have tiers of niches which contain many of the largest figures . Other large figures , including that of Christ , occupy the gable . A single figure stands in one of two later niches high on the northern tower .
In 1851 the archaeologist Charles Robert Cockerell published his analysis of the iconography , numbering the nine sculptural divisions from the lowest to the highest . He defined the theme as " a calendar for unlearned men " illustrating the doctrines and history of the Christian faith , its introduction to Britain and its protection by princes and bishops . He likens the arrangement and iconography to the Te Deum .
According to Cockerell , the side of the façade that is to the south of the central door is the more sacred and the scheme is divided accordingly . The lowest range of niches each contained a standing figure , of which all but four figures on the west front , two on each side , have been destroyed . More have survived on the northern and eastern sides of the north tower . Cockerell speculates that those to the south of the portal represented prophets and patriarchs of the Old Testament while those to the north represented early missionaries to Britain , of which Augustine of Canterbury , St Birinus , and Benedict Biscop are identifiable by their attributes . In the second zone , above each pair of standing figures , is a quatrefoil containing a half @-@ length angel in relief , some of which have survived . Between the gables of the niches are quatrefoils that contain a series of narratives from the Bible , with the Old Testament stories to the south , above the prophets and patriarchs , and those from the New Testament to the north . A horizontal course runs around the west front dividing the architectural storeys at this point .
Above the course , zones four and five , as identified by Cockerell , contain figures which represent the Christian Church in Britain , with the spiritual lords such as bishops , abbots , abbesses and saintly founders of monasteries on the south , while kings , queens and princes occupy the north . Many of the figures survive and many have been identified in the light of their various attributes . There is a hierarchy of size , with the more significant figures larger and enthroned in their niches rather than standing . Immediately beneath the upper course are a series of small niches containing dynamic sculptures of the dead coming forth from their tombs on the Day of Judgement . Although naked , some of the dead are defined as royalty by their crowns and others as bishops by their mitres . Some emerge from their graves with joy and hope , and others with despair .
The niches in the lowest zone of the gable contain nine angels , of which Cockerell identifies Michael , Gabriel , Raphael and Uriel . In the next zone are the taller figures of the twelve apostles , some , such as John , Andrew and Bartholomew , clearly identifiable by the attributes that they carry . The uppermost niches of the gable contained the figure of Christ the Judge at the centre , with the Virgin Mary on his right and John the Baptist on his left . The figures all suffered from iconoclasm . A new statue of Jesus was carved for the central niche , but the two side niches now contain cherubim . Christ and the Virgin Mary are also represented by now headless figures in a Coronation of the Virgin in a niche above the central portal . A damaged figure of the Virgin and Christ Child occupies a quatrefoil in the spandrel of the door .
= = = = Crossing tower = = = =
The central tower appears to date from the early 13th century . It was substantially reconstructed in the early 14th century during the remodelling of the east end , necessitating the internal bracing of the piers a decade or so later . In the 14th century the tower was given a timber and lead spire which burnt down in 1439 . The exterior was then reworked in the Perpendicular style and given the present parapet and pinnacles . Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor describes it as " outstanding even in Somerset , a county famed for the splendour of its church towers " .
= = = = North porch = = = =
The north porch is described by art historian Nikolaus Pevsner as " sumptuously decorated " , and intended to be the main entrance . Externally it is simple and rectangular with plain side walls . The entrance is a steeply arched portal framed by rich mouldings of eight shafts with stiff @-@ leaf capitals each encircled by an annular moulding at middle height . Those on the left are figurative , containing images representing the martyrdom of St Edmund the Martyr . The walls are lined with deep niches framed by narrow shafts with capitals and annulets like those of the portal .
= = = = Cloisters = = = =
The cloisters were built in the late 13th century and largely rebuilt from 1430 to 1508 and have wide openings divided by mullions and transoms , and tracery in the Perpendicular Gothic style . The vault has lierne ribs that form octagons at the centre of each compartment , the joints of each rib having decorative bosses . The eastern range is of two storeys , of which the upper is the library built in the 15th century .
Because Wells Cathedral was secular rather than monastic , cloisters were not a practical necessity . They were omitted from several other secular cathedrals but were built here and at Chichester . Explanations for their construction at these two secular cathedrals range from the processional to the aesthetic . As at Chichester , there is no northern range to the cloisters . In monastic cloisters it was the north range , benefiting most from winter sunlight , that was often used as a scriptorium .
= = = = Restoration = = = =
In 1969 , when a large chunk of stone fell from a statue near the main door , it became apparent that there was an urgent need for restoration of the west front . Detailed studies of the stonework and of conservation practices were undertaken under the cathedral architect , Alban D. R. Caroe and a restoration committee formed . The methods that were selected for conservation were those devised by Eve and Robert Baker . W. A. ( Bert ) Wheeler , clerk of works to the cathedral 1935 – 1978 , had previously experimented with washing and surface @-@ treatment of architectural carvings on the building and his techniques were among those tried on the statues .
The conservation was carried out between 1974 and 1986 , wherever possible using non @-@ invasive procedures such as washing with water and a solution of lime , filling gaps and damaged surfaces with soft mortar to prevent the ingress of water and stabilising statues that were fracturing because of the corrosion of metal dowels . The surfaces were finished by painting with a thin coat of mortar and silane to resist further erosion and attack by pollutants . The restoration of the façade revealed much paint adhering to the statues and their niches , indicating that it had once been brightly coloured .
= = = Interior = = =
= = = = Quire , transept and nave = = = =
The particular character of this Early English interior is dependent on the proportions of the simple lancet arches . It is also dependent on the refinement of the architectural details , in particular the mouldings .
The arcade , which takes the same form in the nave , choir and transepts , is distinguished by the richness of both mouldings and carvings . Each pier of the arcade has a surface enrichment of 24 slender shafts in eight groups of three , rising beyond the capitals to form the deeply undulating mouldings of the arches . The capitals themselves are remarkable for the vitality of the stylised foliage , in a style known as " stiff @-@ leaf " . The liveliness contrasts with the formality of the moulded shafts and the smooth unbroken areas of ashlar masonry in the spandrels . Each capital is different , and some contain small figures illustrating narratives .
The vault of the nave rises steeply in a simple quadripartite form , in harmony with the nave arcade . The eastern end of the choir was extended and the whole upper part elaborated in the second quarter of the 14th century by William Joy . The vault has a multiplicity of ribs in a net @-@ like form , which is very different from that of the nave , and is perhaps a recreation in stone of a local type of compartmented wooden roof of which examples remain from the 15th century , including those at St Cuthbert 's Church , Wells . The vaults of the aisles of the choir also have a unique pattern .
Until the early 14th century , the interior of the cathedral was in a unified style , but it was to undergo two significant changes , to the tower and to the eastern end . Between 1315 and 1322 the central tower was heightened and topped by a spire , which caused the piers that supported it to show signs of stress . In 1338 the mason William Joy employed an unorthodox solution by inserting low arches topped by inverted arches of similar dimensions , forming scissors @-@ like structures . These arches brace the piers of the crossing on three sides , while the easternmost side is braced by a choir screen . The bracing arches are known as " St Andrew 's Cross arches " , in a reference to the patron saint of the cathedral . They have been described by Wim Swaan – rightly or wrongly – as " brutally massive " and intrusive in an otherwise restrained interior .
= = = = Lady Chapel and retrochoir = = = =
Wells Cathedral has a square east end to the choir and presbytery as is usual , and like several other cathedrals including Salisbury and Exeter Cathedrals has a lower Lady Chapel projecting at the eastern end , begun by Thomas Witney in about 1310 , possibly before the chapter house was completed . The date is a matter of dispute .
The Lady Chapel has a vault of complex and somewhat irregular pattern , as the chapel is not symmetrical about both axes . The main ribs are intersected by additional non @-@ supporting ribs known as " lierne ribs " and which in this case form a star @-@ shaped pattern at the apex of the vault . It is one of the earliest lierne vaults in England . There are five large windows , which are filled with fragments of medieval glass . In the east window the figures are all of the nineteenth century . The tracery of the windows is in the style known as Reticulated , having a pattern of a single repeated shape , in this case a trefoil , giving a " reticulate " or net @-@ like appearance . The openings are also described as fish scales .
The retrochoir extends across the east end of the choir and into the east transepts . At its centre the vault is supported by a remarkable structure of angled piers . Two of these are so placed as to complete the octagonal shape of the Lady Chapel , a solution described by Francis Bond as " an intuition of Genius " . The piers have attached shafts of marble , and , with the vaults that they support , create a vista of great complexity from every angle . The windows of the retrochoir are in the Reticulated style like those of the Lady Chapel , but are fully Flowing Decorated in that the tracery mouldings form ogival curves . The plan of this area between the presbytery and the Lady Chapel is unique , and it has been suggested that the failure to procure the canonization of Bishop William of March led to a shortening of the presbytery as space was no longer needed for his shrine . There was then a consequent need to fill in the resulting extra space behind the High Altar . It was done ingeniously and beautifully . A similar situation had arisen at St Albans Abbey , where the old apse had been removed leaving space between the Lady Chapel and the shrine of St Alban . The space there , however , was not treated as imaginatively as it was at Wells .
= = = = Chapter house = = = =
The chapter house was begun in the late 13th century and built in two stages , completed about 1310 . It is a two @-@ storeyed structure with the main chamber raised on an undercroft . It is entered from a staircase which divides and turns , one branch leading through the upper storey of Chain Gate to Vicars ' Close . The Decorated interior is described by Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor as " architecturally the most beautiful in England " . It is octagonal , with its ribbed vault supported on a central column . The column is surrounded by shafts of Purbeck Marble , rising to a single continuous rippling foliate capital of stylised oak leaves and acorns , quite different in character from the Early English stiff @-@ leaf foliage . Above the moulding spring thirty @-@ two ribs of strong profile , giving an effect generally likened to " a great palm tree " . The windows are large with Geometric Decorated tracery that is beginning to show an elongation of form , and ogees in the lesser lights that are characteristic of Flowing Decorated tracery . The tracery lights still contain ancient glass . Beneath the windows are 51 stalls , the canopies of which are enlivened by carvings including many heads carved in a light @-@ hearted manner .
= = Artworks and treasures = =
= = = Stained glass = = =
Wells Cathedral contains one of the most substantial collections of medieval stained glass in England , despite damage by Parliamentary troops in 1642 and 1643 . The oldest surviving glass dates from the late 13th century and is in two windows on the west side of the chapter @-@ house staircase . Two windows in the south choir aisle are from 1310 – 20 .
The Lady Chapel has five windows , of which four date from 1325 – 30 and include images of a local saint , Dunstan . The east window was restored to a semblance of its original appearance by Thomas Willement in 1845 . The other windows have complete canopies , but the pictorial sections are fragmented .
The east window of the choir is a broad , seven @-@ light window dating from 1340 – 45 . It depicts the Tree of Jesse ( the genealogy of Christ ) and demonstrates the use of silver staining , a new technique that allowed the artist to paint details on the glass in yellow , as well as black . The combination of yellow and green glass and the application of the bright yellow stain gives the window its popular name , the " Golden Window " . It is flanked by two windows each side in the clerestory , with large figures of saints , also dated to 1340 – 45 . In 2010 a major conservation programme was undertaken on the Jesse Tree window .
The panels in the chapel of St Katherine are attributed to Arnold of Nijmegen and date from about 1520 . They were acquired from the destroyed church of Saint @-@ Jean , Rouen , with the last panel having been purchased in 1953 .
The large triple lancet to the nave west end was glazed at the expense of Dean Creighton at a cost of £ 140 in 1664 . It was repaired in 1813 , and the central light was largely replaced to a design by Archibald Keightley Nicholson between 1925 and 1931 . The main north and south transept end windows by James Powell and Sons were erected in the early 20th century .
= = = Carvings = = =
The greater part of the stone carving of Wells Cathedral comprises foliate capitals in the stiff @-@ leaf style . They are found ornamenting the piers of the nave , choir and transepts . Stiff @-@ leaf foliage is highly abstract . Though possibly influenced by carvings of acanthus leaves or vine leaves , it cannot be easily identified with any particular plant . Here the carving of the foliage is varied and vigorous , the springing leaves and deep undercuts casting shadows that contrast with the surface of the piers . In the transepts and towards the crossing in the nave the capitals have many small figurative carvings among the leaves . These include a man with toothache and a series of four scenes depicting the " Wages of Sin " in a narrative of fruit stealers who creep into an orchard and are subsequently beaten by the farmer . Another well @-@ known carving is in the north transept aisle : a foliate corbel , on which climbs a lizard , sometimes identified as a salamander , a symbol of eternal life .
Carvings in the Decorated Gothic style may be found in the eastern end of the buildings , where there are many carved bosses . In the chapter house , the carvings of the fifty @-@ one stalls include numerous small heads of great variety , many of them smiling or laughing . A well @-@ known figure is the corbel of the dragon @-@ slaying monk in the chapter house stair . The large continuous capital that encircles the central pillar of the chapter house is markedly different in style to the stiff @-@ leaf of the Early English period . In contrast to the bold projections and undercutting of the earlier work , it has a rippling form and is clearly identifiable as grapevine .
The 15th @-@ century cloisters have many small bosses ornamenting the vault . Two of these carvings in the west cloister , near the location of the gift shop and café , have been described as sheela na gigs , i. e. female figures displaying their genitals and variously considered to be associated with depictions of the sin of lust or with ancient fertility cults .
= = = = Misericords = = = =
Wells Cathedral has one of the finest sets of misericords in Britain . Its clergy has a long tradition of singing or reciting from the Book of Psalms each day , along with the customary daily reading of the Holy Office . In medieval times the clergy assembled in the church eight times daily for the canonical hours . As the greater part of the services was recited while standing , many monastic or collegiate churches were fitted with stalls in which the seats tipped up to provide a convenient ledge for the monk or cleric to lean against . They were called " misericords " because their installation was an act of mercy . Misericords typically have a carved figurative bracket beneath the ledge framed by two floral motifs known , in the heraldic manner , as " supporters " .
The misericords date from 1330 to 1340 . They may have been carved under the direction of master carpenter John Strode , although his name is not recorded before 1341 . He was assisted by Bartholomew Quarter , who is documented from 1343 . They originally numbered ninety , of which sixty @-@ five have survived . Sixty @-@ one are installed in the choir , three are displayed in the cathedral and one is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum . New stalls were ordered when the eastern end of the choir was extended in the early 14th century . The canons complained that they had borne the cost of the rebuilding and ordered that the prebendary clerics should pay for their own stalls . When the newly refurbished choir opened in 1339 many misericords were left unfinished , including one @-@ fifth of the surviving 65 . Many of the clerics had not paid , and were required to contribute a total sum of £ 200 . The misericords survived better than the other sections of the stalls , which , during the Protestant Reformation , had their canopies chopped off and galleries inserted above them . One of the misericords , depicting a boy pulling a thorn from his foot , dates from the 17th century . In 1848 there was a complete rearrangement of the choir furniture , and 61 of the misericords were reused in the restructured stalls .
The subject matter of the carvings of the central brackets as misericords is very varied , but with many common themes recurring in different churches . Typically , the themes are less unified and less directly related to the Bible and Christian theology than are the themes of small sculptures seen elsewhere within churches , such as those on bosses . This is much the case at Wells , where none of the misericord carvings is directly based on a Bible story . The subjects , chosen either by the woodcarver , or perhaps by the individual paying for the stall , have no over @-@ riding theme . The sole unifying element is the roundels on each side of the pictorial subject , which are all elaborately carved foliage , in most cases formal and stylised in the later Decorated manner , but with several examples of naturalistic foliage , including roses and bindweed . Many of the subjects carry traditional interpretations . The image of the " Pelican in her Piety " ( believed to feed her young on her own blood ) is a recognised symbol for Christ 's love for the Church . A cat playing with a mouse may represent the Devil snaring a human soul . Other subjects illustrate popular fables or sayings such as " When the fox preaches , look to your geese " . Many of the subjects are depictions of animals , some of which may symbolise a human vice or virtue , or an aspect of faith .
Twenty @-@ seven of the carvings depict animals : rabbits , dogs , a puppy biting a cat , a ewe feeding a lamb , monkeys , lions , bats , and the Early Christian motif of two doves drinking from a ewer . Eighteen of the misericords have mythological subjects , including mermaids , dragons and wyverns . Five of the carvings are clearly narrative , such as the Fox and the Geese , and the story of Alexander the Great being raised to Heaven by griffins . There are three heads : a bishop in a mitre , an angel and a woman wearing a veil over her hair arranged in coils over each ear . Eleven carvings are of human figures , among which are several of remarkable design , having been conceived by the artist specifically for their purpose of supporting a shelf . One figure lies beneath the seat , supporting the shelf with his cheek , one hand and one foot . Another sits in a contorted manner supporting the weight on his elbow , while another figure squats with his knees wide apart and a strained look on his face .
= = = Fittings and monuments = = =
Some of the cathedral 's fittings and monuments are hundreds of years old . The brass lectern in the Lady Chapel dates from 1661 and has a moulded stand and foliate crest . In the north transept chapel is a 17th @-@ century oak screen with columns , formerly used in cow stalls , with artisan Ionic capitals and cornice , set forward over the chest tomb of John Godelee . There is a bound oak chest from the 14th century , which was used to store the chapter seal and key documents . The bishop 's throne dates from 1340 , and has a panelled , canted front and stone doorway , and a deep nodding cusped ogee canopy above it , with three @-@ stepped statue niches and pinnacles . The throne was restored by Anthony Salvin around 1850 . Opposite the throne is a 19th @-@ century octagonal pulpit on a coved base with panelled sides , and steps up from the north aisle . The round font in the south transept is from the former Saxon cathedral and has an arcade of round @-@ headed arches , on a round plinth . The font cover was made in 1635 and is decorated with the heads of putti . The Chapel of St Martin is a memorial to every Somerset man who fell in World War I.
The monuments and tombs include : Bishop Gisa , died 1088 ; Bishop Bytton , died 1274 ; Bishop William of March , died 1302 ; John Droxford , died 1329 ; John Godelee , died 1333 ; John Middleton , died c . 1350 ; Ralph of Shrewsbury , died 1363 ; Bishop Harewell , died 1386 ; William Bykonyll , died c . 1448 ; John Bernard , died 1459 ; Bishop Bekynton , died 1464 ; John Gunthorpe , died 1498 ; John Still , died 1607 ; Robert Creighton , died 1672 ; Bishop Kidder , died 1703 ; Bishop Hooper , died 1727 and Bishop Harvey , died 1894 .
= = = Clock = = =
In the north transept is Wells Cathedral clock , an astronomical clock from about 1325 , believed to be the work of Peter Lightfoot , a monk of Glastonbury . Its mechanism , dated to between 1386 and 1392 , was replaced in the 19th century , and the original mechanism moved to the Science Museum in London , where it continues to operate . It is the second @-@ oldest surviving clock in England , after the Salisbury cathedral clock .
The clock has its original medieval face . As well as showing the time on a 24 @-@ hour dial , it reflects the motion of the Sun and Moon , the phases of the Moon , and the time since the last new Moon . The astronomical dial represents a geocentric or pre @-@ Copernican view of the universe , with the Sun and Moon revolving round a central fixed Earth , like that of the clock at Ottery St Mary . The quarters are chimed by a quarter jack in the form of a small automaton known as Jack Blandifers , who hits two bells with hammers and two with his heels . At the striking of the clock , jousting knights appear above the clock face .
On the outer wall of the transept , opposite Vicars ' Hall , is a second clock face of the same clock , placed there just over seventy years after the interior clock and driven by the same mechanism . The second clock face has two quarter jacks ( which strike on the quarter @-@ hour ) in the form of knights in armour .
In 2010 the official clock @-@ winder retired and was replaced by an electric mechanism .
= = Music = =
= = = Organ and organists = = =
The first record of an organ at this church dates from 1310 . A smaller organ , probably for the Lady Chapel , was installed in 1415 . In 1620 an organ , built by Thomas Dallam , was installed at a cost of £ 398 1s 5d . ( equivalent to about £ 73 @,@ 000 as of 2014 ) .
The organ that was installed in 1620 was destroyed by parliamentary soldiers in 1643 . An organ built in 1662 was enlarged in 1786 and again in 1855 . In 1909 – 10 an organ was built by Harrison & Harrison of Durham , with the best parts of the old organ retained . It has been serviced by the same company ever since .
The cathedral also has a chamber organ , built by the Scottish organ @-@ builders Lammermuir , which is normally kept in the choir but which can be moved around , for services and concerts , in other parts of the Cathedral . It is regularly used for authentic accompaniment of Tudor and baroque music .
The first recorded organist of Wells Cathedral was Walter Bagele ( or Vageler ) in 1416 , and the post of organist or assistant organist has been held by more than 60 individuals since then . Peter Lyons was Master of the Choristers at Wells Cathedral and Director of Music at Wells Cathedral School from 1954 to 1960 . Choral conductor James William Webb @-@ Jones , the father of Lyons 's wife , Bridget , whom Lyons married in the Cathedral , was Headmaster of Wells Cathedral School from 1955 to 1960 . Between 1996 and 2004 the appointed Organist and Master of the Choristers was Malcolm Archer . Since 2005 the organist has been Matthew Owens . Jonathan Vaughn was appointed assistant organist in 2007 , and the current organ scholars are Bryan Anderson , Alex Henshaw and Blandine Jacquet .
= = = Cathedral choir = = =
There has been a choir of boy choristers at Wells since 909 . Currently there are 18 boy choristers and 18 girl choristers , aged from eight to fourteen . The Vicars Choral was formed in the 12th century and the sung liturgy was provided by a traditional cathedral choir of men and boys until the formation of an additional choir of girls in 1994 . The boys and girls sing alternately with the Vicars Choral and are educated at Wells Cathedral School .
The Vicars Choral currently number twelve men , of whom three are choral scholars . Since 1348 the College of Vicars had its own accommodation in a quadrangle converted in the early 15th century to form Vicar 's Close . The Vicars Choral generally perform with the choristers , except on Wednesdays , when they sing alone , allowing them to present a different repertoire , in particular plainsong .
In December 2010 Wells Cathedral Choir was rated by Gramophone magazine as " the highest ranking choir with children in the world " . It continues to provide music for the liturgy at Sunday and weekday services . The choir has made many recordings and toured frequently , including performances in Beijing and Hong Kong in 2012 . Its repertoire ranges from the choral music of the Renaissance to recently commissioned works .
= = = Voluntary Choir = = =
The Wells Cathedral Voluntary Choir is a mixed adult choir of 30 members , formed in 1986 to sing at the midnight service on Christmas Eve , and invited to sing at several other special services . The choir now sings for about 50 services a year , when the Cathedral Choir is in recess or on tour , and spends one week a year singing as the " choir in residence " at another cathedral . Although primarily liturgical , the choir 's repertoire includes other forms of music , as well as performances at engagements such as weddings and funerals .
= = Bells = =
The bells at Wells Cathedral are the heaviest ring of ten bells in the world , the tenor bell ( the 10th and largest ) , known as Harewell , weighing 56 @.@ 25 long hundredweight ( 2 @,@ 858 kg ) . They are hung for full @-@ circle ringing in the English style of change ringing . These bells are now hung in the south @-@ west tower , although some were originally hung in the central tower .
= = Library = =
The library is above the eastern cloister and was built between 1430 and 1508 . Its collection is in three parts : early documents , housed in the Muniment Room ; the collection predating 1800 , housed in the Chained Library ; and the post @-@ 1800 collection , housed in the Reading Room . The chapter 's earlier collection was destroyed during the Reformation , so that the present library consists chiefly of early printed books , rather than medieval manuscripts . The earlier books , in the Chained Library , number 2 @,@ 800 volumes and give an indication of the variety of interests of the members of the cathedral chapter from the Reformation until 1800 . The focus of the collection is predominantly theology but there are volumes on science , medicine , exploration , and languages . Books of particular interest include Pliny 's Natural History printed in 1472 , an Atlas of the World by Abraham Ortelius , printed in 1606 and a set of the works of Aristotle that once belonged to Erasmus . The library is open to the public at appointed times during summer and presents a small exhibition of documents and books .
= = = Original records = = =
Three early registers of the dean and chapter of Wells – the Liber Albus I ( White Book ; R I ) , Liber Albus II ( R III ) and Liber Ruber ( Red Book ; R II , section i ) – were edited by W. H. B. Bird for the Historical Manuscripts Commissioners and published in 1907 . The books comprise , with some repetition , a cartulary of possessions of the cathedral , with grants of land dating back as early as the 8th century , well before the development of hereditary surnames in England ; they also comprise acts of the Dean and Chapter , and surveys of their estates , mostly in Somerset .
= = Precincts = =
The cathedral is situated adjacent to a large lawned area , Cathedral Green , which is approached by three ancient gateways , Brown 's Gatehouse , Penniless Porch and Chain Gate . On the green is the 12th @-@ century Old Deanery , largely rebuilt in the late 15th century by Dean Gunthorpe and remodelled by Dean Bathurst in the late 17th century . No longer the dean 's residence , it is used as offices for the diocese .
To the south of the cathedral is the moated Bishop 's Palace , begun around 1210 by Bishop Jocelin of Wells but dating mostly from the 1230s . In the 15th century Bishop Beckington added the north wing , which is now the bishop 's residence . It was restored and extended by Benjamin Ferrey between 1846 and 1854 .
To the north of the cathedral and connected to it by the Chain Gate is Vicars ' Close , a street planned in the 14th century and claimed to be the oldest purely residential street in Europe , with all but one of its original buildings surviving intact . Buildings in the close include the Vicars Hall and gateway at the south end , and the Vicars Chapel and Library at the north end .
The Liberty of St Andrew was the historic liberty and parish that encompassed the cathedral and the surrounding lands closely associated with it .
= = In the arts and popular culture = =
The English painter J. M. W. Turner visited Wells in 1795 , making sketches of the precinct and a water colour of the west front , now in the Tate gallery . Other artists whose paintings of the cathedral are in national collections are Albert Goodwin , John Syer and Ken Howard .
The cathedral was used as an inspiration for Ken Follett 's novel The Pillars of the Earth and , with a heavily modified central tower , featured as the completed fictional Kingsbridge Cathedral at the end of the 2010 television adaptation of that novel . The interior of the cathedral was used for the Doctor Who episode , ' The Lazarus Experiment ' , while the exterior shots were filmed at Southwark Cathedral .
= Hurricane Fox ( 1952 ) =
Hurricane Fox was the strongest and deadliest tropical cyclone of the below average 1952 Atlantic hurricane season . The seventh tropical storm , sixth Atlantic hurricane , and the third major hurricane of the season , Fox was a small and intense Caribbean storm that developed northwest of Cartagena , Colombia , in the southern Caribbean Sea . It moved steadily northwest , intensifying to a tropical storm on October 21 . The next day , it rapidly strengthened into a hurricane and turned north . The cyclone attained peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) as it struck Cayo Guano del Este off the coast of Cienfuegos . Fox made landfall on Cuba at maximum intensity , producing peak gusts of 170 – 180 mph ( 275 – 290 km / h ) . It weakened over land , but it re @-@ strengthened as it turned east over the Bahamas . On October 26 , it weakened and took an erratic path , dissipating west @-@ southwest of Bermuda on October 28 .
Hurricane Fox was the second most intense hurricane to strike Cuba until Hurricane Michelle in the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season . It was originally believed to have been the second Category 4 hurricane in Cuba prior to the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis . At the time , the cyclone produced the fourth lowest pressure in a landfalling Cuban hurricane ; only the 1917 , 1924 , and 1932 hurricanes were more intense . Hurricane Fox killed at least 40 people across the island , causing severe crop damages in rural areas . The hurricane also ruined 30 percent of the tomato crops on Eleuthera in the Bahamas . Across the archipelago , Fox produced wind gusts in excess of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Total damages reached $ 10 million in Cuba . Fox was the second hurricane to hit land during the season , after Hurricane Able struck South Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 20 , a tropical depression formed in the Caribbean Sea , 170 miles ( 270 km ) northwest of Cartagena , Colombia . Fox is believed to have developed from a low pressure area in the Intertropical Convergence Zone , though it was not operationally detected until October 21 . The system steadily advanced northwest and it gradually intensified . On October 21 , a reconnaissance mission flew into the system , reporting sustained winds in excess of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . At the time , the system is estimated to have strengthened to Tropical Storm Fox . The cyclone continued to deepen , and it reached the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , 120 miles ( 200 km ) southeast of the Swan Islands , Honduras . The hurricane rapidly intensified and turned north on October 23 , strengthening to attain winds which correspond to a modern @-@ day major hurricane , a storm of Category 3 status or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Late on October 24 , the cyclone struck the small island of Cayo Guano del Estes in the Archipelago de los Canarreos , south of Cienfuegos . Maximum sustained winds were near 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , and the island 's weather station recorded a minimum pressure of 934 mbar ( 27 @.@ 59 inHg ) . The cyclone crossed the mainland coast of Cuba west of Cienfuegos , and it weakened as it crossed the island .
Early on October 25 , Hurricane Fox entered the Atlantic Ocean . It crossed central Andros and turned east across the Bahamas . On October 26 , the hurricane briefly re @-@ intensified as it crossed Cat Island . The center became ill @-@ defined , and the cyclone quickly weakened . It turned north and then took an erratic northeast turn as it weakened to a tropical storm on October 27 . The system gained extratropical characteristics as it merged with a polar frontal boundary , and it dissipated west @-@ southwest of Bermuda on October 28 .
= = Preparations = =
Advisories , along with coordination between the National Observatory at Havana and U.S. Weather Bureau , were credited for the reduced deaths in Cuba . Weather observations were also readily available from Cuban meteorological stations . On October 25 , the cyclone 's hurricane force winds were expected to remain off the Florida east coast , although gale @-@ force winds were anticipated from the Florida Keys to Palm Beach , Florida . Accordingly , storm warnings were issued from Key West , Florida to Vero Beach , Florida . Military aircraft were transported to safer locations , while watercraft were stored in harbors and rivers . Hotels and resorts were boarded up on the barrier islands . The Bahamas received warnings well in advance of the hurricane . The hurricane turned quickly to the east , which reduced the threat to Bimini , Cat Cay , Grand Bahama , and the Abaco Islands .
= = Impact = =
An aircraft flight into the storm experienced severe turbulence , and wind driven rain reportedly stripped paint from the plane 's surfaces .
As a result of the storm , 70 people were injured in Cuba . Severe damage to properties and crops occurred in rural areas . In Zulueta , 30 structures were destroyed , while a Japanese freighter was washed ashore on the reefs near Cayo Breton . The crew survived , though another ship was disabled during the storm . The fringes of the storm produced heavy rainfall in Cuba , flooding low areas and causing several rivers to overflow their banks . Strong winds uprooted large trees in Santa Isabel , and winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) were reported in the city of Cienfuegos . In Aguada de Pasajeros , 600 buildings were demolished , while 36 of 261 sugar mills across the island were damaged by Hurricane Fox . In all , Hurricane Fox killed 40 people in Cuba and caused $ 10 million in damages .
The cyclone produced peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) in Nassau , Bahamas , causing no reported damage . Crops were damaged by high winds and heavy precipitation on Eleuthera . About 30 percent of the tomato crops were destroyed during the storm . A man who attempted to secretly seed and weaken the storm was missing and presumed dead after his plane disappeared off Miami , Florida . Multiple searches by the Coast Guard were unsuccessful .
In the early 1950s , Atlantic tropical cyclones were named via the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet . Hurricane Fox of 1952 was the final Atlantic tropical cyclone to be designated with this naming system , and a female list of tropical cyclone names was utilized in the 1953 Atlantic hurricane season . After the stronger 1917 Pinar del Río hurricane , Hurricane Fox was Cuba 's second most intense landfall until Hurricane Michelle struck the island in 2001 . Originally , the 1917 hurricane was believed to have been a Category 3 hurricane prior to the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis , which made Fox the second Category 4 landfall after the 1932 Cuba Hurricane . At the time , Fox was the fourth most intense hurricane to strike Cuba in terms of atmospheric pressure ; only the 1917 , 1924 , and 1932 storms were stronger at one point in their life spans .
= Albert Stanley , 1st Baron Ashfield =
Albert Henry Stanley , 1st Baron Ashfield , PC , TD ( 8 August 1874 – 4 November 1948 ) , born Albert Henry Knattriess , was a British @-@ American businessman who was managing director , then chairman of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) from 1910 to 1933 and chairman of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) from 1933 to 1947 .
Although born in Britain , his early career was in the United States , where at a young age , he held senior positions in the developing tramway systems of Detroit and New Jersey . In 1898 , he served in the United States Navy during the short Spanish – American War .
In 1907 , his management skills led to his recruitment by the UERL , which was struggling through a financial crisis that threatened its existence . He quickly integrated the company 's management and used advertising and public relations to improve profits . As managing director of the UERL from 1910 , he led the take @-@ over of competing underground railway companies and bus and tram operations to form an integrated transport operation known as the Combine .
He was Member of Parliament for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne from December 1916 to January 1920 and was President of the Board of Trade between December 1916 and May 1919 , reorganising the board and establishing specialist departments for various industries . He returned to the UERL and then chaired it and its successor the LPTB during the organisation 's greatest period of expansion between the two World Wars , making it a world @-@ respected organisation considered an exemplar of the best form of public administration .
= = Early life and career in United States = =
Stanley was born on 8 August 1874 , in New Normanton , Derbyshire , England , the son of Henry and Elizabeth Knattriess ( née Twigg ) . His father worked as a coachbuilder for the Pullman Company . In 1880 , the family emigrated to Detroit in the United States , where he worked at Pullman 's main factory . During the 1890s , the family changed its name to " Stanley " .
In 1888 , at the age of 14 , Stanley left school and went to work as an office boy at the Detroit Street Railways Company , which ran a horse @-@ drawn tram system . He continued to study at evening school and worked long hours , often from 7 @.@ 30 am to 10 @.@ 00 pm . His abilities were recognised early and Stanley was given responsibility for scheduling the services and preparing the timetables when he was 17 . Following the expansion and electrification of the tramway , he became General Superintendent of the company in 1894 .
Stanley was a naval reservist and , during the brief Spanish – American War of 1898 , he served in the United States Navy as a landsman in the crew of USS Yosemite alongside many others from Detroit . In 1903 , Stanley moved to New Jersey to become assistant general manager of the street railway department of the Public Service Corporation of New Jersey . The company had been struggling , but Stanley quickly improved its organisation and was promoted to general manager of the department in January 1904 . In January 1907 , he became general manager of the whole corporation , running a network of almost 1 @,@ 000 route miles and 25 @,@ 000 employees .
In 1904 , Stanley married Grace Lowrey ( 1878 – 1962 ) of New York . The couple had two daughters : Marian Stanley ( born 1906 ) and Grace Stanley ( born 1907 ) .
= = Career in Britain = =
= = = Rescue of the Underground Electric Railways Company = = =
On 20 February 1907 , Sir George Gibb , managing director of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) , appointed Stanley as its general manager . The UERL was the holding company of four underground railways in central London . Three of these ( the District Railway , the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway and the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ) were already in operation and the fourth ( the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ) was about to open . The UERL had been established by American financier Charles Yerkes and much of the finance and equipment had been brought from the United States , so Stanley 's experience of managing urban transit systems in that country made him an ideal candidate for the position . The cost of constructing three new lines in just a few years had put the company in a precarious monetary position and income was not sufficient to pay the interest on its loans . Stanley 's responsibility was to restore its finances .
Only recently promoted to general manager of the New Jersey system , Stanley had been reluctant to take the position in London and took it for one year only , provided he would be free to return to America at the end of the year . He told the company 's senior managers that the company was almost bankrupt and got resignation letters from each of them post @-@ dated by six months . Through better integration of the separate companies within the group and by improving advertising and public relations , he was quickly able to turn the fortunes of the company around , while the company 's chairman , Sir Edgar Speyer , renegotiated the debt repayments . In 1908 , Stanley joined the company 's board and , in 1910 , he became the managing director .
With Commercial Manager Frank Pick , Stanley devised a plan to increase passenger numbers : developing the " UNDERGROUND " brand and establishing a joint booking system and co @-@ ordinated fares throughout all of London 's underground railways , including those not controlled by the UERL . In July 1910 , Stanley took the integration of the group further , when he persuaded previously reluctant American investors to approve the merger of the three tube railways into a single company . Further consolidation came with the UERL 's take @-@ over of London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) in 1912 and the Central London Railway and the City and South London Railway on 1 January 1913 . Of London 's underground railways , only the Metropolitan Railway ( and its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway ) and the Waterloo & City Railway remained outside of the Underground Group 's control . The LGOC was the dominant bus operator in the capital and its high profitability ( it paid dividends of 18 per cent compared with Underground Group companies ' dividends of 1 to 3 per cent ) subsidised the rest of the group . Stanley further expanded the group through shareholdings in London United Tramways and Metropolitan Electric Tramways and the foundation of bus builder AEC . The much enlarged group became known as the Combine . On 29 July 1914 , Stanley was knighted in recognition of his services to transport .
Stanley also planned extensions of the existing Underground Group 's lines into new , undeveloped districts beyond the central area to encourage the development of new suburbs and new commuter traffic . The first of the extensions , the Bakerloo line to Queen 's Park and Watford Junction , opened between 1915 and 1917 . The other expansion plans were postponed during World War I.
= = = Government = = =
In 1915 , Stanley was given a wartime role as Director @-@ General of Mechanical Transport at the Ministry of Munitions . In 1916 , he was selected by Prime Minister David Lloyd George to become President of the Board of Trade . Lloyd George had previously promised this role to Sir Max Aitken ( later Lord Beaverbrook ) , Member of Parliament for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . At that time , a member of parliament taking a cabinet post for the first time had to resign and stand for re @-@ election in a by @-@ election . Aitken had made arrangements to do this before Lloyd George decided to appoint Stanley to the position instead . Aitken , a friend of Stanley , was persuaded to continue with the resignation in exchange for a peerage so that Stanley could take his seat . Stanley became President of the Board of Trade and was made a Privy Counsellor on 13 December 1916 . He was elected to parliament unopposed on 23 December 1916 as a Conservative Unionist . At 42 years old he was the youngest member of Lloyd George 's coalition government .
At the 1918 general election , Stanley was opposed by Frederick Lister , the President of the National Federation of Discharged and Demobilized Sailors and Soldiers , in a challenge over the government 's policy on war pensions . With the backing of Beaverbrook , who visited his former constituency to speak on his behalf , Stanley won the election .
Stanley 's achievements in office were mixed . He established various specialist departments to manage output in numerous industries and reorganised the structure of the Board . However , despite previous successes with unions , his negotiations were ineffective . Writing to Leader of the House of Commons and future Prime Minister Andrew Bonar Law in January 1919 , Lloyd George described Stanley as having " all the glibness of Runciman and that is apt to take in innocent persons like you and me ... Stanley , to put it quite bluntly , is a funk , and there is no room for funks in the modern world . " Stanley left the Board of Trade and the government in May 1919 and returned to the UERL .
= = = Return to the Underground = = =
Back at the Underground Group , Stanley returned to his role as managing director and also became its chairman , replacing Lord George Hamilton . In the 1920 New Year Honours , he was created Baron Ashfield , of Southwell in the County of Nottingham , ending his term as an MP . He and Pick reactivated their expansion plans , and one of the most significant periods in the organisation 's history began , subsequently considered to be its heyday and sometimes called its " Golden Age " .
The Central London Railway was extended to Ealing Broadway in 1920 , and the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway was extended to Hendon in 1923 and to Edgware in 1924 . The City and South London Railway was reconstructed with larger diameter tunnels to take modern trains between 1922 and 1924 and extended to Morden in 1926 . In addition , a programme of modernising many of the Underground 's busiest central London stations was started ; providing them with escalators to replace lifts . New rolling stock was gradually introduced with automatic sliding doors along the length of the carriage instead of manual end gates . By the middle of the 1920s , the organisation had expanded to such an extent that a large , new headquarters building was constructed at 55 Broadway over St. James 's Park station .
Starting in the early 1920s , competition from numerous small bus companies , nicknamed " pirates " because they operated irregular routes and plundered the LGOC 's passengers , eroded the profitability of the Combine 's bus operations and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole group . Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . As Ashfield had done with shareholders in 1910 over the consolidation of the three UERL controlled tube lines , he used his persuasiveness to obtain their agreements to the government buy @-@ out of their stock .
I have read this bill carefully , and I beg you to accept that I know what I am talking about . You cannot conceive I would be guilty of such folly as to suggest to you in a matter in which my whole life has been wrapped , that you should transfer your interests to a board subject to political interference , that could play ducks and drakes with your investments . Acts of Parliament are not treated like scraps of paper . They are scrupulously observed by all parties . I have promised the Minister my support . You may fail to support me , but in that event you will have to find somebody else to manage your undertakings . I have pledged my word and I am not going back on it .
The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . Ashfield served as the organisation 's chairman from its establishment in 1933 on an annual salary of £ 12 @,@ 500 ( approximately £ 600 @,@ 000 today ) , with Pick as Chief Executive .
The opening of extensions of the Piccadilly line to Uxbridge , Hounslow and Cockfosters followed in 1933 . On the Metropolitan Railway , Ashfield and Pick instigated a rationalisation of services . The barely used and loss @-@ making Brill and Verney Junction branches beyond Aylesbury were closed in 1935 and 1936 . Freight services were reduced and electrification of the remaining steam operated sections of the line was planned . In 1935 , the availability of government @-@ backed loans to stimulate the flagging economy allowed Ashfield and Pick to promote system @-@ wide improvements under the New Works Programme for 1935 – 1940 , including the transfer of the Metropolitan line 's Stanmore services to the Bakerloo line in 1939 , the Northern line 's Northern Heights project and extension of the Central line to Ongar and Denham .
Following a reorganisation of public transportation by the Labour government of Clement Attlee , the LPTB was scheduled to be nationalised along with the majority of British railway , bus , road haulage and waterway concerns from 1 January 1948 . In advance of this , Ashfield resigned from the LPTB at the end of October 1947 and joined the board of the new British Transport Commission which was to operate all of the nationalised public transport systems . At nationalisation , the LPTB was to be abolished and replaced by the London Transport Executive . Lord Latham , a member of the LPTB and the incoming chairman of the new organisation , acted as temporary chairman for the last two months of the LPTB 's existence .
= = = Other activities = = =
In addition to his management of London Underground and brief political career , Ashfield held many directorships in transport undertakings and industry . He helped establish the Institute of Transport in 1919 / 20 and was one of its first presidents . He was a director of the Mexican Railway Company and two railway companies in Cuba and a member of the 1931 Royal Commission on Railways and Transportation in Canada . He was one of two government directors of the British Dyestuffs Corporation , its chairman from 1924 and was involved in the creation of Imperial Chemical Industries in 1926 , of which he was subsequently a non @-@ executive director . Ashfield was a director of the Midland Bank , Amalgamated Anthracite Collieries and chairman of Albany Ward Theatres , Associated Provincial Picture Houses , and Provincial Cinematograph Theatres .
During World War I , he was Colonel of the Territorial Force Engineer and Railway Staff Corps and was Honorary Colonel of the Royal Artillery 's 84th Light Anti Aircraft Regiment during World War II .
= = Personality = =
Biographers of Stanley characterise him as having an " immensely active mind , and a strong sense of public duty " and a " great charm of manner and a sense of humour which concealed an almost ruthless determination " that made him a " formidable negotiator " . His " intuitive understanding of his fellow men " gave him " presence , which allowed him to dominate meetings effortlessly " and " inspired loyalty , devotion even , among his staff " . He was " a dapper ladies ' man , something of a playboy tycoon , who was always smartly turned out and enjoyed moving in high society " .
= = Legacy = =
Ashfield died on 4 November 1948 at 31 Queen 's Gate , South Kensington . During his near forty @-@ year tenure as managing director and chairman of the Underground Group and the LPTB , Ashfield oversaw the transformation of a collection of unconnected , competing railway , bus and tram companies , some in severe financial difficulties , into a coherent and well managed transport organisation , internationally respected for its technical expertise and design style . Transport historian Christian Wolmar considers it " almost impossible to exaggerate the high regard in which LT was held during its all too brief heyday , attracting official visitors from around the world eager to learn the lessons of its success and apply them in their own countries . " " It represented the apogee of a type of confident public administration ... with a reputation that any state organisation today would envy ... only made possible by the brilliance of its two famous leaders , Ashfield and Pick . "
A memorial to Ashfield was erected at 55 Broadway in 1950 and a blue plaque was placed at his home , 43 South Street , Mayfair in 1984 . A large office building at London Underground 's Lillie Bridge Depot is named Ashfield House in his honour . It stands to the south of the District line tracks a short distance to the east of West Kensington station and is also visible from West Cromwell Road ( A4 ) .
= Mercury @-@ Atlas 8 =
Mercury @-@ Atlas 8 ( MA @-@ 8 ) was the fifth United States manned space mission , part of NASA 's Mercury program . Astronaut Walter M. Schirra , Jr . , orbited the Earth six times in the Sigma 7 spacecraft on October 3 , 1962 , in a nine @-@ hour flight focused mainly on technical evaluation rather than on scientific experimentation . This was the longest U.S. manned orbital flight yet achieved in the Space Race , though well behind the several @-@ day record set by the Soviet Vostok 3 earlier in the year . It confirmed the Mercury spacecraft 's durability ahead of the one @-@ day Mercury @-@ Atlas 9 mission that followed in 1963 .
Planning began for the third U.S. orbital mission in February 1962 , aiming for a six @-@ or @-@ seven @-@ orbit flight to build on the previous three @-@ orbit missions . NASA officially announced the mission on June 27 , and the flight plan was finalized in late July . The mission focused on engineering tests rather than on scientific experimentation . The mission finally launched on the morning of October 3 , having been delayed two weeks because of problems with the Atlas booster . A series of minor booster problems during launch and a faulty temperature controller in Schirra 's pressure suit were the only technical problems noted during the flight . The spacecraft orbited in both automated and passive flight modes for prolonged periods while the pilot monitored it and carried out some minor scientific experiments . After six orbits , the capsule landed in the Pacific Ocean half a mile from the recovery carrier , and was hoisted aboard for Schirra to disembark .
The scientific results of the mission were mixed . The astronaut returned healthy after nine hours of confinement in a low @-@ gravity environment . Observation of the Earth 's surface proved unproductive , however , because of heavy cloud cover and bad photographic exposures . The public and political reaction was muted compared with that of earlier missions , as the Cuban Missile Crisis soon eclipsed the Space Race in the news . The mission was a technical success : all the engineering objectives were completed without significant malfunctions , and the spacecraft used even less fuel than expected . This confirmed the capabilities of the Mercury spacecraft and allowed NASA to plan with confidence for a day @-@ long flight , MA @-@ 9 , which had been an early goal of the Mercury program .
= = Crew = =
= = = Backup crew = = =
= = Mission parameters = =
Mass : 1 @,@ 964 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 330 lb )
Perigee : 156 km
Apogee : 285 km
Inclination : 32 @.@ 5 °
Period : 88 @.@ 91 min
= = Background = =
By 1962 , both the United States and the Soviet Union had flown two solo spaceflights in the Space Race . There was a widespread perception , however , that the United States was falling behind ; its two missions had been suborbital and had lasted only a few minutes . The Soviet missions had both orbited the Earth , and the second , Vostok 2 , had remained in orbit for a full day . Using the new high @-@ powered Atlas booster , the coming orbital Mercury missions were expected to reduce the gap between the two countries .
NASA announced the first two orbital missions at the end of November 1961 , shortly after the Mercury @-@ Atlas 5 ( MA @-@ 5 ) test flight , which had carried a chimpanzee and twice orbited the Earth . MA @-@ 6 was planned as the first orbital flight , with John Glenn as the primary crew and Scott Carpenter as his backup . The follow @-@ up mission , MA @-@ 7 was to be crewed by Deke Slayton , with Wally Schirra as his backup . In February 1962 , the first draft planning began for MA @-@ 8 , the third orbital mission , with a goal of " six or seven " orbits , as an intermediate step towards a day @-@ long 18 @-@ orbit flight . The decision to move to six orbits rather than seven was driven by the mission rules on contingency recovery operations ; a seventh orbit would have required significant additional recovery forces to be able to reach the capsule anywhere on its trajectory within eighteen hours . The six @-@ orbit profile had other effects on the recovery plans ; the optimum recovery point was moved to the Pacific Ocean , rather than the Atlantic .
On March 15 , 1962 , NASA announced that Slayton was medically unfit and would be replaced by Scott Carpenter as the prime crew for the MA @-@ 7 mission . The decision to replace him with Carpenter , rather than his official backup Schirra , was justified by the large amount of training Carpenter had managed while preparing for the long @-@ delayed MA @-@ 6 mission . After the success of the MA @-@ 6 and MA @-@ 7 missions , both of three orbits , pressure began to mount to fly an extended mission . On June 27 , 1962 , NASA first announced its plan for the upcoming MA @-@ 8 mission , which would last for " as many as six " orbits . Schirra was named as the prime crew for MA @-@ 8 , with Gordon Cooper as his backup , repeating the backup @-@ one fly @-@ one pattern set by the previous two missions . The pattern would be repeated for MA @-@ 9 , flown by Cooper , and the planned but cancelled MA @-@ 10 , which would have been flown by Cooper 's backup , Alan Shepard .
The Soviet Union had not flown any further flights by the time MA @-@ 7 landed , putting both sides of the Space Race even at two orbital flights each . While the Soviets had flown for longer , the Mercury program was gaining momentum , with a six @-@ orbit mission currently planned and press speculation about a one @-@ day mission . However , in mid @-@ August , the Soviet Union launched two orbital missions , Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 , within a day of each other . The two craft were in intersecting orbits , but despite much speculation did not attempt to rendezvous ; they completed missions of 64 and 48 orbits respectively , just under four and three days , landing within a few minutes of each other on August 15 . This was far ahead of anything currently planned for Mercury , and NASA quickly considered the prospect of modifying a capsule to have an active manoeuvring and rendezvous capability , using technology being developed for the Gemini program . However , after examining the time and safety implications of this proposal , it was decided to abandon the idea and continue with the planned six @-@ orbit mission .
= = = Mission objectives = = =
The original MA @-@ 8 flight plan was issued on July 27 ; although it was revised slightly in August and September , it remained broadly unchanged until launch . This was an improvement on the situation with MA @-@ 7 , which had had frequent and extensive alterations , making it difficult for the pilot to train efficiently . The aim was for the flight to be an engineering @-@ oriented mission , focusing on the operation of the spacecraft rather than on scientific experimentation , to help pave the way for a future long @-@ duration mission . Schirra chose the name Sigma 7 for the capsule in reflection of this focus. using the mathematical symbol for summation as appropriate for an " engineering evaluation " , and the " 7 " to refer to the seven Mercury astronauts .
The mission objectives involved evaluating the performance of the spacecraft over six orbits , as well as the effect of prolonged microgravity on the pilot . The specific spacecraft systems would also be evaluated and tested , and the worldwide tracking and communications network would be tested to see how well it would stand up in an extended mission . The flight control experiments included manually turning the spacecraft around , yaw and pitch manoeuvres to determine how easy it was to control the spacecraft attitude , realignment of the onboard gyroscopes in flight , and leaving the spacecraft to drift on @-@ orbit .
Four non @-@ engineering scientific experiments were planned , two requiring the active involvement of the astronaut and two completely passive . The first involved the astronaut watching for four high @-@ powered flares while passing over Woomera , Australia , and for a xenon arc lamp while passing over Durban , South Africa . The second involved two sets of photographs to be taken using a 70mm Hasselblad camera as well as conventional color photographs of the Earth from orbit . Focusing on geological features and cloud patterns , photographs were to be taken through a set of colored filters provided by the U. S. Weather Bureau . The latter were intended to help calibrate the spectral reflectivity of clouds and surface features , which in turn would help improve the cameras on future weather satellites . The passive experimentation packages were two sets of radiation @-@ sensitive photographic films , from the Goddard Space Flight Center and the U. S. Navy School of Aviation Medicine , and a set of eight different experimental ablative materials attached to the outside of the spacecraft to test their performance during re @-@ entry .
= = = Spacecraft modifications = = =
The spacecraft and booster were almost identical to those used on the two preceding Mercury orbital flights . The spacecraft had heating blankets removed from the retrorocket motors , to save weight , and a SOFAR bomb was added . This would be ejected at the time the main parachute was deployed , and would help recovery crews find the spacecraft after it landed . A number of modifications were made to the reaction control system , and the communications equipment was upgraded .
The Atlas booster had been modified since the previous flight , and now included baffled fuel injectors and a new hypergolic fuel igniter instead of the original pyrotechnic igniter . This would completely eliminate problems with combustion instability and allow the booster to be released immediately upon attaining full thrust instead of being held on the pad for a few moments .
= = Mission preparation = =
The capsule built for the mission , Mercury Spacecraft No. 16 , had been delivered to Cape Canaveral on January 16 , 1962 . The Atlas LV @-@ 3B booster assigned to the mission , No. 113 @-@ D , was accepted by NASA at the Convair plant on July 27 and delivered on August 8 . In late July , the launch date was set for September 18 , but delays with the Atlas booster 's delivery and a series of technical concerns with the safety of the rocket motors caused it to be pushed back several weeks . Some of this had to do with the modified propulsion system , but also concern over Atlas ICBM tests earlier in the year . There had been no Atlas failures caused by the turbopumps for almost three years , but in late 1961 @-@ early 1962 , two static firing tests experienced pump failure and explosion of the engine , followed by an Atlas missile in April 1962 that exploded almost immediately at liftoff due to a failure of the sustainer turbopump . Analysis of these incidents failed to locate any specific cause for the pump explosions , but all of them occurred when running untested hardware modifications and during movement of the sustainer inlet valve to the flight @-@ ready open position . It was thus decided to give MA @-@ 8 's booster a thorough checkout before it could be deemed flight @-@ worthy . On September 6 , the tests were scheduled to continue until September 24 , which allowed for a probable launch on October 3 . A static firing test on the pad would expose the sustainer turbopump to the failure mode in question . This was carried out on September 8 and the booster reported as ready for assembly on September 18 .
Concerns had been raised that the radiation belt produced in orbit by the recent Operation Dominic nuclear tests would be dangerous to manned space missions , but an extensive study announced in early September declared that it was safe to fly . While the outside of the capsule was expected to receive a dosage of around 500 röntgens , the study concluded that shielding and the effect of the spacecraft structure would reduce this to around 8 röntgens experienced by the astronaut , well within established tolerance limits .
Schirra began training for the mission in early July , logging 29 hours in simulators as well as 31 hours in the spacecraft itself . This included multiple systems tests and three simulated flights , culminating in a six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour simulated flight on September 29 , with the spacecraft and booster fully stacked on the pad . Highlights of the training period included a visit from President John F. Kennedy on September 11 .
The mission was reported as ready to go — " except for the weather " — on October 1 . The major concern with the weather was a major tropical storm in the Atlantic , though there were also worries over a series of typhoons in the Pacific which could pose a problem for recovery operations . On the evening of October 2 , the decision was taken to launch the next morning .
= = Launch = =
Schirra was awakened at 1 : 40 am ET on the morning of October 3 , and after a hearty breakfast — including a bluefish he had speared the day before — and a brief physical he left for the launchpad at around 4 am . He entered the spacecraft at 4 : 41 am ET , where he found a steak sandwich left for him in the ' glove compartment ' , and began the pre @-@ launch checks . The launch countdown proceeded as planned until 6 : 15 , when there was a 15 @-@ minute hold to allow the Canary Islands tracking station to repair a radar set . The countdown resumed at 6 : 30 and proceeded to booster ignition with no further delays . Liftoff proceeded smoothly , but there was a momentary clockwise roll transient at liftoff , which reached 7 @.@ 83 ° per second and approached 80 % of the required threshold to trigger the ASIS abort system . This was later identified as being due to a slight misalignment of the main engines and was kept under control by the booster 's vernier thrusters .
Around three and a half minutes into the flight , Deke Slayton , the capsule communicator , cut in to ask Schirra " Are you a turtle today ? " Schirra , nonplussed , announced that he was switching to the on @-@ board voice recorder ( rather than the broadcast radio circuit ) to leave his answer ; the mission communications transcript noted this as " [ correct answer recorded ] " . The " turtle club " was a recurrent joke among the astronaut corps ; on being challenged with this question , the correct response was " you bet your sweet ass I am " , with a failure to give the password being punishable by buying a round of drinks . Schirra noted later that he " wasn 't ready for all the world to hear it " , and chose to use the on @-@ board recorder to avoid saying the answer over the air .
Because the Atlas was flying on a slightly lofted trajectory , the booster engines cut off 2 seconds earlier than planned , but the sustainer engine burned for about 10 seconds longer than intended , giving an extra 15 feet per second ( 4 @.@ 6 m / s ) of velocity and putting the spacecraft in a slightly higher orbit than planned . Initial analysis of the trajectory confirmed that the capsule could remain in a stable orbit for at least seven orbits , ensuring there would be no need for an early de @-@ orbit .
= = Orbital activities = =
After separating from the Atlas booster , Schirra stabilized the spacecraft and slowly cartwheeled into the correct attitude ; he deliberately kept the motion slow to conserve fuel , and was able to position the capsule using half a percent of his fuel reserves . He briefly tracked the spent booster , which was rotating slowly past , but made no attempt to move towards it . As the spacecraft moved across the Atlantic , he turned his attention to testing manual control of the spacecraft , which he found sloppy compared to the fly @-@ by @-@ wire system .
Crossing over the eastern coast of Africa , he began to feel overheated ; this problem was also apparent to the ground controllers , who were having a debate with the flight surgeon over whether it was safe to continue or if the mission should be ended after the first orbit . The flight director , Christopher Kraft , followed the surgeon 's advice to see if the problem would settle , and gave the go for a second orbit . Schirra eventually stabilized the problem over time , slowly dialing the suit 's control knob to a high cooling setting ; he compared the heat to that of " mowing a lawn in Texas " .
Over Australia , Schirra watched for a flare launched from the ground , but it was occluded by clouds ; he , was however , able to see lightning and the lit outline of Brisbane . Through the night pass over the Pacific , he tested the capsule 's on @-@ board periscope , though he found it difficult to use and quickly covered it up as soon as the sun rose . Crossing over Mexico , he reported that he was in " chimp configuration " , with the capsule running entirely on automatic without any input from the pilot , and as he began his second orbit began testing a yaw maneuver using the Earth through the main window as a reference , rather than via the much @-@ maligned periscope .
On the second orbit , he confirmed the existence of Glenn 's " fireflies " , the shower of small bright particles first reported on MA @-@ 6 , and during the night section practiced yaw manoeuvres using first the Moon and then known stars as reference points . The second proved difficult to work with , as the small windows of the Mercury capsule gave a very limited field of view , making it hard to identify constellations . Travelling across the Pacific , he again fell back into automatic flight , chatting with Gus Grissom at the Hawaiian tracking station about the qualities of the manual control system .
As he began the third orbit , Schirra disconnected the spacecraft 's gyroscopes , turned off part of the electrical power system , and let the capsule drift . He took advantage of this quiet period to test his spatial awareness and motor control , which he found was broadly unaffected by weightlessness , and to eat a light meal . He powered the spacecraft back up over the Indian Ocean , and continued over the Pacific . At Hawaii , he was given clearance for a full six @-@ orbit mission , and as he crossed over towards California shut down the electrical power for a second period of drifting flight , during which he occupied himself taking photographs with the onboard camera .
On the fourth orbit , drifting in an inverted spacecraft with the Earth ' above ' him , Schirra continued his photography and attempted — unsuccessfully — to spot the Echo 1 satellite while passing over East Africa . As he approached California , he spoke briefly to John Glenn in a two @-@ minute conversation broadcast live across the United States on radio and television . Problems began to recur with the pressure suit , with water condensing on the faceplate ; Schirra , concerned about the internal temperature , avoided opening the visor to clean it for fear that the suit temperature would misbehave again .
By the fifth orbit , Schirra had begun to relax , commenting that it was the first rest he had had since December 1961 . He used a small bungee cord exercise device for " a little bit of stretching " , before dropping into manual attitude control , where he reported a sudden burst of oversteering and high fuel use . Over the Atlantic he returned to observation and photography ; he failed to spot the planned high @-@ power light near Durban , in South Africa , due to cloud cover , but did make out the brightly lit city of Port Elizabeth . Over the Philippines , he reported on his fuel status ; after four and a half of the planned six orbits , he still had eighty percent remaining in both manual and automatic fuel tanks . Passing over Quito , Ecuador , towards the end of his fifth orbit , Schirra was asked by the tracking station if he had any message to pass on " in Spanish to the fellows down here " , and he made some comments on how beautiful the country appeared from orbit , ending with a cheery " Buenos Dias , y 'all ! " Schirra later noted that he was " furious " at this point — he was preparing for re @-@ entry and didn 't want to be distracted with making public statements .
The sixth orbit was dominated by preparations for re @-@ entry , though Schirra was able to take a last set of photographs of South America and try another set of spatial @-@ orientation tests . He armed the retrorockets passing over the western Pacific , and fired the first one at 8 : 52 mission elapsed time . The automatic control system held the capsule " steady as a rock " during this period , though after the retrorockets had stopped firing Schirra noted that the system had burned almost a quarter of its fuel in the process .
= = Reentry and recovery = =
As the spacecraft continued towards re @-@ entry after the de @-@ orbit burn , Schirra used the high @-@ power thrusters to put the capsule in the correct orientation , noting that the attitude control felt " sloppy " . He then enabled the rate stabilization control system , an automatic control method which used up fuel at a very high rate , to maintain control during re @-@ entry ; this was a specific engineering request , and it dismayed Schirra to see the fuel he had husbanded for six orbits be used so quickly .
The local recovery group in the prime target area , in the central Pacific , consisted of an aircraft carrier , USS Kearsarge , in the center of the landing area , with three destroyers strung out along the orbital path . Four search aircraft were also assigned to the area , and three recovery helicopters were based aboard Kearsarge .
Kearsarge picked up the capsule on radar while still 200 miles ( 320 km ) from landing ; 90 miles ( 140 km ) further up the landing path , the destroyer USS Renshaw reported a sonic boom as it passed overhead . At 40 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) , Schirra deployed the drogue parachute , and then the main parachute at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . The landing was surprisingly precise , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) from the target point and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from Kearsarge , and Schirra joked that he was on course for the recovery carrier 's " number three elevator " . The capsule hit the water , sank and bobbed to the surface again , righting itself after about 30 seconds . Three pararescue swimmers were dropped by one of the helicopters to help him climb out , but Schirra radioed that he would prefer to be towed to the carrier , and a whaleboat from Kearsarge was sent with a line .
Forty minutes after landing , Sigma 7 was hoisted aboard Kearsarge ; five minutes later , Schirra blew the explosive hatch and climbed out to a waiting crowd . After doing this , examinations showed clear bruising on his hand from operating the heavy ejector switch , which he felt provided an important vindication for fellow pilot Gus Grissom 's hatch expulsion accident during the Liberty Bell 7 mission . Grissom had maintained that the hatch blew without his input ; the fact that he had no bruising was seen as evidence that he had not blown the hatch early and sunk his capsule , but that it was a mechanical malfunction . Schirra remained aboard for three days of medical tests and debriefing before disembarking , while the spacecraft was offloaded at Midway Island and transferred to an aircraft for further transport . It was returned to Cape Canaveral for analysis , with the long @-@ term intention of putting it on permanent display .
The spent Atlas booster re @-@ entered the atmosphere on October 4 , the day after the launch , and burned up . After display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center and Johnson Space Center , the capsule is currently displayed at the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame near Titusville , Florida .
= = Post @-@ flight = =
The post @-@ flight analysis reported no major malfunctions — the only troublesome anomaly being the suit temperature controls — and all the engineering objectives of the mission were deemed successfully completed . The fuel @-@ conservation measures were found to have worked particularly well , with even less fuel than anticipated being consumed ; despite the technical changes , the official report gave full credit for this to the pilot . The medical analysis found no significant physiological effects from nine hours of weightlessness , and noted that Schirra had received no significant radiation exposure . Analysis of the radiation @-@ sensitive plates confirmed that there had been a very low radioactive flux inside the spacecraft , and the six ablative materials tested were all deemed broadly satisfactory despite some difficulty comparing them to each other .
Scientifically , the light @-@ observation experiments were unsuccessful , as both target locations were covered by thick cloud cover . However , Schirra was able to view lightning near Woomera , and noted
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s back @-@ story . On Destiny Islands , the player meets younger versions of Tidus and Wakka from Final Fantasy X and Selphie from Final Fantasy VIII . In Traverse Town , the player encounters Squall Leonhart ( known in the game as " Leon " ) from Final Fantasy VIII as well as Aerith , Cid , and Yuffie from Final Fantasy VII . Rikku from Final Fantasy X was originally set to appear , but was replaced by Yuffie . Cloud and Sephiroth , both from Final Fantasy VII , make appearances in Olympus Coliseum , where the player can fight them in tournaments . The emphasis on characters from later Final Fantasy installments stems from Nomura 's hesitation to use characters he did not design . The game also uses other Final Fantasy icons such as the Moogles who mediate item synthesis .
= = = Story = = =
Kingdom Hearts begins on the Destiny Islands , where Sora , Riku and Kairi live . The three friends want to leave the islands to explore new worlds and have prepared a raft for this purpose . One night , the islands are attacked by the Heartless , and Riku and Kairi disappear . At the same time , Sora obtains the Keyblade , a weapon effective against the Heartless . However , the islands are destroyed and Sora drifts into space . Meanwhile , King Mickey has left his own world to deal with the increasing number of Heartless , and leaving instructions for Donald and Goofy to find the " key " that will protect the worlds from the encroaching darkness .
Donald and Goofy use the Gummi Ship to reach Traverse Town , where Sora has drifted . After Sora meets Donald and Goofy , the three decide to travel together — Donald and Goofy to find King Mickey , and Sora to find Kairi and Riku . The three go to various Disney @-@ inspired worlds , finding that the Keyblade also locks " Keyholes " in the worlds that , when sealed , prevent the " heart " of those worlds from being consumed by the Heartless . Meanwhile , a group of Disney villains led by Maleficent seeks out the seven Princesses of Heart to unlock the final keyhole that leads to " Kingdom Hearts " , a repository of knowledge and power and the source of all hearts . This group includes Riku , whom Maleficent convinces has been abandoned by Sora for new friends and the Keyblade , and promises that she will help him find Kairi in exchange for his support . An increasingly antagonistic Riku finds Kairi 's body , but cannot find her heart .
Sora and his friends eventually arrive at Maleficent 's headquarters in Hollow Bastion . Riku takes the Keyblade from Sora , claiming to be the Keyblade 's intended wielder , and that Sora only received it in his absence . Donald and Goofy , having been explicitly ordered to follow the " key " , reluctantly leave Sora for Riku . Sora challenges Riku , stating that his heart derives strength from his friends ; his friends return to him , as does the Keyblade . After the three defeat Maleficent , Sora finds Kairi 's body and confronts Riku , who has become possessed by Ansem , a figure who has been manipulating Maleficent and the Heartless from the beginning . Ansem explains that Kairi is a Princess of Heart , and that her heart has been hiding within Sora 's body since Destiny Islands was destroyed . After defeating the possessed Riku , Sora impales himself with Ansem 's Keyblade , which is designed to unlock hearts , releasing both his and Kairi 's heart . Kairi 's heart returns to her body , in turn completing the final Keyhole , while Sora becomes a Heartless . Kairi recognizes Sora 's Heartless and the light in her heart restores him to human form .
Sora , Donald and Goofy battle Ansem outside the door to Kingdom Hearts , which Ansem believes to be the ultimate reservoir of darkness . Upon opening the door , however , it reveals its light , overwhelming and destroying Ansem . Beyond the door are King Mickey and Riku , and they help Sora and the others close the door , as there are many Heartless beyond it . Mickey and Sora use their Keyblades to lock the door . The worlds lost to the Heartless reconstruct themselves ; as the Destiny Islands reform , Kairi returns there while Sora is forced to part with her . The game concludes as Sora , Donald , and Goofy resolve to find Riku and Mickey .
= = Development = =
The initial idea for Kingdom Hearts began with a discussion between Shinji Hashimoto and Hironobu Sakaguchi about Super Mario 64 . They were planning to make a game with freedom of movement in three dimensions like Super Mario 64 but lamented that only characters as popular as Disney 's could rival a Mario game . Tetsuya Nomura , overhearing their conversation , volunteered to lead the project and the two producers agreed to let him direct . A chance meeting between Hashimoto and a Disney executive in an elevator — Square and Disney had previously worked in the same building in Japan — allowed Hashimoto to pitch the idea directly to Disney . Nomura struck down a number of proposals from Disney in order to pursue his own concept featuring an original character not based on a Disney property . The production team consisted of over one hundred members from both Square and Disney Interactive . The game began development in February 2000 and originally focused more on the gameplay with a simple story to appeal to Disney 's target age range . After executive producer Hironobu Sakaguchi told director Tetsuya Nomura the game would be a failure if it did not aim for the same level as the Final Fantasy series , Nomura began to develop the story further . When choosing the Disney worlds to include in the game , Nomura and his team tried to pick worlds that had distinctively different looks . They also tried to take into account worlds with Disney characters that would be interesting . Thanks to support from Disney 's then @-@ president and current chairman and chief executive Bob Iger , the team had few restrictions on which worlds they could use from the Disney franchises . However , they tried to remain within each character 's boundaries set by their respective Disney films . In June 2013 , Nomura stated the name of the game came from him thinking about Disney Theme Parks , especially Animal Kingdom . However , Nomura could not get the IP with just Kingdom , so the development team began to think about " heart " as a core part of the story , so they decided to combine the two to form Kingdom Hearts .
Additional content was added to the North American release that was absent in the initial Japanese release : new optional bosses , one of which was named after the winner of the official website 's " Name @-@ In @-@ Game " sweepstakes , an extra difficulty level , and a teaser of Kingdom Hearts II accessible by meeting certain criteria . Nomura included the teaser in order to gauge fan reaction to the possibility of a sequel ; he felt that if the idea was unpopular , then it would be best to leave certain events in the game unexplained . The new content was later added to the Japanese re @-@ release titled Kingdom Hearts Final Mix . Final Mix also included additional content such as new items , cut scenes , and enemies . The new content further hinted at plotlines that would be explained in sequels . Some content omitted from Kingdom Hearts was later added into Kingdom Hearts II . A world based on The Lion King , for instance , was unfeasible because an additional program was required to process movement on four legs — a necessity since Sora would become a lion in that world . Due to time constraints , the developers left out an optional boss battle , similar to the Sephiroth battle , against Tifa Lockhart . She was later included in Kingdom Hearts II as a more developed character .
= = = Audio = = =
= = = = Musical score = = = =
Yoko Shimomura composed and produced the music of Kingdom Hearts . While there are arranged melodies derived from previous Disney films , most of the soundtrack consists of original themes written specifically for the game by Shimomura . The opening orchestration and ending credits theme were arranged and orchestrated by Kaoru Wada and performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra . The main vocal theme for the original Japanese release is titled " Hikari " ( 光 ) . The English version of " Hikari " , " Simple and Clean " , was used in the Western releases and the Japanese re @-@ release , Final Mix . Both versions were composed and performed by Hikaru Utada . Her involvement , along with the Japanese song title , was announced in January 2002 . Utada was the only singer Nomura had in mind for the Kingdom Hearts theme song . This marked the first time Utada had produced a song for a video game . The single , " Hikari " , was released in Japan on March 20 , 2002 and proved to be very popular ; by August 2002 , it had sold over 860 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . The Kingdom Hearts soundtrack was released on a two CD set on March 27 , 2002 in Japan and a year later in the United States . The soundtrack was later included in the Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack Complete , which was released in Japan on March 28 , 2007 . Music from Kingdom Hearts was also included in Shimomura 's best works compilation album Drammatica .
= = = = Voice cast = = = =
Kingdom Hearts featured well @-@ known voice actors for both the Japanese and English versions . The Japanese version featured Miyu Irino as Sora , Risa Uchida as Kairi , and Mamoru Miyano as Riku . Other notable voice actors included Kōichi Yamadera , Hideo Ishikawa , and Maaya Sakamoto . A special effort was made to preserve the official voice actors of characters from the Disney movies used in Kingdom Hearts . Some of the voice actors from the related television series or direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels were chosen over the original voice actors from films , where applicable ( e.g. Dan Castellaneta as Genie , rather than Robin Williams ) . The English version featured Haley Joel Osment as Sora , David Gallagher as Riku , and Hayden Panettiere as Kairi . Other notable voice actors included Billy Zane , Christy Carlson Romano , David Boreanaz , James Woods , and Mandy Moore .
= = = Promotion = = =
Kingdom Hearts was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 2001 . Initial details were that it would be a collaboration between Square and Disney Interactive and would feature worlds developed by both companies and Disney characters . New characters were designed by Nomura and included Sora , Riku , Kairi , and the Heartless . A playable demo was available at the Tokyo Game Show in 2001 . The gameplay of the demo showcased many action role @-@ playing game elements that would be included in the final product . To help market the English release of the game , Square launched the official website in April 2002 , which featured trailers , a " Name @-@ In @-@ Game " sweepstakes , and other Internet content . On May 14 , 2002 , a press release announced a list of the English voice actors . The list included Haley Joel Osment , David Gallagher , and Hayden Panettiere as the three new characters introduced in the game . It also announced that many of the Disney characters would be voiced by the official voice actors from their respective Disney films . Other marketing efforts included auctions of the game and related items before the North American release and a Consumer Demo Day in San Francisco , California .
= = Reception = =
Kingdom Hearts received positive reviews and sales figures . During the first two months of its North American release it was one of the top three highest @-@ selling video games and was among the top selling titles during the 2002 Christmas and holiday season . In November 2002 , UBS Warburg listed it as the 6th highest console game in terms of sales during the week of November 5 . At the end of April 2003 , Square announced that Kingdom Hearts had sold its millionth copy in the United States , which made it eligible for PlayStation 's " Greatest Hits " status , and over 3 @.@ 0 million worldwide . Sales reached 1 @.@ 2 million in Japan in the first quarter of 2004 , and broke 4 @.@ 0 million worldwide . In December 2005 , the NPD Group listed it as " one of the top ten best @-@ selling PlayStation 2 titles of all time in North America " . As of December 2006 , Kingdom Hearts had shipped over 5 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide with 1 @.@ 1 million in PAL regions , 1 @.@ 5 million in Japan , and 3 @.@ 0 million in North America . By October 2013 , the series had sold more than 20 million units worldwide .
= = = Critical response = = =
The game received critical acclaim among reviewers . In IGN 's Best of 2002 awards , it was nominated for " PS2 's Best Game of 2002 Editor 's Choice Award " and was a runner up for " PS2 's Best Game of 2002 Reader 's Choice Award " . In 2007 , the website listed Kingdom Hearts as the 22nd best PlayStation 2 game of all time . Critics commended the visuals , orchestral score , voice acting , and hybrid action @-@ adventure and role @-@ playing feel to the game . IGN named it " Best Art Style / Direction " , runner @-@ up for " Best CG Graphics " , and honorable mention for " Best Animation " in IGN 's 2003 list of " Best Looking Games on PS2 " . GameSpy listed Kingdom Hearts twice in its " Top 25 Video Game Cinematic Moments " . GamePro stated that the graphics were " gorgeous " , giving them high marks . The audio was also praised , particularly the quality of the voice @-@ overs and musical score . GamePro had positive comments on the overall audio and gave that aspect a perfect score .
Criticism about the gameplay was mixed . Many reviews complained that the camera was at times frustrating and the Gummi Ship portions were out of place . GameSpot cited " tedious " gameplay and Gummi Ship sections as " pale imitations of the Star Fox series " , but stated that the combat was fun , particularly the boss fights . Dengeki Online commented on the camera controls , saying that the camera would often run into objects while being rotated by the player . GamePro compared the battle system to " old N64 Zelda games " and had positive comments about Donald and Goofy 's artificial intelligence .
GameSpot commented that the concept of mixing the serious elements of Final Fantasy with the lighter elements of Disney seemed impossible , but was pulled off quite well . Because of that they awarded Kingdom Hearts " Best Crossover Since Capcom vs. SNK " in their 2002 Best and Worst of the Year awards . GameSpy noted that the periodic departure from the main plot into the Disney side stories was disappointing , and when the original plot builds to a climax , " the story fails to gel thanks to a confusing mish @-@ mash of vague terms and symbolism that probably made more sense in the director 's head than in this final product . " Aside from the plot , they stated that the overall package was worth playing through to the end . G4TV awarded it " Best Story " at their 2003 G @-@ Phoria awards show . Fan response was also positive ; Kingdom Hearts was voted as the 19th best game of all @-@ time by readers of the Japanese magazine Famitsu , 16th by the users of website GameFAQs , and 92nd by IGN users . Kingdom Hearts ranked ninth on IGN 's most recent " Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " list . It was also a nominee for the Best Game Award from the CESA Game Awards for 2001 @-@ 2002 .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
Multiple versions of Kingdom Hearts have been released . The first was the original Japanese release , followed by the North American and PAL releases , which includes additional content . The game was later re @-@ released in Japan as Kingdom Hearts Final Mix , which features the content of the North American / PAL release , as well as more new content .
Both Square and Disney also released numerous types of merchandise before and after the release of the game . Merchandise ranged from toys and figurines to clothing items and books . Like the Final Fantasy games , Square released an Ultimania book on Kingdom Hearts in Japan following the release of the game and a revised edition following the release of Final Mix . In North America , a strategy guide was released by Brady Games . It featured a comprehensive walkthrough and a sticker activity journal . A manga series based on the game was released in Japan and the United States . A novel series also based on the game was released in Japan . It was authored by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano . The novel series consists of two volumes and was released in North America on March 25 , 2008 .
= = = Final Mix = = =
Originally released only in Japan , Kingdom Hearts Final Mix has several events and a number of gameplay tweaks that are not in previous releases . Spoken dialogue is in English , with Japanese subtitles . New scenes , clarifying certain plot points , such as Riku 's journey and foreshadowing of Kingdom Hearts II , were included . A gameplay option allows the player to skip cut scenes after seeing them once . The optional bosses first included in the English version were introduced to Japanese players for the first time , along with a new fight against " Unknown Man " , in an attempt to raise interest for the sequel .
In another attempt at foreshadowing , a video titled " Another Side , Another Story 【 deep dive 】 " plays at the ending if the player accomplishes certain tasks . New music tracks incorporated were " Disappeared " and " Another Side " . The " Night on Bald Mountain " and " One @-@ Winged Angel " tracks from the English version were included as well . Other changes include new abilities , new weapons , new items , additional and recolored enemies , and gameplay tweaks to make the game easier for the player , along with two new levels of difficulty . When first released , Final Mix included either a deck of Kingdom Hearts cards or special music CD . A limited " Platinum Edition " version of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was later released with an action figure of Sora , a sticker set , and sketches of some of the main characters .
It was released for the first time in North America , Europe and Australia as part of Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix .
= = = Manga = = =
The game was adapted into a manga by Shiro Amano . The story follows the events that took place in the game with a few minor differences to account for the loss of interactivity a video game provides . Some events that took place in the Final Mix version were also included . The manga was originally serialized in Japan by Enterbrain 's Famitsū PS2 , but has since been released worldwide in four volumes . The volumes have been published in English in the United States by Tokyopop . The first volume was released on October 11 , 2005 , and the fourth volume was released on July 10 , 2006 . The entire series was later released in a boxed set on October 10 , 2006 .
The manga series has had moderate success . The first volume was ranked 95th in USA Today 's " Top 150 best sellers " during the week of its release . IGN praised Amano 's artwork and commented on wanting to replay the game after reading . They criticized the lack of new content and stated the transition from game to print lost most of the story 's appeal . The series was followed by others based on the game 's sequels : Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts II .
= = = HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix = = =
During August 2011 , Nomura expressed desire to release a high definition rerelease of the game though he had yet to confirm such plans . In September 2012 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , a compilation for the PlayStation 3 , that includes both Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories in HD and trophy support . The character models from Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance are being used as a base for the game 's characters . The gameplay of the original Kingdom Hearts was modified to play more like Kingdom Hearts II . Additionally , the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days . It was released in Japan on March 14 , 2013 , in North America on September 10 , 2013 , on September 12 , 2013 for Australia , and September 13 , 2013 for Europe .
In June 2013 , Nomura stated that the original game assets for Kingdom Hearts had been lost some time ago . He explained , " [ The game data ] was lost , so we had to research , and we had to dig out from the actual game what was available and recreate everything for HD . We had to recreate all the graphics and it was actually not that easy . "
= = Sequels = =
Kingdom Hearts was followed by several sequels , becoming the first game in the Kingdom Hearts series . It was followed by a direct sequel , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , on the Nintendo Game Boy Advance , which was released in Japan on November 11 , 2004 . Kingdom Hearts II is the third game in the series , set one year after Chain of Memories , and was released in Japan on December 22 , 2005 for Sony PlayStation 2 . Like the first game it was re @-@ released as Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix alongside a PS2 remake of Chain of Memories . A Kingdom Hearts game was developed exclusively for V CAST , Verizon Wireless 's broadband service , and was released on October 1 , 2004 in Japan and on February 4 , 2005 in the United States . In November 2008 , Kingdom Hearts coded was released for mobile phones in Japan , the game takes place after the events of Kingdom Hearts II . A followup , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , was developed for the Nintendo DS and released in Japan on May 30 , 2009 and in North America on September 29 , 2009 . A prequel was released in Japan on January 9 , 2010 , entitled Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , for the PlayStation Portable , which takes place 10 years before the events of Kingdom Hearts . The following title in the series was Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance for the Nintendo 3DS , released in 2012 . At E3 2013 , Kingdom Hearts III was announced to be in development for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One .
= Phil Edwards ( footballer ) =
Philip Lee " Phil " Edwards ( born 8 November 1985 ) is an English footballer who currently plays for League One side Burton Albion as a defender .
Edwards started his football career at Wigan Athletic , progressing through the club 's youth system before signing a professional contract at the age of 18 . In September 2004 , Edwards joined Morecambe on a month 's loan , playing one game before returning to his parent club . He was loaned out again during the 2005 – 06 season , this time to Accrington Stanley in October 2005 . He subsequently signed for the club permanently in January 2006 , helping the club win the Conference National . He spent five years at Accrington , playing over 250 games for the club in all competitions . In June 2011 , Edwards signed for Stevenage on a free transfer . In March 2012 , Edwards joined Rochdale on loan until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . Edwards was released by Stevenage in May 2012 , and subsequently signed for Rochdale on a permanent basis in August 2012 . After a season of regular first @-@ team football at Rochdale , Edwards signed for Burton Albion in June 2013 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Edwards started his career at Wigan Athletic , signing a professional contract with the club at the age of 18 in 2004 . He was sent out on a one @-@ month loan to Morecambe in September 2004 in order to gain first @-@ team experience . However , Edwards made just one appearance for the club , playing in a 2 – 2 draw away at Northwich Victoria , with Edwards coming on as a substitute in the 36th minute . He returned to Wigan in October 2004 , playing regularly for the reserve side , although he failed to make a first @-@ team appearance for the club .
= = = Accrington Stanley = = =
Edwards signed for Accrington Stanley on loan in October 2005 , making his debut in a 3 – 3 Football League Trophy draw away at Rotherham United . He made his league debut on 29 October 2005 , playing the whole match as Accrington beat York City 2 – 1 at the Crown Ground . During Edwards ' first six games at Accrington , the club had won all six fixtures , conceding just two goals . This form had propelled the club to the top of the Conference National . His loan was later extended until the end of the 2005 – 06 season in November 2005 . In January 2006 , the opportunity arose for Accrington to sign Edwards on a permanent basis , and he signed for the club on a free transfer on 12 January . Edwards was part of the side that clinched promotion to the Football League following a 1 – 0 away victory at Woking in April 2006 , playing the whole match . He played a total of 27 times for Accrington during the club 's successful campaign . Edwards was an unused substitute in Accrington 's first two games back in the Football League , both of which resulted in 2 – 0 defeats . He came on as an 85th @-@ minute substitute in the club 's 2 – 1 home win against Barnet in the following game , Accrington 's first win of the 2006 – 07 season . Edwards started his first game of the season on 9 September 2006 , a 3 – 2 away defeat to Notts County . He started in the club 's next five games , before suffering an injury in a 2 – 2 draw away at Bury , meaning that he missed the next three games . Edwards returned to the first @-@ team on 17 October 2006 , starting in a 1 – 1 draw against Carlisle United in the Football League Trophy . He scored his first ever professional goal in a 3 – 3 home draw with Shrewsbury Town in December 2006 , scoring a header in the 55th minute to restore parity after Accrington were trailing 2 – 1 . Edwards ' last game of the 2006 – 07 season was in a 3 – 2 home win against Macclesfield Town , a win that ultimately secured the club 's Football League status for another year . He played a total of 39 games in all competitions , scoring one goal .
Edwards opted to remain at Accrington ahead of the 2007 – 08 season , signing a contract extension in May 2007 . He played his first game of the campaign in late August 2007 , a 2 – 0 defeat at Lincoln City . Following Accrington 's 4 – 1 home win against Grimsby Town in September 2007 , a game in which Edwards appeared as a 90th @-@ minute substitute , he did not feature in the first @-@ team for two months . He returned to first @-@ team action on 17 November 2007 , playing in the club 's 1 – 0 home defeat to Rotherham United . Following a spate of late substitute appearances , Edwards was ever present in the first @-@ team from December 2007 onwards . He scored his first goal of the 2007 – 08 season on 4 April 2008 , scoring the winner in a 1 – 0 win against Dagenham & Redbridge . The goal all but guaranteed League Two survival for Accrington . It was Edwards ' only goal of the season , playing 32 games in all competitions . Edwards started in Accrington 's first game of the 2008 – 09 season , a 1 – 0 home loss to newly promoted Aldershot Town . In October 2008 , Accrington manager John Coleman praised Edwards for his form during the start of the season , " I couldn 't pay him enough compliments . I think the last six months he has been absolutely magnificent . I am convinced if he was three inches bigger he would be playing in the Premier League . He is our best defender and hopefully he 'll continue to be a great player for us for a long time " . Edwards remained ever present in the Accrington first @-@ team , but was taken off after 17 minutes in Accrington 's 2 – 1 win against Shrewsbury Town . Despite needing eight stitches in his knee , Edwards played in Accrington 's following league match four days later , a 1 – 0 home defeat to Wycombe Wanderers . He provided the assist for Paul Mullin 's goal in a defeat at Wycombe Wanderers , as well as assisting Jamie Clarke 's second goal in a 3 – 1 home win over Grimsby Town . Edwards played in every one of Accrington 's 50 games during the 2008 – 09 season , with the club finishing 16th in the league table .
In June 2009 , Edwards signed a new two @-@ year contract at Accrington . He scored his first goal of the 2009 – 10 season on 22 August 2009 , " bundling " the ball into the net from John Miles ' corner kick in a 3 – 1 loss at Aldershot Town . Ten days later , Edwards doubled his goal tally for the season , scoring a low drilled effort from 14 yards out in Accrington 's 2 – 1 away win at Oldham Athletic in the Football League Trophy . His third goal of the campaign came in a 2 – 2 draw away at Port Vale , with Edwards scoring from the penalty spot in the 82nd minute . He scored another penalty in a 4 – 0 win against Cheltenham Town on 10 October 2009 , and also found the net in a 2 – 2 draw at Grimsby Town to take his goal tally to five for the season . Edwards added to his goal tally when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4 – 2 win against Torquay United on 5 December 2009 . He missed a penalty a week later in Accrington 's game against Notts County , with Kasper Schmeichel saving his penalty , although Accrington went on to win the match 2 – 1 , ending Notts County 's unbeaten home record . He made amends by scoring twice in Accrington 's next league match , a 2 – 1 away win at Morecambe on 26 December 2009 , scoring the first goal with a header and then netting from the penalty spot after Bobby Grant was fouled in the area . Edwards scored in another away victory in March 2010 , scoring a header from Luke Joyce 's corner to give Accrington a 2 – 1 win at Barnet . The goal meant that Edwards had scored nine goals during the 2009 – 10 season , again being ever present in the side , playing all 57 of the club 's matches as Accrington finished in 15th place in League Two .
During the start of the 2010 – 11 season , Edwards was key in Accrington 's strong defensive record , with the team conceding just one goal in their first seven league fixtures . In October 2010 , Edwards scored his first and second goals of the season when he scored twice from the penalty spot in Accrington 's 7 – 4 home win against Gillingham . He scored his third goal of the 2010 – 11 season in a 4 – 2 home defeat to Cheltenham Town , scoring a penalty in the 88th minute , only serving as a consolation with Accrington 4 – 1 down at the time . Three days later , on 2 November 2010 , Edwards scored from the penalty spot again , this time in a 5 – 2 away defeat at eventual champions Chesterfield . His fifth goal of the season came courtesy of a 21st @-@ minute penalty in a 1 – 1 draw at Bradford City , before he scored another goal at Morecambe in a 2 – 1 away win on 1 January 2011 . A month later , on 1 February , Edwards scored yet again against Morecambe , this time in a 1 – 1 home draw , salvaging a point by scoring a late penalty . His eighth goal of the campaign came three weeks later , scoring a header from Charlie Barnett 's cross in the 82nd minute to give Accrington a 2 – 1 away win at Wycombe , their first win in five league matches . Edwards took his goal tally into double figures when he scored two first @-@ half penalties in a 3 – 0 home win against Stockport County on 8 March 2011 . He missed a penalty in a 3 – 1 defeat at Gillingham four days later , before scoring three days later in a 3 – 1 home win against Burton Albion — scoring from six yards out following good work from Terry Gornell . He scored his twelfth goal of the season with an 82nd @-@ minute penalty in a 3 – 1 win against Southend United on 5 April 2011 , moving Accrington into the play @-@ off places in League Two . Three days later , Edwards scored again from the penalty spot , scoring a 79th @-@ minute penalty to give Accrington the lead against ten man Macclesfield Town , although a late goal courtesy of Vinny Mukendi earned Macclesfield a point . Accrington cemented a place in the League Two play @-@ offs after finishing fifth , Edwards played in both of the semi @-@ final matches against Stevenage , which Accrington lost by a 3 – 0 aggregate scoreline . Edwards scored a total of 13 goals from defence in 51 appearances during Accrington 's 2010 – 11 campaign , finishing as Accrington 's joint top goalscorer for the season alongside Terry Gornell and Sean McConville . He was offered a two @-@ year contract extension at the end of the season . Accrington assistant manager Jimmy Bell stated " Phil has been offered a good deal and we 're quietly confident , although there have been a few rumours about one or two clubs being interested . But Phil has been here since he was young , he can 't drive , he gets looked after by the club and he gets lifts in to training , so he feels quite settled here " . Edwards played 257 games for Accrington , scoring 24 goals .
= = = Stevenage = = =
Edwards signed for League One side Stevenage on 27 June 2011 . He joined the club on a free transfer , rejecting a contract extension at Accrington . He signed a one @-@ year deal with Stevenage , with the option of a second year . On joining the club he said " I wasn 't particularly looking for another club and I didn 't have any interest in any other clubs at the time , so I thought I 'd still be at Accrington next season . However , the manager got in touch with my agent and discussed the offer and when I thought I had the chance of playing League One football I decided to sign for Stevenage " . Edwards was assigned the number six shirt ahead of the 2011 – 12 season . He made his Stevenage debut on the first day of the 2011 – 12 season , playing the whole match in a 0 – 0 home draw against Exeter City . Edwards made 13 starting appearances for the club , as well as a further 14 appearances from the substitute 's bench , during the first half of the club 's first ever League One campaign .
= = = Rochdale = = =
Edwards joined Rochdale on loan until the end of the 2011 – 12 season in March 2012 . The move re @-@ united him with manager John Coleman , who had managed Edwards for six years at Accrington Stanley . He made his first appearance for Rochdale a day after signing for the club , on 10 March , coming on as a 61st @-@ minute substitute as Rochdale came back twice to draw 2 – 2 against Huddersfield Town . Edwards made just three appearances for Rochdale during his loan spell due to a knee injury . At the end of the season , Edwards was released by Stevenage when his contract expired , after just one year at the club . He made 27 appearances during his time at Stevenage .
In August 2012 , Edwards signed for Rochdale , plying their trade in League Two , on a free transfer . He signed a one @-@ year deal with the club . Edwards was a regular fixture throughout the 2012 – 13 season , making 48 appearances in all competitions as Rochdale finished the campaign in a mid @-@ table position .
= = = Burton Albion = = =
After his first full season at Rochdale , Edwards opted to leave the club at the end of the campaign , subsequently joining fellow League Two side Burton Albion on a free transfer on 29 June 2013 . On securing Edwards ' signature , Burton manager Gary Rowett stated — " In Phil we have a player who knows what it takes to be successful at this level as well as the league above and he is a very consistent performer . At 27 he 's also at a good age to continue progressing and I 'm sure he 'll prove to be a big asset to the club " .
= = Personal life = =
Edwards is a supporter of Everton .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 29 June 2013 .
= = Honours = =
Accrington Stanley
Conference National ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Burton Albion
Football League Two ( 1 ) : 2014 @-@ 15
= History of British Airways =
British Airways ( BA ) is the flag carrier airline of the United Kingdom . It is the largest airline in the UK based on fleet size , international flights and international destinations . British Airways was considered the largest UK airline by passenger numbers from its creation in 1974 until 2008 , when it was displaced by low @-@ cost rival EasyJet . Since its inception , British Airways has been centred at its main hub at London Heathrow Airport , with a second major hub at London Gatwick Airport .
The British Airways Board was formed in 1971 to control the policy and finances of the two large London @-@ based airline corporations , British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) and British European Airways Corporation ( BEA ) with two much smaller regional airlines , Cambrian Airways and Northeast Airlines . British Airways acquired the supersonic Concorde in 1976 , operating it on transatlantic services . The same year it assumed sole operation of international flights to North America and Southeast Asia from rival British Caledonian . The formation of Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984 began a tense rivalry , which led to " one of the most bitter and protracted libel actions in aviation history " . Under the leadership of Chairman Sir John King and CEO Colin Marshall , British Airways was privatised in February 1987 , almost thirteen years after its formation , and effected the controversial takeover of British Caledonian in July 1987 .
Following privatisation , British Airways entered a period of rapid and unprecedented growth , leading to the use of the slogan " The World 's Favourite Airline " , and dominated its domestic rivals during the early 1990s . Faced with increased competition and higher costs in the mid @-@ 1990s , CEO Bob Ayling led a restructuring effort , leading to trade union clashes ; the carrier also invested in regional European airlines , courted international airline partnerships , and attempted a controversial ethnic livery rebranding campaign . In the early 2000s ( decade ) , CEO Rod Eddington implemented further cost cuts , the retirement of Concorde , and the removal of ethnic liveries . Under Willie Walsh , who became CEO in 2005 , British Airways faced a price @-@ fixing scandal , moved its primary hub to Heathrow Terminal 5 , and experienced threats of industrial action , leading to a strike in March 2010 . On 8 April 2010 , it was confirmed that British Airways and Iberia Airlines had agreed to a merger , forming the International Airlines Group , although BA would continue to operate under its current brand . The combined airline will become the world 's third @-@ largest carrier ( after Delta Air Lines and American Airlines ) in terms of annual revenue .
= = Origins and formation = =
On 31 March 1924 , Britain 's four pioneer airlines that started up in the immediate post war period — Handley Page Transport , British Marine Air Navigation Co Ltd , Daimler Airways and Instone Air Line Ltd — joined together to form Imperial Airways Limited , developing routes throughout the British Empire to India , some parts of Africa and later to Canberra , Australia . Meanwhile , a number of smaller UK air transport companies had begun operating , and by 1935 many of these had merged to form the original privately owned British Airways Ltd . Following a government review , Imperial Airways and British Airways were nationalised in November 1939 to form the British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) .
Post @-@ war , BOAC continued to operate the majority of long @-@ haul services in Britain , other than routes to South America ; these were flown by British South American Airways , which was merged back into BOAC in 1949 . Continental European and domestic flights were flown by a new nationalised airline , British European Airways Corporation ( BEA ) , which compulsorily took over the scheduled services of existing UK independent airlines . On 2 May 1952 , BOAC became the world 's first airline to operate jet airliners ; the inaugural flight with the de Havilland Comet 1 was from London to Johannesburg . However , the Comet 's service introduction was plagued by structural problems and accidents , leading to its withdrawal in 1954 and replacement with the upgraded Comet 4 models in 1958 .
In 1967 the government established a committee of inquiry into Civil Aviation under Sir Ronald Edwards , the Edwards Committee reported in 1969 and one of the recommendations of the Edwards committee was the formation of a National Air Holding Board to control finances and polices of the two corporations . The recommendation was enacted in 1971 with the passing of the Civil Aviation Act 1971 which formed a British Airways Board to control all the activities of BOAC and BEA ; including the newly formed BEA Airtours subsidiary , targeting the emerging package holiday business .
In 1972 the BOAC and BEA managements were combined under the newly formed British Airways Board , with the physical operations of the separate airlines coming together as British Airways on 1 April 1974 , under the guidance of David Nicolson as Chairman of the Board . At the time it was the biggest merger in the aviation industry , creating the world 's largest network of routes for the new unified company to harness . In 1975 , British Airways was headquartered in the Victoria Terminal in London . Its international division was headquartered at the Speedbird House by Heathrow Airport , while its European division was headquartered at Bealine House , Ruislip , Middlesex . The regional division was headquartered in Ruford House , Hounslow .
= = 1970s : Consolidation and Concorde = =
The newly formed British Airways had inherited a mix of aircraft from its predecessors . It quickly retired the Standard VC10s that had come from BOAC and the last Vickers Vanguards from BEA . It also ordered the Hawker Siddeley 748 for use on Scottish routes to enable the Vickers Viscount to be retired . The first Lockheed L @-@ 1011 TriStar was delivered in October 1974 , and introduced in January 1975 ; more TriStars were ordered in following years . The management of British Airways resisted political pressure to purchase the new Airbus A300 , stating that it had no requirement for the aircraft ; this rejection complicated Britain 's integration into the European Union . Instead , the company planned to acquire American @-@ made planes such as the Boeing 757 ; in 1976 the British government approved the purchase of multiple Boeing 737 aircraft . An innovation on 12 January 1975 was the British Airways Shuttle service from Heathrow to Glasgow ( and later Edinburgh , Manchester , and Belfast ) , which allowed a walk @-@ on no reservation service with a " guaranteed seat " — this latter feature facilitated by backup aircraft or sometimes transfers to British Midland flights . From its formation in 1974 , British Airways aeroplanes carried a Union Flag scheme painted on their tail fins .
The Secretary of State for Trade , Peter Shore , reviewed the Government 's aviation policy and in 1976 announced a " spheres of influence " policy that ended dual designation for British airlines on all long @-@ haul routes . British Airways and British Caledonian , the second @-@ biggest airline in Britain , were no longer permitted to run competing scheduled flights on long @-@ haul routes . British Caledonian had to withdraw from East Africa and from the London @-@ New York and London @-@ Los Angeles routes in favour of BA . In return , British Caledonian became the sole British flag carrier to the entire South American mainland , taking over routes formerly served by British Airways to Colombia , Peru and Venezuela .
In 1976 British Airways commenced flying Concorde , making it one of two airlines to own and operate the supersonic Aerospatiale @-@ BAC jetliner . Simultaneously with Air France , BA inaugurated the world 's first supersonic passenger service on 12 January , a daily service between Heathrow and New York becoming one of the airline 's hallmarks . Initially , Concorde was a financial burden , required of the national carrier by the government , and it attracted criticism from the press as a white elephant . Several significant destinations suggested for Concorde , such as Tokyo , Japan , and Sydney , Australia never emerged as viable in reality .
In 1981 , Sir John King , later Lord King , was appointed Chairman of British Airways with the mission of preparing the airline for privatisation . King recognised the prestige that Concorde brought to the airline , purchased them outright from the government , and was turning a profit within a year . According to British Airways ' management the aircraft broke even on flights holding around 40 – 45 % of passenger capacity ; in 1985 the average passenger capacity in use per flight was at 65 % . BA used Concorde to win business customers , guaranteeing a certain number of Concorde upgrades in return for corporate accounts with the airline — a key factor in winning business from transatlantic competitors . Although the carrier did not disclose specific numbers , media reports estimated that the Heathrow to New York service made an annual £ 20 million operating profit by the early 2000s ( decade ) .
= = 1980s : Privatisation and dirty tricks = =
As British Airways headed towards privatisation , Sir John King hired Colin Marshall as CEO in 1983 . King was credited with transforming the loss @-@ making giant into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world , boldly claiming to be " The World 's Favourite Airline " , while many other large airlines struggled . The airline 's fleet and route map were overhauled in the early years of King 's tenure , with brand and advertising experts being recruited to change the airline 's image . Over 23 @,@ 000 jobs were shed in the early 1980s , though King managed the considerable trick of boosting staff morale and modernising operations at the same time . Offering generous inducements for staff to leave led to record losses of £ 545 million , to the cost of taxpayers but to the benefit of the future privatised company .
At Marshall 's direction , the airline consolidated most of its long @-@ haul operations in 1986 , including Concorde services , at the newly constructed Heathrow Terminal 4 . Terminal 4 would remain as BA 's hub at Heathrow Airport for the next 22 years . Due in part to a recession and rising fuel prices , aircraft such as the Hawker Siddeley Trident , Vickers Super VC10 and Boeing 707 were quickly phased out of service , and planes such as the Boeing 737 were acquired in their place . In an effort to increase the use of the operational Concorde fleet , King allowed the planes to be chartered for special services . Concorde services to Singapore in cooperation with Singapore Airlines begun , in addition to a service to Miami by 1984 . In the 1980s , British Airways regarded Concorde as its flagship , both prestigious and profitable .
The flag carrier was privatised and floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987 by the Conservative government , the initial share offering was nine times oversubscribed . The privatisation of British Airways was regarded as very successful by industry observers , perhaps the most successful of a series of companies divested by the state in this era . Four months later , in July 1987 , BA announced the controversial takeover of Britain 's " second " airline , British Caledonian . The acquisition led to concerns regarding competition ; within the industry it was widely acknowledged as a mutually agreed rescue deal to avoid the latter 's collapse . The Caledonian name was kept alive , the charter subsidiary British Airtours being rebranded as Caledonian Airways . In 1992 , BA absorbed Gatwick @-@ based British carrier Dan @-@ Air .
Soon after British Airways ' privatisation , Richard Branson 's Virgin Atlantic Airways began to emerge as a competitor on some of BA 's most lucrative routes . Following Virgin 's highly publicised mercy mission to Iraq to fly home hostages of Saddam Hussein in 1991 , King is reported to have told Marshall and his PA Director David Burnside to " do something about Branson " . This began the campaign of " dirty tricks " that ended in Branson suing King and British Airways for libel in 1992 . King countersued Branson and the case went to trial in 1993 . British Airways , faced with likely defeat , settled the case , giving £ 500 @,@ 000 to Branson and a further £ 110 @,@ 000 to his airline ; furthermore , BA was to pay the legal fees of up to £ 3 million . Branson divided the compensation among his staff , the so @-@ called " BA bonus . " British Airways and Virgin Atlantic continued to be noticeably bitter and active rivals for many years afterwards .
= = 1990s : Changes , subsidiaries and growth = =
During the 1990s , British Airways became the world 's most profitable airline under the slogan " The World 's Favourite Airline " . In 1992 , it bought the small German domestic airline Delta Air Transport and renamed it Deutsche BA . By the time it was sold in June 2003 , Deutsche BA was operating 16 Boeing 737s and had 800 staff . British Airways also entered the French market in 1994 by purchasing a 49 @.@ 9 % stake in TAT European Airlines , and 70 % of Air Liberté in 1997 , seeking to challenge the dominance of Air France .
1993 was a highly significant year of expansion and change for British Airways , as it purchased a 25 % stake in Australian airline Qantas , a 24 % stake in American airline USAir , and wholly acquired Brymon Airways to form BA Connect . BA had planned to acquire as much as a 44 % share in USAir , but backed down following a lack of approval from the US government ; developing a significantly larger presence in the North American market remained a major priority of British Airways throughout the 1990s . Another crucial event in 1993 occurred as BA formed British Asia Airways , a subsidiary based in the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) , to operate between London and Taipei . Owing to political sensitivities , British Asia Airways had not only a different name but also a different livery , the Union Flag tailfin being replaced by the Chinese characters 英亞 ( English Asia ) .
Perhaps the most symbolic change to British Airways in the turbulent year of 1993 came when Lord King stepped down as chairman of the company and was replaced by former deputy Colin Marshall . Bob Ayling , who later took on the role of CEO , was appointed Managing Director by Marshall . Lord King was appointed as President of British Airways , a role created specifically for him and which he retained until his death in July 2005 . In 1995 , British Airways began planning for its future corporate headquarters at Harmondsworth Moor , to supplant its then @-@ headquarters at Speedbird House at Heathrow Airport .
British Airways also used some of its prosperity to upgrade and replace much of its fleet . Aircraft acquisitions included the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 and the Boeing 777 , aimed to phase out the remaining Lockheed L @-@ 1011 TriStars and McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10s . Six of the disposed TriStars ended up seeing service as aerial refuelling tankers in the Royal Air Force . Another acquisition was BA 's first purchase from Airbus of A320 aircraft .
In 1995 British Airways signed a franchise agreement with GB Airways , the airline at the time had been operating flights to holiday destinations for a number of years from Gatwick . The agreement was set to last until 2010 and the airline would operate all aircraft under the British Airways brand . By the time that GB Airways was sold to Easyjet in 2007 GB Airways had grown to operations out of Gatwick , London Heathrow , Manchester , Bristol and East Midlands Airport , the deal was worth £ 103 @.@ 5 million . The franchise agreement ended on the 29th of March 2008 .
A new source of competition emerged during the 1990s in the form of the budget airline ; new companies such as Ryanair and EasyJet emerged , rising to prominence using a no @-@ frills and low @-@ price approach to gain marketshare from the traditional carriers . In the wake of deregulation , these airline companies would prove to be an increasing source of competition domestically to British Airways . A small handful of short routes also came under pressure from modern high @-@ speed rail systems , such as the Eurostar service between London , Paris , and Brussels .
= = 1996 : Bob Ayling era = =
In 1996 , British Airways , with its newly appointed CEO Bob Ayling , entered a period of financial turbulence due to increased competition , high oil prices , and a strong pound . The airline 's management clashed with trade unions over planned changes , Ayling taking a hardline stance ; the resulting disruption from the confrontations cost the company hundreds of millions of pounds . With several strikes and BA 's restructuring plans stalling , investors became frustrated . Over time , the company was seen as being less active and successful than its peak in 1993 , causing its share value to suffer .
In 1996 , relations between British Airways and USAir , in which BA held a stake then valued at $ 500 million , soured , despite Ayling 's preference to " ... remain a major investor in USAir " , and BA later sold its share in the company . Ayling had also pursued partnership and antitrust immunity with American Airlines , however this was unsuccessful due to the conditions placed on the deal by regulatory authorities , the most painful of which would have been the sacrifice of landing slots at Heathrow , and in part caused the breakdown of the partnership with USAir as well .
In 1997 , Ayling dropped BA 's traditional Union Flag tailfin livery in favour of world design tailfins , in an effort to change the airline 's image to be more cosmopolitan ; several members of the senior management had expressed negative opinions of nationalism within the company . This move quickly came under fire by the media for making hundreds of employees redundant while squandering money on expensive rebranding . Several influential figures , such as former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , spoke out against abandoning the Union Flag scheme and BA turning its back on the nation . British Airways ' long @-@ time rival , Virgin Atlantic , took advantage of BA 's public relations blunder and adopted the British flag along with the slogan " Britain 's national flagcarrier " , recognising the value and prestige of bearing the flag . Ayling eventually declaring the fleet would sport a dual livery ; half Union Flag , half the world design tailfins . On 6 June 1999 , he announced that all newly delivered and overhauled BA planes would bear the Union Flag , based on a design first used on Concorde ; the cosmopolitan scheme was abandoned .
Benefits during Ayling 's leadership included cost savings of £ 750 million and the establishment of the successful , but highly subsidised , Go in 1998 . Go was a low @-@ cost carrier intended to compete in the rapidly emerging " no @-@ frills " segment . After four years of successful operations British Airways searched for a buyer for Go , eventually the airline was sold off to venture capitalists 3i and later merged with EasyJet . Ayling also sought a reduction of capacity , cancelling Boeing 747 @-@ 400 orders in favour of the Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER and rationalising BA 's short @-@ haul fleet with new Airbus A320 aircraft . However , BA began discussions with Airbus for the eventual procurement of the Airbus A380 , a very large passenger jet . In September 1998 , British Airways became a founding member of the Oneworld global airline alliance , along with American Airlines , Canadian Airlines , Cathay Pacific , and Qantas . As part of the marketing alliance , member airlines combined frequent @-@ flyer program benefits and streamlined inter @-@ airline connections . Waterside , the current British Airways head office , officially opened in 1998 .
In late 1999 British Airways agreed to another franchise agreement with the small Dutch regional airline Base Regional Airlines . The airline operated out of Eindhoven Airport to six destinations across Europe including Hamburg , Zurich and London Heathrow . The franchise agreement was the third to be made with an international airline since Comair Limited and Sun Air of Scandinavia .
= = 2000 : Rod Eddington era = =
In 1999 , British Airways reported a 50 % drop in profits , its worst since privatisation . This was compounded by the majority of BA subsidiary companies running at heavy losses as well ; the company reacted by selling several . In March 2000 , Bob Ayling was removed from his position and , in May , British Airways announced Rod Eddington as his successor . Eddington set about the termination of several investment programs , such as in Olympic Airways , and cutting the workforce , the process being taken still further in response to the slump caused by the 9 / 11 attacks in 2001 . BA 's share price dropped from 760p in May 1997 to only 150p in September 2001 , showing how heavily the company had been hit .
With the crash of Air France Flight 4590 in 2000 , 9 / 11 , and escalating maintenance costs , the future of Concorde was limited , despite expensive safety modifications made after the Air France accident . It was announced on 10 April 2003 that in October that year BA would cease scheduled services with Concorde , due to depressed passenger numbers . The last commercial Concorde flight from New York to London was on 24 October 2003 . The airline retained ownership of eight Concordes , which were placed on long @-@ term loan to museums in the UK , U.S. and Barbados .
During Eddington 's leadership , there were several other fleet changes . A publicly well @-@ received decision of Eddington 's was to completely end the use of ethnic liveries on aircraft , announcing in May 2001 that all of BA 's fleet would be repainted in a variant of the Union Flag design used on Concorde . Boeing 747 @-@ 200 and several Boeing 767 aircraft were retired in an effort to cut costs , and interest was expressed in the upcoming Boeing 7E7 and the since @-@ cancelled Boeing Sonic Cruiser . In late 2001 the franchise agreement with Base Regional Airlines was ended after just over 2 years of operations , the airline had filed for bankruptcy and ceased operations .
From 2002 , BA strongly marketed the full @-@ service nature of its remaining domestic flights by the use of principal airports , and provision of complimentary food and drink . This came as a response to low @-@ cost operators ' aggressive pricing , even though its main full @-@ service UK rival bmi later also abandoned some " frills " on its domestic network . In June 2003 , the German subsidiary , Deutsche BA , was sold to investment group Intro Verwaltungsgesellschaft . On 8 September 2004 , British Airways announced that it was to sell its 18 @.@ 5 % stake in Qantas , but would continue the alliance ( such as sharing revenue ) , particularly on the Kangaroo Routes . The £ 425 million raised was used to reduce the airline 's debt .
Lord Marshall , who had been appointed a life peer in 1998 , retired as Chairman in July 2004 and was replaced by Martin Broughton , former Chairman of British American Tobacco . On 8 March 2005 , Broughton announced that former Aer Lingus CEO Willie Walsh would take over from Rod Eddington upon his retirement in September 2005 . Walsh pledged to retain the full @-@ service model on its much reduced UK network as a means of distinguishing BA from the competition , and that customers were willing to pay extra for higher service levels .
= = 2005 : Willie Walsh era = =
In September 2005 , new CEO Willie Walsh announced dramatic changes to the management of British Airways , with the aim of saving £ 300 million by 2008 , the cost of the airline 's move to its new hub at Heathrow 's Terminal 5 . Walsh presided over the sale of BA Connect to Flybe , stating " Despite the best efforts of the entire team at BA Connect , we do not see any prospect of profitability in its current form . " BA retained a 15 % stake in Flybe following the sale .
In June 2006 , the Office of Fair Trading ( OFT ) and the United States Department of Justice ( DOJ ) began investigating allegations that BA was price @-@ fixing fuel surcharges on long haul flights . The allegations first came to light when Virgin Atlantic reported the events to the authorities after it found staff members from BA and Virgin Atlantic were colluding . Virgin Atlantic was later granted immunity by both the OFT and DOJ . The price @-@ fixing probe led to the resignation of commercial director Martin George and communications chief Iain Burns .
On 1 August 2007 , British Airways was fined £ 121 @.@ 5 million for price @-@ fixing by the OFT , and the US DOJ subsequently announced that it would also fine British Airways US $ 300 million ( £ 148 million ) for price @-@ fixing . Although BA said fuel surcharges were " a legitimate way of recovering costs " , in May 2007 it had put aside £ 350 million for legal fees and fines . In July 2009 Steve Ridgway , the CEO of Virgin Atlantic , admitted he knew about the illegal price @-@ fixing at his airline and did nothing to stop it .
In January 2008 , BA unveiled its new subsidiary OpenSkies which took advantage of the liberalisation of transatlantic traffic rights , flying non @-@ stop between major European cities and the United States . Operations between Paris and New York began with a single Boeing 757 in June 2008 . On 2 July 2008 British Airways announced that it had agreed to buy French airline L 'Avion for £ 54 million . L 'Avion was fully integrated with OpenSkies in 2009 .
On 14 March 2008 Heathrow Terminal 5 , built exclusively for the use of British Airways at a cost of £ 4 @.@ 3 billion , was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II . Upon opening to passengers on 27 March 2008 serious problems immediately arose , many from staff confusion . The baggage handling system failed completely , resulting in seven flights departing with no baggage loaded . In the first five days , a backlog of 28 @,@ 000 bags built up and over 300 flights were cancelled . Walsh commented that it " was not our finest hour ... the buck stops with me " . Two directors left BA in April 2008 over the troubled transition to Terminal 5 . Walsh also declined his annual bonus over Terminal 5 , despite record profits overall . By October 2008 Terminal 5 operations has settled and further long @-@ haul flights were transferred over .
= = 2009 : Financial difficulties , disruptions and merger = =
On 30 July 2008 , British Airways and Iberia Airlines announced a merger plan that would result in the two airlines joining forces in an all @-@ stock transaction . The two airlines would retain their separate brands similar to KLM and Air France in their merger agreement . In the beginning of August 2008 , American Airlines announced an alliance with BA and Iberia , allowing the two carriers to fix fares , routes , and schedules together . In addition to merger talks with Iberia , it was announced on 2 December 2008 that British Airways was discussing a merger with Qantas . If British Airways , Iberia and Qantas were to combine as one company it would be the largest airline in the world . However , on 18 December 2008 , the talks with Qantas ended due to issues over ownership . In November 2010 , BA was fined € 104 million by the European Commission following an investigation into price @-@ fixing .
In June 2009 , British Airways contacted some 30 @,@ 000 employees in the United Kingdom , including Walsh , asking them to work without pay over a period of between one week and one month to save money . On 6 November 2009 the worst ever half @-@ year loss in British Airways ' history was reported to the public . A High Court decision sided with BA against union opposition to restructuring plans , including a reduction in cabin crew in November 2009 . On 14 December 2009 cabin crew at British Airways voted in favour of strike action over the Christmas period over job cuts and contract changes . On 17 December the ballot was ruled invalid by the High Court due to voting irregularities , thus the strike did not take place . On 6 March 2010 Unite announced further strike action . More than 80 planes were grounded at Heathrow Airport on the first day ; however , British Airways officials stated that 65 % of flights were undisturbed .
On 8 April 2010 , it was confirmed British Airways and Iberia Airlines had agreed to merge , making the combined commercial airline the third largest in the world by revenue . The newly merged company is known as International Airlines Group , both airlines continue to operate under their current brands . The merger is believed to be worth approximately £ 5 billion , the new group has over 400 aircraft and flies to over 200 destinations across the world . As part of the deal , British Airways shareholders took a 55 % stake in the company , headquartered in London , with the remainder owned by Iberia . Industry analysts have speculated that the merger makes a three @-@ way tie @-@ in with American Airlines more likely .
Across April and May 2010 , much of Western and Northern Europe had their airspace closed due to huge density ash clouds from the erupting Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland . It was feared that aircraft could be damaged or could even crash due to engine ingestion of volcanic ash , as had famously troubled British Airways Flight 9 in 1982 . This affected all airlines operating within British airspace , leading to strong objections from companies such as Ryanair . Flights progressively restarted as the ash levels declined .
On 4 October 2010 , to celebrate the Boeing 757 fleet 's retirement after 27 years , British Airways unveiled one of the 757s ( G @-@ CPET ) in a " retro " Negus & Negus livery . This aircraft conducted its last passenger flight on 6 November 2010 , the proceeds of which went to the charity Flying Start the charity partnership between British Airways and Comic Relief .
= Siege of Kamarja =
The Siege of Kamarja was fought in 729 between the Turgesh khaganate and its Soghdian allies and the Arab Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate . The small fortress of Kamarja was one of the last remaining Arab strongholds in Transoxiana , and was attacked by the Turgesh under the personal direction of their ruler , the khagan . Its stubborn defence , which lasted for 58 days , ended with the negotiated withdrawal of its garrison to Samarkand , and became famous in Arabic literature , but failed to save the Arab position in the region .
= = Background = =
The region of Transoxiana ( Arabic : Ma wara ' al @-@ nahr ) had been conquered by the Umayyad leader Qutayba ibn Muslim in the reign of al @-@ Walid I ( r . 705 – 715 ) , following the Muslim conquests of Persia and Khurasan in the mid @-@ 7th century . The loyalty to the Caliphate of Transoxiana 's native Iranian and Turkic populations and of the autonomous local rulers remained questionable , and in 719 the latter requested aid from the Chinese and their Turgesh vassals . In response , from 720 on the Turgesh launched a series of attacks against the Muslims in Transoxiana , coupled with uprisings against the Caliphate among the local Soghdians . The Umayyad governors initially managed to suppress the unrest , although control over the Ferghana Valley was lost . In 724 , governor Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi and his army suffered a heavy defeat ( the so @-@ called " Day of Thirst " ) at the hands of the Turgesh when he tried to recapture Ferghana . This defeat pushed the Arabs on the defensive , and even though no pitched battles took place , over the next few years the Arab position in Transoxiana collapsed swiftly : by 728 , in the face of the Turgesh attacks and a widespread anti @-@ Arab revolt , only Samarkand and the two fortresses of Kamarja and Dabusiyya on the Zarafshan River remained in Arab hands in all of Transoxiana .
= = Siege of Kamarja = =
In 729 , the new Arab governor , Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami , managed to cross the Oxus River and reach Bukhara against stiff opposition by the Turgesh and their Soghdian allies . The Arab victory was narrow , and the Turgesh were able to withdraw unmolested back towards the region of Samarkand , which brought them near the Arab fortress of Kamarja , a fortified town some seven farsakhs — roughly 42 kilometres ( 26 miles ) — west of Samarkand . The subsequent siege of Kamarja , narrated in al @-@ Tabari 's History of the Prophets and Kings is , in the words of Hugh N. Kennedy , " one of the most vividly described set pieces of the war " .
The Turgesh army under the khagan Suluk , which included the contingents of Ferghana , al @-@ Taraband ( capital of Shash , modern Tashkent ) , Afshinah ( a town near Samarkand ) , Nasaf and Bukhara , approached along the Bukhara – Samarkand road . When they reached Kamarja , the Turgesh and their allies left the road and made camp , but the town 's garrison was unaware of their approach as their movements were screened by a hill . In the next morning , when the Arabs took their animals out to water them and climbed the hill , they were amazed to encounter the " mountain of steel " of their enemies ' army , as al @-@ Tabari writes . The Arabs sent some of their animals down the hill towards the river to lure the Turgesh that way , and hastened back to the town . The Turgesh soon discovered them and began pursuing them , but the Arabs knew the terrain better and managed to reach the town and find refuge behind its earthworks , just before their pursuers caught up with them . A fierce fight developed as the Turgesh attacked the gates and tried to enter the town , until the Arabs thrust burning bundles of wood before them , driving the Turgesh back across the moat . In the evening , the Turgesh withdrew , and the Arabs burned the wooden bridge that spanned the moat .
The khagan then sent two embassies to the besieged . The first to approach the wall was Khosrau , a grandson of the last Sassanid Persian ruler , Yazdegerd III ( r . 632 – 651 ) . Khosrau 's father , Peroz , had fled to the Tang court in China , and now Khusrau accompanied the Turgesh in hopes of recovering his ancestral throne . When Khosrau approached the garrison , he urged them to surrender and offered them a safe @-@ conduct , while proclaiming the restoration of his realm . The Arabs , however , indignantly refused to hear him and hurled abuses at him . As H.A.R. Gibb writes , the presence of Khosrau " might be taken as an indication that the rebels were receiving encouragement from China also , though the Chinese records are silent on this expedition " . After Khosrau 's failure , the khagan sent a local , Bazaghari , to parley with the garrison , bringing a few Arab captives along with him to intimidate the Arabs . The khagan offered to take up the Arab garrison into his own army , doubling their salary , but this proposal too was rejected with disdain by the Arab negotiator , Yazid ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Bahili , with the words " How can the Arabs , who are wolves , be with the Turgesh , who are sheep ? " . His reply infuriated Bazaghari 's companions , who threatened to kill him , so Yazid offered to split the garrison up : one half with their moveable wealth would be allowed to retreat safely , while the other half would remain in service with the Turgesh . Bazaghari accepted this offer and sent Yazid back to convey the terms to the garrison , but once he was back inside the wall , he rejected the terms and exhorted his fellow Arabs to resist .
The khagan then ordered his men to fill the moat with green wood , so that it would not burn , which the garrison countered by throwing in dry wood as well . After six days , when the moat was full , the Arabs set it afire ; aided by a strong wind , the hard work of the Turgesh was put to nought . The Arab archers also proved effective , exacting a heavy toll among the Turgesh , including Bazaghari . The Turgesh then executed a hundred Arab captives in full view of the garrison . In response , the Arabs killed the 200 young locals they held as hostages , despite their desperate resistance . The narrative of the siege in al @-@ Tabari , evidently drawing from eyewitness accounts , continues with isolated episodes : the determined Turgesh assault on the gate , with five of them managing to climb the wall before being repelled , the Soghdian prince of al @-@ Taraband who with his companions assaulted a breach in the wall which led into a house only to be killed by the house 's elderly and sick owner and his family , how the Arabs used the wooden boards lining the irrigation ditches to improve their earthworks , or the time when the khagan , coming to inspect the Arab fortifications , received an arrow @-@ shot in the face but was saved by his helmet 's nose @-@ guard . The stubborn defence of the garrison irritated the khagan , who blamed his Soghdian allies for claiming that there were " fifty donkeys in this ( town ) and that we would take it in five days , but now the five days have become two months " . At length , the khagan resumed negotiations , and offered safe @-@ conduct for either Dabusiyya or Samarkand , which were still in Arab hands . The garrison sent a rider to Samarkand to ask for advice , and was told to choose Dabusiyya , which was closer to Kamarja . After fifty @-@ eight days , out of which , according to al @-@ Tabari , the garrison " did not water their camels for thirty @-@ five days " , the siege was over . The Arabs and Turgesh exchanged five hostages each , including one of Suluk 's most important nobles , Kursul . Mistrust among both sides was such after their mutual massacre of their captives early in the siege that the Arabs refused to leave until the khagan and his army had departed , and an Arab with a dagger in his hand was seated behind each of the Turgesh hostages , who wore no armour .
As the Arab garrison of Kamarja approached Dabusiyya , the latter 's garrison at first believed that Kamarja had fallen and that the soldiers coming towards them were Turgesh , but as they arrayed themselves for battle , a rider sent by the Kamarja troops alerted them as to the real situation , and " the men of al @-@ Dabusiyya galloped forward to carry whoever was too weak to walk or was wounded " . At this the hostages began being released , with the Arabs sending a hostage back and the Turgesh in turn releasing one of the hostages they held . At the end , when the last two hostages were left , neither side was willing to let its own hostage go first , until the Arab hostage volunteered to be let go last . For this act of chivalry , he was richly rewarded by Kursul with a suit of armour and a horse .
= = Aftermath = =
As Gibb writes , " the fame of the defence of Kamarja spread far and wide , but it brought little relief to the pressure on the Arabs " . Almost all of Transoxiana , except for Bukhara and Samarkand , was lost , and even in neighbouring Khwarizm , a revolt broke out , which was nonetheless swiftly suppressed by the local Arab settlers . Samarkand remained the last major outpost of Arab rule deep in Soghdia , and subsequent operations by both sides focused around it . It was while attempting to relieve the Turgesh siege of the city in 731 that the Arabs suffered the calamitous Battle of the Defile , which was followed by the complete collapse of the Arab position in Transoxiana . The Arabs were not able to recover their position until the governorship of Nasr ibn Sayyar , who in 739 – 741 managed to re @-@ establish the Caliphate 's authority up to Samarkand .
= Pećanac Chetniks =
The Pećanac Chetniks , also known as the Black Chetniks , were a collaborationist Chetnik irregular military force which operated in the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia under the leadership of vojvoda ( war lord ) Kosta Pećanac . They were loyal to the German @-@ backed Serbian puppet government .
Pećanac was eventually denounced as a traitor by the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile , and the Germans concluded that his detachments were inefficient , unreliable , and of little military aid to them . The Germans and the puppet government disbanded the organisation between September 1942 and March 1943 , and Pećanac was interned for some time afterwards before being killed in mid @-@ 1944 by forces loyal to his Chetnik rival Draža Mihailović .
= = Background = =
The Pećanac Chetniks were named after their commander , Kosta Pećanac , who was a fighter and later vojvoda in the Serbian Chetnik Organization who had first distinguished himself in fighting against the Ottoman Empire in Macedonia between 1903 and 1910 . In the First Balkan War , fought from October 1912 to May 1913 , Pećanac served as a sergeant in the Royal Serbian Army . During the Second Balkan War , fought from 29 June to 10 August 1913 , he saw combat against the Kingdom of Bulgaria . During World War I , he led bands of Serbian guerillas fighting behind Bulgarian and Austro @-@ Hungarian lines .
He was the most prominent figure in the Chetnik movement during the interwar period . He had a leading role in the Association Against Bulgarian Bandits , a notorious organisation that arbitrarily terrorised Bulgarians in the Štip region , part of modern @-@ day Macedonia . He also served as a commander with the Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists ( ORJUNA ) . As a member of parliament , he was present when the Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) leader Stjepan Radić and HSS deputies Pavle Radić and Đuro Basariček were killed by the Serb politician Puniša Račić on 20 June 1928 . Prior to the shooting , Pećanac was accused by HSS deputy Ivan Pernar of being responsible for a massacre of 200 Muslims in 1921 .
Pećanac became the president of the Chetnik Association in 1932 . By opening membership of the organisation to younger members that had not served in World War I , he grew the organisation during the 1930s from a nationalist veterans ' association focused on protecting veterans ' rights to an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with 500 @,@ 000 members throughout the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . During this period , Pećanac formed close ties with the far @-@ right Yugoslav Radical Union government of Milan Stojadinović , and was known for his hostility to the Yugoslav Communist Party , which made him popular with conservatives such as those in the Yugoslav Radical Union .
= = Formation = =
Shortly before the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , the Yugoslav Ministry of the Army and Navy requested that Pećanac prepare for guerrilla operations and guard the southern area of Serbia , Macedonia , and Kosovo from pro @-@ Bulgarians and pro @-@ Albanians in the region . He was given arms and money , and managed to arm several hundred men in the Toplica River valley in southern Serbia . Pećanac 's force remained intact after the German occupation of Serbia and supplemented its strength from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo . In the early summer of 1941 , Pećanac 's detachments fought against Albanian bands . At this time and for a considerable period after , only detachments under Pećanac were identified by the term " Chetnik " . With the formation of the communist @-@ led Yugoslav Partisans , Pećanac gave up any interest in resistance , and by late August came to agreements with both the Serbian puppet government and the German authorities to carry out attacks against the Partisans .
Pećanac kept the organisational structure of his detachments simple . All of the commanders were selected personally by Pećanac and consisted of former officers , peasants , Orthodox priests , teachers , and merchants . The Pećanac Chetniks were also known as the " Black Chetniks " .
= = Collaboration with occupation and quisling forces = =
On 18 August 1941 , while he was concluding arrangements with the Germans , Pećanac received a letter from rival Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović proposing an arrangement where Pećanac would control the Chetniks south of the Western Morava River while Mihailović would control the Chetniks in all other areas . Pećanac declined this request and suggested that he might offer Mihailović the position as his chief of staff . He also recommended that Mihailović 's detachments disband and join his organisation . In the meantime , Pećanac had arranged for the transfer of several thousand of his Chetniks to the Serbian Gendarmerie to act as German auxiliaries .
On 27 August , Pećanac issued an open " Proclamation to the Dear People " , in which he portrayed himself as the defender and protector of Serbs and , referring to Mihailović 's units , called on " detachments that have been formed without his approval " to come together under his command . He demanded that individuals hiding in the forests return to their homes immediately and that acts of sabotage directed at the occupation authorities cease or suffer the punishment of death .
In September 1941 , some of Pećanac 's subordinates broke ranks to join the Partisans in fighting the Germans and their Serbian auxiliaries . In the mountainous Kopaonik region , a previously loyal subordinate of Pećanac began attacking local gendarmerie stations and clashing with armed bands of Albanian Muslims . By the end of October the Germans decided to stop arming the " unreliable " elements within Pećanac 's Chetniks , and attached the remainder to their other Serbian auxiliary forces .
On 7 October 1941 , Pećanac sent a request to the head of the Serbian puppet government , Milan Nedić , for trained officers , supplies , arms , salary funds , and more . Over time his requests were fulfilled , and a German liaison officer was appointed at Pećanac 's headquarters to help coordinate actions . On 17 January 1942 , according to German data , 72 Chetnik officers and 7 @,@ 963 men were being paid and supplied by the Serbian Gendarmerie . This fell short of their maximum authorised strength of 8 @,@ 745 men , and included two or three thousand of Mihailović 's Chetniks who had been " legalised " in November 1941 . In the same month , Pećanac sought permission from the Italians for his forces to move into eastern Montenegro , but was refused due to Italian concerns that the Chetniks would move into the Sandžak .
In April 1942 , the German Commanding General in Serbia , General der Artillerie Paul Bader , issued orders giving the unit numbers C – 39 to C – 101 to the Pećanac Chetnik detachments , which were placed under the command of the local German division or area command post . These orders required the deployment of a German liaison officer with all detachments engaged in operations , and also limited their movement outside their assigned area . Supplies of arms and ammunition were also controlled by the Germans . In July 1942 , Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile to denounce Pećanac as a traitor , and his continuing collaboration ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I.
= = Dissolution = =
The Germans found that Pećanac 's units were inefficient , unreliable , and of little military aid to them . Pećanac 's Chetniks regularly clashed and had rivalries with other German auxiliaries such as the Serbian State Guard and Serbian Volunteer Command and also with Mihailović 's Chetniks . The Germans and the puppet government commenced disbanding them in September 1942 , and all but one had been dissolved by the end of that year . The last detachment was disbanded in March 1943 . His followers were dispersed to other German auxiliary forces , German labour units , or were interned in prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps . Many deserted to join Mihailović . Nothing is recorded of Pećanac 's activities in the months that followed except that he was interned for some time by the Serbian puppet government . Accounts of Pećanac 's capture and death vary . According to one account , Pećanac , four of his leaders and 40 of their followers were captured by forces loyal to Mihailović in February 1944 . All were killed within days except Pećanac , who remained in custody to write his war memoirs before being executed on 5 May 1944 . Another source states he was assassinated on 6 June 1944 by Chetniks loyal to Mihailović .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= Here We Go Again ( Demi Lovato album ) =
Here We Go Again is the second studio album by American singer Demi Lovato . It was released on July 21 , 2009 , through Hollywood Records . Unlike her previous album , Don 't Forget ( 2008 ) , Lovato did not collaborate with the Jonas Brothers , as she wanted to work with different people and give the album a personal approach . Lovato collaborated for the album with established songwriters and producers , such as E. Kidd Bogart , Gary Clark , Toby Gad , John Mayer , Jon McLaughlin , Lindy Robbins and John Fields , who produced her previous album Don 't Forget . Lovato also collaborated with The Academy Is ... lead singer William Beckett to write a song about a strained relationship with her father , which was originally set to appear on the album , but was later dropped . The song later appeared on her third album Unbroken ( 2011 ) .
Here We Go Again derives mainly from the pop rock genre , mixed with influences of power pop , jazz @-@ pop , soul and pop . Lovato wanted the album 's music to be less rock and more mellow than her previous album , while exploring more mature sounds and lyrics . Critical reception of the album was positive ; critics praised Lovato for not relying on vocal manipulations and instead showing off her natural ability . Although some critics called the album catchy , others felt that it was predictable and at times too much alike Kelly Clarkson . Here We Go Again sold 108 @,@ 000 copies during its first week of release in the United States and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . Since its release , the album has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US , and was certified Gold . Internationally , the album peaked inside the top 40 on charts in Australia , Brazil , Canada , Greece , Mexico , New Zealand and Spain . It was certified Platinum in Brazil . As of 2014 , the album has sold 496 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
" Here We Go Again " was released as the lead single from the album in June 2009 and was Lovato 's first solo single to reach the top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 15 . " Remember December " was the second and final single from the album in January 2010 . To promote the album , Lovato embarked on her first headlining tour , Demi Lovato : Live in Concert .
= = Background = =
Lovato was discovered by Disney Channel during an open call audition in her hometown of Dallas , Texas and made her debut on the short series As the Bell Rings in 2007 . She subsequently auditioned for a role on the television series Jonas , but did not get the part . Instead , she received the main role in the musical film Camp Rock after singing for the network executives . Later , she auditioned for a role on the series Sonny with a Chance , which she also received . Lovato enlisted the Jonas Brothers , her Camp Rock co @-@ stars , to work with her on her debut studio album , Don 't Forget ( 2008 ) . The writing began during the filming of Camp Rock in 2007 and continued on the band 's Look Me in the Eyes Tour in 2008 . Lovato wanted to establish herself as a musician with the album , and not being known as just " the girl from Camp Rock . " She said that her goal was to have fun on the album and that she would tackle deeper themes on her sophomore effort .
The album was released in September 2008 and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart . Lovato recalled the experience , " It was like , O.K. , you 've done it . You 're no longer just succeeding because you 're in a movie with the Jonas Brothers . These people bought your music for you . " Later in February 2009 , Lovato 's first headlining sitcom , Sonny with a Chance , premiered on Disney Channel . Don 't Forget was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and spawned two singles , " Get Back " and " La La Land " . In January 2009 , Lovato announced to MTV News that she had already begun writing songs for her second studio album , as well as revealing its approach : " It 's going to take a different sound , so hopefully it goes over well . I sing a lot of rock , but this time I want to do more John Mayer @-@ ish type of songs . Hopefully I can write with people like him . I love their music — it would be amazing . "
= = Development = =
In February 2009 , Lovato started to work and recorded on her second album , right after filming from the first season of Sonny with a Chance . In April 2009 , Lovato explained about the album 's process and collabrating with songwriters from the album including Jon McLaughlin and The Academy Is ... lead singer William Beckett . According to Lovato , the album 's writing process was nearly finished in just two weeks , noting that she " basically went from full time acting mode to full time album mode " . As she wanted to accomplish more " John Mayer @-@ ish type of songs " , she contacted Mayer 's management in order to collaborate him , citing him as one of her biggest musical influences . Mayer accepted the offer , of which Lovato said , " I was completely shocked [ that he said yes ] . It was more of a pipe dream . I didn 't ever think it would be a reality , but it came true . He was taking a chance on working with a younger artist in the pop realm . " The two wrote three songs together , " World of Chances " , " Love is the Answer " and " Shut Up and Love Me " . Lovato said that it was intimidating to work with him as she was worried that he would not like her lyrics , and she would get " super excited " whenever he complimented her . " World of Chances " , the first song she wrote with Mayer , was the only of these songs to make the album 's final cut . The song was inspired by Lovato 's first experience of love and heartbreak .
Lovato collaborated with Beckett on a song titled " For the Love of a Daughter " . Although not planning to write a personal song , a " really long talk " with Beckett resulted in the song being written . The song chronicles Lovato 's relationship with her estranged birth father , who left the family when she was two years old . In the song , she pleads with her father to " put the bottle down " and questions him : " How could you put your hands on the ones that you swore you loved ? " The song was set to appear on the album , but Lovato and her management felt of the song 's subject would be too much for her young audience and later was removed from the album . In an interview with Women 's Wear Daily , she explained : " When I took a step back , I realized I wouldn 't like those subjects being talked about in somebody else 's home , with a seven @-@ year @-@ old and their mom . " Several other " emotional " songs were also put on hold . The song was later selected and included on her third studio album Unbroken released in September 2011 , when Lovato had left Disney Channel .
Unlike her first studio album , Don 't Forget , Lovato did not collaborate with the Jonas Brothers on Here We Go Again as she wanted to see what her sound would be like without their input . But , Demi did work with Nick Jonas on one song on the album which is " Stop The World . " Although she did not collaborate with the Jonas Brothers , she did still work with Nick Jonas . " They were the only people I 'd ever written with . Once I wrote with different people , I wanted to go with that " , she told the New York Daily News . She said that her first album was " very Jonas " and that Here We Go Again is " a little bit more like what 's coming from my heart . It 's more me . " However , Lovato did work with Nick Jonas on the song " Stop the World " . The majority of the album was produced by John Fields , who also handled production on Don 't Forget . Other tracks were produced by SuperSpy , Gary Clark , Andy Dodd and Adam Watts . " Catch Me " is the only song on the album for which Lovato received sole writing credit . In an interview with The New York Times , she revealed that she wrote it in her room and that it means more to her than the rest of the album .
= = Composition = =
Here We Go Again explores more mature sounds than Don 't Forget , with Lovato describing the project as " more relaxed and more mature " with a " soulful edge " . The lyrics are more personal than on her debut album as most of it was inspired by her experiences of love and heartbreak . She stated that the album does not hold a particular theme as she wanted the songs to be " just more mature , more of me " . The album derives mainly from the genre of pop rock . Speaking to New York Daily News , Lovato said that the album 's musical style includes " less rock and more mellow stuff " , with a twist of R & B. " Here We Go Again " is the first track of the album was written and produced by SuperSpy . The lyrics of the song chronicle Lovato 's on @-@ off relationship with an indecisive boy , singing that " Something about you is so addictive " . " Solo " , the second track , was co @-@ written by Lovato and produced by John Fields . The track is a breakup song with lyrics about self @-@ respect . " U Got Nothin ' on Me " , another SuperSpy production , includes influences of 1980s glam metal , in this song she reminisces a summer romance that took a tumble which caused drama to their relationship and that she has nothing on herself to blame .
" Falling Over Me " was co @-@ written by Lovato and Jon McLaughlin and produced by Fields . The song features a " hypnotic " bassline and lyrics about Lovato praying that her crush will notice her affection : " I 'm hoping , I 'm waiting , I 'm praying you are the one " . According to Margaret Wappler of Los Angeles Times , Lovato 's vocals in the song balance " delicacy and force " . On the fifth track , " Quiet " , Lovato longs for a " communication breakthrough " in an awkward relationship , complaining that " It 's too quiet in here " . " Catch Me " is an acoustic ballad with a stripped @-@ down production , written by Lovato herself . The song speaks of an unhealthy love connection , with Lovato going on even though she knows " how badly this will hurt me " . The seventh track , " Every Time You Lie " , is a song with jazz influences and a " jaunty ' 70s vibe " . Kerri Mason of Billboard commented that the song " swings like Maroon 5 's brand of radio soul " . The song tells about self @-@ respect and not putting up with lies in a relationship . " Got Dynamite " was written by Gary Clark , E. Kidd Bogart and Victoria Horn and produced by Clark . The song features " ricocheting " synthesizers and a scattering pop punk riff . The lyrics use " violent metaphors " as invitations for a boy to " blow up " Lovato 's defenses , with lines such as " Log in and try to hack me " and " Kick senseless , my defenses " .
The ninth track , " Stop the World " , was co @-@ written by Lovato and Nick Jonas about falling in love with someone , but " people don 't want you to " . The song includes a reference to the infamous criminal couple Bonnie and Clyde : " Like Bonnie and Clyde , let 's find a ride . " Lovato wrote the album 's tenth track , " World of Chances " , with John Mayer . According to Allison Stewart of The Washington Post , the ballad showcases the " rough grain " of Lovato 's voice.The song tells about a girl giving a boy she loves chances to fix their relationship but keeps messing up . " Remember December " diverges from Lovato 's usual pop rock sound into more prominent power pop and synthpop with " a bit of techno " . In the song , she reminisces a winter romance : " I remember us together / With a promise of forever . " The twelfth and final track " Everything You 're Not " was co @-@ written by Toby Gad , Lindy Robbins and Lovato . The lyrics chronicle self @-@ respect as Lovato sings " I want a gentleman who treats me like a queen / I need respect , I need love / Nothing in between . " The first bonus track of the album , " Gift of a Friend " , was co @-@ written and produced by Adam Watts and Andy Dodd . The song is about not being able to " pursue our aspirations or deal with disappointments " without friends . The second bonus track , " So Far , So Great " , was written and produced by Aris Archontis , Jeannie Lurie and Chen Neeman and served as the theme song of Sonny with a Chance . The " stomping " power pop song is about chasing your dreams .
= = Critical reception = =
According to Metacritic , which averages professional reviews into a numerical score , Here We Go Again received a 65 / 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews . " Margaret Wappler of Los Angeles Times rated the album three stars out of five and noted the Kelly Clarkson influences , writing that " For the bulk of the album , Lovato channels a witty , pouty ingenue in high heels who 's not afraid to call the shots , especially after a good cry . " Rating the album three and a half stars , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic noted the album 's " mature veneer " and the " subtle shift buried underneath the relentlessly cheerful Radio Disney production and Lovato 's irrepressible spunk " , writing that " Both sonic characteristics tend to camouflage Demi 's biggest moves away from teen pop . " Erlewine called the album " Not quite as much fun [ as Don 't Forget ] , but still fun " . The Arizona Republic critic Ed Masley gave the album three and a half stars and recommended it for power pop fans .
Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson graded the album B − and praised the " hard @-@ edged " tracks such as " Got Dynamite " , calling them suggestions of " a direction that might set her apart in years to come " . Houston Chronicle critic Joey Guerra rated the album three stars and wrote : " Despite the Disney machine 's presence , Here We Go Again doesn 't rely too heavily on ' tween trends , instead relying on Lovato 's penchant for rock @-@ drama and teaming her with a slew of older , established acts . " Kerri Mason of Billboard praised the album for not relying heavily on production and Auto @-@ Tune , calling Lovato " a natural talent who could really take flight after outgrowing Disney " . Mason wrote that the album includes " quiet surprises " and potential hits , particularly praising the title track and " Catch Me " . Jeff Miers from The Buffalo News rated Here We Go Again two and a half stars out of four , writing : " Unlike so many of her Disney @-@ fied peers , Lovato can really sing , and part of what makes her sophomore effort appealing is the lack of in @-@ studio vocal manipulation . " Miers wrote that it is " refreshing " that Lovato does not need Auto @-@ Tune " to mask any lack of natural ability " . He concluded by calling the album " safe and pretty predictable , but also incredibly catchy " .
Allison Stewart of The Washington Post referred the album to as a " smart , bristly , busy sophomore disc " , writing that " Too much of it apes Avril Lavigne , with the standard shouted choruses and hiccupped verses that are beginning to sound very ' 03 . " Stewart named " Every Time You Lie " and " World of Chances " as " direction signs pointing to a much more interesting career " . Awarding the album five out of ten points , Cody Miller of PopMatters was mixed in his review and said that Lovato " desperately wants to be Kelly Clarkson " , writing " Lovato can 't work miracles with mediocre pop songs like Clarkson , but the young singer @-@ actress has a bigger range than any of her contemporaries , and a better sense of on @-@ record charisma . " Miller was mixed regarding album 's content , saying that " there 's nothing that really separates the tracks from each other . Most of the album 's up @-@ tempo numbers just blend together . " He concluded his review : " Here We Go Again isn 't perfect by any means , and when compared to someone like Clarkson or Pink , it 's obvious the young singer has lots of work ahead of her if she wants to truly cement herself as a serious , viable pop / rock artist outside of the Disney mold . But given the context , Here We Go Again is certainly enjoyable to some scale . " Rolling Stone gave the album 3 stars out of five , saying " Lovato has chops and spunk akin to a fellow Texas pop singer , though her voice doesn 't churn with Kelly Clarkson 's gutsy heart yet . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Here We Go Again debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart with 108 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . The figure was an improvement over the first @-@ week sales of Don 't Forget , which moved 89 @,@ 000 copies . The feat made Here We Go Again the fourth album of 2009 under the Disney Music Group to peak at number one . In its second week , the album fell to number eight with 39 @,@ 000 copies sold . At the end of 2009 , the album ranked at number 109 on Billboard 's year @-@ end chart . As of July 2014 , the album has sold 496 @,@ 000 copies in the US according to Billboard .
In Canada , the album entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number five , and stayed on the chart for five weeks .
In Australia , the album spent one week at number 40 on the ARIA Albums Chart . In New Zealand , it debuted at number ten and spent a total of nine weeks on the chart . In Mexico , Here We Go Again debuted at number 45 on the Top 100 Mexico chart and reached its peak position of 25 in its second week . Across Europe , the album debuted at number 36 in Greece and later reached number five . In Spain , the album spent thirteen weeks on the chart and peaked at number 35 . In early 2010 , Here We Go Again made its debut at number 199 on the UK Albums Chart , and number 141 on the Oricon albums chart in Japan . In October 2011 , the album debuted and peaked at number 88 on the Ultratop chart in the Flanders region of Belgium .
= = Promotion = =
Radio Disney presented the world premiere of Here We Go Again on July 18 , 2009 during the programming Planet Premiere , where Lovato was interviewed by host Ernest " Ernie D " Martinez . The album was replayed on the station the next day , and available for streaming on Radio Disney 's website from July 18 through July 24 , 2009 . On July 17 , 2009 , Lovato appeared on The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien to perform the album 's title track . On July 23 , she performed the single alongside the album cut " Catch Me " on Good Morning America , while performing the single only on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and The View later the same day . To promote the album 's UK release , Lovato appeared on radio BBC Switch and logged into Habbo Hotel to chat with her British fans in January 2010 . She later performed " Remember December " on The Alan Titchmarsh Show on January 29 , 2010 . She was also interviewed on British television programs such as Blue Peter , Daily Fix Chart Show , Live from Studio Five , Freshly Squeezed and T4 .
To promote Don 't Forget and Here We Go Again , Lovato embarked on her first headlining concert tour , Demi Lovato : Live in Concert . The tour began on June 21 , 2009 in Hartford , Connecticut and previewed new songs from Here We Go Again , including " Remember December " , " Stop the World " and " U Got Nothin ' on Me " . It was confirmed on April 15 , 2009 that David Archuleta would serve as the tour 's opening act , with songstress Jordan Pruitt and girl group KSM joining on select dates . Lovato announced the collaboration with Archuleta on her Myspace blog , where she also wrote , " I 'm so excited about headlining my own tour . I love life on the road . I 'm in a different city every night , and it never gets old . " Tickets for the tour went on sale on April 25 , 2009 , but a special pre @-@ sale offer was made available through Lovato 's newly launched official fan club on April 15 . The tour was produced by AEG Live and sponsored by AT & T and Choice Hotels .
= = Singles = =
" Here We Go Again " was released as the album 's lead single on June 23 , 2009 via digital download . The song made its debut at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 and managed to peak at number 15 , becoming Lovato 's highest peaking solo single at the time . Elsewhere , the song peaked at number 68 on the Canadian Hot 100 and 38 in New Zealand . Critical reception of the song was generally positive , with critics comparing it to Kelly Clarkson . The music video was directed by Brendan Malloy and Tim Wheeler . The song has sold over 820 @,@ 000 copies and was certified Platinum in the United States .
" Remember December " was released on January 18 , 2010 ( international only ) , as the second and final single from the album . The single failed to match the success of its predecessor , but it did peaked at number 80 on the UK Singles Chart . The song received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised its hook and chorus . " Remember December " was directed by Tim Wheeler and features guest appearances from Lovato 's female co @-@ stars in Camp Rock 2 : The Final Jam . Instead of having a love interest in the video , Lovato chose to give it a girl empowerment theme , saying that it is about " being fierce " and " taking control as a girl " .
= = Track listing = =
Sampling credits
" Got Dynamite " contains acoustic drum samples from Geoff Dugmore 's " Brutal Beats " from Zero @-@ G.
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Here We Go Again are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Terry Conroy =
Gerard Anthony Francis " Terry " Conroy ( born 2 October 1946 ) is an Irish former professional footballer . A winger and forward , he scored 74 goals in 372 league and cup appearances in a 14 @-@ year career in the Football League from 1967 to 1981 . He also scored two goals and won 26 caps for the Republic of Ireland in a seven @-@ year international career from 1969 to 1976 .
Raised in Cabra , Dublin , he began his career at Home Farm , before spending two years with Glentoran from 1965 to 1967 . With Glentoran he won the Steel & Sons Cup and Irish Cup in 1966 , and helped the club to win the Irish League title in 1966 – 67 . He was sold to English First Division club Stoke City in March 1967 for a fee of £ 15 @,@ 000 , and went to on to help Stoke to win the League Cup in 1972 . In total he spent 12 years with Stoke , scoring 67 goals in 333 league and cup appearances . He was a popular figure with Stoke fans due to his creative flair and dribbling ability , as well as his distinctive pale skin , bright ginger hair and sideburns .
He moved to Hong Kong to play for Bulova in 1979 , and returned to England the following year to join Crewe Alexandra in the Fourth Division . He signed with Irish club Waterford in September 1981 , moving on to Limerick United in November 1982 , where he ended his career . He later ran his own insurance business and worked for Stoke City and the Football Association of Ireland . He is married and has three daughters .
= = Club career = =
= = = Ireland = = =
Gerard Anthony Francis Conroy was born in Dublin to John ( Jack ) and Esther Conroy , and was one of ten siblings : Alphonsus ( Ollie ) , Laurence ( Lar ) , John ( Donny ) , Rita , Peter , Michael , Vincent , Paul , and Marie . Christened as Gerard , he soon became known by the name Terry as he could not pronounce ' Gerard ' as a young child . His mother held two jobs : as a factory worker and an office cleaner . The family lived in the suburb of Cabra , and had very limited finances . Being one of the younger children he was indulged , and took advantage of his lack of household chores to spend the majority of his time playing football in the street . However he was arrested by a plain @-@ clothed policeman and sentenced to probation in Children 's Court for playing football in the street . He later credited his ball control skills to the many years he spent playing football with large numbers of other children in the tight streets of Cabra . His father and brothers were in the printing trade , and his brother Ollie , a talented footballer , rejected the opportunity to turn professional at Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1950 in order to remain employed in Dublin as a machine minder and play football part @-@ time in the League of Ireland . Three more of his brothers also played in the League of Ireland , and both Ollie and Michael played in the Shelbourne team that won the FAI Cup in 1960 .
Conroy began his career with Home Farm , where he won four Irish youth caps . He played for the Home Farm under @-@ 13s at the age of ten , at a time when Home Farm were considered the best youth team in the country . The club held the registration of much of the country 's top young players , and future Ireland international Billy Newman played in the same age group as Conroy , though Conroy was determined to go beyond playing in the League of Ireland and was determined to play as a professional in the Football League . However he was frequently told that he was too short to be taken on as an apprentice by an English club . However a late growth spurt saw him grow an extra six inches to reach the height of 5 ft 10 in ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) at age 17 . By this time he also began playing for the Home Farm senior team in the League of Ireland B Division .
In 1964 , Conroy was offered a contract at Shelbourne and Shamrock Rovers . However he instead moved to Northern Irish club Glentoran , where he believed that he would have a better chance of being spotted by an English club . He received a signing @-@ on fee of £ 600 . As the club were based in Belfast he had to spend the night at manager Billy Neill 's house after midweek games as he would miss the last train back to Dublin , and would have to instead catch the train the following morning to make it back to his regular job as a printer . He played for the Glentoran ' Seconds ' ( reserve team ) in the final of the Steel & Sons Cup on 25 December 1965 , which ended in a 1 – 0 victory over Larne . He scored on his first team debut two days later , a 3 – 2 win over Bangor . He went on to score both goals for Glentoran in the Irish Cup final on 23 April 1966 , a 2 – 0 win over Linfield at The Oval . In total he scored eight goals in the 1965 – 66 season , as the " Glens " finished third in the Irish League , two points behind champions Linfield . He went on to score 25 goals in the 1966 – 67 campaign , as Glentoran won the league by a one @-@ point margin . He also played in Europe , as the Irish Cup win also qualified Glentoran to a place in the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1966 – 67 , and he helped the club to a 1 – 1 draw at home with eventual runners @-@ up Rangers before they suffered a 4 – 0 loss at Ibrox Stadium . He received a league winner 's medal despite leaving the club before the end of the season .
= = = Stoke City = = =
Conroy had played for Home Farm in a friendly match against Stoke City at the age of 17 and impressed City manager Tony Waddington , who continued to track Conroy 's progress via his local scout George Eastham , Sr. However Fulham initially agreed a fee with Glentoran , but Waddington took the same train as Conroy after he left negotiations at Craven Cottage and successfully talked Conroy into signing with Stoke . This approach was actually an illegal approach according to FA rules . Conroy turned down a printer 's apprenticeship after his talk with Waddington and moved across the Irish Sea in March 1967 for a fee of £ 15 @,@ 000 ( £ 10 @,@ 000 plus two conditional bonus payments of £ 2 @,@ 500 ) . In the summer he was registered with the Cleveland Stokers , Stoke City 's United Soccer Association franchise team , and in his own words " played a handful of games without making too much impact " .
After taking the place of winger Gerry Bridgwood in the first team , he made an instant impact on his debut on 6 September 1967 , by scoring the winning goal in a 3 – 2 victory over Leicester City at the Victoria Ground . Though Conway only made nine league appearances in the 1967 – 68 season , he was present on the final day 2 – 1 win over Liverpool which kept Stoke out of the First Division relegation zone . He was again registered with the Cleveland Stokers – now in the North American Soccer League – in the summer of 1968 , but did not play a first team game for the club . He started to become a first team regular for Stoke in the 1968 – 69 season after scoring against Liverpool at Anfield on 20 August , and went on to score in four consecutive games over the Christmas period . Waddington did though sometimes prefer to play John Mahoney to Conroy , using Mahoney as an extra defensive midfielder to make Stoke more solid defensively . Conroy also damaged cartilage in his knee after being challenged heavily by Manchester City 's left @-@ half Alan Oakes in a 3 – 1 defeat at Maine Road on 29 March , and was ruled out of action for five months . After recovering he went on to make 33 appearances in the 1969 – 70 campaign , and got some measure of revenge over Manchester City at Maine Road on 17 January by scoring the only goal of the game after dribbling past three defenders from the half @-@ way line .
He scored 14 goals in the 1970 – 71 campaign , the highest tally he ever recorded , including one in a 5 – 0 victory over Arsenal on 26 September that came third in the BBC Goal of the Season competition . The goal came after he played a one @-@ two with Peter Dobing before striking a first @-@ time shot into the net from 25 @-@ yards . Stoke reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup for the first time since 1899 in 1970 – 71 , where they lost 2 – 0 to Arsenal after a replay ; in the original tie Stoke had led 2 – 1 before conceding an equaliser five minutes into injury time . Conroy played in 19 of Stoke 's 21 FA Cup and League Cup games in the 1971 – 72 season , as they reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup and the final of the League Cup . In the League Cup Stoke defeated Southport , Oxford United ( after a replay ) , Manchester United ( after two replays ) , Bristol Rovers and West Ham United ( after two replays ) to reach the Wembley final against Chelsea . Conroy was a key figure in the semi @-@ final decider at Old Trafford against West Ham , as he won a penalty in the first half and then scored the winning goal on 49 minutes with a 25 @-@ yard volley . He also opened the scoring in the final itself , as he converted a simple header after five minutes , and helped Stoke to go on to secure the first trophy in the club 's history with a 2 – 1 victory . Stoke also reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , again losing to Arsenal , though Conroy missed this game as he was sidelined for the rest of the season after he injured his cartilage again in a defeat to Leeds United on 8 April .
Stoke 's League Cup success won them qualification into the UEFA Cup for the first time in the club 's history in 1972 – 73 , and Conroy scored Stoke 's first goal in Europe on 13 September , a 3 – 1 victory over German side 1 . FC Kaiserslautern at the Victoria Ground . However Kaiserslautern won the return leg 4 – 0 to eliminate Stoke at the First Round . Stoke went on to finish 15th in the league , with Conroy claiming five goals in 39 appearances . The club then finished fifth in the 1973 – 74 campaign , but Conroy missed much of the season with recurring cartilage problems and featured in just eleven games . He underwent surgery to remove more cartilage from his knees , and as a result lost some of his natural pace and strength , making him a less effective player for the remainder of his career .
Stoke qualified for Europe again in 1974 – 75 , and managed to draw both legs with Dutch side Ajax , only to exit the competition on the away goals rule . However Conroy again struggled with injuries , and was limited to just 16 league appearances . He played most of these games as a centre @-@ forward , as regular striker John Ritchie missed much of the season with a broken leg and Geoff Hurst was nearing the end of his career and was unable to play every game . Conroy scored his two career hat @-@ tricks during the campaign , against Halifax Town in the League Cup on 11 September , and then against Carlisle United in a 5 – 2 league win on 22 March . At the end of the season Stoke had three games to play against mid @-@ table sides and needed to win all three in order to win the league , however they lost at Sheffield United and had goalless draws with Newcastle United and Burnley , leaving the club with another fifth @-@ place finish . Conroy was again limited to just 16 league appearances as he continued to suffer injury problems in the 1975 – 76 season , and underwent an operation to remove all the remaining cartilage from his knees . The club also suffered a disaster , as a strong gale blew a section of the roof off the Victoria Ground 's Butler Street Stand on 2 January , and as the correct insurance was not in place the club were forced to sell key players such as Jimmy Greenhoff , Mike Pejic , Alan Hudson , John Mahoney and Geoff Salmons in order to finance stadium repairs .
Stoke were relegated at the end of the 1976 – 77 season after winning just one of their final 15 games , with new manager George Eastham proving unable to turn around the club 's slump after he replaced Waddington as manager in March . Conroy later blamed complacency on the part of the players , admitting that he " never conceived " that Stoke could be relegated after their successes earlier in the decade . Eastham was sacked after a poor start to life in the Second
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moviemaking . The players were choreographed like actors , ... delivering their lines as plain text .... " Lowood stated that " Diary of a Camper breaks with the demo movie as documented gameplay " because the spectator 's perspective is independent " from that of any player / actor ; the movie is not ' shot ' from the first @-@ person perspective of the shooter . " Lowood called the film a " transformation of competitive play to ... minimal theatrical play " , emphasized through the inclusion of references to gameplay , such as the camper .
Before Diary of a Camper 's release , Uwe Girlich , a German doctoral candidate , had documented the Quake demo file format , in which " the player coordinates and the camera positions may be different " . He added that " for people with too much spare @-@ time Quake can replace a full 3D modelling system " . However , the Rangers developed Diary of a Camper before any demo @-@ editing software tools had been publicly released ; clan member Eric " ArchV " Fowler instead created his own tools to reposition the camera and to splice recorded footage . As with all of United Ranger Films ' productions , Heath " ColdSun " Brown wrote the story , and Matt " Unknown Soldier " Van Sickler was the director . In the release notes , Brown credits clan members Chris " Sphinx " Birke and Mute with helping Fowler with " movie packaging " .
Diary of a Camper and the films that it inspired were initially called " Quake movies " ; the term machinima was later coined in 1998 , in response to the increasing use of other game engines . There was initial hesitance to retroactively label Diary of a Camper the first machinima piece ; a Machinima.com article from February 2000 opened , " It 's kinda hard to pin down the first Machinima : things like the Doom speedruns , the Stunt Island stuff and the Demo Scene all compete for the title . However , it 's a lot easier to pin down the first piece of film made in a 3D game engine : Diary Of A Camper " . Marino states that the AMAS carefully defined machinima in 2002 as " animated filmmaking within a real @-@ time virtual 3 @-@ D environment " to separate machinima from its creative lineage . Separating machinima from the demoscene and earlier demo recordings , he defines Diary of a Camper as the first machinima work . Lowood also contrasts the film with earlier recordings of " documented gameplay " .
= = Reception = =
Despite Diary of a Camper 's importance in establishing machinima , commentators have criticized the film 's actual content . Marino called the plot " simple " ; likewise , Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd believed that " it wasn 't much of a story " , and Lowood wrote that " the plot offers little more than a brief sequence of inside jokes " . Among major Quake movie review sites , Roger Matthews of the Quake Movie Library called the film " not much more than a deathmatch with a camera " . On Psyk 's Popcorn Jungle , Paul Coates wrote , " This movie is dull . It is not very interesting . " Stephen Lum of The Cineplex criticized the film for its " weird humour " .
Although Quake movie critics found shortcomings in Diary of a Camper , they mentioned positive aspects , including the work 's novelty ; however , their final ratings varied . Matthews wrote that " the camera work was very nice and never once screwed up " , and Lum gave the film " a perfect 10 for Innovation / Originality because [ it ] started the Quake Movie craze " . Of the major Quake movie review sites , only The Cineplex gave Diary a good rating overall , 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Matthews and Coates rated the film 20 % , and 2 out of 10 , respectively . Later , Coates updated his review , saying , " I feel I overreacted at the fact that DoaC was old . It 's the first ever Quake movie . I have to give the Rangers massive credit for that .... But , by today 's standards , the rating seems to fit . "
Because of its significance , Diary of a Camper continues to be featured in machinima presentations . It was one of the first works to be included in the Machinima Archive , a collaboration among Stanford University , the Internet Archive , the AMAS , and machinima.com. In a 2005 event at Stanford University , the film was presented with later machinima works , such as Red vs. Blue . Likewise , the Australian Centre for the Moving Image included it in a 2006 machinima exhibit .
= Gypsies , Tramps and Weed =
" Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American television series Will & Grace . It was written by Katie Palmer and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on November 16 , 2000 . Guest stars in " Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " include Cher , Camryn Manheim , and Robert Romanus .
In the episode , Will ( Eric McCormack ) reluctantly decides to use a birthday gift certificate from Grace ( Debra Messing ) to consult a psychic about his future and encounters Sue ( Manheim ) , an absent @-@ minded psychic whose prediction leaves him reeling . Meanwhile , pop singer @-@ songwriter Cher encounters her biggest fan : Jack ( Sean Hayes ) ; and Karen ( Megan Mullally ) frowns on Grace 's new employee ( Romanus ) at the design firm .
One of the aspects of the episode focused on Jack carrying a Cher doll , as his adoration for the singer . The result of the doll 's appearance was a " collaboration " among the show 's staff , NBC , Mattel , and the Ketchum Entertainment Marketing unit . Mattel lent the producers a $ 60 @,@ 000 prototype of the doll . Will & Grace producer Tim Kaiser noted that the doll 's appearance was not any kind of " forced " product placement .
Since airing , " Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " has received positive reviews from television critics . The episode was watched by approximately 22 million viewers and received a 14 @.@ 8 rating , among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It was also the show 's second @-@ highest rating ever .
= = Plot = =
Grace ( Debra Messing ) , Jack ( Sean Hayes ) , and Karen ( Megan Mullally ) are celebrating Will 's ( Eric McCormack ) birthday at a restaurant . As a present , Grace gives Will a gift certificate from a psychic . During the dinner , their waiter Lenny ( Robert Romanus ) is rude to them , particularly to Grace . She complains to the manager which ultimately leads to the dismissal of Lenny . Guilty of the result , Grace hires Lenny as her new office assistant , much to the displeasure of Karen , her other assistant .
Meanwhile , Will visits Psychic Sue ( Camryn Manheim ) at her home . Psychic Sue begins Will 's reading which leads her to tell him that she is sensing a " trip " , not for him , but intended for someone close to him , and that she is " getting " China . Will is puzzled to hear that a " strawberry blond hair woman , with brown eyes " still loves him , and he reveals to Psychic Sue that he is gay . Will tells Grace of what occurred with Psychic Sue , which leads to Grace " tripping " over the steps in the kitchen , and her saying " I just broke my grandmother 's China . " Will reacts to what Psychic Sue told him . He also learns that his parents send him a package containing photos of his deceased dog , Daisy , who had " thick coat of strawberry blond hair . " Will revisits Psychic Sue with the intention of knowing about his future love life . She tells Will that the man he will end up with is named " Jack " . Will tells Grace about his return visit to Psychic Sue and how he will end up with someone named " Jack " . Will is frightened of the idea that he and his friend Jack , also gay , will end up together . Will finally tells Jack what the psychic said , which horrifies Jack , but Will and Jack realize they are meant to stay together , just in the non @-@ romantic relationship they have always had .
At Grace Adler Designs , Lenny promises Grace clients , but instead he has clients whom he sells cannabis to . Grace discovers what Lenny is doing , and fires him for taking advantage of her . Meanwhile , Jack carries a Cher doll , an adoration he has for the singer . He begins to annoy his friends with the doll , mainly having a booster seat for the doll at a restaurant . At the same restaurant , Jack encounters Cher , who tells him it is strange that he talks to her doll . Jack , however , believes that Cher is a drag queen . Annoyed , Cher starts to leave , but returns to sing " If I could turn back time " to convince him that she is indeed Cher . He does not believe it , which leads Cher to slap him and finally Jack realizing that it is Cher .
= = Production = =
" Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " was written by Katie Palmer and directed by series producer James Burrows . In October 2000 , it was confirmed that singer @-@ songwriter Cher would guest star on Will & Grace as herself . She filmed her appearance on October 17 . Cher revealed , " We did two endings . I improvised one . I hope they show it as an outtake ' cause the audience loved that one more than the one they 're gonna show . Instead of the thing I was supposed to do , I did something to Sean [ Hayes ] – something completely different and he just about passed out . I don 't know what possessed me . " It was also announced that actress Camryn Manheim would appear . Cher would later guest star on Will & Grace two years later .
The result of the Cher doll appearing in the episode was a " collaboration " among the Will & Grace staff , NBC , Mattel , and the Ketchum Entertainment Marketing unit . The collaboration ranged from Mattel lending the producers a $ 60 @,@ 000 prototype of the doll for filming the episode , to the scheduling of a Mattel Web site where viewers interested in buying the doll could register to purchase it . Following the airing of " Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " , it was reported that 1 @,@ 200 people logged on Mattel 's website requesting e @-@ mail updates on the Cher doll . Co @-@ creator of the show , Max Mutchnick kept the prototype .
Will & Grace producer , Tim Kaiser , in an interview with The New York Times , said that the doll 's appearance was not any kind of " forced " product placement , as some speculated , explaining , " It was just a natural fit , because Jack 's affection for Cher is a thread that is running through the show already . " Kaiser continued saying that NBC " saw the strength " of the episode 's storyline and understood that " if a Cher doll is in the show that much , it 's an integral part of the episode . " Kaiser said that " Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " writer Katie Palmer " originally didn 't know " Mattel planned to market a Cher doll and learned about it after working on the script . Curt King , a spokesman for NBC , further commented that the doll 's role in the episode was due to the producers thinking of " a lot of humor [ that ] would come out of it . " Mark Malinowski , senior vice president and director at Ketchum Entertainment Marketing , revealed that Mattel was launching the Cher doll and in a " brainstorming meeting " they mentioned Will & Grace as the Jack character in love with Cher . " We thought it would be great to try to include the doll in a plot line of an episode because it would be organic , playing off something that already exists . I don 't think any viewer will see this and think ' product placement . ' [ ... ] It 's strategic for the product and relevant for the audience , particularly the gay men who watch the show because the characters of Jack and Will are gay . " It was also noted that Mattel did not pay a fee to the show 's producers or NBC to have the Cher doll appear in the episode .
Television critic Scott D. Pierce revealed that NBC did not want television critics to give away too much detail about Jack and Cher 's " time together " . In a June 2004 interview , actress Megan Mullally , who plays Karen , in regards to Cher 's appearance , said : " I wasn 't sure about Cher 's [ appearance ] . They flew her in . Like , she was sort of dropped in on a crescent moon , she did the scene , and was , like , airlifted back out . And when I met her she was in her full Cher Land drag , so I didn 't get to experience her as a person . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " was watched by approximately 22 million viewers . The episode received a 14 @.@ 8 rating , according to Nielsen ratings , among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was Will & Grace 's second @-@ highest rating ever . The episode finished in fifth place in the weekly ratings for the week of November 13 – 19 , 2000 . Since airing , the episode received positive reviews .
Steve Johnson of the Chicago Tribune in regard to Cher 's appearance , said " she is put to grand comic use , showcasing the talents of [ Sean ] Hayes as the series continues to climb to the top tier of TV comedy . " Liz Lucero of the Columbia Daily Spectator said that Cher 's role was " small enough to still let the core characters shine " , meanwhile Scott D. Pierce of the Deseret News said that Cher 's guest spot " is also sort of a logical place " for her to make an appearance , " albeit in an odd sort of way . " Pierce continued to report that Jack and Cher 's scene at the end was a " hoot " . Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post said that the character Jack " did a better Cher than Cher did . " The Orlando Sentinel 's Hal Boedeker called Cher 's cameo " amusing " .
Tom Shales of The Washington Post said , " There are a few laughs in Katie Palmer 's script " . Pierce was complimentary towards Camryn Manheim opining , " she does a delicious turn as a wacky psychic who 's about as different from the character she plays on The Practice as you could imagine . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' contributor Phil Rosenthal said that the " most interesting guest " on " Gypsies , Tramps and Weed " was Robert Romanus .
The episode can be found on the Season 3 DVD set . However , like many of the episodes throughout the series , this episode is shown in its syndicated version . Several trims were made between the version that originally aired and the version contained on the U.S. and international releases .
= Trafford Park =
Trafford Park is an area of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , in Greater Manchester , England . Located opposite Salford Quays , on the southern side of the Manchester Ship Canal , it is 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) west @-@ southwest of Manchester city centre , and 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) north of Stretford . Until the late 19th century it was the ancestral home of the Trafford family , who sold it to financier Ernest Terah Hooley in 1896 . Occupying an area of 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) , it was the first planned industrial estate in the world , and remains the largest in Europe .
Trafford Park is almost entirely surrounded by water ; the Bridgewater Canal forms its southeastern and southwestern boundaries , and the Manchester Ship Canal , which opened in 1894 , its northeastern and northwestern boundaries . Hooley 's plan was to develop the Ship Canal frontage , but the canal was slow to generate the predicted volume of traffic , so in the early days the park was largely used for leisure activities such as golf , polo and boating . British Westinghouse was the first major company to move in , and by 1903 it was employing about half of the 12 @,@ 000 workers then employed in the park , which became one of the most important engineering facilities in Britain .
Trafford Park was a major supplier of materiel during the First and Second World Wars , producing the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engines used to power both the Spitfire and the Lancaster . At its peak in 1945 , an estimated 75 @,@ 000 workers were employed in the park . That number began to decline during the 1960s as companies closed in favour of newer , more efficient plants elsewhere . By 1967 employment had fallen to 50 @,@ 000 , and the decline continued throughout the 1970s . The new generation of container ships was too large for the Manchester Ship Canal , which led to a further decline in Trafford Park 's fortunes . The workforce had fallen to 15 @,@ 000 by 1976 , and by the 1980s industry had virtually disappeared from the park .
The Trafford Park Urban Development Corporation , formed in 1987 , reversed the estate 's decline . In the 11 years of its existence the park attracted 1 @,@ 000 companies , generating 28 @,@ 299 new jobs and £ 1 @.@ 759 billion of private @-@ sector investment . As of 2008 , there were 1 @,@ 400 companies within Trafford Park , employing an estimated 35 @,@ 000 people .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ industrial = = =
Until the industrial development of the park began in the late 19th century , much of the area now known as Trafford Park was a " beautifully timbered deer park " . Its 1 @,@ 183 acres ( 4 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 m2 ) comprised flat meadows and grassland , and an inner park containing a tree @-@ lined avenue leading from an entrance lodge at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell . It was the ancestral estate of the de Trafford family , one of the most ancient in England , and then one of the largest landowners in Stretford . The family acquired the lands around Trafford in about 1200 , when Richard de Trafford was given the lordship of Stretford by Hamon de Massey , 4th Baron of Dunham . Some time between 1672 and 1720 , the de Traffords moved from the home they had occupied since 1017 , in what is now known as Old Trafford , to what was then called Whittleswick Hall , which they renamed Trafford Hall . Their new home was a little to the east of where Tenax Circle is today , at the northwestern end of Trafford Park Road .
Trafford Park contained the hall , its grounds , and three farms : Park Farm , Moss Farm , and Waters Meeting Farm . From the original three entrance lodges to the park , at Throstle Nest , Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell and Old Trafford , only the latter has survived , having been relocated from its original position opposite what is today the White City retail park to become the entrance to Gorse Hill Park .
In 1761 , a section of the Bridgewater Canal was built along the southeast and southwest sides of Trafford Park . The canal along with the River Irwell , which marked the estate 's northeast and northwest boundaries , gave the park its present @-@ day " island @-@ like " quality . In about 1860 , an 8 @-@ acre ( 32 @,@ 000 m2 ) ornamental lake was dug in the north of the park , close to the River Irwell .
A meeting held in 1882 at the Didsbury home of engineer Daniel Adamson began the estate 's transformation , with the creation of the Manchester Ship Canal committee . Sir Humphrey de Trafford was an implacable opponent of the proposed canal , objecting that , amongst other things , it would bring polluted water close to his residence , interfere with his drainage , and render Trafford Hall uninhabitable , forcing him to " give up his home and leave the place " . Despite Sir Humphrey 's opposition the Ship Canal Bill became law on its third passage through Parliament , on 6 August 1885 . Construction began in 1888 , more than two years after Sir Humphrey 's death , although a 9 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wall was built between the canal and the park , so as to block it off from view . Two wharves were also built , for the exclusive use of the de Traffords .
The opening of the ship canal in 1894 made Trafford Park a prime site for industrial development . During the following century , the park was built over with factories and some housing for workers . The deer were initially allowed to continue roaming free , but as the park 's industrialisation gathered pace they were considered inappropriate and were killed , the last of them in 1900 . Trafford Hall survived until its demolition following the Second World War . For a view of Trafford Hall in 1934 with the railway in front of it see the Trafford Council website [ 1 ] .
= = = Early development = = =
On 7 May 1896 , Sir Humphrey Francis de Trafford put the 1 @,@ 183 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate up for auction , but it failed to reach its reported reserve price of £ 300 @,@ 000 ( £ 31 @.@ 3 million as of 2016 ) . There was much public debate , before and after the abortive sale , as to whether Manchester Corporation ought to buy Trafford Park , but the corporation could not agree terms quickly enough , and so on 23 June Ernest Terah Hooley became the new owner of Trafford Park , for the sum of £ 360 @,@ 000 ( £ 37 @.@ 6 million as of 2016 ) .
On 17 August , Hooley formed Trafford Park Estates Ltd , transferring his ownership of the park to the new company – of which he was the chairman and a significant shareholder – at a substantial profit . The initial plans for the estate included a racetrack , exclusive housing and a cycle works , along with the development of the ship canal frontage for " all types of trade including timber " . By that time the ship canal had been open for two years , but the predicted traffic had yet to materialise . Hooley met with Marshall Stevens , the general manager of the Ship Canal Company , and both men recognised the benefit that the industrial development of Trafford Park could offer to the ship canal , and the ship canal to the estate . In January 1897 Stevens became the managing director of Trafford Park Estates . He remained with the company , latterly as its joint chairman and managing director , until 1930 .
The company initially chose not to construct buildings for letting , and instead leased land for development . But by the end of June 1897 less than one per cent of the park had been leased , and so the park 's existing assets were put to use until more tenants could be found . Trafford Hall was opened as a hotel in 1899 , to serve prospective industrialists considering a move to the park , along with their key employees . It had 40 bedrooms , available to " Gentlemen only " . The hall 's stables and some other outbuildings were used for stock auctions and the sale of horses , from 1900 to 1902 , and the ornamental lake was leased to William Crooke and Sons , for use as a boating lake , initially on a five @-@ year lease . A polo ground was set up in the park in 1902 , and 80 acres ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land near the hall were leased to the Manchester Golf Club , who laid out a three @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long course . The club moved from Trafford Park to a new site at Hopwood Park in 1912 . All of the open @-@ field land uses were subsequently pushed out by industry .
In 1908 the Estates Company decided to reverse its earlier policy of only leasing the land , and began to construct what were known as Hives , 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide subdivisions of a longer single building that could be internally reconfigured for each tenant 's needs . A series of 19 were built initially , available to rent at £ 80 per annum ( £ 8 thousand as of 2016 ) . Brooke Bond was one of the companies that took advantage of the Hives , before moving to its purpose @-@ built factory on the park in 1922 . The Estates Company also built large reinforced concrete warehouses , known as Safes . These buildings were fitted with sprinkler systems and were considered fireproof , which reduced insurance costs to 25 per cent of those of comparable warehouses elsewhere in the area . Each Safe had a capacity of 778 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 22 @,@ 000 m3 ) , sufficient to hold 50 @,@ 000 bales of cotton .
= = = Industrialisation = = =
Among the first industries to arrive was the Manchester Patent Fuel Company , in 1898 . The Trafford Brick Company arrived soon after , followed by J.W. Southern & Co . ( timber merchants ) , James Gresham ( engineers ) , and W. T. Glovers & Co . ( electric cable manufacturers ) . Glovers also built a power station in the park , on the banks of the Bridgewater Canal . Most of these early developments were built on the eastern side of the park , while the rest of it remained largely undeveloped .
The first American company to arrive was Westinghouse Electric , which formed its British subsidiary – British Westinghouse Electric Company – in 1899 , and purchased 130 acres ( 0 @.@ 53 km2 ) on two sites . Building work started in 1900 , and the factory began production of turbines and electric generators in 1902 . By the following year , British Westinghouse was employing about half of the 12 @,@ 000 workers in Trafford Park . Its main machine shop was 899 feet ( 274 m ) long and 440 feet ( 134 m ) wide ; for almost 100 years Westinghouse 's Trafford Park works was the most important engineering facility in Britain . In 1919 , Westinghouse was sold to the Vickers Company and renamed Metropolitan @-@ Vickers , often shortened to Metrovicks .
In 1903 , the Cooperative Wholesale Society ( CWS ) , bought land at Trafford Wharf and set up a large food @-@ packing factory and a flour mill . Other companies arriving at about the same time included Kilverts ( lard manufacturers ) , the Liverpool Warehousing Company , and Lancashire Dynamo & Crypto Ltd .
The second major American company to set up a manufacturing base in Trafford Park was the Ford Motor Company , in 1911 . Initially Ford used its factory as an assembly plant for the Model T , although other vehicles were assembled there in later years , before moving to a new factory at Dagenham , Essex , in 1931 . By 1915 , 100 American companies had moved into the park , peaking at more than 200 by 1933 . When the cotton industry began to decline in the early 20th century , Trafford Park and the Manchester Ship Canal helped Manchester – and to a lesser extent the rest of south Lancashire – to weather the economic depression from which the rest of Lancashire suffered . During the First World War the park was used for the manufacture of munitions , chemicals and other materiel . Most firms at Trafford Park succeeded in avoiding bankruptcy during the Great Depression , unlike the rest of Lancashire . Ford moved to Dagenham in 1931 , but returned temporarily to Trafford Park during the Second World War .
Metropolitan Vickers set up Manchester 's and one of the UK 's first radio stations at their factory in 1921 . The station 's first broadcast took place on 17 May 1922 . In October that year the company was one of six who formed the British Broadcasting Company ( BBC ) , which started broadcasting from the Metrovicks studio under the call sign 2ZY on 15 November 1922 . Much of the station 's content was musical , but news , plays , and children 's programmes were also transmitted . Conditions in the small 30 @-@ by @-@ 16 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m × 4 @.@ 9 m ) studio were cramped , and the BBC moved the station to larger premises outside the park in 1923 .
= = = Westwards expansion = = =
Sir Humphrey de Trafford had retained 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 530 ha ) of land on the western side of the ship canal after his 1897 sale of Trafford Park . Hemmed in as it was between the canals and " an increasingly urbanised Stretford to the east " , as the industrialisation of the park neared its completion the Estates Company started to acquire parcels of the remaining de Trafford land , then in the control of family trustees , as did the Canal Company . In 1924 the Estates Company bought a half share in Dumplington Estates Ltd . , a company set up to administer 38 acres ( 15 ha ) of land bought from the de Trafford Trustees on which it was intended to build a garden village . In 1929 the Ship Canal Company acquired Dumplington Estates , and in return gave the Estates Company land to the south of Barton , the Trafford Park Extension . The Canal Company recognised the potential for a new dock on the land , giving the area its name of Barton Dock Estate , although no dock was ever built . The Barton Docks area was developed during and after the Second World War , but the land belonging to Dumplington Estates remained largely undeveloped until the construction of the Trafford Centre , which opened in 1998 .
= = = Second World War = = =
Trafford Park was largely turned over to the production of war materiel during the Second World War , such as the Avro Manchester and Avro Lancaster heavy bombers , and the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engines used to power the Spitfire , Hurricane , Mosquito and the Lancaster . The engines were made by Ford , under licence . The 17 @,@ 316 workers employed in Ford 's purpose @-@ built factory had produced 34 @,@ 000 engines by the war 's end . The facility was designed in two separate sections to minimise the impact of bomb damage on production . The wood @-@ working factory of F. Hills & Sons built more than 800 Percival Proctor aircraft for the RAF between 1940 and 1945 , which were flight tested at the nearby Barton Aerodrome . Other companies produced gun bearings , steel tracks for Churchill tanks , munitions , Bailey Bridges , and much else . ICI built and operated the first facility in the UK able to produce penicillin in quantity .
As an important industrial area , the park suffered from extensive bombing , particularly during the Manchester Blitz of December 1940 . On the night of 23 December 1940 , the Metropolitan @-@ Vickers aircraft factory in Mosley Road was badly damaged , with the loss of the first 13 MV @-@ built Avro Manchester bombers in final assembly . The new Ford factory producing aircraft engines was bombed only a few days after its opening in May 1941 . Trafford Hall was severely damaged by bombing , and was demolished shortly after the war ended . At the outbreak of war in 1939 there were an estimated 50 @,@ 000 workers employed in the park . By the end of the war in 1945 that number had risen to 75 @,@ 000 , probably the peak size of the park 's workforce ; Metropolitan @-@ Vickers alone employed 26 @,@ 000 .
= = = Decline and regeneration = = =
In the 1960s employment in the park began to decline as companies closed their premises in favour of newer , more efficient plants elsewhere . Ellesmere Port and Runcorn at the western end of the Manchester Ship Canal were in the ascendency industrially and they overtook Trafford Park in economic importance . In 1967 , employment had fallen to 50 @,@ 000 and there was a further decline in the 1970s . In 1971 , Stretford Council responded by setting up the Trafford Park Industrial Council ( TRAFIC ) , membership of which was open to any firm in Trafford Park . One of TRAFIC 's early initiatives was to encourage businesses in the park to address the general air of decay , by improving their own areas through landscaping and other environmental improvements . The park 's decline was exacerbated by the decreasing use of the Manchester Ship Canal during the 1970s , which was unable to accommodate the newer , larger container ships then entering service . By 1976 , the workforce had fallen to 15 @,@ 000 , and by the 1980s industry had virtually disappeared .
On 12 August 1981 , 483 acres ( 1 @.@ 95 km2 ) of Trafford Park – along with Salford Quays – were declared an Enterprise Zone by the UK government , in an attempt to encourage new development within the estate . The new status did little to reverse the park 's fortunes however ; during a 1984 House of Commons debate , Member of Parliament for Stretford , Tony Lloyd , described the area 's decline as " spectacular and disastrous " . The target had been to create 7 @,@ 000 new jobs over 10 years , but by 1986 only 2 @,@ 557 had been created , not even enough to compensate for the ongoing job losses caused by closures within the park . On 10 February 1987 the Trafford Park Development Corporation was formed to assume responsibility for a 3 @,@ 130 acres ( 12 @.@ 7 km2 ) Urban Development Area that included not only Trafford Park but also parts of Stretford , Salford Quays , and the former steelworks at Irlam , now known as Northbank . Of the four redevelopment schemes undertaken by the corporation one , Wharfside , included 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of the eastern end of the park as well as part of the ship canal docks and the area around Manchester United F.C. ' s Old Trafford football ground to the east of the Bridgewater Canal . The intention was to build " a flagship site " containing prestigious accommodation for offices , shops , and " hi @-@ tech " industries , capitalising on the area 's proximity to Manchester city centre and mirroring the earlier success of the redevelopment at nearby Salford Quays .
Between 1987 and 1998 , the development corporation attracted 1 @,@ 000 companies , generating 28 @,@ 299 new jobs and £ 1 @.@ 759 billion of private sector investment . The setting up of the corporation was intended to be only a temporary measure , terminating on 31 March 1997 , but it was extended for a further year until March 1998 when responsibility for Trafford Park 's development passed to Trafford Council . The park is once again a major centre of employment in Trafford , and its regeneration has led to a high start @-@ up rate for businesses and low rates of unemployment in the area . As of 2008 , there were 1 @,@ 400 companies within the park employing an estimated 35 @,@ 000 people .
= = Governance = =
= = = Civic history = = =
The eastern area of the park , where the first developments took place at the end of the 19th century , was then under the local government control of Stretford Urban District ; the west was controlled by the urban district of Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell . Tensions soon began to emerge between the Estates Company and Stretford Council over the provision of local services and infrastructure . In 1902 , W. T. Glover & Co , a cable manufacturing company that had moved to the park from nearby Salford , built a power station next to their works to supply electricity to the rest of the park ; the Estates Company had previously approached Manchester Corporation , but Stretford would not allow another local authority to supply electricity within its area .
In 1901 Manchester Corporation formally proposed a merger with Stretford UDC , on the basis that Stretford 's growth was due in large part to Trafford Park , the growth of which in turn was largely due to the Manchester Ship Canal . Manchester Corporation had provided one @-@ third of the capital needed to build the ship canal , for which it had doubled its municipal debt , despite having also increased rates by 26 per cent between 1892 and 1895 . Stretford and Lancashire County Council opposed the merger , which was rejected following a government inquiry . In 1969 Pevsner wrote : " That [ neighbouring ] Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England . "
The tensions between Stretford and the Estates Company began to come to a head in 1906 , when in response to complaints in the press about the state of one particular road in the park , Trafford Park Road , Stretford issued formal notices demanding that all premises with frontage onto the road pay for its improvement . Further disputes over the standard of roads in the park followed until , in 1907 , the Estates Company presented a petition to Lancashire County Council demanding that Trafford Park should be an urban district in its own right , independent of Stretford . The county council dismissed the petition , but later that year , following a petition organised by the Trafford Park Ratepayers Association , a new local government ward , Park Ward , was created within Stretford , The new ward did not include the western part of the park however , which remained under the control of Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell .
As a consequence of the Local Government Act 1972 , the borough of Stretford was abolished and Trafford Park has , since 1 April 1974 , formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford . As of 2010 , the park is in the Trafford ward of Gorse Hill .
= = = Political representation = = =
Since 1997 , Trafford Park has been in the constituency of Stretford and Urmston . Kate Green , a member of the Labour Party , became the MP at the 2010 General Election , with a majority of 8935 , representing 48 @.@ 6 per cent of the vote . The Conservatives took 28 @.@ 7 per cent of the vote , the Liberal Democrats 16 @.@ 9 per cent , the United Kingdom Independence Party 3 @.@ 4 per cent , the Green Party 2 @.@ 0 per cent , and the Christian Party 0 @.@ 4 per cent .
= = Geography = =
The topography of Trafford Park is either flat or gently undulating , about 144 feet ( 44 m ) above sea level at its highest point . The local bedrock is Triassic Bunter Sandstone , overlaid by sand and gravel deposited during the last ice age , around 10 @,@ 000 years ago . There are some areas of peat bog in the west of the park , in the area formerly known as Trafford Moss . In 1793 , William Roscoe began work on reclaiming the bog , and by 1798 that work was sufficiently advanced for him to turn his attention to the task of reclaiming the much larger Chat Moss in nearby Salford , also owned by the Trafford family .
The park occupies an area of 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) , and is almost entirely surrounded by water . The Bridgewater Canal forms its southeastern and southwestern boundaries , and the Manchester Ship Canal forms its northeastern and northwestern boundaries . Trafford Park is the most northerly area of Trafford , and faces Salford across the Manchester Ship Canal . Stretford lies to the south and east , and Urmston to the west .
= = Trafford Park Village = =
In 1898 , a large plot of land was sold to Edmund Nuttall & Co. for the construction of 1 @,@ 200 houses . The houses were never built , but the land later became the site of Trafford Park Village , known locally as The Village . The announced arrival of the Westinghouse factory acted a spur to development , and in 1899 , Trafford Park Dwellings Ltd was formed , with the aim of providing housing for the anticipated influx of new workers . Nuttall 's land was acquired , and by 1903 more than 500 houses had been built , rising to over 700 when the development was completed in 1904 . In 1907 it was estimated that the population of the Village was 3 @,@ 060 . The development was laid out in a grid pattern , with the roads numbered instead of being named . Avenues numbered 1 to 4 run north – south , streets numbered 1 to 12 run east – west .
The Village was almost completely self @-@ contained , with its own shops , public hall , post office , police station , school , social club , and sports facilities . Three corrugated iron churches were built : a Methodist chapel in 1901 , St Cuthberts ( Church of England ) in 1902 , and the Roman Catholic St Antony 's in 1904 . St Cuthbert 's was subsequently replaced by a brick building , but closed in 1982 . Only St Antony 's remains open ; it contains the altar and a stained glass window from the chapel at Trafford Hall , donated by Lady Annette de Trafford . The Village 's design attracted criticism from the start ; the streets were narrow , with few gardens , and the whole development was close to the pollution of the neighbouring industries . In that respect it resembled the terraced properties in the surrounding areas , many of which were condemned as slums in later years . By the 1970s The Village was also considered by Stretford Council to be a slum area , and unsuitable for residential housing . In the first phase of clearance , during the mid @-@ 1970s , 298 houses were demolished . A further 325 houses were demolished in the early 1980s , leaving only the largest 84 & houses remaining .
= = Landmarks = =
The Imperial War Museum North , opened on 5 July 2002 , is in Trafford Wharf , on the southern edge of the ship canal looking over towards Salford Quays . An example of deconstructivist architecture , it was the first building in the United Kingdom to be designed by Daniel Libeskind . The structure consists of three interlocking sections : the air shard , the earth shard , and the water shard , representing a world torn apart by conflict . Entrance to the museum is via the air shard , which is 180 feet ( 55 m ) in height , and is open to the elements . It has a viewing platform about 95 feet ( 29 m ) high , offering views across Salford and the Quays towards Manchester city centre . The museum houses two extensive exhibition spaces . The largest is dedicated to the permanent exhibition covering conflicts from 1900 to the present day , and the other space is used for special exhibitions .
Trafford Ecology Park
The 11 @-@ acre ( 45 @,@ 000 m2 ) Trafford Ecology Park is what remains of Trafford Park 's ornamental boating lake . Boating continued on the lake until the 1930s , but by then its water had become polluted by asbestos and oil seepage from the neighbouring Anglo American Oil depot . During the Second World War the site was used as a tip for foundry waste . Esso bought the land in 1974 , and levelled and partly seeded it , to improve the frontage to its own site . Trafford council bought the land from Esso in 1983 , for £ 50 @,@ 000 ( £ 152 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Government spending restrictions delayed the park 's restoration and conversion , and it was not fully opened to the public until 1990 .
The present lake is about one @-@ third of its original size , but although now relatively small it supports a wide variety of wildlife , including foxes , weasels , rabbits , hedgehogs , lapwings , kestrels , herons , coot , Canada Geese , and several varieties of newt . In 2007 the park was designated a Local Nature Reserve , one of only two in Trafford .
The site was originally part of the de Trafford family estate , but was enveloped by encroaching industry in the early 1900s . In the following years the area was used as a tipping site by industry and partly filled with construction rubble and slag from steel works . Now owned and managed by Groundwork Manchester , Salford , Stockport , Tameside & Trafford , the park is used as a training centre for horticulture training and as a volunteering hub .
= = Transport = =
At the end of the 19th century there were no public transport routes in , and few running close to , Trafford Park . Its size meant that the Estates Company was obliged to provide some means of travelling around the park , and therefore a gas @-@ powered tramway was commissioned , intended to carry both people and freight . The first tram ran on 23 July 1897 , but after a few days of operation there was an accident in which a tramcar was derailed , and the service was suspended until the following year . The tram 's maximum speed was 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) , and their distinctive exhaust smell quickly earned them the nickname " Lamp Oil Express " . The service was operated by the British Gas Traction Company , which paid a share of its takings to the Estates Company , but by 1899 the company was in serious financial difficulty , and entered voluntary liquidation . Salford Corporation then refused to provide any more gas for the trams , and the service was once again suspended until the Estates Company bought the entire operation for £ 2 @,@ 000 in 1900 . A separate electric tramway was installed in 1903 , and was taken over and operated by Manchester and Salford Corporations in 1905 . The takeover did not affect the gas trams however , which continued to run until 1908 , when they were replaced by steam locomotives . Between 1904 and 1907 the Estates Company also operated a horse @-@ drawn bus for the use of gentlemen staying at Trafford Hall , then a hotel . The service , available 24 @-@ hours a day , was replaced by a motor car in 1907 .
Under an 1898 agreement between the Estates Company and the Ship Canal Company , the latter committed to carry freight on their dock railway between the docks and the park and to the construction of a permanent connection between the two railway networks . The West Manchester Light Railway Company was set up the following year to take over the operations of the tramway and to lay additional track . In 1904 responsibility for all of the parks roads and railways passed to the Trafford Park Company , as a result of the Trafford Park Act of that year . The railway network could subsequently be extended as required , without the need to seek additional permissions from Parliament . The network was also connected to the Manchester , South Junction and Altrincham Railway near Cornbrook . At its peak , the estate 's railway network covered 26 route miles ( 42 km ) , handling about 2 @.@ 5 million tons of cargo in 1940 . Like the rest of the park , it fell into decline during the 1960s , exacerbated by the increasing use of road transport , and it was closed in 1998 .
Trafford Park Aerodrome was Manchester 's first purpose @-@ built airfield , laid out on a site between Trafford Park Road , Mosley Road , and Ashburton Road . The first aircraft landed there on 7 July 1911 , flown from Liverpool by Henry G. Melly . The aerodrome was in use until the early years of the First World War , and possibly until 1918 , when it was replaced by the newly completed Alexandra Park Aerodrome .
= = = Current and future transport = = =
The Trafford Park Euroterminal rail freight terminal , which has the capacity to deal with 100 @,@ 000 containers a year , was opened in 1993 , at a cost of £ 11 million .
Today , Trafford Park is served by a number of bus routes including the Stagecoach Manchester X50 and 250 which run between Manchester city centre and the Trafford Centre . Trafford Park railway station is to the east of the area and is served by trains between Liverpool Lime Street and Manchester Oxford Road .
There is also an advanced proposal for an extension of the Manchester Metrolink from Pomona to the Trafford Centre with indicative stops at Wharfside , Imperial War Museum North , the Village , Parkway Circle , EventCity and the Trafford Centre .
= The Hole ( Scientology ) =
The Hole is the unofficial nickname of a facility operated by the Church of Scientology on Gold Base , its compound near the town of Hemet in Riverside County , California . Dozens of its senior executives have reportedly been confined within the building for months or years . It consists of a set of double @-@ wide trailers within a Scientology compound , joined together to form a suite of offices which were formerly used by the Church 's international management team . According to former members of the Church of Scientology and media reports , from 2004 the Church 's leader David Miscavige sent dozens of senior Scientology executives to the Hole . The Tampa Bay Times described it in a January 2013 article as :
a place of confinement and humiliation where Scientology 's management culture — always demanding — grew extreme . Inside , a who 's who of Scientology leadership went at each other with brutal tongue lashings , and even hands and fists . They intimidated each other into crawling on their knees and standing in trash cans and confessing to things they hadn 't done . They lived in degrading conditions , eating and sleeping in cramped spaces designed for office use .
The executives confined at the Hole are reported to have numbered up to 100 of the most senior figures in Scientology 's management , including the Church of Scientology International 's President , Heber Jentzsch . Individuals are said to have spent months or even years there . After a few managed to escape the Hole and Scientology , they gave accounts of their experiences to the media , the courts and the FBI , leading to widespread publicity about the harsh conditions that they had allegedly endured . The Church of Scientology has denied those accounts . It says that " the Hole does not exist and never has " and states that nobody had been held against their will . However , it acknowledges that its members are subjected to " religious discipline , a program of ethics and correction entered into voluntarily as part of their religious observances . " It has been described by ex @-@ members comparable to that of a North Korean death camp .
= = Background = =
The facility known as the Hole is located on the Church of Scientology 's Gold Base , built on the site of a resort called Gilman Hot Springs in the California town of San Jacinto . The base covers 520 acres ( 210 ha ) bisected by a public highway , Gilman Springs Road , just off California State Route 79 . It was secretly acquired by the Church of Scientology in 1978 under the alias of the " Scottish Highland Quietude Club " . The Church established a secret base there which was staffed by members of the Sea Org , an inner core of Scientologists which is said to number some five to seven thousand people . There are now two Sea Org bases in the compound : Gold , which houses the Church 's in @-@ house film studio Golden Era Productions , and Int , the Church 's international headquarters , though in practice the whole site is usually called Gold Base .
Members of the Sea Org are subject to a rigid code of discipline known as " Scientology Ethics " which is enforced by Ethics Officers . Scientologists are encouraged to look out for any fellow members violating Ethics and to submit " Knowledge Reports " on any violations they spot . If Ethics are violated , a " trial " by a Committee of Evidence can lead to punishments administered by a body called the Rehabilitation Project Force ( RPF ) . Such punishments , which can last for months or years , typically consist of a regime of physical labor and lengthy daily confessions of " evil purposes " . Such assignments can also be received for performing work poorly , showing negative personality indicators ( doubts , hostility etc . ) or causing trouble . Individuals assigned in this way are kept isolated and prohibited from having contact with other members of the Church of Scientology and the public .
According to Marc and Claire Headley , two Scientologists who left the Church in 2005 , residents at the base are not permitted to leave without the permission of a supervisor and have to work at least 16 hours a day , from 8 am to past midnight , with shorter hours on Sundays and little time for socialising . Communications with the outside world are effectively cut off ; cellphones and Internet access are generally banned , mail is censored and passports are kept in a locked filing cabinet . The perimeter of the base is closely guarded around the clock . It is ringed with high fences that are topped with spikes and razor wire and monitored by inward @-@ facing motion sensors to detect anyone trying to climb out of the compound . The Tampa Bay Times reported that dozens of workers tried to escape from the base – some of them repeatedly – but were caught and returned by Sea Org " pursuit teams " . The escapees are said to have been subjected to isolation , interrogation and punishment on their return to the compound .
= = Origin of the Hole = =
Defectors from the Church say that from around 2002 , Scientology leader David Miscavige began to publicly slap , kick , punch or shove executives at the base who had angered him . John Brousseau , the estate manager at Gold Base and a veteran Sea Org member , said that Miscavige repeatedly faulted his subordinates ' work , " constantly berating them , nitpicking everything they 're doing , pointing out inadequacies , ineffectiveness , lack of results , blaming it all on them and their inability to do anything right , and on the other hand saying how he 's got to do everything himself – he 's the only one who can do anything right . " High @-@ level meetings became tense affairs punctuated by " profane , belittling rants " . According to emails said to have come from Miscavige 's " Communicator " – the personal assistant responsible for passing on transcribed messages from the leader – he routinely berated subordinates with terms such as " CSMF " ( meaning " Cock @-@ sucking motherfucker " ) and " YSCOHB " ( meaning " You suck cock on Hollywood Boulevard " ) .
A practice called " overboarding " was reintroduced as a further method of enforcing discipline on the base . It had been devised during the 1960s when Scientology 's founder L. Ron Hubbard was living aboard a former Irish Sea cattle ferry Royal Scotman [ sic ] ( later Apollo ) , in which he roamed the Mediterranean at the head of a small fleet of ships crewed by Sea Org members . In response to perceived violations , Scientologists were thrown over the side of the ship ; sometimes they were bound and blindfolded before being tossed overboard . Scientology spokesmen describe the practice as " a Sea Org ritual akin to traditions in other religious orders " and " part of ecclesiastical justice . "
Some Scientology churches ( or " orgs " ) adopted a land @-@ based version of overboarding by making staff members stand against a wall while other Scientologists threw buckets of water at them , but the practice was largely abandoned in the 1970s . According to author Janet Reitman , Miscavige reintroduced it in the 2000s and ordered dozens of senior executives to go out of doors in the middle of the night and assemble at the base 's swimming pool or its muddy lake . They would then jump or be pushed into the water , often in freezing conditions , while fully clothed and with Miscavige watching . The Church acknowledges that overboarding took place but characterises it as part of its " ecclesiastical justice " system for dealing with poor performance .
According to Janet Reitman , in the late fall of 2004 Miscavige called together 70 senior Church executives in a pair of double @-@ wide trailers normally used as the international management team 's offices . They were ordered to play a game of musical chairs in the management conference room . Those who failed to get a chair when the music stopped would be " offloaded " from the base to be sent away from their spouses and children to languish in the most remote and unpleasant locations in Scientology 's empire . As Queen 's Greatest Hits was played , the competition for seats became increasingly fierce : " By the time the number had dwindled to twenty , people were throwing one another against the walls , ripping seats from one another 's hands , wrestling one another to the floor . " At the end of the contest , Miscavige ordered that all the executives were to stay in the conference room and sleep under the tables until further notice . They stayed there for the next few days , with occasional deliveries of food , before being released . The Church 's then chief spokesman , Tommy Davis , has acknowledged that the " musical chairs " incident occurred and says that it was " intended to demonstrate how disruptive wholesale changes could be on an organization " but dismisses the accounts of threats and violence .
Later in 2004 , according to Reitman , a purge was carried out of staff at the base . Hundreds were sent to the RPF while dozens of others were offloaded and expelled from the Sea Org with huge " freeloader bills " presented to them for the Church services they had received over the years . Dozens of senior executives were accused of being " suppressive persons " . They were said to have been confined in the management team offices and ordered to carry out the " A to E steps " , a set of penances intended to demonstrate that they had repented of their " crimes " and reformed . In particular , they were to confess and identify which of them were " defying [ Miscavige ] and sabotaging Scientology with their incompetence " . The management offices , which had formerly been referred to as " the CMO Int trailer " , became known as the " A to E Room , " the " SP Hole , " and ultimately simply " the Hole . "
= = Life in the Hole = =
Over the next three years , the number of people confined in the Hole increased from 40 to up to 100 . They slept in cots or sleeping bags , squeezed into every available floor space or on desktops . Men would sleep around the conference table while women slept in cubicles and small offices around the main conference room . They were so crowded that there was barely any room to move , according to one of those present : " Everyone sleeping with only about six inches on either side . Above you . Below you . Getting up in the middle of the night , you 'd disturb everyone . " They were only allowed to leave to attend Church events or to be taken to a shower in a nearby maintenance garage , to which they were taken two at a time under guard . Food was brought to them on golf carts from the Gold Base mess hall , as the executives were not allowed to eat with the rest of the staff , and they were only given ten to fifteen minutes to eat . According to one of the executives , the food was " like leftovers , slop , bits of meat , soupy kind of leftovers thrown into a pot and cooked and barely edible . " The building was said to be infested with ants and on several occasions the electricity was turned off , causing the temperature inside to reach 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) due to the lack of air conditioning .
John Brousseau commented that when he visited the Hole occasionally , " you could smell that people live here , people sleep here . " He saw the executives being marched elsewhere on the base to take showers ; his impression was that " they looked like they were being marched to the gallows – they just looked lifeless , with no purpose . Very hang @-@ dog , droopy shoulders , slouchy , very sad , inward @-@ looking creatures . " He said that they were only allowed out " at certain times of day that would be adjudicated to be the least likely time when DM [ Miscavige ] would run into them if he was on the property . They would march out to Old Gilman House to take a shower and come back because they had no shower facilities inside the Hole . Later that got upgraded to let them go down to the garage . " Sometimes executives were allowed out for a short time to attend Church events , but many ended up spending months or even years in the Hole .
The individuals who were later named by the media as being held in the Hole represented a who 's who of Scientology 's top management . They included Debbie Cook , the head of the Church of Scientology Flag Service Organization ; Heber Jentzsch , the President of the Church of Scientology International ; Guillaume Lesevre , the Executive Director International and the church 's top management official ; Mark Rathbun , the Inspector General of the Religious Technology Center ; Wendell Reynolds , the International Finance Director ; Mike Rinder , the Commanding Officer of the Office of Special Affairs ; Norman Starkey , the former captain of Hubbard 's ship , the Apollo ; and Marc Yager , the Commanding Officer of the Commodore 's Messenger Organization .
Executives who eventually escaped from the Hole have said that its occupants were forced to practice group confessions in which they would confess supposed transgressions against Miscavige , bad thoughts that they had had about Scientology and disclose their sexual fantasies . Debbie Cook , who spent seven weeks in the Hole in 2007 , said that " most of the time the activities [ in the Hole ] were either you confessing your own sins or bad things that you 'd done , or getting other people to confess theirs . " Mike Rinder commented on the bizarre personal dynamics of the Hole : " These were your friends , people you had traveled with . But then , you get in the Hole ? You can 't trust anybody . "
Rinder told the Tampa Bay Times that interrogations " would be carried out by whoever happened to be there – 20 people , 30 people , 50 people , all standing up and screaming at you , and ultimately it sort of devolved into physical violence , torture , to extricate these ' confessions ' out of people . " According to Rinder , the confessions were sometimes dictated by Miscavige , but more usually the inmates of the Hole would force each other to confess : " The 50 people there are all screaming at me , telling me I 've got to confess – I 've done that , why don 't I just admit it ? I stole money , I had affairs – people would just literally dream up bullshit and start screaming it out , and then the mob goes crazy : ' Oh yeah , it must have been that ! ' " Tom De Vocht , who was also in the Hole , recalled that " everybody in that damned room — people are wild and out of control , I punched somebody . Everybody was punched . And screaming and yelling . It just got like , ' What the hell is going on here ? ' " De Vocht rationalized his own involvement on the grounds of self @-@ defense : " If I don 't attack I 'm going to be attacked . It 's a survival instinct in a weird situation that no one should be in . "
The pressure evidently worked , as Rinder wrote an " Apology and Announcement " on June 4 , 2005 in which he told Miscavige , " I recognise very clearly how Treasonous I have been towards you and Scientology . " He subsequently commented that such written confessions " read like North Korean POW writeups , " alluding to the way that Korean War POWs detained in North Korea were forced to go through brainwashing to renounce their " reactionary imperialist " mindset . He explained to the Tampa Bay Times why people did not simply walk out of the Hole : " If you leave you are going to lose contact with your family and any friends who are Scientologists . You have it pounded into you the whole time that the only reason someone leaves a group like that is because they are bad , that you have done something that force you to have to leave . " He noted people had invested a great deal of themselves in Scientology , that Sea Org members have " made a commitment beyond even a single lifetime " and that the prevailing attitude was that " ' I 've lived through many lifetimes and there are lots of experiences that I 've had that are far worse than this , so I can put up with this and I can stand it ' . "
What was happening in the Hole took place out of view of the other staff members at Gold Base , but it was clear that it would not be a good thing to be sent there . According to Lawrence Wright , " the entire base became paralyzed with anxiety about being thrown into the Hole . People were desperately trying to police their thoughts , but it was difficult to keep secrets when staff members were constantly being security @-@ checked with E @-@ Meters . " Wright reports that David Miscavige 's statements were transcribed for the executives in the Hole , who would then have to repeatedly read them out loud to each other .
Former Church members have said that conditions in the Hole worsened in 2006 after several executives had escaped . Security was tightened to prevent the confined executives from " blowing " . John Brousseau says that he was ordered to fasten steel bars across the doors of the building and the windows were modified so that they could only be opened a few inches . Another staff member objected , pointing out that any outsider could see the bars . They were removed after a few weeks , but the building was guarded around the clock to prevent further escapes . The Church of Scientology denies that bars were ever installed , saying , " Any allegation of bars being installed to hold people against their will is false and malicious and is denied . "
From 2006 , according to Rinder , executives undergoing " group confessions " were made to stand in big trash cans in the middle of the floor with signs around their necks on which various derogatory statements were written . Rinder described how it became " relatively routine " for people to be " slapped , punched , kicked , pushed , shoved , thrown up against the wall " in order to make them confess . He told the Tampa Bay Times that he and other people were made to continuously crawl around a conference room table with their trouser legs rolled up , getting kicked from behind if they stopped , which resulted in them suffering severely contused and abraded knees after days of such treatment . There was an escalation in the level of confessions demanded , such that they became " more and more dramatic and over the top in order to be acceptable . " He described how one executive was made to sit under an air vent with the cooling system turned up high , while cold water was poured over his head . After an hour or so , he was " shaking so uncontrollably and his lips were so completely blue that he was incapable of talking " . ( The executive in question denied to the Tampa Bay Times that this incident had ever happened ) .
Debbie Cook testified in a San Antonio court in 2012 that she had been on the phone to Miscavige when two Scientologists crawled in through her office window and seized her , conveying her to the Hole . She said that she had subsequently been " put in a trash can , [ had ] cold water poured over [ her ] , [ and ] slapped . " According to Mark Rathbun , who was also in the Hole at the time , for twelve hours " Debbie was made to stand in a large garbage can and face one hundred people screaming at her demanding a confession as to her " homosexual tendencies " . While this was going on , water was poured over her head . Signs were put around Debbie 's neck , one marked in magic marker " LESBO " while this torture proceeded . Debbie was repeatedly slapped across the face by other women in the room during the interrogation . Debbie never did break . "
Cook told the court that another Scientology executive , who had not been sent to the Hole , had objected to what he had seen there on a visit . According to Cook , the executive was given a two @-@ hour beating and ordered to lick a bathroom floor for at least 30 minutes . She testified that Marc Yager and Guillaume Lesevre , two of Scientology 's most senior executives , were pressured to state that they had had a homosexual affair and were beaten until they " confessed " . According to another executive , Tom De Vocht , Miscavige pushed Yager to the ground and told a black executive , " By the way , [ Yager ] thinks black people are niggers , and he doesn 't want Scientology to help blacks . Go kick him . ' So [ Yager ] is down on the ground and she 's kicking him . " Both Yager and the other executive have denied this account .
= = Leaving the Hole = =
Mark Rathbun spent only four days in the Hole in 2004 but says that he left after seeing his old friend Tom De Vocht being physically beaten by Miscavige . According to Rathbun , one night the incarcerated executives were ordered to jog to a building 400 yards away and back . As they were herded back to their office @-@ prison , he broke away and hid in bushes until the group had disappeared from sight . He retrieved his motorcycle , hid in the brush and drove out through the Gold Base gates when they were opened to let a car in . He subsequently rented a car and spent a month touring the South before settling in southern Texas .
De Vocht left Scientology in May 2005 after he was allegedly attacked by Miscavige . According to De Vocht , he told his wife – a Miscavige aide – that he would fight back if it happened again . He was subsequently declared to be a " Suppressive Person " and announced his intention to leave . The compound 's guard refused to open the gate , so he climbed the fence and walked to Hemet , six miles away . He was later sent a $ 98 @,@ 000 " Freeloader Bill " by the Church .
Mike Rinder spent almost two years in the Hole between 2004 and 2007 , leaving it occasionally to deal with public relations matters such as dealing with the BBC journalist John Sweeney 's 2007 documentary Scientology and Me . Rinder says that Miscavige was furious with the way that Sweeney had been handled and ordered him to go to Sussex to dig ditches on a Church property there . He defected instead , eventually settling in Denver .
Debbie Cook left the Hole in May 2007 after spending seven weeks there , when she was sent back to Clearwater , Florida to organize a major public event involving Miscavige . According to Cook , she was driven to downtown Clearwater by another staff member , along with her husband , to eat at the Church 's dining hall . The couple took the opportunity to escape Scientology when the staff member went inside to get breakfast ; Cook jumped into the driver 's seat , drove with her husband to the nearest car rental outlet and hired a car to drive up to her father 's house in North Carolina . Before they got there , they were intercepted by Church officials and ordered to return to Clearwater . She spent three weeks under guard , at one point writing in a letter to her mother that if she was not released she " would take whatever steps necessary , like slitting my wrists " , before finally signing a severance agreement . She later said that by that point , " I would have signed that I stabbed babies over and over again and loved it " .
John Brousseau was not sent to the Hole , but what he saw of it made him decide to leave Scientology in 2010 after 33 years in the Church . He was struck by how " dozens of these people [ in the Hole ] , they were just so alive , but I looked at them now and they were just husks . They wouldn 't say or originate anything , they seemed to have no purpose , they were just like sheep . There 's no way 100 people could be evil horrid [ Suppressive Persons ] and DM 's the only [ ethical ] one . No way . " He had known and been friends with some of those in the Hole for decades and could not bear what he was seeing . As he put it , " I can 't stop it , but I can at least stop supporting it . So I left . " He left a note in his room for his colleagues to find : " By now you 've noticed I 'm gone . I couldn 't stand to see my Sea Org friends so mistreated . I won 't support it anymore . Goodbye . "
= = Media exposure and legal inquiries = =
From 2009 , several former church executives began to speak out about the Hole , both to the media and to the FBI . Rathbun wrote in the New York Daily News in July 2012 that he had " decided that [ he ] had to speak out before someone was killed in the Hole " . In June 2009 , the Tampa Bay Times published a series of articles on the internal workings of the Church of Scientology titled " The Truth Rundown " , detailing accounts of beatings and other episodes of violence between Miscavige and other top Scientology executives . The Times followed up in January 2013 with a detailed account of the Hole , supplemented by interviews with defectors from Scientology , while The Village Voice sought to compile a list of the executives said to have been incarcerated there . ABC News also reported on Debbie Cook 's account of the Hole .
According to John Brousseau , the bad publicity led to reforms of the Hole . Its inmates were allowed to sleep in proper beds in the " Berthing " quarters elsewhere in the compound . Brousseau describes their new seven @-@ days @-@ a @-@ week routine starting when " they got up , showered , then went to the dining hall at 9 : 30 . They had 30 minutes for breakfast . Then they walked up to the Hole . They sat down at desks . I have no clue what work they did . They worked until 12 : 30 or 1 pm . Then they were marched back to the dining hall and had 30 minutes for lunch . Then they were marched back to the Hole and were there until 6 pm . " After a 30 @-@ minute dinner , they were taken to the study hall and stayed there " for two and a half hours , until about 9 : 30 . Then they went to the Hole again to wrap up their day . At 11 or midnight , they 'd get marched back to Berthing . " Some of the restrictions on contacting people outside the Hole were also said to have been eased . However , other Church staff were still encouraged to avoid contact with the inmates : " You didn 't talk to them , you looked the other way , you 'd leave the area if you saw them , it 's like the black plague . " Brousseau commented : " You stayed away from these people . They 're considered the worst of the worst . "
Attempts by law enforcement to investigate conditions at Gold Base have been blocked by legal difficulties and the unwillingness of those on the base to talk to the police . According to Lawrence Wright , who wrote an account of the Hole in his 2013 book Going Clear : Scientology , Hollywood , and the Prison of Belief , the Riverside County sheriff 's office has never received a complaint from someone at the base about their treatment there , despite the many accounts of mistreatment . Wright attributes this to the fear that many Scientologists have of bringing shame upon Scientology and of being forced to break off contact with their families and friends .
In 2009 , the FBI opened an investigation into potential human trafficking offences by the Church of Scientology , after the accounts of defectors from Gold Base were published . The Tampa Bay Times reported that FBI aerial surveillance of the property showed columns of executives being escorted to and from the Hole . However , no action was taken against the Church . The investigation ground to a halt after a ruling by a U.S. District Court judge in a case concerning Marc and Claire Headley 's complaints against the Church over their treatment at Gold Base .
= = = Headley et al. v. Church of Scientology International et al . = = =
In 2009 , Marc and Claire Headley sued the Church under the federal Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 . In response , Church lawyers argued that the First Amendment prohibited the courts from considering " a forced labor claim premised upon ... social and psychological factors " , because they concern " the beliefs , the religious upbringing , the religious training , the religious practices , the religious lifestyle restraints of a religious order . "
The Church acknowledged that the rules under which the Headleys lived included a ban on having children , censored mail , monitored phone calls , needing permission to have Internet access and being disciplined through manual labor . The U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals noted in a ruling given in July 2012 that Marc Headley had been made to clean human excrement by hand from an aeration pond on the compound with no protective equipment , while Claire Headley was banned from the dining hall for up to eight months in 2002 . She lost 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) as a result of subsisting on protein bars and water . In addition , she was coerced into having two abortions to comply with the Sea Org 's no @-@ children policy . The Headleys also experienced physical violence from Scientology executives and saw others being treated violently .
However , the court found that the church enjoyed the protection of the free exercise of religion clause in the First Amendment , and that it could use the " ministerial exemptions " in employment law to deflect litigation over its treatment of its members . The judge ruled that the First Amendment disallowed the courts from " examining church operations rooted in religious scripture " . Bringing the Church to account for how it disciplined its members was " precisely the type of entanglement that the religion clauses prohibit . " However , the 9th Circuit did suggest that other types of claims would withstand appellate review , such as assault , battery or " any of a number of other theories that might have better fit the evidence . " The ruling has effectively meant that it is impossible to bring charges against the Church based on claims of ' trafficking in persons . ' As one attorney has put it , " Here is a court saying , albeit in a civil situation ... that there is nothing improper with this type of conduct and no ill motive can be imbued to the church . " Former US federal prosecutor Michael Seigel says that the ruling " doesn 't seem to leave much room for hope of success on a criminal prosecution " . The FBI investigation was dropped some time in 2011 .
= = = Church of Scientology International v. Debbie Cook = = =
In January , 2012 , the Church of Scientology brought a lawsuit against Debbie Cook for defamation after she sent an e @-@ mail to 3 @,@ 000 church members criticizing its fund @-@ raising methods . The lawsuit against her was quickly settled without payment by any side on April 23 , 2012 after Cook was permitted to testify for three hours regarding her description of conditions at the Hole .
= Ride a White Horse =
" Ride a White Horse " is a song performed by English electronic music duo Goldfrapp . The song was written by Alison Goldfrapp , Will Gregory and Nick Batt for Goldfrapp 's third album Supernature ( 2005 ) . The song was inspired by the disco era nightclub Studio 54 .
The song was released as the album 's third single in February 2006 to positive reviews from music critics . It was a commercial success , reaching the top forty on the majority of the charts it entered . The song has been remixed a number of times and was featured in the American television program The L Word .
" Ride a White Horse " was also featured in Need for Speed : Carbon and The Sims 3 .
= = Background and writing = =
" Ride a White Horse " is an electronic – dance song that was inspired by the disco era . Alison Goldfrapp had grown up listening to T.Rex and Polish disco music , and many assumed that she based the song 's lyrics around Bianca Jagger 's infamous entrance into Studio 5
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4 on a white horse . The song was composed as a collaborative effort between Goldfrapp and Will Gregory in late 2004 in a rented cottage in the countryside of Bath , England . The song was written and recorded while Goldfrapp and Gregory were " jamming in the recording studio , bouncing song ideas off each other " .
" Ride a White Horse " is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features instrumentation from synthesizers and a bass guitar . The US maxi CD single featured a cover version of " Boys Will Be Boys " as its B @-@ side . The song was originally performed by British rock group The Ordinary Boys .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Ride a White Horse " was directed by Diane Martel and filmed in London , England in December 2005 . The video features Alison Goldfrapp , dressed in a white dress , in multiple disturbing situations . The video begins with Goldfrapp , her back to the camera , trailing toilet paper from one of her spike heels , singing into a microphone made of a cardboard roll and aluminium foil . As she sings , footage of rotting food is displayed behind her . She is then shown eating a slice of pizza covered in cigarette butts and bottlecaps . The next scenes feature Goldfrapp pulling a large plastic dog ; singing in front of a man bandaged in toilet paper eating from a garbage can ; and dancing with dirty men that came out of a trashbin dressed in their underwear . The video concludes with Goldfrapp forcing the leg of the bandaged man into a toilet .
In 2006 , the video was nominated at the Festival International des Arts du Clip in the " Off Competition " category for its audacity and off beat sense of humour . The complete version of " Ride a White Horse " featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads , and some include remixes by Serge Santiágo and Ewan Pearson . An alternate music video was also filmed live at the Brixton Academy in London , England on 6 October 2005 . The video was directed by Matthew Amos and released on the song 's DVD single .
= = Critical reception = =
" Ride a White Horse " received positive reviews from music critics . MusicOMH.com 's Michael Hubbard called the song " one of the most glamorous and erotic tracks " on Supernature , and Stylus Magazine described the it as " memorable " because of its " combination of a decently danceable groove and some nicely arch vocals " . In a review for PopMatters , Adrien Begrand wrote that " Ride a White Horse " was " destined for club hit status " , comparing Alison Goldfrapp 's " cold , husky croon " to Kate Bush .
= = Marketing and release = =
In March 2007 , " Ride a White Horse " was featured on an episode of the American television program The L Word . The episode titled " Literary License to Kill " featured the group performing the song at The Planet while the characters celebrated a birthday . A radio edit of the song was also featured on the program 's soundtrack released in January 2007 .
" Ride a White Horse " was released as a various formats throughout the world . While most territories received a CD single and digital download release , the single was released as a limited edition 12 @-@ inch single in February 2006 in the UK . A DVD single was also issued and included behind the scenes footage of Goldfrapp on tour and a live music video for " Ride a White Horse " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Ride a White Horse " entered the UK Singles Chart on 25 February 2006 at number fifteen , remaining on the chart for three weeks . The song proved popular on UK radio , charting at number twenty @-@ three on the airplay chart . In Ireland , the song reached number thirty @-@ six on the singles chart before exiting the following week .
In the United States , " Ride a White Horse " was released as the album 's final single in February 2007 . The song did not perform as well as its predecessors on the Billboard Dance Chart , reaching only number twenty @-@ nine . The song , however , did peak at number three on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Ride a White Horse :
Alison Goldfrapp - lead vocals , backing vocals , synthesizer
Nick Batt - synthesizer , programming
Will Gregory - synthesizer
Daniel Miller - synthesizer
Charlie Jones - bass
Ewan Pearson - programming
Mark " Spike " Stent - mixing
Ted Jensen - mastering
= = Charts = =
= Hugh Grant =
Hugh John Mungo Grant ( born 9 September 1960 ) is an English actor and a film producer .
Grant has received a Golden Globe , a BAFTA , and an Honorary César . Grant 's films have earned more than US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion from 25 theatrical releases worldwide . Grant achieved international success after appearing in the Richard Curtis @-@ scripted Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) . Grant used this breakthrough role as a frequent cinematic personal during the 1990s , delivering comic performances in mainstream films such as Mickey Blue Eyes ( 1999 ) and Notting Hill ( 1999 ) .
By the turn of the 21st century , Grant had established himself as a leading man , skilled with a satirical comic talent . Grant has expanded his oeuvre with critically acclaimed turns as a cad in Bridget Jones 's Diary ( 2001 ) , About a Boy ( 2002 ) , and American Dreamz ( 2006 ) . Grant later played against type with multiple cameo roles in the epic sci @-@ fi drama film , Cloud Atlas ( 2012 ) .
Within the film industry , Grant is cited as an anti @-@ star who approaches his roles like a character actor , and attempts to make his acting appear spontaneous . Hallmarks of his comic skills include a nonchalant touch of irony / sarcasm and studied physical mannerisms , as well as his precisely @-@ timed dialogue delivery and facial expressions . The entertainment media 's coverage of Grant 's life off the big screen has often overshadowed his work as an actor . Grant has been outspoken about his disrespect for the profession of acting , and in his disdain towards the culture of celebrity and hostility towards the media . In a career spanning 30 years , Grant has repeatedly claimed that acting is not a true calling , rather it is just a job he fell into .
= = Early life and ancestry = =
Grant was born at Charing Cross Hospital in Hammersmith , London , the second son of Fynvola Susan MacLean ( b . Wickham , Hampshire , 11 October 1933 ; d . Hounslow , London , July 2001 ) and Captain James Murray Grant ( b . 1929 ) . Grant 's grandfather , Colonel James Murray Grant , DSO was decorated for bravery and leadership at Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux during World War II . Genealogist Antony Adolph has described Grant 's family history as " a colourful Anglo @-@ Scottish tapestry of warriors , empire @-@ builders and aristocracy . " A few of his notable ancestors include William Drummond , 4th Viscount Strathallan , Dr. James Stewart , John Murray , 1st Marquess of Atholl , Heneage Finch , 1st Earl of Nottingham , Sir Evan Nepean , and a sister of former Prime Minister Spencer Perceval .
Grant 's father was trained at Sandhurst and served with the Seaforth Highlanders for eight years in Malaya , Germany and Scotland . He ran a carpet firm , pursued hobbies such as golf and painting watercolours , and raised his family in Chiswick , west London , where the Grants lived next to Arlington Park Mansions on Sutton Lane . In September 2006 , a collection of Capt. Grant 's paintings was hosted by the John Martin Gallery in a charity exhibition , organised by his famous son , called " James Grant : 30 Years of Watercolours . " His mother worked as a schoolteacher and taught Latin , French and music for more than 30 years in the state schools of west London . She died at the age of 65 , 18 months after being diagnosed with pancreatic cancer .
Grant 's accent is an inheritance from his mother ; and , on Inside the Actors Studio in 2002 , he credited her with " any acting genes that [ he ] might have . " Both his parents were children of military families , but , despite his parents ' backgrounds , Grant has stated that his family was not always affluent while he was growing up . Grant spent his childhood summers shooting and hunting with his grandfather in Scotland . Grant has an older brother , James , living in Portugal .
= = = Education = = =
Grant started his education at Hogarth Primary School in Chiswick but then moved to St Peter 's Primary School in Hammersmith , Grant was then educated at an independent prep school Wetherby School . From 1969 to 1978 , he attended the independent Latymer Upper School in Hammersmith on a scholarship and played 1st XV rugby , cricket and football for the school . He also represented Latymer on the popular quiz show , Top of the Form , an academic competition between two teams of four secondary school students each .
In 1979 , Grant won the Galsworthy scholarship to New College , Oxford , where he starred in his first film , Privileged , produced by the Oxford University Film Foundation . He studied English literature and graduated with 2 : 1 honours . Actress Anna Chancellor , who met Grant while she was still at school , has recalled , " I first met Hugh at a party at Oxford . There was something magical about him . He was a star even then , without having done anything . Grant joined the exclusive Piers Gaveston Society at Oxford , a group with a reputation for debauchery and decadence . "
Grant received an offer from the Courtauld Institute of Art , University of London to pursue a PhD in the history of art , but decided not to take the offer because he failed to secure a grant . Viewing acting as nothing more than a creative outlet , he joined the Oxford University Dramatic Society and starred in a successful touring production of Twelfth Night .
= = = Young earner = = =
After making his debut as Hughie Grant in the Oxford @-@ financed Privileged ( 1982 ) , Grant dabbled in a variety of jobs : he wrote book reviews , worked as assistant groundsman at Fulham Football Club , tried his hand at tutoring , wrote comedy sketches for TV shows , and was hired by Talkback Productions to write and produce radio commercials for products such as Mighty White bread and Red Stripe lager . To obtain his Equity card , he joined the Nottingham Playhouse , a regional theatre , and lived for a year at Park Terrace in The Park Estate , Nottingham . Bored with small acting parts , he created his own comedy revue called The Jockeys of Norfolk with friends Chris Lang and Andy Taylor . The group toured London 's pub comedy circuit with stops at The George IV in Chiswick , Canal Cafe Theatre in Little Venice and The King 's Head in Islington . Starting on a low note , The Jockeys of Norfolk eventually proved a hit at the Edinburgh Festival after their sketch on the Nativity , told as an Ealing comedy , gained them a spot on the BBC2 TV show called Edinburgh Nights . During this time , Grant also appeared in theatre productions of plays such as An Inspector Calls , Lady Windermere 's Fan , and Coriolanus .
= = Career = =
Grant 's first leading film role came in Merchant @-@ Ivory 's Edwardian drama , Maurice ( 1987 ) , adapted from E. M. Forster 's novel . He and co @-@ star James Wilby shared the Volpi Cup for best actor at the Venice Film Festival for their portrayals of lovers Clive Durham and Maurice Hall , respectively . During the late 1980s and early 1990s , Grant balanced small roles on television with rare film work , which included a supporting role in The Dawning ( 1988 ) , opposite Anthony Hopkins and Jean Simmons and a turn as Lord Byron in a Goya Award @-@ winning Spanish production called Remando al viento ( 1988 ) . He also portrayed some other real life figures during his early career such as Charles Heidsieck in Champagne Charlie and as Hugh Cholmondeley in BAFTA Award @-@ nominated White Mischief .
In 1990 , he made a cameo appearance in the sport / crime drama The Big Man , opposite Liam Neeson , and in which Grant assumed a Scottish accent . The film explores the life of a Scottish miner ( Neeson ) who becomes unemployed during a union strike . In 1991 , he played Julie Andrews ' gay son in the ABC made @-@ for @-@ television film Our Sons .
In 1992 , he appeared in Roman Polanski 's film Bitter Moon , portraying a fastidious and proper British tourist who is married , but finds himself enticed by the sexual hedonism of a seductive French woman and her embittered , paraplegic American husband . The film was called an " anti @-@ romantic opus of sexual obsession and cruelty " by the Washington Post . His other work in period pieces such as Ken Russell 's horror film , The Lair of the White Worm ( 1988 ) , award @-@ winning Merchant @-@ Ivory drama The Remains of the Day ( 1993 ) and ( as Frédéric Chopin in ) Impromptu ( 1991 ) went largely unnoticed . He later called this phase of his career " hilarious , " referring to his early films as " Europuddings , where you would have a French script , a Spanish director , and English actors . The script would usually be written by a foreigner , badly translated into English . And then they 'd get English actors in , because they thought that was the way to sell it to America . "
At 32 , Grant claimed to be on the brink of giving up the acting profession but was surprised by the script of Four Weddings and a Funeral ( FWAAF ) . " If you read as many bad scripts as I did , you 'd know how grateful you are when you come across one where the guy actually is funny , " he later recalled . Released in 1994 , FWAAF became the highest @-@ grossing British film to date with a worldwide box office in excess of $ 244 million , making Grant an overnight international star . The film was nominated for two Academy Awards , and among numerous awards won by its cast and crew , it earned Grant his first and only Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . It also temporarily typecast him as the lead character , Charles , a bohemian and debonair bachelor . Grant and Curtis saw it as an inside joke that the star , due to the parts he played , was assumed to have the personality of the screenwriter , who is known for writing about himself and his own life . Grant later expressed :
In July 1994 , Grant signed a two @-@ year production deal with Castle Rock Entertainment and by October , he became founder and director of the UK @-@ based Simian Films Limited . He appointed his then @-@ girlfriend , Elizabeth Hurley , as the head of development to look for prospective projects . Simian Films produced two Grant vehicles in the 1990s and lost a bid to produce About a Boy to Robert De Niro 's TriBeCa Productions . The company closed its US office in 2002 and Grant resigned as director in December 2005 . Grant was one of the choices to play James Bond in 1995 's GoldenEye , but eventually lost out to Pierce Brosnan .
Grant 's first studio @-@ financed Hollywood project was Chris Columbus 's comedy Nine Months . Though a hit at the box office , it was almost universally panned by critics . The Washington Post called it a " grotesquely pandering caper " and singled out Grant 's performance , as a child psychiatrist reacting unfavourably to his girlfriend 's unexpected pregnancy , for his " insufferable muggings . " The same year , he played leading roles as Emma Thompson 's suitor in Ang Lee ’ s Academy Award @-@ winning adaptation of Jane Austen 's Sense and Sensibility and as a cartographer in 1917 Wales in The Englishman Who Went Up a Hill But Came Down a Mountain . In the same year he performed in the Academy Award @-@ winning Restoration .
Before the release of Four Weddings and a Funeral , Grant reunited with its director , Mike Newell , for the tragicomedy An Awfully Big Adventure that was labelled a " determinedly off @-@ beat film " by The New York Times . Grant portrayed a bitchy , supercilious director of a repertory company in post @-@ World War II Liverpool . Critic Roger Ebert wrote , " It shows that he has range as an actor , " but the San Francisco Chronicle disapproved on grounds that the film " plays like a vanity production for Grant . " Janet Maslin , praising Grant as " superb " and " a dashing cad under any circumstances , " commented , " For him this film represents the road not taken . Made before Four Weddings and a Funeral was released , it captures Mr. Grant as the clever , versatile character actor he was then becoming , rather than the international dreamboat he is today . " Grant made his debut as a film producer with the 1996 thriller Extreme Measures , a commercial and critical failure , though Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel each gave the film three out of four stars with Siskel writing " Hugh Grant 's work in ' Extreme Measures ' is a refreshing standout . "
After a three @-@ year hiatus , in 1999 he paired with Julia Roberts in Notting Hill , which was brought to theatres by much of the same team that was responsible for Four Weddings and a Funeral . This new Working Title production displaced Four Weddings and a Funeral as the biggest British hit in the history of cinema , with earnings equalling $ 363 million worldwide . As it became exemplary of modern romantic comedies in mainstream culture , the film was also received well by critics . CNN reviewer Paul Clinton said , " Notting Hill stands alone as another funny and heartwarming story about love against all odds . " Reactions to Grant 's Golden Globe @-@ nominated performance were varied , with Salon.com 's Stephanie Zacharek criticising that , " Grant 's performance stands as an emblem of what 's wrong with Notting Hill . What 's maddening about Grant is that he just never cuts the crap . He 's become one of those actors who 's all shambling self @-@ caricature , from his twinkly crow 's feet to the time @-@ lapsed half century it takes him to actually get one of his lines out . " The film provided both its stars a chance to satirise the woes of international notoriety , most noted of which was Grant 's turn as a faux @-@ journalist who sits through a dull press junket with , what the New York Times called , " a delightfully funny deadpan . " Grant also released his second production output , a fish @-@ out @-@ of @-@ water mob comedy Mickey Blue Eyes , that year . It was dismissed by critics , performed modestly at the box office , and garnered its actor @-@ producer mixed reviews for his starring role . Roger Ebert thought , " Hugh Grant is wrong for the role [ and ] strikes one wrong note and then another , " whereas Kenneth Turan , writing in the Los Angeles Times , said , " If he 'd been on the Titanic , fewer lives would have been lost . If he 'd accompanied Robert Scott to the South Pole , the explorer would have lived to be 100 . That 's how good Hugh Grant is at rescuing doomed ventures . "
While promoting Woody Allen 's Small Time Crooks on NBC 's The Today Show in 2000 , Grant told host Matt Lauer , " It 's my millennium of bastards " . In 2000 , Grant also joined the Supervisory Board of IM Internationalmedia AG , the powerful Munich @-@ based film and media company .
Small Time Crooks starred Grant , in the words of film critic Andrew Sarris , as " a petty , petulant , faux @-@ Pygmalion art dealer , David , [ who ] is one of the sleaziest and most unsympathetic characters Mr. Allen has ever created . " In a role devoid of his comic attributes , the New York Times wrote : " Mr. Grant deftly imbues his character with exactly a perfect blend of charm and nasty calculation . " A year later , his turn as a charming but womanising book publisher Daniel Cleaver in Bridget Jones 's Diary ( 2001 ) was proclaimed by Variety to be " as sly an overthrow of a star 's polished posh – and nice – poster image as any comic turn in memory " . The film , adapted from Helen Fielding 's novel of the same name , was an international hit , earning $ 281 million worldwide . Grant was , according to the Washington Post , fitting as " a cruel , manipulative cad , hiding behind the male god 's countenance that he knows all too well " .
Grant 's " immaculate comic performance " ( BBC ) as the trust @-@ funded womaniser , Will Freeman , in the film adaptation of Nick Hornby 's best @-@ selling novel About a Boy received raves from critics . Almost universally praised , with an Academy Award @-@ nominated screenplay , About a Boy ( 2002 ) was determined by the Washington Post to be " that rare romantic comedy that dares to choose messiness over closure , prickly independence over fetishised coupledom , and honesty over typical Hollywood endings . " Rolling Stone wrote , " The acid comedy of Grant 's performance carries the film [ and he ] gives this pleasing heartbreaker the touch of gravity it needs , " while Roger Ebert observed that " the Cary Grant department is understaffed , and Hugh Grant shows here that he is more than a star , he is a resource . " Released a day after the blockbuster Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones , About a Boy was a more modest box office grosser than other successful Grant films , making all of $ 129 million globally . The film earned Grant his third Golden @-@ Globe nomination , while the London Film Critics Circle named Grant its Best British Actor and GQ honoured him as one of the magazine 's men of the year 2006 . " His performance can only be described as revelatory , " wrote critic Ann Hornaday , adding that " Grant lends the shoals layer upon layer of desire , terror , ambivalence and self @-@ awareness . " The New York Observer concluded : " [ The film ] gets most of its laughs from the evolved expertise of Hugh Grant in playing characters that audiences enjoy seeing taken down a peg or two as a punishment for philandering and womanising and simply being too handsome for words @-@ and with an English accent besides . In the end , the film comes over as a messy delight , thanks to the skill , generosity and good @-@ sport , punching @-@ bag panache of Mr. Grant 's performance . " About a Boy also marked a notable change in Grant 's boyish look . Now 41 , he had lost weight and also abandoned his trademark floppy hair . Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman took note of Grant 's maturation in his review , saying he looked noticeably older and that it " looked good on him . " He added that Grant 's " pillowy cheeks are flatter and a bit drawn , and the eyes that used to peer with ' love me ' cuteness now betray a shark 's casual cunning . Everything about him is leaner and spikier ( including his hair , which has been shorn and moussed into a Eurochic bed @-@ head mess ) , but it 's not just his surface that 's more virile ; the nervousness is gone , too . Hugh Grant has grown up , holding on to his lightness and witty cynicism but losing the stuttering sherry @-@ club mannerisms that were once his signature . In doing so , he has blossomed into the rare actor who can play a silver @-@ tongued sleaze with a hidden inner decency . "
Grant was also paired with Sandra Bullock in Warner Bros. ' s Two Weeks Notice , which made $ 199 million internationally but received poor reviews . The Village Voice concluded that Grant 's creation of a spoiled billionaire fronting a real estate business was " little more than a Britishism machine . "
Two Weeks Notice was followed by the 2003 ensemble comedy , Love Actually , headlined by Grant as the British Prime Minister . A Christmas release by Working Title Films , the film was promoted as " the ultimate romantic comedy " and accumulated $ 246 million at the international box office . It marked the directorial debut of Richard Curtis , who told the New York Times that Grant adamantly tempered the characterisation of the role to make his character more authoritative and less haplessly charming than earlier Curtis incarnations . Roger Ebert claimed that " Grant has flowered into an absolutely splendid romantic comedian " and has " so much self @-@ confidence that he plays the British prime minister as if he took the role to be a good sport . " Film critic Rex Reed , on the contrary , called Grant 's performance " an oversexed bachelor spin on Tony Blair " as the star " flirted with himself in the paroxysm of self @-@ love that has become his acting style . "
In a 2005 speech , British Prime Minister Tony Blair referred to Grant 's character in a speech , saying : " I know there 's a bit of us that would like me to do a Hugh Grant in Love Actually and tell America where to get off . But the difference between a good film and real life is that in real life there 's the next day , the next year , the next lifetime to contemplate the ruinous consequences of easy applause . "
In 2004 , Grant reprised his role as Daniel Cleaver for a small part in Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason , which , like its predecessor , made more than $ 262 million commercially . Gone from the screen for two years , Grant next reteamed with Paul Weitz ( About a Boy ) for the black comedy American Dreamz ( 2006 ) . Grant starred as the acerbic host of an American Idol @-@ like reality show where , according to Caryn James of the New York Times , " nothing is real ... except the black hole at the centre of the host 's heart , as Mr. Grant takes Mr. Cowell 's villainous act to its limit . " American Dreamz failed financially but Grant was generously praised . He played his self @-@ aggrandising character , an amalgam of Simon Cowell and Ryan Seacrest , with smarmy self @-@ loathing . The Boston Globe proposed that this " just may be the great comic role that has always eluded Hugh Grant , " and critic Carina Chocano said , " He is twice as enjoyable as the preening bad guy as he was as the bumbling good guy . "
In 2007 , Grant starred opposite Drew Barrymore in a parody of pop culture and the music industry called Music and Lyrics . The Associated Press described it as " a weird little hybrid of a romantic comedy that 's simultaneously too fluffy and not whimsical enough . " Though he neither listens to music nor owns any CDs , Grant learned to sing , play the piano , dance ( a few mannered steps ) and studied the mannerisms of prominent musicians to prepare for his role as a has @-@ been pop singer , based loosely on Andrew Ridgeley , the lesser @-@ known member of 1980s pop duo Wham ! . The Star @-@ Ledger dismissed the performance , writing that " paper dolls have more depth . " The film , with its revenues totalling $ 145 million , allowed Grant to mock disposable pop stardom and fleeting celebrity through its washed @-@ up lead character . According to the San Francisco Chronicle , " Grant strikes precisely the right note with regard to Alex 's career : He 's too intelligent not to be a little embarrassed , but he 's far too brazen to feel anything like shame . " In 2009 , Grant starred opposite Sarah Jessica Parker in the Marc Lawrence 's romantic comedy Did You Hear About the Morgans ? , which was a critical failure but was a box office success . He reunited with Lawrence again for a dramedy film The Rewrite , starring opposite Marisa Tomei . The film received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews , while Grant 's performance was praised by many critics . In 2015 , he had a supporting role as Alexander Waverly in Guy Ritchie 's The Man from U.N.C.L.E. Entertainment Weekly described his performance as " the only bit of fun " in the film . Glenn Kenny of Rogerebert.com gave film a mixed review but stated that " while it can ’ t be said that Hugh Grant saves the movie , his return to prominence in the last half @-@ hour , after a plot @-@ seeding @-@ walk @-@ on earlier in the movie , peps things up considerably . " In 2015 , he filmed Florence Foster Jenkins , a film directed by Stephen Frears , alongside Meryl Streep . Grant is playing St Clair Bayfield .
= = Screen roles = =
Grant has predominantly been a comedy ( especially a romantic comedy ) actor for almost all of his mainstream film career . He also never ventures to play characters who are not British . While some film critics , such as Roger Ebert , have defended the limited variety of his performances , others have dismissed him as a one @-@ trick pony . Eric Fellner , co @-@ owner of Working Title Films and a long @-@ time collaborator of Grant , said , " His range hasn 't been fully tested , but each performance is unique . " A majority of Grant 's popular films in the 1990s followed a similar plot that captured an optimistic bachelor experiencing a series of embarrassing incidents to find true love , often with an American woman . In earlier films , Grant was adept at plugging into the stereotype of a repressed Englishman for humorous effects , allowing him to gently satirise his characters as he summed them up and played against the type simultaneously . These performances were sometimes deemed overbearing , in the words of Washington Post 's Rita Kempley , due to his " comic overreactions — the mugging , the stuttering , the fluttering eyelids . " She added : " He 's got more tics than Benny Hill . " Grant 's penchant for conveying his characters ' feelings with mannerisms , rather than direct emotions , has been one of the foremost objections raised against his acting style . Stephen Hunter of the Washington Post once stated that , to be effective as a comic performer , he must get " his jiving and shucking under control . " Film historian David Thomson wrote in The New Biographical Dictionary of Film about how it is merely " itchy mannerisms " that Grant equates with screen acting . On his choice of roles , Grant has said :
Grant 's screen persona of later films , in the new millennium , gradually developed into a cynical , self @-@ loathing cad . Claudia Puig of USA Today celebrated this transformation with the observation that finally " gone [ were ] the self @-@ conscious ' Aren 't I adorable ' mannerisms that seemed endearing at the start of [ Grant 's ] film career but have grown cloying in more recent movies . " Using his facial contortions and an affected stammer for varied comic purposes , According to Carina Chocano , amongst film critics , the two tropes most commonly associated with Grant are that he reinvented his screen persona in Bridget Jones 's Diary and About a Boy and dreads the possibility of becoming a parody of himself .
Nonetheless , Grant has occasionally acted in dramas . He played a sleazy , snide community theatre director with a penchant for adolescent boys in the drama film An Awfully Big Adventure , which received critical praise , and for " a very quiet , dignified " performance as Frédéric Chopin in James Lapine 's biopic film Impromptu . In 2012 , Grant played six cameo roles of " incredibly evil " characters in the epic drama film Cloud Atlas , an experience he has spoken about positively . Grant said :
= = Personality = =
Grant has expressed boredom with playing the celebrity in the press and is known in popular media for his guarded privacy . On probing of his personal life , he has remained steadfast in " offering a dead bat to any question he feels is not general enough . " Grant has described himself as a reluctant actor , has called being a successful actor a mistake and has repeatedly talked of his hope that film stardom would just be " a phase " in his life , lasting no more than ten years .
A 2007 Vogue profile of Grant referred to him as a man with a " professionally misanthropic mystique " . Grant has expressed distaste for focus groups , market research , and emphasis on opening weekend box @-@ office numbers , saying : " It 's so destructive to the filmmaking process . What was wrong with the way they used to release films , more slowly , let them build ? " The director Mike Newell has said : " There is at least as much of Hugh that is charismatic , intellectual , and whose tongue is maybe too clever for its own good as there is of him that 's gorgeous and kind of woolly and flubsy . " Filmmaker Paul Weitz said that Grant is funny and that " he perceives flaws in himself and other people , and then he cares about their humanity nonetheless . " British newspapers regularly refer to him as grumpy .
Grant is a self @-@ confessed " committed and passionate " perfectionist on a film set . The American film critic Dave Kehr has written that Grant " is known in the film industry as a meticulous performer who takes his time to prepare a role – someone who works hard to make it look easy – though that isn 't a trait he admires in himself . " Grant is noted by co @-@ workers for demanding endless takes until he achieves the desired shot according to his own standard .
Grant dropped his agent in 2006 , ending a 10 @-@ year relationship with CAA . Grant has proclaimed in interviews that he does not listen to external views on his career : " They 've known for years that I have total control . I 've never taken any advice on anything . "
= = In the media = =
= = = Libel lawsuits = = =
In 1996 , Grant won substantial damages from News ( UK ) Ltd over what his lawyers called a " highly defamatory " article published in January 1995 . The company 's now @-@ defunct newspaper , Today , had falsely claimed that Grant verbally abused a young extra with a " foul @-@ mouthed tongue lashing " on the set of The Englishman Who Went Up a Hill But Came Down a Mountain .
On 27 April 2007 , Grant accepted undisclosed damages from the Associated Newspapers over claims made about his relationships with his former girlfriends in three separate tabloid articles , which were published in the Daily Mail and The Mail on Sunday on 18 , 21 and 24 February . His lawyer stated that all of the articles ' " allegations and factual assertions are false . " Grant said , in a written statement , that he took the action because : " I was tired of the Daily Mail and Mail on Sunday papers publishing almost entirely fictional articles about my private life for their own financial gain . " He went on to take the opportunity to stress , " I 'm also hoping that this statement in court might remind people that the so @-@ called ' close friends ' or ' close sources ' on which these stories claim to be based almost never exist . "
= = = Legal troubles = = =
On 27 June 1995 , Grant was arrested in Los Angeles , California , police vice operation not far from Sunset Boulevard for engaging in oral sex in a public place with Hollywood prostitute Divine Brown . He pleaded no contest and was fined $ 1 @,@ 180 , placed on two years ' summary probation , and was ordered to complete an AIDS education program by Robert J. Sandoval .
The arrest occurred about two weeks before the release of Grant 's first major studio film , Nine Months , which he was scheduled to promote on several American television shows . The Tonight Show with Jay Leno had him booked for the same week . In the much @-@ watched interview , Grant was noted for not making excuses for the incident after Leno asked him , " What the hell were you thinking ? " Grant answered , " I think you know in life what 's a good thing to do and what 's a bad thing , and I did a bad thing . And there you have it . "
On Larry King Live , Grant declined host Larry King 's repeated invitations to probe his psyche , saying that psychoanalysis was " more of an American syndrome " and he himself was " a bit old fashioned . " He told the host : " I don 't have excuses . " Grant was appreciated for " his refreshing honesty " as he " faced the music and handled it with tongue [ in ] cheek . "
In April 2007 , Grant was arrested on allegations of assault made by paparazzo Ian Whittaker . Grant made no official statement and did not comment on the incident . Charges were dropped on 1 June by the Crown Prosecution Service on the grounds of " insufficient evidence . "
= = = Phone hacking exposé = = =
In April 2011 Grant published an article in the New Statesman entitled " The Bugger , Bugged " about a conversation ( following an earlier encounter ) with Paul McMullan , a former journalist and paparazzo for News of the World . In unguarded comments which were secretly taped by Grant , McMullan alleged that editors at the Daily Mail and News of the World , particularly Andy Coulson , had ordered journalists to engage in illegal phone tapping and had done so with the full knowledge of senior British politicians . McMullan also said that every British Prime Minister from Margaret Thatcher onwards had cultivated a close relationship with Rupert Murdoch and his senior executives . He stressed the friendship between David Cameron and Rebekah Brooks ( née Wade ) , agreeing when asked that both of them must have been aware of illegal phone tapping , and asserting that Cameron 's inaction could be explained by self @-@ interest : " Cameron is very much in debt to Rebekah Wade for helping him not quite win the election ... So that was my submission to parliament – that Cameron 's either a liar or an idiot . "
When asked by Grant whether Cameron had encouraged the Metropolitan Police to " drag their feet " on investigating illegal phone tapping by Murdoch 's journalists , McMullan agreed this had happened , and stated that police themselves had taken bribes from tabloid journalists : " 20 per cent of the Met has taken backhanders from tabloid hacks . So why would they want to open up that can of worms ? ... And what 's wrong with that , anyway ? It doesn 't hurt anyone particularly . "
Grant 's article attracted considerable interest , due to both the revelatory content of the taped conversation , and the novelty of Grant himself " turning the tables " on a tabloid journalist .
Whilst the allegations regarding the News of the World continued to receive coverage in the broadsheets and similar media ( Grant appeared , for example , on BBC Radio 4 ) it was only with the revelation that the voicemail of the by then murdered Millie Dowler had been hacked , and evidence for her murder enquiry had been deleted , that the coverage turned from media interest to widespread public ( and eventually political ) outrage . Grant became something of a spokesman against Murdoch 's News Corporation , culminating in a performance on BBC television 's Question Time in July 2011 .
Grant said , " It 's been fascinating to have a little excursion into another world . I really needed that and also to be dealing with real life instead of creating synthetic life , which is what I 've been doing for the last 25 years . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
In 1987 , while playing Lord Byron in the Spanish production Remando Al Viento ( 1988 ) , Grant met actress Elizabeth Hurley , who was cast in a supporting role as Byron 's former lover Claire Clairmont . Grant began dating Hurley during filming and their relationship was subsequently the subject of much media attention . After 13 years together , they separated amicably in May 2000 . He is godfather to her son Damian , born in 2002 . Grant subsequently began dating heiress Jemima Khan under the intense scrutiny of British tabloids . Three years later , in February 2007 , Grant and Khan separated amicably .
In September 2011 , Grant had a daughter , Tabitha , with Tinglan Hong , a receptionist at a Chinese restaurant in London . His daughter 's Chinese name is Xiao Xi , meaning " happy surprise " . Grant and Hong had a " fleeting affair " , according to his publicist . Grant has said that Hong has been " badly treated " by the media ; the press intrusion prevented him from attending the birth of his daughter , with Hong obtaining an injunction to allow him to visit them in peace . In September , 2012 Grant had a second child , John Mungo Grant , with Swedish television producer Anna Eberstein . He subsequently reunited with Hong , with whom he had his third child , Felix Grant , in 2013 . Grant and Eberstein then had a second child , Grant 's fourth , in December 2015 .
= = = Political views = = =
In 2011 , Grant appeared at the Liberal Democrats ' conference on the News International phone @-@ hacking scandal , where he briefly met then @-@ party leader Nick Clegg . Grant said that he was attending the Conservative and Labour conferences as well , but told Lib Dem activists that " You , more than any of the other parties , have a good bill of health . You have never been in bed with these scumbags . "
In the 2015 election , Grant expressed support for prominent Liberal Democrat figure Danny Alexander and later hosted a dinner for the Liberal Democrats , in which he met the winner of a draw of donors to the Liberal Democrats . In an email sent by former Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown , Grant wrote : " I am not a Lib Dem , a Tory , a Labourite or anything in particular but I recognise political guts . "
In the 2015 election , Grant also endorsed two Labour candidates : Tom Watson ( saying " I wish he could be our next Prime Minister to be honest " ) , and his former agent , Michael Foster .
= = = Sports = = =
As a young boy , he played rugby union on his school 's first XV team at centre and played football as an avid fan of Fulham F.C .. He continued to play in a Sunday @-@ morning football league in south @-@ west London after college and remains an " impassioned Fulham supporter . " Grant 's other interests include tennis and snooker .
In 2011 , the BBC apologised after Grant made an offhand joke about homosexuality and rugby when he was invited into the commentary box during coverage of an England V Scotland game at Twickenham Stadium . Talking about playing rugby during his school days , Grant said : " I discovered it hurt less if you tackled hard than if you tackled like a queen . "
= = Charity work = =
Grant is a patron of the DIPEx Charity , which operates the website Healthtalkonline . Grant is also patron of the Fynvola Foundation , named after his late mother ; the foundation supports the Lady Dane Farmhouse , a home in Faversham for adults with learning disabilities .
Since the death of his mother in 2001 , Grant has worked as a fundraiser and ambassador for Marie Curie Cancer Care , promoting the charity 's annual Great Daffodil Appeal on several occasions . Grant is also a patron of Pancreatic Cancer Action .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= WinFS =
WinFS ( short for Windows Future Storage ) is the code name for a canceled data storage and management system project based on relational databases , developed by Microsoft and first demonstrated in 2003 as an advanced storage subsystem for the Microsoft Windows operating system , designed for persistence and management of structured , semi @-@ structured as well as unstructured data .
WinFS includes a relational database for storage of information , and allows any type of information to be stored in it , provided there is a well defined schema for the type . Individual data items could then be related together by relationships , which are either inferred by the system based on certain attributes or explicitly stated by the user . As the data has a well defined schema , any application can reuse the data ; and using the relationships , related data can be effectively organized as well as retrieved . Because the system knows the structure and intent of the information , it can be used to make complex queries that enable advanced searching through the data and aggregating various data items by exploiting the relationships between them .
While WinFS and its shared type schema make it possible for an application to recognize the different data types , the application still has to be coded to render the different data types . Consequently , it would not allow development of a single application that can view or edit all data types ; rather what WinFS enables applications to understand is the structure of all data and extract the information that it can use further . When WinFS was introduced at the 2003 Professional Developers Conference , Microsoft also released a video presentation , named IWish , showing mockup interfaces that showed how applications would expose interfaces that take advantage of a unified type system . The concepts shown in the video ranged from applications using the relationships of items to dynamically offer filtering options to applications grouping multiple related data types and rendering them in a unified presentation .
WinFS was billed as one of the pillars of the " Longhorn " wave of technologies , and would ship as part of the next version of Windows . It was subsequently decided that WinFS would ship after the release of Windows Vista , but those plans were shelved in June 2006 , with some of its component technologies being integrated into upcoming releases of ADO.NET and Microsoft SQL Server . While it was then assumed by observers that WinFS was finished as a project , in November 2006 Steve Ballmer announced that WinFS was still in development , though it was not clear how the technology was to be delivered . Several components of the last Integrated Storage Initiative project , Microsoft Semantic Engine , presented at Microsoft PDC 2009 , have been integrated back into the SQL Server " Denali " . At the 2010 SQL Server PASS Community Summit , the forthcoming version of SQL Server ( " Denali " ) was shown , which seems to incorporate many of the WinFS ideas .
= = Motivation = =
Many filesystems found on common operating systems , including the NTFS filesystem which is used in modern versions of Microsoft Windows , store files and other objects only as a stream of bytes , and have little or no information about the data stored in the files . Such file systems also provide only a single way of organizing the files , namely via directories and file names .
Because a file system has no knowledge about the data it stores , applications tend to use their own , often proprietary , file formats . This hampers sharing of data between multiple applications . It becomes difficult to create an application which processes information from multiple file types , because the programmers have to understand the structure and semantics of all the files . Using common file formats is a workaround to this problem but not a universal solution ; there is no guarantee that all applications will use the format . Data with standardized schema , such as XML documents and relational data fare better , as they have a standardized structure and run @-@ time requirements .
Also , a traditional file system can retrieve and search data based only on the filename , because the only knowledge it has about the data is the name of the files that store the data . A better solution is to tag files with attributes that describe them . Attributes are metadata about the files such as the type of file ( such as document , picture , music , creator , etc . ) . This allows files to be searched for by their attributes , in ways not possible using a folder hierarchy , such as finding " pictures which have person X " . The attributes can be recognizable by either the file system natively , or via some extension . Desktop search applications take this concept a step further . They extract data , including attributes , from files and index it . To extract the data , they use a filter for each file format . This allows for searching based on both the file 's attributes and the data in it .
However , this still does not help in managing related data , as disparate items do not have any relationships defined . For example , it is impossible to search for " the phone numbers of all persons who live in Acapulco and each have more than 100 appearances in my photo collection and with whom I have had e @-@ mail within last month " . Such a search could not be done unless it is based on a data model which has both the semantics as well as relationships of data defined . WinFS aims to provide such a data model and the runtime infrastructure that can be used to store the data , as well as the relationships between data items according to the data model , doing so at a satisfactory level of performance .
= = Overview = =
WinFS natively recognizes different types of data , such as picture , e @-@ mail , document , audio , video , calendar , contact , rather than just leaving them as raw unanalyzed bytestreams ( as most file systems do ) . Data stored and managed by the system are instances of the data type recognized by the WinFS runtime . The data are structured by means of properties . For example , an instance of a résumé type will surface the data by exposing properties , such as Name , Educational Qualification , Experience . Each property may be a simple type ( strings , integers , dates ) or complex types ( contacts ) . Different data types expose different properties . Besides that , WinFS also allows different data instances to be related together ; such as a document and a contact can be related by an Authored By relationship . Relationships are also exposed as properties ; for example if a document is related to a contact by a Created By relationship , then the document will have a Created By property . When it is accessed , the relationship is traversed and the related data returned . By following the relations , all related data can be reached . WinFS promotes sharing of data between applications by making the data types accessible to all applications , along with their schemas . When an application wants to use a WinFS type , it can use the schema to find the data structure and can use the information . So , an application has access to all data on the system even though the developer did not have to write parsers to recognize the different data formats . It can also use relationships and related data to create dynamic filters to present the information the application deals with . The WinFS API further abstracts the task of accessing data . All WinFS types are exposed as .NET objects with the properties of the object directly mapping to the properties of the data type . Also , by letting different applications which deal with the same data share the same WinFS data instance rather than storing the same data in different files , the hassles of synchronizing the different stores when the data change are removed . Thus WinFS can reduce redundancies .
Access to all the data in the system allows complex searches for data across all the data items managed by WinFS . In the example used above ( " the phone numbers of all persons who live in Acapulco and each have more than 100 appearances in my photo collection and with whom I have had e @-@ mail within last month " ) , WinFS can traverse the subject relationship of all the photos to find the contact items . Similarly , it can filter all emails in last month and access the communicated with relation to reach the contacts . The common contacts can then be figured out from the two sets of results and their phone number retrieved by accessing the suitable property of the contact items .
In addition to fully schematized data ( like XML and relational data ) , WinFS supports semi @-@ structured data ( such as images , which have an unstructured bitstream plus structured metadata ) as well as unstructured data ( such as files ) as well . It stores the unstructured components as files while storing the structured metadata in the structured store . Internally , WinFS uses a relational database to manage data . It does not limit the data to belonging to any particular data model . The WinFS runtime maps the schema to a relational modality , by defining the tables it will store the types in and the primary keys and foreign keys that would be required to represent the relationships . WinFS includes mappings for object and XML schemas by default . Mappings for other schemas must be specified . Object schemas are specified in XML ; WinFS generates code to surface the schemas as .NET classes . ADO.NET can be used to directly specify the relational schema , though a mapping to the object schema must be provided to surface it as classes . Relationship traversals are performed as joins on these tables . WinFS also automatically creates indexes on these tables , to enable fast access to the information . Indexing speeds up joins significantly , and traversing relationships to retrieve related data is performed very fast . Indexes are also used during information search ; searching and querying use the indexes to quickly complete the operations , much like desktop search systems .
= = Development = =
The development of WinFS is an extension to a feature which was initially planned in the early 1990s . Dubbed Object File System , it was supposed to be included as part of Cairo . OFS was supposed to have powerful data aggregation features , but the Cairo project was shelved , and with it OFS . However , later during the development of COM , a storage system , called Storage + , based on then @-@ upcoming SQL Server 8 @.@ 0 , was planned , which was slated to offer similar aggregation features . This , too , never materialized , and a similar technology , Relational File System ( RFS ) , was conceived to be launched with SQL Server 2000 . However , SQL Server 2000 ended up being a minor upgrade to SQL Server 7 @.@ 0 and RFS was not implemented .
But the concept was not scrapped . It just morphed into WinFS . WinFS was initially planned for inclusion in Windows Vista , and build 4051 of Windows Vista , then called by its codename " Longhorn " , given to developers at the Microsoft Professional Developers Conference in 2003 , included WinFS , but it suffered from significant performance issues . In August 2004 , Microsoft announced that WinFS would not ship with Windows Vista ; it would instead be available as a downloadable update after Vista 's release .
On August 29 , 2005 , Microsoft quietly made Beta 1 of WinFS available to MSDN subscribers . It worked on Windows XP , and required the .NET Framework to run . The WinFS API was included in the System.Storage namespace . The beta was refreshed on December 1 , 2005 to be compatible with version 2 @.@ 0 of the .NET Framework . WinFS Beta 2 was planned for some time later in 2006 , and was supposed to include integration with Windows Desktop Search , so that search results include results from both regular files and WinFS stores , as well as allow access of WinFS data using ADO.NET.
However , on June 23 , 2006 , the WinFS team at Microsoft announced that WinFS would no longer be delivered as a separate product , and some components would be brought under the umbrella of other technologies - like the object @-@ relational mapping components into ADO.NET Entity Framework ; support for unstructured data , adminless mode of operation , support for file system objects via the FILESTREAM data type , and hierarchical data in SQL Server 2008 , then codenamed Katmai , as well as integration with Win32 APIs and Windows Shell and support for traversal of hierarchies by traversing relationships into later releases of Microsoft SQL Server ; and the synchronization components into Microsoft Sync Framework . However , having a shared @-@ schema storage system built into a future iteration of Microsoft Windows has not yet been ruled out .
With that announcement , most analysts assumed that the WinFS project was being killed off . But in November 2006 , Steve Ballmer said in an interview that WinFS is being actively developed but integration into the Windows codebase will come only after the technology has fully incubated . It was subsequently confirmed in an interview with Bill Gates and that Microsoft plans to migrate applications like Windows Media Player , Windows Photo Gallery , Microsoft Office Outlook etc. to use WinFS as the data storage back @-@ end .
In 2013 Bill Gates cited WinFS as his greatest disappointment at Microsoft and that the idea of WinFS was ahead of its time , which will re @-@ emerge .
= = Data storage = =
= = = Architecture = = =
WinFS uses a relational engine , which is derived from SQL Server 2005 , to provide the data relations mechanism . WinFS stores are simply SQL Server database ( .MDF ) files with the FILESTREAM attribute set . These files are stored in access @-@ restricted folder named " System Volume Information " placed into the volume root , in folders under the folder " WinFS " with names of GUIDs of these stores .
At the bottom of the WinFS stack lies WinFS Core which interacts with the filesystem and provides file access and addressing capabilities . The relational engine leverages the WinFS core services to present a structured store and other services such as locking which the WinFS runtime uses to implement the functionality . The WinFS runtime expose Services such as Synchronization and Rules which can be used to synchronize WinFS stores or perform certain actions on the occurrence of certain events .
WinFS runs as a service which runs three processes - WinFS.exe , which hosts relational datastore , WinFSSearch.exe , which hosts the indexing and querying engine , and WinFPM.exe ( WinFS File Promotion Manager ) , which interfaces with the underlying file system . It allows programmatic access to its features , via a set of .NET Framework APIs , that enables applications to define custom made data types , define relationships among data , store and retrieve information , and allow advanced searches . The applications can then aggregate the data and present the aggregated data to the user .
= = = = Data store = = = =
WinFS stores data in relational stores , which are exposed as virtual locations called stores . A WinFS store is a common repository where any application can store data along with its metadata , relationships and schema . WinFS runtime can apply certain relationships itself ; for example , if the values of the subject property of a picture and the name property of a contact are same , then WinFS can relate the contact with the picture . Relations can also be specified by other applications or the user .
WinFS provides a unified storage , but stops short of defining the format that is to be stored in the data stores . Instead it supports data to be written in application specific formats . But applications must provide a schema that defines how the file format should be interpreted . For example , a schema could be added to allow WinFS to understand how to read and thus be able to search and analyze , say , a PDF file . By using the schema , any application can read data from any other application , and also allows different applications to write in each other ’ s format by sharing the schema .
Multiple WinFS stores can be created on a single machine . This allows different classes of data to be kept segregated ; for example , official documents and personal documents can be kept in different stores . WinFS , by default , provides only one store , named " DefaultStore " . WinFS stores are exposed as shell objects , akin to Virtual folders , which dynamically generates a list of all items present in the store and presents them in a folder view . The shell object also allows searching information in the datastore .
A data unit that has to be stored in a WinFS store is called a WinFS Item . A WinFS item , along with the core data item , also contains information on how the data item is related to other data . This Relationship is stored in terms of logical links . Links specify which other data items the current item is related with . Put in other words , links specify the relationship of the data with other data items . Links are physically stored using a link identifier , which specifies the name and intent of the relationship , such as type of or consists of . The link identifier is stored as an attribute of the data item . All the objects which have the same link id are considered to be related . An XML schema , defining the structure of the data items that will be stored in WinFS , must be supplied to the WinFS runtime beforehand . In Beta 1 of WinFS , the schema assembly had to be added to the GAC before it could be used .
= = = Data model = = =
WinFS models data using the data items , along with their relationships , extensions and rules governing its usage . WinFS needs to understand the type and structure of the data items , so that the information stored in the data item can be made available to any application that requests it . This is done by the use of schemas . For every type of data item that is to be stored in WinFS , a corresponding schema needs to be provided to define the type , structure and associations of the data . These schemas are defined using XML .
Predefined WinFS schemas include schemas for documents , e @-@ mail , appointments , tasks , media , audio , video , and also includes system schemas that include configuration , programs , and other system @-@ related data . Custom schemas can be defined on a per @-@ application basis , in situations where an application wants to store its data in WinFS , but not share the structure of that data with other applications , or they can be made available across the system .
= = = = Type system = = = =
The most important difference between a file system and WinFS is that WinFS knows the type of each data item that it stores . And the type specifies the properties of the data item . The WinFS type system is closely associated with the .NET framework ’ s concept of classes and inheritance . A new type can be created by extending and nesting any predefined types .
WinFS provides four predefined base types – Items , Relationships , ScalarTypes and NestedTypes . An Item is the fundamental data object which can be stored , and a Relationship is the relation or link between two data items . Since all WinFS items must have a type , the type of item stored defines its properties . The properties of an Item may be a ScalarType , which defines the smallest unit of information a property can have , or a NestedType , which is a collection of more than one ScalarTypes and / or NestedTypes . All WinFS types are made available as .NET CLR classes .
Any object represented as a data unit , such as contact , image , video , document etc . , can be stored in a WinFS store as a specialization of the Item type . By default , WinFS provides Item types for Files , Contact , Documents , Pictures , Audio , Video , Calendar , and Messages . The File Item can store any generic data , which is stored in file systems as files . But unless an advanced schema is provided for the file , by defining it to be a specialized Item , WinFS will not be able to access its data . Such a file Item can only support being related to other Items .
A developer can extend any of these types , or the base type Item , to provide a type for his custom data . The data contained in an Item is defined in terms of properties , or fields which hold the actual data . For example , an Item Contact may have a field Name which is a ScalarType , and one field Address , a NestedType , which is further composed of two ScalarTypes . To define this type , the base class Item is extended and the necessary fields are added to the class . A NestedType field can be defined as another class which contains the two ScalarType fields . Once the type is defined , a schema has to be defined , which denotes the primitive type of each field , for example , the Name field is a String , the Address field is a custom defined Address class , both the fields of which are Strings . Other primitive types that WinFS supports are Integer , Byte , Decimal , Float , Double , Boolean and DateTime , among others . The schema will also define which fields are mandatory and which are optional . The Contact Item defined in this way will be used to store information regarding the Contact , by populating the properties field and storing it . Only those fields marked as mandatory needs to be filled up during initial save . Other fields may be populated later by the user , or not populated at all . If more properties fields , such as last conversed date , need to be added , this type can be extended to accommodate them . Item types for other data can be defined similarly .
WinFS creates tables for all defined Items . All the fields defined for the Item form the columns of the table and all instances of the Item are stored as rows in the table for the respective Items . Whenever some field in the table refers to data in some other table , it is considered a relationship . The schema of the relationship specifies which tables are involved and what the kind and name of the relationship is . The WinFS runtime manages the relationship schemas . All Items are exposed as .NET CLR objects , with a uniform interface providing access to the data stored in the fields . Thus any application can retrieve object of any Item type and can use the data in the object , without being aware of the physical structure the data was stored in .
WinFS types are exposed as .NET classes , which can be instantiated as .NET objects . Data are stored in these type instances by setting their properties . Once done , they are persisted into the WinFS store . A WinFS store is accessed using an ItemContext class ( see Data retrieval section for details ) . ItemContext allows transactional access to the WinFS store ; i.e. all the operations since binding an ItemContext object to a store till it is closed either all succeed or are all rolled back . As changes are made to the data , they are not written to the disc ; rather they are written to an in @-@ memory log . Only when the connection is closed are the changes written to the disc in a batch . This helps to optimize disc I / O. The following code snippet , written in C # , creates a contact and stores it in a WinFS store .
= = = = Relationships = = = =
A datum can be related to one more item , giving rise to a one @-@ to @-@ one relationship , or with more than one items , resulting in a one @-@ to @-@ many relationship . The related items , in turn , may be related to other data items as well , resulting in a network of relationships , which is called a many @-@ to @-@ many relationship . Creating a relationship between two Items create another field in the data of the Items concerned which refer the row in the other Item ’ s table where the related object is stored .
In WinFS , a Relationship is an instance of the base type Relationship , which is extended to signify a specialization of a relation . A Relationship is a mapping between two items , a Source and a Target . The source has an Outgoing Relationship , whereas the target gets an Incoming Relationship . WinFS provides three types of primitive relationships – Holding Relationship , Reference Relationship and Embedding Relationship . Any custom relationship between two data types are instances of these relationship types .
Holding Relationships specifies ownership and lifetime ( which defines how long the relationship is valid ) of the Target Item . For example , the Relationship between a folder and a file , and between an Employee and his Salary record , is a Holding Relationship – the latter is to be removed when the former is removed . A Target Item can be a part of more than one Holding Relationships . In such a case , it is to be removed when all the Source Items are removed .
Reference Relationships provide linkage between two Items , but do not have any lifetime associated , i.e. , each Item will continue to be stored even without the other .
Embedding Relationships give order to the two Items which are linked by the Relationship , such as the Relationship between a Parent Item and a Child Item .
Relationships between two Items can either be set programmatically by the application creating the data , or the user can use the WinFS Item Browser to manually relate the Items . A WinFS item browser can also graphically display the items and how they are related , to enable the user to know how their data are organized .
= = = = Rules = = = =
WinFS includes Rules , which are executed when a certain condition is met . WinFS rules work on data and data relationships . For example , a rule can be created which states that whenever an Item is created which contains field " Name " and if the value of that field is some particular name , a relationship should be created which relates the Item with some other Item . WinFS rules can also access any external application . For example , a rule can be built which launches a Notify application whenever a mail is received from a particular contact . WinFS rules can also be used to add new properties fields to existing data Items .
WinFS rules are also exposed as .NET CLR objects . As such any rule can be used for any purpose . A rule can even be extended by inheriting from it to form a new rule which consists of the condition and action of the parent rule plus something more .
= = = RAV = = =
WinFS supports creating Rich Application Views ( RAV ) by aggregating different data in a virtual table format . Unlike database view , where each individual element can only be a scalar value , RAVs can have complex Items or even collections of Items . The actual data can be across multiple data types or instances and can even be retrieved by traversing relationships . RAVs are intrinsically paged ( dividing the entire set of data into smaller pages containing disconnected subsets of the data ) by the WinFS runtime . The page size is defined during creation of the view and the WinFS API exposes methods to iterate over the pages . RAVs also supports modification of the view according to different grouping parameters . Views can also be queried against .
= = = Access control = = =
Even though all data are shared , everything is not equally accessible . WinFS uses the Windows authentication system to provide two data protection mechanisms . First , there is share @-@ level security that controls access to your WinFS share . Second , there is item level security that supports NT compatible security descriptors . The process accessing the item must have enough privileges to access it . Also in Vista there is the concept of " integrity level " for an application . Higher integrity data cannot be accessed by a lower integrity process .
= = Data retrieval = =
The primary mode of data retrieval from a WinFS store is querying the WinFS store according to some criteria , which returns an enumerable set of items matching the criteria . The criteria for the query is specified using the OPath query language . The returned data are made available as instances of the type schemas , conforming to the .NET object model . The data in them can be accessed by accessing the properties of individual objects .
Relations are also exposed as properties . Each WinFS Item has two properties , named IncomingRelationships and OutgoingRelationships , which provides access to the set of relationship instances the item participates in . The other item which participates in one relationship instance can be reached through the proper relationship instance .
The fact that the data can be accessed using its description , rather than location , can be used to provide end @-@ user organizational capabilities without limiting to the hierarchical organization as used in file @-@ systems . In a file system , each file or folder is contained in only one folder . But WinFS Items can participate in any number of holding relationships , that too with any other items . As such , end users are not limited to only file / folder organization . Rather , a contact can become a container for documents ; a picture a container for contacts and so on . For legacy compatibility , WinFS includes a pseudo @-@ type called Folder which is present only to participate in holding relationships and emulate file / folder organization . Since any WinFS Item can be related with more than one Folder item , from an end user perspective , an item can reside in multiple folders without duplicating the actual data . Applications can also analyze the relationship graphs to present various filters . For example , an email application can analyze the related contacts and the relationships of the contacts with restaurant bills and dynamically generate filters like " Emails sent to people I had lunch with " .
= = = Searches = = =
The WinFS API provides a class called the ItemContext class , which is bound to a WinFS store . The ItemContext object can be used to scope the search to the entire store or a subset of it . It also provides transactional access to the store . An object of this class can then spawn an ItemSearcher object which then takes the type ( an object representing the type ) of the item to be retrieved or the relationship and the OPath query string representing the criteria for the search . A set of all matches is returned , which can then be bound to a UI widget for displaying en masse or enumerating individually . The properties items can also be modified and then stored back to the data store to update the data . The ItemContext object is closed ( which marks the end of association of the object with the store ) when the queries are made or changes merged into the store .
Related items can also be accessed through the items . The IncomingRelationships and OutgoingRelationships properties give access to all the set of relationship instances , typed to the name of the relationship . These relationship objects expose the other item via a property . So , for example , if a picture is related to a picture , it can be accessed by traversing the relationship as :
An OPath query string allows to express the parameters that will be queried for to be specified using Item properties , embedded Items as well as Relationships . It can specify a single search condition , such as " title
= Something ' " , or a compound condition such as " title =
'Title 1 ' | | title
= ' Title 2 ' & & author =
'Someone ' " . These boolean and relational operations can be specified using C # like & & , | | , = , ! = operators as well as their English @-@ like equivalent like EQUAL , NOT EQUAL . SQL like operators such as LIKE , GROUP BY and ORDER BY are also supported , as are wildcard conditions . So , " title LIKE ' any * ' " is a valid query string . These operators can be used to execute complex searches such as
The above code snippet creates an ItemSearcher object that searches on the OutContactRelationship instance that relates pictures and contacts , in effect searching all pictures related with a contact . It then runs the query Name LIKE ' A * ' " on all contacts reachable through OutContactRelationship , returning the list of " contacts whose names start with A and whose pictures I have " . Similarly , more relationships could be taken into account to further narrow down the results . Further , a natural language query processor , which parses query in natural language and creates a well @-@ formed OPath query string to search via proper relationships , can allow users to make searches such as " find the name of the wine I had with person X last month " , provided financial management applications are using WinFS to store bills .
Different relations specify a different set of data . So when a search is made which encompasses multiple relations , the different sets of data are retrieved individually and a union of the different sets is computed . The resulting set contains only those data items which correspond to all the relations .
= = = Notifications = = =
WinFS also includes better support for handling data that changes frequently . Using WinFS Notifications , applications choose to be notified of changes to selected data Items . WinFS will raise an ItemChangedEvent , using the .NET Event model , when a subscribed @-@ to Item changes , and the event will be published to the applications .
= = Data sharing = =
WinFS allows easy sharing of data between applications , and among multiple WinFS stores , which may reside on different computers , by copying to and from them . A WinFS item can also be copied to a non @-@ WinFS file system , but unless that data item is put back into the WinFS store , it will not support the advanced services provided by WinFS .
The WinFS API also provides some support for sharing with non @-@ WinFS applications . WinFS exposes a shell object to access WinFS stores . This object maps WinFS items to a virtual folder hierarchy , and can be accessed by any application . WinFS data can also be manually shared using network shares , by sharing the legacy shell object . Non @-@ WinFS file formats can be stored in WinFS stores , using the File Item , provided by WinFS . Importers can be written , to convert specific file formats to WinFS Item types .
In addition , WinFS provides services to automatically synchronize items in two or more WinFS stores , subject to some predefined condition , such as " share only photos " or " share photos which have an associated contact X " . The stores may be on different computers . Synchronization is done in a peer @-@ to @-@ peer fashion ; there is no central authority . A synchronization can be either manual or automatic or scheduled . During synchronization , WinFS finds the new and modified Items , and updates accordingly . If two or more changes conflict , WinFS can either resort to automatic resolution based on predefined rules , or defer the synchronization for manual resolution . WinFS also updates the schemas , if required .
= = Application support = =
= = = Shell namespace = = =
WinFS Beta 1 includes a shell namespace extension , which surfaces WinFS stores as top level objects in My Computer view . Files can be copied into and out of the stores , as well as applications can be directly used to save there . Even folders such as My Documents can be redirected to the stores . WinFS uses Importer plug @-@ ins to analyze the files as they were being imported to the store and create proper WinFS schemas and objects , and when taking the objects out , re @-@ pack them into files . If importers for certain files are not installed , they are stored as generic File types .
= = = Microsoft Rave = = =
Microsoft Rave is an application that shipped with WinFS Beta 1 . It allows synchronization of two or more WinFS stores , and supports synchronization in full mesh mode as well as the central hub topology . While synchronizing , Microsoft Rave will determine the changes made to each store since the last sync , and update accordingly . When applying the changes , it also detects if there is any conflict , i.e. , the same data has been changed on both stores since the last synchronization . It will either log the conflicting data for later resolution or have it resolved immediately . Microsoft Rave uses peer @-@ to @-@ peer technology to communicate and transfer data .
= = = StoreSpy = = =
With WinFS Beta 1 , Microsoft included an unsupported application called StoreSpy , which allowed one to browse WinFS stores by presenting a hierarchical view of WinFS Items . It automatically generated virtual folders based on access permissions , date and other metadata , and presented them in a hierarchical tree view , akin to what traditional folders are presented in . The application generated tabs for different Item types . StoreSpy allowed viewing Items , Relationships , MultiSet , Nested Elements , Extensions and other types in the store along with its full metadata . It also presented a search interface to perform manual searches , and save them as virtual folders . The application also presented a graphical view of WinFS Rules . However , it did not allow editing of Items or their properties , though it was slated for inclusion in a future release . But the WinFS project was cut back before it could materialize .
= = = Type Browser = = =
WinFS also includes another application , named WinFS Type Browser , which can be used to browse the WinFS types , as well as visualize the hierarchical relationship between WinFS types . A WinFS type , both built @-@ in types as well as custom schemas , can be visualized along with all the properties and methods that it supports . It also shows the types that it derives from as well as other types that extend the type schema . However , while it was included with WinFS , it was released as an unsupported tool .
= = = OPather = = =
WinFS Beta 1 also includes an unsupported application , named OPather . It presents a graphical interface for writing Opath queries . It can be used by selecting target object type and specifying the parameters of the query . It also includes Intellisense @-@ like parameter completion feature . It can then be used to perform visualization tasks like binding results of a query to a DataGrid control , create views of the data in WinFS itself , or just extract the query string .
= = = Project " Orange " = = =
Microsoft launched a project to build a data visualization application for WinFS . It was codenamed " Project Orange " and was supposedly built using Windows Presentation Foundation . It was supposed to provide exploration of Items stored in WinFS stores , and data relationships were supposed to be a prominent part of the navigation model . It was supposed to let people allow organization of the WinFS stores graphically as well – productizing many of the concepts shown in the IWish Concept Video WMV File . However , since the WinFS project went dark , the status of this project is unknown .
= The Way You Love Me ( Keri Hilson song ) =
" The Way You Love Me " is a song recorded by American R & B singer @-@ songwriter Keri Hilson featuring rapper Rick Ross from the former 's second studio album No Boys Allowed ( 2010 ) . It was written by Stanley Benton , India Boodram , Paul Dawson , Hilson , Kesia Hollins , Jazmyn Michel as well as William Roberts , and was produced by Polow da Don . " The Way You Love Me " surfaced online on November 7 , 2010 ; its explicit lyrics fueled controversy , with music critics accusing the singer of swerving into a racy lane . However , Hilson clarified in several interviews that the song was not just sexual but also had a message for empowerment of women . She added that " The Way You Love Me " was not a song " meant for children " .
For the release of No Boys Allowed in December 2010 , " The Way You Love Me " was re @-@ recorded as a clean version with some lyrical modifications and the omission of the word " fuck " in several places . The song , described as a reflection of Hilson 's wilder side , is an R & B – dance @-@ pop song consisting of electro and rock music influences . " The Way You Love Me " is about being in a committed relationship , but the subject 's sexual desire not holding back . It features rough and aggressive vocals by Hilson . The clean version of the song was generally well received by music critics who called it raunchy , and praised how the intense vocal delivery of Hilson matched effectively with the rapid pace and heavy beat of the song . Several of them also chose it as a stand @-@ out track from No Boys Allowed .
The song 's accompanying music video was created as a mini @-@ movie , and was directed by Laurie Ann Gibson . It features cameo appearances from JoJo , Faith Evans , Dawn Richard , Columbus Short and Polow Da Don . After its premiere on November 28 , 2010 , on a hip @-@ hop site WorldStarHipHop.com , it received negative criticism from critics because of the limited amount of clothing Hilson wore in the video . Some critics also stated that certain scenes of the video nearly resembled those of a pornography movie . Hilson told Hot 97 's Angie Martinez , that she would not be making any apologies for the explicit lyrics as well as the provocative video . Additionally , in an interview with celebrity blogger Perez Hilton , she defended the clip calling the video " racy " but in line with the perspective of her album . She also firmly stated that she would not allow other people or the media to dictate what she can and cannot do .
= = Background = =
" The Way You Love Me " was written by Stanley Benton , India Boodram , Paul Dawson , Hilson , Kesia Hollins , Jazmyn Michel , William Roberts and was produced by Polow da Don and Hollywood Hot Sauce . The song features additional vocals from rapper Rick Ross . Before the release No Boys Allowed , " The Way You Love Me " leaked online on November 7 , 2010 , and a music video was filmed for it . Both received much coverage by several media outlets who deemed the lyrics as explicit and the video as provocative because of the limited amount of clothing Hilson wore in it . On the unedited version of " The Way You Love Me " Hilson uses more sexually explicit phrasing and repeatedly uses the word " fuck " .
In December 2010 , Keri confirmed a clean version of the song would be included on her album . Some lyrical modifications were made . The line " I got the kind of pussy that 'll keep you out the streets " was replaced by " I got the kind of lovin ' that 'll keep you out the streets " , and the word " fuck " was replaced with the word " thug " , while in others it was removed altogether . Ross told Jason Rodriguez of MTV News : " When I got the record , I most definitely knew she was going to another level and I was excited for [ Hilson ] . I love to see the creative side . She 's a sexy female and I think she showed that . When I think of Janet Jackson when I was coming up and she was doing her Control thing , I loved it . So if that 's the feeling that young people [ are getting ] or whoever is feeling the music , if that 's the inspiration they get , I think it 's dope . "
= = Composition = =
" The Way You Love Me " is an R & B @-@ dance @-@ pop song which displays influences of electro , and rock music . It features a " squealing " synth , a banging fast @-@ paced beat , screaming , rough as well as at times hoarse vocals and blaring sonics . According to the staff members of Idolator , the beat in the background is augmented by hand @-@ claps similar to that of " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) by Beyoncé Knowles , most noticeable toward the end . According to a press release by Interscope Records , the song 's lyrics make reference to a " raw infectious club @-@ thumping message to female empowerment " and about being in a committed relationship . She further said the sentiment reflected in the song is " exactly what her girls are apt to shout behind closed doors " and that the lyrics are meant to reflect a woman 's many moods and shifting desires : " I write from a female perspective , but I 'm also telling men what women are really thinking and feeling about them . I don 't want to be held and caressed every night . I 'm talking about one man in the relationship . I 'm not talking about being a slut and a whore . "
As stated by Scott Shetler of AOL Radio and Matthew Horton of BBC , the song features an aggressive tone , and dizzying percussion and electro elements create a " frenzied pace that Hilson matches with an intense vocal delivery . " During the bridge and the chorus , she utters gasps and groans , like ' oohs and aahs ' while singing the lyrics . As the first verse begins , Hilson sings : " Ooh ahh , baby don 't stop / You know how I like it Daddy when you hit the spot / Ooh ahh , baby don 't stop / Imma take control when I climb up on top " . As the song progresses , Hilson sings that she is " so good , I 'll make you think the bed is my workplace [ ... ] Yeah , it 's me , that 's where you wanna be / I got the kind of pussy that 'll keep you out the streets " just before Ross 's verse begins , seemingly summing up the image Hilson is going for : " She looks like an angel , but she 's sexy as hell . " As a whole , the lyrical arrangements are about sexual desire and not holding back .
= = Reception = =
The clean version of " The Way You Love Me " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics who noted the effective melding of the intense vocal delivery of Hilson with the rapid pace and banging beat of the song . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian said that all the five songs Hilson penned for No Boys Allowed , with the exception of the " frantic electronic firework ' The Way You Love Me ' , are too featureless to make an impression . " Ben Hatliff of The New York Times commented that Hilson " gets a certain energy out of bossiness " on " The Way You Love Me " which according to him , goes far for a mainstream female singer in its boasting and sexual hunger . He also added that " it sometimes seems as if it were not a man at all she wants to boss around but Rihanna . " Spence D. of IGN Music commented that Hilson moves " to a gritted @-@ teeth half @-@ rapped , half @-@ sung approach " for " The Way You Love Me " . He went on complimenting the heavy beat of the song which according to him , matches the " shouted vocals " of the singer on the song . Andy Kellman of Allmusic called " The Way You Love Me " the most emblematic track on No Boys Allowed . He praised the line " I got the kinda lovin ' that 'll keep you off the streets " and describing the song as rowdy and sexually direct , he concluded that it could be ideal for " the soundtrack to a straight @-@ to @-@ DVD Showgirls sequel . "
Glenn Gamboa of Newsday found that Hilson gets incredibly riled up on " The Way You Love Me " . Rob Sheffield chose " The Way You Love Me " as one of the high points that are worth digging out and called its content " electro @-@ porn . " Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly called the song a " raunchy " one . Chris Parkin Yahoo ! Music commented that the " fantastic banger ' The Way you Love Me ' [ ... ] , [ a ] filthy song , that makes like the oversexed , doolally cousin of Beyoncé Knowles ' " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) . Idolator 's staff members described " The Way you Love Me " as a " pretty much the definition of down @-@ and @-@ dirty , adequately conveying a sexual energy perfect for , shall we say , a ' particular ' type of dancing . " They also said that vocals of Hilson sound " less like it was recorded during the throes of passion and more like someone just cut her off on the freeway " . However , they ended up saying that the song works . Neil Miller , Jr. of UR Chicago called " The Way You Love Me " an undeniable standout on the record thanks to its " serious bass to rattle your trunk , some tweaked out synth stabs , and Hilson 's bad bitch attitude . " By contrast , Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine said that it seems that Hilson has begun trusting her ability " to thrust her hips toward recoiling cameras more than she believes in the power of her vocal track . "
= = = Controversy = = =
The unedited version of " The Way You Love Me " received very negative reception from music critics . The song has been criticized for its explicit lyrics , particularly the lines " Fuck me , fuck me " and " I got the kinda pussy that 'll keep you out the streets " . Critics accused the singer of swerving into a racy lane just for page views and album sales for No Boys Allowed . However , she insisted that she " was setting the record straight . " In an interview with Hot 97 's Angie Martinez , Hilson stated firmly that she would not apologize for the explicit lyrics or the provocative video :
Hilson later told Jocelyn Vena of MTV News that she was indeed a little bit surprised by the reaction she was getting concerning " The Way You Love Me " . She clarified that the song was not just sexual : " In that record I 'm talking about one guy , I 'm talking about one night and this is what I want on this one night , and I 'm not afraid to say it . Not just sexual , I just mean whatever — open your mouth . That 's empowering to me . That 's what the song is about . " In an interview with Perez Hilton , Hilson said that she cannot allow other people or the media to dictate what she can and what cannot do . She also dismissed the negative reviews , because she knew some women were " empowered " by its message . She added that listeners have to be fearless and stand for what they believe in and concluded by saying that " The Way You Love Me " is not meant for children .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Way You Love Me " , a mini @-@ movie of about seven minutes long , was shot in Los Angeles during October 2010 and was directed by Laurie Ann Gibson . It premiered on November 28 , 2010 on a hip @-@ hop site , WorldStarHipHop.com. It also features cameo appearances from JoJo , Faith Evans , Dawn Richard , Columbus Short and Polow Da Don . According to Rap @-@ Up , " [ Hilson and her girls ] work their charm on the boys , including Rick Ross , Columbus Short , and Polow Da Don . " In the video , Hilson plays " femme fatale B.B. " . The video was released to iTunes Stores on December 7 , 2010 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins in a room with a man named Fuzz ( Polow da Don ) telling B.B. ( Hilson ) and her gun @-@ slinging women crew consisting of Boots ( JoJo ) , Danja ( Evans ) , and Money ( Dawn Richard ) about bringing in Hilson 's boyfriend into custody . After Hilson assures Jammal that she can handle it , the song begins and Hilson are seen wearing outfits of black bikinis as they dance seductively to the song 's chorus and verse . Meanwhile , Hilson and her crew are back in the room preparing themselves with scenes of Hilson grinding against a large vault door . As the song moves to the pre @-@ chorus , Hilson and her crew are shown at a party , mingling with the male guests and handing them drinks . As Ross ' verse begins , he , Short and da Don are shown at the party as Hilson 's crew grind themselves around them and Hilson kisses Short 's head . The song pauses and Hilson and her crew move into a room with Polow da Don , Short , and Ross sitting in chair with other men in the background . Unexpectedly , her crew all pull out their guns . Short ( who has turned out to be Hilson 's target ) is able to respond almost immediately by having his men pull out their guns . Seeing they are evenly matched , Short agrees to let Hilson take him into custody , with Hilson removing her top and locking them both in handcuffs . The two walk upstairs , where Short pushes Hilson against the wall and they kiss on the stairway . The video ends with Short following Hilson upstairs while the words " To be continued ... " appear on the screen .
= = = Reception = = =
Music critics universally criticized the video because of the limited amount of clothing Hilson wore in it . In an interview with gossip hound Perez Hilton , Hilson defended the clip , calling the video " racy " but in line with the perspective of her album : " If you put it in context with my album , my album is called No Boys Allowed but really it means no bullshit allowed . In this album , I was screaming in a room — just like I was screaming in the song — I was screaming in a room with all my girlfriends , yelling all the shit we really say . " Rebecca Thomas of MTV News wrote : " A platinum @-@ blond Keri gyrates , thrusts , licks and gets ( way ) low as she laces the song with enough saucy language and expletives to make your favorite rapper blush . " while Jocelyn Vena the same news division of MTV commented that even though there are several cameo appearances in the mini @-@ move , it is ultimately Hilson 's " scantily clad popping and locking that has everyone buzzing . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine called the video " overproduced and under @-@ clothed . "
Mariel Concepcion of Billboard wrote that she first saw the video for " The Way You Love Me " , it seemed like Hilson was trying a bit hard to her . However , part of her could appreciate that Hilson does what she wants and that she is confident enough to do it . Concepcion further stated : " Then I watched the above interview she did with Perez Hilton , and it made me respect her even more . She stood her ground and made no excuses for her words or her visuals , and I can dig that . " Niki A. M. of Vibe wrote that Hilson " made quite tails wag with her titillating video " and that " men reeled over the scantily clad vixen gyrating and shouting sexplicit phrases like " fuck me " while females seethed in disappointment over her crotch shots that went viral just days ago . " Becky Bain , writing for Idolator , stated that " the stilted dialog between Hilson and Columbus Short near the end of the mini @-@ movie as well as the former 's delivery makes the scene come off like the beginning of a porn movie , and unsurprisingly , the scene ends much like a porn movie . "
= Locust =
Locusts are certain species of short @-@ horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae which possess both a solitary phase and a swarming phase .
= = Description = =
In the solitary phase , these grasshoppers are innocuous , their numbers are low and they do not pose a major economic threat to agriculture . However , under suitable conditions of drought followed by rapid vegetation growth , serotonin in their brains triggers a dramatic set of changes : they start to breed abundantly , becoming gregarious and nomadic ( loosely described as migratory ) when their populations become dense enough . They form bands of wingless nymphs which later become swarms of winged adults . Both the bands and the swarms move around and rapidly strip fields and cause damage to crops . The adults are powerful fliers ; they can travel great distances , consuming most of the green vegetation wherever the swarm settles .
Locusts have formed plagues since prehistory . The Ancient Egyptians carved them on their tombs and the insects are mentioned in the Bible and the Quran . Swarms have devastated crops and been a contributory cause of famines and human migrations . More recently , changes in agricultural practices and better surveillance of locations where swarms tend to originate , have meant that control measures can be used at an early stage . The traditional means of control are based on the use of insecticides from the ground or the air , but other methods using biological control are proving effective .
Swarming behaviour has decreased in the twentieth century , but despite modern surveillance and control methods , the potential for swarms to form is still present , and when suitable climatic conditions occur and vigilance lapses , plagues can still occur . Locusts are large insects and convenient for use in research and the study of zoology in the classroom . They are also edible insects ; they have been eaten throughout history and are considered a delicacy in many countries . The word " locust " is derived from the Vulgar Latin locusta , meaning locust or lobster .
= = Swarming grasshoppers = =
Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short @-@ horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae . These insects are usually solitary , but under certain circumstances become more abundant and change their behaviour and habits , becoming gregarious .
There is no taxonomic distinction between locust and grasshopper species ; the basis for the definition is whether a species forms swarms under intermittently suitable conditions . In English the term " locust " is used for grasshopper species that change morphologically and behaviourally on crowding , forming swarms that develop from bands of immature stages called hoppers . These changes are examples of phase polymorphism ; they were first analysed and described by Boris Uvarov who was instrumental in setting up the Anti @-@ Locust Research Centre . He made his discoveries during his studies of the desert locust , whose solitary and gregarious phases had previously been thought to be separate species . He designated the two phases as solitaria and gregaria . These are also referred to as statary and migratory morphs , though strictly speaking their swarms are nomadic rather than migratory . Charles Valentine Riley and Norman Criddle were also involved in achieving the understanding and control of locusts .
Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding . Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin . This causes the locust to change colour , eat much more , and breed much more easily . The transformation of the locust to the swarming form is induced by several contacts per minute over a four @-@ hour period . A large swarm can consist of billions of locusts spread out over an area of thousands of square kilometres , with a population of up to eighty million individuals per square kilometre ( two hundred million per square mile ) . It has been shown that when desert locusts meet , their nervous systems release serotonin , which causes them to become mutually attracted , a prerequisite for swarming .
The initial bands of gregarious hoppers are known as " outbreaks " and when these join together into larger groups it is known as an " upsurge " . Continuing agglomerations of upsurges on a regional level originating from a number of entirely separate breeding locations are known as " plagues " . During outbreaks and the early stages of upsurges , only part of the locust population becomes gregarious , with scattered bands of hoppers spread out over a large area . As time goes by , the insects become more cohesive and the bands become concentrated in a smaller area . In the desert locust plague in Africa , the Middle East and Asia that lasted from 1966 to 1969 , the number of locusts increased from two to thirty billion over two generations but the area covered decreased from over 100 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 39 @,@ 000 sq mi ) to 5 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 sq mi ) .
= = = Solitary and gregarious phases = = =
One of the greatest differences between the solitary and gregarious phases is behavioural . The gregaria nymphs are attracted to each other , this being seen as early as the second instar . They soon form bands of many thousands of individuals . These groups behave like cohesive units and move across the landscape , mostly downhill , but making their way round barriers and merging with other bands . The attraction between the insects seems to be largely visual , but also involves olfactory cues , and the band seem to navigate using the sun . They pause to feed at intervals before resuming their march , and may cover tens of kilometres over a few weeks . There are also differences in morphology and development . In the desert locust and the migratory locust for example , the gregaria nymphs become darker with strongly contrasting yellow and black markings , they grow larger and have a longer developmental period . The adults are larger with different body proportions , less sexual dimorphism and a higher metabolic rate . They mature more rapidly and start reproducing earlier but have a lower level of fecundity .
The mutual attraction between individual insects continues into adulthood and they continue to act as a cohesive group . Individuals that get detached from a swarm fly back into the mass . Others that get left behind after feeding , take @-@ off to rejoin the swarm when it passes overhead . When individuals at the front of the swarm settle to feed , others fly past overhead and settle in their turn , the whole swarm acting like a rolling unit with an ever @-@ changing leading edge . The locusts spend much time on the ground feeding and resting , moving on when the vegetation is exhausted . They may then fly a considerable distance before settling in a location where transitory rainfall has caused a green flush of new growth .
= = Distribution and diversity = =
Several species of grasshopper , including especially the following , swarm as locusts in different parts of the world , on all continents except Antarctica ( and since the extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust , North America ) : For example , the Australian plague locust ( Chortoicetes terminifera ) swarms across Australia .
The desert locust ( Schistocerca gregaria ) is probably the best known species owing to its wide distribution ( North Africa , Middle East , and Indian subcontinent ) and its ability to migrate over long distances . A major infestation covered much of western Africa in 2003 @-@ 4 , after unusually heavy rain set up favourable ecological conditions for swarming . The first outbreaks occurred in Mauritania , Mali , Niger and Sudan in the autumn of 2003 . The rain allowed swarms to develop and move north to Morocco and Algeria , threatening croplands . Swarms crossed Africa , appearing in Egypt , Jordan and Israel , the first time in those countries for 50 years . The cost of handling the infestation was put at US $ 122 million , and the damage to crops at up to $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .
The migratory locust ( Locusta migratoria ) , sometimes classified into up to ten subspecies , swarms in Africa , Asia , Australia and New Zealand , but has become rare in Europe . In 2013 , the Madagascan form of the migratory locust formed many swarms of over a billion insects , reaching " plague " status and covering about half the country by March 2013 . Species such as the Senegalese grasshopper ( Oedaleus senegalensis ) and the African rice grasshopper ( Hieroglyphus daganensis ) , both from the Sahel , often display locust @-@ like behaviour and change morphologically on crowding .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Ancient times = = =
Study of literature shows how pervasive plagues of locusts were over the course of history . The insects arrived unexpectedly , often after a change of wind direction or weather , and the consequences were devastating . The Ancient Egyptians carved locusts on tombs in the period 2470 to 2220 BC , and a devastating plague is mentioned in the Book of Exodus in the Bible , as taking place in Egypt around 1300 BC . Plagues of locusts are also mentioned in the Quran . In the ninth century BC , the Chinese authorities appointed anti @-@ locust officers . Aristotle studied locusts and their breeding habits and Livy recorded a devastating plague in Capua in 203 BC . He mentioned human epidemics following locust plagues which he associated with the stench from the putrifying corpses ; the linking of human disease outbreaks to locust plagues was widespread . A pestilence in China in 311 AD that killed 98 % of the population locally was blamed on locusts , and may have been caused by an increase in numbers of rats ( and their fleas ) that devoured the locust carcases .
= = = More recent times = = =
During the last two millennia , locust plagues continued to appear at irregular intervals with the main recorded outbreaks of the desert and migratory locusts occurring in Africa , the Middle East and Europe . Other species of locust caused havoc in North and South America , Asia and Australasia . 173 outbreaks over a period of 1924 years have been recorded in China . The Bombay locust ( Nomadacris succincta ) was a major pest in India and southeastern Asia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , but has seldom swarmed since the last plague in 1908 .
The extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust has been a source of puzzlement . It had swarmed throughout the west of the United States and parts of Canada in the nineteenth century . Albert 's swarm of 1875 was estimated to cover 198 @,@ 000 square miles ( 510 @,@ 000 km2 ) ( greater than the area of California ) and to weigh 27 @.@ 5 million tons , with some 12 @.@ 5 trillion insects . The last specimen was seen alive in Canada in 1902 . Recent research suggests the breeding grounds of this insect in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains came under sustained agricultural development during the large influx of gold miners , destroying the underground eggs of the locust .
= = = Monitoring = = =
Early intervention is a more successful means of dealing with locusts than later action when swarms have already built up . The technology to control locust populations is now available , but the organisational , financial and political problems may be difficult to overcome . Monitoring is the key to reducing damage , with the early detection and eradication of nymphal bands being the objective . Ideally a sufficient proportion of nomadic bands can be treated with insecticide before the swarming phase is reached . Reaching this objective may be possible in richer countries like Morocco and Saudi Arabia , but neighbouring poorer countries lack the resources and may act as a source of locust swarms that threaten the whole region .
Several organizations around the world monitor the threat from locusts . They provide forecasts detailing regions likely to suffer from locust plagues in the near future . In Australia this service is provided by the Australian Plague Locust Commission . It has been very successful with dealing with developing outbreaks but has the great advantage of having a defined area to monitor and defend without locust invasions from elsewhere . In Central and Southern Africa the service is provided by the International Locust Control Organization for Central and Southern Africa ( IRLCO @-@ CSA ) . In West and Northwest Africa the service is co @-@ ordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization 's Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Western Region ( CLCPRO ) , and executed by locust control agencies belonging to each country concerned . The FAO also monitors the situation in the Caucasus and Central Asia , where over twenty @-@ five million hectares of cultivated land are under threat .
= = = Control = = =
Historically there was little that people could do to protect their crops from being devastated by locusts , although eating the insects themselves may have been some consolation . By the early twentieth century , efforts were being made to disrupt the development of the insects by cultivating the soil where eggs were laid , collecting hoppers with catching machines , killing them with flame @-@ throwers , trapping them in ditches , crushing them with rollers and other mechanical methods . By the 1950s , the organochloride Dieldrin was found to be an extremely effective insecticide but it was later banned from use in most countries because of its persistence in the environment and its bioaccumulation in the food chain .
In years when locust control is needed , the hoppers are targeted in spring by applying water @-@ based , contact pesticides using tractor @-@ based sprayers . This is effective but slow and labour @-@ intensive and it is preferable , where possible , to spray concentrated insecticide solutions from aircraft over the insects or the vegetation on which they feed . The use of ultra @-@ low volume spraying of contact pesticides from aircraft in overlapping swathes is effective against nomadic bands and can be used to treat large areas of land swiftly . Other modern technologies used for planning locust control include GPS , GIS tools and satellite imagery , and computers provide rapid data management and analysis .
A biological pesticide to control locusts was tested across Africa by a multinational team in 1997 . Dried fungal spores of a Metarhizium species sprayed in breeding areas pierce the locust exoskeleton on germination and invade the body cavity , causing death . The fungus is passed from insect to insect and persists in the area , making repeated treatments unnecessary . This approach to locust control was used in Tanzania in 2009 to treat around 10 @,@ 000 hectares in the Iku @-@ Katavi National Park infested with adult locusts . The outbreak was contained and the elephants , hippopotamuses and giraffes present in the area were unharmed .
The ultimate goal in locust control is the use of preventative and proactive methods that disrupt the environment to the least possible extent . This would make agricultural production easier and more secure in the many regions where growing crops is of vital importance to the survival of the local people .
= = = As experimental models = = =
The locust is large , easy to breed and rear and is used as an experimental model in research studies . It has been used in evolutionary biology research and to discover to what degree conclusions reached about other organisms , such as the fruit fly ( Drosophila ) and the housefly ( Musca ) , are applicable to all insects . It is a suitable school laboratory animal because of its robustness and the ease with which it can be grown and handled .
= = = As food = = =
Several cultures throughout the world consume insects , and locusts are considered a delicacy and eaten in many African , Middle Eastern and Asian countries . They have been used as food throughout history . They can be cooked in many ways but are often fried , smoked or dried . It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey ( Greek : ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον , akrides kai meli agrion ) while living in the wilderness ; attempts have been made to explain the locusts as suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans , but the plain meaning of ἀκρίδες is the insects . The Torah , although disallowing the use of most insects as food , permits the consumption of certain locusts ; specifically , the red , the yellow , the spotted grey and the white are considered permissible . In Islamic jurisprudence , eating locusts is considered halal . There is a Hadith which permits locust eating ( أحلت لنا ميتتان ، ميتة الجراد ، وميتة السمك ) ( " Permitted for us are two dead things , dead locusts , and dead fish . " ) . Locusts are permitted for consumption by Muslims in “ Al @-@ Rawd Al @-@ Moraba Fi Sharh Zad Al @-@ Mustaqni ” which is a work on Sunni Hanbali fiqh . All four Sunni Madhhab allow consumption of dead locusts . A hadith allowing locust consumption by Muslims was narrated by Abdullah ibn Umar : ( عن عبد الله بن عمر ، قال أُحِلَّتْ لنا ميتتان ودمان : الجراد والحِيتان والكَبد وَالطِّحال ) ( " about Abdullah bin Umar , he said permitted for us are two dead things and two bloods : the locusts , and the whales , and the liver and the spleen " ) . The Prophet Muhammad was reported to have eaten locusts during a military raid with his companions including Abdullah ibn Abu Aufa who narrated a hadith of this incident : ( عن عبدالله بن أبي أَوْفَى رضي الله عنه قال غزَوْنا معَ النبيِّ صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم سَبْعَ غزَواتٍ أو سِتًّا ، كُنَّا نأكُلُ معَه الجَرادَ ) ( " About Abdullah bin Abi Aufa radi Allahu anhu he said : our raiding with the Prophet Sallalahu Alayhi wa Salam , seven raids or six , and we ate with him the locusts . " ) . Peninsular Arabs have proverbs in Arabic encouraging the eating of locusts : ( إذا جاء الجراد انثر الدواء ، وإذا جاء الفقع صرّ الدواء ) ( " If the locusts came dispersing the medicine , and if the Terfeziaceae came saving the medicine . " ) and ( إذا جاد الجراد كب الدواء ) ( " If the locusts appeared dispersing the medicine " ) . Locusts are eaten in Saudi Arabia , consumption of locusts spiked around Ramadan in the Al @-@ Qassim Region and Ha 'il Region in 2014 since Saudis believe they are healthy to eat , however the Saudi Ministry of Health warned that pesticides they used against the locusts made them unsafe . The use of pesticides against locusts led to an advisory for Saudi citizens cautioning them against picking locusts off the ground and eating them issued by the Saudi Ministry of Agriculture . Locusts are eaten in Kuwait . Yemenis were interviewed over whether they would like to eat locusts before a swarm of them was forecasted to enter Yemen in 2007 and said they were willing to do it . ʻAbd al @-@ Salâm Shabînî described a locust recipe from Morocco . 19th century European travellers observed Arabs in Arabia , Egypt , and Morocco selling , cooking , and eating locusts . They reported that in Egypt and Palestine locusts were consumed . They reported that in Palestine , around the river Jordan , in Egypt , in Arabia , and in Morocco that Arabs ate locusts , while Syrian peasants did not eat locusts however in the Haouran region Fellahs ( peasants ) who were in poverty and suffered from famine ate locusts after removing the guts and head , while locusts were swallowed wholesale by Bedouins . Syrians , Copts , Greeks , Armenians and other Christians and Arabs themselves reported that in Arabia locusts were eaten frequently and one Arab described to a European traveler the different types of locusts which were favored as food by Arabs . Persians use the Anti @-@ Arab racial slur " Arabe malakh @-@ khor " ( عرب ملخ خور ) ( Arab locust eater ) against Arabs . The Iranian rap artist Behzad Pax released a song in 2015 called " Arab Kosh " ( عرب كش ) ( Kill Arabs ) which was widely reported on the Arab media who claimed that it was released with the approval of the Iranian Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance . One of the lyrics in the song call Arabs as " locust eaters " . The Iranian Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance denied that it gave approval to the song and condemned it as a product of a " sick mind " .
Locusts yield about five times as much edible protein per unit of fodder as cattle , and produce lower levels of greenhouse gases in the process . The feed conversion rate of orthopterans is 1 @.@ 7 kg / kg , while for beef it is typically about 10 kg / kg . The protein content in fresh weight is between 13 – 28 g / 100g for adult locust , 14 – 18 g / 100g for larvae , as compared to 19 – 26 g / 100g for beef . The calculated protein efficiency ratio is however low , with 1 @.@ 69 for locust protein compared to 2 @.@ 5 for standard casein . 100 g of desert locust provides 11 @.@ 5 g of fat , 53 @.@ 5 % of which is unsaturated , and 286 mg of cholesterol . Among the fatty acids , palmitoleic , oleic and linolenic acids were found to be the most abundant . Varying amounts of potassium , sodium , phosphorus , calcium , magnesium , iron and zinc were present .
= Vertebral artery dissection =
Vertebral artery dissection ( abbreviated VAD , often vertebral dissection ) is a dissection ( a flap @-@ like tear ) of the inner lining of the vertebral artery , which is located in the neck and supplies blood to the brain . After the tear , blood enters the arterial wall and forms a blood clot , thickening the artery wall and often impeding blood flow . The symptoms of vertebral artery dissection include head and neck pain and intermittent or permanent stroke symptoms such as difficulty speaking , impaired coordination and visual loss . It is usually diagnosed with a contrast @-@ enhanced CT or MRI scan .
Vertebral dissection may occur after physical trauma to the neck , such as a blunt injury ( e.g. traffic collision ) , strangulation or manipulation , but may also happen spontaneously . 1 – 4 % of spontaneous cases have a clear underlying connective tissue disorder affecting the blood vessels . Treatment is usually with either antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin or with anticoagulants such as heparin or warfarin .
Vertebral artery dissection is less common than carotid artery dissection ( dissection of the large arteries in the front of the neck ) . The two conditions combined account for 10 – 25 % of non @-@ hemorrhagic strokes in young and middle @-@ aged people . Over 75 % recover completely or with minimal impact on functioning , with the remainder having more severe disability and a very small proportion ( about 2 % ) dying from complications . It was first described in the 1970s by the Canadian neurologist C. Miller Fisher .
= = Classification = =
Vertebral artery dissection is one of the two types of dissection of the arteries in the neck . The other type , carotid artery dissection , involves the carotid arteries . Vertebral artery dissection is further classified as being either traumatic ( caused by mechanical trauma to the neck ) or spontaneous , and it may also be classified by the part of the artery involved : extracranial ( the part outside the skull ) and intracranial ( the part inside the skull ) .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Head pain occurs in 50 – 75 % of all cases of vertebral artery dissection . It tends to be located at the back of the head , either on the affected side or in the middle , and develops gradually . It is either dull or pressure @-@ like in character or throbbing . About half of those with VAD consider the headache distinct , while the remainder have had a similar headache before . It is suspected that VAD with headache as the only symptom is fairly common ; 8 % of all cases of vertebral and carotid dissection are diagnosed on the basis of pain alone .
Obstruction of blood flow through the affected vessel may lead to dysfunction of part of the brain supplied by the artery . This happens in 77 – 96 % of cases . This may be temporary ( " transient ischemic attack " ) in 10 – 16 % of cases , but many ( 67 – 85 % of cases ) end up with a permanent deficit or a stroke . The vertebral artery supplies the part of the brain that lies in the posterior fossa of the skull , and this type of stroke is therefore called a posterior circulation infarct . Problems may include difficulty speaking or swallowing ( lateral medullary syndrome ) ; this occurs in less than a fifth of cases and occurs due to dysfunction of the brainstem . Others may experience unsteadiness or lack of coordination due to involvement of the cerebellum , and still others may develop visual loss ( on one side of the visual field ) due to involvement of the visual cortex in the occipital lobe . In the event of involvement of the sympathetic tracts in the brainstem , a partial Horner 's syndrome may develop ; this is the combination of a drooping eyelid , constricted pupil , and an apparently sunken eye on one side of the face .
If the dissection of the artery extends to the part of the artery that lies inside the skull , subarachnoid hemorrhage may occur ( 1 % of cases ) . This arises due to rupture of the artery and accumulation of blood in the subarachnoid space . It may be characterized by a different , usually severe headache ; it may also cause a range of additional neurological symptoms .
13 – 16 % of all people with vertebral or carotid dissection have dissection in another cervical artery . It is therefore possible for the symptoms to occur on both sides , or for symptoms of carotid artery dissection to occur at the same time as those of vertebral artery dissection . Some give a figure of multiple vessel dissection as high as 30 % .
= = Causes = =
The causes of vertebral artery dissection can be grouped under two main categories , spontaneous and traumatic .
= = = Spontaneous = = =
Spontaneous cases are considered to be caused by intrinsic factors that weaken the arterial wall . Only a very small proportion ( 1 – 4 % ) have a clear underlying connective tissue disorder , such as Ehlers – Danlos syndrome type 4 and more rarely Marfan 's syndrome . Ehlers @-@ Danlos syndrome type 4 , caused by mutations of the COL3A gene , leads to defective production of the collagen , type III , alpha 1 protein and causes skin fragility as well as weakness of the walls of arteries and internal organs . Marfan 's syndrome results from mutations in the FBN1 gene , defective production of the protein fibrillin @-@ 1 , and a number of physical abnormalities including aneurysm of the aortic root .
There have also been reports in other genetic conditions , such as osteogenesis imperfecta type 1 , autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease and pseudoxanthoma elasticum , α1 antitrypsin deficiency and hereditary hemochromatosis , but evidence for these associations is weaker . Genetic studies in other connective tissue @-@ related genes have mostly yielded negative results . Other abnormalities to the blood vessels , such as fibromuscular dysplasia , have been reported in a proportion of cases . Atherosclerosis does not appear to increase the risk .
There have been numerous reports of associated risk factors for vertebral artery dissection ; many of these reports suffer from methodological weaknesses , such as selection bias . Elevated homocysteine levels , often due to mutations in the MTHFR gene , appear to increase the risk of vertebral artery dissection . People with an aneurysm of the aortic root and people with a history of migraine may be predisposed to vertebral artery dissection .
= = = Traumatic = = =
Traumatic vertebral dissection may follow blunt trauma to the neck , such as in a traffic collision , direct blow to the neck , strangulation , or whiplash injury . 1 – 2 % of those with major trauma may have an injury to the carotid or vertebral arteries . In many cases of vertebral dissection , people report recent very mild trauma to the neck or sudden neck movements , e.g. in the context of playing sports . Others report a recent infection , particularly respiratory tract infections associated with coughing . Trauma has been reported to have occurred within a month of dissection in 40 % with nearly 90 % of this time the trauma being minor . It has been difficult to prove the association with mild trauma and infections statistically . It is likely that many " spontaneous " cases may in fact have been caused by such relatively minor insults in someone predisposed by other structural problems to the vessels .
Vertebral artery dissection has also been reported in association with some forms of neck manipulation . There is significant controversy about the level of risk of stroke from neck manipulation . It may be that manipulation can cause dissection , or it may be that the dissection is already be present in some people who seek manipulative treatment . At this time , conclusive evidence does not exist to support either a strong association between neck manipulation and stroke , or no association .
= = Mechanism = =
The vertebral arteries arise from the subclavian artery , and run through the transverse foramen of the upper six vertebrae of the neck . After exiting at the level of the first cervical vertebra , its course changes from vertical to horizontal , and then enters the skull through the foramen magnum . Inside the skull , the arteries merge to form the basilar artery , which joins the circle of Willis . In total , three quarters of the artery are outside the skull ; it has a high mobility in this area due to rotational movement in the neck and is therefore vulnerable to trauma . Most dissections happen at the level of the first and second vertebrae . The vertebral artery supplies a number of vital structures in the posterior cranial fossa , such as the brainstem , the cerebellum and the occipital lobes . The brainstem harbors a number of vital functions ( such as respiration ) and controls the nerves of the face and neck . The cerebellum is part of the diffuse system that coordinates movement . Finally , the occipital lobes participate in the sense of vision .
Dissection occurs when blood accumulates in the wall of the blood vessel . This is most likely due to a tear in the tunica intima ( the inner layer ) , allowing blood to enter the tunica media , although other lines of evidence have suggested that the blood may instead arise from the vasa vasorum , the small blood vessels that supply the outer layer of larger blood vessels . Various theories exist as to whether people who sustain carotid and vertebral artery dissection , even if not suffering from a connective tissue disorder , have an underlying vulnerability . Biopsy samples of skin and other arteries has indicated that this might be a possibility , but no genetic defect in collagen or elastin genes has been convincingly proven . Other studies have indicated inflammation of the blood vessels , as measured by highly sensitive C @-@ reactive protein ( hsCRP , a marker of inflammation ) in the blood .
Once dissection has occurred , two mechanisms contribute to the development of stroke symptoms . Firstly , the flow through the blood vessel may be disrupted due to the accumulation of blood under the vessel wall , leading to ischemia ( insufficient blood supply ) . Secondly , irregularities in the vessel wall and turbulence increase the risk of thrombosis ( the formation of blood clots ) and embolism ( migration ) of these clots of the brain . From various lines of evidence , it appears that thrombosis and embolism is the predominant problem .
Subarachnoid hemorrage due to arterial rupture typically occurs if the dissection extends into the V4 section of the artery . This may be explained by the fact that the arterial wall is thinner and lacks a number of structural supports in this section .
= = Diagnosis = =
Various diagnostic modalities exist to demonstrate blood flow or absence thereof in the vertebral arteries . The gold standard is cerebral angiography ( with or without digital subtraction angiography ) . This involves puncture of a large artery ( usually the femoral artery ) and advancing an intravascular catheter through the aorta towards the vertebral arteries . At that point , radiocontrast is injected and its downstream flow captured on fluoroscopy ( continuous X @-@ ray imaging ) . The vessel may appear stenotic ( narrowed , 41 – 75 % ) , occluded ( blocked , 18 – 49 % ) , or as an aneurysm ( area of dilation , 5 – 13 % ) . The narrowing may be described as " rat 's tail " or " string sign " . Cerebral angiography is an invasive procedure , and it requires large volumes of radiocontrast that can cause complications such as kidney damage . Angiography also does not directly demonstrate the blood in the vessel wall , as opposed to more modern modalities . The only remaining use of angiography is when endovascular treatment is contemplated ( see below ) .
More modern methods involve computed tomography ( CT angiography ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( MR angiography ) . They use smaller amounts of contrast and are not invasive . CT angiography and MR angiography are more or less equivalent when used to diagnose or exclude vertebral artery dissection . CTA has the advantage of showing certain abnormalities earlier , tends to be available outside office hours , and can be performed rapidly . When MR angiography is used , the best results are achieved in the T1 setting using a protocol known as " fat suppression " . Doppler ultrasound is less useful as it
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– 12 defeat of the Naval Academy in 1888 , Navy shutout Hopkins five times , including a 66 – 0 blowout in the 1919 contest . The rivalry was an essential contest for the beginning of both schools ' football programs . Prior to the first game , Navy had competed in only a single contest . Johns Hopkins began their football program with the rivalry , originally having to play under a fake title in order to compete .
= = Background = =
It is widely believed by football researchers that the playing of intercollegiate football began in November 1869 , when a player at Rutgers University challenged another player at the nearby College of New Jersey ( now Princeton ) . The contest more closely resembled soccer , with teams scoring by kicking the ball into the opponent 's net , and lacked a uniform rules structure . The game developed slowly ; the first rules were drafted in October 1873 , and only consisted of twelve guidelines . Even though the number of teams participating in the sport increased , the game was still effectively controlled by the College of New Jersey , who claimed eight national championships in ten years . Only Yale presented any form of challenge , claiming four national championships in the same time period .
According to biographer C. Douglas Kroll , the first evidence of football at the United States Naval Academy came in 1857 , but the school 's cadets lost interest in the game shortly afterward . The first occurrence of serious interest in the sport came in 1879 , when a squad of twelve cadets challenged men from the Baltimore Athletic Club to a contest . The team was captained by William John Maxwell , lacking " official " support from all academy supervisors . The team was student operated , and supported by the friends of the players . The 1879 game with Baltimore ended in a 0 – 0 tie , where the Naval Academy apparently never gained control of the ball . The team was credited with creating the first football uniform , worn during the game . Following the 1879 season , football at the Naval Academy went on a two @-@ year hiatus , returning in 1882 under the leadership of Vaulx Carter .
Johns Hopkins University , located north of the Naval Academy , in Baltimore , started their football program a couple years after Navy . Hopkins ' first team was assembled in 1881 , and spent an entire year training and learning a version of the game . Their sport , which was closer to rugby , was played in Druid Hill Park . After the training , the team planned a two @-@ game 1882 season . The squad had to play the season under the title of the Clifton Athletic Club , due to the school 's policy on the sport of football . The first was a practice game with the Baltimore Athletic Club , played on October 7 . The Hopkins team lost the contest 4 – 0 . The following game was their first true game , to be played against the Naval Academy .
= = Series history = =
= = = Beginnings , 1882 – 83 = = =
The rivalry began in 1882 , when cadet Vaulx Carter reintroduced football to the United States Naval Academy . Acting as both a player and a coach , Carter procured a single game for the Academy to play . The team challenged the Baltimore @-@ based Clifton Athletic Club to a game during the Academy 's Thanksgiving Day athletic carnival . The Clifton team was actually made up of players from Johns Hopkins , who were unable to play as their school due to the institution 's harsh opinion on football .
It snowed heavily before the game , to the point where players for both teams had to clear layers of snow off of the field , making large piles of snow along the sides of the playing ground . The field was 110 yards by 53 yards , with goalposts 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) apart and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high . The first half of the game went scoreless ; the Baltimore American reported that " the visitors pushed Navy every place but over the goal line in the first half " . During play , the ball was kicked over the seawall a number of times , once going so far out it had to be retrieved by boat before play could continue . The American described the second half in detail :
After ten minutes interval the ball was again put in play , this time being kicked off by the Cliftons . The rest period had apparently stiffened the Cliftons , for the Academy making a vigorous spurt got the ball thru them , and Street , following it up well , scored a touchdown for the Academy .
The try at goal failed , but the ball , instead of going to the Cliftons behind the line , fell into the field and into the hands of one of the Academy team . By a quick decisive run , he again got the ball over the Cliftons goal line and scored a touchdown .
Cadet George Washington Street was identified as the first person ever to score a touchdown for the Naval Academy . The Baltimore Sun stated that William Abrose O 'Malley was the cadet who caught Street 's blocked kick and scored the second touchdown . The Sun also covered , in detail , the uniforms the squads wore ; Johns Hopkins sported black and light blue striped jerseys and caps , with white pants and blue socks . The Naval Academy wore maroon socks , caps , and belts , with white pants and jerseys . Both teams also nailed strips of leather to the bottom of their shoes to help deal with slipping .
The Naval Academy challenged Johns Hopkins again the next year . By this time the Hopkins team had procured the approval of their school officials to participate in football and were playing under the name Johns Hopkins for the first time . The 1883 game , again played during the Academy 's Thanksgiving Day athletic carnival , was a 2 – 0 victory for Johns Hopkins . Hopkins won the game on two single @-@ point safeties , both of which were intentionally made by Navy to prevent Johns Hopkins from gaining possession on the edge of the endzone . Writer Morris Allison Bealle summed up the game as a " backed up " victory for Hopkins , due to its manner of scoring .
= = = Annual competition , 1884 – 89 = = =
Starting in 1884 , the rivalry was played annually or bi @-@ annually until 1889 . All of the games were hosted at the Naval Academy . According to writers Taylor Baldwin Kiland and Jamie Howren , all games played during that time were hosted on whatever parade or drill field was unused at the time at the Academy , instead of Navy having a specific football @-@ dedicated area . The 1884 game , which was played entirely under the rules of rugby , was a rematch with Johns Hopkins . In the first half , Hopkins scored twice , on a touchdown from a Mr. Bonsall and on a two @-@ point safety . Navy returned the favor in the second half of the game when halfback Julius Dashiell , brother of Hopkins ' Paul Dashiell , kicked a five @-@ point goal and rusher David W. Taylor scored a touchdown to secure a victory .
The next year , in 1885 , Naval Academy officials finally approved of the playing of football . According to Morris Allison Bealle , " Football at Annapolis had shed its swaddling clothes when the autumn of 1885 rolled around . Some of the faculty actually gave in and admitted that football might , at that , be or become an interesting diversion " . After Navy won their opener and Hopkins split their record at 1 – 1 , the two teams met again at the Naval Academy Thanksgiving Day athletic carnival . Johns Hopkins managed a 12 – 8 victory over the Academy , tying the series at two wins apiece .
In 1886 , the Thanksgiving Day tradition was changed slightly . On November 13 , Johns Hopkins traveled to Annapolis and lost to Navy 6 – 0 . After the Naval Academy defeated St. John 's College again and Hopkins won back @-@ to @-@ back contests with Gallaudet , the two teams played for a second time that season , again in Annapolis . The game , which was the traditional Thanksgiving Day competition , was a 15 – 14 victory for the Naval Academy . Johns Hopkins led for the majority of the game , with Navy only gaining the lead at the very end of the match . The Baltimore American covered the game in detail :
" Early in the first half , by much rushing , forcing , snapbacks and vigorous bullyragging Riggs , the huge Hopkins quarterback , crashed over the goal line for 4 points . Paul Dashiell converted . Riggs repeated his performance but Dashiell missed conversion . Navy then adopted the Hopkins rushing tactics and Stone went over for the first score " .
" With Hopkins backed up against her own goal line , Dashiell broke through the entire Navy team for a touchdown . Goal was missed and the score was 14 to 6 against Navy . With the game fast coming to a close The Tars formed a closely knit ball with the halfback in center " .
" Navy hit paydirt but the referee found something illegal and called the ball back , much to the consternation of the Cadet rooters . But on the next play George Hayward kicked a field goal , making the score 14 to 11 . Just before the game ended a double pass , Bill Cloke to captain Clarence Stone , carried to ball over the Hopkins goal for the 4 points that won the game " .
The following year , the contest was again played as a part of the Academy 's athletic carnival . As an experiment , the Academy hosted a double @-@ header that day ; the official Navy team challenged their " by @-@ this @-@ time ancient rivals from Johns Hopkins " while their junior team would play against the Dupont Athletic Club immediately afterwards . The Naval Academy defeated Hopkins 8 – 0 and their junior team won 14 – 0 . Navy 's first score on Hopkins was when a cadet recovered a missed field goal and returned it for a touchdown . The score which secured the game for Navy was a safety , awarded after a Hopkins player accidentally stepped out of the back of the endzone . The Baltimore Sun noted how fans for both teams in the 1887 contest " did everything but get into the game themselves " .
The decline of the series began following the 1887 match . Bitter feelings were evident at Johns Hopkins , which put strained feelings on the schools ' competition . In Navy 's following game , against the Princeton Reserves team , Hopkins students traveled to the Academy to support the Princeton squad . The following year , Hopkins returned to the Naval Academy , where they managed their largest ever defeat of Navy , 25 – 12 . During the contest , Hopkins supporters " discovered " the using of a cheering section . Morris Allison Bealle wrote that " the ' Hoppies ' uncovered something new in sports — a cheering section which gave the team yell in unison " .
Despite the strong win , bitter feelings at Johns Hopkins continued to grow into the next season . The school 's attitude towards the series worsened to the point where the 1889 game was rescheduled away from the traditional Thanksgiving Day playing and was moved to a week earlier . That year 's game ended in a 36 – 0 shutout victory for the Naval Academy , and wound up being the breaking point for Johns Hopkins . Hopkins decided to terminate the series following that game . However , Hopkins ' students returned to the Naval Academy the following year , yet again to root against Navy , this time supporting Lehigh .
= = = Brief renewal , 1911 – 12 & 1919 = = =
It took twenty @-@ two years for an attempt to revive the rivalry . In 1911 , both schools agreed to open their seasons with an effort to bring back the competition . The game , played on October 7 , began " [ as ] somewhat of a disappointment " for the Naval Academy , when Johns Hopkins scored early in the contest . Navy managed an 8 – 0 – 1 record the previous season , and went unscored upon . However , the Academy recovered and put up twenty @-@ seven unanswered points to win 27 – 5 . Only one other team , North Carolina A & M , managed to score on the Naval Academy that season , putting up just six points . The teams agreed to start their following season with another playing of the rivalry . Navy considered Hopkins to be " a small eastern college to practice upon " , instead of a serious opponent . The Academy 's team entered the game expecting an easy win , but were surprised by Johns Hopkins and barely managed a 7 – 3 victory . The rivalry was yet again ended after that game , but returned for one final playing in 1919 . The 1921 Naval Academy yearbook wrote that Johns Hopkins was " outweighed , outgeneraled , and outclassed in every department of the game , they were shoved back over their goal line ten times " . The game was the most lopsided in the rivalry 's history , Navy winning 66 – 0 .
= = Statistics = =
= = Game results = =
= 2008 Spanish Grand Prix =
The 2008 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally the L Gran Premio de España Telefónica ) was a Formula One motor race held on 27 April 2008 at the Circuit de Catalunya , Barcelona , Spain . It was the fourth race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 66 @-@ lap race was won by Kimi Räikkönen for the Ferrari team after starting from pole position . Felipe Massa finished second in the other Ferrari , and Lewis Hamilton was third in a McLaren .
Räikkönen began the race from pole position alongside Renault driver Fernando Alonso . Massa began from third , alongside BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica . Hamilton , the eventual Drivers ' Champion , began from fifth and passed Kubica into the first corner , as Massa passed Alonso . Räikkönen maintained his lead through most of the race , leading to Ferrari 's one @-@ two finish . The safety car was deployed several times throughout the race , including for a serious crash involving McLaren driver Heikki Kovalainen , though the Finn escaped with only a minor concussion .
Prior to the race weekend , the event was put on probation by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile , the sport 's governing body , for racist taunting during pre @-@ season testing at the circuit . Subsequently , no such racism was reported during the race weekend . The event was Super Aguri 's final Grand Prix , withdrawing afterwards due to financial pressures , leaving the sport with ten teams ; this was also the last race for both of the team 's drivers , Takuma Sato and Anthony Davidson . The result promoted Ferrari to the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , 12 points ahead of BMW Sauber and 13 points ahead of McLaren . Räikkönen extended his lead in the Drivers ' Championship to 29 points , nine points ahead of Hamilton and ten points ahead of Kubica . Massa moved into fourth place on 18 points , with 14 races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 22 drivers , in 11 teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull Racing , Williams , Toro Rosso and Super Aguri . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves .
Prior to the race , Ferrari driver Kimi Räikkönen led the Drivers ' Championship with 19 points , and BMW Sauber driver Nick Heidfeld was second with 16 points . McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton , BMW driver Robert Kubica and Hamilton 's teammate Heikki Kovalainen held the next three positions , all with 14 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , BMW Sauber were leading with 30 points , one point ahead of Ferrari , and two ahead of McLaren @-@ Mercedes .
After Hamilton won the season opener in Australia , Ferrari had dominated the next two races in Malaysia and Bahrain . In the Malaysian Grand Prix , Ferrari driver Felipe Massa had claimed pole position , and while he later spun off and retired , his teammate Räikkönen went on to win the race . Ferrari 's form had continued at the Bahrain Grand Prix , where Massa had led Räikkönen to a one @-@ two finish . Despite the promising start to the season , Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali said the team was not celebrating prematurely :
The real Ferrari is not the one we 've seen at the Australian GP . The team reacted immediately and has shown the great potential of our package , which is extremely competitive . Having said that , we have to be aware . We 're approaching the Spanish GP with a maximum effort , keeping our feet on the ground : we were not depressed after the first race and we are not euphoric after Bahrain . We need absolute motivation and we are aware of the fact that our competitors are getting better .
With his team leading the Constructors ' Championship , Heidfeld said BMW was outperforming expectations : " It 's better than expected after the winter time , of course , but it could also be better . It can always be better . " BMW had opened the season with podium finishes in each of the first three races , which team principal Mario Theissen said put his team amongst the top three , along with Ferrari and McLaren .
After a poor race in Bahrain , where he narrowly avoided stalling on the grid before colliding with Renault 's Fernando Alonso a lap later , Hamilton said he would return stronger in Spain : " I approach it in the same way and obviously I won 't be making the same mistake again . This weekend being here , feeling fresh after a good break from racing , and making sure we come here fresh has been important . I feel good . " His team said that they had made significant improvements to their car , the McLaren MP4 @-@ 23 , in the three @-@ week break , but were reserving judgement until the race to see how their performance had improved in comparison to their rivals .
The event also took place under the shadow of incidents that had taken place at the same circuit during pre @-@ season testing . At one of the test sessions , Hamilton was subjected to racist taunting by some of the spectators . In response , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) launched a " Racing Against Racism " programme , and placed the Spanish and European Grands Prix on probation , the latter event being held in the Spanish city of Valencia . During the course of the event itself , no such incidents were reported . Hamilton was particularly unpopular with the country 's Formula One fans due to his acrimonious inter @-@ team rivalry with Spaniard Alonso during the previous year 's championship , which had resulted in the latter leaving the McLaren team and returning to Renault for 2008 .
The Super Aguri team had been in financial trouble since a proposed takeover deal backed by equity firm Dubai International Capital , under the " Magma Group " banner , failed to take effect . The team narrowly avoided folding in mid @-@ April , and were only given confirmation to compete by team owners Honda on the Friday prior to the race . This would be the team 's final Grand Prix , withdrawing after two years in Formula One prior to the Turkish Grand Prix , leaving the sport with ten teams for the first time since the 2005 season .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The Ferraris were fastest in the first session ; Räikkönen was quickest with a time of 1 : 20 @.@ 649 , ahead of Massa , who recovered from a spin and an off @-@ track excursion on his first two laps to take second . Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen took the next three positions , ahead of home driver Alonso in sixth . Räikkönen repeated his morning effort in the second session , with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 935 , as the frontrunners experimented with higher fuel loads . Renault driver Nelson Piquet was next quickest , ahead of Alonso , Williams driver Kazuki Nakajima , Massa and Red Bull driver Mark Webber . The McLarens had a less successful session ; Kovalainen struggled with gearbox problems , and difficulty with Hamilton 's set @-@ up meant he managed 11th after suffering from excessive oversteer . Heidfeld was quickest in the final session , his 1 : 21 @.@ 269 benefiting from use of the quicker soft compound tyre . Webber 's teammate David Coulthard was next quickest , ahead of Alonso , Kubica , Toyota driver Jarno Trulli and Sébastien Bourdais of Toro Rosso . Ferrari and McLaren again ran heavier cars , and neither team managed better than ninth quickest . Mechanical problems meant Webber failed to set a time , his car coming to a halt in the pit @-@ lane exit after two installation laps .
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes , and cars that finished the session 17th or lower were eliminated from qualifying . The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 16 . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in those sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Räikkönen clinched his first pole position of the season with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 813 . Alonso would start alongside him on the grid , amid suspicions the Spaniard was fuelled light for the race . Massa , Kubica and Hamilton qualified next quickest ; just 0 @.@ 2 seconds separated Hamilton 's time from that of Räikkönen . Kovalainen would line up on the third row of the grid next to his teammate ; Webber and Trulli would start from the fourth row . Heidfeld was disappointed with his ninth place , after suffering from tyre problems on his final lap ; Piquet , who made it into the final session for the first time in his career , qualified just ahead of Honda driver Rubens Barrichello and Nakajima . Honda driver Jenson Button and Timo Glock of Toyota would occupy the seventh row ; Williams driver Nico Rosberg was outqualified by his teammate for the first time in the season , and would start from 15th , ahead of Bourdais . Coulthard failed to make it through the first session after failing to get sufficient heat into his tyres ; Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel and the two Force Indias of Giancarlo Fisichella and Adrian Sutil took positions 18 to 20 . The Super Aguris of Anthony Davidson and Takuma Sato would line up on the back row of the grid in their final race .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race . The air temperature was 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) and the track temperature was 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) ; weather forecasts indicated a light wind , but otherwise calm conditions . Räikkönen held his lead into the first corner , as Massa passed Alonso to take second ; Hamilton passed Kubica to take fourth . However , an incident further down the field brought out the safety car . Sutil 's car entered a spin after attempting to pass Coulthard ; the resulting collision eliminated Sutil and Vettel from the Grand Prix . The race restarted on lap four when the safety car peeled off , Räikkönen quickly increased his lead over Massa to more than a second . The gap between the Ferraris increased as Räikkönen continued to lap the quickest on track ; Hamilton began to close in on Alonso , only to see the Renault pit on lap 16 , promoting the McLaren to third place .
Further down the field , several incidents reduced the field to 15 cars . Piquet , after running off the track on lap five , collided with Bourdais two laps later while attempting to pass at turn 10 . The Renault retired from the race immediately ; Bourdais struggled back to the pit lane before Toro Rosso decided to retire his car . The resulting debris ended Davidson 's race when he retired on lap eight after sustaining radiator damage . On lap 22 Kovalainen 's front left tyre suffered a rapid deflation , hurling his car into the barriers at an estimated 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) , with an impact of 26 g . As the track marshals extracted the McLaren from the barriers , the safety car was once again deployed . Heidfeld was forced to pit immediately as he was low on fuel , incurring a ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalty for coming in before the pit @-@ lane was officially re @-@ opened . Barrichello and Fisichella then collided in the pit @-@ lane on lap 26 , heavily damaging the Honda 's front wing , and requiring Barrichello to drive the whole lap with a disintegrating car , before retiring into his team 's garage .
Räikkönen , Massa , Hamilton , Kubica and Alonso , having already made their pit stops , trailed the safety car until it peeled off on lap 29 . As Räikkönen again increased his lead over Massa to more than two seconds , Alonso pulled over to the side of the track , smoke billowing from his engine , and retired . Rosberg 's engine also suffered a failure , and the Williams retired on lap 42 from seventh place . Four laps later , Räikkönen set the fastest lap of the race , a 1 : 21 @.@ 670 ( a lap record that still stands ) , as Massa pitted from behind him . Räikkönen , Hamilton and Kubica followed into the pit @-@ lane on lap 47 . Coulthard and Glock collided on lap 53 after the Toyota driver attempted to pass the Red Bull at the first corner . Glock sustained front wing damage , and Coulthard suffered a puncture to his left rear tyre ; both pitted soon after for repairs .
Räikkönen took his second win of the season when he crossed the line at the end of the 66th lap , 3 @.@ 2 seconds ahead of the second @-@ placed Massa . Hamilton took third , ahead of Kubica , Webber and Button , who scored Honda 's first points for the season . Nakajima finished in seventh place , ahead of Trulli , who was running in sixth place before his team mistakenly called him into the pit @-@ lane . Toyota had mistaken Glock 's damaged car for Trulli , dropping the latter down the order after the stop . Heidfeld , recovering after his penalty , finished in ninth place ahead of Fisichella . Glock and Coulthard filled the next two positions after their late collision , ahead of Sato in 13th . Rosberg , Alonso , Barrichello , Kovalainen , Davidson , Bourdais , Piquet , Vettel and Sutil were the retirements from a punishing Spanish Grand Prix .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference , where Räikkönen said his pole position start was an important factor in his victory : " This circuit is very difficult to overtake . The start is the best place and when you have a lot of things going with the safety car you might be lucky or very unlucky , so the best place to try to win is always from the front . It was good yesterday and it really helped us today . "
Massa said that the result was a good one for his team , as they moved ahead of BMW Sauber in the Constructors ' Championship : " We did our homework and brought two Ferrari 's in the front – first and second – which is very important for the Championship . " Although Ferrari had performed well , Massa said their speed was not significantly better than their opponents , so " we need to keep working like crazy in the factory to improve the car in every area . "
Hamilton agreed that the start was the most important part of the race : " Obviously when we qualified fifth we knew that it would be very difficult to beat the Ferraris . But the key was to get a good start and make as many places as possible and fortunately I was able to do that . " Apart from the start of the race , only two passing manoeuvres were recorded : Heidfeld 's lap 55 pass on Fisichella and Coulthard 's lap 61 pass on Sato .
Despite his accident , Kovalainen suffered no physical injuries , except for minor concussion . After spending the night under observation in a nearby hospital , the McLaren driver was cleared to race in the next Grand Prix , two weeks later . McLaren said that the wheel failure was due to a faulty wheel clamp which made it vulnerable to the rapid changes in load and pressure that a Formula One car endures , eventually leading to the deflated tyre and Kovalainen 's accident . Kovalainen praised Formula One 's safety procedures and medical staff :
It was a serious accident and I managed to walk away . I was a bit lucky , but the safety standards the FIA has been pushing worked very well , ... The chassis , the impact , all the barriers took the impact well , the FIA medical team plus the marshals and the team took the job very well and did a fantastic job to get me out of there quickly in a short period of time ... I was able to make a recovery without any injuries . I think it is something that we must still keep working on , but the work paid off that day .
However , Mark Webber , a director of the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association , said that standards at the track should have been better . Speaking in his regular BBC Online column , Webber said the " run @-@ off on that corner is too tight and we need to have a look at it because any driver that has an error there is going to have a big crash . If Heikki 's accident had happened two seconds later he would have been fine and controlled the car , but it probably happened on the worst section of that whole track . "
Räikkönen 's win increased his points tally in the Drivers ' Championship to 29 points , nine ahead of second @-@ placed Hamilton . Kubica and Massa were one and two points behind Hamilton , respectively ; Heidfeld was fifth on 16 points , after failing to score . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari took the lead with 47 points , 12 points ahead of BMW Sauber and 13 points ahead of McLaren , with 14 races remaining in the season .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
Notes
1 . ^ – Heikki Kovalainen 's accident was caused by a wheel rim failure .
2 . This marks the last race for both Super Aguri drivers , Takuma Sato and Anthony Davidson as Super Aguri decided to withdraw from Formula One due to financial troubles .
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Neighbors Know My Name =
" Neighbors Know My Name " is a song by American R & B singer Trey Songz . It was written by Songz with Patrick Hayes and Troy Taylor , who produced the song with John " $ K " McGee . It was released to rhythmic and urban airplay as the fifth and final single from his third studio album , Ready on February 16 , 2010 . The song , described as being hook @-@ heavy and having a powerful bassline , received generally positive reviews from critics . The song reached forty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 and four on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , becoming Songz 's third consecutive top five R & B hit .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard gave the song a positive review , stating , " he utilizes his vocal range here , including the teasing falsetto with which he gently instructs his partner to ' take this pillow right here / If you bite it , they won 't hear . ' Bertoldi also complimented the song 's production , commenting , " ' Neighbors ' employs a knocking bassline and drip @-@ drop effect to provide the ideal erotic backdrop for Songz 's dirty talk . " She also pointed out that the song was inspired by Songz 's " stylistic antecedent " , R. Kelly . Mark Edward Nero of About.com also said the song was R. Kelly influenced , calling the song among the album 's best material . Nero said , " Trey brags about how the people next door probably know who he is because his woman screams it during sex . ' While I be bangin ' on your body , they be bangin ' on our wall , ' he sings . ' While they be dreamin ' , you be screamin ' , now they bangin ' on our door . ' " Ready album reviews from Allmusic and PopMatters , noted the track as a standout , with Tyler Lewis of the latter stating the " good " songs like " Neighbors " and " I Need A Girl " " thump as they should " . Ken Capobianco of the Boston Globe complimented the song 's braggadocio along with " I Invented Sex " , however commented that the song was " unintentionally humorous " . Andrew Rennie of Now Magazine said the album 's hook @-@ heavy and playful style was evident on the track and on " LOL " .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 13 , 2010 , " Neighbors Know My Name " debuted at eighty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot 100 . A little over a month later , on the week ending May 15 , 2010 , it peaked at forty @-@ three on the chart . In its twenty @-@ seventh week on the chart , " Neighbors Know My Name " peaked at the top spot on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , becoming his fourth top ten single from Ready and his third consecutive top five hit .
= = Music video = =
The video was directed by Yolande Geralds , also director for the " I Invented Sex and Say Aah videos . Teairra Mari , D. Woods , and Shanell were reported to have cameos , but the scenes were evidently cut . The video premiered on March 1 , 2010 . On March 3 , 2010 , the video was " The New Joint of the Day " on BET 's 106 & Park . The music video starts off with an intimate milk bath scene with Trey Songz and model @-@ actress , Jessica White along with the song " Panty Droppa " , the intro track on Ready , played in the background . It then branches off into " Neighbors Know My Name " playing in the background with the rest of the music video taking place in a bedroom with love scenes of both Songz and White . Some scenes also include Trey Songz in front of a red background .
= = Live performances = =
He performed the song on 106 & Park on February 11 , 2010 for " Love Week " with a medley of " Say Aah " , and " I Invented Sex " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Trey Songz , Troy Taylor , Patrick Hayes
Production - Troy Taylor , Patrick Hayes
Recording - John McGee
Mixing - Jean Marie Horvat
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Operation Trio =
Operation Trio ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Operacija Trio ) was the first large @-@ scale joint German @-@ Italian counter @-@ insurgency operation of World War II conducted in the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) , which included modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was carried out in two phases within eastern Bosnia from 20 April to 13 May 1942 , with Ustaše militia and Croatian Home Guard forces taking part on the Axis side . The aim of the operation was to target all insurgents between Sarajevo and the Drina river in eastern Bosnia . These included groups led by communists and Serb nationalist Chetniks . Differentiating between the rank and file of the two insurgent factions was difficult , as even the communist @-@ led insurgent groups consisted mainly of Serb peasants who had little understanding of the political aims of their leaders .
Operation Trio consisted of two parts , Trio I and Trio II . Together they comprised one element of the Axis effort known as the Third Enemy Offensive ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Treća neprijateljska ofenziva ) . The joint Italian @-@ Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina formed the other element . The Third Enemy Offensive forms part of the Seven Enemy Offensives framework in Yugoslav historiography .
The operation was of limited effectiveness due to several factors , including preemptive action by the Ustaše militia and Italian delays . The area of operations straddled the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation within the NDH , which led to mutual suspicion and lack of coordination . Both insurgent factions avoided fighting the Axis and NDH forces , instead focusing on fighting each other . After Operation Trio , the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito , his Supreme Headquarters and the Partisan main force , consisting of the 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades , withdrew from their base of operations around Foča . After briefly reorganising around Zelengora mountain south @-@ east of Foča , they moved their operations to western Bosnia for the remainder of 1942 .
Operation Trio coincided with and contributed to the polarisation of the almost exclusively Serb rebels in eastern Bosnia into two groups : the Serb @-@ chauvinist Chetniks and the multi @-@ ethnic and communist @-@ led Partisans . Encouraged by Chetnik propaganda against Croats and Bosnian Muslims and repelled by the sectarian left @-@ wing policies and actions of the communists , many Serb peasant fighters were swayed to the Chetnik cause . Violent coups occurred against the communist leadership of all but one of the Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia , and these detachments effectively defected to the Chetniks . Most of the surviving communist fighters from these detachments joined the Partisan forces , and many withdrew with Tito to western Bosnia during the Partisan Long March . Within a few weeks of the end of Operation Trio only 600 Partisan fighters were left in eastern Bosnia , comprising the Group of Shock Battalions and the Birač Partisan Detachment . All these forces sought refuge in the Birač region . The Chetnik movement in eastern Bosnia , at best a confederacy of local warlords , was strengthened by mass defections from the Partisans . For a time they ruled large parts of the region , after making accommodations with the Ustaše regime in May and June 1942 .
= = Background = =
= = = Foča Republic = = =
During Operation Southeast Croatia , Josip Broz Tito , his Supreme Headquarters and the 1st Proletarian Brigade commanded by Spanish Civil War veteran Konstantin " Koča " Popović , had withdrawn south to Foča , on the boundary between eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina . With the help of Montenegrin Partisans , they established a liberated area around Foča and Goražde . This area , known as the " Foča Republic " , was expanded by subsequent military operations . By late March , People 's Liberation Councils had been established to govern 10 towns and 92 villages in the liberated area , but communist organisation in the area was limited and of poor quality .
= = = Insurgent forces = = =
At the end of 1941 , there were six Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia , with about 7 @,@ 300 fighters operating in the Majevica , Ozren , Birač , Romanija , Zvijezda and Kalinovik areas . In January 1942 , the Romanija detachment had borne the brunt of Operation Southeast Croatia and had been effectively destroyed . Many Partisan fighters were Serb peasants who took to the forests and mountains to defend their families and villages against the Ustaše ; few were ideologically committed to the Partisan cause . The Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia had not opposed the Axis offensive . Many had withdrawn across the Drina river into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to avoid engagement with German and NDH forces .
Both the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina were based in the area of operations , with Tito 's Supreme Headquarters directly controlling the 1st Proletarian Brigade , and the General Staff , commanded by Svetozar Vukmanović @-@ Tempo , controlling the Partisan detachments in East Bosnia under the overall direction of the Supreme Headquarters .
In early January 1942 , the Partisan Supreme Headquarters decided to permit fighters who were not willing to formally become Partisans to fight alongside Partisan units . These " volunteer detachments " were under the control of the Supreme Headquarters of the renamed People 's Liberation Partisan and Volunteer Army of Yugoslavia , and were established from former Chetnik @-@ aligned fighters as the Jahorina , Foča , Vlasenica , Srebrenica and Krajina Volunteer Detachments . The Krajina Volunteer Detachment consisted of refugees from that region who had fled to the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to escape the Ustaše terror . Volunteer battalions and companies were also placed under the staff of the original Partisan detachments , with many of them absorbed as whole units with the addition of a communist cadre . Some volunteer detachments fought under their own leaders , and all volunteer detachments fought under the Serbian tri @-@ colour flag .
In February 1942 , Major Jezdimir Dangić and other former Royal Yugoslav Army officers ( many of whom had allegiance to the Serbian puppet regime of Milan Nedić and / or Draža Mihailović ) entered eastern Bosnia from the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia , where some of them had withdrawn to avoid Operation Southeast Croatia . They started to re @-@ form Chetnik units in eastern Bosnia and began agitating against the Partisans on a " conservative , Serb @-@ nationalist and anti @-@ Muslim basis " . Other Chetnik units crossed into eastern Bosnia from the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia and attacked the Partisans . They included the " Chetnik Proletarian Shock Brigade " , a unit of 200 fighters under Captain Dragoslav Račić , and another group under Captain Milorad Momčilović .
The Partisan forces in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina initially consisted almost entirely of Serb peasants , and this made much of the rank and file of both Partisan and volunteer detachments highly susceptible to pro @-@ Chetnik agitation , accommodations with Chetnik forces in the local area and hostility towards non @-@ Serbs . The Partisan moves towards multi @-@ ethnic recruiting , imposition of extreme left @-@ wing policies and use of terror against " class enemies " made all the Partisan and volunteer detachments vulnerable to such agitation . Chetnik infiltrators were able to join detachments and turn the rank and file against their communist cadres . An example of this occurred in the Majevica Partisan Detachment on 20 February , when the communist staff were massacred by Chetniks at Vukosavci near Lopare .
The 2nd Proletarian Brigade was formed at Čajniče on 1 March from Partisan forces that had withdrawn from Serbia after Operation Uzice . In early March the Partisans began collecting the most loyal fighters from each Partisan detachment into " Shock Companies " and established structures for the development of " Shock Battalions " and " Shock Brigades " . At the same time , Partisan forces that had been dispersed by Operation Southeast Croatia were threatening the Tuzla @-@ Doboj railway line . In mid @-@ March the 1st East Bosnian Shock Battalion was established at Srednje ( outside Sarajevo ) , and by the end of the month the 2nd East Bosnian Shock Battalion had been established in Drinjača ( near Zvornik ) ; it incorporated the remaining 240 fighters of the Majevica Partisan Detachment .
The concentration of the most reliable fighters into proletarian brigades , shock battalions and shock companies weakened the integrity of the four remaining Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia , but enabled the Partisan Supreme Headquarters to concentrate its best forces in mobile units to undertake successful offensive operations against the Chetniks . They captured several towns in March , including Vlasenica and Srebrenica . Partisan operations were threatening the railway network throughout eastern Bosnia , including around Sarajevo , by the end of March . Many Bosnian Chetniks deserted to the Partisans , often joining as complete units under their previous Chetnik commanders . These former Chetnik units became units of the " Volunteer Army " , which reached a strength of around 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 fighters by the end of March . Their loyalty and military value to the Partisans was very limited .
On 25 March the Partisan General Staff of Serbia advised the Partisan Supreme Headquarters that the Serbian Partisan movement had been " extinguished " , largely as a result of Operation Uzice and subsequent operations by the German occupation forces and their Serb collaborators . This was a significant setback for the Partisan cause , as Tito had always considered that a return to Serbia was a necessary ingredient for a successful revolution .
= = Planning = =
Planning for Operation Trio and the associated Operation West @-@ Bosnien in the Bosanska Krajina occurred during two Axis conferences in March 1942 . During the initial conference at Opatija on 2 – 3 March , the NDH Chief of the General Staff Vladimir Laxa objected to an Italian proposal to involve the Bosnian and Herzegovinian Chetniks in the planned operations , and with the support of the Germans , this idea was initially shelved . Operation Trio was to be one of a series of counter @-@ insurgency operations planned for eastern Bosnia , Herzegovina , Sandžak , Montenegro , western Bosnia and Lika . Despite this , the only operations that were actually conducted between March and June 1942 were Operation Trio , and a combined Italian @-@ Montenegrin Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina which is also associated with the Third Enemy Offensive in Yugoslav historiography .
Detailed planning and orders for Operation Trio were finalised at a conference in Ljubljana on 28 – 29 March 1942 . Laxa , General Mario Roatta ( the commander of the Italian Second Army ) , and General der Artillerie Paul Bader ( the commander of German forces in the NDH ) negotiated a compromise permitting temporary non @-@ political agreements to be concluded with the Herzegovinian Chetniks , led by Dobroslav Jevđević , but not with any of the Bosnian Chetnik groups , whose leaders were Petar Baćović in the area of Foča and Jezdimir Dangić , who was aligned with the Serb collaborationist Milan Nedić .
Significant delays in finalising arrangements for Operation Trio were caused by disagreements regarding where it would commence , who would be in command , the involvement of Chetniks and NDH forces , how to deal with the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation , and what local authorities would be put in place as localities were cleared of insurgents . The NDH contributed to the mutual suspicion between the Germans and Italians . The Italian demands prevailed , because they were committing larger forces to the operation . The decision was ultimately made to target all insurgents in eastern Bosnia between Sarajevo and the Drina . Throughout the preparation for Operation Trio , the Italians looked for opportunities to cross over the demarcation line and expand their sphere of influence into eastern Bosnia to take advantage of German weakness in the NDH . Bader 's final orders for the operation granted several key Italian demands , including military control over civil affairs in the area of operations , fair treatment of the local population , and treating non @-@ resisting Chetniks as prisoners of war .
Bader was named tactical commander of the combined forces ( known as Kampfgruppe Bader ) committed to Operation Trio , but to appease the Italians the force was formally under the overall command of the Italian Second Army , commanded by Roatta . Kampfgruppe Bader consisted of the 718th Infantry Division ( the only German division stationed in the NDH at the time ) , the Italian 22nd Infantry Division , 1st Alpine Division , 5th Alpine Division and 28 NDH battalions . Since 18 February , the 718th Infantry Division had been responsible for an area of operations bounded by the Sava and Bosna in the north , the Drina to the east and the German @-@ Italian demarcation line to the south . Mainly because of lack of transport and firepower , the division had only conducted limited offensive operations against the Partisans between mid @-@ February and mid @-@ April .
The original planned start date of 15 April was pushed back when the Italians had problems moving to their start positions and later had trouble providing transport to establish lines of communication across the Adriatic . The operation was rescheduled to 25 April Prior to the Ljubljana conference , the Ustaše authorities were concerned about negotiations between the German and Italian commanders and Dangić , and were particularly worried that the Germans would permit the Italians and Chetniks to use Sarajevo as a base . On 31 March the commander of the Ustaše Black Legion , Jure Francetić , launched a pre @-@ emptive offensive primarily against Dangić 's Chetniks . Francetić captured Vlasenica , Bratunac and Srebrenica , meeting limited resistance from the Partisans , and then scattered the more numerous Chetniks while inflicting significant losses .
In early April , Dangić travelled to Belgrade for discussions with representatives of Nedić and Chetnik leaders . He was arrested by the German authorities and sent to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in occupied Poland . Dangić was replaced by Stevan Botić . On 15 April 1942 the Wehrmacht commander in south @-@ east Europe , Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Wilhelm List , issued an order forbidding Wehrmacht units to negotiate with any rebel groups . Only Abwehr ( military intelligence ) and police units were to maintain surveillance of such groups through informants and undercover agents .
After several months of increasing tension between the factions struggling for power within the insurgency , the first of the pro @-@ Chetnik coups occurred , in the Ozren Partisan Detachment . It was sparked by the arrest and execution on 18 April of pro @-@ Chetnik agitator Bogdan Jovićić by Vukmanović @-@ Tempo and the newly formed 1st East Bosnian Shock Battalion . Fighting ensued between pro @-@ Chetnik members of the detachment and the Shock Battalion . Vukmanović @-@ Tempo then abandoned the Ozren Partisan Detachment , taking the detachment staff and remaining loyal Partisans with him .
= = Operation = =
In the wake of Francetić 's offensive , the Germans pre @-@ emptively moved to clear the area north of the demarcation line before the formal start of the operation . This advance towards the Drina from 20 – 30 April , coordinated with NDH forces , was the first phase of Operation Trio ( Trio I ) . The 718th Infantry Division advanced from assembly areas in Sarajevo , Olovo and Tuzla , with the aim of relieving Rogatica and clearing the surrounding area of Partisans . The fighting became very confused , with the Chetniks , who were under attack from the Black Legion , avoiding the German units , who went past them to attack the Partisans . The Partisan main force avoided fighting the Black Legion , instead attacking the Chetniks from the rear while they were engaged against Francetić 's troops . The Italian 5th Alpine Division Pusteria utilised Chetnik troops from the Sandžak as auxiliaries during their advance on Čajniče which coincided with the German @-@ NDH advance towards the Drina .
More pro @-@ Chetnik coups occurred in the second half of April . The first was in one of the remaining battalions of the Romanija Partisan Detachment , followed by all three battalions of the Zvijezda Partisan Detachment . The political commissars of every company were killed . By the start of May , coups had also occurred in battalions of the Kalinovik Partisan Detachment and the Foča Volunteer Detachment .
On 8 – 9 May 1942 , another pro @-@ Chetnik coup occurred in the recently created Zenica Partisan Detachment , and about 30 communists and their supporters were killed . About 100 remaining Partisan fighters from the Ozren and Zenica detachments were incorporated into the 3rd East Bosnian Shock Battalion .
The Italians believed the German @-@ NDH preliminary operation had been designed to avoid the need to involve the Italians in clearing eastern Bosnia , thereby preventing them from expanding their sphere of influence . After Italian complaints and political manoeuvrings , Roatta took over direct control of the operation on 10 May . The second phase of the operation ( known as Trio II or " Operation Foča " ) was a fairly minor joint operation to capture Foča , but by then the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and main force had already evacuated the town . Despite their attempts to avoid fighting , the Partisans suffered significant losses .
= = Aftermath = =
After clearing the larger towns of the Birač region of Partisans and Chetniks , the Black Legion committed large @-@ scale atrocities against Serbs and Jews in the region , including massacring about 890 people from Vlasenica after raping the women and girls .
Along with the three East Bosnian Shock Battalions , the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina first attempted to cross the Bosna to follow the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and main force to western Bosnia , but instead retreated to Birač , where they joined forces with the Birač Detachment at the end of May . The Birač Partisan Detachment was the only Partisan or volunteer detachment in East Bosnia not to suffer a pro @-@ Chetnik coup in March – May 1942 . By June – July 1942 , the Partisans in eastern Bosnia had been reduced to a strength of around 600 fighters .
In mid @-@ May , Operation Trio was followed by the joint Italian @-@ Chetnik offensive against Partisan detachments within the Italian zone of occupation in eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro , with similar effects : the Partisans lost almost all of the liberated territory in these areas . This offensive is also considered part of the Third Enemy Offensive in Yugoslav historiography . After Operation Trio , NDH forces remained south of the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation , in spite of protests from the Italians .
After Operation Trio and the joint Italian @-@ Chetnik offensive , the Partisans formed three more Proletarian Brigades , consisting mainly of Montenegrins . Operation Trio contributed to the decision of the Partisan Supreme Headquarters to withdraw to western Bosnia in the Partisan Long March , which commenced in late June 1942 .
While incurring significant casualties fighting the Black Legion , the Chetnik movement in eastern Bosnia benefited from the mass desertion of Partisans and the many pro @-@ Chetnik coups in Partisan and volunteer detachments . Despite their lack of unity , the Chetnik movement thrived in eastern Bosnia for the reminder of 1942 because some Chetnik leaders made accommodations with the Ustaše regime and as many Chetniks and Partisans were unwilling to kill fellow Bosnian Serbs of the opposing faction .
= My Story ( Julie Couillard book ) =
My Story ( or Mon histoire ) is a tell @-@ all memoir by Canadian Julie Couillard . It was first written in French , then during summer 2008 , translated into English . Both versions were published across Canada in October 2008 .
Couillard first appeared in the national media when she dated the Minister of Foreign Affairs , Maxime Bernier . The Bernier @-@ Couillard Affair erupted in May 2008 over confidential , NATO @-@ related documents left at Couillard 's house . Media coverage , and Bernier 's reaction , left Couillard feeling victimized . To help dispel rumours regarding her life and her role with Bernier , Couillard signed a book deal .
In her book , she recounts her early years , describes her relationship with Bernier , and reveals his confidential opinions .
Intended to be released on October 14 , 2008 , the book 's release date was moved forward when that same day was selected for the Canadian federal election . Bernier dismissed the embarrassing allegations against him in her book as ridiculous . Though My Story was released eight days prior to the election , Bernier nonetheless was re @-@ elected in his district of Beauce . The English version peaked at # 6 on La Presse 's bestseller list while the French version reached # 5 . Critics found Couillard 's story self @-@ righteous and sometimes conveniently vague , but noted that it provided a unique view into the government 's inner circle .
= = Background = =
Julie Couillard began dating Conservative Party of Canada Member of Parliament , Maxime Bernier , in April 2007 . The media started covering her in August , when she wore a revealing dress to Bernier 's swearing @-@ in ceremony for his new position as Minister of Foreign Affairs . The couple had first met at a restaurant @-@ dinner with business associates . Couillard and Bernier dated until December 2007 but continued seeing each other until April 2008 . Their relationship became the subject of a political scandal which brought about intense media attention . As the scandal unfolded , Couillard decided to write an autobiography , telling her side of the story . She formally signed a contract in July with publishers , McClelland & Stewart ; and with the help of journalist , Serge Demers , a ghostwriter , she wrote My Story in French within a few months . The publisher translated the text into English .
= = Bernier @-@ Couillard affair = =
Bernier was elected as a Conservative star candidate in Quebec and became the Minister of Industry before being reassigned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in August 2007 . Though his relationship with Couillard had ended in December , they continued with occasional trysts . In April 2008 , as Bernier hurriedly departed Couillard 's home , he left behind confidential , NATO @-@ related briefing notes ; they were from the 2008 Bucharest summit . He asked Couillard to destroy them . Couillard , on the other hand , put the notes aside and forgot about them until May when she returned the notes to a foreign affairs office . Significant discussion about the affair was then voiced in both the Canadian House of Commons and the Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security .
After discussions with Prime Minister of Canada , Stephen Harper , Bernier resigned as Minister of Foreign Affairs , a day before the airing of Couillard 's interview with TVA . Political commentators called the affair a threat to national security due to Bernier 's carelessness and to Couillard 's background with motorcycle biker gangs . According to Couillard , Bernier 's response to the subsequent media coverage made her feel betrayed and abandoned .
= = Content = =
The book begins as an autobiography . Couillard was born in the late @-@ 1960s in the Montreal district of Ville @-@ Émard ; then she moved to the suburb of Lorraine when she was 4 . Her parents often fought as her mother believed that her husband was unfaithful ; the family incurred financial problems when Couillard 's father changed careers . At age 12 , Couillard was diagnosed with epilepsy . At age 17 , she bought several properties with a boyfriend . They lived together briefly before breaking up and selling the properties . Couillard then became a friend , then lover , of Gilles Giguère , a money lender who was associated with the controversial , motorcycle club , Hells Angels . In 1996 , after the police raided Giguère 's apartment and ( according to Couillard ) threatened him , Giguère became sullen and withdrawn : the police had charged him with conspiracy to commit murder . But two months later , they let the charge drop . Giguère was soon murdered .
In 1997 , Couillard met Stéphane Sirois , a reputed enforcer and drug dealer , member of the Rockers a Hells Angels affiliate club . They married . However , financial problems interfered with their relationship ; furthermore , Couillard had cheated on Sirois with a man named Bruno . During their divorce , Sirois became an informant for the police and entered a witness protection program . Couillard then became pregnant with Bruno 's child , and had an abortion ; they subsequently separated . Following further personal , financial problems , Couillard declared bankruptcy in 2002 . She then began an affair with a married man who abandoned her while they visited Venice , Italy . When she returned to Canada , Couillard launched a security firm , Integrated Global Solutions , along with an auto @-@ leasing business . Meanwhile , she began to date Bernard Coté , an aide to federal Minister of Public Works , Michael Fortier . Couillard then introduced Coté to Philippe Morin of the Kevlar Group , a real estate company which signed a deal with the federal government to acquire land from Kevlar . When the deal became public Coté 's involvement was considered a conflict of interest and Fortier , responsible for the actions of his staff , was forced to resign , despite Morin denying any connection between Kevlar and Couillard .
Then , in April 2007 , while attending a Conservative Party of Canada fundraising affair , Couillard was asked to consider being a candidate for the party . Later , she attended a dinner where she met Maxime Bernier ; they began dating . Bernier registered Couillard as his designated traveling companion with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in order for Couillard to accompany Bernier on government business .
In her book , Couillard characterizes Bernier as intellectually lazy , preoccupied with his appearance , and as concerned that he appears gay . She writes further that Bernier privately criticized Prime Minister Stephen Harper 's eating habits and his physique . She adds that Bernier spoke with party supporters about replacing Harper as the party leader , and says that Bernier opposed the invasion of Iraq contrary to his party 's stance . Further revelations regarding Bernier include that he whispered negative comments to Couillard about members of his electoral district ; and that he did not own a laptop , yet frequently used her house and home computer as a second office .
Couillard goes on to describe the NATO document incident and the ensuing media coverage from her perspective .
= = Publication and reception = =
The original publication date for the book was October 14 , 2008 . After the Canadian federal election was called and set for that day the book 's release was re @-@ scheduled to October 6 , eight days before the election in which Bernier was seeking re @-@ election . The English version was published as a hard cover by McClelland & Stewart while the French version was released by Montreal publishers , Les Editions de l 'Homme , as a trade paperback . According to La Presse , 17 @,@ 000 copies were printed ; 5 @,@ 000 sold in the first two weeks . In the Montreal market , the book was listed on the bestseller list at # 6 for two weeks while the French version spent one week at # 5 .
In response to the book , Bernier dismissed the contents as " soap @-@ opera politics and completely ridiculous " and denied ever criticizing Harper or constituents . The Ottawa Citizen reviewer , Chris Cobb , and The Globe and Mail 's , Christie Blatchford called Couillard 's story self @-@ righteous , contradictory , and conveniently vague . Cobb commented that " viewed through a political lens , it 's an entertaining page @-@ turner " as it provides " a rare glimpse inside the closed , controlled society that is the Harper government . " Additionally , writer , William Johnson , said the book story unfolds like pulp fiction or a soap opera and compares Couillard to the abused heroine in Justine who does not learn from her calamities .
Bernier went on to win his election in Beauce with 62 % of the vote . Harper won re @-@ election as prime @-@ minister ; he did not appoint Bernier to a cabinet position . Stemming from Couillard 's actions during the entire affair , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) launched investigations on how she obtained the secret documents ; on whether Couillard 's mother was offered a patronage appointment by a Conservative Party official to the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada ; and on whether there was influence peddling during the land sale between the Kevlar Group and Public Works .
= Matt Damon =
Matthew Paige " Matt " Damon ( / ˈdeɪmən / ; born October 8 , 1970 ) is an American actor , film producer and screenwriter . He is ranked among Forbes magazine 's most bankable stars and is one of the highest @-@ grossing actors of all time . Damon has received several accolades , including an Academy Award from four nominations , two Golden Globe Awards , and has been nominated for two British Academy Film Awards and five Emmy Awards .
Born and raised in Cambridge , Massachusetts , Damon began his acting career by appearing in high school theater productions and he made his professional acting debut in the film Mystic Pizza ( 1988 ) . He came to prominence in 1997 when he wrote and starred in Good Will Hunting alongside Ben Affleck , which won them the Academy and Golden Globe awards for Best Screenplay , and earned Damon a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor . He continued to garner praise from critics for his roles as the eponymous character in Saving Private Ryan ( 1998 ) , the antihero in The Talented Mr. Ripley ( 1999 ) , a fallen angel in Dogma ( 1999 ) , an energy analyst in Syriana ( 2005 ) , and an Irish @-@ American criminal in The Departed ( 2006 ) .
Damon is also known for his starring roles as Jason Bourne in the Bourne franchise ( 2002 – 16 ) and as a con man in the Ocean 's Trilogy ( 2001 – 07 ) . For his supporting role as the rugby player Francois Pienaar in Invictus ( 2009 ) and his leading role as an astronaut stranded on Mars in The Martian ( 2015 ) , Damon received Oscar nominations for Best Supporting Actor and Best Actor , respectively . The latter also won him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor . Damon has received Emmy Award nominations for his portrayal of Scott Thorson in the biopic Behind the Candelabra ( 2013 ) and for producing the reality series Project Greenlight .
In addition to acting in films , Damon has performed voice @-@ over work in both animated and documentary films , and has established two production companies with Affleck . He has been actively involved in charitable work , including the ONE Campaign , H2O Africa Foundation , Feeding America , and Water.org. With his wife , Luciana Bozán Barroso , he has three daughters and a stepdaughter from Barroso 's prior marriage .
= = Early life = =
Damon was born in Cambridge , Massachusetts , the second son of Kent Telfer Damon ( born 1942 ) , a stockbroker , and Nancy Carlsson @-@ Paige ( born 1944 ) , an early childhood education professor at Lesley University . His father is of three @-@ fourths English and one @-@ fourth Scottish descent , and his mother is of five @-@ eighths Finnish and three @-@ eighths Swedish ancestry ( his mother 's family surname had been changed from the Finnish " Pajari " to " Paige " ) . Damon and his family moved to Newton for two years . His parents divorced when he was two years old , and Damon and his brother returned with their mother to Cambridge , where they lived in a six @-@ family communal house . His brother Kyle is now an accomplished sculptor and artist .
As a lonely adolescent , Damon has said that he felt that he did not belong . Due to his mother 's " by the book " approach to child @-@ rearing , he had a hard time defining a self identity . He attended Cambridge Alternative School ( now Graham and Parks ) and then Cambridge Rindge and Latin School , where he was a good student , but had a " terrifying " first two years due to his short stature . Damon performed as an actor in several high school theater productions . He credited his drama teacher , Gerry Speca , as an important artistic influence , though Ben Affleck , his good friend and schoolmate , got the " biggest roles and longest speeches " .
Damon attended Harvard University , where he was a resident of Lowell House ( Harvard College ) and a member of the class of 1992 , but left before receiving his degree to take a lead role in the film Geronimo : An American Legend . While at Harvard , he wrote an early treatment of the screenplay for Good Will Hunting as an exercise for an English class . Damon was a member of the Delphic Club , one of the University 's select Final Clubs . In 2013 , he was awarded the Harvard Arts Medal . Damon received an Academy Award for the screenplay of Good Will Hunting in 1998 , which was handed to him by Harvard alumnus Jack Lemmon , who had also been a member of Harvard 's Delphic Club .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early years : 1988 – 1996 = = =
Damon entered Harvard in 1988 , where he appeared in student theater plays , such as Burn This and A ... My Name is Alice . Later , he made his film debut at the age of 18 , with a single line of dialogue in the romantic comedy Mystic Pizza . As a student at Harvard , he acted in small roles such as in the TNT original film Rising Son and the ensemble prep @-@ school drama School Ties . He left the university in 1992 , a semester - 12 credits - shy of completion of his Bachelor of Arts in English to feature in Geronimo : An American Legend in Los Angeles , erroneously expecting the movie to become a big success . Damon next appeared as an opiate @-@ addicted soldier in 1996 's Courage Under Fire , for which he lost 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) in 100 days on a self @-@ prescribed diet and fitness regimen . Courage Under Fire gained him critical notice , when The Washington Post labeled his performance " impressive " .
= = = Breakthrough roles : 1997 – 2000 = = =
During the early 1990s , Damon and Affleck wrote Good Will Hunting ( 1997 ) , a screenplay about a young math genius , an extension of a screenplay he wrote for an assignment at Harvard , having integrated advice from director Rob Reiner , screenwriter William Goldman , and writer / director Kevin Smith . It received nine Academy Awards nominations , earning Damon and Affleck Oscars and Golden Globes for Best Screenplay . Damon was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for the same film , which netted an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for co @-@ star Robin Williams . He and Affleck were each paid salaries of $ 600 @,@ 000 , while the film grossed over $ 225 million at the worldwide box office . The two later parodied their roles from the film in Kevin Smith 's 2001 movie Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back .
Also in 1997 , Damon was the lead in the critically acclaimed drama The Rainmaker , where he was recognized by the Los Angeles Times as " a talented young actor on the brink of stardom . " After meeting Damon on the set of Good Will Hunting , director Steven Spielberg cast him as the titular character in the 1998 World War II film Saving Private Ryan . He co @-@ starred with Edward Norton in the poker film " Rounders " where he plays a reformed gambler in law school who must return to playing big stakes poker to help a friend pay off loan sharks . Then he portrayed Patricia Highsmith 's antihero Tom Ripley in The Talented Mr. Ripley ( 1999 ) , in which " Damon outstandingly conveys his character 's slide from innocent enthusiasm into cold calculation " , according to Variety magazine . He played a fallen angel who discusses pop culture as intellectual subject matter with Affleck in Dogma ( 1999 ) .
Damon 's attempts at essaying leading characters in romantic dramas such as 2000 's All the Pretty Horses and The Legend of Bagger Vance were commercially and critically unsuccessful . Variety said of his work in All the Pretty Horses : " [ Damon ] just doesn 't quite seem like a young man who 's spent his life amidst the dust and dung of a Texas cattle ranch . Nor does he strike any sparks with [ Penelope ] Cruz . " He was similarly deemed " uncomfortable being the center " of Robert Redford 's The Legend of Bagger Vance .
= = = Hollywood star : 2001 – 2007 = = =
From 2001 to 2007 , Damon gained wider international recognition as part of two major film franchises . He co @-@ starred as thief Linus Caldwell in Steven Soderbergh 's 2001 film Ocean 's Eleven , a remake of the Rat Pack 's 1960 film Ocean 's 11 ; the successful crime dramedy spawned two sequels , Ocean 's Twelve ( 2004 ) and Ocean 's Thirteen ( 2007 ) . He played amnesiac assassin Jason Bourne / David Webb in the hit action thrillers , The Bourne Identity ( 2002 ) , The Bourne Supremacy ( 2004 ) , and The Bourne Ultimatum ( 2007 ) , for which Entertainment Weekly named Damon among " the decade 's best mixer of brawn and brains . "
Damon did the voice of Spirit in the animated movie Spirit Stallion of the Cimmaron ( 2002 ) and later played a conjoined twin in Stuck on You ( 2003 ) , which received a 60 % Rotten Tomatoes score and mixed critical reception . He played a fictionalized version of Wilhelm Grimm in Terry Gilliam 's fantasy adventure The Brothers Grimm ( 2005 ) , which was a critically panned commercial failure ; The Washington Post concluded , " Damon , constantly flashing his newscaster 's teeth and flaunting a fake , ' Masterpiece Theatre ' dialect , comes across like someone who got lost on the way to an audition for a high school production of The Pirates of Penzance . " Later that year , he appeared as an energy analyst in Syriana .
In 2006 , Damon joined Robert De Niro in The Good Shepherd as a career CIA officer , and played an undercover mobster working for the Massachusetts State Police in Martin Scorsese 's The Departed , a remake of the Hong Kong police thriller Infernal Affairs . Assessing his work in the two films , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote that Damon has the unique " ability to recede into a film while also being fully present , a recessed intensity , that distinguishes how he holds the screen . " The Departed has a score of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes , and critical reception was very good . According to Forbes in August 2007 , Damon was the most bankable star of the actors reviewed , his last three films at that time averaged US $ 29 at the box office for every dollar he earned . Damon had an uncredited cameo in Francis Ford Coppola 's Youth Without Youth ( 2007 ) and another cameo in the 2008 Che Guevara biopic Che .
= = = Critically acclaimed roles : 2009 – present = = =
He made a guest appearance in 2009 on the sixth @-@ season finale of Entourage as himself , where he tries to pressure Vincent Chase ( Adrian Grenier ) into donating to his real foundation ONEXONE . His next role was Steven Soderbergh 's dark comedy The Informant ! ( 2009 ) , in which his Golden Globe @-@ nominated work was described by Entertainment Weekly as such : " The star – who has quietly and steadily turned into a great Everyman actor – is in nimble control as he reveals his character 's deep crazies . " Also in 2009 , Damon portrayed South Africa national rugby union team captain François Pienaar in the Clint Eastwood @-@ directed film Invictus , which is based on the 2008 John Carlin book Playing the Enemy : Nelson Mandela and the Game That Changed a Nation and features Morgan Freeman as Nelson Mandela . Invictus earned Damon an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor . The New Republic observed that he brought " it off with low @-@ key charm and integrity . "
In 2010 , he reteamed with director Paul Greengrass , who directed him in the Bourne Supremacy and Bourne Ultimatum , for the action thriller Green Zone , which flopped commercially and received a score of 53 % on Rotten Tomatoes and ambivalent reception from critics . He has appeared as a guest star in an episode of Arthur , titled " The Making of Arthur " , as himself . During season 5 of 30 Rock , he appeared as guest star in the role of Liz Lemon 's boyfriend in the episodes " I Do Do " , " The Fabian Strategy " , " Live Show " , and " Double @-@ edged Sword " . Damon 's 2010 projects included Clint Eastwood 's Hereafter and the Coen brothers ' remake of the 1969 John Wayne @-@ starring Western True Grit .
In 2011 , he starred in The Adjustment Bureau , Contagion , and We Bought a Zoo . In April 2012 , Damon filmed Promised Land , directed by Gus Van Sant , which he co @-@ wrote with John Krasinski . Damon 's next film with frequent collaborator Steven Soderbergh was Behind the Candelabra , a drama about the life of pianist / entertainer Liberace ( played by Michael Douglas ) with Damon playing Liberace 's longtime partner Scott Thorson . The film premiered on HBO on May 26 , 2013 .
Damon starred in the science fiction film Elysium ( 2013 ) , where he played former car @-@ thief @-@ turned @-@ factory @-@ worker Max DeCosta . He also appeared in the science fiction movie The Zero Theorem by Terry Gilliam in 2013 . In 2014 , he starred in George Clooney 's The Monuments Men , and played the minor role of scientist Dr. Mann , in Christopher Nolan 's Interstellar . In 2014 , Affleck appeared as a celebrity correspondent for Years of Living Dangerously . He played the main character , astronaut Mark Watney , in Ridley Scott 's The Martian ( 2015 ) , based on Andy Weir 's best @-@ selling novel of the same name , a role that earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and his second Academy Award nomination for Best Actor . Having not returned for the fourth film in the Bourne film series , Damon reprised his role as Jason Bourne in the series fifth instalment Jason Bourne . He has signed to star in Alexander Payne 's upcoming film , Downsizing , and Zhang Yimou 's , The Great Wall .
= = Producing career = =
Along with Affleck and producers Chris Moore and Sean Bailey , Damon founded the production company LivePlanet , through which the four created the Emmy @-@ nominated documentary series Project Greenlight to find and fund worthwhile film projects from novice filmmakers . The company produced and founded the short @-@ lived mystery @-@ hybrid series Push , Nevada , as well as other projects . In March 2010 , Damon and Affleck teamed up again to create Pearl Street Films , a Warner Bros. based production company .
= = Voice @-@ over career = =
He lent his voice to the English version of the animated film Ponyo , which was released in the United States in August 2009 . The documentary which he narrated , American Teacher , opened in New York in 2011 prior to national screening . He also voiced the lead character Cale Tucker in Titan A.E. , took the narrative voice of the Stallion Spirit in Spirit : Stallion of the Cimarron , and voiced a krill named Bill in Happy Feet Two .
In January 2012 , it was announced that Damon had signed a multiyear deal to be the voice of TD Ameritrade advertisements , replacing Sam Waterston as the discount brokerage 's spokesman . Damon donates all fees from the advertisements to charity . In 2013 , Damon appeared in a 20 @-@ second advertisement for Nespresso , directed by Grant Heslov , with whom he worked on The Monuments Men . The deal earned Damon $ 3 million .
Damon also provided voice @-@ over for United Airlines 's resurrected " Fly the Friendly Skies " advertisement campaign in 2013 .
= = Humanitarian work = =
Damon was the founder of H2O Africa Foundation , the charitable arm of the Running the Sahara expedition , which merged with WaterPartners to create Water.org in July 2009 . He , along with George Clooney , Brad Pitt , Don Cheadle , David Pressman , and Jerry Weintraub , is one of the founders of Not On Our Watch Project , an organization that focuses global attention and resources to stop and prevent mass atrocities such as in Darfur . Damon supports the ONE Campaign , which is aimed at fighting AIDS and poverty in Third World countries . He has appeared in their print and television advertising .
Damon is also an ambassador for ONEXONE , a nonprofit foundation committed to supporting , preserving and improving the lives of children at home in Canada , the United States , and around the world . Damon is also a spokesperson for Feeding America , a hunger @-@ relief organization , and a member of their Entertainment Council , participating in their Ad Council public service announcements . Damon is a board member of Tonic Mailstopper ( formerly GreenDimes ) , a company that attempts to halt junk mail delivered to American homes each day .
= = In the media = =
= = = Jimmy Kimmel Live ! = = =
Comedian Jimmy Kimmel had a running gag at the end of his ABC television show , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , where he apologized for not being able to interview Damon at the end of each show . It culminated in a planned skit on September 12 , 2006 , when Damon stormed off after having his interview cut short . Damon appeared in several of E ! Entertainment 's top ten Jimmy Kimmel Live ! spoofs . On January 24 , 2013 , Damon took over his show and mentioned the long @-@ standing feud and having been bumped from years of shows . It involved celebrities who were previously involved in the " feud " , including Robin Williams , Ben Affleck , and Sarah Silverman .
= = = Political views = = =
Damon appeared on Hardball with Chris Matthews in December 2006 , and while discussing the ongoing war in Iraq , expressed concern about inequities across socioeconomic classes with regards to who in the United States is tasked with the responsibility of fighting wars . Damon is a supporter of the Democratic Party , and has made several critical statements against Republican Party figures , but has also expressed his disillusionment with the policies of President Barack Obama . In 2012 Damon , Ben Affleck , and John Krasinski hosted a fundraiser for Democratic Senate nominee Elizabeth Warren .
In 2010 , Matt Damon narrated the documentary film Inside Job about the part played by financial deregulation in the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis .
= = Personal life = =
Damon dated his Good Will Hunting co @-@ star Minnie Driver . He later had a two @-@ year relationship with actress Winona Ryder . From 2001 to 2003 , he dated Odessa Whitmire , the former personal assistant of Billy Bob Thornton and Ben Affleck .
Damon met Argentine Luciana Bozán Barroso ( born 1976 ) in April , 2003 , while filming Stuck on You in Miami . They became engaged in September , 2005 , and married in a private civil ceremony on December 9 , 2005 , at the Manhattan Marriage Bureau . The couple have three daughters : Isabella ( b . 2006 ) , Gia Zavala ( b . 2008 ) and Stella Zavala ( b . 2010 ) . He also has a step @-@ daughter , Alexia Barroso ( b . 1998 ) , from Luciana 's previous marriage . Since 2012 , they have lived in Pacific Palisades , Los Angeles , having previously lived in Miami and New York .
Damon is a fan of the Boston Red Sox . After the team won the 2007 World Series , he narrated the commemorative DVD release of the event . He has competed in several World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) events , including the 2010 World Series of Poker main event . He was busted out of the 1998 WSOP by poker professional Doyle Brunson .
= = Awards and honors = =
Aside from awards he has garnered for his role as actor and producer , Damon became the 2,343rd person to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on July 25 , 2007 . He reacted to the award by stating : " A few times in my life I 've had these experiences that are just kind of too big to process and this looks like it 's going to be one of those times . "
= = Filmography = =
Films that garnered Damon the most recognition or awards include :
= Helium =
Helium is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2 . It is a colorless , odorless , tasteless , non @-@ toxic , inert , monatomic gas , the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table . The He boiling and melting points are the lowest among all the elements .
Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant element in the observable universe , being present at about 24 % of the total elemental mass , which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined . Its abundance is similar to this figure in the Sun and in Jupiter . This is due to the very high nuclear binding energy ( per nucleon ) of helium @-@ 4 with respect to the next three elements after helium . This helium @-@ 4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay . Most helium in the universe is helium @-@ 4 , and is believed to have been formed during the Big Bang . Large amounts of new helium are being created by nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars .
Helium is named for the Greek god of the Sun , Helios . It was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen . Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer . Jannsen observed during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed from Britain . Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element , which he named . The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists , Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet , who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite . In 1903 , large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States , which is by far the largest supplier of the gas today .
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics ( its largest single use , absorbing about a quarter of production ) , particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets , with the main commercial application being in MRI
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he can race and win .
As Bart feared , Homer is bitterly disappointed over his decision . Homer is so upset that he even refuses to go to the final race to support Bart , insulting him and Martin and acting spiteful toward Bart and the rest of the family . Troy McClure starts crying too . Marge decides that she has had enough of Homer 's surly attitude and confronts him , by telling Homer that she defended him when people , including her sisters Patty and Selma , called him an incompetent father . However , she states that his latest behavior proved he is being selfish and if this is how Homer wants to act on such an important day for Bart , he really is a bad father , a statement that only makes Homer feel worse . Maggie tries to cheer Bart up but he ended up calling Los Angeles .
As Bart gets ready to race in the final match with Martin 's newly tuned racer , Homer thinks to himself about how wrong he has been . After retaking the fatherhood quiz again , he realizes that Bart needs his support regardless of whose racer he is using and he rushes off to the race . At the starting line , Homer wishes Bart good luck and tells him that no matter how the race ends he will still be proud of him . The race is tough as Nelson pulls every dirty trick in his arsenal , but through his skill Bart finishes first and the team enjoys their victory .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Ken Levine and David Isaacs , and directed by Jim Reardon . The inspiration for it originated from a line in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " , a previous episode in which Marge bans Bart and Lisa from watching their favorite cartoon , The Itchy & Scratchy Show , and Bart says " I 'm gonna go build a soapbox racer instead . " Actor Phil Hartman made his fourth guest appearance on The Simpsons in this episode as the voice of celebrity Troy McClure . The character appears at the beginning of the episode in I Can 't Believe They Invented It ! , a television show that Homer watches . Larry McKay guest starred as the television announcer at the Soap Box Derby .
The idea for the subplot of Homer 's parenting originated from a real fatherhood test executive producer Sam Simon found and brought to the Simpsons studio . Levine later commented on writing the episode , " At the time David and I were writing this , my son , Matt , was about Bart 's age . [ ... ] So for me there was a certain amount of guilt associated , like ' Do I know my son 's hobby ? Do I know my son 's best friend ? ' etc . " The scene in which Bart welds on his racer resulted in an argument between the staff of the show and the Fox network 's censors . The censors were concerned that children would imitate Bart by misusing welding tools ; however , the staff was able to convince them that very few children have access to welding tools .
= = Cultural references = =
" Saturdays of Thunder " features a number of references to popular culture . The title of the episode is itself a play on the film Days of Thunder , starring American actor Tom Cruise . The song used at the end of the episode is " Wind Beneath My Wings " , a song by Bette Midler . While Homer is watching television at the beginning of the episode , Marge and her sisters , Patty and Selma , go through a catalog of different hairstyles ; Patty tells her sisters that she wants Mary Tyler Moore 's hairstyle , referencing the American actress known for her roles in television sitcoms . When Marge and her sisters head to the beauty parlor , Homer promises Marge that he will take Lisa to the video store . When they arrive at the store , Homer watches a clip from the latest McBain film that sees McBain 's partner being brutally shot in the chest , a reference to a similar scene in the film Lethal Weapon . McBain 's partner is black , a reference to the fact that Dirty Harry 's partner is black in the film Sudden Impact .
When Homer calls the National Fatherhood Institute , he is put on hold and Harry Chapin 's song " Cat 's in the Cradle " plays in the telephone while he waits . Cast member Harry Shearer based the voice of Dave , the director of the Fatherhood Institute , on actor Mason Adams . At the institute , Dave gives Homer a copy of the book Fatherhood by American actor Bill Cosby . In a subsequent episode , " Dog of Death " , Homer throws the book into the fireplace as replacement for wood . When Homer and Bart build the soapbox racer , Mac Davis 's song " Watching Scotty Grow " , sung by Bobby Goldsboro , plays in the background . The whipping and spikes coming out of Nelson 's racer are a reference to the chariot race in the film Ben @-@ Hur . The idea of Nelson 's racer being " armed with every dirty trick in the book " was based on the 1973 Soap Box Derby World Championship scandal , when a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy was stripped of his title two days after winning the national race for cheating . During the final race , Homer stands up in the crowd to cheer on Bart and his body is silhouetted against the sun , a reference to a scene in the film The Natural . The theme song from The Natural plays in the scene .
= = Reception = =
" Saturdays of Thunder " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 14 , 1991 . It received high ratings due to the fact that it was immediately followed by the premiere of the music video for Michael Jackson 's song " Black or White " . In its original American broadcast , the episode finished 26th in the ratings for the week of November 11 – 17 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Niel Harvey of The Roanoke Times called it a " classic bit of Simpsonia , " and the Daily Record said it is " definitely one not to miss . " The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy named it the sixth best episode of the show with a sports theme . Michael Coulter of The Age commented that " Saturdays of Thunder " is " one of the many excellent " The Simpsons episodes to feature a sporting theme . He went on to say : " A ' classic ' Simpsons , insofar as it boasts a plot , rather than a sequence of surreal pop @-@ culture parodies . " The episode 's parody of Ben @-@ Hur , however , was named the eighth greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict looked unfavorably on the episode , writing that it " has a premise — Bart builds a soapbox racer — that frankly has very limited modern day appeal . We can 't really get into the whole Martin / Nelson / Bart race dynamic and today , soapbox derby has been technologized all out of proportion to the point where very few , if any , practice it . With such a narrow target , many of the jokes just don 't work . " Gibron preferred the subplot of Homer 's attempts to become a better father .
Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed was more positive about the episode , commenting that the episode 's emphasis is on Homer 's parenting , like many other season three episodes , and " contrary to popular opinion , Homer is actually a good father who tries to do good by his children . " He thought the racing sequences featured " good animation and direction " , but considered the highlight of the episode to be the clip from the film McBain that Homer watches in the video store . Meyers gave the episode a 4 / 5 rating . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson , who listed the episode as one of his favorites from season three , said that " on the surface , ' Saturdays of Thunder ' essentially just rehashes " the theme of the previous episode , " Lisa 's Pony " , in which Homer tries to be a better father for Lisa . Jacobson commented that " Saturdays of Thunder " , however , " simply seems funnier than ' Lisa 's Pony ' . The soapbox derby elements provide lots of great gags . [ It ] offers a great episode . " Like Meyers , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide thought the highlight of the episode was the McBain video .
= Broadway Limited =
The Broadway Limited was a passenger train operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad between New York City and Chicago . It operated from 1912 to 1995 . It was the Pennsylvania 's premier train , competing directly with the New York Central Railroad 's 20th Century Limited . The Broadway Limited continued operating after the Penn Central Transportation merger , one of the few long @-@ distance trains to do so . Penn Central conveyed the train to Amtrak in 1971 ; Amtrak discontinued it in 1995 . The train 's name referred not to Broadway in Manhattan , but rather to the " broad way " of the Pennsylvania 's four @-@ track right of way along a large portion of the route .
= = History = =
= = = Pennsylvania Railroad = = =
The Pennsylvania Special was one of nine express trains the Pennsylvania operated between New York City and Chicago . On November 14 , 1912 the Pennsylvania renamed it the Broadway Limited , to avoid confusion with the similarly @-@ named Pennsylvania Limited . The name , though spelled as " Broadway " , honored the Pennsylvania 's four @-@ track " broad way " main line . In the heavyweight era the Broadway Limited was an extra @-@ fare , all sleeper ( no coach service ) train with an open @-@ platform observation car at the end , such as Continental Hall and Washington Hall . The scheduled running time was 20 hours until it was reduced to 18 hours in 1932 . Further reductions took place between 1932 and 1935 , with the final heavyweight running time at 16 hours , 30 minutes .
On June 15 , 1938 , the Broadway Limited received lightweight streamlined cars to replace its heavyweight steel cars ; on the same day rival New York Central 's 20th Century Limited was streamlined . Raymond Loewy styled the new cars and the PRR GG1 electric locomotive as well as some streamlined steam locomotives for the Pennsylvania , notably the S1 and T1 Duplex drive engines . The Broadway Limited was one of four pre @-@ World War II Pennsylvania trains to receive such equipment ; the others being the General ( New York – Chicago ) , Spirit of St. Louis ( New York – St. Louis ) , and Liberty Limited ( Washington – Chicago ) . Other Pennsylvania trains continued to use heavyweight cars until after the end of World War II . Most of the 1938 cars were built new by Pullman @-@ Standard between March and May of that year , but the diners , RPO and baggage cars were rebuilt from heavyweight cars by the railroad 's Altoona shops . The Broadway Limited was the only Pennsylvania train to be completely re @-@ equipped with lightweight sleeping cars before World War II . The train 's running time was further reduced to 16 hours .
In 1949 the PRR again re @-@ equipped the Broadway Limited with new streamlined equipment . The all @-@ sleeper train carried compartments , bedrooms , duplex rooms , roomettes for a single occupant and drawing rooms for three persons . The buffet @-@ lounge @-@ observation cars built by Pullman Standard were named Mountain View and Tower View . They had squared @-@ off observation ends , instead of the tapered or rounded ends in the 1938 version , and contained two master rooms with radio and showers .
Also introduced was a twin @-@ unit dining car and a mid @-@ train lounge car , such as Harbor Rest , described by a PRR brochure as " cheerful , spacious ... richly appointed for leisure with deep , soft carpets ... latest periodicals are in the libraries . " The February 1956 Official Guide listed the westbound Broadway Limited ( train 29 ) consist as having fourteen cars normally assigned : nine sleeping cars between New York and Chicago , one additional sleeping car from New York continuing through to Los Angeles on the Santa Fe 's Super Chief , the twin @-@ unit dining car , lounge car , and observation car . The train departed New York at 6 : 00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time and arrived at Chicago the following morning at 9 : 00 a.m. Central Time .
The Broadway Limited was not immune to the decline in passenger rail transport , though it resisted longer than most . The 20th Century Limited began carrying coaches in 1957 . In late 1967 , when the Illinois Central Railroad 's Panama Limited also began carrying coaches the Broadway Limited became the last " all @-@ Pullman " train in the United States , a distinction that did not last long . The Pennsylvania merged the Broadway Limited with the General on December 13 , 1967 . The train was one of the few long @-@ distance trains to survive the merger of the Pennsylvania and the New York Central Railroad into Penn Central .
= = = Amtrak = = =
Amtrak 's incorporators selected the Broadway Limited as the new company 's sole New York @-@ Chicago route . Amtrak operated a Washington , D.C. section via Port Road Branch which separated at Harrisburg . In the 1970s the Broadway Limited experienced chronic lateness as the tracks it ran on degraded . Beginning in 1979 the route changed as tracks were abandoned and downgraded by Conrail , Penn Central 's successor . These changes included :
A minor re @-@ route over the ex @-@ New York Central in Gary , Indiana in 1979 .
A major re @-@ route over the ex @-@ Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( B & O ) in Indiana and Ohio , due to Conrail 's desire to abandon part of the former Pittsburgh , Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway . This change took effect on November 10 , 1990 .
Amtrak discontinued the Broadway Limited on September 10 , 1995 , in the face significant funding problems . The Broadway Limited then earned $ 6 @.@ 6 million against costs of $ 24 million . Amtrak replaced it with the all @-@ coach Three Rivers , which would in turn be discontinued in 2005 .
= = Equipment = =
Pullman @-@ Standard built the entirety of the equipment pool for the 1938 lightweight re @-@ equipping , with the exception of two dining cars which were rebuilt in the Pennsylvania 's Altoona shops . The equipment delivered included eight 18 @-@ roomette sleeping cars ; two sleeper @-@ bar @-@ lounges ; four 4 @-@ compartment , 2 @-@ drawing room , 4 @-@ double bedroom sleeping cars ; two 13 @-@ double bedroom sleeping cars ; and two sleeper @-@ buffet @-@ lounge @-@ observation cars , including the famed Metropolitan View . The dining car seated 24 at tables ( in both 1x1 and 2x2 configurations ) and featured a small bar at one end with seating for two . The sleeper @-@ bar @-@ lounge included a secretary 's room , barber shop , shower @-@ bath , and a bar / lounge with both booth and chair seating .
The Broadway Limited received additional Pullman equipment in 1949 . This included Harbor Cove and Harbor Rest , sleeper @-@ bar @-@ lounges with three double bedrooms , and Mountain View and Tower View , sleeper @-@ buffet @-@ lounge @-@ observation cars with two master rooms and a double bedroom . The Broadway Limited received coaches for the first time in 1967 , when it merged with the General . Under the Penn Central the train carried " two or more coaches , two lounges , twin @-@ unit diner , and four sleepers . " This was better than most remaining passenger trains , which often had just two or three cars , but a far cry from the old days .
Amtrak singled out the Broadway Limited for special treatment and in 1972 completely refurbished its equipment , most of which was ex @-@ Penn Central , although former Union Pacific Railroad sleeping cars were also used . Amtrak also added a Slumbercoach to the consist . In 1974 Amtrak tried out rebuilt 6 @-@ bedroom , 8 @-@ roomette ex @-@ Rock Island sleeping cars , but their limited capacity reduced revenue . The Broadway Limited began receiving rebuilt Heritage Fleet cars in 1980 , and Amfleet coaches thereafter . 68 cars were rebuilt at a total cost of $ 9 @.@ 8 million .
= United States v. Progressive , Inc . =
United States of America v. Progressive , Inc . , Erwin Knoll , Samuel Day , Jr . , and Howard Morland , 467 F. Supp . 990 ( W.D. Wis . 1979 ) , was a lawsuit brought against The Progressive magazine by the United States Department of Energy ( DOE ) in 1979 . A temporary injunction was granted against The Progressive to prevent the publication of an article by activist Howard Morland that purported to reveal the " secret " of the hydrogen bomb . Though the information had been compiled from publicly available sources , the DOE claimed that it fell under the " born secret " clause of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 .
Although the case was filed in the Western District of Wisconsin , the judge there recused himself as a friend of the magazine . The case was therefore brought before Judge Robert W. Warren , a judge in the Eastern District of Wisconsin . Because of the sensitive nature of information at stake in the trial , two separate hearings were conducted , one in public , and the other in camera . The defendants , Morland and the editors of The Progressive , would not accept security clearances , which would put restraints on their free speech , and so were not present at the in camera hearings . Their lawyers did obtain clearances so that they could participate , but were forbidden from conveying anything they heard there to their clients .
The article was eventually published after the government lawyers dropped their case during the appeals process , calling it moot after other information was independently published . Despite its indecisive conclusion , law students still study the case , which " could have been a law school hypothetical designed to test the limits of the presumption of unconstitutionality attached to prior restraints " .
= = Background = =
= = = Secrecy and disclosure = = =
The first atomic bombs were developed by the wartime Manhattan Project . This was carried out in secret , lest its discovery induce the Axis powers , particularly Germany , to accelerate their own nuclear projects , or undertake covert operations against the project . The military and scientific leaders of the Manhattan Project anticipated a need to release details of their wartime accomplishments , principally as a form of recognition for the participants who had labored in secrecy . Press releases were prepared in advance of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and an official account , known as the Smyth Report after its author , the physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth , was commissioned in April 1944 to provide a history of the project for public release . The Director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie Groves , his scientific adviser , Richard Tolman , and Smyth agreed that information could be publicly released if it was essential for an understanding of the project , or was already generally known or deducible , or had no significance to the production of atomic bombs . The first copies went on sale on August 12 , 1945 .
In its October 8 , 1945 , issue , The New Republic took the position , emphasized with italics , that " there is no secret to be kept " : the knowledge of how to build an atomic bomb had been " the common property of scientists throughout the world for the last five years " . President Harry S. Truman took a similar line in his first speech to Congress on nuclear matters that month , proclaiming that " the essential theoretical knowledge upon which the discovery is based is already widely known . " In November 1945 , Groves instructed Tolman to draw up a policy for the declassification of the Manhattan Project 's documents . Tolman assembled a committee , which took a list of the Manhattan Project 's activities and assigned each a classification . Four reviewers assessed the documents and declassified about 500 of them by the end of the year .
= = = Atomic Energy Act = = =
If there was no secret , then there was no reason for security . The scientists , in particular , chafed under the wartime controls , which were not lifted with the surrender of Japan . On September 1 , 1945 , Samuel K. Allison used the occasion of the announcement of the founding of the Institute for Nuclear Studies to call for freedom to research and develop atomic energy . He told the press that if controls were not removed , nuclear scientists might turn to the study of the color of butterfly wings . Enrico Fermi warned that " unless research is free and outside of control , the United States will lose its superiority in scientific pursuit " .
The War Department envisaged that the Manhattan Project would be superseded by a statutory authority . Legislation to create it was drafted by two War Department lawyers , Kenneth C. Royall and William L. Marbury . Their draft bill ran into strong opposition , particularly from the influential Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg . On December 20 , 1945 , Senator Brien McMahon introduced an alternative bill on atomic energy , which quickly became known as the McMahon bill . This was initially a very liberal bill towards the control of scientific research , and was broadly supported by scientists . McMahon framed the controversy as a question of military versus civilian control of atomic energy , although the May @-@ Johnson bill also provided for civilian control . Section 10 assigned the patent for any invention related to atomic energy to the commission .
While the bill was being debated , the news broke on February 16 , 1946 , of the defection of Igor Gouzenko in Canada , and the subsequent arrest of 22 people . The members of Congress debating the bill feared that " atomic secrets " were being systematically stolen by Soviet atomic spies . McMahon convened an executive session at which Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover , Secretary of State James F. Byrnes and Groves were called to appear . Groves revealed that the British physicist Alan Nunn May had passed information about the Manhattan Project to Soviet agents . The more conservative elements in Congress now moved to toughen the act . Section 10 , which was formerly titled " Dissemination of Information " , now became " Control of Information " . Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , who sponsored the McMahon bill in the House , vigorously defended the section against counterarguments . She dismissed objections that it would " give away the secret of the bomb " , asserting that America 's advantage in nuclear weapons could only be temporary , whereas the bill could perpetuate the U.S. lead in scientific research . Truman signed the compromise bill into law as the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 . It established the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) as the controlling body for atomic energy .
= = = Hydrogen bomb = = =
The Manhattan Project had been a crash program to produce a nuclear weapon . Along the way , promising ideas had been set aside . Norris Bradbury , who replaced J. Robert Oppenheimer as director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory in late 1945 , revived such projects in order to entice scientists to remain at , or return to , Los Alamos . One of these projects was the " Super " , a nuclear weapon using nuclear fusion , which Edward Teller 's F @-@ 1 group had worked on under Fermi 's direction . The technical problem was figuring out a way to get a fusion reaction to initiate and propagate , which required temperatures attainable only with a fission bomb . The hydrodynamic calculations involved were daunting , and ENIAC was used to run a computer simulation of the Super in December 1945 and January 1946 .
The Polish mathematician Stanislaw Ulam , his wife Francoise Ulam , who performed the calculations , and their collaborator , Cornelius Everett , worked on the Super design through 1949 . There was no push from the military for the weapon , because the AEC regarded it as too secret to inform either its own Military Liaison Committee or the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project about it . In September 1949 , the Soviet Union detonated a nuclear device . It fell to Oppenheimer , as chairman of the AEC General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) , to decide whether the United States should develop the Super in response . The Super design used large quantities of tritium , which could only be manufactured in a reactor , and therefore at the expense of plutonium production for smaller weapons , so the GAC advised against it . Nonetheless , Truman approved the Super on January 31 , 1950 . Because of the secrecy surrounding the decision , accounts published in the 1950s incorrectly portrayed Oppenheimer as obstructing its development on political grounds , and this was a factor in the Oppenheimer security hearing in 1954 .
Ulam still only gave the design a " 50 – 50 chance " of success in February 1950 . At the end of March , he reported that it would not work at all . Scientists like Hans Bethe and George Gamow felt that Teller had committed the nation to an expensive crash program on the basis of a model that he knew was flawed . However , in February 1951 , Ulam had a new idea , in which the shock wave from an atomic bomb " primary " stage , through an arrangement he called " hydrodynamic lensing " , would compress a " secondary " stage of deuterium fusion fuel wrapped around a plutonium rod or " spark plug " . On being informed , Teller immediately grasped the potential for using the X @-@ rays produced by the primary explosion for hydrodynamic lensing . This arrangement , which made thermonuclear weapons possible , is now known as the Teller @-@ Ulam design . Although it was not what Truman had approved , the design did work , and was capable of producing multi @-@ megaton explosions . " Rarely in the history of technology " , wrote Howard Morland , " has such a seemingly daunting problem turned out to have such a nifty solution . "
In 1950 , the Atomic Energy Commission asked Scientific American not to publish an article by Hans Bethe that it claimed revealed classified information about the hydrogen bomb . Scientific American reluctantly agreed to stop the presses and make changes in the article , and to recall and burn the 3 @,@ 000 copies that had already been printed . The 1951 arrest of Klaus Fuchs , Harry Gold , David Greenglass , Morton Sobell and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg who , according to Hoover , " stole the basic secrets of nuclear fission " , caused great concern . President Dwight D. Eisenhower denied the Rosenbergs clemency on the grounds that their actions " could well result in the deaths of many , many thousands of innocent citizens " , and they were executed . After the Soviet Union detonated Joe 4 in August 1953 , newspapers proclaimed that the Soviets had tested a hydrogen bomb . In fact it was only a boosted fission device , but the veil of secrecy covering the thermonuclear program prevented scientists from informing the public .
= = = Prior restraint = = =
Prior restraint has generally been regarded by U.S. courts , particularly the U.S. Supreme Court , as being " the most serious and least tolerable " of restrictions on the First Amendment . The Blackstone Commentaries defined freedom of the press as " laying no previous restraints upon publication , and not in freedom from censure for criminal matter when published . " The Supreme Court had however never held that prior restraint was unconstitutional . On the contrary , in Near v. Minnesota 283 U.S. 697 ( 1931 ) , Chief Justice Charles E. Hughes remarked that in wartime , " no one would question but that a government might prevent actual obstruction to its recruiting service or the publication of the sailing dates of transports or the number and location of troops . " He further suggested that obscenity or incitement to insurrection would be similar grounds for prior restraint . The court subsequently upheld free speech exceptions such as restrictions on demonstrations in Cox v. New Hampshire , 312 U.S. 569 ( 1941 ) , and censorship of motion pictures in Times Film Corp. v. City of Chicago , 365 U.S. 43 ( 1961 ) .
In New York Times Co. v. United States 403 U.S. 713 ( 1971 ) — better known as the Pentagon Papers case — the government had sought to prevent the publication of classified material by The New York Times . In this case , the Supreme Court ruled 6 – 3 that the government had not reached the standard required by Near to justify prior restraint , but the concurring justices gave differing opinions about where the line should be drawn . In his opinion , Justice Potter Stewart wrote that while publication of The Pentagon Papers would likely harm the national interest , it would not result in " direct , immediate or irreparable harm to our Nation or its people " . Failure to provide a clear line inevitably meant that the court had to deal with prior restraint on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . In Nebraska Press Association v. Stuart , 427 U.S. 539 ( 1976 ) , the court was called upon to decide whether news reportage of a lurid mass murder case in a small town in Nebraska would justify prior restraint in order to protect the defendant 's right to a fair trial . In this case , the court ruled unanimously that it would not . Most of the justices viewed Near as providing the only grounds for prior restraint , and declined to expand its scope any further .
= = Trial = =
= = = Morland 's research = = =
The Progressive was a left @-@ wing American monthly magazine of politics , culture and opinion with a circulation of around 40 @,@ 000 . In 1978 , its managing editor , Sam Day , Jr . , a former editor of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , and its editor , Erwin Knoll , commissioned freelance journalist Howard Morland to write an article on the secrecy surrounding nuclear weapons production in America . In October 1978 , Representative Ronald V. Dellums had asked the Department of Energy ( DOE ) , the successor to the AEC , a series of questions about plutonium production . The DOE responded by classifying his questions . In September and October 1978 , the House Armed Services Committee held hearings on the proposed Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty . There was widespread public ignorance of issues surrounding nuclear weapons , and associated environmental concerns . Day and Morland hoped that by demystifying nuclear weapons , they would promote more critical public debate , and improve the prospects for nuclear disarmament . Morland claimed that " I am precisely the type of person the First Amendment was intended to protect : a political advocate whose ideas are unpopular with the general public and threatening to the government . "
Over a period of six months , Morland systematically pieced together a design for a hydrogen bomb . He visited a number of nuclear weapons facilities and interviewed government employees , with the permission of the DOE , usually identifying himself and his purpose . He never held a security clearance , and never had any access to classified documents , although it is possible that some classified information or ideas were accidentally or deliberately leaked to him . His scientific background was minimal ; he had taken five undergraduate courses in physics and chemistry as part of his Bachelor of Arts degree in economics at Emory University . Morland identified the features of the Teller @-@ Ulam design as staging , with a primary and secondary compression around a fissile " sparkplug " , and radiation pressure from soft X @-@ rays . " The notion that X @-@ rays could move solid objects with the force of thousands of tons of dynamite " , noted Morland , " was beyond the grasp of the science fiction writers of the time . "
Day sent draft copies of Morland 's article out to reviewers in late 1978 and early 1979 , including Ron Siegel , a graduate student at Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Siegel gave his draft copy to George Rathjens , a professor of political science there in February 1979 . For many years , Rathjens had issued a challenge to his graduate students to produce a workable design for a hydrogen bomb , but no one had ever succeeded . Rathjens phoned The Progressive and urged that the article not be published . When the editors dismissed his suggestion , he sent the draft to the DOE . " Apparently , " wrote Morland , " I had earned a passing grade on the Rathjens challenge " .
= = = Legal arguments = = =
In March 1979 , the editors sent a final draft to the DOE for comment . DOE officials , first in phone calls and then in person , attempted to dissuade The Progressive from publishing the article on the grounds that it contained " secret restricted data " as defined by the Atomic Energy Act . The Progressive 's editors were not persuaded , and told the officials that they intended to proceed with publishing Morland 's article . The DOE filed a motion to suppress the article with the United States District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin in Madison on March 8 , 1979 . There was only one judge in the Western District of Wisconsin at the time , Judge James Doyle , but he recused himself as a friend of the magazine . The case was therefore brought before Judge Robert W. Warren , a judge in the Eastern District of Wisconsin , and heard by Warren in Milwaukee .
Lawyers for The Progressive voluntarily underwent security reviews and were granted Q clearances that allowed them to access restricted nuclear information . Morland and The Progressive 's editors declined to obtain clearances , as they would have had to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements that would have prevented them from publishing the article . This resulted in the lawyers being restricted in their communications with their clients .
In seeking a temporary restraining order , government lawyers argued that The Progressive was about to break the law , causing irreparable harm . The data in the article was born classified , so it did not matter that it was an original work of the author . They noted that prior restraint had been upheld by the courts before in matters of national security , and argued that the Pentagon Papers decision did not apply as the Atomic Energy Act specifically allowed for injunctive relief . Moreover , the Pentagon Papers were historical , whereas the hydrogen bomb was a current military weapon . Finally , they pointed out that the government had obligations under the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty not to assist non @-@ nuclear states in acquiring nuclear weapons . In granting the temporary restraining order on March 9 , Warren said that he would have " to think long and hard before I gave the hydrogen bomb to Idi Amin . "
Dr. James R. Schlesinger , the Secretary of Energy , telephoned leading newspapers and warned them not to support The Progressive . This was probably unnecessary , for the media were supportive of the government 's case . Fred Graham , the New York Times 's legal correspondent , predicted that the government would win the case . In an editorial on March 11 , 1979 , The Washington Post wrote that the The Progressive case , " as a press @-@ versus @-@ government First Amendment contest , is John Mitchell 's dream case — the one the Nixon Administration was never lucky enough to get : a real First Amendment loser . " The newspaper called on The Progressive to " forget about publishing it " . In the Pentagon Papers case , Professor Alexander Bickel , an expert on the United States Constitution , when asked hypothetically if prior restraint could ever be justified , had told the court that he would draw the line at the hydrogen bomb . Daniel Ellsberg , who had leaked the Pentagon Papers , told Morland that he believed that nuclear weapon designs should be kept secret . Because of the horrific nature of thermonuclear weapons , and the expectation that The Progressive would probably lose the case , mainstream media organizations feared that the result would be an erosion of freedom of the press .
However , the court 's role was to rule on whether publication was legal , not whether it was wise . In keeping with the usual practice of keeping a temporary restraining order in effect for as short a time as possible , Warren ordered that hearings be held on a preliminary injunction in one week 's time , on March 16 . At the request of both parties , this was postponed to March 26 so they would have time to file their briefs and affidavits . The parties were therefore back in court again on March 26 for a hearing on the government 's request for a preliminary injunction . Warren decided not to hold an evidentiary hearing at which the opposing teams of experts could be cross examined . He also declined a suggestion by the Federation of American Scientists in its amicus curiae brief that a panel of experts be charged with examining the issue . The case relied on written affidavits and briefs , and the opposing counsels ' oral arguments .
The Progressive 's legal team argued that the government had not established a case sufficient " to overcome the First Amendment 's presumption against prior restraint " . The article was based upon information in the public domain , and was therefore neither a threat to national security nor covered by the Atomic Energy Act , which in any case did not authorize prior restraint , or was unconstitutional if it did . In this , counsel relied on the United States v. Heine decision , in which Judge Learned Hand ruled that information in the public domain could not be covered by the Espionage Act of 1917 . The government 's lawyers argued , on the contrary , that there was sensitive information in the article , which was not in the public domain , and which , if published , would harm arms control efforts .
In attempting to apply the Near and Pentagon Papers standards , the court was concerned about the prospect of publication causing the proliferation of nuclear weapons , and potentially a global nuclear holocaust . The government did not go so far as to claim that publication might pose an immediate or inevitable danger , only that it " would substantially increase the risk that thermonuclear weapons would become available or available at an earlier date to those who do not now have them . If this should occur , it would undermine our nonproliferation policy , irreparably impair the national security of the United States , and pose a threat to the peace and security of the world . " However , the court still found that " a mistake in ruling against the United States could pave the way for thermonuclear annihilation for us all . In that event , our right to life is extinguished and the right to publish becomes moot " , and that publication could indeed cause " grave , direct , immediate and irreparable harm to the United States " , thereby meeting the test the Supreme Court had enunciated in the Pentagon Papers case . The preliminary injunction was therefore granted .
Lawyers for The Progressive filed a motion to vacate the decision on the grounds that the information contained in Morland 's article was already in the public domain . The basis for this claim was two reports from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory UCRL @-@ 4725 , " Weapons Development During June 1956 " , and UCRL @-@ 5280 , " Weapons Development During June 1958 " , which contained detailed information on thermonuclear weapon design . The documents gave details about Bassoon , a three @-@ stage thermonuclear device tested during Operation Redwing in 1956 . They were found on the shelves of the Los Alamos library by Dmitri Rotow , a researcher for the American Civil Liberties Union . According to the government , the reports had been inadvertently declassified . On June 15 , in 486 F. Supp . 5 ( W.D. Wis . 1979 ) , Warren therefore denied the motion on the grounds that such an error did not place the documents in the public domain . The appellants , in 610 F. 2d 819 ( 7th Cir . 1979 ) , immediately appealed to the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals in Chicago , claiming that the two documents had been on the shelves for a considerable period of time . The government now advanced the argument that " technical data " was not protected by the First Amendment . The motions for an expedited review were denied because the magazine 's lawyers had waived that right — something Morland and The Progressive editors discovered only from the court . The preliminary injunction therefore remained in effect for six months .
= = = Case dropped = = =
On April 25 , 1979 , a group of scientists who worked at the Argonne National Laboratory wrote to Senator John Glenn , the Chairman of the United States Senate Subcommittee on Energy , Nuclear Proliferation and Federal Services . They were concerned about information being leaked , in particular by the government 's tacit acknowledgement that Morland 's bomb design was substantially correct , something that could not otherwise have been deduced from unclassified information . These included the affidavits by the United States Secretary of Defense Harold Brown and government expert witness Jack Rosengren . Copies of the letter were sent to major newspapers , but with a cover note explaining that it was for background information and not publication . After about four weeks , the Glenn subcommittee forwarded it to the DOE , which classified it .
Unaware of this , Hugh DeWitt , a physicist at the Lawrence Livermore nuclear weapons laboratory , forwarded a copy to Chuck Hansen . Hansen was a computer programmer from Mountain View , California , who collected information about nuclear weapons as a hobby . He had run a competition to design an H @-@ bomb , the winner of which would be the first person to have their design classified by the DOE . It now began to occur to him that his hobby might not be legal . He wrote a letter to Senator Charles H. Percy detailing how much information he had deduced from publicly available sources . This included his own design , one not as good as Morland 's , which Hansen had not seen . Hansen further charged that government scientists — including Edward Teller , Ted Taylor , and George Rathjens — had leaked sensitive information about thermonuclear weapons , for which no action had been taken . In this , Hansen was mistaken : Taylor had indeed been reprimanded , and Teller was not the source of the information that Hansen attributed to him . Hansen made copies of his letter available to several newspapers .
When The Daily Californian published excerpts from the Hansen letter on June 11 , the DOE obtained a court order to prevent further publication . Undeterred , The Daily Californian published the letter in its entirety on June 13 . The DOE obtained a temporary restraining order against The Daily Californian prohibiting publication , but the letter was published by the Madison Press Connection on September 16 . The government then moved to dismiss their cases against both The Progressive and The Daily Californian as moot .
= = Legacy = =
Morland 's article was published in the November 1979 issue of The Progressive . A month later he published an erratum in The Progressive with updates based on information that he had gathered during the trial from UCRL @-@ 4725 , Chuck Hansen 's letter and other sources . In Morland 's opinion , the article contributed to a wave of anti @-@ nuclear activism in the late 1970s and early 1980s that resulted in , amongst other things , the closure of the Rocky Flats Plant near Denver . Chuck Hansen went on to publish a book , U.S. Nuclear Weapons : The Secret History in 1988 . This was subsequently expanded to a self @-@ published five volume work entitled Swords of Armageddon . However , many mainstream media organizations still remained reluctant to test the law by publishing . On September 30 , 1980 , the Justice Department issued a statement that it would not prosecute alleged violations of the Atomic Energy Act during the Daily Californian or The Progressive cases .
Hearings on the case were held by Glenn 's subcommittee and by the House Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights . The subcommittees looked into the implications of the decision with regards to nuclear proliferation . They also examined the doctrine of " classified at birth " , but did not decide to amend the Atomic Energy Act to remove such provisions . As it turned out , fears of nuclear proliferation were unfounded . While over the course of the next 25 years some countries , such as Pakistan and North Korea , ultimately developed nuclear weapons , while others , such as Iraq and Libya , tried and failed , no other countries managed to develop thermonuclear weapons .
From a legal standpoint , the case " proved to be a victory for no one " , due to the indecisive nature of its conclusion . Yet it remains a celebrated case nonetheless . In 2004 , the 25th anniversary of the decision was commemorated with an academic conference at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law , attended by many of the participants , at which papers were presented . Law students still study the case , which " could have been a law school hypothetical designed to test the limits of the presumption of unconstitutionality attached to prior restraints . "
= Parks and Recreation ( season 2 ) =
The second season of Parks and Recreation originally aired in the United States on the NBC television network starting September 17 , 2009 , and ended on May 20 , 2010 . The season was produced by Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios , and series co @-@ creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur served as executive producers . Like the first season , it focused on Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) and her staff on the parks and recreation department of the fictional Indiana town of Pawnee . The episodes were approximately 22 minutes long each , all of which aired at 8 : 30 p.m. on Thursdays .
All of the members of the original principal cast were retained and Chris Pratt , who made guest appearances throughout the previous season , joined the permanent cast in the second season . It also featured guest appearances by Louis C.K. , Megan Mullally , Fred Armisen , Will Arnett , Justin Theroux and John Larroquette . The writing staff made changes based on feedback from the first season and attempted to be more topical , with episodes touching on such topics as same @-@ sex marriage , the arrest of Henry Louis Gates and the sex scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford .
Although the first season received generally mixed reviews , the second season was highly praised , with some reviewers declaring it one of the best comedies of the television season . Nevertheless , Parks and Recreation continued to struggle in the Nielsen ratings and averaged about 4 @.@ 68 million household viewers per week , lower than Thursday night NBC shows Community , 30 Rock , and The Office . Amy Poehler was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , and both the series and actor Nick Offerman received nominations from the Television Critics Association Awards .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main = = =
Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope , the deputy director of the Pawnee parks department , who has not let politics dampen her sense of optimism ; her ultimate goal is to become President of the United States . She has a strong love for her home town of Pawnee , and desires to use her position to improve it . Leslie 's sense of confidence grows over the course of the season , leading her to get over her crush on Mark and begin to pursue romantic relationships .
Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse and Leslie 's best friend . She and Leslie continue to work to get the pit next to Ann 's house filled in and transformed in to a park . Ann develops a romantic interest in city planner Mark , and they enter in to a relationship .
Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner with the Pawnee municipal government . He has long been disillusioned with government after being unable to achieve his career ambitions . After developing a romantic interest in Ann , Mark abandons his promiscuous lifestyle and enters in to a relationship with her .
Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , Leslie 's self @-@ absorbed and underachieving subordinate . While he is an employee at the parks department , he cares little about his job , and is instead more focused on his entrepreneurial ambitions . He takes great pride in his appearance and regularly pursues women despite being married . During the season it is revealed that his marriage to his wife Wendy is a green card marriage , and he and Wendy go through a divorce after she obtains her citizenship . This affects Tom greater than he anticipated , as he realizes that he actually did harbor feelings for Wendy .
Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson , the cynical director of the parks department and Leslie 's boss . Due to his incredibly negative view of politics , he regularly works to make his department as inefficient as possible . This leads him to butt heads with Leslie on a number of occasions , as her philosophy regarding politics is the polar opposite . Despite that , both he and Leslie have a large amount of respect for one another . Ron has been married twice , both of whom are named Tammy . He despises and fears them greatly , as they are both the only two women in the world that can control him .
Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate , a young apathetic intern at the parks department . She cares little for her internship , and often shows annoyance at having to complete tasks . Due to her rebellious and emotionless attitude , she is often annoyed by her co @-@ workers , especially Leslie . She has a boyfriend named Derek , who is openly gay and dating another openly gay boy named Ben . Despite being in this relationship , April begins to develop a crush on Andy , as he is one of the only people that has the ability to make her smile . She goes to the lengths of accepting a job as Ron 's assistant just so she can stay in the parks department and see Andy .
Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer , Ann 's ex @-@ boyfriend and lead singer of a band called " Mouse Rat " . He and Ann broke up after he revealed to her that he had delayed the removal of the casts on his legs so that she would continue to pamper him . He now lives in a tent pitched in the pit next to Ann 's house , so he can watch over her . After being injured when Leslie attempts to fill in the pit with dirt , he threatens to sue Pawnee in order to get money and impress Ann . Andy settles the lawsuit out of court however , when Leslie offers him a job as the shoe shiner in Pawnee town hall . It is here he begins to develop a romantic interest in intern April , feelings which she reciprocates .
= = = Recurring = = =
Alison Becker as Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , a newspaper journalist with The Pawnee Journal .
Andrew Burlinson as Wyatt " Burly " Burlinson , the lead guitarist in Andy 's band " Mouse Rat " .
Louis C.K. as Dave Sanderson , a socially awkward Pawnee police sergeant who enters in to a romantic relationship with Leslie .
Mo Collins as Joan Callamezzo , a tabloid journalist and hostess of news / talk show Pawnee Today .
Josh Duvendeck as Ben , Derek 's openly gay boyfriend .
Andy Forrest as Kyle , a government employee who is constantly ridiculed by Andy .
Jay Jackson as Perd Hapley , a popular Pawnee television journalist and the host of news program Ya Heard ? With Perd ! .
Blake Lee as Derek , April 's openly gay boyfriend who is in a relationship with Ben .
Jim O 'Heir as Jerry Gergich , an incompetent and widely ridiculed employee at the parks department .
Retta as Donna Meagle , the no @-@ nonsense office manager at the parks department .
Phil Reeves as Paul Iaresco , Pawnee city manager .
Ben Schwartz as Jean @-@ Ralphio Saperstein , Tom 's dimwitted and cocky best friend .
Justin Theroux as Justin Anderson , a lawyer and old friend of Ann 's that enters in to a romantic relationship with Leslie . He is incredibly cultured and he constantly tells stories of his adventures around the globe .
Jama Williamson as Wendy Haverford , a surgeon and Tom 's attractive wife . She and Tom divorce and she pursues a romantic interest in Ron .
= = = Guest stars = = =
Fred Armisen as Raul , a parks official from Baraqua , Pawnee 's Venezuelan sister city .
JC Gonzalez as Johnny , a parks intern official from Baraqua , Pawnee 's Venezuelan sister city .
Will Arnett as Chris , a strange radiologist who Ann sets Leslie up on a date with .
John Balma as Barney Varmn , an incredibly boring accountant .
H. Jon Benjamin as Scott Braddock , a high @-@ strung Pawnee city attorney .
Kirk Fox as Joe Fantringham , an employee at Pawnee 's sewage department and an enemy of the Parks department .
Michael Gross as Michael Tansley , a former director of the parks department .
Darlene Hunt as Marcia Langman , a conservative activist with the Pawnee organization , the Society for Family Stability Foundation .
Yvans Jourdain as Councilman Douglass Howser , head of Pawnee 's city council .
John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , a man who had a passionate love affair with Leslie 's mother Marlene in their youth .
Rob Lowe as Chris Traeger , a state auditor who comes to Pawnee to evaluate the town 's funds .
Jim Meskimen as Martin Housely , an MC at many special events throughout Pawnee .
Natalie Morales as Lucy , a bartender and love interest for Tom .
Megan Mullally as Tammy Swanson ( aka Tammy Two ) , a librarian and Ron 's sex @-@ crazed ex @-@ wife .
Ian Roberts as Ian Winston , a Pawnee citizen .
Pamela Reed as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother and a successful politician in Pawnee .
Andy Samberg as Carl Lorthner , a park ranger and the head of Pawnee 's outdoor security .
Paul Scheer as Keef Slertner , the energetic founder of KaBOOM ! , a charitable organization .
Detlef Schrempf as himself .
Adam Scott as Ben Wyatt , a state auditor who comes to Pawnee to evaluate the town 's funds .
Kevin Symons as Councilman Bill Dexhart , a member of the Pawnee city council who is constantly embroiled in outrageous sex scandals .
Cooper Thornton as Dr. Harris , Ann 's boss at Pawnee 's hospital .
Gillian Vigman as Alexa Softcastle , a tabloid journalist from The Pawnee Sun .
Susan Yeagley as Jessica Wicks , a beauty pageant winner and the wife of Nick Newport Sr. , one of the richest men in Pawnee .
= = Episodes = =
† denotes an extended episode .
= = Production = =
= = = Crew = = =
The second season of Parks and Recreation was produced by Deedle @-@ Dee Productions , Universal Media Studios , Fremulon and 3 Arts Entertainment . Series creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur were executive producers along with David Miner , who previously worked on the NBC comedy series 30 Rock , and Howard Klein , who worked on The Office , another NBC comedy created by Daniels . Schur served as the showrunner of Parks and Recreation . Amy Poehler and Morgan Sackett were producers , while Daniel J. Goor was supervising producer , and Norm Hiscock and Emily Kapnek worked as consulting producers , David Hyman and Dean Holland were co @-@ producers , and Holland also worked as an editor along with Michael Trim , who doubled as director of photography . Dorian Frankel was the casting director , Ian Phillips was the production designer , Kirston Mann was the costume designer , and Alan Yang , Harris Wittels and Katie Dippold worked as executive story editors . Tucker Cawley , who had been a consulting producer during first season of Parks and Recreation , did not return and instead created the short @-@ lived ABC sitcom Hank , starring Kelsey Grammer .
= = = Cast = = =
All principal cast members from the first season returned for the second , including Amy Poehler , Rashida Jones , Aziz Ansari , Nick Offerman , Aubrey Plaza and Paul Schneider . Chris Pratt , who was billed as a guest star throughout the first season despite appearing in every episode , was promoted to the main cast in season two . Andy Dwyer , Pratt 's character , was originally supposed to appear only in the first season , but the producers liked Pratt so much that almost immediately after casting him , they decided to make Andy a regular character . Schneider left the cast after the second season . Schur said when Schneider 's character Mark Brendanawicz was conceived , it was anticipated he would eventually become a less frequent character who switched back and forth between government and private sector jobs . Schur claimed that both the producers and Schneider were interested in having the character return for guest appearances in future episodes , though Schneider states that he is not interested in returning and has never been contacted about it .
Rob Lowe and Adam Scott joined the Parks and Recreation cast starting in the penultimate second season episode , " The Master Plan " . Scott left his starring role on the Starz comedy series Party Down to join Parks and Recreation , and Lowe had recently departed from the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters . From the beginning , Scott was expected to become a regular cast member and , during the third season , eventual love interest for Leslie Knope , while Lowe was originally only intended to make a string of guest appearances in the third season and then depart the series . However , Lowe later signed a multi @-@ year contract to become a regular cast member . Schur said even when the character Ben Wyatt was conceived , Adam Scott was considered the " dream scenario " casting choice .
Jim O 'Heir and Retta , who made regular appearances as parks employees Jerry Gergich and Donna Meagle in the first season , continued to appear in season two . Although still considered guest actors , their characters started to become more fully developed and play larger roles in the episodes . Several other actors played regular supporting roles throughout the second season . Jama Williamson continued her recurring role as Wendy , Tom Haverford 's ex @-@ wife who becomes a romantic interest for Ron Swanson . Mo Collins and Jay Jackson made repeated appearances as Pawnee journalists Joan Callamezzo and Perd Hapley . Both actors were originally expected to appear only in one episode , but both returned for subsequent episodes because the writing staff enjoyed their performances . Alison Becker played another Pawnee reporter , Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , a character she also played in the first season . Ben Schwartz played Jean @-@ Ralphio , an arrogant and fast @-@ talking playboy friend of Tom , in several episodes . Pamela Reed reprised her recurring role as Leslie 's mother , Marlene , in several second season episodes .
The second season also included several prominent guest appearances , something that distinguished Parks and Recreation from Greg Daniels ' other comedy series , The Office . Schur said high @-@ profile guests on The Office would be too distracting because most episodes are confined to one setting , while he said Parks and Recreation was " a little bit more bright and colorful than The Office " . Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of Nick Offerman , appeared as Ron 's ex @-@ wife Tammy in the episode " Ron and Tammy " . Schur said Mullally 's appearance was well received and not overly distracting to viewers , which made the Parks and Recreation producers feel more comfortable about using future guest actors . Stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. appeared in several episodes as Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer and romantic interest to Leslie Knope . Although typically known for his raunchy and caustic comedy style , Louis C.K. adopted a far more deadpan sense of humor and technical tone of voice for Sanderson .
Two of Amy Poehler 's previous cast members from Saturday Night Live appeared in Parks and Recreation episodes : Fred Armisen played the vice director of a Venezuelan parks department in " Sister City " , and Andy Samberg portrayed the head of security for Pawnee 's parks in " Park Safety " . Will Arnett , the real @-@ life husband of Amy Poehler , made a guest appearance as an MRI technician in " The Set Up " . In that same episode , Justin Theroux started a string of a guest appearances as Justin Anderson , a friend of Ann and love interest for Leslie . John Larroquette appeared in " Galentine 's Day " as the long @-@ lost former love of Leslie 's mother . Kevin Symons appeared in two episodes as Bill Dexhart , a Pawnee councilman prone to sexual affairs and political scandals . Paul Scheer , who appeared in the MTV sketch comedy show Human Giant with Aziz Ansari , played a charity leader in " Kaboom " . In that same episode , comedian and voice actor H. Jon Benjamin played a Pawnee lawyer . Michael Gross , best known for his role as Steven Keaton from Family Ties , appeared in " Summer Catalog " as a former parks department director who loves marijuana . Detlef Schrempf , a retired basketball player who played for the Indiana Pacers , portrayed himself in " Telethon " . Natalie Morales appeared in the last two episodes of the season as Lucy , a bartender who becomes Tom 's girlfriend .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
Following season one , Parks and Recreation was originally renewed for a half season @-@ worth of episodes , but was picked up for a full season in late October 2009 . Greg Daniels said since the Parks and Recreation characters had now been established in the second season , the writers were able to write more specifically for the actors . Daniels said he believed this allowed the characters to become more balanced , rather than simply an accumulation of flaws , as they sometimes appeared in the first season . The writing staff also made an effort to be more topical with the second season episodes . For example , the episode " Pawnee Zoo " included social commentary about same @-@ sex marriage . Likewise , " The Stakeout " included a parody of the arrest of Henry Louis Gates , a black Harvard University professor who was arrested after police mistakenly thought he was breaking into his own home in Cambridge , Massachusetts , and a sex scandal involving a Pawnee councilman in " Practice Date " mirrored the real @-@ life 2009 scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford , who publicly admitted to a long @-@ term extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman .
The writers made several other changes going from season one to season two , including making the scripts more focused around the entire cast rather than just Leslie . They also tried to make Leslie appear more intelligent in the second season after receiving audience feedback that she appeared " ditzy " , which Michael Schur said was never their intention . Schur said , " In the end , we just felt that Amy is an enormously likable presence on screen , so as the season went on we just tried to create situations where that would shine through . " During the episode " Kaboom " , a major subplot was resolved when the large construction pit that Leslie had long sought to turn into a park was filled with dirt and turned into a lot . The pit was first established in the premiere episode and had been a focal point of the series since the show began . Schur said while the pit project was originally conceived as a device to bring all the characters together working toward a common goal , and it was expected to only become a park during the series finale . However , Schur said he felt the early episodes were too focused on the pit and had led viewers to believe the entire show was about filling the pit , which was not the writers ' intention , so they accelerated the resolution of that story arc . The idea of Ben and Chris , two state auditors who come in from outside Pawnee to help the town deal with budget problems , was conceived from news reports at the time of a number of states considering shutting down schools , parks and other services due to the global recession .
Poehler became pregnant during the latter half of the season , with her baby due in the summer or early fall of 2010 . The Parks and Recreation producers decided not to write the pregnancy into the show , so they decided to enter into a continuous production after the season ended to bank episodes for the third season . Six season three episodes were filmed in this fashion . However , in May 2010 , NBC announced the third season of Parks and Recreation was being moved to an undisclosed midseason premiere date to allow the network 's new comedy , Outsourced , to run in the Thursday two @-@ hour comedy schedule block . NBC chief executive officer Jeff Gaspin said this move was not a reflection on Parks and Recreation , and suggested the extended hiatus would not only have no effect on the show 's momentum , but could actually build anticipation for its eventual return . In November 2010 , it was announced Parks and Recreation would return to a 9 : 30 p.m. Thursday timeslot effective January 20 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The first season of Parks and Recreation received mixed to negative reviews , with many critics deeming it too similar to The Office , which shared the same mock documentary style as Parks and Recreation . In particular , several commentators said the naive and well @-@ meaning Leslie Knope character too closely resembled The Office protagonist Michael Scott , a well @-@ intentioned but dimwitted protagonist manager of a paper company sales office . However , most critics declared the second season a vast improvement over the first , with some even claiming it had surpassed The Office and 30 Rock as the best comedy of NBC 's Thursday line @-@ up . It was declared the best comedy of the television season by Entertainment Weekly writer Henning Fog and The Star @-@ Ledger television columnist Alan Sepinwall . Entertainment Weekly writer Michael Ausiello , who was critical of the first season , called it the " most improved " show of the season . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik included Parks and Recreation in his list of the 10 best television shows of 2009 , and IGN declared it the best comedy series of 2009 . Several reviewers called the second season one of the most impressive comebacks in television history .
Amy Poehler said the first season struggled in part due to extremely high expectations from comparisons to The Office . Parks and Recreation staff also felt part of the reason for the improvement was that the characters have become better developed , and viewers have come to like and care more about them . Likewise , Michael Schur believed much of the early criticism stemmed from the fact that audiences were not yet familiar with the characters , and he believed viewers liked the second season better because they had gotten to know the characters better as the series progressed . Commentators said the supporting cast was now working with better material and that Poehler 's character had improved and become less over @-@ the @-@ top and more human than in the first season , and more distinct from Michael Scott . Several reviewers praised the decision to drop season one subplots that risked becoming stale , like whether Andy and Ann would keep dating , and Leslie 's long @-@ standing crush on Mark . Others complimented the decision to fill in the pit during the second season , which they said freed the show up for more stories and better scripts . Despite the vast change in critical reception , Parks and Recreation staff said they felt only a few minor changes were made to the show itself . Michael Schur said , " I don 't think magical fairy dust was sprinkled over the show . I just think we 're getting better at it . " NBC officials compared the late rush of critical acclaim for Parks and Recreation to that of The Office , which received mixed reviews during its first season before most critics agreed it found its rhythm in the second season .
Nick Offerman received considerable praise for his performance as Ron Swanson during the second season . Many reviewers praised Offerman 's subtle and understated style of comedy , and said he was often the funniest part of the scenes he was in . Jonah Weiner of Slate magazine declared Swanson " Parks and Recreation 's secret weapon " and " vital to the show 's improvement " . Aziz Ansari , who was particularly acclaimed during the first season for his role as Tom Haverford , received similar praise in the second season as well . Many reviewers were critical of the pairing of Mark and Ann , feeling the couple lacked chemistry and were often the least funny parts of the individual episodes . Entertainment Weekly writer Margaret Lyons called Mark and Ann the show 's " Achilles ' heel " , and Sandra Gonzalez , also from Entertainment Weekly , wrote , " No matter what they do with these two , I can ’ t help but be bored . "
= = = Ratings = = =
Despite the critical success , the second season of Parks and Recreation continued to suffer in the Nielsen ratings . By December 2009 , the average episode viewership was 5 @.@ 3 million households . The average was lower than the other NBC comedy shows that aired Thursday night along with Parks and Recreation : Community drew an average 6 @.@ 5 million households , 30 Rock an average 7 @.@ 3 million , and The Office an average 10 @.@ 1 million . By February 2010 , ratings had begun to improve all of NBC 's Thursday comedy shows , especially Parks and Recreation , but the network remained in fourth place among the major networks in Nielsen ratings . By the end of the season , the average viewership for the 24 episodes of season two was 4 @.@ 68 million , lower than season one 's average of 5 @.@ 45 million households .
= = = Awards = = =
Amy Poehler was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series . The episode " Telethon " , in which Leslie frantically stays awake for 36 hours to volunteer for a charity telethon , was her performance submitted for Emmy award consideration . This marked Poehler 's third Primetime Emmy nomination , having previously received twice for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series during her time on Saturday Night Live . Poehler ultimately lost to Edie Falco for her performance on the Showtime comedy series Nurse Jackie . Also that year , the Parks and Recreation theme song by Gaby Moreno and Vincent Jones was for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music , but the award again went to Nurse Jackie .
Parks and Recreation was also nominated for a Television Critics Association Award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy , and Nick Offerman received a nomination for Individual Achievement in Comedy ; the awards ultimately were awarded , respectively , to the comedy series Modern Family and to Jane Lynch for her performance in the musical comedy @-@ drama Glee . The second season premiere episode , " Pawnee Zoo " , won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Individual Episode . It was nominated alongside the ABC drama series Private Practice , the NBC supernatural drama The Listener and the CW drama / horror series Supernatural in the category . Aubrey Plaza received a Best Supporting Actress in Television nomination from the Imagen Awards , which honors positive portrayals of Latinos in entertainment , but the award went to María Canals Barrera for her role in Wizards of Waverly Place : The Movie ( 2009 ) . Also in 2010 , Parks and Recreation received two nominations from Entertainment Weekly 's Ewwy Awards : one for Best Comedy Series , and one for Nick Offerman as Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy .
= YouTube =
YouTube is a global video @-@ sharing website headquartered in San Bruno , California , United States .
The service was created by three former PayPal employees in February 2005 . In November 2006 , it was bought by Google for US $ 1 @.@ 65 billion . YouTube now operates as one of Google 's subsidiaries . The site allows users to upload , view , rate , share , and comment on videos , and it makes use of WebM , H.264 / MPEG @-@ 4 AVC , and Adobe Flash Video technology to display a wide variety of user @-@ generated and corporate media video . Available content includes video clips , TV clips , music videos , movie trailers , and other content such as video blogging , short original videos , and educational videos .
Most of the content on YouTube has been uploaded by individuals , but media corporations including CBS , the BBC , Vevo , Hulu , and other organizations offer some of their material via YouTube , as part of the YouTube partnership program . Unregistered users can watch videos , and registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos and add comments to videos . Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old .
= = Company history = =
YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley , Steve Chen , and Jawed Karim , who were all early employees of PayPal . Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania , and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign .
According to a story that has often been repeated in the media , Hurley and Chen developed the idea for YouTube during the early months of 2005 , after they had experienced difficulty sharing videos that had been shot at a dinner party at Chen 's apartment in San Francisco . Karim did not attend the party and denied that it had occurred , but Chen commented that the idea that YouTube was founded after a dinner party " was probably very strengthened by marketing ideas around creating a story that was very digestible " .
Karim said the inspiration for YouTube first came from Janet Jackson 's role in the 2004 Super Bowl incident , when her breast was exposed during her performance , and later from the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online , which led to the idea of a video sharing site . Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service , and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not .
YouTube began as a venture @-@ funded technology startup , primarily from a $ 11 @.@ 5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006 . YouTube 's early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo , California . The domain name www.youtube.com was activated on February 14 , 2005 , and the website was developed over the subsequent months .
The first YouTube video , titled Me at the zoo , shows co @-@ founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo . The video was uploaded on April 23 , 2005 , and can still be viewed on the site .
YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005 . The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in September 2005 . Following a $ 3 @.@ 5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November , the site launched officially on December 15 , 2005 , by which time the site was receiving 8 million views a day . The site grew rapidly , and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65 @,@ 000 new videos were being uploaded every day , and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day . According to data published by market research company comScore , YouTube is the dominant provider of online video in the United States , with a market share of around 43 % and more than 14 billion views of videos in May 2010 .
In 2014 YouTube said that 300 hours of new videos were uploaded to the site every minute , three times more than one year earlier and that around three quarters of the material comes from outside the U.S. The site has 800 million unique users a month . It is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000 . According to third @-@ party web analytics providers , Alexa and SimilarWeb , YouTube is the third most visited website in the world , as of June 2015 ; SimilarWeb also lists YouTube as the top TV and video website globally , attracting more than 15 billion visitors per month .
The choice of the name www.youtube.com led to problems for a similarly named website , www.utube.com. The site 's owner , Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment , filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube . Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www.utubeonline.com.
In October 2006 , Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $ 1 @.@ 65 billion in Google stock , and the deal was finalized on November 13 , 2006 .
In March 2010 , YouTube began free streaming of certain content , including 60 cricket matches of the Indian Premier League . According to YouTube , this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event .
On March 31 , 2010 , the YouTube website launched a new design , with the aim of simplifying the interface and increasing the time users spend on the site . Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented : " We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter . " In May 2010 , it was reported that YouTube was serving more than two billion videos a day , which it described as " nearly double the prime @-@ time audience of all three major US television networks combined " . In May 2011 , YouTube reported in its company blog that the site was receiving more than three billion views per day . In January 2012 , YouTube stated that the figure had increased to four billion videos streamed per day .
In October 2010 , Hurley announced that he would be stepping down as chief executive officer of YouTube to take an advisory role , and that Salar Kamangar would take over as head of the company .
In April 2011 , James Zern , a YouTube software engineer , revealed that 30 % of videos accounted for 99 % of views on the site .
In November 2011 , the Google + social networking site was integrated directly with YouTube and the Chrome web browser , allowing YouTube videos to be viewed from within the Google + interface .
In December 2011 , YouTube launched a new version of the site interface , with the video channels displayed in a central column on the home page , similar to the news feeds of social networking sites . At the same time , a new version of the YouTube logo was introduced with a darker shade of red , the first change in design since October 2006 .
In May 2013 , YouTube launched a pilot program to begin offering some content providers the ability to charge $ 0 @.@ 99 per month or more for certain channels , but the vast majority of its videos would remain free to view .
In February 2015 , YouTube announced the launch of a new app specifically for use by children visiting the site , called YouTube Kids . It allows parental controls and restrictions on who can upload content , and is available for both Android and iOS devices . Later on August 26 , 2015 , YouTube Gaming was launched , a platform for video gaming enthusiasts intended to compete with Twitch.tv. 2015 also saw the announcement of a premium YouTube service titled YouTube Red , which provides users with both ad @-@ free content as well as the ability to download videos among other features .
On August 10 , 2015 , Google announced that it was creating a new company , Alphabet , to act as the holding company for Google , with the change in financial reporting to begin in the fourth quarter of 2015 . YouTube remains as a subsidiary of Google .
In January 2016 , YouTube expanded its headquarters in San Bruno by purchasing an office park for $ 215 million . The complex has 554 @,@ 000 square feet of space and can house up to 2 @,@ 800 employees .
= = Features = =
= = = Video technology = = =
= = = = Playback = = = =
Previously , viewing YouTube videos on a personal computer required the Adobe Flash Player plug @-@ in to be installed in the browser .
In January 2010 , YouTube launched an experimental version of the site that used the built @-@ in multimedia capabilities of web browsers supporting the HTML5 standard . This allowed videos to be viewed without requiring Adobe Flash Player or any other plug @-@ in to be installed . The YouTube site had a page that allowed supported browsers to opt into the HTML5 trial . Only browsers that supported HTML5 Video using the H.264 or WebM formats could play the videos , and not all videos on the site were available .
On January 27 , 2015 , YouTube announced that HTML5 will be the default playback method on supported browsers . Supported browsers include Google Chrome , Safari 8 , and Internet Explorer 11 .
YouTube experimented with Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP ( MPEG @-@ DASH ) , which is an adaptive bit @-@ rate HTTP @-@ based streaming solution optimizing the bitrate and quality for the available network . Currently they are using Adobe Dynamic Streaming for Flash .
= = = = Uploading = = = =
All YouTube users can upload videos up to 15 minutes each in duration . Users who have a good track record of complying with the site 's Community Guidelines may be offered the ability to upload videos up to 12 hours in length , which requires verifying the account , normally through a mobile phone . When YouTube was launched in 2005 , it was possible to upload long videos , but a ten @-@ minute limit was introduced in March 2006 after YouTube found that the majority of videos exceeding this length were unauthorized uploads of television shows and films . The 10 @-@ minute limit was increased to 15 minutes in July 2010 . If an up @-@ to @-@ date browser version is used , videos greater than 20 GB can be uploaded .
YouTube accepts videos uploaded in most container formats , including .AVI , .MKV , .MOV , .MP4 , DivX , .FLV , and .ogg and .ogv. These include video formats such as MPEG @-@ 4 , MPEG , VOB , and .WMV. It also supports 3GP , allowing videos to be uploaded from mobile phones . Videos with progressive scanning or interlaced scanning can be uploaded , but for the best video quality , YouTube suggests interlaced videos be deinterlaced before uploading . All the video formats on YouTube use progressive scanning .
= = = = Quality and formats = = = =
YouTube originally offered videos at only one quality level , displayed at a resolution of 320 × 240 pixels using the Sorenson Spark codec ( a variant of H.263 ) , with mono MP3 audio . In June 2007 , YouTube added an option to watch videos in 3GP format on mobile phones . In March 2008 , a high @-@ quality mode was added , which increased the resolution to 480 × 360 pixels .
In November 2008 , 720p HD support was added . At the time of the 720p launch , the YouTube player was changed from a 4 : 3 aspect ratio to a widescreen 16 : 9 . With this new feature , YouTube began a switchover to H.264 / MPEG @-@ 4 AVC as its default video compression format . In November 2009 , 1080p HD support was added . In July 2010 , YouTube announced that it had launched a range of videos in 4K format , which allows a resolution of up to 4096 × 3072 pixels . In June 2015 , support for 8K resolution was added , with the videos playing at 7680 × 4320 pixels .
In June 2014 , YouTube introduced videos playing at 60 frames per second , in order to reproduce video games with a frame rate comparable to high @-@ end graphics cards . The videos play back at a resolution of 720p or higher .
YouTube videos are available in a range of quality levels . The former names of standard quality ( SQ ) , high quality ( HQ ) and high definition ( HD ) have been replaced by numerical values representing the vertical resolution of the video . The default video stream is encoded in the VP9 format with stereo Opus audio ; if VP9 / WebM is not supported in the browser / device or the browser 's user agent reports Windows XP , then H.264 / MPEG @-@ 4 AVC video with stereo AAC audio is used instead .
= = = = 3D videos = = = =
In a video posted on July 21 , 2009 , YouTube software engineer Peter Bradshaw announced that YouTube users can now upload 3D videos . The videos can be viewed in several different ways , including the common anaglyph ( cyan / red lens ) method which utilizes glasses worn by the viewer to achieve the 3D effect . The YouTube Flash player can display stereoscopic content interleaved in rows , columns or a checkerboard pattern , side @-@ by @-@ side or anaglyph using a red / cyan , green / magenta or blue / yellow combination . In May 2011 , an HTML5 version of the YouTube player began supporting side @-@ by @-@ side 3D footage that is compatible with Nvidia 3D Vision .
= = = = 360 ° videos = = = =
In January 2015 , Google announced that 360 ° videos would be natively supported on YouTube . On March 13 , 2015 , YouTube enabled 360 ° videos which can be viewed from Google Cardboard .
= = = Content accessibility = = =
YouTube offers users the ability to view its videos on web pages outside their website . Each YouTube video is accompanied by a piece of HTML that can be used to embed it on any page on the Web . This functionality is often used to embed YouTube videos in social networking pages and blogs . Users wishing to post a video discussing , inspired by or related to another user 's video are able to make a " video response " . On August 27 , 2013 , YouTube announced that it would remove video responses for being an underused feature . Embedding , rating , commenting and response posting can be disabled by the video owner .
YouTube does not usually offer a download link for its videos , and intends for them to be viewed through its website interface . A small number of videos , such as the weekly addresses by President Barack Obama , can be downloaded as MP4 files . Numerous third @-@ party web sites , applications and browser plug @-@ ins allow users to download YouTube videos . In February 2009 , YouTube announced a test service , allowing some partners to offer video downloads for free or for a fee paid through Google Checkout . In June 2012 , Google sent cease and desist letters threatening legal action against several websites offering online download and conversion of YouTube videos . In response , Zamzar removed the ability to download YouTube videos from its site . The default settings when uploading a video to YouTube will retain a copyright on the video for the uploader , but since July 2012 it has been possible to select a Creative Commons license as the default , allowing other users to reuse and remix the material if it is free of copyright .
= = = = Platforms = = = =
Most modern smartphones are capable of accessing YouTube videos , either within an application or through an optimized website . YouTube Mobile was launched in June 2007 , using RTSP streaming for the video . Not all of YouTube 's videos are available on the mobile version of the site .
Since June 2007 , YouTube 's videos have been available for viewing on a range of Apple products . This required YouTube 's content to be transcoded into Apple 's preferred video standard , H.264 , a process that took several months . YouTube videos can be viewed on devices including Apple TV , iPod Touch and the iPhone . In July 2010 , the mobile version of the site was relaunched based on HTML5 , avoiding the need to use Adobe Flash Player and optimized for use with touch screen controls . The mobile version is also available as an app for the Android platform . In September 2012 , YouTube launched its first app for the iPhone , following the decision to drop YouTube as one of the preloaded apps in the iPhone 5 and iOS 6 operating system . According to GlobalWebIndex , YouTube was used by 35 % of smartphone users between April and June 2013 , making it the third most used app .
A TiVo service update in July 2008 allowed the system to search and play YouTube videos . In January 2009 , YouTube launched " YouTube for TV " , a version of the website tailored for set @-@ top boxes and other TV @-@ based media devices with web browsers , initially allowing its videos to be viewed on the PlayStation 3 and Wii video game consoles . In June 2009 , YouTube XL was introduced , which has a simplified interface designed for viewing on a standard television screen . YouTube is also available as an app on Xbox Live . On November 15 , 2012 , Google launched an official app for the Wii , allowing users to watch YouTube videos from the Wii channel . An app is also available for Wii U and Nintendo 3DS , and videos can be viewed on the Wii U Internet Browser using HTML5 . Google made YouTube available on the Roku player on December 17 , 2013 and in October 2014 , the Sony PlayStation 4 .
= = = Localization = = =
On June 19 , 2007 , Google CEO Eric Schmidt was in Paris to launch the new localization system . The interface of the website is available with localized versions in 88 countries , one territory ( Hong Kong ) and a worldwide version .
The YouTube interface suggests which local version should be chosen on the basis of the IP address of the user . In some cases , the message " This video is not available in your country " may appear because of copyright restrictions or inappropriate content .
The interface of the YouTube website is available in 76 language versions , including Amharic , Albanian , Armenian , Bengali , Burmese , Khmer , Kyrgyz , Laotian , Mongolian , Persian and Uzbek , which do not have local channel versions .
Access to YouTube was blocked in Turkey between 2008 and 2010 , following controversy over the posting of videos deemed insulting to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and some material offensive to Muslims . In October 2012 , a local version of YouTube was launched in Turkey , with the domain youtube.com.tr. The local version is subject to the content regulations found in Turkish law .
In March 2009 , a dispute between YouTube and the British royalty collection agency PRS for Music led to premium music videos being blocked for YouTube users in the United Kingdom . The removal of videos posted by the major record companies occurred after failure to reach agreement on a licensing deal . The dispute was resolved in September 2009 . In April 2009 , a similar dispute led to the removal of premium music videos for users in Germany .
= = = YouTube Red = = =
YouTube Red is YouTube 's premium subscription service . It offers advertising @-@ free streaming , access to exclusive content , background and offline video playback on mobile devices , and access to the Google Play Music " All Access " service . YouTube Red was originally announced on November 12 , 2014 , as " Music Key " , a subscription music streaming service , and was intended to integrate with and replace the existing Google Play Music " All Access " service . On October 28 , 2015 , the service was re @-@ launched as YouTube Red , offering ad @-@ free streaming of all videos , as well as access to exclusive original content .
= = Social impact = =
Both private individuals and large production companies have used YouTube to grow audiences . Independent content creators have built grassroots followings numbering in the thousands at very little cost or effort , while mass retail and radio promotion proved problematic . Concurrently , old media celebrities moved into the website at the invitation of a YouTube management that witnessed early content creators accruing substantial followings , and perceived audience sizes potentially larger than that attainable by television . While YouTube 's revenue @-@ sharing " Partner Program " made it possible to earn a substantial living as a video producer — its top five hundred partners each earning more than $ 100 @,@ 000 annually and its ten highest @-@ earning channels grossing from $ 2 @.@ 5 million to $ 12 million — in 2012 CMU business editor characterized YouTube as " a free @-@ to @-@ use ... promotional platform for the music labels " . In 2013 Forbes ' Katheryn Thayer asserted that digital @-@ era artists ' work must not only be of high quality , but must elicit reactions on the YouTube platform and social media . In 2013 , videos of the 2 @.@ 5 % of artists categorized as " mega " , " mainstream " and " mid @-@ sized " received 90 @.@ 3 % of the relevant views on YouTube and Vevo . By early 2013 Billboard had announced that it was factoring YouTube streaming data into calculation of the Billboard Hot 100 and related genre charts .
Observing that face @-@ to @-@ face communication of the type that online videos convey has been " fine @-@ tuned by millions of years of evolution " , TED curator Chris Anderson referred to several YouTube contributors and asserted that " what Gutenberg did for writing , online video can now do for face @-@ to @-@ face communication " . Anderson asserted that it 's not far @-@ fetched to say that online video will dramatically accelerate scientific advance , and that video contributors may be about to launch " the biggest learning cycle in human history . " In education , for example , the Khan Academy grew from YouTube video tutoring sessions for founder Salman Khan 's cousin into what Forbes ' Michael Noer called " the largest school in the world " , with technology poised to disrupt how people learn .
YouTube was awarded a 2008 George Foster Peabody Award , the website being described as a Speakers ' Corner that " both embodies and promotes democracy . " The Washington Post reported that a disproportionate share of YouTube 's most subscribed channels feature minorities , contrasting with mainstream television in which the stars are largely white .
A Pew Research Center study reported the development of " visual journalism " , in which citizen eyewitnesses and established news organizations share in content creation . The study also concluded that YouTube was becoming an important platform by which people acquire news .
YouTube has enabled people to more directly engage with government , such as in the CNN / YouTube presidential debates ( 2007 ) in which ordinary people submitted questions to U.S. presidential candidates via YouTube video , with a techPresident co @-@ founder saying that Internet video was changing the political landscape . Describing the Arab Spring ( 2010- ) , sociologist Philip N. Howard quoted an activist 's succinct description that organizing the political unrest involved using " Facebook to schedule the protests , Twitter to coordinate , and YouTube to tell the world . " In 2012 , more than a third of the U.S. Senate introduced a resolution condemning Joseph Kony 16 days after the " Kony 2012 " video was posted to YouTube , with resolution co @-@ sponsor Senator Lindsey Graham remarking that the video " will do more to lead to ( Kony 's ) demise than all other action combined . "
Conversely , YouTube has also allowed government to more easily engage with citizens , the White House 's official YouTube channel being the seventh top news organization producer on YouTube in 2012 and in 2013 a healthcare exchange commissioned Obama impersonator Iman Crosson 's YouTube music video spoof to encourage young Americans to enroll in the Affordable Care Act ( Obamacare ) -compliant health insurance . In February 2014 , U.S. President Obama held a meeting at the White House with leading YouTube content creators to not only promote awareness of Obamacare but more generally to develop ways for government to better connect with the " YouTube Generation " . Whereas YouTube 's inherent ability to allow presidents to directly connect with average citizens was noted , the YouTube content creators ' new media savvy was perceived necessary to better cope with the website 's distracting content and fickle audience .
Some YouTube videos have themselves had a direct effect on world events , such as Innocence of Muslims ( 2012 ) which spurred protests and related anti @-@ American violence internationally .
TED curator Chris Anderson described a phenomenon by which geographically distributed individuals in a certain field share their independently developed skills in YouTube videos , thus challenging others to improve their own skills , and spurring invention and evolution in that field . Journalist Virginia Heffernan stated in The New York Times that such videos have " surprising implications " for the dissemination of culture and even the future of classical music .
The Legion of Extraordinary Dancers and the YouTube Symphony Orchestra selected their membership based on individual video performances . Further , the cybercollaboration charity video " We Are the World 25 for Haiti ( YouTube edition ) " was formed by mixing performances of 57 globally distributed singers into a single musical work , with The Tokyo Times noting the " We Pray for You " YouTube cyber @-@ collaboration video as an example of a trend to use crowdsourcing for charitable purposes .
The anti @-@ bullying It Gets Better Project expanded from a single YouTube video directed to discouraged or suicidal LGBT teens , that within two months drew video responses from hundreds including U.S. President Barack Obama , Vice President Biden , White House staff , and several cabinet secretaries . Similarly , in response to fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Amanda Todd 's video " My story : Struggling , bullying , suicide , self @-@ harm " , legislative action was undertaken almost immediately after her suicide to study the prevalence of bullying and form a national anti @-@ bullying strategy .
= = Revenue = =
Google does not provide detailed figures for YouTube 's running costs , and YouTube 's revenues in 2007 were noted as " not material " in a regulatory filing . In June 2008 , a Forbes magazine article projected the 2008 revenue at $ 200 million , noting progress in advertising sales . In January 2012 , it was estimated that visitors to YouTube spent an average of 15 minutes a day on the site , in contrast to the four or five hours a day spent by a typical U.S. citizen watching television . In 2012 , YouTube 's revenue from its ads program was estimated at 3 @.@ 7 billion . In 2013 it nearly doubled and estimated to hit 5 @.@ 6 billion dollars according to eMarketer , others estimated 4 @.@ 7 billion ,
The vast majority of videos on YouTube are free to view and supported by advertising . In May 2013 , YouTube introduced a trial scheme of 53 subscription channels with prices ranging from $ 0 @.@ 99 to $ 6 @.@ 99 a month . The move was seen as an attempt to compete with other providers of online subscription services such as Netflix and Hulu .
= = = Advertisement partnerships = = =
YouTube entered into a marketing and advertising partnership with NBC in June 2006 . In November 2008 , YouTube reached an agreement with MGM , Lions Gate Entertainment , and CBS , allowing the companies to post full @-@ length films and television episodes on the site , accompanied by advertisements in a section for US viewers called " Shows " . The move was intended to create competition with websites such as Hulu , which features material from NBC , Fox , and Disney . In November 2009 , YouTube launched a version of " Shows " available to UK viewers , offering around 4 @,@ 000 full @-@ length shows from more than 60 partners . In January 2010 , YouTube introduced an online film rentals service , which is available only to users in the US , Canada and the UK as of 2010 . The service offers over 6 @,@ 000 films .
= = = Partnership with video creators = = =
In May 2007 , YouTube launched its Partner Program , a system based on AdSense which allows the uploader of the video to share the revenue produced by advertising on the site . YouTube typically takes 45 percent of the advertising revenue from videos in the Partner Program , with 55 percent going to the uploader . There are over a million members of the YouTube Partner Program . According to TubeMogul , in 2013 a pre @-@ roll advertisement on YouTube ( one that is shown before the video starts ) cost advertisers on average $ 7 @.@ 60 per 1000 views . Usually no more than half of eligible videos have a pre @-@ roll advertisement , due to a lack of interested advertisers . Assuming pre @-@ roll advertisements on half of videos , a YouTube partner would earn 0 @.@ 5 X $ 7 @.@ 60 X 55 % = $ 2 @.@ 09 per 1000 views in 2013 .
= = = Revenue to copyright holders = = =
Much of YouTube 's revenue goes to the copyright holders of the videos . In 2010 it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission of the copyright holders . YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue . In May 2013 , Nintendo began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games . In February 2015 , Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators .
= = Community policy = =
YouTube has a set of community guidelines aimed to reduce abuse of the site 's features . Generally prohibited material includes sexually explicit content , videos of animal abuse , shock videos , content uploaded without the copyright holder 's consent , hate speech , spam , and predatory behaviour . Despite the guidelines , YouTube has faced criticism from news sources for content in violation of these guidelines .
= = = Copyrighted material = = =
At the time of uploading a video , YouTube users are shown a message asking them not to violate copyright laws . Despite this advice , there are still many unauthorized clips of copyrighted material on YouTube . YouTube does not view videos before they are posted online , and it is left to copyright holders to issue a DMCA takedown notice pursuant to the terms of the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act . Any successful complaint about copyright infringement results in a YouTube copyright strike . Three successful complaints for copyright infringement against a user account will result in the account and all of its uploaded videos being deleted .
Organizations including Viacom , Mediaset , and the English Premier League have filed lawsuits against YouTube , claiming that it has done too little to prevent the uploading of copyrighted material . Viacom , demanding $ 1 billion in damages , said that it had found more than 150 @,@ 000 unauthorized clips of its material on YouTube that had been viewed " an astounding 1 @.@ 5 billion times " . YouTube responded by stating that it " goes far beyond its legal obligations in assisting content owners to protect their works " .
During the same court battle , Viacom won a court ruling requiring YouTube to hand over 12 terabytes of data detailing the viewing habits of every user who has watched videos on the site . The decision was criticized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation , which called the court ruling " a setback to privacy rights " . In June 2010 , Viacom 's lawsuit against Google was rejected in a summary judgment , with U.S. federal Judge Louis L. Stanton stating that Google was protected by provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act . Viacom announced its intention to appeal the ruling .
On April 5 , 2012 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit reinstated the case , allowing Viacom 's lawsuit against Google to be heard in court again . On March 18 , 2014 , the lawsuit was settled after seven years with an undisclosed agreement .
In August 2008 , a US court ruled in Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. that copyright holders cannot order the removal of an online file without first determining whether the posting reflected fair use of the material . The case involved Stephanie Lenz from Gallitzin , Pennsylvania , who had made a home video of her 13 @-@ month @-@ old son dancing to Prince 's song " Let 's Go Crazy " , and posted the 29 @-@ second video on YouTube .
In the case of Smith v. Summit Entertainment LLC , professional singer Matt Smith sued Summit Entertainment for the wrongful use of copyright takedown notices on YouTube . He asserted seven causes of action , and four were ruled in Smith 's favor .
In April 2012 , a court in Hamburg ruled that YouTube could be held responsible for copyrighted material posted by its users . The performance rights organization GEMA argued that YouTube had not done enough to prevent the uploading of German copyrighted music . YouTube responded by stating :
As of 2013 , YouTube and GEMA have still not reached a licensing agreement . As a result , most videos containing copyrighted music have been blocked in Germany since 2009 .
In April 2013 , it was reported that Universal Music Group and YouTube have a contractual agreement that prevents content blocked on YouTube by a request from UMG from being restored , even if the uploader of the video files a DMCA counter @-@ notice . When a dispute occurs , the uploader of the video has to contact UMG .
YouTube 's owner Google announced in November 2015 that they would help cover the legal cost in select cases where they believe " fair use " laws apply .
= = = = Content ID = = = =
In June 2007 , YouTube began trials of a system for automatic detection of uploaded videos that infringe copyright . Google CEO Eric Schmidt regarded this system as necessary for resolving lawsuits such as the one from Viacom , which alleged that YouTube profited from content that it did not have the right to distribute . The system , which became known as Content ID , creates an ID File for copyrighted audio and video material , and stores it in a database . When a video is uploaded , it is checked against the database , and flags the video as a copyright violation if a match is found .
When this occurs , the content owner has the choice of blocking the video to make it unviewable , tracking the viewing statistics of the video , or adding advertisements to the video . YouTube describes Content ID as " very accurate in finding uploads that look similar to reference files that are of sufficient length and quality to generate an effective ID File " . Content ID accounts for over a third of the monetized views on YouTube .
An independent test in 2009 uploaded multiple versions of the same song to YouTube , and concluded that while the system was " surprisingly resilient " in finding copyright violations in the audio tracks of videos , it was not infallible . The use of Content ID to remove material automatically has led to controversy in some cases , as the videos have not been checked by a human for fair use . If a YouTube user disagrees with a decision by Content ID , it is possible to fill in a form disputing the decision . YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site 's rules were modified in December 2010 to allow some users to upload videos of unlimited length .
= = = Controversial content = = =
YouTube has also faced criticism over the offensive content in some of its videos . The uploading of videos containing defamation , pornography , and material encouraging criminal conduct is prohibited by YouTube 's terms of service . Controversial content has included material relating to Holocaust denial and the Hillsborough disaster , in which 96 football fans from Liverpool were crushed to death in 1989 .
YouTube relies on its users to flag the content of videos as inappropriate , and a YouTube employee will view a flagged video to determine whether it violates the site 's terms of service . In July 2008 , the Culture and Media Committee of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom stated that it was " unimpressed " with YouTube 's system for policing its videos , and argued that " proactive review of content should be standard practice for sites hosting user @-@ generated content " . YouTube responded by stating :
We have strict rules on what 's allowed , and a system that enables anyone who sees inappropriate content to report it to our 24 / 7 review team and have it dealt with promptly . We educate our community on the rules and include a direct link from every YouTube page to make this process as easy as possible for our users . Given the volume of content uploaded on our site , we think this is by far the most effective way to make sure that the tiny minority of videos that break the rules come down quickly . ( July 2008 )
In October 2010 , U.S. Congressman Anthony Weiner urged YouTube to remove from its website videos of imam Anwar al @-@ Awlaki . YouTube pulled some of the videos in November 2010 , stating they violated the site 's guidelines . In December 2010 , YouTube added " promotes terrorism " to the list of reasons that users can give when flagging a video as inappropriate .
= = = User comments = = =
Most videos enable users to leave comments , and these have attracted attention for the negative aspects of both their form and content . In 2006 , Time praised Web 2 @.@ 0 for enabling " community and collaboration on a scale never seen before " , and added that YouTube " harnesses the stupidity of crowds as well as its wisdom . Some of the comments on YouTube make you weep for the future of humanity just for the spelling alone , never mind the obscenity and the naked hatred " . The Guardian in 2009 described users ' comments on YouTube as :
In September 2008 , The Daily Telegraph commented that YouTube was " notorious " for " some of the most confrontational and ill @-@ formed comment exchanges on the internet " , and reported on YouTube Comment Snob , " a new piece of software that blocks rude and illiterate posts " . The Huffington Post noted in April 2012 that finding comments on YouTube that appear " offensive , stupid and crass " to the " vast majority " of the people is hardly difficult .
On November 6 , 2013 , Google implemented a new comment system that requires all YouTube users to use a Google + account in order to comment on videos and making the comment system Google + oriented . The changes are in large part an attempt to address the frequent criticisms of the quality and tone of YouTube comments . They give creators more power to moderate and block comments , and add new sorting mechanisms to ensure that better , more relevant discussions appear at the top . The new system restored the ability to include URLs in comments , which had previously been removed due to problems with abuse . In response , YouTube co @-@ founder Jawed Karim posted the question " why the fuck do I need a google + account to comment on a video ? " on his YouTube channel to express his negative opinion of the change . The official YouTube announcement received 20 @,@ 097 " thumbs down " votes and generated more than 32 @,@ 000 comments in two days . Writing in the Newsday blog Silicon Island , Chase Melvin noted that " Google + is nowhere near as popular a social media network as Facebook , but it 's essentially being forced upon millions of YouTube users who don 't want to lose their ability to comment on videos " and " Discussion forums across the Internet are already bursting with outcry against the new comment system " . In the same article Melvin goes on to say :
On July 27 , 2015 , Google announced in a blog post that it would be removing the requirement to sign up to a Google + account to post comments to YouTube .
= = = View counts = = =
In December 2012 , two billion views were removed from the view counts of Universal and Sony music videos on YouTube , prompting a claim by The Daily Dot that the views had been deleted due to a violation of the site 's terms of service , which ban the use of automated processes to inflate view counts . This was disputed by Billboard , which said that the two billion views had been moved to Vevo , since the videos were no longer active on YouTube .
On August 5 , 2015 , YouTube removed the feature of the site which caused a video 's view count to freeze at " 301 " ( later " 301 + " ) until the actual count was verified to prevent view count fraud . YouTube view counts now update in real time .
= = Censorship and filtering = =
As of September 2012 , countries with standing national bans on YouTube include China , Iran , and Turkmenistan .
YouTube is blocked for a variety of reasons , including :
limiting public exposure to content that may ignite social or political unrest ;
preventing criticism of a ruler , government , government officials , religion , or religious leaders ;
violations of national laws , including :
copyright and intellectual property protection laws ;
violations of hate speech , ethics , or morality @-@ based laws ; and
national security legislation .
preventing access to videos judged to be inappropriate for youth ;
reducing distractions at work or school ; and
reducing the amount of network bandwidth used .
In some countries , YouTube is completely blocked , either through a long term standing ban or for more limited periods of time such as during periods of unrest , the run @-@ up to an election , or in response to upcoming political anniversaries . In other countries access to the website as a whole remains open , but access to specific videos is blocked . In cases where the entire site is banned due to one particular video , YouTube will often agree to remove or limit access to that video in order to restore service .
Businesses , schools , government agencies , and other private institutions often block social media sites , including YouTube , due to bandwidth limitations and the site 's potential for distraction .
Several countries have blocked access to YouTube :
Iran temporarily blocked access on December 3 , 2006 , to YouTube and several other sites , after declaring them as violating social and moral codes of conduct . The YouTube block came after a video was posted online that appeared to show an Iranian soap opera star having sex . The block was later lifted and then reinstated after Iran 's 2009 presidential election . In 2012 , Iran reblocked access , along with access to Google , after the controversial film Innocence of Muslims ' trailer was released on YouTube .
Thailand blocked access between 2006 and 2007 due to offensive videos relating to King Bhumibol Adulyadej .
Some Australian state education departments block YouTube citing " an inability to determine what sort of video material might be accessed " and " There 's no educational value to it and the content of the material on the site . "
China blocked access from October 15 , 2007 , to March 22 , 2008 , and again starting on March 24 , 2009 . Access remains blocked .
Morocco blocked access in May 2007 , possibly as a result of videos critical of Morocco 's actions in Western Sahara . YouTube became accessible again on May 30 , 2007 , after Maroc Telecom unofficially announced that the denied access to the website was a mere " technical glitch " .
Turkey blocked access between 2008 and 2010 after controversy over videos deemed insulting to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . In November 2010 , a video of the Turkish politician Deniz Baykal caused the site to be blocked again briefly , and the site was threatened with a new shutdown if it did not remove the video . During the two and a half year block of YouTube , the video @-@ sharing website remained the eighth most @-@ accessed site in Turkey . In 2014 , Turkey blocked the access for the second time , after " a high @-@ level intelligence leak . "
Pakistan blocked access on February 23 , 2008 , because of " offensive material " towards the Islamic faith , including display of the Danish cartoons of Muhammad . This led to a near global blackout of the YouTube site for around two hours , as the Pakistani block was inadvertently transferred to other countries . On February 26 , 2008 , the ban was lifted after the website had removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government . Many Pakistanis circumvented the three @-@ day block by using virtual private network software . In May 2010 , following the Everybody Draw Mohammed Day , Pakistan again blocked access to YouTube , citing " growing sacrilegious content " . The ban was lifted on May 27 , 2010 , after the website removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government . However , individual videos deemed offensive to Muslims posted on YouTube will continue to be blocked . Pakistan again placed a ban on YouTube in September 2012 , after the site refused to remove the film Innocence of Muslims , with the ban still in operation as of September 2013 . The ban was lifted in January 2016 after YouTube launched a Pakistan @-@ specific version .
Turkmenistan blocked access on December 25 , 2009 , for unknown reasons . Other websites , such as LiveJournal were also blocked .
Libya blocked access on January 24 , 2010 , because of videos that featured demonstrations in the city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in Abu Salim prison in 1996 , and videos of family members of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi at parties . The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch . In November 2011 , after the Libyan Civil War , YouTube was once again allowed in Libya .
Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Russia , and Sudan blocked access in September 2012 following controversy over a 14 @-@ minute trailer for the film Innocence of Muslims which had been posted on the site .
In Libya and Egypt , the Innocence of Muslims trailer was blamed for violent protests in September 2012 . YouTube stated that " This video — which is widely available on the Web — is clearly within our guidelines and so will stay on YouTube . However , given the very difficult situation in Libya and Egypt we have temporarily restricted access in both countries . "
= = = Music Key licensing = = =
In May 2014 , prior to the launch of YouTube 's subscription @-@ based Music Key service , the independent music trade organization Worldwide Independent Network alleged that YouTube was using non @-@ negotiable contracts with independent labels that were " undervalued " in comparison to other streaming services , and that YouTube would block all music content from labels who do not reach a deal to be included on the paid service . In a statement to the Financial Times in June 2014 , Robert Kyncl confirmed that YouTube would block the content of labels who do not negotiate deals to be included in the paid service " to ensure that all content on the platform is governed by its new contractual terms . " Stating that 90 % of labels had reached deals , he went on to say that " while we wish that we had [ a ] 100 % success rate , we understand that is not likely an achievable goal and therefore it is our responsibility to our users and the industry to launch the enhanced music experience . " The Financial Times later reported that YouTube had reached an aggregate deal with Merlin Network — a trade group representing over 20 @,@ 000 independent labels , for their inclusion in the service . However , YouTube itself has
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unsaturated double bond can produce a kink in the alkane chain , disrupting the lipid packing . This disruption creates extra free space within the bilayer that allows additional flexibility in the adjacent chains . An example of this effect can be noted in everyday life as butter , which has a large percentage saturated fats , is solid at room temperature while vegetable oil , which is mostly unsaturated , is liquid .
Most natural membranes are a complex mixture of different lipid molecules . If some of the components are liquid at a given temperature while others are in the gel phase , the two phases can coexist in spatially separated regions , rather like an iceberg floating in the ocean . This phase separation plays a critical role in biochemical phenomena because membrane components such as proteins can partition into one or the other phase and thus be locally concentrated or activated . One particularly important component of many mixed phase systems is cholesterol , which modulates bilayer permeability , mechanical strength , and biochemical interactions .
= = = Surface chemistry = = =
While lipid tails primarily modulate bilayer phase behavior , it is the headgroup that determines the bilayer surface chemistry . Most natural bilayers are composed primarily of phospholipids , although sphingolipids such as sphingomyelin and sterols such as cholesterol are also important components . Of the phospholipids , the most common headgroup is phosphatidylcholine ( PC ) , accounting for about half the phospholipids in most mammalian cells . PC is a zwitterionic headgroup , as it has a negative charge on the phosphate group and a positive charge on the amine but , because these local charges balance , no net charge .
Other headgroups are also present to varying degrees and can include phosphatidylserine ( PS ) phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE ) and phosphatidylglycerol ( PG ) . These alternate headgroups often confer specific biological functionality that is highly context @-@ dependent . For instance , PS presence on the extracellular membrane face of erythrocytes is a marker of cell apoptosis , whereas PS in growth plate vesicles is necessary for the nucleation of hydroxyapatite crystals and subsequent bone mineralization . Unlike PC , some of the other headgroups carry a net charge , which can alter the electrostatic interactions of small molecules with the bilayer .
= = Biological roles = =
= = = Containment and separation = = =
The primary role of the lipid bilayer in biology is to separate aqueous compartments from their surroundings . Without some form of barrier delineating “ self ” from “ non @-@ self , ” it is difficult to even define the concept of an organism or of life . This barrier takes the form of a lipid bilayer in all known life forms except for a few species of archaea that utilize a specially adapted lipid monolayer . It has even been proposed that the very first form of life may have been a simple lipid vesicle with virtually its sole biosynthetic capability being the production of more phospholipids . The partitioning ability of the lipid bilayer is based on the fact that hydrophilic molecules cannot easily cross the hydrophobic bilayer core , as discussed in Transport across the bilayer below . The nucleus , mitochondria and chloroplasts have two lipid bilayers , while other sub @-@ cellular structures are surrounded by a single lipid bilayer ( such as the plasma membrane , endoplasmic reticula , Golgi apparatus and lysosomes ) . See Organelle .
Prokaryotes have only one lipid bilayer- the cell membrane ( also known as the plasma membrane ) . Many prokaryotes also have a cell wall , but the cell wall is composed of proteins or long chain carbohydrates , not lipids . In contrast , eukaryotes have a range of organelles including the nucleus , mitochondria , lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum . All of these sub @-@ cellular compartments are surrounded by one or more lipid bilayers and , together , typically comprise the majority of the bilayer area present in the cell . In liver hepatocytes for example , the plasma membrane accounts for only two percent of the total bilayer area of the cell , whereas the endoplasmic reticulum contains more than fifty percent and the mitochondria a further thirty percent .
= = = Signaling = = =
Probably the most familiar form of cellular signaling is synaptic transmission , whereby a nerve impulse that has reached the end of one neuron is conveyed to an adjacent neuron via the release of neurotransmitters . This transmission is made possible by the action of synaptic vesicles loaded with the neurotransmitters to be released . These vesicles fuse with the cell membrane at the pre @-@ synaptic terminal and release its contents to the exterior of the cell . The contents then diffuse across the synapse to the post @-@ synaptic terminal .
Lipid bilayers are also involved in signal transduction through their role as the home of integral membrane proteins . This is an extremely broad and important class of biomolecule . It is estimated that up to a third of the human proteome may be membrane proteins . Some of these proteins are linked to the exterior of the cell membrane . An example of this is the CD59 protein , which identifies cells as “ self ” and thus inhibits their destruction by the immune system . The HIV virus evades the immune system in part by grafting these proteins from the host membrane onto its own surface . Alternatively , some membrane proteins penetrate all the way through the bilayer and serve to relay individual signal events from the outside to the inside of the cell . The most common class of this type of protein is the G protein @-@ coupled receptor ( GPCR ) . GPCRs are responsible for much of the cell ’ s ability to sense its surroundings and , because of this important role , approximately 40 % of all modern drugs are targeted at GPCRs .
In addition to protein- and solution @-@ mediated processes , it is also possible for lipid bilayers to participate directly in signaling . A classic example of this is phosphatidylserine @-@ triggered phagocytosis . Normally , phosphatidylserine is asymmetrically distributed in the cell membrane and is present only on the interior side . During programmed cell death a protein called a scramblase equilibrates this distribution , displaying phosphatidylserine on the extracellular bilayer face . The presence of phosphatidylserine then triggers phagocytosis to remove the dead or dying cell .
= = Characterization methods = =
The lipid bilayer is a very difficult structure to study because it is so thin and fragile . In spite of these limitations dozens of techniques have been developed over the last seventy years to allow investigations of its structure and function .
Electrical measurements are a straightforward way to characterize an important function of a bilayer : its ability to segregate and prevent the flow of ions in solution . By applying a voltage across the bilayer and measuring the resulting current , the resistance of the bilayer is determined . This resistance is typically quite high ( 108 Ohm @-@ cm2 or more ) since the hydrophobic core is impermeable to charged species . The presence of even a few nanometer @-@ scale holes results in a dramatic increase in current . The sensitivity of this system is such that even the activity of single ion channels can be resolved .
Electrical measurements do not provide an actual picture like imaging with a microscope can . Lipid bilayers cannot be seen in a traditional microscope because they are too thin . In order to see bilayers , researchers often use fluorescence microscopy . A sample is excited with one wavelength of light and observed in a different wavelength , so that only fluorescent molecules with a matching excitation and emission profile will be seen . Natural lipid bilayers are not fluorescent , so a dye is used that attaches to the desired molecules in the bilayer . Resolution is usually limited to a few hundred nanometers , much smaller than a typical cell but much larger than the thickness of a lipid bilayer .
Electron microscopy offers a higher resolution image . In an electron microscope , a beam of focused electrons interacts with the sample rather than a beam of light as in traditional microscopy . In conjunction with rapid freezing techniques , electron microscopy has also been used to study the mechanisms of inter- and intracellular transport , for instance in demonstrating that exocytotic vesicles are the means of chemical release at synapses .
31P @-@ NMR ( nuclear magnetic resonance ) spectroscopy is widely used for studies of phospholipid bilayers and biological membranes in native conditions . The analysis of 31P @-@ NMR spectra of lipids could provide a wide range of information about lipid bilayer packing , phase transitions ( gel phase , physiological liquid crystal phase , ripple phases , non bilayer phases ) , lipid head group orientation / dynamics , and elastic properties of pure lipid bilayer and as a result of binding of proteins and other biomolecules .
A new method to study lipid bilayers is Atomic force microscopy ( AFM ) . Rather than using a beam of light or particles , a very small sharpened tip scans the surface by making physical contact with the bilayer and moving across it , like a record player needle . AFM is a promising technique because it has the potential to image with nanometer resolution at room temperature and even under water or physiological buffer , conditions necessary for natural bilayer behavior . Utilizing this capability , AFM has been used to examine dynamic bilayer behavior including the formation of transmembrane pores ( holes ) and phase transitions in supported bilayers . Another advantage is that AFM does not require fluorescent or isotopic labeling of the lipids , since the probe tip interacts mechanically with the bilayer surface . Because of this , the same scan can image both lipids and associated proteins , sometimes even with single @-@ molecule resolution . AFM can also probe the mechanical nature of lipid bilayers .
Lipid bilayers exhibit high levels of birefringence where the refractive index in the plane of the bilayer differs from that perpendicular by as much as 0 @.@ 1 refractive index units . This has been used to characterise the degree of order and disruption in bilayers using dual polarisation interferometry to understand mechanisms of protein interaction .
Lipid bilayers are complicated molecular systems with many degrees of freedom . Thus atomistic simulation of membrane and in particular ab initio calculations of its properties is difficult and computationally expensive . Quantum chemical calculations has recently been successfully performed to estimate dipole and quadrupole moments of lipid membranes .
= = Transport across the bilayer = =
= = = Passive diffusion = = =
Most polar molecules have low solubility in the hydrocarbon core of a lipid bilayer and , as a consequence , have low permeability coefficients across the bilayer . This effect is particularly pronounced for charged species , which have even lower permeability coefficients than neutral polar molecules . Anions typically have a higher rate of diffusion through bilayers than cations . Compared to ions , water molecules actually have a relatively large permeability through the bilayer , as evidenced by osmotic swelling . When a cell or vesicle with a high interior salt concentration is placed in a solution with a low salt concentration it will swell and eventually burst . Such a result would not be observed unless water was able to pass through the bilayer with relative ease . The anomalously large permeability of water through bilayers is still not completely understood and continues to be the subject of active debate . Small uncharged apolar molecules diffuse through lipid bilayers many orders of magnitude faster than ions or water . This applies both to fats and organic solvents like chloroform and ether . Regardless of their polar character larger molecules diffuse more slowly across lipid bilayers than small molecules .
= = = Ion pumps and channels = = =
Two special classes of protein deal with the ionic gradients found across cellular and sub @-@ cellular membranes in nature- ion channels and ion pumps . Both pumps and channels are integral membrane proteins that pass through the bilayer , but their roles are quite different . Ion pumps are the proteins that build and maintain the chemical gradients by utilizing an external energy source to move ions against the concentration gradient to an area of higher chemical potential . The energy source can be ATP , as is the case for the Na + -K + ATPase . Alternatively , the energy source can be another chemical gradient already in place , as in the Ca2 + / Na + antiporter . It is through the action of ion pumps that cells are able to regulate pH via the pumping of protons .
In contrast to ion pumps , ion channels do not build chemical gradients but rather dissipate them in order to perform work or send a signal . Probably the most familiar and best studied example is the voltage @-@ gated Na + channel , which allows conduction of an action potential along neurons . All ion pumps have some sort of trigger or “ gating ” mechanism . In the previous example it was electrical bias , but other channels can be activated by binding a molecular agonist or through a conformational change in another nearby protein .
= = = Endocytosis and exocytosis = = =
Some molecules or particles are too large or too hydrophilic to pass through a lipid bilayer . Other molecules could pass through the bilayer but must be transported rapidly in such large numbers that channel @-@ type transport is impractical . In both cases , these types of cargo can be moved across the cell membrane through fusion or budding of vesicles . When a vesicle is produced inside the cell and fuses with the plasma membrane to release its contents into the extracellular space , this process is known as exocytosis . In the reverse process , a region of the cell membrane will dimple inwards and eventually pinch off , enclosing a portion of the extracellular fluid to transport it into the cell . Endocytosis and exocytosis rely on very different molecular machinery to function , but the two processes are intimately linked and could not work without each other . The primary mechanism of this interdependence is the sheer volume of lipid material involved . In a typical cell , an area of bilayer equivalent to the entire plasma membrane will travel through the endocytosis / exocytosis cycle in about half an hour . If these two processes were not balancing each other , the cell would either balloon outward to an unmanageable size or completely deplete its plasma membrane within a matter of minutes .
Exocytosis in prokaryotes : Membrane vesicular exocytosis , popularly known as membrane vesicle trafficking , a Nobel prize @-@ winning ( year , 2013 ) process , is traditionally regarded as a prerogative of eukaryotic cells . This myth was however broken with the revelation that nanovesicles , popularly known as bacterial outer membrane vesicles , released by gram @-@ negative microbes , translocate bacterial signal molecules to host or target cells to carry out multiple processes in favour of the secreting microbe e.g. , in host cell invasion and microbe @-@ environment interactions , in general .
= = = Electroporation = = =
Electroporation is the rapid increase in bilayer permeability induced by the application of a large artificial electric field across the membrane . Experimentally , electroporation is used to introduce hydrophilic molecules into cells . It is a particularly useful technique for large highly charged molecules such as DNA , which would never passively diffuse across the hydrophobic bilayer core . Because of this , electroporation is one of the key methods of transfection as well as bacterial transformation . It has even been proposed that electroporation resulting from lightning strikes could be a mechanism of natural horizontal gene transfer .
This increase in permeability primarily affects transport of ions and other hydrated species , indicating that the mechanism is the creation of nm @-@ scale water @-@ filled holes in the membrane . Although electroporation and dielectric breakdown both result from application of an electric field , the mechanisms involved are fundamentally different . In dielectric breakdown the barrier material is ionized , creating a conductive pathway . The material alteration is thus chemical in nature . In contrast , during electroporation the lipid molecules are not chemically altered but simply shift position , opening up a pore that acts as the conductive pathway through the bilayer as it is filled with water .
= = Mechanics = =
Lipid bilayers are large enough structures to have some of the mechanical properties of liquids or solids . The area compression modulus Ka , bending modulus Kb , and edge energy <formula> , can be used to describe them . Solid lipid bilayers also have a shear modulus , but like any liquid , the shear modulus is zero for fluid bilayers . These mechanical properties affect how the membrane functions . Ka and Kb affect the ability of proteins and small molecules to insert into the bilayer , and bilayer mechanical properties have been shown to alter the function of mechanically activated ion channels . Bilayer mechanical properties also govern what types of stress a cell can withstand without tearing . Although lipid bilayers can easily bend , most cannot stretch more than a few percent before rupturing .
As discussed in the Structure and organization section , the hydrophobic attraction of lipid tails in water is the primary force holding lipid bilayers together . Thus , the elastic modulus of the bilayer is primarily determined by how much extra area is exposed to water when the lipid molecules are stretched apart . It is not surprising given this understanding of the forces involved that studies have shown that Ka varies strongly with osmotic pressure but only weakly with tail length and unsaturation . Because the forces involved are so small , it is difficult to experimentally determine Ka . Most techniques require sophisticated microscopy and very sensitive measurement equipment .
In contrast to Ka , which is a measure of how much energy is needed to stretch the bilayer , Kb is a measure of how much energy is needed to bend or flex the bilayer . Formally , bending modulus is defined as the energy required to deform a membrane from its intrinsic curvature to some other curvature . Intrinsic curvature is defined by the ratio of the diameter of the head group to that of the tail group . For two @-@ tailed PC lipids , this ratio is nearly one so the intrinsic curvature is nearly zero . If a particular lipid has too large a deviation from zero intrinsic curvature it will not form a bilayer and will instead form other phases such as micelles or inverted micelles . Addition of small hydrophilic molecules like sucrose into mixed lipid lamellar liposomes made from galactolipid @-@ rich thylakoid membranes destabilises bilayers into micellar phase . Typically , Kb is not measured experimentally but rather is calculated from measurements of Ka and bilayer thickness , since the three parameters are related .
<formula> is a measure of how much energy it takes to expose a bilayer edge to water by tearing the bilayer or creating a hole in it . The origin of this energy is the fact that creating such an interface exposes some of the lipid tails to water , but the exact orientation of these border lipids is unknown . There is some evidence that both hydrophobic ( tails straight ) and hydrophilic ( heads curved around ) pores can coexist .
= = Fusion = =
Fusion is the process by which two lipid bilayers merge , resulting in one connected structure . If this fusion proceeds completely through both leaflets of both bilayers , a water @-@ filled bridge is formed and the solutions contained by the bilayers can mix . Alternatively , if only one leaflet from each bilayer is involved in the fusion process , the bilayers are said to be hemifused . Fusion is involved in many cellular processes , in particular in eukaryotes , since the eukaryotic cell is extensively sub @-@ divided by lipid bilayer membranes . Exocytosis , fertilization of an egg by sperm and transport of waste products to the lysozome are a few of the many eukaryotic processes that rely on some form of fusion . Even the entry of pathogens can be governed by fusion , as many bilayer @-@ coated viruses have dedicated fusion proteins to gain entry into the host cell .
There are four fundamental steps in the fusion process . First , the involved membranes must aggregate , approaching each other to within several nanometers . Second , the two bilayers must come into very close contact ( within a few angstroms ) . To achieve this close contact , the two surfaces must become at least partially dehydrated , as the bound surface water normally present causes bilayers to strongly repel . The presence of ions , in particular divalent cations like magnesium and calcium , strongly affects this step . One of the critical roles of calcium in the body is regulating membrane fusion . Third , a destabilization must form at one point between the two bilayers , locally distorting their structures . The exact nature of this distortion is not known . One theory is that a highly curved " stalk " must form between the two bilayers . Proponents of this theory believe that it explains why phosphatidylethanolamine , a highly curved lipid , promotes fusion . Finally , in the last step of fusion , this point defect grows and the components of the two bilayers mix and diffuse away from the site of contact .
The situation is further complicated when considering fusion in vivo since biological fusion is almost always regulated by the action of membrane @-@ associated proteins . The first of these proteins to be studied were the viral fusion proteins , which allow an enveloped virus to insert its genetic material into the host cell ( enveloped viruses are those surrounded by a lipid bilayer ; some others have only a protein coat ) . Eukaryotic cells also use fusion proteins , the best @-@ studied of which are the SNAREs . SNARE proteins are used to direct all vesicular intracellular trafficking . Despite years of study , much is still unknown about the function of this protein class . In fact , there is still an active debate regarding whether SNAREs are linked to early docking or participate later in the fusion process by facilitating hemifusion .
In studies of molecular and cellular biology it is often desirable to artificially induce fusion . The addition of polyethylene glycol ( PEG ) causes fusion without significant aggregation or biochemical disruption . This procedure is now used extensively , for example by fusing B @-@ cells with melanoma cells . The resulting “ hybridoma ” from this combination expresses a desired antibody as determined by the B @-@ cell involved , but is immortalized due to the melanoma component . Fusion can also be artificially induced through electroporation in a process known as electrofusion . It is believed that this phenomenon results from the energetically active edges formed during electroporation , which can act as the local defect point to nucleate stalk growth between two bilayers .
= = Model systems = =
Lipid bilayers can be created artificially in the lab to allow researchers to perform experiments that cannot be done with natural bilayers . These synthetic systems are called model lipid bilayers . There are many different types of model bilayers , each having experimental advantages and disadvantages . They can be made with either synthetic or natural lipids . Among the most common model systems are :
Black lipid membranes ( BLM )
Supported lipid bilayers ( SLB )
Tethered Bilayer Lipid Membranes ( t @-@ BLM )
Vesicles
= = Commercial applications = =
To date , the most successful commercial application of lipid bilayers has been the use of liposomes for drug delivery , especially for cancer treatment . ( Note- the term “ liposome ” is in essence synonymous with “ vesicle ” except that vesicle is a general term for the structure whereas liposome refers to only artificial not natural vesicles ) The basic idea of liposomal drug delivery is that the drug is encapsulated in solution inside the liposome then injected into the patient . These drug @-@ loaded liposomes travel through the system until they bind at the target site and rupture , releasing the drug . In theory , liposomes should make an ideal drug delivery system since they can isolate nearly any hydrophilic drug , can be grafted with molecules to target specific tissues and can be relatively non @-@ toxic since the body possesses biochemical pathways for degrading lipids .
The first generation of drug delivery liposomes had a simple lipid composition and suffered from several limitations . Circulation in the bloodstream was extremely limited due to both renal clearing and phagocytosis . Refinement of the lipid composition to tune fluidity , surface charge density , and surface hydration resulted in vesicles that adsorb fewer proteins from serum and thus are less readily recognized by the immune system . The most significant advance in this area was the grafting of polyethylene glycol ( PEG ) onto the liposome surface to produce “ stealth ” vesicles , which circulate over long times without immune or renal clearing .
The first stealth liposomes were passively targeted at tumor tissues . Because tumors induce rapid and uncontrolled angiogenesis they are especially “ leaky ” and allow liposomes to exit the bloodstream at a much higher rate than normal tissue would . More recently work has been undertaken to graft antibodies or other molecular markers onto the liposome surface in the hope of actively binding them to a specific cell or tissue type . Some examples of this approach are already in clinical trials .
Another potential application of lipid bilayers is the field of biosensors . Since the lipid bilayer is the barrier between the interior and exterior of the cell , it is also the site of extensive signal transduction . Researchers over the years have tried to harness this potential to develop a bilayer @-@ based device for clinical diagnosis or bioterrorism detection . Progress has been slow in this area and , although a few companies have developed automated lipid @-@ based detection systems , they are still targeted at the research community . These include Biacore ( now GE Healthcare Life Sciences ) , which offers a disposable chip for utilizing lipid bilayers in studies of binding kinetics and Nanion Inc . , which has developed an automated patch clamping system . Other , more exotic applications are also being pursued such as the use of lipid bilayer membrane pores for DNA sequencing by Oxford Nanolabs . To date , this technology has not proven commercially viable .
A supported lipid bilayer ( SLB ) as described above has achieved commercial success as a screening technique to measure the permeability of drugs . This parallel artificial membrane permeability assay PAMPA technique measures the permeability across specifically formulated lipid cocktail ( s ) found to be highly correlated with Caco @-@ 2 cultures , the gastrointestinal tract , blood – brain barrier and skin .
= = History = =
By the early twentieth century scientists had come to believe that cells are surrounded by a thin oil @-@ like barrier , but the structural nature of this membrane was not known . Two experiments in 1925 laid the groundwork to fill in this gap . By measuring the capacitance of erythrocyte solutions , Hugo Fricke determined that the cell membrane was 3 @.@ 3 nm thick .
Although the results of this experiment were accurate , Fricke misinterpreted the data to mean that the cell membrane is a single molecular layer . Prof. Dr. Evert Gorter ( 1881 – 1954 ) and F. Grendel of Leiden University approached the problem from a different perspective , spreading the erythrocyte lipids as a monolayer on a Langmuir @-@ Blodgett trough . When they compared the area of the monolayer to the surface area of the cells , they found a ratio of two to one . Later analyses showed several errors and incorrect assumptions with this experiment but , serendipitously , these errors canceled out and from this flawed data Gorter and Grendel drew the correct conclusion- that the cell membrane is a lipid bilayer .
This theory was confirmed through the use of electron microscopy in the late 1950s . Although he did not publish the first electron microscopy study of lipid bilayers J. David Robertson was the first to assert that the two dark electron @-@ dense bands were the headgroups and associated proteins of two apposed lipid monolayers . In this body of work , Robertson put forward the concept of the “ unit membrane . ” This was the first time the bilayer structure had been universally assigned to all cell membranes as well as organelle membranes .
Around the same time , the development of model membranes confirmed that the lipid bilayer is a stable structure that can exist independent of proteins . By “ painting ” a solution of lipid in organic solvent across an aperture , Mueller and Rudin were able to create an artificial bilayer and determine that this exhibited lateral fluidity , high electrical resistance and self @-@ healing in response to puncture , all of which are properties of a natural cell membrane . A few years later , Alec Bangham showed that bilayers , in the form of lipid vesicles , could also be formed simply by exposing a dried lipid sample to water . This was an important advance , since it demonstrated that lipid bilayers form spontaneously via self assembly and do not require a patterned support structure .
= Pam Ewing =
Pamela " Pam " Barnes Ewing is a fictional character from the CBS primetime soap opera , Dallas . Pamela is portrayed by actress Victoria Principal , first appearing on the show in the first episode , entitled " Digger 's Daughter " , which was first broadcast on April 2 , 1978 . Dallas follows the trials of the wealthy Ewing oil family in the city of Dallas , Texas , which Pam has married into . Principal played Pam until the end of the tenth season of Dallas in 1987 , when the character crashes into an oil tanker and her body is severely burned . After this , she is briefly played by actress Margaret Michaels in an attempt to write the character out . Pamela 's storylines in season 1 focus on her relationship with her new husband , Bobby Ewing ( Patrick Duffy ) , and her fight against the considerable suspicion and hostility from within the Ewing family , due to Pamela being a member of the Barnes family . Pamela 's love for Bobby remains a strong character trait throughout her tenure on the show , noted for its similarities to Romeo and Juliet , with two people from hostile families falling in love .
In the early years of Dallas , Principal took certain measures in her personal life in order to add depth to her character . She initially was very distant from the cast and they assumed she didn 't like them . Series producer Leonard Katzman confronted her about the issue and she said , " I like everybody . It 's just that I want to feel like an outsider , like Pam Barnes does , being married to a Ewing . " Principal also took to other ways of improving her character , such as taking voice lessons to perfect a Texas accent . Her relationship with Patrick Duffy 's character , Bobby , was a central component to the show , and when Duffy returned to Dallas in 1986 , after being killed off a year earlier , the entire previous year had been written off as Pam 's dream .
Principal received positive reviews for her portrayal of Pamela and a Golden Globe nomination in the category of " Best Actress in a Television Series " at the 40th Golden Globe Awards . She was nominated for a Soap Opera Digest award for " Outstanding Actress in a Leading Role on a Prime Time Serial " in 1986 , while also sharing a nomination with Patrick Duffy for " Favorite Super Couple : Prime Time " in 1988 . Hal Erickson of MSN.com made it known that Pamela 's exit from the series was open ended and left the audience hanging .
= = Casting and creation = =
= = = Background = = =
Before the creation of Dallas , series creator David Jacobs originally had quite a different idea of what he envisioned the show to be . He wanted to create a television show based on " family issues and examining relationships at the middle class level " . The Production Company , CBS , initially turned down his original idea , as they wanted something more " glitzy " to put on the air , with wealthier characters . After the success of Dallas , Jacobs ' initial idea would later become the Dallas spin @-@ off Knots Landing . He initially conceived Pamela as the central character of the Texas based serial . The role was initially created specifically for actress Linda Evans to star , and was indefinitely called " The Untitled Linda Evans Project " that was originally set in Indianapolis . He described her character as , " a semitrashy lady who marries into a rich Texas family " . After crafting the backstory of the Ewing family , Jacobs began to realize that the show couldn 't be settled simply around the character of Pamela . He wanted it to be based around the entire clan and their lives as wealthy oil people living in Dallas , Texas . Evans was ultimately not offered the part , but ironically would later go on to play Krystle Carrington on Dynasty , a rival show to Dallas .
= = = Casting = = =
After Jacobs decided that Evans would no longer play Pam , he began searching for another actress to play the character . The role was eventually won by then 28 @-@ year @-@ old actress , Victoria Principal . Principal won the role over another finalist , Judith Chapman , who was known famously for her work in daytime television . Shortly after Principal 's role on Fantasy Island , a friend pointed her in the direction of Dallas and " a part in it that was written for you " . Eventually , Principal received a copy of the script " and read it and thought [ my friend ] was absolutely right " . Acting as her own agent , she set up a meeting with the producers of Dallas . Lee Rich , an executive producer in 1979 , recounted : " We had all heard rumors about Victoria . This is a small town . Victoria 's background , her so @-@ called past , was a plus . We felt that she had experienced life and could understand the part . " Jacobs later said , " Victoria , of all the actors , went for the role the most aggressively . And that sort of determination just became part of the character . " Prior to being cast in Dallas , Principal had starred in a few small roles in movies and television specials . These works include Earthquake in 1974 , and Fantasy Island in 1977 .
Patrick Duffy , who would play Pamela 's on @-@ screen love , knew the part was ideal for Principal the minute he set his eyes on her . He recalled that one of the finalists for Pamela " was a remarkably talented young actress from New York ... [ who was ] really good . [ Later ] , in walked Victoria Principal with the tightest jeans I 've ever seen and the most unbelievable blouse . I just went , ' Hello , Pam ' . I knew she was going to be Pam Ewing . " Producer Michael Filerman ( Knots Landing and Falcon Crest ) offered insight , " Principal really wanted that role ... and worked very hard to get it . And there 's a humanity about her that 's just winning . And the camera likes her very much . The camera just loves her . That 's real important . " During the pilot filming , Principal became very close with teenaged actress Charlene Tilton , who played Lucy Ewing . Principal explained that " the location shooting was hard on Tilton , who was only seventeen and had never been away from home " .
After appearing in ten of the fourteen seasons of Dallas , Principal indicated that she wished to leave the serial to pursue other venues , and chose not to renew her contract . Leonard Katzman , who was the executive producer at the time , was now faced with the show losing one of its main characters . Initially , Principal 's departure was made out to be a simple " snag in contract negotiations " . Lorimar also made notice that the departure was related to a " financial disagreement " , even after Principal 's agent gave notice that she was leaving . A show spokesperson commented , " We were unable to reach an agreement and now the producers are revising scripts without her ... she turned down our last offer . " The Milwaukee Journal noted that Principal was lined up for other venues at the time , included a project serial of her own . However , Principal , saying :
" I 've considered [ leaving Dallas ] for two years , and in the last six months , it 's seemed real clear to me . I realized that my job would become my career if I stayed . Some people stay with a series until the end , you know , and afterwards they often have some problems , I think , finding new opportunities . And I wanted a career after Dallas . There 's great sadness in leaving my friends and the show – I was never bored with it – but I 'm not at all ambivalent about this . I 'm realistic about taking care of myself financially . I didn 't want to walk away blindly without plans . My plans are set . I have a project with a network that is ready to go that I can 't talk about yet . It 's a drama mystery . "
Principal also reunited with several former cast mates in the Dallas reunion special titled " Dallas Reunion : The Return to Southfork " that was televised in 2004 , marking her first public appearance with them since her exit from the show .
= = = Potential return = = =
In 2010 , TNT ( sister company to Warner Bros. Television which is the current copyright owner of the series ) announced it was producing a new , updated series of Dallas . The new series is a continuation of the original series , and will primarily center around J.R. Ewing 's son John Ross Ewing III , and Bobby Ewing and Pam 's adopted son Christopher Ewing , though various stars of the original series will be reprising their roles . With the upcoming Dallas continuation set to air in June 2012 , rumors have been swirling that Principal could make a return to the show as Pam . On March 28 , 2012 , Yahoo.com reported that Principal 's return to the show was a definite possibility .
They said , " Victoria Principal could be set to make a shock return to legendary drama series Dallas after stars Patrick Duffy and Jesse Metcalfe let slip producers want her in the show 's upcoming reboot . The actress ' character , Pamela Ewing , was written out of the sex @-@ and @-@ scandal series in 1987 , when viewers were told she had only months to live after fleeing the Texan dynasty . " In an added piece , they said : " But the storyline was left open @-@ ended , and it 's now emerged Principal – who is the only surviving member of the show 's original cast not signed up for the relaunch later this year – could be brought back to Dallas in an explosive plot . " Jesse Metcalfe said , " She hasn 't ( come back ) – she hasn 't as yet . But I think for the producers of the show , it 's an open invitation . "
The Staff of Yahoo.com said that Principal was " the one major missing piece " of the new Dallas and made notion that a possible return could potentially happen in the future , critically saying : " The drama . The mystery . The intrigue . Specifically , where is Victoria Principal ? " Entertainment Weekly said that Principal was " certainly missed " as original character Pam when reviewing the new series . Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy said that Principal was " unlikely " to return to the new series due to lack of interest in the project , but the door would always be open . He said , " She 's indicated that it 's something she 's not interested in . "
= = Character development = =
= = = Lineage and personality = = =
The character of Pamela was a cornerstone for Dallas ; the lynchpin of the Barnes / Ewing family around which the soap was originally structured . At the beginning of the serial in 1978 , Pamela was the newly married wife of Bobby Ewing , the youngest son of oil baron Jock Ewing and Miss Ellie Ewing . The fictional history of the character has been told via the serial , and the made @-@ for @-@ television movie Dallas : The Early Years , which told the backstory of the Ewing family and the Barnes family . Dallas : The Early Years told the background of the longstanding feud between Jock Ewing and Pamela 's father , Willard " Digger " Barnes , and how Pamela came to be raised . Later on , on Digger 's deathbed , Pamela comes to find that Digger is not her biological father , but that her biological father is in fact Hutch McKinney , who had an affair with her mother Rebecca Barnes while she was married to Digger . Digger caught them together , and Digger ended up shooting Hutch dead in a temper and burying Hutch 's body on Southfork land . Digger then brought up Pamela as if she were his own daughter , becoming her legal father . Pamela 's mother , Rebecca , left Digger and her children behind in mysterious circumstances when Pamela was a year old , giving Digger the impression that she was dead . Pamela and Cliff were both raised by Digger and Digger 's sister , their aunt Maggie .
As a member of the Barnes family , Pamela was initially met with suspicion and hostility from the rival Ewing family after she had married Bobby Ewing and moved onto the Southfork Ranch to live with her new husband . The strongest hostility towards Pamela came from Bobby 's older brother , J.R. Ewing , who tried to drive Pamela off Southfork Ranch with methods of bribery and intimidation , as well as trying to con Bobby into believing that Pamela was having an affair with her ex @-@ boyfriend , Ray Krebbs . Principal , who wanted to represent her character 's outsider perception of the family , would portray this with the cast . Leonard Katzman described her as being " the world 's most isolated lady " . When confronted by Katzman about why Principal chose to be isolated from everyone else , he described the situation as : " After a while , I thought , ' Maybe she doesn 't like us ' . I went to see her . She said , ' No , I like everybody . It 's just that I want to feel like an outsider , like Pam Barnes does , being married to a Ewing . ' " Principal also took to other ways of improving her character , such as taking voice lessons to perfect a Texas accent . Fellow actor Patrick Duffy analyzed :
" She is enigmatic but I must tell you I never had a bad experience because of her enigma . What it was , she explained this once , is that she did this on purpose . The choice she made as an actress was , in playing the outsider in the Ewing family , she actually maintained somewhat of an outsider position with the cast as social equals . She didn 't do a lot of the hanging out social activities that a lot of us did because we were together so much . So in that sense , she was maybe a few percentage points removed from the swirl that was the social center of our group . At least twice a year Larry Hagman and I would go up to Canada – fishing trips , hunting trips , things like that . Steve Kanaly was included in that group , and we would go up together , and Steve and I would take other trips together . We were a group , and Linda Gray was also a member of that group . Victoria was always slightly outside and didn 't participate in those things . It was her own choice and she felt it was conducive to her playing the part of Pamela . But the times we were together on the set , waiting for scenes to be shot , in the make @-@ up room and everything , it was nothing but convivial . "
Victoria Principal has said that she feels Pam changed throughout the course of the series . She commented , " Pam didn ’ t have two parents , her father was a drunkard , and she really had to fight for everything she aspired to and achieved . When Bobby married her , he wasn ’ t marrying milk toast ; she was very , very spirited ; she was always a good person . I always felt Pam was the moral centre of the programme but she was complicated , and she was fiery , she had opinions , and she was not afraid to voice them . But as the years went by , as JR became more and more evil , the writers felt , and I certainly understand why for the benefit of the show , that Pam had to become more and more good . " When asked about whether she had any input on her characters growth , she said : " Once the show achieved extraordinary world wide fame , I don ’ t think any of us had much input . You know the old saying , if it 's not broken , don ’ t fix it ; I really believe that Lorimar Television looked upon it as something that was working and they did not want to deviate from the formula . "
= = = Relationships = = =
Pamela 's marriage to Bobby Ewing is central to understanding her character . The couple produced the opening scene of Dallas when the show first aired in 1978 , with Bobby bringing his new bride home to meet Jock and Miss Ellie Ewing . Their complex relationship has often been compared to that of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet . When asked about whether or not series creator David Jacobs had this parallel relationship in mind from the start , he said : " Yes , guilty ( laughs ) " . Relations can be made from William Shakespeare 's two feuding families in Romeo and Juliet , the Montagues and the Capulets . These families represent the Barnes and the Ewing feuding families , with Pamela being portrayed as Juliet Capulet and Bobby as Romeo Montague . According to Patrick Duffy , being immediately paired off with Principal was a challenge . He said , " We were in a constant state of competition . We were very territorial in front of the camera , and it was a strain . " However , their off @-@ screen relationship significantly improved in the show 's third season , with Duffy explaining : " I developed an appreciation for her , and I think for the first time she started to trust me . Some of the best scenes on the show were between Victoria and me , and they happened after we got comfortable with each other . "
Pamela and Bobby 's relationship changed significantly as the show went on and began to progress . In order to create conflict , the producers brought in actors Priscilla Presley ( Jenna Wade ) and John Beck ( Mark Graison ) to cause drama for the couple . Eventually , the two characters divorced one another and went their separate ways . After becoming involved with Ewing oil , Bobby tended to put Pam on the backburner with the company coming first . In an interview with People , Principal said : " I wouldn 't put up with the way Pam is treated by Bobby . " She also added , " Our marriage just doesn 't work anymore and I want a divorce . " With the impending couple doomed , Pamela began a newfound relationship with Mark Graison ( played by John Beck ) . The producers of Dallas were faced with the obstacle of getting the audience to root for a new love interest in Pam 's life . When asked about the reception of his characters relationship with Pamela , Beck commented : " It was always set up that way from the beginning , so it was quite a task and of course they came back together in the long run . I was just hoping for the best . I never got an extraordinary reaction from the public but it was everywhere , so constant recognition . It was pretty amazing but I never saw it the way he sees it but I can see his point of view . I never really looked at it like that . "
In 1985 , Patrick Duffy announced his intentions to leave the show which left Pamela and Bobby permanently disconnected from each other . When Duffy initially left Dallas in 1985 , it was assumed that Pamela and Bobby 's relationship had finally ended after a brief reconciliation during that season . However , the actor returned to the show the following season after the ratings began to fall . Leonard Katzman said , " Without Bobby we lost the white knight to J.R. and the Romeo to Victoria Principal 's Juliet . With Patrick back we can return to the family drama that made the show . " The entire previous season was written off as a dream , with Pamela waking up and finding Bobby alive in the shower .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Original Run = = =
In the pilot episode of Dallas , Pam and Bobby elope in New Orleans and are married by a Justice of the Peace . After Bobby brings Pam home to Southfork , she is met with great hostility from the Ewing family for being the daughter of their enemy , Digger Barnes . Early on , Bobby 's brother , J.R. Ewing , accuses Pamela of being a spy for her brother , Cliff Barnes , who is building a case against Ewing Oil , claiming that she passed a very important company file to Cliff . Bobby vigorously defends his wife and the family eventually find out that Pam is innocent . Shortly after the pilot episode , Pam becomes pregnant with Bobby 's child . However , she argues with a drunk J.R. and falls from the rafter of a barn , prompting her to miscarry the baby .
After her miscarriage , much of the hostility from the family evaporates , with the exception of J.R. He openly despises her and her brother . In 1979 , Pam is told by Digger 's doctor that Digger was a carrier of neurofibromatosis , and that she and Cliff , as his children , were carriers ; as neurofibromatosis is a potentially fatal disease to infants . Ironically , Pam soon discovers she is pregnant again . As before , however , tragedy strikes as a rattlesnake frightens Pam 's horse when she is out riding and throws her , causing a second miscarriage . In 1980 , Pam watches Digger die slowly and painfully as a result of his decades of heavy drinking . On Digger 's deathbed , he tells Pam that she 's not his biological child , but born after an affair her mother had with Hutch McKinney . Overwhelmed by a sense of loss after Digger 's death and deathbed confession , she pushes to find out more about what happened to her mother . She develops a notion – a dream born out of grief – that perhaps her mother isn 't dead after all . Then a private investigator turns up evidence that her mother had not died as Digger had believed , but was alive in Houston . Meanwhile , Bobby has taken over Ewing Oil while J.R. is convalescing after being shot . Pam watches her husband get deeper and deeper into the heart of business in an effort to prove himself , and takes note of Bobby 's instinctive attraction to power , which she realizes might be a danger to their marriage .
The baby issue continue to haunt Pam , after learning that she is unlikely to carry a child past the third month of pregnancy . Her depression culminates in near @-@ fatal tragedy : Pam tries to kill herself by jumping off the top of the place of her employment , The Store . However , Bobby stops her but it is clear that Pam needs psychiatric help . She is admitted to a psychiatric hospital where she can get the help she needs . On a surprise visit to Southfork , Pam walks through the front door and sees Bobby with a baby boy in his arms . In soaring spirits , Pam quickly settles into her life as Christopher 's mother , while Bobby handles the adoption proceedings . She and Bobby grow closer during this period . In May 1982 , Bobby finally tells Pam about Jeff Faraday , Kristin Shepard and the fact that J.R. could be Christopher 's father . Pam is shocked that Bobby had kept this from her but doesn 't hesitate to fly to California with him to find the truth , preparing to fight whoever she had to in order to keep her son . As Rebecca , ( Pam 's mother ) , is leaving for Houston on business , the Wentworth jet was involved in a midair collision . Rebecca dies as a result of her injuries . Pam is devastated – and angry – blaming the contest between J.R. and Bobby for her mother 's death . Pam leaves Bobby and they divorce in the fall of 1983 .
By 1985 , Bobby and Pam realize that they want to be together . Bobby proposes , Pam accepts and they spend the night together . The next day , Bobby is tragically cut down by a car driven by her half @-@ sister , Katherine Wentworth , and dies hours later , leaving Pam heartbroken . Pam goes on to make television history by dreaming Bobby 's death . Pam awakes and finds Bobby in the shower , alive and well . Pam receives good news at the end of the 1986 – 1987 season finale : she is finally able to conceive a baby , after confirming that there would be no health risks involved . However , she never gets that chance . While calling her husband to tell him the good news , she is in a massive auto accident where she hits an oil tanker and is severely burned in a subsequent fire . While recovering from her burns , she decides to get away from the Ewings and everyone else , including her son , disappear and divorce Bobby for a second time .
Pam made a brief appearance in the 12th season premiere , with a different appearance as a result of plastic surgery ( which also doubled as an explanation for Margaret Michaels playing the role , rather than Victoria Principal ) . She tells her brother Cliff that she is happy in her new life and plans to marry her doctor . Later , after Cliff leaves , her doctor asks why she didn 't tell Cliff that she has a terminal disease and only has a year to live . This was the character 's final appearance in the series , although Pam was not immediately declared dead on the show .
= = = Dallas ( 2012 TV series ) = = =
During the airing of J.R. Ewing 's funeral on March 11 , 2013 , viewers learned that J.R. had been investigating Pam 's disappearance before he died . In the episode " Let Me In " , the Ewings discover Rebecca Wentworth left one @-@ third of Barnes Global to her daughter , Pam , which Christopher would inherit in the event of her death . In the episode " A Call to Arms " , Christopher tries to have his mother declared legally dead so he can inherit her shares of Barnes Global . In the same episode , an agent named Ellis finds a list of deposits made to a Swiss account that mirror the amount in the trust , indicating there is still activity and signaling she remains alive . However , in the episode " Legacies " , Pam was finally declared dead . Her plastic surgeon explains that she had been horribly burned and fled her family for fear of being unattractive . She underwent several surgeries in an attempt to reverse some of the badly scarred tissue left by the oil truck explosion . Unfortunately , she had developed pancreatic cancer . She flew to Abu Dhabi to receive an experimental operational surgery and died on the surgery table . According to Pam 's death certificate , she was born on April 10 , 1950 and died on July 14 , 1989 , making her only thirty @-@ nine years old at the time of her death .
= = Reception = =
The character of Pamela has been well received by television critics . Principal received a Golden Globe nomination in the category of " Best Actress in a Television Series " at the 40th Golden Globe Awards for her work as Pam . Principal was nominated for a Soap Opera Digest award for " Outstanding Actress in a Leading Role on a Prime Time Serial " in 1986 . She also shared a nomination with Patrick Duffy for " Favorite Super Couple : Prime Time " in 1988 . Amelia Proud of The Daily Mail said , " She became a pin up after landing the role of beautiful Pamela Ewing in the soon @-@ to @-@ be resurrected drama Dallas in 1978 , and 33 years later Victoria Principal is still an arresting sight . The actress , who starred in Dallas for nine years in the Seventies and Eighties , has not joined castmates Larry Hagman , 80 , Patrick Duffy , 62 , and Linda Gray , 71 , in the TNT reboot of the hit show , which premiered in the summer of 2012 . But she certainly looks good enough to return to the fold to play opposite Jesse Metcalfe , 33 , who plays her grown adopted son Christopher . "
Pamela crashed into an oil tanker at the end of the tenth season of Dallas . The exit storyline was the subject of notable controversy . It was left open ended after Principal left the show and the audience had no idea where the character was going . Hal Erickson of MSN.com said , " Although Victoria Principal had left Dallas at the end of season ten , by the time the series ' 11th season rolled around , Principal 's character , Pamela Ewing , was still lingering about , swathed in bandages after being seriously injured in a car accident . As if to lead viewers to the conclusion that Pamela would suddenly make a complete recovery in the tradition of her husband Bobby Ewing 's ( Patrick Duffy ) " return from the dead " at the outset of season ten , the ultimate fate of Pamela was left unresolved for several weeks — and further complicated when the poor girl suddenly vanished from her hospital bed . "
Patrick Duffy returned to Dallas in 1986 after being absent for an entire season . The whole years worth of episodes was written off entirely as Pam 's dream . The storyline garnered the show a lot of publicity , both good and bad . The Staff of UGO Networks.com said : " Soap Operas are known ( and at times hated ) for their ridiculously implausible storylines , and while ' 80s primetime suddser Dallas is still one of our favorite guilty pleasures , even the great Ewing empire is not immune to the absurd storytelling techniques the genre has become associated with . While your average primetime soap operas don 't usually mingle with the stuff of sci @-@ fi and horror , there 's an incredibly high rate of characters returning from the dead in the genre . Case in point : Bobby Ewing . Presumed dead after being run over by his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Katherine Wentworth , who also happened to be obsessed with him , fans ( and CBS ) had to do without Patrick Duffy , and even worse , ratings , for one whole season . Thus , Larry Hagman , who played Duffy 's onscreen brother and despised oil baron J.R. Ewing , along with network execs , persuaded Duffy to return , making it possible ( we 're talking in soap opera terms here ) , for Bobby Ewing 's character to come back by writing off the ratings nightmare of a season as a dream ... a very bad one . "
= Ivan Sratsimir of Bulgaria =
Ivan Sratsimir or Ivan Stratsimir ( Bulgarian : Иван Срацимир ) was emperor ( tsar ) of Bulgaria in Vidin from 1356 to 1396 . He was born in 1324 or 1325 , and he died in or after 1397 . Despite being the eldest surviving son of Ivan Alexander , Ivan Sratsimir was disinherited in favour of his half @-@ brother Ivan Shishman and proclaimed himself emperor in Vidin . When the Hungarians attacked and occupied his domains , he received assistance from his father and the invaders were driven away .
After the death of Ivan Alexander in 1371 Ivan Sratsimir broke off ties with Tarnovo and even placed the archbishop of Vidin under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople to demonstrate his independence . Due to its geographical position , Vidin was initially safe from attacks by the Ottoman Turks who were ravaging the Balkans to the south and Ivan Sratsimir made no attempts to assist Ivan Shishman in his struggle against the Ottomans . Only after the fall of Tarnovo in 1393 did his policy become more active and he eventually joined the crusade of the Hungarian king Sigismund . However , after the disastrous battle of Nicopolis in 1396 , the Ottomans marched to Vidin and seized it . Ivan Sratsimir was captured and imprisoned in Bursa where he was probably strangled . Although his son Constantine II claimed the title Emperor of Bulgaria and at times controlled some parts of his father 's realm , Ivan Sratsimir is generally regarded by historians as the last ruler of medieval Bulgaria .
Sratsimir Hill on Trinity Peninsula in Antarctica is named after him .
= = Early life = =
Born in Lovech in 1324 or 1325 , Ivan Sratsimir was the second son of Theodora and Ivan Alexander ( r . 1331 – 1371 ) , who was despot of Lovech at the time . Ivan Sratsimir was proclaimed co @-@ emperor by his father in 1337 in his early teenage years , along with his brothers Michael Asen IV and Ivan Asen IV . This proved fatal for Bulgaria because the prerogatives of his sons ' authority were not defined , leading to rivalry between the brothers . After his proclamation Ivan Sratsimir was given the rule of Vidin as an apanage , because his father wanted to have the different regions of the state under the direct rule of his family .
In the 1340s Ivan Sratsimir rose in prominence because he was married and already had children , while his eldest brother Michael Asen and his wife did not produce children for ten years . In 1352 Ivan Alexander introduced the title junior emperor in order to secure the smooth and secure transition of the throne and Ivan Sratsimir became known by that title . In the end of 1347 or in the beginning of 1348 , however , Ivan Alexander divorced with his first wife and sent her to a monastery to marry the Jewess Sarah @-@ Theodora . That event spoiled the relations between Ivan Sratsimir and his father and the conflict deepened after the birth of Ivan Shishman in 1350 / 1351 . The conflict climaxed in 1355 – 1356 when the undisputed heir to the throne , Michael Asen IV , perished in battle against the Ottomans . According to the Majorat system , Ivan Sratsimir should have come next in the succession line but since Ivan Shishman was born in the purple , i.e. after his father was crowned , Ivan Alexander and Sarah @-@ Theodora declared Ivan Shishman successor to the throne . A hint of the feud between father and son is the fact that the image of Ivan Sratsimir was not included in the Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander where the whole imperial family was pictured , including Ivan Alexander 's son @-@ in @-@ law . That could mean either that Ivan Sratsimir was disinherited and proclaimed himself emperor in Vidin or that he was denied the title junior emperor and given the rule of Vidin as a compensation .
= = Emperor in Vidin = =
= = = Early reign and Hungarian invasion = = =
Ivan Sratsimir was proclaimed emperor in Vidin in 1356 and began to use the title Emperor of Bulgarians and Greeks , as his father . In order to secure the alliance of Wallachia , he married his first cousin Anna , the daughter of the Wallachian voivode Nicholas Alexander , in 1356 or 1357 , a move that was probably arranged with the help of Ivan Sratsimir 's mother Theodora as a reaction to the actions of Ivan Alexander .
He ruled with the tacit consent of his father for around ten years until 1365 when the Hungarian king Louis I , who styled himself King of Bulgaria among the other titles , demanded that Ivan Sratsimir acknowledge his suzerainty and become his vassal . When the Bulgarian ruler refused , Louis I marched from Hungary on 1 May 1365 and captured Vidin on 2 June after a brief siege . The rest of the Vidin Tsardom was conquered in the next three months . Ivan Sratsimir and his family were captured and taken to the castle of Humnik in modern Croatia and the region of Vidin was placed under direct Hungarian rule governed through a Ban appointed by the King of Hungary . Ivan Sratsimir spent four years in honorary Hungarian captivity and he and his family were forced to accept Catholicism . The Hungarians also sent Franciscan monks to convert the population of the Vidin Tsardom to Catholicism . Although the Hungarian accounts boasted that the Franciscans converted 200 @,@ 000 people , or a third of the region 's population , this move brought great discontent among the Bulgarian population and eventually failed . That was in fact the first forceful conversion in the country after the Christianization of Bulgaria five centuries earlier . In a contemporary book , a monk wrote :
Initially Ivan Alexander , who was still nominally the rightful ruler of Vidin , did not take active measures for its recovery , although his refusal to give safe conduct to the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos who was returning to Constantinople from Western Europe was explained by the deterioration of the Bulgarian – Hungarian relations . By 1369 , however , he organised an Orthodox anti @-@ Hungarian coalition for the liberation of Vidin with the participation of the Wallachian voivode Vladislav I Vlaicu and despot Dobrotitsa . The allied campaign was a success and after it was supported by a popular uprising in Vidin against the Catholic clergy and the Hungarian authority , Louis I had to give up his claims and restore Ivan Sratsimir to the throne in Vidin in the autumn of 1369 . According to historian J. Fine , Ivan Sratsimir was allowed to return to Vidin by Louis I as a Hungarian vassal because of his popularity among the population and because Ivan Sratsimir used the Hungarian patronage to assert independence from his father and later to resist his brother in Tarnovo .
= = = Reign after 1371 = = =
After the death of emperor Ivan Alexander on 17 February 1371 , Ivan Sratsimir broke off the last links that connected Tarnovo and Vidin and began to rule without even nominal acknowledgement to the authorities in Tarnovo . He was since styled , as written in the accounts of the Patriarchate of Constantinople : " How should the Patriarch and the Archbishop write to ruler of Vidin and emperor Kamtsimir ( Sratsimir ) : Most Faithful and Allmighty ruler of Vidin the whole of Bulgaria ... " The authority of Ivan Sratsimir was treated as equal to that of Ivan Shishman and the details suggest that he was even presented as a senior ruler . Due to the insufficient information , some early Bulgarian historians such as Konstantin Jireček supported the hypothesis that Ivan Sratsimir and Ivan Shishman were engaged in a military conflict over Sofia but the idea has been dismissed by most modern historians . In fact , despite the rivalry , the brothers scrupulously maintained relations until 1381 and Ivan Sratsimir was even considered as a potential successor by Ivan Shishman . However , J. Fine suggests that immediately after the death of his father , Ivan Sratsimir tried to seize the control over the whole of Bulgaria for himself and even captured and held Sofia for a year or two , which led to permanent hostility between the two brothers and spoiled any chances for a common Bulgarian resistance against the Ottomans .
The relations between the two Bulgarian states worsened in 1381 when Ivan Sratsimir broke the connections with the Bulgarian Patriarchate in Tarnovo and instead placed the Archbishopric of Vidin under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . That decision was a demonstration of the independence of Vidin from Tarnovo but did not lead to open conflict between the two . The hostility between Ivan Sratsimir and Ivan Shishman remained on the eve of the Ottoman invasion . Most historians agree that in the 1370s and the early 1380s Vidin was still away from the route of the Ottoman campaigns and was not endangered . During and after the massive Ottoman invasion in north @-@ eastern Bulgaria in 1388 , sources suggest that relations between the two brothers were uneasy . As a result of the Ottoman success in the 1388 campaign and the resulting changes of the balance of power , Ivan Sratsimir had to become an Ottoman vassal and to accept an Ottoman garrison in Vidin . Ivan Sratsimir remained inactive while the Ottomans destroyed the remains of the Tarnovo Tsardom – Tarnovo fell in 1393 and Ivan Shishman was killed in 1395 . In 1396 Ivan Sratsimir joined the Christian crusade organised by the Hungarian king Sigismund . When the crusader army reached Vidin the Bulgarian ruler opened the gates and surrendered the Ottoman garrison . The Ottoman garrison of Oryahovo tried to resist but the local Bulgarians managed to capture it . However , the Christian army suffered a heavy defeat on 25 September in the battle of Nicopolis and the victorious Ottoman sultan Bayezid I immediately marched to Vidin and seized it by the end of 1396 or the beginning of 1397 . Ivan Sratsimir was captured and imprisoned in the Ottoman capital Bursa where he was probably strangled .
= = Culture , economy and religion = =
Along with Tarnovo , during the rule of Ivan Sratsimir Vidin emerged as a major literary center , under the strong influence of the Tarnovo Literary School . Some of the works that have survived from that period include the Tetraevangelia of the Metropolitan Danail and the Vidin collection from 1360 , ordered by Empress Anna , which contains the hagiographies of thirteen Orthodox saints and a description of the holy sites in Jerusalem . Joasaph of Bdin , who was elected Archbishop of Vidin in 1392 wrote Praising epistle for the movement of St Philotea relics from Tarnovo to Vidin which contained all features of the Tarnovo Literary School . Joasaph also demonstrated great respect to Patriarch Evtimiy of Tarnovo , the most prominent figure in the Bulgarian cultural and literary life in the second half of the 14th century .
In the late 1360s the region of Vidin resisted the forceful conversion to Catholicism undertaken by the Hungarian authorities and remained Orthodox . The subjugation of Vidin to the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1381 led to a conflict with the Patriarchate of Tarnovo but after the fall of Tarnovo and the dissolution of the Bulgarian Patriarchate , Ivan Sratsimir tried to negotiate with the Ottomans to place some of the former eparchies of Tarnovo in his jurisdiction . In 1395 he sent there a delegation led by the heir to the throne Constantine and Joasaph of Bdin to bring the relics of Saint Philotea to Vidin . According to Joasaph the mission was successful and the relics remained in Vidin for the next two centuries . However , he does not mention the diplomatic results .
Ivan Sratsimir began to mint his own coinage to show his legitimacy as early as the 1360s . The abundance of coin treasure troves found in the territory of the Tsardom of Vidin is an indication of the wealth and the well developed trade in the region during the second half of the 14th century . The Brașov Charter , the only surviving document made by Ivan Sratsimir , grants the merchants of the Transylvanian town of Brașov free access and the right to trade in his realm .
= = Family = =
Nothing is known about Ivan Stratsimir 's first wife and children apart from their existence . Ivan Sratsimir married for a second time to his first cousin , Anna of Wallachia , a daughter of his uncle Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia , and had at least three children . Dorothea ( Doroslava ) , married King Tvrtko I of Bosnia and became Queen of Bosnia while Constantine II succeeded him as Emperor of Bulgaria . Sratsimir also had another daughter , who died young at the court of Elisabeth of Poland .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Timeline = =
1324 or 1325 — Ivan Sratsimir was born
1337 — Proclaimed co @-@ emperor along with his brothers
1355 — Removed from the succession line in favour of his younger half – brother Ivan Shishman
1356 — Proclaimed emperor of Bulgaria in Vidin
1365 — Captured by the Hungarians after the conquest of Vidin
1369 — Released from captivity and reinstalled as a ruler
1371 — Becomes independent from Tarnovo after the death of his father
1381 — The Archbishopric of Vidin is subordinated to the Patriarchate of Constantinople
1388 — Forced to become an Ottoman vassal
1396 — Battle of Nicopolis — the Christian coalition is defeated ; fall of Vidin
1397 — Ivan Sratsimir dies in Ottoman captivity
= Nassau @-@ class battleship =
The Nassau class were a group of four German dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Navy . They were the German response to the introduction of the " all big gun " British HMS Dreadnought . The class was composed of Nassau , Rheinland , Posen , and Westfalen . All four ships were laid down in mid @-@ 1907 , and completed between May and September 1910 . Compared to their British contemporaries , the Nassau @-@ class ships were lighter and had a wider beam . They were two knots slower , because the German ships retained vertical triple @-@ expansion engines as opposed to the high @-@ power turbine engines adopted by the British . The ships also carried smaller main guns — 11 @-@ inch ( 280 mm ) guns rather than the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted on the British ships .
After their commissioning into the German fleet , all four ships served as a unit : the II Division of I Battle Squadron . Two of the ships , Nassau and Posen , took part in the inconclusive Battle of the Gulf of Riga in 1915 , during which they engaged the Russian pre @-@ dreadnought Slava . The Nassau @-@ class ships took part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 as the II Battle Squadron ; they suffered only a handful of secondary battery hits and limited casualties . At the end of the First World War , the four ships were seized as war prizes by the victorious Allied powers and sold for scrapping .
= = Design = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1906 , the launch of the " all big gun " HMS Dreadnought made all other battleships then in existence obsolete . The First Naval Amendment to the 1900 German Naval Law was passed in 1906 prior to the launch of Dreadnought ; Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz had originally requested six new battleships and six armored cruisers , along with a number of miscellaneous smaller craft . The launch of the revolutionary Dreadnought meant that any future battleships that could compete with her would be significantly more expensive than the older pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . Opposition to budget increases in the Reichstag forced Tirpitz to reduce his request to six armored cruisers — one of which was to have been placed in reserve — and 48 torpedo boats , dropping his request for new battleships completely ; the reduced proposal was voted through on 19 May 1906 . A week after the amendment was passed , funds for two 18 @,@ 000 @-@ ton battleships and a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ ton armored cruiser were allocated to the Navy . Funds were also provided to widen the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and enlarge dock facilities to accommodate the larger ships .
A debate ensued in the Reichsmarineamt ( Naval Office ) over the construction of the new ships . Tirpitz favored following the Royal Navy by building dreadnought battleships and battlecruisers as well . Tirpitz saw it as an opportunity to break Britain 's commitment to the " two power standard " . Tirpitz also intended to use the funds that had been allocated for armored cruisers to build battlecruisers instead , although they were still to be classified as armored cruisers .
Nassau and Westfalen were the first dreadnoughts ordered under the 1906 – 07 program ; the armored cruiser Blücher was ordered along with them . The Second Naval Amendment to the 1900 Naval Law was passed on 27 March 1908 ; this amendment included a budget of 1 billion marks , and provisions that reduced the lifespan of battleships from 25 years to 20 . This had the effect of necessitating the replacement of the coastal defense ships of the Siegfried and Oldenburg classes , as well as the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the Brandenburg class . The Sachsen @-@ class ironclads ( first put into service in the late 1870s ) also needed replacement , as they were already obsolete , even under the 25 @-@ year standard . The four Sachsens were to be replaced by the Nassau class . The second pair of ships in the Nassau class , Posen and Rheinland , were ordered under the 1907 – 08 building program .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships were 146 @.@ 1 m ( 479 ft 4 in ) long , 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) wide , and had a draught of 8 @.@ 9 m ( 29 ft 2 in ) . The ships had a length to width ratio of 5 @.@ 45 , which was somewhat " stubby " compared to contemporary designs . To some extent , the greater than normal width was due to the four wing turrets , which necessitated a wider hull . They displaced 18 @,@ 873 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 575 long tons ) with a standard load , and 20 @,@ 535 t ( 20 @,@ 211 long tons ) fully laden . The ships had 19 watertight compartments , with the exception of Nassau , which only had 16 . All four ships had a double bottom for 88 percent of the keel . The ships carried a number of boats , including a picket boat , 3 admiral 's barges , 2 launches , 2 cutters , and 2 dinghies .
As designed , the ships did not handle particularly well , even in calm seas , and their motion was quite stiff . The ships experienced severe rolling , due to the weight of the wing turrets . The heavy wing turrets caused the ships to have a large metacentric height , which should have made them very stable gun platforms , but their roll period proved to coincide with that of the average North Sea swell . Bilge keels were later added , which helped to improve the rolling problem . Despite the tendency to roll , the Nassau @-@ class ships were maneuverable and had a small turning radius . They suffered minor speed loss in heavy seas , but up to 70 percent at hard rudder . The roll keels that had been fitted to improve handling caused a portion of the speed loss at hard rudder .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Imperial German Navy was slow to adopt the advanced Parsons turbine engines used in the British Dreadnought , primarily due to the resistance of both Admiral von Tirpitz and the Navy 's construction department . In 1905 , the latter stated that the " use of turbines in heavy warships does not recommend itself . " The Nassau class therefore retained obsolete vertical triple expansion engines rated at 18 @,@ 615 ihp ( 13 @,@ 881 kW ) . Each of the three shafts drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 5 m ( 5 @.@ 46 yd ) in diameter . Designed top speed was 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) . On trials , the ships attained 20 to 20 @.@ 2 knots ( 37 @.@ 0 to 37 @.@ 4 km / h ; 23 @.@ 0 to 23 @.@ 2 mph ) on 25 @,@ 885 – 27 @,@ 732 ihp ( 19 @,@ 302 – 20 @,@ 680 kW ) . By comparison , Dreadnought 's steam turbines provided a rated speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Steam was provided by 12 Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers , each of which had 2 fireboxes , for a total of 24 . The machinery was divided into three engine and six boiler rooms . The wing turrets and their magazines further divided the machinery into three separated groups , thereby increasing survivability . The ships carried 2 @,@ 700 tons of coal , and were later modified to carry an additional 160 tons of oil that was to be sprayed on the coal , to increase its burn rate . Electrical power was provided by eight turbo @-@ generators , producing 1 @,@ 280 kW at 225 V.
= = = Armament = = =
The vertical triple expansion engines consumed large amounts of internal space that could otherwise have been used for magazines . Without sufficient magazine capacity to support superfiring centerline turrets , designers were compelled to distribute six main turrets in an unusual hexagonal configuration . Two twin turrets were mounted fore and aft ( one on each end ) , and two were mounted on each flank of the ship . Firing directly forward and aft , the ships could bring 6 guns to bear , and 8 on the
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Borgatti . Some opera houses began their performances at midnight between 31 December 1913 and 1 January . The first authorized performance was staged at the Gran Teatre del Liceu in Barcelona : it began at 10 : 30pm Barcelona time , which was an hour behind Bayreuth . Such was the demand for Parsifal that it was presented in more than 50 European opera houses between 1 January and 1 August 1914 .
= = = Applause during Parsifal = = =
At Bayreuth performances audiences do not applaud at the end of the first act . This tradition is the result of a misunderstanding arising from Wagner 's desire at the premiere to maintain the serious mood of the opera . After much applause following the first and second acts , Wagner spoke to the audience and said that the cast would take no curtain calls until the end of the performance . This confused the audience , who remained silent at the end of the opera until Wagner addressed them again , saying that he did not mean that they could not applaud . After the performance Wagner complained , " Now I don 't know . Did the audience like it or not ? " At subsequent performances some believed that Wagner had wanted no applause until the very end , and there was silence after the first two acts . Eventually it became a Bayreuth tradition that no applause would be heard after the first act , but this was certainly not Wagner 's idea . In fact during the first Bayreuth performances Wagner himself cried " Bravo ! " as the Flowermaidens made their exit in the second act , only to be hissed by other members of the audience . At some theatres other than Bayreuth , applause and curtain calls are normal practice after every act ; at other major theatres , including the Metropolitan Opera in New York , the Bayreuth custom is followed .
= = = Post @-@ war performances = = =
Parsifal is one of the Wagner operas regularly presented at the Bayreuth Festival to this day . Among the more significant post @-@ war productions was that directed in 1951 by Wieland Wagner , the composer 's grandson . At the first Bayreuth Festival after World War II he presented a radical move away from literal representation of the Hall of the Grail or the Flowermaiden 's bower . Instead , lighting effects and the bare minimum of scenery were used to complement Wagner 's music . This production was heavily influenced by the ideas of the Swiss stage designer , Adolphe Appia . The reaction to this production was extreme : Ernest Newman , Richard Wagner 's biographer described it as " not only the best Parsifal I have ever seen and heard , but one of the three or four most moving spiritual experiences of my life " . Others were appalled that Wagner 's stage directions were being flouted . The conductor of the 1951 production , Hans Knappertsbusch , on being asked how he could conduct such a disgraceful travesty , declared that right up until the dress rehearsal he imagined that the stage decorations were still to come . Knappertsbusch was particularly upset by the omission of the dove which appears over Parsifal 's head at the end of the opera , which he claimed inspired him to give better performances . To placate his conductor Wieland arranged to reinstate the dove , which descended on a string . What Knappertsbusch did not realise was that Wieland had made the length of the string long enough for the conductor to see the dove , but not for the audience . Wieland continued to modify and refine his Bayreuth production of Parsifal until his death in 1966 . Martha Mödl created a " complex , tortured Kundry in Wieland Wagner 's revolutionary production of Parsifal during the festival 's first postwar season , " and would remain the company 's exclusive Kundry for the remainder of the decade .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
Place : the castle of Monsalvat in the mountains in the north of Spain , and Klingsor 's magic palace in the south of Spain .
= = = Act 1 = = =
In a forest near the castle of Monsalvat , home of the Grail and its Knights , Gurnemanz , eldest Knight of the Grail , wakes his young squires and leads them in prayer . He sees Amfortas , King of the Grail Knights , and his entourage approaching . Amfortas has been injured by his own Holy Spear , and the wound will not heal .
Scene 1
Gurnemanz asks the lead Knight for news of the King 's health . The Knight says the King has suffered during the night and is going early to bathe in the holy lake . The squires ask Gurnemanz to explain how the King 's injury can be healed , but he evades their question and a wild woman – Kundry – bursts in . She gives Gurnemanz a vial of balsam , brought from Arabia , to ease the King 's pain and then collapses , exhausted .
Amfortas arrives , borne on a stretcher by Knights of the Grail . He calls out for Gawain , whose attempt at relieving the King 's pain had failed . He is told that Gawain has left again , seeking a better remedy . Raising himself somewhat , the King says going off without leave ( " Ohn ' Urlaub ? " ) is the sort of impulsiveness which led himself into Klingsor 's realm and to his downfall . He accepts the potion from Gurnemanz and tries to thank Kundry , but she answers abruptly that thanks will not help and urges him onward to his bath .
The procession leaves . The squires eye Kundry with mistrust and question her . After a brief retort , she falls silent . Gurnemanz tells them Kundry has often helped the Grail Knights but that she comes and goes unpredictably . When he asks directly why she does not stay to help , she answers , " I never help ! ( " Ich helfe nie ! " ) . The squires think she is a witch and sneer that if she does so much , why will she not find the Holy Spear for them ? Gurnemanz reveals that this deed is destined for someone else . He says Amfortas was given guardianship of the Spear , but lost it as he was seduced by an irresistibly attractive woman in Klingsor 's domain . Klingsor grabbed the Spear and stabbed Amfortas . The wound causes Amfortas both suffering and shame , and will never heal on its own .
Squires returning from the King 's bath tell Gurnemanz that the balsam has eased the King 's suffering . Gurnemanz 's own squires ask how it is that he knew Klingsor . He solemnly tells them how both the Holy Spear , which pierced the side of the Redeemer on the Cross , and the Holy Grail , which caught the flowing blood , had come to Monsalvat to be guarded by the Knights of the Grail under the rule of Titurel , father of Amfortas . Klingsor had yearned to join the Knights but , unable to keep impure thoughts from his mind , resorted to self @-@ castration , causing him to be expelled from the Order . Klingsor then set himself up in opposition to the realm of the Grail , learning dark arts , claiming the valley domain below and filling it with beautiful Flowermaidens to seduce and enthrall wayward Grail Knights . It was here that Amfortas lost the Holy Spear , kept by Klingsor as he schemes to get hold of the Grail as well . Gurnemanz tells how Amfortas later had a holy vision which told him to wait for a " pure fool , enlightened by compassion " ( " Durch Mitleid wissend , der reine Tor " ) who will finally heal the wound .
At this moment , cries are heard from the Knights ( " Weh ! Weh ! " ) : a flying swan has been shot , and a young man is brought forth , a bow in his hand and a quiver of matching arrows . Gurnemanz speaks sternly to the lad , saying this is a holy place . He asks him outright if he shot the swan , and the lad boasts that if it flies , he can hit it ( " Im Fluge treff ' ich was fliegt ! " ) Gurnemanz tells him that the swan is a holy animal , and asks what harm the swan had done him , and shows the youth its lifeless body . Now remorseful , the young man breaks his bow and casts it aside . Gurnemanz asks him why he is here , who his father is , how he found this place and , lastly , his name . To each question the lad replies , " I don 't know . " The elder Knight sends his squires away to help the King and now asks the boy to tell what he does know . The young man says he has a mother , Herzeleide ( Heart 's Sorrow ) and that he made the bow himself . Kundry has been listening and now tells them that this boy 's father was Gamuret , a knight killed in battle , and also how the lad 's mother had forbidden her son to use a sword , fearing that he would meet the same fate as his father . The youth now recalls that upon seeing knights pass through his forest , he had left his home and mother to follow them . Kundry laughs and tells the young man that , as she rode by , she saw Herzeleide die of grief . Hearing this , the lad first lunges at Kundry but then collapses in grief . Kundry herself is now weary for sleep , but cries out that she must not sleep and wishes that she might never again waken . She disappears into the undergrowth .
Gurnemanz knows that the Grail draws only the pious to Monsalvat and invites the boy to observe the Grail rite . The youth does not know what the Grail is , but remarks that as they walk he seems to scarcely move , yet feels as if he is traveling far . Gurnemanz says that in this realm time becomes space ( " Zum Raum wird hier die Zeit " ) . An orchestral interlude leads into Scene Two .
Scene 2
They arrive at the Hall of the Grail , where the Knights are assembling to receive Holy Communion ( " Zum letzten Liebesmahle " ) . The voice of Titurel is heard , telling his son , Amfortas , to uncover the Grail . Amfortas is wracked with shame and suffering ( " Wehvolles Erbe , dem ich verfallen " ) . He is the guardian of these holy relics yet has succumbed to temptation and lost the Spear . He declares himself unworthy of his office . He cries out for forgiveness ( " Erbarmen ! " ) but hears only the promise that he will one day be redeemed by the pure fool .
On hearing Amfortas ' cry , the youth appears to suffer with him , clutching at his heart . The knights and Titurel urge Amfortas to reveal the Grail ( " Enthüllet den Gral " ) , and he finally does . The dark hall is now bathed in the light of the Grail as the Knights eat . Gurnemanz motions to the youth to participate , but he seems entranced and does not . Amfortas does not share in taking communion and , as the ceremony ends , collapses in pain and is carried away . Slowly the hall empties leaving only the young man and Gurnemanz , who asks him if he has understood what he has seen . When the lad cannot answer , Gurnemanz dismisses him as just a fool and sends him out with a warning to hunt geese , if he must , but to leave the swans alone . A voice from high above repeats the promise : " The pure fool , enlightened by compassion " .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Scene 1
Klingsor 's magic castle . Klingsor conjures up Kundry , waking her from her sleep . He calls her by many names : First Sorceress ( Urteufelin ) , Hell 's Rose ( Höllenrose ) , Herodias , Gundryggia and , lastly , Kundry . She is now transformed into an incredibly alluring woman , as when she once seduced Amfortas . She mocks Klingsor 's mutilated condition by sarcastically inquiring if he is chaste ( " Ha ha ! Bist du keusch ? " ) , but she cannot resist his power . Klingsor observes that Parsifal is approaching and summons his enchanted knights to fight the boy . Klingsor watches as Parsifal overcomes his knights , and they flee . Klingsor wishes destruction on their whole race .
Klingsor sees this young man stray into his Flowermaiden garden and calls to Kundry to seek the boy out and seduce him , but when he turns , he sees that Kundry has already left on her mission .
Scene 2
The triumphant youth finds himself in a wondrous garden , surrounded by beautiful and seductive Flowermaidens . They call to him and entwine themselves about him while chiding him for wounding their lovers ( " Komm , komm , holder Knabe ! " ) . They soon fight and bicker among themselves to win his devotion , to the point that he is about to flee , but then a voice calls out , " Parsifal ! " He now recalls this name is what his mother called him when she appeared in his dreams . The Flowermaidens back away from him and call him a fool as they leave him and Kundry alone .
Parsifal wonders if the Garden is a dream and asks how it is that Kundry knows his name . Kundry tells him she learned it from his mother ( " Ich sah das Kind an seiner Mutter Brust " ) , who had loved him and tried to shield him from his father 's fate , the mother he had abandoned and who had finally died of grief . She reveals many parts of Parsifal 's history to him and he is stricken with remorse , blaming himself for his mother 's death . He thinks himself very stupid to have forgotten her . Kundry says this realization is a first sign of understanding and that , with a kiss , she can help him understand his mother 's love . As they kiss Parsifal suddenly recoils in pain and cries out Amfortas ' name : he feels the wounded king 's pain burning in his own side and now understands Amfortas ' passion during the Grail Ceremony ( " Amfortas ! Die Wunde ! Die Wunde ! " ) . Filled with this compassion , Parsifal rejects Kundry 's advances .
Furious that her ploy has failed , Kundry tells Parsifal that if he can feel compassion for Amfortas , then he should be able to feel it for her as well . She has been cursed for centuries , unable to rest , because she saw Christ on the cross and laughed at His pains . Now she can never weep , only jeer , and she is enslaved to Klingsor as well . Parsifal rejects her again but then asks her to lead him to Amfortas . She begs him to stay with her for just one hour , and then she will take him to Amfortas . When he still refuses , she curses him to wander without ever finding the Kingdom of the Grail , and finally calls on her master Klingsor to help her .
Klingsor appears and throws the Spear at Parsifal , but it stops in midair , above his head . Parsifal takes it and makes the sign of the Cross with it . The castle crumbles and the enchanted garden withers . As Parsifal leaves , he tells Kundry that she knows where she can find him .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Scene 1
The scene is the same as that of the opening of the opera , in the domain of the Grail , but many years later . Gurnemanz is now aged and bent . He hears moaning near his hermit 's hut and discovers Kundry unconscious in the brush , as he had many years before ( " Sie ! Wieder da ! " ) . He revives her using water from the Holy Spring , but she will only speak the word " serve " ( " Dienen " ) . Gurnemanz wonders if there is any significance to her reappearance on this special day . Looking into the forest , he sees a figure approaching , armed and in full armour . The stranger wears a helmet and the hermit cannot see who it is . Gurnemanz queries him and chides him for being armed on sanctified ground and on a holy day , but gets no response . Finally , the apparition removes the helmet and Gurnemanz recognizes the lad who shot the swan , and joyfully sees that he bears the Holy Spear .
Parsifal tells of his desire to return to Amfortas ( " Zu ihm , des tiefe Klagen " ) . He relates his long journey , how he wandered for years , unable to find a path back to the Grail . He had often been forced to fight , but never wielded the Spear in battle . Gurnemanz tells him that the curse preventing Parsifal from finding his right path has now been lifted , but that in his absence Amfortas has never unveiled the Grail , and lack of its sustaining properties has caused the death of Titurel . Parsifal is overcome with remorse , blaming himself for this state of affairs . Gurnemanz tells him that today is the day of Titurel 's funeral , and that Parsifal has a great duty to perform . Kundry washes Parsifal 's feet and Gurnemanz anoints him with water from the Holy Spring , recognizing him as the pure fool , now enlightened by compassion , and as the new King of the Knights of the Grail .
Parsifal looks about and comments on the beauty of the meadow . Gurnemanz explains that today is Good Friday , when all the world is renewed . Parsifal baptizes the weeping Kundry . Tolling bells are heard in the distance . Gurnemanz says " Midday : the hour has come . My lord , permit your servant to guide you ! " ( Mittag : – Die Stund ist da : gestatte Herr , dass dich dein Knecht geleite ) – and all three set off for the castle of the Grail . A dark orchestral interlude ( Mittag ) leads into the solemn gathering of the knights .
Scene 2
Within the castle of the Grail , Amfortas is brought before the Grail shrine and Titurel 's coffin . He cries out , asking his dead father to grant him rest from his sufferings and expresses the desire to join him in death ( " Mein Vater ! Hochgesegneter der Helden ! " ) . The Knights of the Grail passionately urge Amfortas to uncover the Grail again but Amfortas , in a frenzy , says he will never again show the Grail . He commands the Knights , instead , to kill him and end his suffering and the shame he has brought on the Knighthood . At this moment , Parsifal steps forth and says that only one weapon can heal the wound ( " Nur eine Waffe taugt " ) . He touches Amfortas ' side with the Spear and both heals and absolves him . Parsifal commands the unveiling of the Grail . As all present kneel , Kundry , released from her curse , sinks lifeless to the ground as a white dove descends and hovers above Parsifal .
= = Reactions to Parsifal = =
Since Parsifal could initially only be seen at the Bayreuth Festival , the first presentation in 1882 was attended by many notable figures . Reaction was varied . Some thought that Parsifal marked a weakening of Wagner 's abilities . The critic Eduard Hanslick gave his opinion that " The Third act may be counted the most unified and the most atmospheric . It is not the richest musically , " going on to note " And Wagner 's creative powers ? For a man of his age and his method they are astounding ... [ but ] It would be foolishness to declare that Wagner 's fantasy , and specifically his musical invention , has retained the freshness and facility of yore . One cannot help but discern sterility and prosaicism , together with increasing longwindedness . "
The conductor Felix Weingartner found that " The Flowermaidens ' costumes showed extraordinary lack of taste , but the singing was incomparable ... When the curtain had been rung down on the final scene and we were walking down the hill , I seemed to hear the words of Goethe ' and you can say you were present . ' The ' Parsifal ' performances of 1882 were artistic events of supreme interest and it is my pride and joy that I participated in them . "
Hugo Wolf was a student at the time of the 1882 Festival , yet still managed to find money for tickets to see Parsifal twice . He emerged overwhelmed : " Colossal – Wagner 's most inspired , sublimest creation . " He reiterated this view in a postcard from Bayreuth in 1883 : " Parsifal is without doubt by far the most beautiful and sublime work in the whole field of Art . " Gustav Mahler was also present in 1883 and he wrote to a friend ; " I can hardly describe my present state to you . When I came out of the Festspielhaus , completely spellbound , I understood that the greatest and most painful revelation had just been made to me , and that I would carry it unspoiled for the rest of my life . " Max Reger simply noted that " When I first heard Parsifal at Bayreuth I was fifteen . I cried for two weeks and then became a musician . " Alban Berg described Parsifal in 1909 as " magnificent , overwhelming , " and Jean Sibelius , visiting the Festival in 1894 said " Nothing in the world has made so overwhelming an impression on me . All my innermost heart @-@ strings throbbed ... I cannot begin to tell you how Parsifal has transported me . Everything I do seems so cold and feeble by its side.That is really something . " Claude Debussy thought the characters and plot ludicrous , but nevertheless in 1903 wrote that musically it was " Incomparable and bewildering , splendid and strong . Parsifal is one of the loveliest monuments of sound ever raised to the serene glory of music . " He was later to write to Ernest Chausson that he had deleted a scene he had just written for his own opera Pelléas et Melisande because he had discovered in the music for it ' the ghost of old Klingsor , alias R. Wagner ' .
Some took a more acerbic view of the experience . Mark Twain visited the Festival in 1891 : " I was not able to detect in the vocal parts of Parsifal anything that might with confidence be called rhythm or tune or melody ... Singing ! It does seem the wrong name to apply to it ... In Parsifal there is a hermit named Gurnemanz who stands on the stage in one spot and practices by the hour , while first one and then another of the cast endures what he can of it and then retires to die . "
Performance standards may have contributed to such reactions ; George Bernard Shaw commented in 1894 that " The opening performance of Parsifal this season was , from the purely musical point of view , as far as the principal singers were concerned , simply an abomination . The bass howled , the tenor bawled , the baritone sang flat and the soprano , when she condescended to sing at all and did not merely shout her words , screamed ... "
Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels was a strong advocate of the work . After hearing it for the first time in 1928 , he described it as " my greatest experience at the opera [ ... ] by the end , I was completely overwhelmed . "
= = Criticism and influence = =
As Wagner 's last opera , Parsifal has been both influential and controversial . The use of Christian symbols in Parsifal ( the Grail , the Spear , references to the Redeemer ) together with its restriction to Bayreuth for almost 30 years sometimes led to performances being regarded almost as a religious rite . It should be noted , however , that Wagner never actually refers to Jesus Christ by name in the opera , only to " The Redeemer " . In his essay " Religion and Art " Wagner himself described the use of Christian imagery thus :
When religion becomes artificial , art has a duty to rescue it . Art can show that the symbols which religions would have us believe literally true are actually figurative . Art can idealize those symbols , and so reveal the profound truths they contain .
The critic Eduard Hanslick objected to the religious air surrounding Parsifal even at the premiere : " The question of whether Parsifal should really be withheld from all theatres and limited to ... Bayreuth was naturally on all tongues ... I must state here that the church scenes in Parsifal did not make the offensive impression on me that others and I had been led to expect from reading the libretto . They are religious situations – but for all their earnest dignity they are not in the style of the church , but completely in the style of the opera . Parsifal is an opera , call it a ' stage festival ' or ' consecrational stage festival ' if you will . "
= = = Nietzsche = = =
Friedrich Nietzsche , who was originally one of Wagner 's champions , chose to use Parsifal as the grounds for his breach with Wagner ; an extended critique of Parsifal opens the third essay ( " What Is the Meaning of Ascetic Ideals ? " ) of On the Genealogy of Morality . In Nietzsche contra Wagner he wrote :
Parsifal is a work of perfidy , of vindictiveness , of a secret attempt to poison the presuppositions of life – a bad work . The preaching of chastity remains an incitement to anti @-@ nature : I despise everyone who does not experience Parsifal as an attempted assassination of basic ethics .
Despite this attack on the subject matter , he also admitted that the music was sublime : " Moreover , apart from all irrelevant questions ( as to what the use of this music can or ought to be ) and on purely aesthetic grounds ; has Wagner ever done anything better ? " ( Letter to Peter Gast , 1887 ) .
= = = Racism debate = = =
Some writers see in the opera the promotion of racism or anti @-@ semitism .
One line of argument suggests that Parsifal was written in support of the ideas of Arthur de Gobineau who advocated Aryanism . Parsifal is proposed as the " pure @-@ blooded " ( i.e. Aryan ) hero who overcomes Klingsor , who is perceived as a Jewish stereotype , particularly since he opposes the quasi @-@ Christian Knights of the Grail . Such claims remain heavily debated , since there is nothing explicit in the libretto to support them . Wagner never mentions such ideas in his many writings , and Cosima Wagner 's diaries , which relate in great detail Wagner 's thoughts over the last 14 years of his life ( including the period covering the composition and first performance of Parsifal ) never mention any such intention . Wagner first met Gobineau very briefly in 1876 , but it was only in 1880 that he read Gobineau 's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races . However , Wagner had completed the libretto for Parsifal by 1877 , and the original drafts of the story date back to 1857 . Despite this chronological evidence , Gobineau is frequently cited as a major inspiration for Parsifal .
The related question of whether the opera contains a specifically anti @-@ Semitic message is also debated . Some of Wagner 's contemporaries and commentators ( e.g. Hans von Wolzogen and Ernest Newman ) who analysed Parsifal at length , make no mention of any anti @-@ Semitic interpretations . However the critics Paul Lindau and Max Nordbeck , present at Parsifal ' s premiere , noted in their reviews how the work accorded with Wagner 's anti @-@ Jewish sentiments . More recent commentators continue to highlight the perceived anti @-@ Semitic nature of the opera , and find correspondences with anti @-@ Semitic passages found in Wagner 's writings and articles of the period .
The conductor of the premiere was Hermann Levi , the court conductor at the Munich Opera . Since King Ludwig was sponsoring the production , much of the orchestra was drawn from the ranks of the Munich Opera , including the conductor . Wagner objected to Parsifal being conducted by a Jew ( Levi 's father was in fact a rabbi ) . Wagner first suggested that Levi should convert to Christianity , which Levi declined to do . Wagner then wrote to King Ludwig that he had decided to accept Levi despite the fact that ( he alleged ) he had received complaints that " of all pieces , this most Christian of works " should be conducted by a Jew . When the King expressed his satisfaction at this , replying that " human beings are basically all brothers " , Wagner wrote to the King that he " regard [ ed ] the Jewish race as the born enemy of pure humanity and everything noble about it " .
It has been claimed that Parsifal was denounced as being " ideologically unacceptable " in the Third Reich , and that the Nazis placed a de facto ban on Parsifal . In fact there were 23 performances at the Deutsche Oper in Berlin between 1939 and 1942 . However Parsifal was not performed at the Bayreuth Festival during World War II .
= = = Schopenhauer and Parsifal = = =
Wagner had been greatly impressed with his reading of Arthur Schopenhauer in 1854 , and this deeply affected his thoughts and practice on music and art . Some writers ( e.g. Bryan Magee ) see Parsifal as Wagner 's last great espousal of Schopenhauerian philosophy . Parsifal can heal Amfortas and redeem Kundry because he shows compassion , which Schopenhauer saw as the highest form of human morality . Moreover , he displays compassion in the face of sexual temptation ( Act 2 scene 3 ) . Schopenhaurian philosophy also suggests that the only escape from the ever @-@ present temptations of human life is through negation of the Will , and overcoming sexual temptation is in particular a strong form of negation of the Will . When viewed in this light , Parsifal , with its emphasis on Mitleid ( " compassion " ) is a natural follow @-@ on to Tristan und Isolde , where Schopenhauer 's influence is perhaps more obvious , with its focus on Sehnen ( " yearning " ) . Indeed , Wagner originally considered including Parsifal as a character in Act 3 of Tristan , but later rejected the idea .
= = Music of Parsifal = =
= = = Leitmotifs in Parsifal = = =
A leitmotif is a recurring musical theme within a particular piece of music , associated with a particular person , place or idea . Wagner is the composer most often associated with leitmotifs , and Parsifal makes liberal use of them . Wagner did not specifically identify or name leitmotifs in the score of Parsifal ( any more than he did in any other of his scores ) , although his wife Cosima mentions statements he made about some of them in her diary . However , Wagner 's followers ( notably Hans von Wolzogen whose guide to Parsifal was published in 1882 ) named , wrote about and made references to these motifs , and they were highlighted in piano arrangements of the score . Wagner 's own reaction to such naming of motifs in the score was one of disgust : " In the end people believe that such nonsense happens by my suggestion . "
The opening prelude introduces two important leitmotifs , generally referred to as the Communion theme and the theme of the Grail . These two , and Parsifal 's own motif , are repeated during the course of the opera . Other characters , especially Klingsor , Amfortas , and " The Voice " , which sings the so @-@ called Tormotif ( " Fool 's motive " ) , have their own particular leitmotifs . Wagner uses the Dresden amen to represent the Grail , this motif being a sequence of notes he would have known since his childhood in Dresden .
= = = Chromaticism in Parsifal = = =
Many music theorists have used Parsifal to explore difficulties in analyzing the chromaticism of late 19th century music . Theorists such as David Lewin and Richard Cohn have explored the importance of certain pitches and harmonic progressions both in structuring and symbolizing the work . The unusual harmonic progressions in the leitmotifs which structure the piece , as well as the heavy chromaticism of Act II , make it a difficult work to parse musically .
= = = Notable excerpts = = =
As is common in mature Wagner operas , Parsifal was composed such that each act was a continuous flow of music ; hence there are no free @-@ standing arias in the work . However a number of orchestral excerpts from the opera were arranged by Wagner himself and remain in the concert repertory . The Prelude to Act 1 is frequently performed either alone or in conjunction with an arrangement of the " Good Friday " music which accompanies the second half life Act 3 scene 1 . Kundry 's long solo in Act 2 ( " Ich sah das Kind " ) is occasionally performed in concert , as is Amfortas ' Lament from Act 1 ( " Wehvolles Erbe " ) .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
The score for Parsifal calls for three flutes , three oboes , one English horn , three clarinets in B @-@ flat and A , one bass clarinet in B @-@ flat and A , three bassoons , one contrabassoon ; four horns in F , three trumpets in F , three trombones , one tuba , two onstage trumpets in F , 4 onstage trombones ; a percussion section that includes four timpani ( requiring two players ) , tenor drum , bells , onstage church bells , one onstage thunder machine ; two harps and strings . Parsifal is one of only two works by Wagner in which he used the contrabassoon . ( The other is the Symphony in C. )
The bells that draw the knights to the Grail ceremony at Monsalvat in Acts 1 and 3 have often proved problematic to stage . For the earlier performances of Parsifal in Bayreuth , Wagner had the Parsifal bell , a piano frame with four strings , constructed as a substitute for church bells . For the first performances , the bells were combined with tam @-@ tam and gongs . However , the bell was used with the tuba , four tam @-@ tams tuned to the pitch of the four chime notes and another tam @-@ tam on which a roll is executed by using a drumstick . In modern @-@ day performances , the Parsifal bell has been replaced with tubular bells or synthesizers to produce the desired notes . The thunder machine is used in the moment of the destruction of Klingsor 's castle .
The English composer Howard Skempton 's piece " Lento " uses the same instrumentation .
= = = Recordings = = =
Parsifal was expressly composed for the stage at Bayreuth and many of the most famous recordings of the opera come from live performances on that stage . In the pre @-@ LP era , Karl Muck conducted excerpts from the opera at Bayreuth . These are still considered some of the best performances of the opera on disc . They also contain the only sound evidence of the bells constructed for the work 's premiere , which were melted down for scrap during World War II .
Hans Knappertsbusch was the conductor most closely associated with Parsifal at Bayreuth in the post @-@ war years , and the performances under his baton in 1951 marked the re @-@ opening of the Bayreuth Festival after World War II . These historic performances were recorded and are available on the Teldec label in mono sound . Knappertsbusch recorded the opera again for Philips in 1962 in stereo , and this release is often considered to be the classic Parsifal recording . There are also many " unofficial " live recordings from Bayreuth , capturing virtually every Parsifal cast ever conducted by Knappertsbusch . Pierre Boulez ( 1971 ) and James Levine ( 1985 ) have also made recordings of the opera at Bayreuth that were released on Deutsche Grammophon and Philips . The Boulez recording is one of the fastest on record , and the Levine one of the slowest .
Amongst other recordings , those conducted by Georg Solti , James Levine ( with the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra ) , Herbert von Karajan , and Daniel Barenboim ( the latter two both conducting the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra ) have been widely praised . The Karajan recording was voted " Record of the Year " in the 1981 Gramophone Awards . Also highly regarded is a recording of Parsifal under the baton of Rafael Kubelík originally made for Deutsche Grammophon , now reissued on Arts & Archives .
On the Saturday 14 December 2013 broadcast of BBC Radio 3 's CD Review – Building a Library , music critic David Nice surveyed recordings of Parsifal and recommended the recording by the Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks , Rafael Kubelik ( conductor ) , as the best available choice .
= = = Filmed versions = = =
In addition to a number of staged performances available on DVD , Parsifal was adapted for the screen by film director Hans @-@ Jürgen Syberberg . There is also a 1998 documentary directed by Tony Palmer titled : Parsifal – The Search for the Grail . It was recorded in various European theaters , including the Mariinsky Theatre , the Ravello Festival in Siena , and the Bayreuth Festival . It contains extracts from Mr. Palmer 's stage production of Parsifal starring Plácido Domingo , Violeta Urmana , Matti Salminen , Nikolai Putilin , and Anna Netrebko . In also includes interviews with Domingo , Wolfgang Wagner , Robert Gutman , and Karen Armstrong . The film exists in two versions : ( 1 ) a complete version running 116 minutes and officially approved by Domingo , and ( 2 ) an 88 @-@ minute version , with cuts of passages regarded by the German distributor as being too " political " , " uncomfortable " , and " irrelevant " .
= = = Score = = =
The music score for Parsifal is available online at the International Music Score Library Project .
= Warren G. Harding =
Warren Gamaliel Harding ( November 2 , 1865 – August 2 , 1923 ) was the 29th President of the United States , serving from March 4 , 1921 until his death . Harding died one of the most popular presidents in history , but the subsequent exposure of scandals that took place under him , such as Teapot Dome , eroded his popular regard , as did revelations of an affair by Nan Britton , one of his mistresses . In historical rankings of the U.S. presidents , Harding is often rated among the worst .
Harding was born in Blooming Grove , Ohio . He lived in rural Ohio all his life , except when political service took him elsewhere . He settled in Marion when not yet 20 years old and bought The Marion Star , building it into a successful newspaper . In 1899 , he was elected to the Ohio State Senate and , after four years there , successfully ran for lieutenant governor . He was defeated for governor in 1910 , but was elected to the Senate in 1914 .
Harding ran for the Republican nomination for president in 1920 , but he was considered an also @-@ ran with little chance of success . The leading candidates , such as General Leonard Wood , could not gain a majority to secure the nomination , and the convention deadlocked . Harding 's support gradually grew until he was nominated on the tenth ballot . He conducted a front porch campaign , remaining for the most part in Marion and allowing the people to come to him . He won in a landslide over Democrat James M. Cox and Socialist Party candidate Eugene Debs , running on a theme of return to normalcy and becoming the first sitting senator to be elected president .
Harding appointed a number of well @-@ regarded figures , including Andrew Mellon at the Treasury , Herbert Hoover at Commerce , and Charles Evans Hughes at the State Department . A major foreign policy achievement came with the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 – 1922 , in which the world 's major naval powers agreed on a naval limitations program that lasted a decade . Two members of his cabinet were implicated in corruption : Interior Secretary Albert Fall and Attorney General Harry Daugherty . The resulting scandals did not fully emerge until after Harding 's death , nor did word of his extramarital affairs , but both greatly damaged his reputation . Harding died of a cerebral hemorrhage caused by heart disease in San Francisco while on a western speaking tour ; he was succeeded by his vice president , Calvin Coolidge .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Harding was born November 2 , 1865 , in Blooming Grove , Ohio . Nicknamed " Winnie " as a small child , Harding was the eldest of eight children born to George Tryon Harding , Sr. ( 1843 – 1928 ; usually known as Tryon ) and Phoebe Elizabeth ( Dickerson ) Harding ( 1843 – 1910 ) . Phoebe was a state @-@ licensed midwife . Tryon farmed and taught school near Mount Gilead , Ohio . Through apprenticeship , study , and a year of medical school , Tryon became a doctor , and started a small practice . Harding 's mother 's ancestors were Dutch , including the well known Van Kirk family . Harding also had ancestors from England , Wales , and Scotland .
It was rumored in Blooming Grove that one of Harding 's great @-@ grandmothers was African American . His great @-@ great grandfather Amos Harding claimed that a thief , who had been caught in the act by the family , started the rumor in an attempt at extortion or revenge . Nevertheless , even after Warren Harding 's death in 1923 , African Americans made claims of kinship . This issue was resolved in 2015 , when genetic testing of Harding 's descendants determined , with more than a 95 % percent chance of accuracy , that he lacked sub @-@ Saharan African forbears within four previous generations . The Harding family , who were abolitionists , moved to Caledonia , Ohio , where Tryon acquired The Argus , a local weekly newspaper . At The Argus , Harding , from the age of 11 , learned the basics of the newspaper business .
In late 1879 , at the age of 14 , Harding enrolled at Ohio Central College in Iberia , where he proved an adept student . He and a friend put out a small newspaper during their final year at Ohio Central , the Iberia Spectator , intended to appeal to both college and town . During his final year , the Harding family moved to Marion , Ohio , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Caledonia , and when he graduated in 1882 , he joined them there .
= = = Editor = = =
In Harding 's youth , the majority of the population still lived on farms and in small towns . He would spend much of his life in Marion , a small city in rural Ohio , and would become closely associated with it . When Harding rose to high office , he made clear his love of Marion and its way of life , telling of the many young Marionites who had left and enjoyed success elsewhere , while suggesting that the man , once the " pride of the school " , who had remained behind and become a janitor , was " the happiest one of the lot " .
Upon graduating , Harding had stints as a teacher and as an insurance man , and made a brief attempt at studying law . He then raised $ 300 in partnership with others to purchase a failing newspaper , The Marion Star , weakest of the growing city 's three papers , and its only daily . The 18 @-@ year @-@ old Harding used the railroad pass that came with the paper to attend the 1884 Republican National Convention , where he hobnobbed with better @-@ known journalists and supported the presidential nominee , former Secretary of State James G. Blaine . Harding returned from Chicago to find that the paper had been reclaimed by the sheriff . During the election campaign , Harding worked for the Marion Democratic Mirror and was annoyed at having to praise the Democratic presidential nominee , New York Governor Grover Cleveland , who won the election . Afterwards , with the financial aid of his father , the budding newspaperman redeemed the paper .
Through the latter years of the 1880s , Warren Harding built the Star . The city of Marion tended to vote Republican ( as did Ohio ) but Marion County was Democratic . Accordingly , Harding adopted a tempered editorial stance , declaring the daily Star nonpartisan , and circulating a weekly edition that was moderate Republican . This policy attracted advertisers , and put the Republican weekly in town out of business . According to his biographer , Andrew Sinclair :
The success of Harding with the Star was certainly in the model of Horatio Alger . He started with nothing , and though working , stalling , bluffing , withholding payments , borrowing back wages , boasting , and manipulating , he turned a dying rag into a powerful small @-@ town newspaper . Much of his success had to do with his good looks , affability , enthusiasm , and persistence , but he was also lucky . As Machiavelli once pointed out , cleverness will take a man far , but he cannot do without good fortune .
The population of Marion grew from 4 @,@ 000 in 1880 to twice that in 1890 , increasing to 12 @,@ 000 by 1900 . This growth helped the Star , and Harding did his best to promote the city , purchasing stock in many local enterprises . Although a few of these turned out badly , he was in general successful as an investor , leaving an estate of $ 850 @,@ 000 in 1923 . According to Harding biographer and former White House Counsel John Dean , Harding 's " civic influence was that of an activist who used his editorial page to effectively keep his nose — and a prodding voice — in all the town 's public business " . He became an ardent supporter of Governor Joseph B. Foraker , a Republican .
Harding first came to know Florence Kling , five years older than himself , as the daughter of a local banker and developer . Amos Kling was a man accustomed to getting his way , but Harding attacked him relentlessly in the paper . Amos involved Florence in all his affairs , taking her to work from the time she could walk . As hard @-@ headed as her father , Florence came into conflict with him after returning from music college . After she eloped with Pete deWolfe , and returned to Marion without deWolfe , but with an infant called Marshall , Amos agreed to raise the boy , but would not support Florence , who made a living as a piano teacher . One of her students was Harding 's sister Charity . By 1886 , Florence Kling had obtained a divorce , and she and Warren Harding were courting , though who was pursuing whom is uncertain , depending on who later told the story of their romance .
A truce between the Klings was snuffed out by the budding match , as Amos believed that the Hardings had African American blood , and was also offended by Harding 's editorial stances . He started to spread rumors of Harding 's supposed black heritage and encouraged local businessmen to boycott Harding 's business interests . When Harding found out what Kling was doing , he warned Kling " that he would beat the tar out of the little man if he didn 't cease " . The Hardings were married at their new home on Mount Vernon Avenue in Marion , which they had designed together in the Queen Anne style , on July 8 , 1891 . The marriage produced no children . Warren Harding affectionately called his wife " the Duchess " , based on a character in a serial from The New York Sun , in which the Duchess kept a close eye on the Duke and their money , running anything that required efficiency .
Florence Harding was deeply involved in her husband 's career , both at the Star and once he entered politics . Exhibiting her father 's determination and business sense , she helped turn the Star into a profitable enterprise through her tight management of the paper 's circulation department . She has been credited with helping Harding achieve more than he might have alone ; some have suggested that she pushed him all the way to the White House .
= = = Start in politics = = =
Soon after purchasing the Star , Harding turned his attention to politics , supporting Foraker in his first successful bid for governor in 1885 . Foraker was part of the war generation that challenged older Ohio Republicans , such as Senator John Sherman , for control of state politics . Harding , always a party loyalist , supported Foraker in the complex internecine warfare that was Ohio Republican politics . Harding was willing to tolerate Democrats , as necessary to a two @-@ party system , but had only contempt for those who bolted the Republican Party to join third @-@ party movements . He was a delegate to the Republican state convention in 1888 , at the age of 22 , representing Marion County , and would be elected a delegate in most years until becoming president .
Harding 's success as an editor took a toll on his health . Five times between 1889 ( when he was 23 ) and 1901 , he spent time at the Battle Creek Sanitorium for reasons Sinclair described as " fatigue , overstrain , and nervous illnesses " . Dean ties these visits to early occurrences of the heart ailment that would kill Harding in 1923 . During one such absence from Marion , in 1894 , the Star 's business manager quit . Florence Harding took his place . She became her husband 's top assistant at the Star on the business side , maintaining her role until the Hardings moved to Washington in 1915 . Her assistance and competence allowed Warren Harding to travel to make speeches ( his use of the free railroad pass increased greatly after his marriage ) . Florence Harding made sure no cents escaped her — sometimes sending Warren to the bank with a gallon ( 3 @.@ 8 l ) bucket full in each hand — and wrote of her husband , " he does well when he listens to me and poorly when he does not . "
In 1892 , Harding traveled to Washington , where he met Democratic Nebraska Congressman William Jennings Bryan , and listened to the " Boy Orator of the Platte " speak on the floor of the House of Representatives . Harding traveled to Chicago 's Columbian Exposition in 1893 . Both visits were without Florence . Democrats generally won Marion County 's offices ; when Harding ran for auditor in 1895 , he lost , but did better than expected . The following year , Harding was one of many orators who spoke across Ohio as part of the campaign of the Republican presidential candidate , that state 's former governor , William McKinley . According to Dean , " while working for McKinley [ Harding ] began making a name for himself through Ohio " .
= = Rising politician ( 1897 – 1919 ) = =
= = = State senator = = =
Harding wished to try again for elective office . Though a longtime admirer of Foraker ( by then a U.S. senator ) , he had been careful to maintain good relations with the party faction led by the state 's other U.S. senator , Mark Hanna , McKinley 's political manager and chairman of the Republican National Committee ( RNC ) . Both Foraker and Hanna supported Harding for state Senate in 1899 ; he gained the Republican nomination , and was easily elected to a two @-@ year term .
Harding began his four years as a state senator a political unknown ; he ended them one of the most popular figures in the Ohio Republican Party . He always appeared calm and displayed humility , characteristics that endeared him to fellow Republicans even as he passed them in his political rise . Legislative leaders consulted him on difficult problems . It was usual at that time for state senators in Ohio to serve only one term , but Harding gained renomination in 1901 . After the assassination of McKinley in September ( he was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt ) , much of the appetite for politics was temporarily lost in Ohio . In November , Harding gained a second term , more than doubling his margin of victory to 3 @,@ 563 votes .
Like most politicians of his time , Harding accepted that patronage and graft would be used to repay political favors . He had his sister Mary ( who was legally blind ) appointed a teacher at the Ohio School for the Blind , although there were better @-@ qualified candidates , and offered publicity in his newspaper in exchange for free railroad passes for himself and his family . According to Sinclair , " it is doubtful that Harding ever thought there was anything dishonest in accepting the perquisites of position or office . Patronage and favors seemed the normal reward for party service in the days of Hanna . "
Soon after Harding 's initial election as senator , he met Harry M. Daugherty , who would take on a major role in his political career . A perennial candidate for office who served two terms in the state House of Representatives in the early 1890s , Daugherty had become a political fixer and lobbyist in the state capital of Columbus . After first meeting and talking with Harding , Daugherty commented , " Gee , what a great looking President he 'd make . "
= = = Ohio state leader = = =
In early 1903 , Harding announced he would run for Governor of Ohio , prompted by the withdrawal of the leading candidate , Congressman Charles Dick . Hanna and George Cox felt that Harding was not electable due to his work with Foraker — as the Progressive Era commenced , the public was starting to take a dimmer view of the trading of political favors and of bosses such as Cox . Accordingly , they persuaded Cleveland banker Myron T. Herrick , a friend of McKinley 's , to run . Herrick was also better @-@ placed to take votes away from the likely Democratic candidate , reforming Cleveland Mayor Tom L. Johnson . With little chance at the gubernatorial nomination , Harding sought nomination as lieutenant governor , and both Herrick and Harding were nominated by acclamation . Both Foraker and Hanna ( who died of typhoid fever in February 1904 ) campaigned for what was dubbed the Four @-@ H ticket . Herrick and Harding won by overwhelming margins .
Once he and Harding were inaugurated , Herrick made ill @-@ advised decisions that turned crucial Republican constituencies against him , alienating farmers by opposing the establishment of an agricultural college . On the other hand , according to Sinclair , " Harding had little to do , and he did it very well " . His responsibility to preside over the state Senate allowed him to increase his growing network of political contacts . Harding and others envisioned a successful gubernatorial run in 1905 , but Herrick refused to stand aside . In early 1905 , Harding announced he would accept nomination as governor if offered , but faced with the anger of leaders such as Cox , Foraker and Dick ( Hanna 's replacement in the Senate ) , announced he would seek no office in 1905 . Herrick was defeated , but his new running mate , Andrew L. Harris , was elected , and succeeded as governor after five months in office on the death of Democrat John M. Pattison . One Republican official wrote to Harding , " Aren 't you sorry Dick wouldn 't let you run for Lieutenant Governor ? "
In addition to helping pick a president , Ohio voters in 1908 were to choose the legislators who would decide whether to re @-@ elect Foraker . The senator had quarreled with President Roosevelt over the Brownsville Affair . Though Foraker had little chance of winning , he sought the Republican presidential nomination against his fellow Cincinnatian , Secretary of War William Howard Taft , who was Roosevelt 's chosen successor . On January 6 , 1908 , Harding 's Star endorsed Foraker and upbraided Roosevelt for trying to destroy the senator 's career over a matter of conscience . On the 22nd , Harding in the Star reversed course and declared for Taft , deeming Foraker defeated . According to Sinclair , Harding 's change to Taft " was not ... because he saw the light but because he felt the heat " . Jumping on the Taft bandwagon allowed Harding to survive his patron 's disaster — Foraker failed to gain the presidential nomination , and was defeated for a third term as senator . Also helpful in saving Harding 's career was the fact that he was popular with , and had done favors for , the more progressive forces that now controlled the Ohio Republican Party .
Harding sought and gained the 1910 Republican gubernatorial nomination . At that time , the party was deeply divided between progressive and conservative wings , and could not defeat the united Democrats ; he lost the election to incumbent Judson Harmon . Harry Daugherty managed Harding 's campaign , but the defeated candidate did not hold the loss against him . Despite the growing rift between them , both President Taft and former president Roosevelt came to Ohio to campaign for Harding , but their quarrels split the Republican Party and helped assure Harding 's defeat .
The party split grew , and in 1912 , Taft and Roosevelt were rivals for the Republican nomination . The 1912 Republican National Convention was bitterly divided . At Taft 's request , Harding gave a speech nominating the president , but the angry delegates were not receptive to Harding 's oratory . Taft was renominated , but Roosevelt supporters bolted the party . Harding , as a loyal Republican , supported Taft . The Republican vote was split between Taft , the party 's official candidate , and Roosevelt , running under the label of the Progressive Party . This allowed the Democratic candidate , New Jersey Governor Woodrow Wilson , to be elected .
= = = U.S. senator = = =
= = = = Election of 1914 = = = =
Congressman Theodore Burton had been elected in Foraker 's place in 1909 , and announced that he would seek a second term in the 1914 elections . By this time , the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had been ratified , giving the people the right to elect senators , and Ohio had instituted primary elections for the office . Foraker and former congressman Ralph D. Cole also entered the Republican primary . When Burton withdrew , Foraker became the favorite , but his Old Guard Republicanism was deemed outdated , and Harding was urged to enter the race . Daugherty claimed credit for persuading Harding to run , " I found him like a turtle sunning himself on a log , and I pushed him into the water . " According to Harding biographer Randolph Downes , " he put on a campaign of such sweetness and light as would have won the plaudits of the angels . It was calculated to offend nobody except Democrats . " Although Harding did not attack Foraker , his supporters had no such scruples . Harding won the primary by 12 @,@ 000 votes over Foraker .
Harding 's general election opponent was Ohio Attorney General Timothy Hogan , who had risen to statewide office despite widespread prejudice against Roman Catholics in rural areas . In 1914 , the start of World War I and the prospect of a Catholic senator from Ohio increased nativist sentiment . Propaganda sheets with names like The Menace and The Defender contained warnings that Hogan was the vanguard in a plot led by Pope Benedict XV through the Knights of Columbus to control Ohio . Harding did not attack Hogan ( an old friend ) on this or most other issues , but he did not denounce the nativist hatred for his opponent .
Harding 's conciliatory campaigning style aided him ; one Harding friend deemed the candidate 's stump speech during the 1914 fall campaign as " a rambling , high @-@ sounding mixture of platitudes , patriotism , and pure nonsense " . Dean notes , " Harding used his oratory to good effect ; it got him elected , making as few enemies as possible in the process . " Harding won by over 100 @,@ 000 votes in a landslide that also swept into office a Republican governor , Frank B. Willis .
= = = = Junior senator = = = =
When Harding joined the U.S. Senate , the Democrats controlled both houses of Congress , and were led by President Wilson . As a junior senator in the minority , Harding received unimportant committee assignments , but carried out those duties assiduously . He was a safe , conservative , Republican vote . As during his time in the Ohio Senate , Harding came to be widely liked .
On two issues , women 's suffrage , and the prohibition of alcohol , where picking the wrong side would have damaged his presidential prospects in 1920 , he prospered by taking nuanced positions . As senator @-@ elect , he indicated that he could not support votes for women until Ohio did . Increased support for suffrage there and among Senate Republicans meant that by the time Congress voted on the issue , Harding was a firm supporter . Harding , who drank , initially voted against banning alcohol . He voted for the Eighteenth Amendment , which imposed Prohibition , after successfully moving to modify it by placing a time limit on ratification , which was expected to kill it . Once it was ratified anyway , Harding voted to override Wilson 's veto of the Volstead Bill , which implemented the amendment , assuring the support of the Anti @-@ Saloon League .
Harding , as a politician respected by both Republicans and Progressives , was asked to be temporary chairman of the 1916 Republican National Convention and to deliver the keynote address . He urged delegates to stand as a united party . The convention nominated Justice Charles Evans Hughes . Harding reached out to Roosevelt once the former president declined the 1916 Progressive nomination , a refusal that effectively scuttled that party . In the November 1916 presidential election , despite increasing Republican unity , Hughes was narrowly defeated by Wilson .
Harding spoke and voted in favor of the resolution of war requested by Wilson in April 1917 that plunged the United States into World War I. In August , Harding argued for giving Wilson almost dictatorial powers , stating that democracy had little place in time of war . Harding voted for most war legislation , including the Espionage Act of 1917 , which restricted civil liberties , though he opposed the excess profits tax as anti @-@ business . In May 1918 , Harding , less enthusiastic about Wilson , opposed a bill to expand the president 's powers .
In the 1918 midterm congressional elections , held just before the armistice , Republicans narrowly took control of the Senate . Harding was appointed to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . Wilson took no senators with him to the Paris Peace Conference , confident that he could force what became the Treaty of Versailles through the Senate by appealing to the people . When he returned with a single treaty establishing both peace and a League of Nations , the country was overwhelmingly on his side . Many senators disliked Article X of the League Covenant , that committed signatories to the defense of any member nation that was attacked , seeing it as forcing the United States to war without the assent of Congress . Harding was one of 39 senators who signed a round @-@ robin letter opposing the League . When Wilson invited the Foreign Relations Committee to the White House to informally discuss the treaty , Harding ably questioned Wilson about Article X ; the president evaded his inquiries . The Senate debated Versailles in September 1919 , and Harding made a major speech against it . By then , Wilson had suffered a stroke while on a speaking tour . With an invalid in the White House and less support in the country , the treaty was defeated .
= = Presidential election of 1920 = =
= = = Primary campaign = = =
With most Progressives having rejoined the Republican Party , their former leader , Theodore Roosevelt , was deemed likely to make a third run for the White House in 1920 , and was the overwhelming favorite for the Republican nomination . These plans ended when Roosevelt suddenly died on January 6 , 1919 . A number of candidates quickly emerged , including General Leonard Wood , Illinois Governor Frank Lowden , California Senator Hiram Johnson , and a host of relatively minor possibilities such as Herbert Hoover ( renowned for his World War I relief work ) , Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , and General John J. Pershing .
Harding , while he wanted to be president , was as much motivated in entering the race by his desire to keep control of Ohio Republican politics , enabling his re @-@ election to the Senate in 1920 . Among those coveting Harding 's seat were former governor Willis ( he had been defeated by James M. Cox in 1916 ) and Colonel William Cooper Procter ( head of Procter & Gamble ) . On December 17 , 1919 , Harding made a low @-@ key announcement of his presidential candidacy . Leading Republicans disliked Wood and Johnson , both of the progressive faction of the party , and Lowden , who had an independent streak , was deemed little better . Harding was far more acceptable to the " Old Guard " leaders of the party .
Daugherty , who became Harding 's campaign manager , was sure none of the other candidates could garner a majority . His strategy was to make Harding an acceptable choice to delegates once the leaders faltered . Daugherty established a Harding for President campaign office in Washington ( run by his confidant , Jess Smith ) , and worked to manage a network of Harding friends and supporters , including Frank Scobey of Texas ( clerk of the Ohio State Senate during Harding 's years there ) . Harding worked to shore up his support through incessant letter @-@ writing . Despite the candidate 's work , according to Russell , " without Daugherty 's Mephistophelean efforts , Harding would never have stumbled forward to the nomination " .
There were only 16 presidential primary states in 1920 , of which the most crucial to Harding was Ohio . Harding had to have some loyalists at the convention to have any chance of nomination , and the Wood campaign hoped to knock Harding out of the race by taking Ohio . Wood campaigned in the state , and his supporter , Procter , spent large sums ; Harding spoke in the nonconfontational style he had adopted in 1914 . Harding and Daugherty were so confident of sweeping Ohio 's 48 delegates that the candidate went on to the next state , Indiana , before the April 27 Ohio primary . Harding carried Ohio by only 15 @,@ 000 votes over Wood , taking less than half the total vote , and won only 39 of 48 delegates . In Indiana , Harding finished fourth , with less than ten percent of the vote , and failed to win a single delegate . He was willing to give up and have Daugherty file his nomination papers for the Senate , but Florence Harding grabbed the phone from his hand , " Warren Harding , what are you doing ? Give up ? Not until the convention is over . Think of your friends in Ohio ! " On learning that Daugherty had left the phone line , the future First Lady retorted , " Well , you tell Harry Daugherty for me that we 're in this fight until Hell freezes over . "
After he recovered from the shock of the poor results , Harding traveled to Boston , where he delivered a speech that according to Dean , " would resonate throughout the 1920 campaign and history " . There , he stated that " America 's present need is not heroics , but healing ; not nostrums , but normalcy ; not revolution , but restoration " . Dean notes , " Harding , more than the other aspirants , was reading the nation 's pulse correctly . "
= = = Convention = = =
The 1920 Republican National Convention opened at the Chicago Coliseum on June 8 , 1920 , assembling delegates who were bitterly divided , most recently over the results of a Senate investigation into campaign spending , which had just been released . That report found that Wood had spent $ 1 @.@ 8 million , lending substance to Johnson claims that Wood was trying to buy the presidency . Some of the $ 600 @,@ 000 that Lowden had spent had wound up in the pockets of two convention delegates . Johnson had spent $ 194 @,@ 000 and Harding $ 113 @,@ 000 . Johnson was deemed to be behind the inquiry , and the rage of the Lowden and Wood factions put an end to any possible compromise among the frontrunners . Of the almost 1 @,@ 000 delegates , 27 were women — the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , guaranteeing women the vote , was within one state of ratification , and would pass before the end of August . The convention had no boss , most uninstructed delegates voted as they pleased , and with a Democrat in the White House , the party 's leaders could not use patronage to get their way .
Reporters deemed Harding unlikely to be nominated due to his poor showing in the primaries , and relegated him to a place among the dark horses . Harding , who like the other candidates was in Chicago supervising his campaign , had finished sixth in the final public opinion poll , behind the three main candidates as well as former justice Hughes and Herbert Hoover , and only slightly ahead of Coolidge .
After the convention dealt with other matters , the nominations for president opened on the morning of Friday , June 11 . Harding had asked Willis to place his name in nomination , and the former governor responded with a speech popular among the delegates both for its folksiness and for its brevity in the intense Chicago heat . Reporter Mark Sullivan , who was present , called it a splendid combination of " oratory , grand opera , and hog calling " . Willis concluded , leaning over the podium railing , " Say , boys — and girls too — why not name Warren Harding ? " The laughter and applause that followed created a warm feeling for Harding .
Four ballots were taken on the afternoon of June 11 , and they revealed a deadlock . With 493 votes needed to nominate , Wood was the closest with 3141 ⁄ 2 ; Lowdon had 2891 ⁄ 2 . The best Harding had done was 651 ⁄ 2 . Chairman Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts , the Senate Majority Leader , adjourned the convention about 7 p.m.
The night of June 11 – 12 , 1920 would become famous in political history as the night of the " smoke @-@ filled room " , in which , legend has it , party elders agreed to force the convention to nominate Harding . Historians have focused on the talks held in the suite of Republican National Committee ( RNC ) Chairman Will Hays at the Blackstone Hotel , at which senators and others came and went , and numerous possible candidates were discussed . Utah Senator Reed Smoot , before his departure early in the evening , backed Harding , telling Hays and the others that as the Democrats were likely to nominate Governor Cox , they should pick Harding to win Ohio . Smoot also told The New York Times that there had been an agreement to nominate Harding , but that it would not be done for several ballots yet . This was not true : a number of participants backed Harding ( others supported his rivals ) , but there was no pact to nominate him , and the senators had little power to enforce any agreement . Two other participants in the smoke @-@ filled room discussions , Kansas Senator Charles Curtis and Colonel George Brinton McClellan Harvey , a close friend of Hays , predicted to the press that Harding would be nominated because of the liabilities of the other candidates .
Colonel Harvey 's account of the smoke @-@ filled room had Harding being sent for in the early morning hours , to be informed by Harvey that the Ohioan would be the candidate . Harvey stated he asked if there was anything in Harding 's background that might harm his candidacy , to which the senator , who had had at least one extramarital affair , replied there was not . Harding biographer Charles W. Murray noted that there is no evidence besides Harvey 's word that Harding went to the Hays suite that night , and that other participants denied that Harding was there . Harding was so uncertain of victory that he filed for re @-@ election to the Senate , though Daugherty continued to urge delegates to support him .
The reassembled delegates had heard rumors that Harding was the choice of a cabal of senators . Although this was not true , delegates believed it , and sought a way out by voting for Harding . When balloting resumed on the morning of June 12 , Harding gained votes on each of the next four ballots , rising to 1331 ⁄ 2 as the two frontrunners saw little change . Lodge then declared a three @-@ hour recess , to the outrage of Daugherty , who raced to the podium and confronted him , " You cannot defeat this man this way ! The motion was not carried ! You cannot defeat this man ! " Lodge and others used the break to try to stop the Harding momentum and make RNC Chairman Hays the nominee , a scheme Hays refused to have anything to do with . The ninth ballot , after some initial suspense , saw delegation after delegation break for Harding , who took the lead with 3741 ⁄ 2 votes to 249 for Wood and 1211 ⁄ 2 for Lowden ( Johnson had 83 ) . Lowden released his delegates to Harding , and the tenth ballot , held at 6 p.m. , was a mere formality , with Harding finishing with 6721 ⁄ 5 votes to 156 for Wood . The nomination was made unanimous . The delegates , desperate to leave town before they incurred more hotel expenses , then proceeded to the vice presidential nomination . Harding wanted Senator Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin , who was unwilling to run , but before Lenroot 's name could be withdrawn and another man decided on , an Oregon delegate proposed Governor Coolidge , which was met with a roar of approval from the delegates . Coolidge , popular for his role in breaking the Boston police strike of 1919 , was nominated for vice president , receiving two and a fraction votes more than Harding had . James Morgan wrote in The Boston Globe : " The delegates would not listen to remaining in Chicago over Sunday ... the President makers did not have a clean shirt . On such things , Rollo , turns the destiny of nations . "
= = = General election campaign = = =
The Harding / Coolidge ticket was quickly backed by Republican newspapers , but those of other viewpoints expressed disappointment . The New York World found Harding the least @-@ qualified candidate since James Buchanan , deeming the Ohio senator a " weak and mediocre " man who " never had an original idea " . The Hearst newspapers called Harding " the flag @-@ bearer of a new Senatorial autocracy " . The New York Times described the Republican presidential candidate as " a very respectable Ohio politician of the second class " .
The Democratic National Convention opened in San Francisco on June 28 , 1920 , under a shadow cast by Woodrow Wilson , who wished to be nominated for a third term . Delegates were convinced Wilson 's health would not permit him to serve , and looked elsewhere for a candidate . Former Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo was a major contender , but he was Wilson 's son @-@ in @-@ law , and refused to consider a nomination so long as the president wanted it . Many at the convention voted for McAdoo anyway , and a deadlock ensued with Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer . On the 44th ballot , the Democrats nominated Governor Cox for president , with his running mate Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt . As Cox was , when not in politics , a newspaper owner and editor , this placed two Ohio editors against each other for the presidency , and some complained there was no real political choice . Both Cox and Harding were economic conservatives , and were reluctant progressives at best .
Harding elected to conduct a front porch campaign , like McKinley in 1896 . Some years earlier , Harding had had his front porch remodeled to resemble McKinley 's , which his neighbors felt signified presidential ambitions . The candidate remained at home in Marion and gave addresses to visiting delegations . In the meantime , Cox and Roosevelt stumped the nation , giving hundreds of speeches . Coolidge spoke in the Northeast , later on in the South , and was not a significant factor in the campaign .
In Marion , Harding ran his campaign . As a newspaperman himself , he fell into easy camaraderie with the press covering him , enjoying a relationship few presidents have equaled . His " Return to Normalcy " theme was aided by the atmosphere that Marion provided , an orderly place that induced nostalgia in many voters . The front porch campaign allowed Harding to avoid mistakes , and as time dwindled towards the election , his strength grew . The travels of the Democratic candidates eventually caused Harding to make several short speaking tours , but for the most part , he remained in Marion . America had no need for another Wilson , Harding argued , appealing for a president " near the normal " .
Harding 's vague oratory irritated some ; McAdoo described a typical Harding speech as " an army of pompous phrases moving over the landscape in search of an idea . Sometimes these meandering words actually capture a straggling thought and bear it triumphantly , a prisoner in their midst , until it died of servitude and over work . " H. L. Mencken concurred , " it reminds me of a string of wet sponges , it reminds me of tattered washing on the line ; it reminds me of stale bean soup , of college yells , of dogs barking idiotically through endless nights . It is so bad that a kind of grandeur creeps into it . It drags itself out of the dark abysm ... of pish , and crawls insanely up the topmost pinnacle of tosh . It is rumble and bumble . It is balder and dash . The New York Times took a more positive view of Harding 's speeches , stating that in them the majority of people could find " a reflection of their own indeterminate thoughts " .
Wilson had stated that the 1920 election would be a " great and solemn referendum " on the League of Nations , making it difficult for Cox to maneuver on the issue — although Roosevelt strongly supported the League , Cox was less enthusiastic . Harding opposed entry into the League of Nations as negotiated by Wilson , but favored an " association of nations " , based on the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague . This was general enough to satisfy most Republicans , and only a few bolted the party over this issue . By October , Cox had realized there was widespread public opposition to Article X , and stated that reservations to the treaty might be necessary ; this shift allowed Harding to say no more on the subject .
The RNC hired Albert Lasker , an advertising executive from Chicago , to publicize Harding , and Lasker unleashed a broad @-@ based advertising campaign that used many now @-@ standard advertising techniques for the first time in a presidential campaign . Lasker 's approach included newsreels and sound recordings . Visitors to Marion had their photographs taken with Senator and Mrs. Harding , and copies were sent to their hometown newspapers . Billboard posters , newspapers and magazines were employed in addition to motion pictures . Telemarketers were used to make phone calls with scripted dialogues to promote Harding .
The rumors that the Hardings were of partially African American blood surfaced again in the last days of the campaign , promoted by Wooster College professor William Estabrook Chancellor . Once these claims became known , reporters filed lengthy stories on them from Marion , which their editors declined to print . The Harding campaign refused to acknowledge or respond to the allegations .
By Election Day , November 2 , 1920 , few had any doubts that the Republican ticket would win . Harding received 60 @.@ 2 percent of the popular vote , the highest percentage since the evolution of the two @-@ party system , and 404 electoral votes . Cox received 34 percent of the national vote and 127 electoral votes . Campaigning from a federal prison where he was serving a sentence for opposing the war , Socialist Eugene V. Debs received 3 percent of the national vote . The Republicans greatly increased their majority in each house of Congress .
= = President ( 1921 – 1923 ) = =
= = = Inauguration and appointments = = =
Warren Harding was sworn in as president on March 4 , 1921 , in the presence of his wife and father . Harding preferred a low @-@ key inauguration , without the customary parade , leaving only the swearing @-@ in ceremony and a brief reception at the White House . In his inaugural address he declared , " Our most dangerous tendency is to expect too much from the government and at the same time do too little for it . "
After the election , Harding had announced he was going on vacation , and that no decisions about appointments would be made until he returned to Marion in December . He went to Texas , where he fished and played golf with his friend Frank Scobey ( soon to be Director of the Mint ) , then took ship for the Panama Canal Zone . He went to Washington , where he was given a hero 's welcome when Congress opened in early December as the first sitting senator to be elected to the White House . Back in Ohio , he planned to consult the " best minds " of the country on appointments , and they dutifully journeyed to Marion to offer their counsel .
Harding chose pro @-@ League Charles Evans Hughes as his Secretary of State , ignoring advice from Senator Lodge and others . After Charles G. Dawes declined the Treasury position , Harding asked Pittsburgh banker Andrew W. Mellon , one of the richest men in the country ; he agreed . Harding appointed Herbert Hoover as United States Secretary of Commerce . RNC Chairman Will Hays was made Postmaster General , then a cabinet post ; he would leave after a year in the position to become chief censor to the motion picture industry .
The two Harding cabinet appointees who darkened the reputation of his administration for their involvement in scandal were Harding 's Senate friend , Albert B. Fall of New Mexico , the Interior Secretary , and Daugherty , who became Attorney General . Fall was a Western rancher and former miner , and was pro @-@ development . He was opposed by conservationists such as Gifford Pinchot , who wrote , " it would have been possible to pick a worse man for Secretary of the Interior , but not altogether easy " . The New York Times mocked the Daugherty appointment , stating that rather than select one of the best minds , Harding had been content " to choose merely a best friend " . Eugene P. Trani and David L. Wilson , in their volume on Harding 's presidency , suggest that the appointment made sense then , since Daugherty was " a competent lawyer well @-@ acquainted with the seamy side of politics ... a first @-@ class political troubleshooter and someone Harding could trust " .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = European relations and formally ending the war = = = =
Harding made it clear when he appointed Hughes as Secretary of State that the former justice would run foreign policy , a change from Wilson 's close management of international affairs . Hughes had to work within some broad outlines ; after taking office , Harding hardened his stance on the League of Nations , deciding the U.S. would not join even a scaled @-@ down version of the League . With the Treaty of Versailles unratified by the Senate , the U.S. remained technically at war with Germany , Austria , and Hungary . Peacemaking began with the Knox – Porter Resolution , declaring the U.S. at peace and reserving any rights granted under Versailles . Treaties with Germany , Austria and Hungary , each containing many of the non @-@ League provisions of the Treaty of Versailles , were ratified in 1921 .
This still left the question of relations between the U.S. and the League . Hughes ' State Department initially ignored communications from the League , or tried to bypass it through direct communications with member nations . By 1922 , though , the U.S. , through its consul in Geneva , was dealing with the League , and though the U.S. refused to participate in any meeting with political implications , it sent observers to sessions on technical and humanitarian matters .
By the time Harding took office , there were calls from foreign governments for reduction of the massive war debt owed to the United States , and the German government sought to reduce the reparations that it was required to pay . The U.S. refused to consider any multilateral settlement . Harding sought passage of a plan proposed by Mellon to give the administration broad authority to reduce war debts in negotiation , but Congress in 1922 passed a more restrictive bill . Hughes negotiated an agreement for Britain to pay off its war debt over 62 years at low interest , effectively reducing the present value of the obligations . This agreement , approved by Congress in 1923 , set a pattern for negotiations with other nations . Talks with Germany on reduction of reparations payments would result in the Dawes Plan of 1924 .
A pressing issue not resolved by Wilson was the question of policy towards Bolshevik Russia . The U.S. had been among the nations that had sent troops there after the Russian Revolution . Afterwards , Wilson refused to recognize Russia . Under Harding , Commerce Secretary Hoover , with considerable experience of Russian affairs , took the lead on policy . When famine struck Russia in 1921 , Hoover had the American Relief Administration , which he had headed , negotiate with the Russians to provide aid . Soviet leaders ( the U.S.S.R. was established in 1922 ) hoped in vain that the agreement would lead to recognition . Hoover supported trade with Russia , fearing U.S. companies would be frozen out of the Soviet market , but Hughes opposed this , and the matter was not resolved under Harding 's presidency .
= = = = Disarmament = = = =
Harding had urged disarmament , and lower defense costs , during the campaign , but it had not been a major issue . He gave a speech to a joint session of Congress in April 1921 , setting out his legislative priorities . Among the few foreign policy matters he mentioned was disarmament , with the president stating that the government could not " be unmindful of the call for reduced expenditure " on defense .
Idaho Senator William Borah had proposed a conference at which the major naval powers , the U.S. , Britain , and Japan , would agree to cuts in their fleets . Harding concurred , and after some diplomatic discussions , representatives of nine nations convened in Washington in November 1921 . Most of the diplomats first attended Armistice Day ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery , where Harding spoke at the entombment of the Unknown Soldier of World War I , whose identity , " took flight with his imperishable soul . We know not whence he came , only that his death marks him with the everlasting glory of an American dying for his country " .
Hughes , in his speech at the opening session of the conference on November 12 , 1921 , made the American proposal — the U.S would decommission or not build 30 warships if Great Britain did the same for 19 vessels , and Japan 17 ships . The secretary was generally successful , and agreements were reached on this and other points , including settlements to disputes over islands in the Pacific , and limitations on the use of poison gas . The naval agreement was limited to battleships and to some extent aircraft carriers , and in the end did not prevent rearmament . Nevertheless , Harding and Hughes were widely applauded in the press for their work . Harding had appointed Senator Lodge and the Senate Minority Leader , Alabama 's Oscar Underwood , to the U.S. delegation ; they helped ensure that the treaties made it through the Senate mostly unscathed , though that body added reservations to some of the treaties .
The U.S. had acquired over a thousand vessels during World War I , and still owned most of them when Harding took office . Congress had authorized their disposal in 1920 , but the Senate would not confirm Wilson 's nominees to the Shipping Board . Harding appointed Albert Lasker as its chairman ; the advertising executive undertook to run the fleet as profitably as possible until it could be sold . Most ships proved impossible to sell at anything approaching the government 's cost . Lasker recommended a large subsidy to the merchant marine to enable the sales , and Harding repeatedly urged Congress to enact it . Unpopular in the Midwest , the bill passed the House but was defeated by a filibuster in the Senate , and most government ships were eventually scrapped .
= = = = Latin America = = = =
Intervention in Latin America had been a minor campaign issue ; Harding spoke against Wilson 's decision to send U.S. troops to the Dominican Republic and Haiti , and attacked the Democratic vice presidential candidate , Franklin Roosevelt , for his role in the Haitian intervention . Once Harding was sworn in , Hughes worked to improve relations with Latin American countries who were wary of the American use of the Monroe Doctrine to justify intervention ; at the time of Harding 's inauguration , the U.S. also had troops in Cuba and Nicaragua . The troops stationed in Cuba to protect American interests were withdrawn in 1921 ; U.S. forces remained in the other three nations through Harding 's presidency . In April 1921 , Harding gained the ratification of the Thomson – Urrutia Treaty with Colombia , granting that nation $ 25 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as settlement for the U.S.-provoked Panamanian revolution of 1903 . The Latin American nations were not fully satisfied , as the U.S. refused to renounce interventionism , though Hughes pledged to limit it to nations near the Panama Canal and to make it clear what the U.S. aims were .
The U.S. had intervened repeatedly in Mexico under Wilson , and had withdrawn diplomatic recognition , setting conditions for reinstatement . The Mexican government under President Álvaro Obregón wanted recognition before negotiations , but Wilson and his Secretary of State , Bainbridge Colby , refused . Both Hughes and Fall opposed recognition ; Hughes instead sent a draft treaty to the Mexicans in May 1921 , which included pledges to reimburse Americans for losses in Mexico since the 1910 revolution there . Obregón was unwilling to sign a treaty before being recognized , and worked to improve the relationship between American business and Mexico , reaching agreement with creditors , and mounting a public relations campaign in the United States . This had its effect , and by mid @-@ 1922 , Fall was less influential than he had been , lessening the resistance to recognition . The two presidents appointed commissioners to reach a deal , and the U.S. recognized the Obregón government on August 31 , 1923 , just under a month after Harding 's death , substantially on the terms proffered by Mexico .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Postwar recession and recovery = = = =
When Harding took office on March 4 , 1921 , the nation was in the midst of a postwar economic decline . At the suggestion of its leaders , Harding called a special session of Congress to convene on April 11 . When Harding addressed the joint session the following day , he urged the reduction of income taxes ( raised during the war ) , an increase in tariffs on agricultural goods to protect the American farmer , as well as more wide @-@ ranging reforms , such as support for highways , aviation , and radio . But it was not until May 27 that Congress passed an emergency tariff increase on agricultural products . An act authorizing a Bureau of the Budget followed on June 10 ; Harding appointed Charles Dawes as bureau director with a mandate to cut expenditures .
= = = = Mellon 's tax cuts = = = =
Treasury Secretary Mellon also recommended to Congress that income tax rates be cut . He asked that the excess profits tax on corporations be abolished . The House Ways and Means Committee endorsed Mellon 's proposals , but some congressmen , who wanted to raise tax rates on corporations , fought the measure . Harding was unsure what side to endorse , telling a friend , " I can 't make a damn thing out of this tax problem . I listen to one side , and they seem right , and then — God ! — I talk to the other side , and they seem just as right . " Harding tried compromise , and gained passage of the bill in the House after the end of the excess profits tax was delayed a year . In the Senate , the tax bill became entangled in efforts to vote World War I veterans a soldier 's bonus . Frustrated by the delays , on July 12 , Harding appeared before the Senate and urged it to pass the tax legislation without the bonus . It was not until November that the bill finally passed , with higher rates than Mellon had proposed .
Harding had opposed payment of a bonus to veterans , arguing in his Senate address that much was already being done for them by a grateful nation , and that the bill would " break down our Treasury , from which so much is later on to be expected . " The Senate sent the bonus bill back to committee , but the issue returned when Congress reconvened in December 1921 . A bill providing a bonus , without a means of funding it , was passed by both houses in September 1922 . Harding vetoed it , and the veto was narrowly sustained . A bonus , not payable in cash , was voted to soldiers despite Coolidge
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's veto in 1924 .
In his first annual message to Congress , Harding sought the power to adjust tariff rates . The passage of the tariff bill in the Senate , and in conference committee became a feeding frenzy of lobbyist interests . Harding , when he enacted the Fordney – McCumber Tariff Act on September 21 , 1922 , made a brief signing statement , praising only that the bill gave him some power to adjust rates . According to Trani and Wilson , the bill was " ill @-@ considered . It wrought havoc in international commerce and made the repayment of war debts more difficult . "
Harding ’ s Treasury Secretary , Andrew Mellon , ordered a study which demonstrated historically that , as income tax rates were increased , money was driven underground or abroad . Mellon concluded that lower rates would increase tax revenues . Based on this advice , Harding cut taxes , starting in 1922 . The top marginal rate was reduced annually in four stages from 73 % in 1921 to 25 % in 1925 . Taxes were cut for lower incomes starting in 1923 . The lower rates substantially increased the money flowing to the treasury . They also pushed massive deregulation and federal spending as a share of GDP fell from 6 @.@ 5 % to 3 @.@ 5 % . By late 1922 the economy began to turn around . Unemployment was pared from its 1921 high of 12 % to an average of 3 @.@ 3 % for the remainder of the decade . The misery index which is a combination of unemployment and inflation had its sharpest decline in U.S. history under President Harding . Wages , profits , and productivity all made substantial gains as well real GDP average at over 5 % during the 1920s . Libertarian historian Thomas Woods contends that the tax cuts implemented by President Harding ended the Depression of 1920 – 21 and were responsible for creating a decade @-@ long expansion . Historians Larry Schweikart and Michael Allen argue that , " Mellon 's tax policies set the stage for the most amazing growth yet seen in America 's already impressive economy . "
= = = = Embracing new technologies = = = =
The 1920s were a time of modernization for America . Use of electricity became increasingly common . Mass production of the motor car stimulated other industries , as well , such as highway construction , rubber , steel , and building , as hotels were erected to accommodate the tourists venturing upon the roads . This economic boost helped bring the nation out of the recession . To improve and expand the nation 's highway system , Harding signed the Federal Highway Act of 1921 . From 1921 to 1923 , the federal government spent $ 162 million on America 's highway system , infusing the U.S. economy with a large amount of capital . In 1922 , Harding proclaimed that America was in the age of the " motor car " , which " reflects our standard of living and gauges the speed of our present @-@ day life . "
Harding had urged regulation of radio broadcasting in his April 1921 speech to Congress . Commerce Secretary Hoover took charge of this project , and convened a conference of radio broadcasters in 1922 , which led to a voluntary agreement for licensing of radio frequencies through the Commerce Department . Both Harding and Hoover realized something more than an agreement was needed , but Congress was slow to act , not imposing radio regulation until 1927 .
Harding also wished to promote aviation , and Hoover again took the lead , convening a national conference on commercial aviation . The discussions focused on safety matters , inspection of airplanes , and licensing of pilots . Harding again promoted legislation but nothing was done until 1926 , when the Air Commerce Act created the Bureau of Aeronautics within Hoover 's Commerce Department .
= = = = Business and labor = = = =
Harding 's attitude toward business was that government should aid it as much as possible . He was suspicious of organized labor , viewing it as a conspiracy against business . He sought to get them to work together at a conference on unemployment that he called to meet in September 1921 at Hoover 's recommendation . Harding warned in his opening address that no federal money would be available . No important legislation came as a result , though some public works projects were accelerated .
Within broad limits , Harding allowed each cabinet secretary to run his department as he saw fit . Hoover expanded the Commerce Department to make it more useful to business . This was consistent with Hoover 's view that the private sector should take the lead in managing the economy . Harding greatly respected his Commerce Secretary , often asked his advice , and backed him to the hilt , calling Hoover " the smartest ' gink ' I know "
Widespread strikes marked 1922 , as labor sought redress for falling wages and increased unemployment . In April , 500 @,@ 000 coal miners , led by John L. Lewis , struck over wage cuts . Mining executives argued that the industry was seeing hard times ; Lewis accused them of trying to break the union . As the strike became protracted , Harding offered compromise to settle it . As Harding proposed , the miners agreed to return to work , and Congress created a commission to look into their grievances .
On July 1 , 1922 , 400 @,@ 000 railroad workers went on strike . Harding proposed a settlement that made some concessions , but management objected . Attorney General Daugherty convinced Judge James H. Wilkerson to issue a sweeping injunction to break up the strike . Although there was public support for the Wilkerson injunction , Harding felt it went too far , and had Daugherty and Wilkerson amend it . The injunction succeeded in ending the strike ; however , tensions remained high between railroad workers and management for years .
By 1922 , the eight @-@ hour day had become common in American industry . One exception was in steel mills , where workers labored through a twelve @-@ hour workday , seven days a week . Hoover considered this practice barbaric , and got Harding to convene a conference of steel manufacturers with a view to ending it . The conference established a committee under the leadership of U. S. Steel chairman Elbert Gary , which in early 1923 recommended against ending the practice . Harding sent a letter to Gary deploring the result , which was printed in the press , and public outcry caused the manufacturers to reverse themselves and standardize the eight @-@ hour day .
= = = = Civil rights and immigration = = = =
Although Harding 's first address to Congress called for passage of anti @-@ lynching legislation , he initially seemed inclined to do no more for African Americans than Republican presidents of the recent past had ; he asked cabinet officers to find places for blacks in their departments . Sinclair suggested that the fact that Harding received two @-@ fifths of the Southern vote in 1920 led him to see political opportunity for his party in the Solid South . On October 26 , 1921 , Harding gave a speech in Birmingham , Alabama , to a segregated audience of 20 @,@ 000 whites and 10 @,@ 000 blacks . Harding , while stating that the social and racial differences between whites and blacks could not be bridged , urged equal political rights for the African American . Many African Americans at that time voted Republican , especially in the Democratic South , and Harding stated he did not mind seeing that support end if the result was a strong two @-@ party system in the South . He was willing to see literacy tests for voting continue , if applied fairly to white and black . " Whether you like it or not , " Harding told his segregated audience , " unless our democracy is a lie , you must stand for that equality . " The white section of the audience listened in silence while the black section cheered .
Harding had spoken out against lynching in his April 1921 speech before Congress and supported Congressman Leonidas Dyer 's federal anti @-@ lynching bill , which passed the House of Representatives in January 1922 . When it reached the Senate floor in November 1922 , it was filibustered by Southern Democrats , and Lodge withdrew it so as to allow the ship subsidy bill Harding favored to be debated ( it was likewise filibustered ) . Blacks blamed Harding for the Dyer bill 's defeat ; Harding biographer Robert K. Murray noted that it was hastened to its end by Harding 's desire to have the ship subsidy bill considered .
With the public suspicious of immigrants , especially those who might be socialists or communists , Congress passed the Per Centum Act of 1921 , signed by Harding on May 19 , 1921 , as a quick means of restricting immigration . The act reduced the numbers of immigrants to 3 % of those from a given country living in the U.S. , based on the 1910 census . This would , in practice , not restrict immigration from Ireland and Germany , but would bar many Italians and eastern European Jews . Harding and Secretary of Labor James Davis believed that enforcement had to be humane , and at the secretary 's recommendation , Harding allowed almost a thousand deportable immigrants to remain . Coolidge signed a bill permanently restricting immigration to the U.S. in 1924 .
= = = = Debs and political prisoners = = = =
Harding 's Socialist opponent in the 1920 election , Eugene Debs , was serving a ten @-@ year sentence in the Atlanta Penitentiary for speaking against the war . Wilson had refused to pardon him before leaving office . Daugherty met with Debs , and was deeply impressed . There was opposition from veterans , including the American Legion , and also from Florence Harding . The president did not feel he could release Debs until the war was officially over , but once the peace treaties were signed commuted Debs ' sentence on December 23 , 1921 . At Harding 's request , Debs visited the president at the White House before going home to Indiana .
Harding released 23 other war opponents at the same time as Debs , and continued to review cases and release political prisoners throughout his presidency . Harding defended his prisoner releases as necessary to return the nation to normalcy .
= = = = Judicial appointments = = = =
Harding appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . When Chief Justice Edward Douglass White died in May 1921 , Harding was unsure whether to appoint former president Taft or former Utah senator George Sutherland — he had promised seats on the court to both men . After briefly considering awaiting another vacancy and appointing them both , he chose Taft as chief justice . Sutherland was appointed to the court in 1922 , to be followed by two other economic conservatives , Pierce Butler and Edward Terry Sanford , in 1923 .
Harding also appointed six judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , 42 judges to the United States district courts , and two judges to the United States Court of Customs Appeals .
= = = Final months , death , and funeral = = =
= = = = Political setbacks and western tour = = = =
Entering the 1922 midterm congressional election campaign , Harding and the Republicans had followed through on many of their campaign promises . But some of the fulfilled pledges , like cutting taxes for the well @-@ off , did not appeal to the electorate . The economy had not returned to normalcy , with unemployment at 11 percent , and organized labor angry over the outcome of the strikes . From 303 Republicans elected to the House in 1920 , the new 68th Congress would see that party fall to a 221 – 213 majority . In the Senate , the Republicans lost eight seats , and had 51 of 96 senators in the new Congress , which Harding did not survive to meet .
A month after the election , the lame @-@ duck session of the old 67th Congress met . Harding had come to believe that his early view of the presidency , that it should propose policies , but leave whether to adopt them to Congress , was not enough , and he lobbied Congress , although in vain , to get his ship subsidy bill through . Once Congress left town in early March 1923 , Harding 's popularity in the country began to recover . The economy was improving , and the programs of Harding 's more able cabinet members , such as Hughes , Mellon , and Hoover , were showing results . Most Republicans realized that there was no practical alternative to supporting Harding in 1924 .
In the first half of 1923 , Harding did two acts that were later said to indicate foreknowledge of death : he sold the Star ( though undertaking to remain as a contributing editor for ten years after his presidency ) , and made a new will . Harding had long suffered occasional health problems , but when he was not experiencing symptoms he tended to eat , drink , and smoke too much . By 1919 , he was aware he had a heart condition . Stress caused by the presidency and by Florence Harding 's ill @-@ health ( she had a chronic kidney condition ) debilitated him , and he never really recovered from an episode of influenza in January 1923 . After that , Harding , an avid golfer , had difficulty completing a round . In June 1923 , Ohio Senator Willis met with Harding , but brought to the president 's attention only two of the five items he intended to discuss . When asked why , Willis responded , " Warren seemed so tired " .
In June 1923 , Harding set out on a journey , which he dubbed the " Voyage of Understanding " . The president planned to cross the country , go north to Alaska Territory , journey south along the West Coast , then travel by Navy ship through the Panama Canal , to Puerto Rico , and to return to Washington at the end of August . Harding loved to travel and had long contemplated a trip to Alaska . The trip would allow him to speak widely across the country , to politic and bloviate in advance of the 1924 campaign , and allow him some rest away from Washington 's oppressive summer heat .
Harding 's political advisers had given him a physically demanding schedule , even though the president had ordered it cut back . In Kansas City , Harding spoke on transportation issues ; in Hutchinson , Kansas , agriculture was the theme . In Denver , he spoke on Prohibition , and continued west making a series of speeches not matched by any president until Franklin Roosevelt . Harding had become a supporter of the World Court , and wanted the U.S. to become a member . In addition to making speeches , he visited Yellowstone and Zion National Parks , and dedicated a monument on the Oregon Trail at a celebration organized by venerable pioneer Ezra Meeker and others .
On July 5 , Harding embarked on the USS Henderson in Washington state . The first president to visit Alaska , he spent hours watching the dramatic landscapes from the deck of the Henderson . After several stops along the coast , the presidential party left the ship at Seward to take the Alaska Central Railway to McKinley Park and Fairbanks , where he addressed a crowd of 1 @,@ 500 in 94 ° F ( 34 ° C ) heat . The party was to return to Seward by the Richardson Trail but due to Harding 's fatigue , it went by train .
On July 26 , 1923 , Harding toured Vancouver , British Columbia as the first sitting American president to visit Canada . Harding visited a golf course , but completed only six holes before being fatigued . After resting , he played the 17th and 18th holes so it would appear he completed the round . He was not successful in hiding his exhaustion ; one reporter deemed him so tired a rest of mere days would not be sufficient to refresh him .
In Seattle the next day , Harding kept up his busy schedule , giving a speech to 25 @,@ 000 people at the stadium at the University of Washington . In the final speech he gave , Harding predicted statehood for Alaska . The president rushed through his speech , not waiting for applause by the audience .
= = = = Death in San Francisco , funeral , and memorial = = = =
Harding went to bed early in the evening of July 27 , 1923 . Later that night , he called for his physician , Charles E. Sawyer , complaining of pain in the upper abdomen . Sawyer thought it was a recurrence of a dietary upset , but Dr. Joel T. Boone suspected a heart problem . The next day , as the train rushed to San Francisco , Harding felt better , and when they arrived on the morning of July 29 , 1923 , Harding insisted on walking from the train to the car , which rushed him to the Palace Hotel where he suffered a relapse . Doctors found that not only was Harding 's heart causing problems , but he also had pneumonia , a serious matter in the days before effective antibiotics . When treated with caffeine and digitalis , Harding seemed to improve . He was pleased when his planned foreign policy address advocating membership in the World Court was released to the press by Hoover and received a favorable reception . By the afternoon of August 2 , 1923 , doctors allowed Harding to sit up in bed . That evening , about 7 : 30 pm , he was listening to his wife read him a flattering article about him from The Saturday Evening Post , " A Calm Review of a Calm Man " . When she paused to plump his pillows , he said , " That 's good , read some more " . As Florence Harding resumed , her husband twisted convulsively and collapsed , and she raced to get the doctors . They attempted stimulants , but were unable to revive him , and President Harding died of a cerebral hemorrhage on August 2 , 1923 , at the age of 57 .
Harding 's death came as a great shock to the nation . The president was liked and admired , and the press and public had followed his illness closely , and been reassured by his apparent recovery . Harding was returned to his train in a casket for a journey across the nation followed closely in the newspapers . Nine million people lined the tracks as Harding 's body was taken from San Francisco to Washington , D.C. , and after services there , home to Marion , Ohio , for burial .
In Marion , the body of Warren Harding was placed on a horse @-@ drawn hearse , which was followed by President Coolidge and Chief Justice Taft , then by Harding 's wife and father . They followed it through the city , past the Star building where the presses stood silent , and at last to the Marion Cemetery , where the casket was placed in the cemetery 's receiving vault . Harding 's body , along with that of his wife who died in 1924 , rests today in the Harding Tomb , which was dedicated in 1931 by President Hoover .
= = = Scandals = = =
Harding appointed a number of friends and acquaintances to federal positions . Some served competently , such as Charles E. Sawyer , the Hardings ' personal physician from Marion who attended to them in the White House . Sawyer had alerted Harding to the Veterans ' Bureau scandal . Others proved ineffective in office , such as Daniel R. Crissinger , a Marion lawyer whom Harding made Comptroller of the Currency and later a governor of the Federal Reserve Board ; or Harding 's old friend , Director of the Mint , Frank Scobey , whom Trani and Wilson noted " did little damage during his tenure " . Harding 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Heber H. Votaw , superintendent of federal prisons , was unable to root out the drug trade from within the facilities . Others of these associates proved corrupt and were later dubbed the " Ohio Gang " .
Most of the scandals that have marred the reputation of Harding 's administration did not emerge until after his death . The Veterans ' Bureau scandal was known to Harding in January 1923 but , according to Trani and Wilson , " the president 's handling of it did him little credit " . Harding allowed the corrupt director of the bureau , Charles R. Forbes , to flee to Europe , though he later returned and served prison time . Harding had learned that Daugherty 's factotum at the Justice Department , Jess Smith , was involved in corruption . The president ordered Daugherty to get Smith out of Washington and removed his name from the upcoming presidential trip to Alaska . Smith committed suicide on May 30 , 1923 . It is uncertain how much Harding knew about Smith 's illicit activities . Murray noted that Harding was not involved in the corruption and did not condone it .
Hoover accompanied Harding on the Western trip and later wrote that Harding asked then what Hoover would do if he knew of some great scandal , whether to publicize it or bury it . Hoover replied that Harding should publish and get credit for integrity , and asked for details . Harding stated that it had to do with Smith but , when Hoover enquired as to Daugherty 's possible involvement , Harding refused to answer .
= = = = Teapot Dome = = = =
The scandal which has likely done the greatest damage to Harding 's reputation is Teapot Dome . Like most of the administration 's scandals , it came to light after Harding 's death , and he was not aware of the illegal aspects . Teapot Dome involved an oil reserve in Wyoming which was one of three set aside for the use of the Navy in a national emergency . There was a longstanding argument that the reserves should be developed ; Wilson 's first Interior Secretary Franklin Knight Lane was an advocate of this position . When the Harding administration took office , Interior Secretary Fall took up Lane 's argument and Harding signed an executive order in May 1921 transferring the reserves from the Navy Department to Interior . This was done with the consent of Navy Secretary Edwin C. Denby .
The Interior Department announced in July 1921 that Edward Doheny had been awarded a lease to drill along the edges of naval reserve Elk Hills in California . The announcement attracted little controversy , as the oil would have been lost to wells on adjacent private land . Wyoming Senator John Kendrick had heard from constituents that Teapot Dome had also been leased , but no announcement had been made . The Interior Department refused to provide documentation , so he secured the passage of a Senate resolution compelling disclosure . The department sent a copy of the lease granting drilling rights to Harry Sinclair 's Mammoth Oil Company , along with a statement that there had been no competitive bidding because military preparedness was involved — Mammoth was to build oil tanks for the Navy as part of the deal . This satisfied some people , but some conservationists , such as Gifford Pinchot , Harry A. Slattery , and others , pushed for a full investigation into Fall and his activities . They got Wisconsin Senator Robert M. La Follette Sr. to begin a Senate investigation into the oil leases . La Follette persuaded Democratic Montana Senator Thomas J. Walsh to lead the investigation , and Walsh read through the truckload of material provided by the Interior Department through 1922 into 1923 , including a letter from Harding stating that the transfer and leases had been with his knowledge and approval .
Hearings into Teapot Dome began in October 1923 , after Harding 's death . Fall had left office earlier that year , but he denied receiving any money from Sinclair or Doheny ; Sinclair agreed . The following month , Walsh learned that Fall had spent lavishly on expanding and improving his New Mexico ranch . Fall reappeared and stated that the money had come as a loan from Harding 's friend and The Washington Post publisher Edward B. McLean , but McLean denied it when he testified . Doheny told the committee that he had given Fall the money in cash as a personal loan out of regard for their past association , but Fall invoked the Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination when he was compelled to appear again , rather than answer questions .
Investigators found that Fall and a relative had received a total of about $ 400 @,@ 000 from Doheny and Sinclair , and that the transfers were contemporaneous with the controversial leases . Fall was ultimately convicted in 1929 for accepting bribes and , in 1931 , became the first U.S. cabinet member to be imprisoned for crimes committed while in office . Sinclair was convicted only of contempt of court for jury tampering . Doheny was brought to trial before a jury in April 1930 for giving the bribe which Fall had been convicted of accepting , but he was acquitted .
= = = = Justice Department = = = =
Harding 's appointment of Harry M. Daugherty as Attorney General received more criticism than any other . Daugherty 's Ohio lobbying and back room maneuvers were not considered to qualify him for his office . When the scandals broke in 1923 and 1924 , Daugherty 's many enemies were delighted at the prospect of connecting him with the dishonesty , and assumed he had taken part in Teapot Dome , though Fall and Daugherty were not friends . In February 1924 , the Senate voted to investigate the Justice Department , where Daugherty remained Attorney General .
Democratic Montana Senator Burton K. Wheeler was on the investigating committee and assumed the role of prosecutor when hearings began on March 12 , 1924 . Jess Smith had engaged in influence peddling before his suicide , conspiring with two other Ohioans , Howard Mannington and Fred A. Caskey , to accept payoffs from alcohol bootleggers to secure either immunity from prosecution or the release of liquor from government warehouses . Mannington and Caskey 's residence became infamous as the Little Green House on K Street . Some witnesses , such as Smith 's divorced wife Roxy Stinson , and corrupt former FBI agent Gaston Means , alleged that Daugherty was personally involved . Coolidge requested Daugherty 's resignation when the Attorney General indicated that he would not allow Wheeler 's committee access to Justice Department records , and Daugherty complied on March 28 , 1924 .
The illicit activity that caused Daugherty the most problems was a Smith deal with Colonel Thomas W. Miller , a former Delaware congressman , whom Harding had appointed Alien Property Custodian . Smith and Miller received a payoff of almost half a million dollars for getting a German @-@ owned firm , the American Metal Company , released to new U.S. owners . Smith deposited $ 50 @,@ 000 in a joint account with Daugherty , used for political purposes . Records relating to that account were destroyed by Daugherty and his brother . Miller and Daugherty were indicted for defrauding the government . The first trial , in September 1926 , resulted in a hung jury ; at the second , early in 1927 , Miller was convicted and served prison time , but the jury again hung as to Daugherty . Though charges against Daugherty were then dropped , and he was never convicted of any offense , his refusal to take the stand in his own defense devastated what was left of his reputation . The former Attorney General remained defiant , blaming his troubles on his enemies in the labor movement and on the Communists , and wrote that he had " done nothing that prevents my looking the whole world in the face " .
= = = = Veterans ' Bureau = = = =
Charles R. Forbes , the energetic director of the Veterans ' Bureau , sought to consolidate control of veterans ' hospitals and their construction in his bureau . At the start of Harding 's presidency , this power was vested in the Treasury Department . The politically @-@ powerful American Legion backed Forbes and denigrated those who opposed him , like Secretary Mellon , and in April 1922 , Harding agreed to transfer control to the Veterans ' Bureau . Forbes ' main task was to ensure that new hospitals were built around the country to help the 300 @,@ 000 wounded World War I veterans .
Near the beginning of 1922 , Forbes had met Elias Mortimer , agent for the Thompson @-@ Black Construction Company of St. Louis , which wanted to construct the hospitals . The two men became close , and Mortimer paid for Forbes ' travels through the West , looking at potential hospital sites for the wounded World War I veterans . Forbes was also friendly with Charles F. Hurley , owner of the Hurley @-@ Mason Construction Company of Washington state . Harding had ordered that all contracts be pursuant to public notice , but the three worked out a deal whereby the two companies would get the contracts with the profits divided three ways . Some of the money went to the bureau 's chief counsel , Charles F. Cramer . Forbes defrauded the government in this hospital construction , increasing construction costs from $ 3 @,@ 000 to $ 4 @,@ 000 per bed . A tenth of the inflated construction billings was set aside for the conspirators , with Forbes receiving a third of the take . The graft then spread to land acquisition , with Forbes authorizing the purchase of a San Francisco tract – that was worth less than $ 20 @,@ 000 – for $ 105 @,@ 000 . At least $ 25 @,@ 000 of the resulting financial excess was divided between Forbes and Cramer .
Intent on making more money , Forbes in November 1922 began selling valuable hospital supplies under his control in large warehouses at the Perryville Depot in Maryland . The government had stockpiled huge quantities of hospital supplies during the first World War , which Forbes unloaded for a fraction of their cost to the Boston firm of Thompson and Kelly at a time when the Veterans ' Bureau was buying supplies for the hospitals at a much higher price .
The check on Forbes ' authority at Perryville was Dr. Sawyer , Harding 's physician and chairman of the Federal Hospitalization Board . Sawyer told Harding that Forbes was selling valuable hospital supplies to an insider contractor . At first Harding did not believe it , but Sawyer secured proof in January 1923 . A shocked Harding , who alternated between rage and despondency over the corruption in his administration , summoned Forbes to the White House and demanded his resignation . Harding did not want an open scandal and allowed Forbes to flee to Europe , from where he resigned on February 15 , 1923 . In spite of Harding 's efforts , gossip about Forbes ' activities resulted in the Senate ordering an investigation two weeks later , and in mid @-@ March , Cramer committed suicide .
Mortimer was willing to tell all , as Forbes had had an affair with his wife ( which also broke up the Forbes marriage ) . The construction executive was the star witness at the hearings in late 1923 , after Harding 's death . Forbes returned from Europe to testify , but convinced few , and in 1924 , he and John W. Thompson , of Thompson – Black , were tried in Chicago for conspiracy to defraud the government . Both were convicted and sentenced to two years in prison . Forbes began to serve his sentence in 1926 ; Thompson , who had a bad heart , died that year before commencing his . According to Trani and Wilson , " One of the most troublesome aspects of the Harding presidency was that he appeared to be far more concerned with political liabilities of a scandal than in securing justice . "
= = Extramarital affairs = =
Harding had an extramarital affair with Carrie Fulton Phillips of Marion , which lasted about fifteen years before ending in 1920 . Letters from Harding to Phillips were discovered by Harding biographer Francis Russell in the possession of Marion attorney Donald Williamson while Russell was researching his book in 1963 . Before that , the affair was not generally known . Williamson donated the letters to the Ohio Historical Society . Some there wanted the letters destroyed to preserve what remained of Harding 's reputation . A lawsuit ensued , with Harding 's heirs claiming copyright over the letters . The case was ultimately settled in 1971 , with the letters donated to the Library of Congress . They were sealed until 2014 , but before their opening , historians used copies at Case Western Reserve University and in Russell 's papers at the University of Wyoming . Russell concluded from the letters that Phillips was the love of Harding 's life — " the enticements of his mind and body combined in one person " , but historian Justin P. Coffey in his 2014 review of Harding biographies criticizes him for " obsess [ ing ] over Harding 's sex life " .
The allegations of Harding 's other known mistress , Nan Britton , long remained uncertain . In 1927 , Britton , also a Marionite , published The President 's Daughter , alleging that her child Elizabeth Ann Blaesing had been fathered by Harding . The book , which was dedicated to " all unwedded mothers " and " their innocent children whose fathers are usually not known to the world " , was sold , like pornography , door @-@ to @-@ door wrapped in brown paper . The late president 's reputation had deteriorated since his death in 1923 , and many believed Britton . The public was tantalized by salacious details such as Britton 's claim that the two had sex in a White House closet , with Secret Service agents posted to ward off intruders . Although part of the public believed her , a jury found against her when she alleged she was libeled by a refutation of her book . According to Harding family lore , the late President was infertile and could not have fathered a child , having suffered from mumps in childhood ; Britton maintained that Harding had provided child support of $ 500 per month for the daughter he never met , but she had destroyed romantic correspondence from him at his request .
Harding 's biographers , writing while Britton 's allegations remained uncertain , differed on their truth ; Russell believed them unquestioningly while Dean , having reviewed Britton 's papers at UCLA , regarded them as unproven . In 2015 , the results of DNA comparisons between members of the Harding and Blaesing families conducted by ancestry.com indicated that Harding was Elizabeth 's father . Sinclair wondered that Harding 's infidelity was held so much against him , given that Grover Cleveland was elected president in 1884 although it was known he had a mistress and may have fathered a son out of wedlock .
= = Historical view = =
Upon his death , Harding was deeply mourned . He was called a man of peace in many European newspapers ; American journalists praised him lavishly , with some describing him as having given his life for his country . His associates were stunned by his demise ; Daugherty wrote , " I can hardly write about it or allow myself to think about it yet " . Hughes stated , " I cannot realize that our beloved Chief is no longer with us " .
Hagiographic accounts of Harding 's life quickly followed his death , such as Joe Mitchell Chapple 's Life and Times of Warren G. Harding , Our After @-@ War President ( 1924 ) . By then , the scandals were breaking , and the Harding administration soon became a byword for corruption in the view of the public . Works written in the late 1920s helped shape Harding 's historical reputation : Masks in a Pageant by William Allen White mocked and dismissed Harding , as did Samuel Hopkins Adams ' fictionalized account of the Harding administration , Revelry . These books depicted Harding 's time in office as one of great presidential weakness . The publication of Nan Britton 's bestselling book alleging they had had an affair also lowered the late president in public esteem . President Coolidge , not wishing to be further associated with his predecessor , refused to dedicate the Harding Tomb . Hoover , Coolidge 's successor , was similarly reluctant , but with Coolidge in attendance presided over the dedication in 1931 . By that time , with the Great Depression in full swing , Hoover was nearly as discredited as Harding .
Adams continued to shape the negative view of Harding with several nonfiction works in the 1930s , culminating with The Incredible Era — The Life and Times of Warren G. Harding ( 1939 ) in which he called his subject " an amiable , well @-@ meaning third @-@ rate Mr. Babbitt , with the equipment of a small @-@ town semi @-@ educated journalist ... It could not work . It did not work . " Dean deems the works of White and Adams " remarkably unbalanced and unfair accounts , exaggerating the negative , assigning responsibility to Harding for all wrongs , and denying him credit for anything done right . Today there is considerable evidence refuting their portrayals of Harding . Yet the myth has persisted . "
The opening of Harding 's papers for research in 1964 sparked a small spate of biographies , of which the most controversial was Russell 's The Shadow of Blooming Grove ( 1968 ) , which concluded that the rumors of black ancestry ( the " shadow " of the title ) deeply affected Harding in his formative years , causing both Harding 's conservatism and his desire to get along with everyone . Coffey faults Russell 's methods , and deems the biography " largely critical , though not entirely unsympathetic " . Murray 's The Harding Era ( 1969 ) took a more positive view of the president , and put him in the context of his times . Trani and Wilson faulted him for " a tendency to go overboard " in trying to connect Harding with the successful policies of cabinet officers , and for asserting , without sufficient evidence , that a new , more assertive Harding had emerged by 1923 .
More recently , there have been revisionist books on Harding . Robert Ferrell 's The Strange Deaths of President Harding ( 1996 ) , according to Coffey , " spends almost the entire work challenging every story about Harding and concludes that almost everything that is read and taught about his subject is wrong " . In 2004 , John Dean , noted for his involvement in another presidential scandal , Watergate , wrote the Harding volume in " The American Presidents " series of short biographies , edited by Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr . Coffey deemed that book the most revisionist to date , and faults Dean for glossing over some unfavorable episodes in Harding 's life , like his silence during the 1914 Senate campaign , when his opponent Hogan was being attacked for his faith .
Harding has traditionally been ranked as one of the worst presidents . In a 1948 poll conducted by Harvard University , historian Arthur M. Schlesinger , Sr. conducted the first notable survey of scholars ' opinions of the presidents , Harding ranked last among the 29 presidents considered . He has also been last in other polls since , which Ferrell attributes to scholars reading little but sensational accounts of Harding . Murray argued that Harding deserves more credit than historians have given , " he was certainly the equal of a Franklin Pierce , an Andrew Johnson , a Benjamin Harrison , or even a Calvin Coolidge . In concrete accomplishments , his administration was superior to a sizable portion of those in the nation 's history . " Coffey believes " the academic lack of interest in Harding has cost him his reputation , as scholars still rank Harding as nearly dead last among presidents " .
Murray argued that Harding sowed the seeds for his administration 's poor standing :
In the American system , there is no such thing as an innocent bystander in the White House . If Harding can rightly claim the achievements of a Hughes in State or a Hoover in Commerce , he must also shoulder responsibility for a Daugherty in Justice and a Fall in Interior . Especially must he bear the onus of his lack of punitive action against such men as Forbes and Smith . By his inaction , he forfeited whatever chance he had to maintain the integrity of his position and salvage a favorable image for himself and his administration . As it was , the subsequent popular and scholarly negative verdict was inevitable , if not wholly deserved .
= On the Origin of Species =
On the Origin of Species , published on 24 November 1859 , is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology . Darwin 's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection . It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution . Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research , correspondence , and experimentation .
Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology . There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public , but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England , while science was part of natural theology . Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique , unrelated to other animals . The political and theological implications were intensely debated , but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream .
The book was written for non @-@ specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication . As Darwin was an eminent scientist , his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific , philosophical , and religious discussion . The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism . Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution , with a branching pattern of common descent , had occurred , but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate . During " the eclipse of Darwinism " from the 1880s to the 1930s , various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit . With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s , Darwin 's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory , and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences .
= = Summary of Darwin 's theory = =
Darwin 's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them , which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised as follows :
Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce the population would grow ( fact ) .
Despite periodic fluctuations , populations remain roughly the same size ( fact ) .
Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time ( fact ) .
A struggle for survival ensues ( inference ) .
Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another ( fact ) .
Much of this variation is heritable ( fact ) .
Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce ; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations , which produces the process of natural selection ( fact ) .
This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments , and ultimately , these variations accumulate over time to form new species ( inference ) .
= = Background = =
= = = Developments before Darwin 's theory = = =
In later editions of the book , Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle ; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles . Early Christian Church Fathers and Medieval European scholars interpreted the Genesis creation narrative allegorically rather than as a literal historical account ; organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form . Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious , with monstrous births from union between species , and spontaneous generation of life .
The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible , with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method . After the turmoil of the English Civil War , the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability . John Ray developed an influential natural theology of rational order ; in his taxonomy , species were static and fixed , their adaptation and complexity designed by God , and varieties showed minor differences caused by local conditions . In God 's benevolent design , carnivores caused mercifully swift death , but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem . The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan . In 1766 , Georges Buffon suggested that some similar species , such as horses and asses , or lions , tigers , and leopards , might be varieties descended from a common ancestor . The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC , but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world . Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas , but James Hutton proposed a self @-@ maintaining infinite cycle , anticipating uniformitarianism .
Charles Darwin 's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s , and Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809 . Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity , adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse . This process was later called Lamarckism . Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity , in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction . Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos , and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies . Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas , holding that unrelated , fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs . His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction , which he explained by local catastrophes , followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species .
In Britain , William Paley 's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial " design " by the Creator acting through natural laws . All naturalists in the two English universities ( Oxford and Cambridge ) were Church of England clergymen , and science became a search for these laws . Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment , initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood . Some anatomists such as Robert Grant were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy , but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order .
= = = Inception of Darwin 's theory = = =
Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine . In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant 's research into marine invertebrates . Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species , but Darwin rejected it . Starting in 1827 , at Cambridge University , Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow , and read Paley , John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt . Filled with zeal for science , he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick .
In December 1831 , he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist . He read Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore , at St. Jago , found Lyell 's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes . Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos , and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their " centre of creation " . The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised , yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed " miserable , degraded savages " , and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals . As the Beagle neared England in 1836 , he noted that species might not be fixed .
Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent . In March 1837 , ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin 's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea ( though their territories overlapped ) , that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island , and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches . Darwin began speculating , in a series of notebooks , on the possibility that " one species does change into another " to explain these findings , and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree , discarding Lamarck 's independent lineages progressing to higher forms . Unconventionally , Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists . At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape , and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed .
In late September 1838 , he started reading Thomas Malthus 's An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical argument that human populations , if unrestrained , breed beyond their means and struggle to survive . Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle 's " warring of the species " in plants ; he immediately envisioned " a force like a hundred thousand wedges " pushing well @-@ adapted variations into " gaps in the economy of nature " , so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities , and unfavourable variations would be destroyed . By December 1838 , he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by " chance " so that " every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected " .
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection " by which to work " , but he was fully occupied with his career as a geologist and held off writing a sketch of his theory until his book on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was completed in May 1842 .
= = = Further development = = =
Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage . He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842 ; then in June he roughed out a 35 @-@ page " Pencil Sketch " of his theory . Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844 , and by July had rounded out his " sketch " into a 230 @-@ page " Essay " , to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely .
In November 1844 , the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers , widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species . Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time . But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin 's work in progress , and it ignored adaptation . Darwin read it soon after publication , and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology , but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists , including Adam Sedgwick , attacked its morality and scientific errors . Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion , and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream . While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation , Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s .
Hooker was persuaded to take away a copy of the " Essay " in January 1847 , and eventually sent a page of notes giving Darwin much needed feedback . Reminded of his lack of expertise in taxonomy , Darwin began an eight @-@ year study of barnacles , becoming the leading expert on their classification . Using his theory , he discovered homologies showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions , and he found an intermediate stage in the evolution of distinct sexes .
Darwin 's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances . In 1854 , he completed the last part of his Beagle @-@ related writing and began working full @-@ time on evolution . His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only , as on islands , to an emphasis on speciation without isolation ; that is , he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches . He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory . He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals , became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding , and experimented ( with the help of his son Francis ) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands . By 1856 , his theory was much more sophisticated , with a mass of supporting evidence .
= = Publication = =
= = = Events leading to publication = = =
An 1855 paper on the " introduction " of species , written by Alfred Russel Wallace , claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing , closely related species . Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace 's paper and its possible connection to Darwin 's work , although Darwin did not , and in a letter written on 1 – 2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority . Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper . He met Lyell , and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal . He began a " sketch " account on 14 May 1856 , and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species . His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas .
Darwin was hard at work on his " big book " on Natural Selection , when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace , who stayed on the Maluku Islands ( Ternate and Gilolo ) . It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism , a response to Darwin 's recent encouragement , with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile . The mechanism was similar to Darwin 's own theory . Darwin wrote to Lyell that " your words have come true with a vengeance , ... forestalled " and he would " of course , at once write and offer to send [ it ] to any journal " that Wallace chose , adding that " all my originality , whatever it may amount to , will be smashed " . Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace 's pages with extracts from Darwin 's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society , and on 1 July 1858 , the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection , by Wallace and Darwin respectively , were read out but drew little reaction . While Darwin considered Wallace 's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection , historians have pointed out differences . Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders , and emphasised competition between individuals ; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding , and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions . Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation .
After the meeting , Darwin decided to write " an abstract of my whole work " . He started work on 20 July 1858 , while on holiday at Sandown , and wrote parts of it from memory . Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III , of the publishing house John Murray , who responded immediately to Darwin 's letter of 31 March 1859 with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript , and an offer to Darwin of 2 ⁄ 3 of the profits . ( eventually Murray paid £ 180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin 's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition , earning Darwin nearly £ 3000 . )
= = = = Choice of title = = = =
Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection , but with Murray 's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title : On the Origin of Species , with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life .
Here and elsewhere in the book , Darwin used the term " races " interchangeably with " varieties " , with the meaning of varieties within a species . Thus , he discussed " the several races , for instance , of the cabbage " and " the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants " . There are very few references to human races , and Darwin avoided explaining this topic which was then controversial in debates over slavery and imperialism , but in Difficulties for the theory he indicated that the principle of sexual selection could also apply to " the races of man " .
= = = Time taken to publish = = =
Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection " by which to work " by December 1838 , yet almost twenty years later , when Wallace 's letter arrived on 18 June 1858 , Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory . It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons . Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed , and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma . Charles Darwin 's illness caused repeated delays . His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong , and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct . David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed , and notes Darwin 's large output of books and busy family life during that time .
A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s , and Darwin 's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable . Darwin always finished one book before starting another . While he was researching , he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage . He firmly intended to publish , but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full @-@ time . His estimate that writing his " big book " would take five years was optimistic .
= = = Publication and subsequent editions = = =
On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859 , priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies . The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray 's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November , and all available copies had been taken up immediately . In total , 1 @,@ 250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies , and five for Stationers ' Hall copyright , around 1 @,@ 170 copies were available for sale . Significantly , 500 were taken by Mudie 's Library , ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library . The second edition of 3 @,@ 000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860 , and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii , a quotation from Charles Kingsley , and the phrase " by the Creator " added to the closing sentence . During Darwin 's lifetime the book went through six editions , with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter @-@ arguments raised . The third edition came out in 1861 , with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix , An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species , while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions . The fifth edition , published on 10 February 1869 , incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase " survival of the fittest " , which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology ( 1864 ) .
In January 1871 , George Jackson Mivart 's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection , and claimed it included false metaphysics . Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin ( this was the first edition in which he used the word " evolution " which had commonly been associated with embryological development , though all editions concluded with the word " evolved " ) , and added a new chapter VII , Miscellaneous objections , to address Mivart 's arguments .
The sixth edition was published by Murray on 19 February 1872 as The Origin of Species , with " On " dropped from the title . Darwin had told Murray of working men in Lancashire clubbing together to buy the 5th edition at fifteen shillings and wanted it made more widely available ; the price was halved to 7s 6d by printing in a smaller font . It includes a glossary compiled by W.S. Dallas . Book sales increased from 60 to 250 per month .
= = = Publication outside Great Britain = = =
In the United States , botanist Asa Gray an American colleague of Darwin negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version , but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin . Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book , and asked Gray to keep any profits . Gray managed to negotiate a 5 % royalty with Appleton 's of New York , who got their edition out in mid January 1860 , and the other two withdrew . In a May letter , Darwin mentioned a print run of 2 @,@ 500 copies , but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year .
The book was widely translated in Darwin 's lifetime , but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors , and some translations were biased by the translator 's own agenda . Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany , hoping that suitable applicants would come forward , as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher . He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn , but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn 's own ideas , adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted . Bronn translated " favoured races " as " perfected races " , and added essays on issues including the origin of life , as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn 's adherence to Naturphilosophie . In 1862 , Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin 's suggested additions , but then died of a heart attack . Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus , who published an improved translation in 1867 . Darwin 's attempts to find a translator in France fell through , and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin 's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics , as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed . Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870 , but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions . He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876 . A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860 . By 1864 , additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian . In Darwin 's lifetime , Origin was published in Swedish in 1871 , Danish in 1872 , Polish in 1873 , Hungarian in 1873 – 1874 , Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878 . By 1977 , it had appeared in an additional 18 languages .
= = Content = =
= = = Title pages and introduction = = =
Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws , harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton 's belief in a rational God who established a law @-@ abiding cosmos . In the second edition , Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles , in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends . The Introduction establishes Darwin 's credentials as a naturalist and author , then refers to John Herschel 's letter suggesting that the origin of species " would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process " :
WHEN on board HMS Beagle , as naturalist , I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America , and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent . These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species — that mystery of mysteries , as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers .
Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species rheas , and to that of the Galápagos tortoises and mockingbirds . He mentions his years of work on his theory , and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion , which led him to " publish this Abstract " of his incomplete work . He outlines his ideas , and sets out the essence of his theory :
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive ; and as , consequently , there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence , it follows that any being , if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself , under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life , will have a better chance of surviving , and thus be naturally selected . From the strong principle of inheritance , any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form .
Starting with the third edition , Darwin prefaced the introduction with a sketch of the historical development of evolutionary ideas . In that sketch he acknowledged that Patrick Matthew had , unknown to Wallace or himself , anticipated the concept of natural selection in an appendix to a book published in 1831 ; in the fourth edition he mentioned that William Charles Wells had done so as early as 1813 .
= = = Variation under domestication and under nature = = =
Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding , going back to ancient Egypt . Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding . As an illustration of artificial selection , he describes fancy pigeon breeding , noting that " [ t ] he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing " , yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon . Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation : ( 1 ) rare abrupt changes he called " sports " or " monstrosities " ( example : ancon sheep with short legs ) , and ( 2 ) ubiquitous small differences ( example : slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons ) . Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders . However , for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution .
In Chapter II , Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary , with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found . He concludes that " a well @-@ marked variety may be justly called an incipient species " and that " species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties " . He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature . Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another , but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species , that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God . Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world .
= = = Struggle for existence , natural selection , and divergence = = =
In Chapter III , Darwin asks how varieties " which I have called incipient species " become distinct species , and in answer introduces the key concept he calls " natural selection " ; in the fifth edition he adds , " But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer , of the Survival of the Fittest , is more accurate , and is sometimes equally convenient . "
Owing to this struggle for life , any variation , however slight and from whatever cause proceeding , if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species , in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature , will tend to the preservation of that individual , and will generally be inherited by its offspring ... I have called this principle , by which each slight variation , if useful , is preserved , by the term of Natural Selection , in order to mark its relation to man 's power of selection .
He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition . Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase " struggle for existence " in " a large and metaphorical sense , including dependence of one being on another " ; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds . He describes the struggle resulting from population growth : " It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms . " He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies , and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms " which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature " .
Chapter IV details natural selection under the " infinitely complex and close @-@ fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life " . Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species , immigration of others and , where suitable variations occurred , descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions . He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds , and suggests that natural selection might do the same , saying :
But how , it may be asked , can any analogous principle apply in nature ? I believe it can and does apply most efficiently , from the simple circumstance that the more diversified the descendants from any one species become in structure , constitution , and habits , by so much will they be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of nature , and so be enabled to increase in numbers .
Historians have remarked that here Darwin anticipated the modern concept of an ecological niche . He did not suggest that every favourable variation must be selected , nor that the favoured animals were better or higher , but merely more adapted to their surroundings .
Darwin proposes sexual selection , driven by competition between males for mates , to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes , deer antlers , peacock tails , bird songs , and the bright plumage of some male birds . He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex ( 1871 ) . Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species , but given the effectiveness of artificial selection , he could " see no limit to the amount of change , to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings , one with another and with their physical conditions of life , which may be effected in the long course of time by nature 's power of selection " . Using a tree diagram and calculations , he indicates the " divergence of character " from original species into new species and genera . He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred , while new branches formed in " the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications " .
= = = Variation and heredity = = =
In Darwin 's time there was no agreed @-@ upon model of heredity ; in Chapter I Darwin admitted , " The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown . " He accepted a version of the inheritance of acquired characteristics ( which after Darwin 's death came to be called Lamarckism ) , and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse ; he wrote that he thought " there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts , and disuse diminishes them ; and that such modifications are inherited " , and that this also applied in nature . Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse , such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects , might be produced by natural selection . In later editions of Origin , Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics . Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations , but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors . However , one thing was clear : whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations , Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection . The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism .
Breeding of animals and plants showed related varieties varying in similar ways , or tending to revert to an ancestral form , and similar patterns of variation in distinct species were explained by Darwin as demonstrating common descent . He recounted how Lord Morton 's mare apparently demonstrated telegony , offspring inheriting characteristics of a previous mate of the female parent , and accepted this process as increasing the variation available for natural selection .
More detail was given in Darwin 's 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication , which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis . Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance , he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population . However , inherited variation could be seen , and Darwin 's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable . It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation . This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses Charles Darwin 's theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel 's theories of genetic inheritance .
= = = Difficulties for the theory = = =
Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory , the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found , though the theory implies such forms must have existed . As Darwin noted , " Firstly , why , if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations , do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms ? Why is not all nature in confusion , instead of the species being , as we see them , well defined ? " Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms , combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms , often leading to extinction of such forms . This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space .
Another difficulty , related to the first one , is the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in time . Darwin commented that by the theory of natural selection " innumerable transitional forms must have existed , " and wondered " why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the earth ? " ( for further discussion of these difficulties , see Speciation # Darwin 's Dilemma and Bernstein et al. and Michod )
The chapter then deals with whether natural selection could produce complex specialised structures , and the behaviours to use them , when it would be difficult to imagine how intermediate forms could be functional . Darwin said :
Secondly , is it possible that an animal having , for instance , the structure and habits of a bat , could have been formed by the modification of some animal with wholly different habits ? Can we believe that natural selection could produce , on the one hand , organs of trifling importance , such as the tail of a giraffe , which serves as a fly @-@ flapper , and , on the other hand , organs of such wonderful structure , as the eye , of which we hardly as yet fully understand the inimitable perfection ?
His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional . He presented flying squirrels , and flying lemurs as examples of how bats might have evolved from non @-@ flying ancestors . He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates , starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment , as examples of how the vertebrate eye could have evolved . Darwin concludes : " If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed , which could not possibly have been formed by numerous , successive , slight modifications , my theory would absolutely break down . But I can find out no such case . "
In a section on " organs of little apparent importance " , Darwin discusses the difficulty of explaining various seemingly trivial traits with no evident adaptive function , and outlines some possibilities such as correlation with useful features . He accepts that we " are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations " which distinguish domesticated breeds of animals , and human races . He suggests that sexual selection might explain these variations :
I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man , which are so strongly marked ; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences , chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind , but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous .
Chapter VII ( of the first edition ) addresses the evolution of instincts . His examples included two he had investigated experimentally : slave @-@ making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees . Darwin noted that some species of slave @-@ making ants were more dependent on slaves than others , and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food . He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps . He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells , under pressure from natural selection to economise wax . Darwin concluded :
Finally , it may not be a logical deduction , but to my imagination it is far more satisfactory to look at such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster @-@ brothers , — ants making slaves , — the larvæ of ichneumonidæ feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars , — not as specially endowed or created instincts , but as small consequences of one general law , leading to the advancement of all organic beings , namely , multiply , vary , let the strongest live and the weakest die .
Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species . Darwin said that , far from being constant , the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species , and the viability and fertility of the hybrids , varied greatly , especially among plants . Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely , and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty . Darwin concluded : " Finally , then , the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to , but even rather to support the view , that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties . "
In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII ( renumbering the subsequent chapters ) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions , including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection . He said some such features could have been by @-@ products of adaptive changes to other features , and that often features seemed non @-@ adaptive because their function was unknown , as shown by his book on Fertilisation of Orchids that explained how their elaborate structures facilitated pollination by insects . Much of the chapter responds to George Jackson Mivart 's criticisms , including his claim that features such as baleen filters in whales , flatfish with both eyes on one side and the camouflage of stick insects could not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate stages would not have been adaptive . Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature .
= = = Geologic record = = =
Chapter IX deals with the fact that the geologic record appears to show forms of life suddenly arising , without the innumerable transitional fossils expected from gradual changes . Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell 's argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence , spread over vast periods of time ; since few areas had been geologically explored , there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations , and fossil collections were very poor . Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species . Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history , but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms . To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly , he again cited Principles of Geology and other observations based on sedimentation and erosion , including an estimate that erosion of The Weald had taken 300 million years . The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil @-@ bearing layers , now known as the Cambrian explosion , posed a problem . Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures , but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils . Fossil evidence of pre @-@ Cambrian life has since been found , extending the history of life back for billions of years .
Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection , than by the individual creation of fixed species . Darwin expected species to change slowly , but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils . The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment . This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress . It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis , but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin 's commitment to gradualism . He cited Richard Owen 's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms , and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms , matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor . Patterns of extinction matched his theory , with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction , then not reappearing . Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras , and as he had seen in South America , and William Clift had shown in Australia , fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area .
= = = Geographic distribution = = =
Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography , starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone ; South America , Africa , and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes , but those regions have very different plants and animals . The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents . Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions . The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide . His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification . He went on to say : " On this principle of inheritance with modification , we can understand how it is that sections of genera , whole genera , and even families are confined to the same areas , as is so commonly and notoriously the case . " Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent . These species would become modified over time , but would still be related to species found on the continent , and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern . Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands , many of which he had investigated experimentally .
Chapter XII continues the discussion of biogeography . After a brief discussion of freshwater species , it returns to oceanic islands and their peculiarities ; for example on some islands roles played by mammals on continents were played by other animals such as flightless birds or reptiles . The summary of both chapters says :
... I think all the grand leading facts of geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration ( generally of the more dominant forms of life ) , together with subsequent modification and the multiplication of new forms . We can thus understand the high importance of barriers , whether of land or water , which separate our several zoological and botanical provinces . We can thus understand the localisation of sub @-@ genera , genera , and families ; and how it is that under different latitudes , for instance in South America , the inhabitants of the plains and mountains , of the forests , marshes , and deserts , are in so mysterious a manner linked together by affinity , and are likewise linked to the extinct beings which formerly inhabited the same continent ... On these same principles , we can understand , as I have endeavoured to show , why oceanic islands should have few inhabitants , but of these a great number should be endemic or peculiar ; ...
= = = Classification , morphology , embryology , rudimentary organs = = =
Chapter XIII starts by observing that classification depends on species being grouped together in a multilevel system of groups and sub groups based on varying degrees of resemblance . After discussing classification issues , Darwin concludes :
All the foregoing rules and aids and difficulties in classification are explained , if I do not greatly deceive myself , on the view that the natural system is founded on descent with modification ; that the characters which naturalists consider as showing true affinity between any two or more species , are those which have been inherited from a common parent , and , in so far , all true classification is genealogical ; that community of descent is the hidden bond which naturalists have been unconsciously seeking , ...
Darwin discusses morphology , including the importance of homologous structures . He says , " What can be more curious than that the hand of a man , formed for grasping , that of a mole for digging , the leg of the horse , the paddle of the porpoise , and the wing of the bat , should all be constructed on the same pattern , and should include the same bones , in the same relative positions ? " This made no sense under doctrines of independent creation of species , as even Richard Owen had admitted , but the " explanation is manifest on the theory of the natural selection of successive slight modifications " showing common descent . He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos . Darwin discusses rudimentary organs , such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes . He remarks that some rudimentary organs , such as teeth in baleen whales , are found only in embryonic stages . These factors also supported his theory of descent with modification .
= = = Concluding remarks = = =
The final chapter " Recapitulation and Conclusion " reviews points from earlier chapters , and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history . He suggests that psychology will be put on a new foundation and implies the relevance of his theory to the first appearance of humanity with the sentence that " Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history . " Darwin ends with a passage that became well known and much quoted :
It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank , clothed with many plants of many kinds , with birds singing on the bushes , with various insects flitting about , and with worms crawling through the damp earth , and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms , so different from each other , and dependent on each other in so complex a manner , have all been produced by laws acting around us ... Thus , from the war of nature , from famine and death , the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving , namely , the production of the higher animals , directly follows . There is grandeur in this view of life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one ; and that , whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity , from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been , and are being , evolved .
As discussed under religious attitudes , Darwin added the phrase " by the Creator " from the 1860 second edition onwards , so that the ultimate sentence began " There is grandeur in this view of life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one " .
= = Structure and style = =
= = = Nature and structure of Darwin 's argument = = =
Darwin 's aims were twofold : to show that species had not been separately created , and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change . He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges , and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism . Therefore , the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature , caused by the struggle for existence , is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication , and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation .
Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred , supporting the idea of branching , adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism . Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines , showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created . The structure of Darwin 's argument showed the influence of John Herschel , whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa ( true cause ) if three things could be demonstrated : its existence in nature , its ability to produce the effects of interest , and its ability to explain a wide range of observations .
= = = Literary style = = =
The Examiner review of 3 December 1859 commented , " Much of Mr. Darwin 's volume is what ordinary readers would call ' tough reading ; ' that is , writing which to comprehend requires concentrated attention and some preparation for the task . All , however , is by no means of this description , and many parts of the book abound in information , easy to comprehend and both instructive and entertaining . "
While the book was readable enough to sell , its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction . Unlike the still @-@ popular Vestiges , it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation , though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression . Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science , and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments . David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience , but noted that Darwin 's literary style was uneven : in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read , while in other places his writing was beautiful . Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics , and recommended the first edition . James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace 's essay , it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on , which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail . He added that some parts of Origin are dense , but other parts are almost lyrical , and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books , which broadened its audience .
= = Reception = =
The book aroused international interest and a widespread debate , with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological , social and religious implications . Much of the initial reaction was hostile , but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science . There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication Vestiges of Creation , which had been rejected by scientists , but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws . The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform . Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals , and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work , though it failed to match the continuing sales of Vestiges . Darwin 's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms , and the newly coined term Darwinism was used to cover the whole range of evolutionism , not just his own ideas . By the mid @-@ 1870s , evolutionism was triumphant .
While Darwin had been somewhat coy about human origins , not identifying any explicit conclusion on the matter in his book , he had dropped enough hints about human ’ s animal ancestry for the inference to be made , and the first review claimed it made a creed of the " men from monkeys " idea from Vestiges . Human evolution became central to the debate and was strongly argued by Huxley who featured it in his popular " working @-@ men 's lectures " . Darwin did not publish his own views on this until 1871 .
The naturalism of natural selection conflicted with presumptions of purpose in nature and while this could be reconciled by theistic evolution , other mechanisms implying more progress or purpose were more acceptable . Herbert Spencer had already incorporated Lamarckism into his popular philosophy of progressive free market human society . He popularised the terms evolution and survival of the fittest , and many thought Spencer was central to evolutionary thinking .
= = = Impact on the scientific community = = =
Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature , but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague " law of development " of Vestiges had not found scientific favour . Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible . His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study , and by 1875 , most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant . Darwin 's scientific method was also disputed , with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill 's A System of Logic , while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell 's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences , in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design . Early support for Darwin 's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology , including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860 , and Asa Gray in 1862 . Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection . Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research , including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line .
Evolution had less obvious applications to anatomy and morphology , and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley . Despite this , Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution ; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species , and questioned if Darwin 's gradualism was sufficient without sudden leaps to cause speciation . Huxley wanted science to be secular , without religious interference , and his article in the April 1860 Westminster Review promoted scientific naturalism over natural theology , praising Darwin for " extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has , as yet , hardly penetrated " and coining the term " Darwinism " as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science . Huxley gained influence , and initiated the X Club , which used the journal Nature to promote evolution and naturalism , shaping much of late Victorian science . Later , the German morphologist Ernst Haeckel would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies .
The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist Richard Owen , an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan . Owen 's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley , Hooker and Darwin , but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous " ordained becoming " , with new species appearing by natural birth . Others that rejected natural selection , but supported " creation by birth " , included the Duke of Argyll who explained beauty in plumage by design . Since 1858 , Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans , contesting Owen 's view that humans were a separate sub @-@ class . Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting featuring the legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate . In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the " Great Hippocampus Question " and parodied in The Water @-@ Babies as the " great hippopotamus test " , Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains . Others , including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace , thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes , but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process . Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man ( 1871 ) .
= = = = Impact outside Great Britain = = = =
Evolutionary ideas , although not natural selection , were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of homology in morphology from Goethe 's Metamorphosis of Plants and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy . Bronn 's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives , but enthused political radicals . Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent , aiming to synthesise Darwin 's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie . Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in palaeontology . Haeckel used embryology extensively in his recapitulation theory , which embodied a progressive , almost linear model of evolution . Darwin was cautious about such histories , and had already noted that von Baer 's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching .
Asa Gray promoted and defended Origin against those American naturalists with an idealist approach , notably Louis Agassiz who viewed every species as a distinct fixed unit in the mind of the Creator , classifying as species what others considered merely varieties . Edward Drinker Cope and Alpheus Hyatt reconciled this view with evolutionism in a form of neo @-@ Lamarckism involving recapitulation theory .
French @-@ speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer , but Darwin 's ideas had little impact in France , where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism . The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory , and scientists were quick to take it into account , although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant . The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy , who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin 's views .
= = = = Challenges to natural selection = = = =
There were serious scientific objections to the process of natural selection as the key mechanism of evolution , including Karl von Nägeli 's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection . Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics . His estimate that the age of the Earth allowed gradual evolution was disputed by William Thomson ( later awarded the title Lord Kelvin ) , who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years . Darwin accepted blending inheritance , but Fleeming Jenkin calculated that as it mixed traits , natural selection could not accumulate useful traits . Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition . Mivart supported directed evolution , and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection . In response , Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition . The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century .
By the mid @-@ 1870s , most scientists accepted evolution , but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive . The range of evolutionary theories during " the eclipse of Darwinism " included forms of " saltationism " in which new species were thought to arise through " jumps " rather than gradual adaptation , forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction , and forms of neo @-@ Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress . The minority view of August Weismann , that natural selection was the only mechanism , was called neo @-@ Darwinism . It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin 's views .
= = = Impact on economic and political debates = = =
While some , like Spencer , used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor , others , including Alfred Russel Wallace , argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further . Some political commentaries , including Walter Bagehot 's Physics and Politics ( 1872 ) , attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races . Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism . Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin 's scientific theory , and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution , such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel , as they were by Darwin 's work . Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans , and he opposed polygenism , the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry .
= = = Religious attitudes = = =
The book produced a wide range of religious responses at a time of changing ideas and increasing secularisation . The issues raised were complex and there was a large middle ground . Developments in geology meant that there was little opposition based on a literal reading of Genesis , but defence of the argument from design and natural theology was central to debates over the book in the English @-@ speaking world .
Natural theology was not a unified doctrine , and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book , others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful . In the Church of England , some liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God 's design , with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as " just as noble a conception of Deity " . In the second edition of January 1860 , Darwin quoted Kingsley as " a celebrated cleric " , and added the phrase " by the Creator " to the closing sentence , which from then on read " life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one " . While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted , Darwin 's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature , and even in the first edition there are several references to " creation " .
Baden Powell praised " Mr Darwin 's masterly volume [ supporting ] the grand principle of the self @-@ evolving powers of nature " . In America , Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect , or modus operandi , of the first cause , design , and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution , Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology . Theistic evolution became a popular compromise , and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin 's naturalistic mechanism . Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation , and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo @-@ Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose .
Even though the book did not explicitly spell out Darwin ’ s beliefs about human origins , it had dropped a number of hints about human ’ s animal ancestry and quickly became central to the debate , as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul , and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities . This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans , or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind 's position at the head of nature . While many conservative theologians accepted evolution , Charles Hodge argued in his 1874 critique " What is Darwinism ? " that " Darwinism " , defined narrowly as including rejection of design , was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design . Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin 's text . By the early 20th century , four noted authors of The Fundamentals were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution , but fundamentalism inspired the American creation – evolution controversy that began in the 1920s . Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century , but other Catholic writers , starting with Mivart , pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area . The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical , which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching .
= = Modern influence = =
Various alternative evolutionary mechanisms favoured during " the eclipse of Darwinism " became untenable as more was learned about inheritance and mutation . The full significance of natural selection was at last accepted in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the modern evolutionary synthesis . During that synthesis biologists and statisticians , including R. A. Fisher , Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane , merged Darwinian selection with a statistical understanding of Mendelian genetics .
Modern evolutionary theory continues to develop . Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection , with its tree @-@ like model of branching common descent , has become the unifying theory of the life sciences . The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment . It makes sense of the geologic record , biogeography , parallels in embryonic development , biological homologies , vestigiality , cladistics , phylogenetics and other fields , with unrivalled explanatory power ; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as medicine and agriculture . Despite the scientific consensus , a religion @-@ based political controversy has developed over how evolution is taught in schools , especially in the United States .
Interest in Darwin 's writings continues , and scholars have generated an extensive literature , the Darwin Industry , about his life and work . The text of Origin itself has been subject to much analysis including a variorum , detailing the changes made in every edition , first published in 1959 , and a concordance , an exhaustive external index published in 1981 . Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species and the bicentenary of Darwin 's birth were scheduled for 2009 . They celebrated the ideas which " over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it " .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Carpenter , William Benjamin ( 1859 ) , " Darwin on the Origin of Species " , National Review , vol . 10 no . December 1859 , pp. 188 – 214 . Published anonymously .
Gray , Asa ( 1860 ) , " ( Review of ) The Origin of Species " , Athenaeum ( 1710 : 4 August 1860 ) : 161 . Extract from Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 4 ( 1860 ) : 411 – 415 .
Huxley , Thomas Henry ( 1859 ) , " Time and Life : Mr Darwin 's Origin of Species " , Macmillan 's Magazine 1 : 142 – 148 .
Huxley , Thomas Henry ( 1859 ) , " Darwin on the Origin of Species " , The Times ( 26 December 1859 ) : 8 – 9 . Published anonymously .
Jenkin , Fleeming ( 1867 ) , " ( Review of ) The Origin of Species " , North British Review 46 ( June 1867 ) : 277 – 318 . Published anonymously .
Murray , Andrew ( 1860 ) , " On Mr Darwin 's Theory of the Origin of Species " , Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 4 : 274 – 291 .
Owen , Richard ( 1860 ) , " Review of Darwin 's Origin of Species " , Edinburgh Review 3 ( April 1860 ) : 487 – 532 . Published anonymously .
Wilberforce , Samuel ( 1860 ) , " ( Review of ) On the Origin of Species , by means of Natural Selection ; or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life " , Quarterly Review 108 ( 215 : July 1860 ) : 225 – 264 . Published anonymously .
For further reviews , see Darwin Online : Reviews & Responses to Darwin , Darwin Online , 10 March 2009 , retrieved 18 June 2009
= Antara ( news agency ) =
Antara is an Indonesian news agency organized as a private company under the Ministry of State @-@ owned Enterprises . It is the country 's national news agency , supplying news reports to the many domestic media organization . It is the only organization authorized to distribute news material created by foreign news agencies .
The news agency was founded in 1937 , when the country was still a colony in the Dutch Empire , by independence activists dissatisfied with the lack of local coverage by the Dutch @-@ owned Aneta news agency . Antara 's operation was absorbed into the Dōmei Tsushin news network following invasion by the Japanese in 1942 . Its staff played a key role in the broadcast of Indonesia 's proclamation of independence and assumed control of the Dōmei facilities in the region at the end of the war . The agency remained under private management until it was placed under the control of the presidency in the 1960s when the government shifted its focus from decolonization to nation @-@ building . Antara became an institution through which the state could promote its policies .
Following a wave of political reforms in the late 1990s , Antara began to produce its reporting independently of the government and was reorganized as a state @-@ owned enterprise in 2007 . However , media scholars argue that a lengthy relationship with the government makes it difficult for the agency to become an unbiased news organization . Antara celebrated its 75th anniversary on 13 December 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Antara was established on 13 December 1937 in Batavia ( later Jakarta ) , the colonial capital of the Dutch East Indies . Prior to its establishment , Dominique Willem Berretty had founded Aneta , the Indies ' first news agency . A number of Dutch and indigenous firms were also in existence but did not achieve similar stature . As a Dutch agency , however , Aneta rarely included local news in its coverage . This led to dissatisfaction among independence activists Soemanang Soerjowinoto and Albert Manoempak Sipahoetar , who eventually decided to form a separate news agency .
Soemanang had been working at the Tjaja Timoer newspaper , while Sipahoetar was an employee for a Dutch advertisement agency . The latter was also an acquaintance of Adam Malik , who had left Medan after Dutch authorities attempted to imprison him for political activism . The three met at Soemanang 's residence with author Armijn Pane to discuss the establishment of the news agency . Soemanang named the agency Antara based on Perantaraan , a weekly magazine he had previously established in Bogor . He became its editor @-@ in @-@ chief , while Sipahoetar became a senior editor . Antara 's first news bulletin reporting its own establishment , was reprinted in the newspapers Perasaan Kita on 14 December 1937 and Kebangoenan the following day . Sanusi Pane , Armijn Pane 's older brother and Kebangoenan 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief , and Perasaan Kita editor @-@ in @-@ chief Prawoto Soemodilogo were appointed to the agency 's board of directors .
The agency 's leadership was later reorganized . Soemanang became Antara 's managing editor , and while Malik became his deputy . Malik , twenty years old at the time , was credited with keeping the agency alive in its early years by building a base of supporters in the emerging indigenous middle class . After Soemanang left Antara in 1938 to become the director of the Pergoeroean Rakjat network of schools , Sipahoetar was promoted to editor @-@ in @-@ chief , and Pandoe Kartawigoena became the agency 's deputy editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Sipahoetar was later elevated to managing editor , but left the agency in 1939 because of an illness . Alwi Soetan Osman , an employee of the Indies ' Ministry of Justice , briefly succeeded him as managing editor before being replaced by Pandoe Kartawigoena .
When Japanese forces took control of the Indies in 1942 , the empire 's Dōmei Tsushin news agency established a branch office in Jakarta . Antara was renamed Yashima on 29 May , and it was eventually absorbed by the Dōmei news network three months later . Press activity flourished as Dōmei opened offices in major cities throughout Java . When Indonesia 's independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945 , Adam Malik obtained a copy of the text and dictated it by telephone to his colleagues at the agency . The resulting news bulletin slipped past Japanese censors and was broadcast throughout Dōmei 's newswire network . Dōmei officials attempted to retract the bulletin , but a courier was able to deliver a copy of the proclamation using the agency 's name to the Hōsō Kanrikyoku radio station in midst of the confusion . Antara assumed control of Dōmei 's local network when the Japanese surrendered to Allied forces weeks later and reopened under private management on 3 September .
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= = = Bog Natural Area = = =
The bogs at the park contain large amounts of sphagnum moss ; this decomposes very slowly , causing layers of dead moss to build up at the bottom of the bog , creating peat . In 1994 , 1 @,@ 592 acres ( 644 ha ) of bog at the state park were protected as the " Black Moshannon Bog Natural Area " ; this was originally conceived as part of the State Parks 2000 strategic plan of the DCNR , and fourteen years later the total area of bog protected as a Natural Area had increased to 1 @,@ 992 acres ( 806 ha ) .
Most bogs exist in glaciated areas , but Black Moshannon State Park is on the Allegheny Plateau . This area was not covered by glaciers during the last ice age . The bogs formed here because of the beds of sandstone that lie flat , a short distance below the surface of the earth . The sandstone formations in the park do not absorb water very well , so any depression in them will collect water , as has happened here . The bogs extend the shores of the lake . Migratory shorebirds that visit here include greater and lesser yellowlegs , least sandpiper , solitary sandpiper , and the spotted sandpiper , which has been confirmed as using the IBA as a breeding grounds .
The water in the bog is low in nutrients and high in acidity , which makes it difficult for most plants to live there . Only specialized plants can thrive in the park bogs : there are three species of carnivorous plants and seventeen varieties of orchid . Wild cranberries and blueberries grow in the bog along with sedges , leatherleaf shrubs , Arctic cotton grass , and viburnums . The bogs are all protected by the state of Pennsylvania .
= = = Wildlife = = =
White @-@ tailed deer , wild turkey , ruffed grouse , opossum , raccoon , hawks , chipmunks , porcupine , woodpeckers , and flying , red , and eastern gray squirrels are all fairly common in the park . Black bears also inhabit Black Moshannon State Park . Many of these animals were decimated due to the effects of deforestation , pollution and unregulated hunting and trapping that took place during the late 19th century . Hunting controls established by the Pennsylvania Game Commission and the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps and Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources in re @-@ establishing the second growth forest have led to the strong comeback of game species at Black Moshannon State Park and throughout the forests of Pennsylvania .
The lake is home to American beavers , as well as great blue heron , swans , snow geese , common loons , and many other types of waterfowl , with Canada goose , ring @-@ necked duck , mallard , and wood duck the most commonly seen . The bogs , marshes , and swamps contain frogs and salamanders , and provide a habitat for carnivorous plants like the pitcher plant and sundew . Black Moshannon State Park is home to many common species of songbirds , including ovenbirds .
The conifer and mixed @-@ forests of the park and its surroundings provide habitats for northern saw @-@ whet owl , blue @-@ headed vireo , hermit thrush , dark @-@ eyed junco , and magnolia , pine , yellow @-@ rumped , Blackburnian , and black @-@ throated green warblers . The deciduous forests provide habitats for songbirds , such as scarlet tanager and red @-@ eyed vireo .
An outbreak of the non @-@ native gypsy moth in the mid @-@ 1980s nearly devastated the woods in a small valley . Selective timber cuts harvested the trees that were affected by species of moth . Today the 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) Sleepy Hollow Trail for hiking and cross @-@ country skiing loops through the new growth in the area , which provides an ideal habitat for populations of white @-@ tailed deer and wild turkey .
= = = = Important Bird Area = = = =
Pennsylvania Important Bird Area # 33 encompasses 45 @,@ 667 acres ( 18 @,@ 481 ha ) . The land includes parts of the state park and surrounding Moshannon State Forest , as well as Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 33 , Mid @-@ State Regional Airport ( which borders both the park and forest ) , and some other nearby parcels of private land . The Pennsylvania Audubon Society has designated 3 @,@ 374 acres ( 1 @,@ 365 ha ) of Black Moshannon State Park as an IBA , which is an area designated as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations .
Ornithologists and bird watchers have recorded a total of 175 species at the IBA . Several factors contribute to the high total of bird species observed : there is a large area of forest in the IBA , as well as great habitat diversity . The location of the IBA along the Allegheny Front also contributes to the diverse bird populations .
Black Moshannon Lake and the bogs of the Natural Area are especially important to the IBA . They serve as a stopover for migratory waterfowl and shorebirds . Waterfowl observed at the park include pied @-@ billed and Slavonian grebes , common loon , American black duck , ruddy duck , blue @-@ winged and green @-@ winged teal , tundra swan , long @-@ tailed duck , hooded and red @-@ breasted merganser , greater and lesser scaup , northern pintail , bufflehead , American wigeon , and northern shoveler .
Pennsylvania IBA # 33 is on the Allegheny Front , which is along a prime migratory path for a variety of birds of prey . The golden eagle , bald eagle , osprey , and northern harrier pass through the area during their annual migration periods . It is possible that the bald eagle may nest within the IBA , but this has not been confirmed . Raptors which do nest in the forests of the IBA include the northern goshawk , red @-@ shouldered , broad @-@ winged , red @-@ tailed , sharp @-@ shinned , and Cooper 's hawks .
The cool , damp habitat provided by the bogs at Black Moshannon State Park provides a home for some birds that are at the southern limit of their habitat in central Pennsylvania . The Canada warbler and northern waterthrush nest in the bogs , as do the alder flycatcher , common yellowthroat , swamp sparrow , red @-@ winged blackbird , and gray catbird . The olive @-@ sided flycatcher , which is designated as locally extinct in Pennsylvania , has been seen during the breeding season at Black Moshannon State Natural Area . Bird watchers have observed nesting barred owls in the IBA , as well as Virginia rail and sora .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Cabins , camping , swimming , and picnics = = =
Nineteen cabins can be used by visitors at Black Moshannon State Park . Thirteen are rustic cabins , built by the CCC , with electric lights , a kitchen stove and a wood @-@ burning stove , refrigerator , and bunk beds . Six are modern cabins , including the former ski lodge , with electric heat , a bedroom , living room , kitchen , and bath . All cabin renters need to bring their own household items such as linens and cookware .
There are eighty campsites at Black Moshannon State Park . Each campsite has access to washhouses with flush toilets , showers , and laundry tubs . The campsites also have fire rings and picnic tables . There is also an organized group tenting area , which can accommodate a group of up to 60 persons .
The sandy beach on Black Moshannon Lake is open from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day weekend , and the beach bathhouse was built by the CCC . Beginning in 2008 , lifeguards will not be posted at the beach .
There are eight picnic pavilions built by the CCC in the park , which can be reserved for a fee . In addition to the pavilions , Black Moshannon State Park has 250 picnic tables in four large picnic areas . The use of these picnic tables and unreserved pavilions is first come , first served , and they are free of charge .
= = = Boating , fishing , and hunting = = =
Boating is a popular use of the waters of Black Moshannon Lake , which covers 250 acres ( 100 ha ) . Canoes , sailboats , and motor boats are all permitted on Black Moshannon Lake , provided they are properly registered with the state . Edward Gertler , author of a series of canoeing books , calls Black Moshannon Creek " about the best whitewater run in the West Branch Susquehanna Watershed " in Keystone Canoeing , and the first 13 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 21 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of Class 2 + whitewater for canoeing and kayaking begins in the park , just downstream of the dam .
Cold water fishing is available in Black Moshannon Creek and several of its tributaries , where anglers will find rainbow and brown trout that have been stocked there for sport fishing by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . Black Moshannon Lake 's waters are warmer than those of the creek , and so hold many different species of fish , including largemouth bass , muskellunge , yellow perch , chain pickerel , bullhead catfish , northern pike , bluegill , and crappie .
Hunting is permitted in most of Black Moshannon State Park . It helps to prevent an overpopulation of animals and the resulting overbrowsing of the understory . The most common game species are ruffed grouse , eastern gray squirrel , wild turkey , and white @-@ tailed deer . However , the hunting of groundhogs is prohibited .
= = = Trails = = =
There are 16 miles ( 26 km ) of trails at Black Moshannon State Park that are open to hiking , mountain biking , cross @-@ country skiing , and snowmobiling . All trails are open to hiking , most are open to skiing during the winter months , and select trails are open to snowmobiles and mountain bikes . The park is especially popular among cross @-@ country skiing enthusiasts due to its high elevation . Skiers will find trails that are largely free of rocks , with a layer of grass beneath the snow . Sleepy Hollow , Seneca , Indian , and Hay Road Trails are most frequently used . Seven of the park 's thirteen trails are described above , the remaining six follow .
Allegheny Front Trail is a 41 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 67 @.@ 3 km ) hiking trail that passes through Black Moshannon State Park and Moshannon State Forest . It was built in the late 1990s and offers several vistas looking out from atop the Allegheny Front .
Bog Trail is a 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 800 m ) boardwalk hiking trail that was built by the Pennsylvania Conservation Corps and has received awards for its handicapped accessibility . Bog Trail loops through the bog at the park passing by lilies , sedges , rushes , Leatherleaf , and various carnivorous plants . Visitors may observe waterfowl and wildlife in the bogs . Access for the handicapped is provided at the boating area .
Dry Hollow Trail is a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) trail open to hiking , cross @-@ country skiing , mountain biking , and snowmobiling . It is in a narrow valley at the base of the former ski slope . The hollow consists of open woods with mountain laurel and meadows .
Hay Road Trail is a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) trail that is open to hiking and cross @-@ country skiing . An old road overgrown with grass , it passes through a mixed @-@ oak and black cherry forest . It was formerly used by farmers to gather grasses from the marshes of what is now Black Moshannon State Park .
Moss @-@ Hanne Trail is an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) loop trail through the Black Moshannon Bog Natural Area . It is open to hiking and cross @-@ country skiing . The trail passes through pine plantations , hardwood forests , spruce groves , hemlock @-@ filled bottomlands , patches of wild blueberries , and by beaver ponds . The area is marshy ; waterproof footwear is recommended and parts of the trail are boardwalks .
Snowmobile Trail is a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) trail that runs parallel to Dry Hollow Trail . It provides access to the many miles of trails in Moshannon State Forest that are open to recreational snowmobiling . It is open during summer months for hiking and mountain biking .
= = = Friends of Black Moshannon State Park = = =
The Friends of Black Moshannon State Park is a volunteer organization that promotes the recreational use of the park through a summer festival . The group also works with the park staff to maintain the park lands , serve as campground hosts , survey the eastern bluebird population , and organize conservation projects .
The Summer Festival usually takes place over the third weekend of July . Events at the festival recall the lumbering history of the park . Log rolling , axe throwing , and cross @-@ cut sawing events are held , as are horseshoe and watermelon seed spitting contests . Black Moshannon Lake is open to canoe races and fishing . A Saturday night bonfire party is held at the beach , with live entertainment and refreshments .
= = Nearby state parks = =
The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Black Moshannon State Park :
= Miniature Schnauzer =
The Miniature Schnauzer is a breed of small dog of the Schnauzer type that originated in Germany in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century . Miniature Schnauzers developed from crosses between the Standard Schnauzer and one or more smaller breeds such as the Poodle and Affenpinscher , as farmers bred a small dog that was an efficient ratting dog . They are described as " spunky " but aloof dogs , with good guarding tendencies without some guard dogs ' predisposition to bite . Miniature Schnauzers are recognized in three colors internationally : solid black , black and silver , and a color known as ' salt and pepper ' . There is a controversial fourth color variant in Miniature Schnauzers , pure white , which is not recognized universally .
The breed remains one of the most popular worldwide , primarily for its temperament and relatively small size . As of 2013 it is the 17th most popular breed in the U.S.
= = History = =
The earliest records surrounding development of the Standard Schnauzer in Germany come from the late 19th century . They were originally bred to be medium @-@ sized farm dogs in Germany , equally suited to ratting , herding , and guarding property . As time passed , farmers bred the Standard Schnauzer into a smaller , more compact size for ratting by combining it with the Affenpinscher and Miniature Poodle . The first recorded Miniature Schnauzer appeared in 1888 , and the first exhibition was held in 1899 .
The AKC accepted registration of the new breed in 1926 , two years after Miniature Schnauzers were introduced to the United States . They were originally known as Wirehaired Pinschers . International Kennel Club classifications vary ; in the United Kingdom and Australia they fall within the Utility Group , while in Canada they are in the Working Group . In the AKC the Miniature Schnauzer is classed with the terriers . It was recognized by the United Kennel Club in 1948 and also classed as a terrier . The start of the modern Miniature Schnauzer is generally considered to begin with Ch . Dorem Display , the first Miniature Schnauzer to win Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show . He was born 5 April 1945 and lived to be nearly fourteen . Almost every living Miniature Schnauzer in America can trace its lineage back to Dorem Display .
Miniature Schnauzers were the 11th most popular breed in the U.S in 2008 , falling to 17th most popular in 2013 .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Miniature Schnauzers have a very square @-@ shaped build , measuring 13 to 14 inches ( 33 to 36 cm ) tall and weighing 10 to 15 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 8 kg ) for females and 11 to 18 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 2 kg ) for males . They have a double coat , with wiry exterior fur and a soft undercoat . In show trim , the coat is kept short on the body , but the fur on the ears , legs , belly , and face is retained . Recognized coat colors are black , salt and pepper , black and silver , and pure white .
Miniature Schnauzers are often described as non @-@ moulting dogs , and while this is not entirely true , their shedding is minimal and generally unnoticeable . They are characterized by a rectangular head with bushy beard , mustache and eyebrows ; teeth that meet in a " scissor bite " ; oval and dark colored eyes ; and v @-@ shaped , natural forward @-@ folding ears ( when cropped , the ears point straight upward and come to a sharp point ) . Their tails are naturally thin and short , and may be docked ( where permitted ) . They will also have very straight , rigid front legs , and feet that are short and round ( so @-@ called " cat feet " ) with thick , black pads .
Docking of tails and cropping of ears has become a controversial practice , especially for non @-@ working dogs , and is now illegal or restricted in a number of countries worldwide .
= = = = North American white Schnauzer controversy = = = =
The white Schnauzer is one of four color varieties of the Miniature Schnauzer currently recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale . However , they are not accepted for conformation showing by the American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club . The controversy rests on the disputed origins of the white variation : whether it was contained within the genes of the originally recognized breed , or whether it was the result of subsequent modifications . Since the other two Schnauzer types have never been available in a white variation , and the original German standard never included white as an acceptable color , the AMSC chooses not to recognize white .
= = = Temperament = = =
The American Kennel Club breed standard describes temperament as " alert and spirited , yet obedient to command ... friendly , intelligent and willing to please ... never overaggressive or timid . " Usually easy to train , they tend to be excellent watchdogs with a good territorial instinct , but more inclined toward barking than biting . They are often aloof with strangers until the owners of the home welcome the guest , upon which they are typically very friendly to them .
They are highly playful dogs , and , if not given the outlet required for their energy , they can become bored and invent their own " fun " . Miniature Schnauzers can compete in dog agility trials , obedience , showmanship , flyball , and tracking . Schnauzers have a high prey drive , which means they may attack other small pets such as birds , snakes , and rodents . Many will also attack cats , but this may be curbed with training , or if the dog is raised with cats .
= = Health and grooming = =
A UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of Miniature Schnauzers at a little over 12 years . About 20 % lived to > 15 years . While generally a healthy breed , Miniature Schnauzers may suffer health problems associated with high fat levels . Such problems include hyperlipidemia , which may increase the possibility of pancreatitis , though either may form independently . Other issues which may affect this breed are diabetes , bladder stones and eye problems . Feeding the dog low- or non @-@ fatty and unsweetened foods may help avoid these problems . Miniature Schnauzers are also prone to comedone syndrome , a condition that produces pus filled bumps , usually on their backs , which can be treated with a variety of methods . Miniature Schnauzers should have their ears dried after swimming due to a risk of infection , especially those with uncropped ears ; ear examinations should be part of the regular annual check up . Miniature Schnauzers are also prone to von Willebrand disease ( vWD ) . vWD in dogs is an inherited bleeding disorder that occurs due to qualitative or quantitative deficiency of von Willebrand factor ( vWF ) , a multimeric protein that is required for platelet adhesion .
Schnauzers have a specific groom cut that is standard among the Schnauzer breed . Schnauzers require regular grooming , either by stripping ( mostly seen in show dogs ) , or by clipping ( a short @-@ cut usually reserved for family pets ) . Stripping removes the loose , dead coat ; it may be done by hand , called finger stripping , or plucking , or with a stripping knife ; either way , it is a laborious process . Many Miniature Schnauzers who are family pets have regular grooming appointments to have their hair clipped ; clipping , using a mechanical clippers ( or shaver ) , produces a soft , silky , skin @-@ close trim . Whether stripped or clipped , the coat is close at the body , and falls into a fringe @-@ like foundation on its undercarriage , called furnishings , which can be left to grow , but must be combed regularly . All Schnauzers , whether they are Miniatures , Standards , or Giants , often sport a beard , created by allowing the hair around their noses to grow out . Left unclipped or unstripped , the body hair will grow two to four inches , and will often tangle into mats and curls .
= Ugg boots trademark dispute =
Ugg boots trademark disputes are the disputes between some footwear manufacturers , as to whether " ugg " is a protected trademark , or a generic term and thus ineligible for trademark protection . In Australia and New Zealand , where " Ugg " is a generic term for the style of footwear ; 81 registered trademarks include the term " Ugg " in various logos and designs . By contrast , UGG is a registered trademark of the California @-@ based company Deckers Outdoor Corporation , in over 130 countries worldwide , including the U.S. , the European Union , and China .
Ugg boots ( sometimes called uggs ) in Australia and New Zealand are a unisex style of sheepskin boot . In many other countries , however , UGG boots are a well @-@ known brand of footwear owned by Deckers . The boots are made of twin @-@ faced sheepskin with fleece on the inside and with a tanned outer surface , often with a synthetic sole . The boots originated in Australia and New Zealand , initially as utilitarian footwear worn for warmth and comfort . UGG boots emerged as a fashion trend in the United States in the late 1990s and as a world @-@ wide trend in the late 2000s .
= = Trademark law in the United States = =
The Lanham Act is the primary federal trademark statute of law in the United States however , as it only applies to " commerce which may lawfully be regulated by Congress , " it does not address terms that are used in foreign countries . The Doctrine of foreign equivalents guideline serves this purpose .
Under the doctrine of " foreign equivalents , " a foreign language term used in a foreign country , that is considered generic in that country , cannot be imported into the United States and used as a trademark . In applying the Doctrine , the courts consistently refer to two policy rationales . The first rationale , " the doctrine serves the interests of domestic competition " :
" Because of the diversity of the population of the United States , coupled with temporary visitors , all of whom are part of the United States marketplace , commerce in the United States utilizes innumerable foreign languages . No merchant may obtain the exclusive right over a trademark registration if that exclusivity would prevent competitors from designating a product as what it is in the language their customers know best . " — Otokoyama Co . Ltd . Vs Wine of Japan Import Inc .
The second rationale , " the doctrine serves the interests of international comity " :
" Because United States companies would be hamstrung in international trade if foreign countries granted trademark protection to generic English words , the United States reciprocates and refuses trademark protection to generic foreign words . " — Enrique Bernat F. , S.A. v. Guadalajara , Inc .
However , the Trademark Manual of Examining Procedure ( " TMEP " ) states that the test for applying the doctrine of foreign equivalents is " whether , to those American buyers familiar with the foreign language , the word would denote its English equivalent " . Thus the doctrine is generally interpreted by courts as not applying if the generic word is not a word from a foreign language , but one from an English @-@ speaking foreign country .
Court cases have noted that the generic status accorded to English @-@ language words in foreign countries has no bearing on the registration of marks in the United States . The genericity argument was invoked for Ugg boots and was rejected by a U.S. district court which cited the following cases in support . In Anheuser @-@ Busch , Inc. v. Stroh Brewery Co . , the court rejected as irrelevant the generic usage of the phrase " L.A. beer " in Australia for Low @-@ alcohol beer . The court ruled that " a term may be generic in one country and suggestive in another " and that genericity in Australia was irrelevant . In Carcione v. The Greengrocer , Inc . , the court rejected as irrelevant the generic use of the term " Greengrocer " in most English speaking countries for a retailer of fruit . The court rejected the argument on the grounds that it is irrelevant how a term is used outside the United States : " The parties agree that the term is generic in Britain . Since we deal here with American trademark law , and thus American consumers , neither British usage nor the dictionary definition indicating such usage are determinative . " In another case , the court stated that while a term may be generic in another country , if " it is not so recognized in this country [ the U.S. ] ... the mark must still be regarded as arbitrary and fanciful in the United States . " and thus remains eligible for registration as a trademark in the United States .
As the doctrine is a guideline rather than a rule , it has been criticized with commentators noting that United States courts are often contradictory and inconsistent in their application of the doctrine , and that it provides little guidance to owners when choosing their marks or to courts when assessing protectability or likelihood of mark confusion . It has been suggested by the International Trademark Association that the doctrine be abolished and replaced with one that applies equally to all foreign words , regardless of whether they are from a foreign language or an English language , and that they take into account that country 's trademark laws . Under the proposed changes , " Terms that are generic are never protectible as trademarks and are never registerable " .
= = Trademark disputes = =
For UGG boots intellectual property disputes such as counterfeiting , see UGG Australia .
The UGG trademark has been the subject of dispute in several countries . The trademark for " Ugh @-@ Boots " has been removed from the trademark registry in Australia for non @-@ use . Outside Australia and New Zealand , UGG ( written in capital letters ) is a registered trademark of Deckers Outdoor Corporation .
In 1971 , an Australian surfer , Shane Steadman , registered the name " UGH @-@ BOOTS " as a trademark in Australia and began selling sheepskin boots under that name . In 1982 he registered the name " UGH " and a logo containing a stylised Sun with the words " UGG AUSTRALIA " . In 1979 , Brian Smith , another Australian surfer , applied to be the United States distributor for Country Leather , a Western Australian manufacturer of ugg boots , and began selling their Australian @-@ made boots in New York and to surfers in California . In 1987 he set up Ugg Holdings Inc. and in 1995 purchased the trademarks from Steadman . In 1996 he sold his interest to Deckers and in 1999 Deckers registered the trademarks for " UGG " in the US and 25 foreign countries . Deckers began asserting its new trademark and sent out cease and desist letters to Australian manufacturers who were using the name ugg for their boots but otherwise took little action . In the early 2000s , demand for ugg boots was soaring , partly as a result of US $ 8 million spent on marketing by Deckers , but also due to several celebrity endorsements .
For the nine months to September 2004 , UGG boots sales totaled $ 39 @.@ 2 million , an increase of 180 % over the previous year . Plans were also in place to expand the UGG brand to cover hats , scarves and gloves . With the continuing rise in popularity , Deckers now began a serious effort to halt the use of the name " ugg " by other manufacturers . Deckers ' law firm , Middletons of Melbourne , sent cease and desist letters to a number of Australian and American manufacturers who were selling uggs over the Internet , preventing them from selling uggs on eBay or from using the word in their domain names or registered business names .
The manufacture of ugg boots in Australia was primarily a cottage industry . Individually lacking the resources to fight Deckers , 20 Australian manufacturers formed the Australian Sheepskin Association to fight the corporation 's claim , arguing that " ugg " is a generic term referring to flat @-@ heeled , pull @-@ on sheepskin boots . They further argued that Australian manufacturers had been making and trading this style of boot for decades , including exporting them to the US . One of these manufacturers , Perth 's Uggs @-@ N @-@ Rugs , who had been manufacturing uggs since 1978 and selling them online since 1996 , appealed to Australian trademark regulators , IP Australia . The officer who heard the case stated that the " evidence overwhelmingly supports the proposition that the terms ( ugg , ugh and ug boots ) are interchangeably used to describe a specific style of sheepskin boot and are the first and most natural way in which to describe these goods . " In 2006 Uggs @-@ N @-@ Rugs won the right to use the term UGG BOOT / S and variations such as UGH BOOT / S. The case was the subject of a 2006 television documentary , The Good , The Bad and The Ugg Boot ..
Deckers retained the rights to their UGG logo as trade mark protection only applies for the way the mark appears in its entirety and not for the words it contains . The name Ugg / UGG was determined to be generic after the Registrar of Trade Marks found that registration did not confer " rights in the generic term , or terms , from which it is derived " and that the identity of the various trade marks " derive from the hyphenated nature of the expression . " Therefore , UGH boots , UG boots and UGG boots ( " or other variations " ) without hyphens are all generic terms in Australia . IP Australia also ruled that the trademark " UGH @-@ boots " ( with hyphen ) should be removed from the trademark register for non @-@ use as Deckers had only been using the UGG logo , not the UGH marks . Deckers initially declined to pay Uggs @-@ N @-@ Rugs court costs as required by the 2006 ruling . Following the publication of a Wall Street Journal article which referred to the oversight , Deckers paid the costs in September 2010 . The ruling only applies in Australia and Deckers still owns the trademarks in other jurisdictions such as the US , China , Japan and the European Union .
In 1998 , Deckers demanded that the American company Koolaburra cease infringing the UGG trademark . Koolaburra replied that they did not use the name " UGG " or " UGH " and that the only mark they used was " Ug " . Deckers sent a further " cease and desist " letter in 2001 and another in 2003 but Koolaburra declined to stop using the name " Ug " and in 2004 , Deckers filed a case against Koolaburra in the California federal court alleging ( 1 ) trademark infringement , ( 2 ) false designation of origin ( Koolaburra labelled their boots " Australian Ug Boots " ) , ( 3 ) trademark dilution , ( 4 ) cybersquatting , ( 5 ) unfair competition , ( 6 ) trade disparagement , ( 7 ) unjust enrichment and ( 8 ) breach of contract ( Deckers claimed that in 1998 Koolaburra had agreed to stop using the name Ug ) . Koolaburra in turn challenged that the name UGG was generic and not entitled to trademark protection . As the UGG mark was registered , Deckers was entitled to the assumption that it was not generic , thus the burden of proof rested with Koolaburra .
In support , Koolaburra provided the testimony of America 's National Surfing Team coach Peter Townend and Nordstrom 's footwear buyer Heather Kolkey . These declarations were accepted by the court as anecdotal . Additionally , Koolaburra provided three instances of the generic usage of Ugg in American magazines , however the court pointed out that the most recent was dated 1980 . Koolaburra also quoted the New York City published Oxford English Dictionary definition of " Ugg " ; however , this was rejected after Deckers petitioned the Dictionary to change the definition of " Ugg " from " a kind of soft sheepskin boot " to a definition that included UGG 's trademark , which the OED agreed to do . Koolaburra then argued that the UGG trademark was invalid as Brian Smith had fraudulently registered the name by giving false representations that the term was not generic , arguing that " as an Australian citizen , Smith knew of the fact that the term Ugg was a generic term " . This was rejected by the court as fraud requires an applicant to " knowingly " make the false representations , ruling that such belief was subjective , and finding that even if Smith knew the term was generic in Australia , he may have " honestly held [ a ] good faith belief " that it was not generic in the United States .
Deckers countered through submitting declarations from four professionals in the footwear industry who stated that " UGG " is widely recognized in the industry as a brand name , not a generic term and provided the court with survey evidence supporting that consumers in the US consider UGG to be a brand name ; among women aged 18 to 45 who had purchased footwear valued over $ 100 in the last 12 months , 58 % believed UGG was a brand name while only 11 % thought it generic . Koolaburra then argued that the term was generic under the doctrine of " foreign equivalents " ( Under U.S. law , a term used in another country that is considered generic in that country cannot be imported into the United States and used as a trademark ) . This was rejected as the doctrine only applied to terms in a foreign language . In February 2005 , the court ruled for Deckers on their claims of " trademark infringement " and " unfair competition " , finding that a consumer would likely be confused with the similarity in " appearance , sight and sound " between " Ug " and UGG " as the parties were marketing in direct competition with identical products . However , the court declined to rule on the validity of trademarks in Australia as it was considered inappropriate to interfere with another country 's rulings .
The Australian Sheepskin Association is attempting to change the name UGG into a regional mark similar to that achieved for Champagne which would negate its trademark status in many jurisdictions . Deckers in response has focused on the fact that its UGG boots are made in China and not Australia . In 2012 , sales of Deckers UGG boots totaled over US $ 630 million while the UGG brand , which now includes hats , scarves , gloves , slippers , casuals , jackets , coats , and handbags totaled over US $ 1 billion with 30 % of sales outside of the United States .
= = = Trademark infringement cases = = =
During a trademark infringement and trade dress case in 2008 , a generic term defense was rejected by a Dutch court as not being applicable to counterfeit goods . The court also rejected La Cheapa 's claim that as Australian companies believe " ugg " was a generic name , the " UGG AUSTRALIA " mark was not protected in the Benelux , noting that La Cheapa also admitted knowing that UGG in the Benelux is a famous brand which undermined their argument that UGG was generic . La Cheapa distributed sheepskin boots it had purchased from a supplier in China on an Internet site from the Netherlands , describing them on its website as " 100 % authentic Ugg Australian boots ! ! ! " , with " UGG logo on the heel " and in boxes virtually identical to Deckers packaging . These were found by the court to be counterfeits . The Deckers case had also included La Cheapa 's sale of imported boots manufactured by Jumbo Ugg Boots Binder Production Pty Ltd in Melbourne , Australia branded Jumbo Uggs . The court stated that " given the exact similarity of the goods ( namely : boots ) " and the fact that the word " ugg " was part of the brand , and the undisputed fact that the " UGG brand " was popular in the Benelux , it found that the importation and distribution of sheepskin boots which contained the word " ugg " in its label took an " unfair advantage of , or is detrimental to , the distinctive character of the brand UGG " and was thus an infringement of the Deckers trademark .
On December 25 , 2010 , Deckers filed a trademark infringement suit in a bid to stop Emu Australia from using the UGG name on its sales website . On December 30 Emu Australia counter @-@ sued for the cancellation of Deckers ' UGG trademark in the US . Emu 's suit alleged that Deckers ' trademark was obtained after a false statement to the US Patent and Trademark Office and was therefore invalid . On 25 August 2011 , the case was dismissed with prejudice by stipulation of the parties but the terms of the settlement were not disclosed .
In 2010 , the validity of the UGG trademark was challenged in a Turkish court by a local manufacturer after his application to register a trademark containing the words UGGBOOTS and AUSTRALIA was rejected . Judge Verda Çiçekli ruled for Deckers , finding that UGG was not a generic term and did not have any descriptive nature in the Turkish language , except to refer to Deckers products . The court further ruled that UGG was a well @-@ known trademark that has gained recognition and distinctiveness worldwide , and while acknowledging the challenger 's allegations that UGG was a generic term in Australia , ruled that such alleged facts have no bearing on the validity of the trademark within Turkey . Deckers was also awarded costs in the action .
In 2010 , IP Australia ruled on the trademark opposition dispute between Deckers and Luda Production Pty Ltd , granting Luda the right to register the trademarks UGG AUSTRALIA ( & Design ) and MADE BY UGG AUSTRALIA with costs awarded against Deckers . Luda declared that the " element ugg " was used generically in the sheepskin boot market but that its use had not caused any confusion with Luda 's UGG AUSTRALIA products . Luda began manufacturing ugg boots in 1981 and in 1982 began selling its boots with woven heel counters featuring the UGG AUSTRALIA mark . In 1984 , the company was incorporated at which time Luda had attempted to trademark its UGG AUSTRALIA logo but was asked by the Trade Mark Office not to proceed as the name was " descriptive " and was therefore not registerable . In 2004 , Luda filed another trademark application after becoming aware of " other products being sold bearing variations of the element UGG " in conjunction with the word " Australia . " Deckers opposed the application on three grounds , prior use ( Deckers argued that the prior use shown by Luda was invalid as the mark they sought to register was not " an exact copy " of the mark they used ) , that Deckers had a more significant reputation in Australia and that Luda had filed the application in bad faith . The court found that Deckers did not have a significant reputation in an Australian market which was dominated by Luda Productions , and thus failed the requirements of the Trade Practices Act , regarding public misapprehension of the origin of the manufacturer . The court noted that Luda 's use of the term " UGG AUSTRALIA " predated Deckers ' infringement defense by 22 years , which negated Deckers ' claim that Luda was trading upon their reputation and that Luda had not filed in bad faith , but in order to gain statutory protection for trade marks already recognized in Australia . Regarding a non @-@ use action between Deckers and Luda Production Pty , IP Australia confirmed that Deckers owned the trademark of their UGG AUSTRALIA label ( with sun @-@ like device ) , however the scope of Deckers ' trademark was narrowed , restricted to just footwear .
In 2011 , Deckers filed suit against the Chinese company Dangdang for allegedly selling counterfeit Uggs at the Jingdong Mall and on Taobao , a Chinese language website similar to eBay and Amazon . Known as " snow boots " in China , Dangdang had been selling Australian made boots labeled Merino World UGG . In defense , a spokesperson from Jingdong Mall argued that the boots were a different brand to Deckers with the letters in the word " UGG " designed differently . In support , he cited Baidu Baike , the Chinese online encyclopedia , which describes Ugg as a generic term for sheepskin boots . Asked to comment , the media and public relations Manager of the Australian Trade Commission attached to the Australian Embassy in Shanghai , Anthony @-@ Yan stated that the snow boots style originated in Australia where all such boots are referred to as UGG boots . The Australian manufacturers ' logos contained the word " UGG " in large block letters on the heel of the boot , and the court found that this practice deceived the ordinary consumer . The court ruled that use of the word " ugg " in Chinese commerce was an infringement of the Deckers Chinese " UGG " trademark , and held the manufacturers and distribution firms liable .
The Shanghai suburb of Gaoqiao is the nation 's largest production base for snow boots with more than 200 businesses manufacturing footwear valued at more than 1 billion yuan ( US $ 163 million ) annually ; it is also " the nation 's largest production base for imitation UGG brands , " with an estimated 150 companies producing counterfeit UGGs . Deckers UGG boots cost from 1 @,@ 500 to 8 @,@ 000 yuan ( US $ 240 to US $ 1 @,@ 300 ) in China when demand exceeded supply in 2011 , which led to a large market for both counterfeit UGGs and the lower priced uggs imported from Australia .
= Kimmie Meissner =
Kimberly Claire " Kimmie " Meissner ( born October 4 , 1989 ) is an American former competitive figure skater . She is the 2006 World champion , the 2007 Four Continents champion , and the 2007 U.S. national champion . She is the first American and the first lady to simultaneously hold the World , Four Continents , and national titles .
In 2005 , Meissner became the second American woman to land the triple Axel jump in national competition . She was a member of the 2006 Olympic team and was the youngest American athlete to compete at those Games . She finished 6th at the Olympics in February 2006 and won the World Championships the following month .
She is a spokesperson for the Cool Kids Campaign , an organization that helps children with cancer .
= = Early life and education = =
Kimberly Meissner , nicknamed " Kimmie " , was born in Towson , Maryland , to Judy ( Roth ) and Paul Meissner . She is the youngest of four children and the only girl . She is Catholic . Her maternal great @-@ grandparents Paulina and Emmanuel Novo had emigrated separately from Spain during the 1920s . The latter was a fisherman from Galicia .
Meissner was a full @-@ time student at Fallston High School , a public high school and graduated from there in May 2007 . She entered the University of Delaware as a part @-@ time student in the fall semester of that year . Meissner trained for most of her career in Newark , Delaware at the University of Delaware Figure Skating Club , the club she represents in competition . Until February 2008 , Meissner lived in Maryland with her family , and lived at home while attending college . Following her coaching change after the 2008 U.S. Championships , Meissner moved to Fort Lauderdale , Florida .
In the fall of 2009 , Meissner moved back to Maryland . During 2010 @-@ 2012 , she attended the University of Delaware as a full @-@ time student . She transferred to Towson University for the spring semester of 2013 and changed her major to English . She graduated in December 2014 .
= = Skating career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kimmie Meissner began figure skating at age six after watching her older brothers playing ice hockey . She landed her first triple , a salchow jump , six years later .
In the 1999 – 2000 season , Meissner qualified for the U.S. Junior Figure Skating Championships on the juvenile level , where she placed 16th . The following season , she repeated that placement , but on the Intermediate level . In the United States , Juvenile and Intermediate @-@ level skaters compete at the U.S. Junior Championships , while Novice , Junior , and Senior @-@ level skaters compete at the U.S. Championships .
In the 2002 – 03 season , Meissner placed second at her regional competition and won her sectional competition to qualify for the 2003 U.S. Championships on the novice level . At age thirteen , Meissner won the U.S. novice national title , after landing a triple lutz jump in her free skate . Following the 2003 U.S. Championships , Meissner was named to the team for the 2003 Triglav Trophy , where she won the bronze medal on the novice level .
From 2003 through 2008 , Meissner was coached by Pam Gregory at the University of Delaware Figure Skating Club . She moved up to the junior level in the 2003 – 04 season . She won the silver medal at the first event of the 2003 – 04 ISU Junior Grand Prix series , in Sofia , Bulgaria . She went on to win the Junior Grand Prix event in Bled , Slovenia , which qualified her for the Junior Grand Prix Final , where she placed 5th . At the 2004 U.S. Championships , Meissner was second behind Katy Taylor after the short program , but won the free skate , after landing two triple lutzes , to win the Junior national title . At Nationals , Meissner was named to the U.S. team to the 2004 World Junior Championships , where she landed her first triple lutz @-@ triple toe combination in competition and won the silver medal behind Miki Ando .
In the summer of 2004 , Meissner began working on a triple Axel but stopped practicing the jump for two months due to a slight back injury . She moved up to the senior level nationally but remained a junior internationally . She was practicing four to five hours on most days . On the 2004 – 05 ISU Junior Grand Prix series , the first season the ISU Judging System was being used in junior competition , she won silver medals at the event in Courchevel , France and a second silver medal at the event in Long Beach , California . Meissner 's two silver medals qualified her for the Junior Grand Prix Final in Helsinki , Finland , where she won the bronze medal , after placing seventh in the short program and second in the free skate .
On January 15 , 2005 , at the 2005 U.S. Championships , Meissner landed a triple axel jump , becoming only the second American lady to land the jump in competition , fourteen years after Tonya Harding became the first American lady to land the jump . Meissner won the bronze medal .
She was not age @-@ eligible for the senior World Championships and so was named in the U.S. team for the 2005 World Junior Championships . Meissner placed third in the short program and fourth in the free , placing fourth overall . Afterwards , Meissner went to Worlds as a guest of ESPN and watched from the sidelines .
= = = 2005 – 06 season = = =
Kimmie Meissner moved to the senior level internationally beginning in the 2005 – 06 Olympic season . She made her Grand Prix debut at the 2005 Trophée Eric Bompard , where she placed sixth in the short program , fourth in the free skate , and fifth overall . She repeated that overall placement at her second event , the 2005 NHK Trophy , where she placed third in the short program and fifth in the free skate . At the 2006 U.S. Championships , Meissner won the silver medal and was named to the U.S. team to the 2006 Winter Olympics .
Meissner was the youngest athlete on the United States Olympic team . She spent the first week of the Games training in Courmayeur , moving to Torino proper a few days before the ladies event began . Meissner skated second in the short program and landed a triple lutz @-@ triple toe loop combination to place fifth in that segment of the competition . Skating second @-@ to @-@ last in the final flight of the free skate , Meissner placed sixth in the free skate and overall .
Following the Olympics , Meissner returned to Baltimore . On the return flight , she partially ruptured one of her eardrums and fully ruptured the other . This affected her hearing as she trained for the 2006 World Championships , her first senior ISU Championship . At Worlds , Meissner placed second in her qualifying group and fifth in the short program , putting her in third place overall going into the free skate . During the free skate , Meissner completed seven triple jumps , including two triple @-@ triple combinations , to win the title . This win made her the first woman since Kristi Yamaguchi to win a world title before a national title . Meissner is also the first woman to win Worlds on her first appearance since Oksana Baiul in 1993 . She is the seventh @-@ youngest ladies World Champion in history . Meissner has described this win as changing her career from being the underdog to being expected to win every competition she entered .
= = = 2006 – 07 season = = =
Meissner began the 2006 – 07 season at the 2006 Skate America , where she won the silver medal , the highest finish of her career until then at a Grand Prix event . At her second Grand Prix event , the 2006 Trophée Eric Bompard , she fell on a triple Axel attempt and placed third overall . At the 2007 U.S. Championships , Meissner went in as the favorite . She won the title , after winning the short program and placing third in the free skate . This made her the first ladies skater since Barbara Roles to win the national title on the Novice , Junior , and Senior levels .
After Nationals , Meissner went to the Four Continents Championships , a competition for senior @-@ level skaters who are not from Europe , for the first time in her career . She fell on her triple @-@ triple combination in the short program and was in sixth place going into the free skate . She won the free skate and the competition overall , becoming the first U.S. ladies champion to become the Four Continents Champion .
After Four Continents , Meissner competed at the 2007 World Championships . She achieved a new personal best for her short program where she placed fourth . She did not complete either of her triple @-@ triple combinations in the free skating and placed third in that segment of the competition and fourth overall .
= = = 2007 – 08 season = = =
Meissner began the 2007 – 08 season by beating reigning World Champion Miki Ando at the 2007 Skate America . This was Meissner 's first win the Grand Prix series . She then placed second at the 2007 Trophée Eric Bompard , qualifying her for the Grand Prix Final , where she placed sixth . At the time , she was skating on a sprained right ankle , an injury she sustained during a show .
Before the 2008 U.S. Championships , Meissner worked on her spins with Todd Eldredge . She placed 4th in the short program and 7th in the free after falling three times . She placed 7th overall and was selected for the U.S. team to the 2008 World Championships . After Nationals , Eldredge called her with more input on her spins and recommended his long @-@ time coach Richard Callaghan . Meissner made the choice to switch coaches from long @-@ time coach Pam Gregory to a temporary arrangement with Richard Callaghan in Ft . Lauderdale , Florida . She trained with Callaghan for the six weeks between Nationals and the 2008 World Championships .
At the 2008 World Championships , Meissner placed 9th in the short program and 12th in the long . She placed 7th overall and was the highest placed American in the competition . In the off @-@ season , she toured with Stars on Ice and trained with both Callaghan and Eldredge .
= = = Post @-@ 2008 career = = =
Both Callaghan and Eldredge coached Meissner during the 2008 – 09 season . She began the season at the 2008 Skate America , where she placed 7th . She also placed 7th at the 2008 Cup of Russia . On January 19 , 2009 , Meissner announced her withdrawal from the 2009 U.S. Championships due to injury .
In the fall of 2009 , Meissner moved back to Maryland . Chris Conte became her coach and also choreographed ice show programs for her . Meissner had been assigned to the 2009 Rostelecom Cup and the 2009 NHK Trophy for the Grand Prix season . She announced her withdrawal from both events on October 8 , 2009 due to an injury to her right knee . Due to this , she did not receive a bye to the 2010 U.S. Championships and was too late to register to compete at the regional championships , thereby ending her season . She did not return to amateur competition . Commenting in July 2016 , she said , " The injury wasn 't devastating , but things in my personal life all happened at the same time . "
Meissner continues to appear in ice shows and pro @-@ am events . During the 2014 – 15 season , she performed as a full @-@ time member for the US Stars on Ice tour .
= = Public life , charity work and endorsements = =
When Meissner returned from the 2006 Olympic Games , a parade was held in her honor in her hometown of Bel Air . Following her win at the 2006 Worlds , the town gave one of its main roads , Pennsylvania Avenue , the honorary title of Kimmie Way . She threw out the ceremonial first pitch for the Phillies opening day game , and a week later for her hometown team , the Baltimore Orioles , on April 14 , 2006 .
Following Meissner 's win at the 2007 U.S. Championships , she signed endorsement deals with Subway , Under Armour , and Visa . She has appeared in Subway commercials , including a regional @-@ Baltimore one following the 2006 Olympics , and a national one with Jared Fogle . She appeared in the Under Armour commercial shown during Super Bowl XLII . Meissner appeared in the music video for Speed Feels Better by Michael Tolcher wearing an Under Armour sweatshirt .
Following the 2006 World Championships , Meissner became a spokesperson for the Cool Kids Campaign , an organization for children with cancer . She designed gel bracelets for the organization as a fundraiser . On August 25 , 2007 , she put on a benefit show in Baltimore called " Kimmie 's Angels on Ice " to benefit the charity . Meissner also co @-@ edits the newsletter for the charity .
During the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia , Meissner worked as a figure skating researcher for NBC Olympics .
= = Programs = =
= = = Post @-@ 2010 = = =
= = = Pre @-@ 2010 = = =
= = Results = =
GP : Grand Prix ; JGP : Junior Grand Prix
= Exchequer of Pleas =
The Exchequer of Pleas or Court of Exchequer was a court that dealt with matters of equity , a set of legal principles based on natural law and common law in England and Wales . Originally part of the curia regis , or King 's Council , the Exchequer of Pleas split from the curia during the 1190s , to sit as an independent , central court . The Court of Chancery 's reputation for tardiness and expense resulted in much of its business transferring to the Exchequer . The Exchequer and Chancery , with similar jurisdictions , drew closer together over the years , until an argument was made during the 19th century that having two seemingly identical courts was unnecessary . As a result , the Exchequer lost its equity jurisdiction . With the Judicature Acts , the Exchequer was formally dissolved as a judicial body by an Order in Council of 16 December 1880 .
The Exchequer 's jurisdiction , at various times , was common law , equity , or both . Initially a court of both common law and equity , it lost much of its common law jurisdiction after the formation of the Court of Common Pleas , and from then on concerned itself with equitable matters and those common law matters it had discretion to try , such as actions brought against Exchequer officials and actions brought by the monarch against non @-@ paying debtors . With the Writ of Quominus , which allowed the Exchequer to look at " common " cases between subject and subject , this discretionary area was significantly expanded , and it soon regained its standing in common law matters . Cases were formally taken by the Chancellor of the Exchequer , but in practice were heard by the Barons of the Exchequer , judicial officials led by the Chief Baron . Other court officials included the King 's Remembrancer , who appointed all other officials and kept the Exchequer 's records , and the sworn and side clerks , who acted as attorneys to parties to a case .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
It was originally claimed that the Exchequer was based on a similar Norman court ; however , while there are many records of the Exchequer 's work in England , there is no evidence of a similar body in pre @-@ conquest Normandy . The first reliable records come from the time of Henry I , when the sole surviving Pipe roll from his reign shows the Exchequer working out of the king 's palace as part of the curia regis . The curia regis followed the king as he travelled rather than sitting at any one fixed location , and was held in York , London and Northampton at various times . By the late 12th century it had taken to sitting in a fixed location ( the one body of government in England to do so ) , and by the 1170s it was possible to distinguish the Exchequer 's work from that of the other parts of the curia regis , although the king of the time considered the Exchequer to simply be an element of the curia ; indeed , it was referred to as the Curia Regis ad Scaccarium , or King 's Court at Exchequer . The word " Exchequer " derives from the chequered cloth laid on a table for the purposes of counting money . In the 1190s the Exchequer began separating from the curia regis , a process which continued until the beginning of the 13th century ; academics have suggested that this is due to an increasing demand on the revenue side of the court , which led to part of the common law element being split off to form the Court of Common Pleas . Although the Exchequer of Pleas was the first common law court , it was also the last to separate from the curia regis .
= = = Increasing work and transformation = = =
There are few records known to date from before 1580 , as bills were not dated before then . Until the 16th century , the Exchequer carried out its duties with little variation in its function or practice . A small court , the Exchequer handled around 250 cases a year , compared to 2 @,@ 500 in the Court of King 's Bench and 10 @,@ 000 in the Court of Common Pleas . Under the Tudors , however , the Exchequer 's political , judicial and fiscal importance all increased . This was partially thanks to the Lord High Treasurer ; although the Lord Chancellor was more traditionally important , the Lord High Treasurers from 1547 to 1612 were politically influential figures , including Robert Cecil , Thomas Sackville and William Paulet ; since the Lord High Treasurer was head of the Exchequer , with the Treasurer 's increased influence came increased importance for the Exchequer .
The appointment of the second and third Dukes of Norfolk as Lord High Treasurers from 1501 to 1546 led to a gradual reduction in the Exchequer 's power . The Dukes were seen by the government as too independent to be trusted with any real power , but too useful to be removed ; as a result , to indirectly reduce their power , the Exchequer was deliberately weakened . When William Paulet was appointed Treasurer in 1546 the Exchequer again increased in power , absorbing the Court of Augmentations and Court of First Fruits and Tenths by 1554 . The Exchequer was also assisted in this period by Thomas Fanshawe , the Queen 's Remembrancer ; a capable man , Fanshawe was often consulted by the Barons of the Exchequer as to the best way to administer the court , and helped standardise pleadings , allowing the Exchequer to cope during a period of increased business . Fanshawe 's administrative reforms were considered excellent , and his work continued to be used as the standard until the 1830s .
Exchequer business increased under James and Charles I , before the English Civil War disrupted the courts . With the increasing use of the Writ of Quominus , which allowed royal debtors to bring a case against a third party who owed them money if it was that lack of money which prevented them paying the king and the new regime , the Exchequer actively transformed from a " tax court " dealing with civil cases to a dedicated court of equity and common law . The Civil War caused four equitable courts to be dissolved ; the Court of Star Chamber was formally dissolved in 1641 , the Council of the North and Council of Wales and the Marches had their equity jurisdiction stripped by the same Act of Parliament , and the Court of Requests became invalid after the Privy Seal was invalidated by the outcome of the English Civil War , as it was dependent on the Seal for its authority . After the War ended there were only two equity courts remaining , the Exchequer and Court of Chancery , the latter publicly reviled for its slow pace and because it was led by the Lord Chancellor , a political figure who had been intimately involved in the conflict . As a result , the Exchequer increased in importance as a court , although it is not known whether its active transformation was a judicial or political decision .
= = = Loss of equity jurisdiction and dissolution = = =
By the beginning of the 18th century , the equity jurisdiction of the Exchequer of Pleas was firmly cemented , and it was considered a viable alternative to the Court of Chancery . As a result , each court cited the other 's cases as precedent , and drew closely together . In addition , 18th @-@ century Acts of Parliament treated them in the same way , merely referring to " courts of equity " rather than mentioning them individually . At the same time , the Treasury became more and more important , leading to a reduction in the inferior Exchequer 's influence . Despite these warning signs , the Exchequer continued to flourish , maintaining a large amount of business , and by 1810 was almost entirely an equity court , having little common law work . The court 's equity side became deeply unpopular during the 1830s because many cases were heard by a single judge with no real prospect of appeal ; while cases could be taken to the House of Lords , it was highly expensive and time @-@ consuming to do so . The Court of Chancery , however , had long had an established method of appealing to the Lords , and later introduced an intermediary appellate court – the Court of Appeal in Chancery . At the same time , many elements of the Exchequer 's equity business had dried up , with the Tithe Commutation Act 1836 ending their tithe cases and the Insolvent Debtors Act 1820 establishing the Court of Bankruptcy , removing cases of insolvency from the Exchequer . The Exchequer 's fees were also higher than those of the Court of Chancery , and with both courts now using almost identical precedent it was seen as unnecessary to maintain two equitable courts . As a result , the Administration of Justice Act 1841 formally dissolved the equitable jurisdiction of the court .
With the loss of its equitable jurisdiction , the Exchequer became a dedicated common law court , and thus fell prey to the same fate as the other two common law courts ( the Court of Queen 's Bench and the Court of Common Pleas ) during the late 19th century . There had long been calls for the merger of the courts , and in 1828 Henry Brougham , a Member of Parliament , complained in Parliament that as long as there were three courts unevenness was inevitable , saying that " It is not in the power of the courts , even if all were monopolies and other restrictions done away , to distribute business equally , as long as suitors are left free to choose their own tribunal " , and that there would always be a favourite court , which would therefore attract the best lawyers and judges and entrench its position .
In 1867 a commission was created to look into issues with the central courts , and the outcome were the Judicature Acts , under which all the central courts were made part of a single Supreme Court of Judicature , with the three central common law courts becoming three of the five divisions of the Supreme Court ; this was not designed to be permanent , but rather to avoid having to retire or demote two of the three Chief Justices to allow a single head of the Supreme Court , as this would have violated the constitutional principle that senior justices were irremovable . By sheer chance Fitzroy Kelly and Alexander Cockburn , Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer and Lord Chief Justice of England respectively both died in 1880 , allowing the merger of the common law divisions of the Supreme Court into a single division , the Queen 's Bench Division , under John Coleridge , who had been Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas and became Lord Chief Justice of England , by an Order in Council of 16 December 1880 . At this point , the Exchequer of Pleas formally ceased to exist .
= = Jurisdiction and relationship with other courts = =
The Exchequer 's position as a court originally came from an informal process of argument between the king and his debtors as to how much money was owed ; by the 13th century , this had evolved into formal court proceedings . Therefore , its initial jurisdiction , as defined by the Statute of Rhuddlan , was as a court where only the king could bring cases . The Exchequer became the first " tax court " , where the king was the plaintiff and the debtor the defendant . The king was represented by the Attorney General , allowing him to avoid much of the legal costs associated with a court case . The " next logical step " was to allow debtors to collect on their own debts in the Exchequer , so that they could better pay the king ; this was done through the Writ of Quominus . The Exchequer also had sole jurisdiction to try cases against their own officials and other figures engaged in collecting the royal revenue . The court was also used to prosecute clerics who , while innocent , had come close to committing an infraction ; as the plaintiff was represented by the Attorney General , the costs were reduced , and as the Attorney General had no incentive to compromise it was more threatening to the cleric . In 1649 the Exchequer formally extended its common law and equity jurisdiction , becoming a fully fledged court of law able to hear any civil case .
The main focus of the Exchequer was the collection of royal revenue as part of the greater Exchequer , which was officially undertaken by the Lord High Treasurer . The Exchequer was unique in having jurisdiction in matters of both equity and the common law , the latter initially curtailed after the Magna Carta and reserved for the Court of King 's Bench and Court of Common Pleas , although it later grew back . This process of common law and equity was reversed ; during the 16th century the Exchequer was solely a common law body , with the equity jurisdiction only again becoming relevant near the end of the Tudor period . W. H. Bryson argues that this happened during the reign of Edward I. By 1590 the Exchequer 's jurisdiction over equity cases was confirmed , and it was handling a significant number a year , including disputes over trusts , mortgages , tithes and copyholds ; since taxation was ever @-@ present , it was not difficult to show that the dispute prevented the payment of a debt to the monarch , allowing the Writ of Quominus .
The Exchequer stood on an equal footing with the other Westminster courts ( the Court of Common Pleas , Court of King 's Bench and Court of Chancery ) , with cases transferred easily from one to another , although there were problems in the case of the Court of King 's Bench . The traditional method for moving a case was the writ of supersedeas , but the King 's Bench represented the monarch , who could not have writs placed against him . Instead , a clerk would bring the Red Book of the Exchequer to the King 's Bench and assert that the case 's claimant was an officer of the Exchequer , necessitating his trial there rather than in the King 's Bench . The Exchequer maintained a clear rule with the other equity court , the Court of Chancery ; a case heard in one could not be re @-@ heard in the other . Apart from that , cases of equity could be heard by either court . The Exchequer had superior status over inferior courts of equity , able to take cases from them and countermand their decisions . The jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts also overlapped with that of the Exchequer , particularly in relation to the collection of tithes , and there are many records of disputes between the two .
As well as appeals to the Exchequer Chamber , the court also allowed appeals to the House of Lords , which was first used in 1660 for the case of Fanshawe v Impey and confirmed in 1677 .
= = Officers = =
= = = Treasurer = = =
The formal head of the Exchequer for much of its existence was the Lord High Treasurer , who was tasked with collecting royal revenues . Originally a clerk , he was supervised by the Chief Justiciar , and only became head of the court after this position was abolished during the reign of Henry III . During the reign of Elizabeth I the Treasurer 's other duties began to increase , and he played less of a role in the Exchequer 's affairs . By the 17th century , the Lord High Treasurer had been replaced by a dedicated Treasurer of the Exchequer ( although earlier writs show that the Lord High Treasurer had been independently given this title ) , who was ceremoniously presented with a white staff by the monarch . The Treasurer , while active in the revenue side of the Exchequer , played little or no active role in the Exchequer of Pleas .
= = = Chancellor = = =
The Chancellor of the Exchequer , independently head of the Court of Chancery , was also involved in the Exchequer of Pleas as a check on the Lord High Treasurer . He evolved out of the Lord Chancellor 's clerk , or clericus cancellari , who sat in the Exchequer and was responsible for correcting and sealing writs of summons , also holding the Exchequer 's copy of the Great Seal . The earliest appearances of such a clerk in the records come from 1220 , when a document was signed by Robert de Neville , cancellarius . The Lord Chancellors of the time were clergymen with little interest in judicial or fiscal matters ; as a result , the clerk became more independent from the Chancellor and , by the 1230s , became a royal appointment holding the seal independently of the Lord Chancellor , known as the Chancellor of the Exchequer . After 1567 the Chancellor was additionally confirmed as the Under @-@ Treasurer of the Exchequer , allowing him to carry out the Treasurer 's duties when he was unavailable . The Chancellor was appointed by letters patent , and until 1672 it was a life appointment , then changed to an office " to hold only during the pleasures of the crown " . Until the English Civil War the Chancellor of the Exchequer was a judicial office with little political standing ; after the War , however , it became seen as a " stepping stone " to higher political appointments . After 1672 it again became an administrative and judicial office , until 1714 , when the Chancellor 's position as head of the Treasury made it an important appointment again .
= = = Barons = = =
The main judicial officers were the Barons of the Exchequer , or barones scaccari , who were originally the same judges as those of the Court of King 's Bench , only becoming independent positions after the Exchequer 's separation from the curia regis . In the early years of the Exchequer 's existence , the Barons were the chief auditors of the accounts of England , a role passed to dedicated auditors during the reign of Edward II . With the Exchequer 's expansion during the Tudor era , the Barons became more important ; where previously only the Chief Baron had been appointed from the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , with the other Barons mere barristers , it became practice for all Barons of the Exchequer to be Serjeants . This further increased the Exchequer 's standing , since for the first time it put the Exchequer at the same level as the Court of Common Pleas and Court of King 's Bench , where all judges were already required to be Serjeants .
At least one Baron sat to hear a case , with convention insisting on a maximum of four Barons after the rule of Edward IV ; as a mere convention , it was occasionally broken . When one Baron was ill or otherwise unable to sit it was felt appropriate to appoint a fifth , as in 1604 when Baron Sotherton was ill , and in 1708 , when Baron Smith was called to Edinburgh to be a temporary Chief Baron of the Scottish Exchequer . In 1830 a fifth Baron was permanently added to relieve court congestion ; at the same time , a fifth judge was added to the Court of Common Pleas and King 's Bench . The First Baron was the Chief Baron of the Exchequer ; if the Chancellor and Treasurer were unavailable , he was the head of the court . When he was also absent the Second Baron took charge , and so on ; in one case in 1659 , the Fourth Baron was the only judge available . The Second , Third and Fourth Barons were known as puisne Barons ; initially treated as individual offices , after the time of James I the order was determined by the judges ' seniority . Unlike in the Court of King 's Bench , the different positions did not equate to different degrees of power ; each Baron had an equal vote in decisions .
Barons were appointed by letters patent and sworn in by the Lord Chancellor , head of the judiciary . During the 16th century they held their offices quamdiu se bene gesserint , or " during good behaviour " . A Baron could leave the Exchequer in one of three situations ; resignation , death , or appointment to another court , which automatically made their office void . The letters patent expired after the death of each monarch ; when the new one was crowned , a Baron would have to receive a new patent or leave his office . This was mostly a routine event ; from 1550 to 1714 all but nine continued in office after the crowning of a new monarch .
= = = Remembrancer = = =
The King 's Remembrancer was the chief clerk of the Exchequer , handling all bills of equity . He was the equivalent of the Court of Chancery 's Master of the Rolls , in that he headed up the clerical side of the court . As well as his duties to the judicial body , the King 's Remembrancer also handled the revenue side of the Exchequer , a jurisdiction established in the 14th century . He was originally able to appoint all the sworn clerks , but by the 16th century this jurisdiction had been limited to appointing one of the 24 side clerks , with the sworn clerks appointing the rest . In a similar way , while he was originally in charge of the court 's records and the enrolment of writs , by the 17th century he no longer possessed the keys to the record office , and the sworn clerks had the exclusive right to search the records . His main job was instead quasi @-@ judicial , examining certain witnesses , taking minutes in court and settling disputes over " scandal and impertinence " .
The Remembrancer was appointed for life , and qualified to appoint a deputy , the first of whom , John West , was appointed by Sir Christopher Hatton in 1616 . From 1565 until 1716 , the office was kept in the Fanshawe family , starting with Henry Fanshawe and ending with Simon Fanshawe . After 1820 , the Remembrancer 's broad duties were split up by the Court of Exchequer ( England ) etc . Act 1820 . To replace him , two masters were appointed , one of whom was to be the accountant general . These officials were to be appointed by the Chief Baron of the Exchequer from barristers of five years standing , holding offices during good behaviour and unable to appoint a deputy . The masters handled the taking of minutes previously undertaken by the Remembrancer , with the accountant general overseeing all money paid into the court , which was deposited in the Bank of England ; previously the Remembrancer had held complete discretion as to what to do with the money .
= = = Other offices = = =
Other offices included the sworn clerks , the examiners , the clerk to the barons , and the clerk to the King 's Remembrancer . There were eight sworn clerks , so called because they were sworn officers of the court , who held their offices for life and worked under the Remembrancer . Each clerk acted as an attorney for the parties in court , and every party was required to employ one . The first clerk was known as the First Secondary , and administered oaths out of the Red Book of the Exchequer . The sworn clerks were assisted by 24 side clerks , of whom each sworn clerk appointed three . Each side clerk studied under a sworn clerk for five years before practising himself , although under the sworn clerk 's name . A side clerk had the chance of being promoted to sworn clerk , first by the Remembrancer and then by the sworn clerks themselves . The examiners were tasked with supervising depositions of witnesses , bringing the witness to a Baron , administering the oath and keeping the files of the depositions . In 1624 it was decided these examiners should be sworn officers of the court , and from then on each Baron had an examiner , who acted in the Baron 's name . The office of examiner was dissolved in 1841 , when the equity jurisdiction of the Exchequer came to an end . In addition to an examiner , each Baron had at least one clerk , who acted as their private secretary ; although not paid , they were authorised to take fees for their work . The Chief Baron had two clerks , while the puisne Barons had one each . The King 's Remembrancer also employed a clerk , who was also a secretary . He received no salary and was not a sworn officer of the court , meaning the Remembrancer could have him replaced at any time .
= From Russia , with Love ( novel ) =
From Russia , with Love is the fifth novel by the English author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . Fleming wrote the story in early 1956 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica ; at the time he thought it may be his final Bond book . The novel was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 8 April 1957 .
The story centres on a plot by SMERSH , the Soviet counter @-@ intelligence agency , to assassinate Bond in such a way as to discredit both him and his organisation . As bait , the Russians use a beautiful cipher clerk and the Spektor , a Soviet decoding machine . Much of the action takes place in Istanbul and on the Orient Express . The book was inspired by Fleming 's visit to Turkey on behalf of The Sunday Times to report on an Interpol conference ; he returned to Britain by the Orient Express . From Russia , with Love deals with the East – West tensions of the Cold War , and the decline of British power and influence in the post @-@ Second World War era .
From Russia , with Love received broadly positive reviews at the time of publication . The book 's sales were boosted by an advertising campaign that played upon a visit by the British Prime Minister Anthony Eden to Fleming 's Goldeneye estate , and the publication of an article in Life , which listed From Russia , with Love as one of US President John F. Kennedy 's ten favourite books . The story was serialised in the Daily Express newspaper , first in an abridged , multi @-@ part form and then as a comic strip . In 1963 it was adapted into the second film in the Bond series , starring Sean Connery .
= = Plot = =
SMERSH , the Soviet counterintelligence agency , plans to commit a grand act of terrorism in the intelligence field . For this , it targets the British secret service agent James Bond . Due in part to his role in the defeat of the SMERSH agents Le Chiffre , Mr Big and Hugo Drax , Bond has been listed as an enemy of the Soviet state and a " death warrant " has been issued for him . His death is planned to precipitate a major sex scandal , which will run in the world press for months and leave his and his service 's reputations in tatters . Bond 's killer is to be the SMERSH executioner Red Grant , a psychopath whose homicidal urges coincide with the full moon . Kronsteen , SMERSH 's chess @-@ playing master planner , and Colonel Rosa Klebb , the head of Operations and Executions , devise the operation . They instruct an attractive young cipher clerk , Corporal Tatiana Romanova , to falsely defect from her post in Istanbul having , she would claim , fallen in love with Bond after seeing a photograph on his file . As an added lure for Bond , Romanova will provide the British with a Spektor , a Russian decoding device much coveted by MI6 . She is not told the details of the plan .
The offer of defection is received by MI6 in London , ostensibly from Romanova , but is conditional that Bond collects her and the Spektor from Istanbul . MI6 is unsure of Romanova 's motive , but the prize of the Spektor is too tempting to ignore ; Bond 's superior , M , orders him to go to Turkey . Once there , Bond forms a comradeship with Darko Kerim , head of the British service 's station in Turkey . Bond meets Romanova and they plan their route out of Turkey with the Spektor . He and Kerim believe her story and the three board the Orient Express . Bond and Kerim quickly discover three Russian MGB agents on board , travelling incognito . Kerim uses bribes and trickery to have two of them taken off the train , but he is later found dead in his compartment with the body of the third agent , both — unbeknown to Bond — having been killed by Grant .
At Trieste a fellow MI6 agent , " Captain Nash " , introduces himself and Bond presumes he has been sent by M as added protection for the rest of the trip . Romanova is suspicious of Nash , but Bond reassures her that the man is from his own service . After dinner , at which Nash has drugged Romanova , they rest ; Bond wakes up to find a gun pointing at him and Nash reveals himself to be the killer Grant . Instead of killing Bond immediately , Grant reveals SMERSH 's plan , including the detail that he is to shoot Bond through the heart and that the Spektor is booby @-@ trapped to explode when examined . As Grant talks , Bond places his metal cigarette case between the pages of a magazine he holds in front of him , positioning it in front of his heart to stop the bullet . After Grant fires , Bond pretends to be wounded ; when Grant steps over him , Bond attacks and Grant is killed . Bond and Romanova escape .
Later , in Paris , after successfully delivering Romanova and the booby @-@ trapped Spektor to his superiors , Bond meets Rosa Klebb . She is captured but manages to kick Bond with a poisoned blade concealed in her shoe ; the story ends with Bond fighting for breath and falling to the floor .
= = Background and writing history = =
By January 1956 the author Ian Fleming had published three novels — Casino Royale in 1953 , Live and Let Die in 1954 and Moonraker in 1955 . A fourth , Diamonds Are Forever , was being edited and prepared for production . That month Fleming travelled to his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica to write From Russia , with Love . He followed his usual practice , which he later outlined in Books and Bookmen magazine : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " He returned to London in March that year with a 228 @-@ page first @-@ draft manuscript that he subsequently altered more heavily than any of his other works . One of the significant re @-@ writes changed Bond 's fate ; Fleming had become disenchanted with his books and wrote to his friend , the American author Raymond Chandler : " My muse is in a very bad way ... I am getting fed up with Bond and it has been very difficult to make him go through his tawdry tricks . " Fleming re @-@ wrote the end of the novel in April 1956 to make Klebb poison Bond , which allowed him to finish the series with the death of the character if he wanted . Fleming 's first draft ended with Bond and Romanova enjoying a romance . By January 1957 Fleming had decided he would write another story , and began work on Dr. No in which Bond recovers from his poisoning and is sent to Jamaica .
Fleming 's trip to Istanbul in June 1955 to cover an Interpol conference for The Sunday Times was a source of much of the background information in the story . While there he met the Oxford @-@ educated ship owner Nazim Kalkavan , who became the model for Darko Kerim ; Fleming took down many of Kalkavan 's conversations in a notebook , and used them verbatim in the novel .
Although Fleming did not date the event within his novels , John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom wrote books for Ian Fleming Publications — have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . Chancellor put the events of From Russia , with Love in 1955 ; Griswold
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impose a set of rules on what may or may not be consumed with it or shortly thereafter . A saying in Indonesian , durian jatuh sarung naik , meaning " the durian falls and the sarong comes up " , refers to this belief . The warnings against the supposed lecherous quality of this fruit soon spread to the West – the Swedenborgian philosopher Herman Vetterling commented on so @-@ called " erotic properties " of the durian in the early 20th century .
= Nagore Dargah =
Nagore Dargah ( also called Nagoor Dargah or Hazrat Syed Shahul Hameed Dargah ) is a dargah built over the tomb of the Sufi a saint Hazrath Nagore Shahul Hamid ( 1490 – 1579 CE ) . It is located in Nagore , a coastal town in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Outer doors kept open always . Internal doors opening time is from 4 : 30 am to 07 : 00 am and 6 : 25 pm to 9 : 30 pm . Friday alone additionally kept open from 12 noon to 2 : 30 pm also . Shahul Hamid is believed to have performed many miracles in Nagore , and cured the physical affliction of king Achutappa Nayak , a 16th @-@ century Hindu ruler of Thanjavur . He is locally referred to as Nagore Andavar , meaning the " god of Nagore " . Nagore dargah as it stands now , is believed to have been built by ardent devotees of Shahul Hamid , with major contribution from Hindus . There are five minarets in the dargah , with the Hindu Maratha ruler of Thanjavur Pratap Singh ( 1739 – 1763 CE ) , building the tallest minaret . The dargah is a major pilgrimage centre that attracts pilgrims from both Islam and Hinduism , symbolizing peaceful coexistence between the two religions. b
The most prominent event celebrated at Nagore dargah is the Kanduri festival , a fourteen @-@ day commemoration of the death anniversary of Shahul Hamid . Common worship practices at Nagore dargah include the presentation of offerings , accompanied by the playing of musical instruments like nadaswaram , atypical of Hindu religious tradition . The Shifa Gunta , a pool within the precincts of the dargah , is considered sacred ; pilgrims take a holy dip in it . The hereditary Khalifa ( Sufi saint ) , c selected from among the descendants of saint Yusuf , performs all the official and religious duties of the dargah . The administration and maintenance of the dargah is governed by a committee which operates under a scheme decreed by the Madras High Court .
= = About the saint = =
Hazrath Shahul Hamid Badusha Kaadiri was born to Hazrath Syed Hassan Kuthos Baba Kaadiri and Bibi Fathima at Manikpur , in Pratapgarh district of Uttar Pradesh . He was a 13th generation descendant of the renowned Sufi saint , Hazrath Muhiyudin Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Jalani . He had his Islamic education at Gwalior under the guidance of Hazrat Mohammad Ghouse . He left on a pilgrimage to Mecca and then moved to Maldives , Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu with his spiritual team . Historians Sayyid and Qadir Hussain ( 1957 ) place the date of his birth on 10 November 1504 , death on 10 November 1570 and arrival in Nagore during 1533 – 34 . Other sources mention the year of death as 1558 , 1570 or 1579 . He is believed to have led a simple and pious life , performing a lot of miracles , giving him the name Nagore Andavar ( meaning god of Nagore ) . His popularity grew outside Tanjore region during the period . He was also called Meera Saheb , Qadir Wali and Ganj @-@ e @-@ Sawai .
As per local legend , hagiographical texts and historical records , Shahul Hamid is believed to have cured a Hindu ruler of Thanjavur , king Achutappa Nayak ( 1529 – 1542 A.D. ) , of his physical affliction caused by sorcery . Shahul Hamid found a needled pigeon in the palace believed to be the cause of the misery . He removed the pins from the pigeon , resulting in the king 's health improvement . In remembrance of the event , the practice of setting pigeons free in the premises of the dargah is continued by worshipers in modern times .
= = History of the dargah = =
Achutappa Nayak , the king of Thanjavur during the 16th century , donated 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of land to the entourage of Shahul , after the saint cured the king 's affliction . The dargah was built on a part of the land donated by Nayak . Shahul Hamid is believed to have predicted his death and advised his adopted son Yusuf about his burial location and rites to be performed after his death . Yusuf performed the rites as per the instructions and decided to stay there for the rest of his life . A mausoleum was constructed over the grave . Devotees of Shahul , who continued to believe in his powers after his death , venerated the site of the burial . The shrine was initially a smaller one and gradually gained prominence . Pratap Singh ( 1739 – 1763 A.D. ) , the Hindu Maratha ruler of Thanjavur prayed for a son and built the tallest of the five minarets ( called Periya Manara locally ) with a height of 131 ft ( 40 m ) once his wish was fulfilled . The Marathas of the later period were patrons to the dargah , with the Maratha king Thuljaji , the son of Pratap Singh , donating 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) of agricultural land to the dargah . During the last quarter of 18th century , when there was conflict between European powers , the Nawab of Arcot , the Maratha kings and Tipu Sultan of Mysore over Thanjavur region , the dargah was considered strategically important by all of them .
= = Architecture = =
The Nagore Dargah covers an area of 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) enclosed by a compound wall . The main complex has four entrances in each direction . The dargah is believed to have been built by ardent devotees of Shahul Hamid , who are 60 per cent Hindus . There are five minarets with different heights and the tallest one has a height of 131 ft ( 40 m ) . It was erected during the 195th death anniversary of Shahul . The dargah has a gold @-@ plated dome located on the west face outside the main entrance over the tombs of Shahul , his son Yusuf and his daughter @-@ in @-@ law Saeeda Sultana Biwi . The other four minarets are 77 ft ( 23 m ) tall Sahib Minara , 93 @.@ 5 ft ( 28 @.@ 5 m ) tall Thalaimattu Minara , 93 @.@ 25 ft ( 28 @.@ 42 m ) tall Muthubaq Minara and 80 ft ( 24 m ) tall Ottu Minara , each constructed in four cardinal points around the dome . As a mark of respect , devotees venerate the sandals of the saint which are preserved in the shrine . The central part of the dargah is the tomb of the saint Shahul Hamid , which is approached through seven thresholds . Four of these doorways are made of silver and the remaining three of gold . The other tombs in the shrines are the ones for Shahul 's grandson Hassan Alaihis Salam and Abdel Khader Gilani , each located in different chambers . The adjoining portion of the complex is called Peer Mandap , the Khalifa 's place of fasting during the annual festival . A mosque is located next to the Peer Mandap , where daily prayers are offered .
Shifa Gunta is a holy tank with stepped sides , located within the precincts of the dargah . As per a local legend , Shahul Hamid is believed to have brought an iron chain with him to Nagore to bind himself during severe austerities . The distinctive chain is identified as the one hanging from the ceiling above the tomb of Yusuf . Vanjur shrine and Silladi shrine , located outside the main complex , are associated with the Nagore Dargah . The Vanjur shrine is an underground cave located 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the main complex at Nagore . It is the place where Shahul is believed to have meditated for 40 days . Silladi shrine is located 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) towards the east of main complex , facing the Bay of Bengal , where Shahul is believed to have offered daily prayers .
There are similar shrines built in Shahul Hamid 's honour in Penang ( Malaysia ) and Singapore . The Singapore dargah , built during 1827 , has been declared a national monument . These two shrines along with the Masjid Jamae at Chulia in Singapore and the Keramat Data Koya in Penang are influenced by the architectural style of Nagore dargah .
= = Festivals = =
Kanduri festival is a 14 @-@ day annual event celebrated during the urs ( death anniversary ) of the saint . The festival is celebrated in commemoration of the anniversary of the saint 's death , and pilgrims participate in the rituals and rites . The word kanduri is derived from the Persian word for table cloth . The festival is also called Qadir Wali Ke Fande festival . A saffron flag @-@ carrying ceremony is also observed , during which a flag is carried from a devotee 's house to the dargah , accompanied by a procession in streets . The flag is hoisted on a tree known as Fande ka Fahad by a Sirang ( hereditary trustee ) who is assisted by twenty assistants . The Islamic rites performed during the festival include the recitation of Quaranic verses and observance of Fatiha ( it includes ; recitation of Al @-@ Fatiha an essential part of daily prayer and Durood ) . The main attraction of the festival is the presence of Fakhir Jamas ( mendicant priests ) and Qalandars — the disciples of the saint who witness the festival . On the 9th day of Jamathul Akhir month in the Islamic calendar , at 10 p.m. , a pir ( one of the disciples ) is chosen for the spiritual exercise of offering prayers to the saint . The disciple throws lemons at the end of the prayers on devotees , which is believed to provide miraculous relief to worldly sorrows . The festival is also seen as a sacred exchange between Hindus and Muslims expressing solidarity of mixed faith in the region . Pilgrims from both the religions from the state and also from Sri Lanka , Burma and Gulf countries , attend the festival . In the evening of the ninth day of Akhir month in the Islamic calendar , a chariot containing sandal paste ( locally called santhanakoodu ) is pulled across the streets of Nagore by pilgrims and devotees , accompanied by banging of instruments . The sandal paste is received by the saint 's descendants and used to anoint the Rowla Sharif ( sanctum ) of the saint by the Khalifa of the dargah .
= = Worship , rituals and administration = =
Nagore dargah is a common place of worship for devotees of various religious faiths . According to the administration of the dargah , about 50 – 75 per cent of pilgrims visiting the dargah everyday are Hindus . The practise of offering flowers , sweatmeats and food , the way of conducting worship , and playing musical instruments like nadaswaram ( a type of pipe instrument commonly used in Tamil Nadu ) are atypical of Hindu tradition . Other worship practises include offering flags and lighting lamps of ghee at the saint 's tomb . Devotees shave their heads near the tank and offer tin or silver @-@ plated facsimiles of body parts , houses , sailboats matching their material needs .
Since Shahul Hamid was a celibate , he is offered a Sehra ( head dress ) , and not the customary flowers as at other dargahs . As per a local legend , he was approached by a childless couple who informed them that they would be blessed with children but the first offspring would be presented to him to adopt . Following the tradition , many childless couple worship in the dargah . While the dargah is open throughout the day , the doors of the shrines are open only during early morning and evening .
Shifa Gunta , the tank within the precincts of the dargah , is considered sacred . It is believed that a dip in the tank cures physical ailments . There is a hereditary Khalifa , from among the descendants of saint Yusuf . He performs all the religious duties of the dargah . A central parliamentary committee deputed to verify the implementation of the Wakf Act of 1995 was informed in 2008 that the Nagore Dargah was not administered as per the provisions of the Act . The committee found that it is against the spirit of the provisions of the Act as the dargah is a surveyed and notified body under the Tamil Nadu Wakf board . The administration and maintenance of the dargah was henceforth governed by a committee which operates under a scheme decreed by the Madras High Court .
Shahul Hamid and the dargah are revered in Tamil religious literature across different centuries . The most important among them is Tirukkarana Puranam ( 1812 ) by Ceyk Aptul Kaatiru Nayinar Leppai Alim ( also called Cekuna Pulavar ) that details the life of the saint . The Nakur Puranam , written by Kulam Katiru Navalar in 1893 , describes the miracles performed by Shahul in the dargah after his death . A prose biography Kanjul Kaaramattu , by Kulam Katiru Navalar , is also very popular . Nakaiyanthathi , a Tamil devotional poem , mentions the tank as " a haven of sweetness and comfort bedecked with the auspicious lotus " .
= Magna Carta Holy Grail =
Magna Carta ... Holy Grail ( alternatively written as Magna Carta Holy Grail ) is the twelfth studio album by American artist Jay Z. It was made available for free digital download for Samsung customers via the Jay Z Magna Carta app on July 4 , 2013 . It was released for retail sale on July 8 , 2013 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella and Roc Nation while being distributed by Universal . The album features guest appearances by Justin Timberlake , Nas , Rick Ross , Frank Ocean and Beyoncé . Most of the album was produced by Timbaland and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , while other producers included Boi @-@ 1da , Mike Will Made It , Hit @-@ Boy , Mike Dean , No I.D. , The @-@ Dream , Swizz Beatz , and Pharrell Williams among others . The album was promoted through various commercials presented by Samsung and was not preceded by any retail singles .
Upon its release , Magna Carta Holy Grail was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Some complimented the album 's production and composition , while others were disappointed with its overall theme and found many songs repetitive . On the day of its physical release in the United States , the album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , selling 528 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , making it Jay @-@ Z 's 13th consecutive studio album to top the chart . On September 2 , 2013 , it was announced that Magna Carta Holy Grail was certified double Platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of two million copies in the United States . The album was nominated in six categories at the 2014 Grammy Awards winning the Best Rap / Sung Collaboration trophy for " Holy Grail " featuring Justin Timberlake .
The album spawned three successful singles , " Holy Grail " , " Tom Ford " and " Part II ( On the Run ) " featuring Beyoncé . Multiple other songs on the album achieved chart success including , " FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt " , " Oceans " , " Heaven " and " Picasso Baby " . Additionally , the album was supported by the concert tour , Magna Carter World Tour .
= = Background = =
On September 23 , 2010 , rapper Q @-@ Tip confirmed working on Jay @-@ Z 's thirteenth studio album , with a tentative release in 2011 . By May 2012 , reports arose that he was working on new music with Roc Nation producer Jahlil Beats . In an interview with XXL , Beats stated : " Me and Jay @-@ Z been going back and forth . He picked a couple of my joints that he ’ s working on . I don ’ t even wanna say too much about Jay , but we definitely working on some stuff . I haven ’ t even sent him a bunch of beats . I sent him my favorite stuff . He hit me right back like , ‘ Yo , I ’ ma go in on this , ’ or , ‘ I like this . ’ ” The album development was kept a secret , but The @-@ Dream hinted about a new Jay @-@ Z album in an April 2013 interview with Hot 97 .
Leading up to the album 's announcement , Jay @-@ Z served as an executive producer for both the film The Great Gatsby and its soundtrack , The Great Gatsby : Music from Baz Luhrmann 's Film , which he and film director Baz Luhrmann worked together for two years . The opening song , " 100 $ Bill " by Jay @-@ Z contains a chopped and screwed beat , electro @-@ rap elements and is written in the perspective of a modern @-@ day Gatsby , it was both co @-@ written and produced by E * vax one half of electronic rock duo Ratatat .
= = Recording and production = =
In late 2011 , it was confirmed three songs had been recorded and one of which featured Frank Ocean which would end up being " Oceans " , the oldest song that appeared on the album . The recording for " Oceans " and production for " Holy Grail " were completed in 2011 , during the recording sessions for Jay 's collaborative album with Kanye West , Watch the Throne . West wanted the two songs to appear on Watch the Throne , however Jay @-@ Z chose to keep them for Magna Carta Holy Grail . After Watch the Throne was released , Jay @-@ Z chose to go on a worldwide concert tour instead of devoting more time for the album . Following the end of the tour , the main bulk of recording sessions for Magna Carta Holy Grail took place at Alicia Keys and Swizz Beatz ' Jungle City Studios in New York , where Justin Timberlake and Beyoncé Knowles were also working on their albums at the time . Jay @-@ Z described the recording process as having a " minimalist approach " to give Magna Carta Holy Grail a " 1990s feel " .
While working on Beyoncé 's fifth studio album , frequent collaborator Timbaland played Jay @-@ Z the instrumental for what would become " Picasso Baby " . According to Jay @-@ Z , that song built the sound of the album . Jay @-@ Z and Timbaland had grown apart after they worked on The Blueprint 3 , but reunited for this album . Timbaland ended up handling the majority of the production on Magna Carta Holy Grail . In an interview with BBC Radio 1 , Jay @-@ Z stated that while the two have recorded many songs in the past , it was not until Magna Carta Holy Grail that they got the chemistry to collaborate for a whole project . Producer J @-@ Roc described " Picasso Baby " as " just New York " . He told XXL that him and Timbaland " were really just feeling the city , the energy that it gives out " and were inspired by the " numerous different cultures and different dialects or sounds . "
The instrumental for " FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt " was started by producer Vinylz , who was inspired by a Pimp C speech he found on YouTube . He sampled Pimp C 's voice for the intro and then created the instrumental in a short amount of time . After fellow producer Boi @-@ 1da added to the production , the song was sent to Rick Ross who intended to use it for his upcoming album . Jay @-@ Z was meant to add a guest verse to it , but when he heard the instrumental , he wanted the track for his album . Timbaland added additional changes to it before they mastered the final version .
In 2012 , Jay @-@ Z contacted GOOD Music producer Hit @-@ Boy about working together on Magna Carta Holy Grail . Hit @-@ Boy created the instrumental for " Somewhereinamerica " , a song that was initially supposed to appear on the debut album of GOOD Music artist Travis Scott . While in the studio with Jay @-@ Z , Scott played the instrumental for him and Jay @-@ Z instantly liked it . The instrumental for the song " Crown " was made by 16 @-@ year @-@ old Canadian producer WondaGurl . She had collaborated with Travis Scott on his Owl Pharaoh mixtape and went on to produce another track for his upcoming album . Scott liked the instrumental and started to build upon it with Mike Dean . The two then gave it to Jay @-@ Z who recorded " Crown " over it .
Overall , Jay @-@ Z worked extensively on the album 's production with producers such as Swizz Beatz , Timbaland and Pharrell Williams who were also featured in the Samsung commercials promoting Magna Carta Holy Grail . He had also worked on the album 's production with Jahlil Beats , Boi @-@ 1da , Mike Dean , Kanye West and Mike Will Made It , among others . He had also been seen in the studio with various recording artists such as Drake , The @-@ Dream , Raekwon , Nas , and Timberlake working on the album . The final track listing revealed guest appearances by Timberlake , Frank Ocean , Nas , Pharrell , Swizz Beatz , Rick Ross and Beyoncé among others .
= = Release and promotion = =
On June 16 , 2013 , during the fifth game of the 2013 NBA Finals , Jay @-@ Z was featured in a new commercial by Samsung where he announced that his twelfth studio album would be titled , Magna Carta Holy Grail and would be released on July 4 , 2013 . He was seen speaking to producer Rick Rubin in the studio about the album saying , " [ It ] is about , like this duality of how do you navigate through this whole thing , through success , through failures , through all this and remain yourself . " The commercial featured producers that are confirmed to be on the album including Timbaland , Swizz Beatz and Pharrell Williams . The album was made available for free download on July 4 , 12 : 01 a.m. EST , to the first one million Samsung Galaxy S III , Samsung Galaxy S4 and Samsung Galaxy Note II users of a new app . Shortly after , Billboard said that the Samsung deal would not count towards the sales figures used by Nielsen SoundScan to compile their charts . The album was then released for retail sale three days later , on July 7 , 2013 .
Leading up to the release of the album , Jay @-@ Z released selected lyrics of each song daily , via the Samsung app . This included " Holy Grail " , " Heaven " , " Oceans " , " Part II ( On the Run ) " , " BBC " , " Jay Z Blue " , " Versus " , " La Familia " , " Tom Ford " , " Beach Is Better " , " Crown " , " Picasso Baby " , " F.U.T.W. " , " Nickels & Dimes " and " SomewhereInAmerica " in order . On July 3 , 2013 , the cover art of the album was revealed in a photo where it was placed next to the one of the four surviving copies of album 's namesake ( the 13th @-@ century English charter ) in Salisbury Cathedral , England , and it remained on display there until the end of July . The logo for the album was inspired by an art piece by Be Andr from 2009 named ‘ Untitled ( art ) ’ .
During the 2013 Grammy Awards , Timberlake and Jay @-@ Z performed their hit single " Suit & Tie " . Following their appearance on Grammys , rumors of a stadium tour between the artists were raised as a result of Jay @-@ Z 's posts on his Life + Times website ; he posted series of venues with the note " # LegendsOfSummer this week " . The Legends of the Summer Stadium Tour was officially announced on February 22 , 2013 . The tour begun on July 14 , 2013 in London , England . Starting in October 2013 , Jay @-@ Z toured Europe on the Magna Carter World Tour . It begun on October 3 at the Manchester Arena in Manchester , England and concluded on October 29 at the Ziggo Dome in Amsterdam , Netherlands . The North American leg followed that , and it ended on January 31 , 2014 .
= = Singles = =
On April 11 , 2013 , Jay @-@ Z released the first song from the album titled " Open Letter " . The song was a response to the critics of his fifth wedding anniversary that took place in Cuba . This was due to the current United States embargo against Cuba , which required them needing a permit to visit the country . The song was produced by Swizz Beatz , and was included on the album as a bonus track . On July 10 , 2013 , Third Man Records announced on their website that they had entered a deal to release Magna Carta Holy Grail on vinyl , also confirming that " Open Letter " would be included as a vinyl @-@ only bonus track and that there would be " something [ else ] very special planned for the vinyl edition . " However , the ' vinyl @-@ only ' appearance of " Open Letter " has been shown to not apply to all market areas . Third Man Records is set to issue " Open Letter " in the form of a vinyl single designed as a playable letter . In an interview with Hot 97 , Jay @-@ Z went into detail about the single 's release , saying : " It 's in a letter . You can play the letter . It 's amazing ... You open the letter , and you can actually play the card . "
The song " Holy Grail " features vocals from singer Justin Timberlake and served as the album 's first single . It was produced by The @-@ Dream , Timbaland and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , with additional production from No ID and containing elements of Nirvana 's 1991 hit single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . Following the release of the album , the song debuted at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 24 on the UK Singles Chart . The song has since peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video was released on August 29 , 2013 , making social media history as the first time a clip from major artists debuted strictly on Facebook .
On September 26 , 2013 , the album 's second single " Tom Ford " was serviced to urban contemporary radio in the United Kingdom and then on October 15 , 2013 , to rhythmic contemporary in the United States . Prior to its single release , the song peaked at number 39 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . " Part II ( On the Run ) " featuring Beyoncé was serviced to contemporary hit radio stations on February 18 , 2014 as the album 's third single . The song has since peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Commercial performance = =
Magna Carta Holy Grail debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 528 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , which bypassed its predicted debut in the range of 350 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 . The album also debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart . It is Jay @-@ Z 's third straight number one album in Canada . The album debuted at number one on the UK Album Chart , Jay @-@ Z 's first UK number one album . In its second week the album sold 129 @,@ 000 more copies in the United States . Despite the 76 % drop in sales , Magna Carta Holy Grail retained its number one position on the Billboard 200 , becoming the first rap album to spend two consecutive weeks on top since Lil Wayne 's Tha Carter IV ( 2011 ) . In its third week the album would drop down to number two , selling 77 @,@ 000 copies . In its fourth week the album would drop down to number three , selling 62 @,@ 000 copies . It sold 1 @,@ 099 @,@ 000 copies in 2013 in the United States , making it the tenth best @-@ selling album of the year . By February 26 , 2014 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . As of September 2 , 2013 , It was announced by Billboard that Magna Carta Holy Grail was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of two million copies in the United States .
At the time of its release , the album had the second @-@ biggest sales week for 2013 , behind Justin Timberlake 's The 20 / 20 Experience . Magna Carta Holy Grail 's debut marked the first time in Billboard 's history when four different rap albums have consecutively spent weeks at number one , after Kanye West 's Yeezus , Wale 's The Gifted and J. Cole 's Born Sinner . Magna Carta Holy Grail also became Jay @-@ Z 's 13th studio album in a row to top the Billboard 200 , extending his record for the most chart @-@ toppers by a solo act in Billboard 's history .
= = Critical reception = =
Magna Carta Holy Grail received generally mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from critics , the album received an average score of 60 , based on 42 reviews . In his review for The New York Times , Jon Pareles wrote that Jay @-@ Z is trying to transition from pop but has not yet found a " reliable alternative " , and that his raps are often mismatched with rigidly produced tracks . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman felt that the album was hastily produced and that , despite occasionally impressive lyrics , Jay @-@ Z 's pop culture references sound reflexive . Spin magazine 's Jordan Sargent said that the songs sound both too elaborate and unfinished , and have similar but less momentous themes as Watch the Throne . Slant Magazine 's Jesse Cataldo viewed Magna Carta Holy Grail as a self @-@ important album marred by shallow name @-@ dropping and accused Jay @-@ Z of becoming disinterested creatively because of his increased success . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club said that he exhausts the ending of his rags to riches narrative and cannot reinvent himself beyond gloating superficially about his riches . The Daily Telegraph 's Helen Brown found his boastful references heavy @-@ handed and the album unchallenging , albeit enjoyable for " the lazy listener " . Greg Kot , writing in the Chicago Tribune , viewed that , apart from well @-@ written moments on " Oceans " , " Jay @-@ Z Blue " , and " Nickel & Dimes " , most of the album is inconsequential .
In a positive review , Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times was impressed by the production 's energy and effective samples , even though he thought the album is not as intellectual or adventurous as its title suggests . Uncut wrote that it mostly succeeds as Jay @-@ Z 's attempt to " balance his great wealth , tough history and news responsibility while retaining his grit . " Louis Pattison of NME said that it lacks a radical presence such as Kanye West to complement Jay @-@ Z 's mature ruminations , but still shows him as a sagacious lyricist comparable with Bruce Springsteen or Bob Dylan . Kitty Empire , writing in The Observer , believed that the diverse production will initially draw listeners rather than Jay @-@ Z 's predictably " umpteenth retelling " of his rags @-@ to @-@ riches story , but the topics become more interesting on subsequent listens because of his surprisingly concerned takes on fatherhood and charity . In his review for MSN Music , Robert Christgau said he was won over after several listens by the familial songs , which he found amusing on an album that pits " black man as artistic rebel versus black man as family stalwart " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Closing out the year , Magna Carta Holy Grail was met with many accolades and was named in multiple " Albums of the Year " lists by major publications . It was nominated for Album of the Year at the 2013 BET Hip Hop Awards and for Best Rap Album at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . Complex ranked the album at number 23 , on their list of the 50 best albums of 2013 . They praised the " high @-@ gloss production , " and strong rhymes by Jay @-@ Z , deeming it " very listenable " . Rolling Stone named it the tenth best hip hop album of the 2013 saying , " The legendary MC explored of @-@ the @-@ moment sounds , textures and tempos in ways only he could [ ... ] Even on a bit of an off day , Jay is still plenty impressive . " It was named the eighth best album of 2013 by XXL .
= = Track listing = =
On June 22 , Jay @-@ Z held a viral scavenger hunt around Brooklyn , New York as part of his " # NEWRULES " venture with Samsung . The 100 winners of the hunt were given a binder that revealed the track list .
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer .
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer .
^ c signifies an additional programmer .
" Somewhereinamerica " is alternatively spelled as " Somewhere in America " in some versions of the album .
" Holy Grail " features additional vocals by The @-@ Dream .
" Picasso Baby " features additional vocals by The @-@ Dream and Zofia Borucka Moreno .
" Tom Ford " features additional vocals by Beyoncé Knowles who is credited as " Third Ward Trill " .
" Crown " features additional vocals by Travis Scott .
" Heaven " features additional vocals by Justin Timberlake .
" BBC " features additional vocals by Pharrell Williams , Timbaland , Niigo , Justin Timberlake , Swizz Beatz & Beyoncé Knowles who is credited as " Third Ward Trill " .
" Jay Z Blue " features additional vocals by Taffy .
Samples credits
" Holy Grail " contains elements of " Smells Like Teen Spirit " performed by Nirvana .
" Picasso Baby " contains a sample of " Sirens " performed by Adrian Younge .
" Tom Ford " contains elements of " Bad Girls " performed by M.I.A.
" Somewhereinamerica " embodies portions of " Gangster of Love ( Part 1 ) " written by Johnny Guitar Watson .
" Crown " contains a sample of " Solid as a Rock " performed by Sizzla .
" Heaven " contains a sample of " Reverie " performed by Adrian Younge , and lyrically samples " Losing My Religion " performed by R.E.M.
" Versus " embodies portions of A Tribe Called Quest 's " Sucka Nigga " , and contains a sample of " Lilith - On The Way " performed by Bruno Spoerri
" Part II ( On the Run ) " contains a sample of " Believe in Me " performed by One Way .
" BBC " lyrically samples " Feel So Good " performed by Mase .
" Jay Z Blue " contains samples from " My Downfall " performed by The Notorious B.I.G. and a monologue by Faye Dunaway in the 1981 film Mommie Dearest .
" Nickels and Dimes " contains a sample of " Nikels and Dimes " performed by Gonjasufi .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Homicide in English law =
English law contains homicide offences – those acts involving the death of another person . For a crime to be considered homicide , it must take place after the victim 's legally recognised birth , and before their legal death . There is also the usually uncontroversial requirement that the victim be under the " Queen 's peace " . The death must be causally linked to the actions of the defendant . Since the abolition of the year and a day rule , there is no maximum time period between any act being committed and the victim 's death , so long as the former caused the latter .
There are two general types of homicide , murder and manslaughter . Murder requires an intention to kill or an intention to commit grievous bodily harm . If this intention is present but there are certain types of mitigating factors – loss of control , diminished responsibility , or pursuance of a suicide pact – then this is voluntary manslaughter . There are two types of involuntary manslaughter . Firstly , it may be " constructive " or " unlawful act " manslaugher , where a lesser but inherently criminal and dangerous act has caused the death . Alternatively , manslaughter may be caused by gross negligence , where the defendant has broken a duty of care over the victim , where that breach has led to the death , and is sufficiently gross as to warrant criminalisation .
= = General features = =
Death is an irremediable harm that is dealt with particularly seriously in English law . For example , the crime of murder uniquely carries a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment , regardless of the degree to which the defendant is morally culpable provided they are legally culpable . To use another example : causing injury by dangerous driving carries a maximum sentence of two years , whereas causing death by dangerous driving carries one of fourteen years .
All homicides involve three elements as a defining feature : firstly , that the victim must be a legally defined " human being " ; that their death must be caused by the act or omission of one or more human beings ; and that this must occur within the " Queen 's peace " , which relates to jurisdiction .
= = = Birth and death = = =
A foetus , even at a late stage of pregnancy , is not protected by the law of homicide ( rather , other offences have been created to prevent the proscribed harm ) . To qualify , the victim must have an " independent existence " . This was confirmed in 1998 in Attorney General 's Reference ( No. 3 of 1994 ) , even where the foetus is viable and could have survived if born before the offence was committed . The confused rationale appears to match the complicated moral and biological distinction on which it is based ; there is huge social significance placed upon birth and thus the law is unlikely to change – Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights has not yet been interpreted to conflict with the English law . Instead , in Vo v France , the European Court of Human Rights ruled that most definitions were within the margin of appreciation set aside to national law . The death of a child after birth from injuries sustained before birth would only constitute murder if the requisite intent – that the child would die after birth – was present . Other forms of homicide would also be applicable .
There is no legislation that defines when death has occurred . However , in Airedale NHS Trust v Bland , cessation of brain stem function , one form of brain death , was considered the definition by the House of Lords . Much medical law – for example , that conferring the right to remove organs for transplant – is predicated on this decision and it is unlikely to be overturned . The Criminal Law Revision Committee has declined to propose a legal definition , for fear of the wide impact that it could have on disparate branches of the law , and the changing basis in medical science . In Bland , a person in a persistent vegetative state was considered to be alive ; accordingly , anything less than brain stem cessation is unlikely to be sufficient for death .
= = = Causation = = =
The normal rules of causation apply , although they can become strained when compared to the various moral issues of importance in cases of homicide . In R v. Pagett , the defendant was found guilty of the manslaughter of a hostage he was using as a human shield , who was killed by police returning fire against the defendant . Whether another 's actions are " free , voluntary and informed " is the operating definition , as upheld in R. v Kennedy ( No. 2 ) where the defendant was acquitted . Such an intervening act is known as a " novus actus interveniens " . The judgments of several judges in various cases , including Devlin J in R. v Adams appear to confuse causality with motive : where there is a strong moral imperative to clear the defendant , causality is doubted , rather than the mental element ( mens rea ) . Since everyone will die at some point , then even murder is a mere acceleration of death . In Adams the question of life @-@ shortening palliative care was approached , and the need to provide a suitable reason with which to distinguish the doctor from any other murderer . Ultimately it seems a special defence was created .
A homicide can be brought about through act or omission . Baker , notes " R v Evans [ 2009 ] EWCA Crim 650 , [ 2009 ] 1 WLR 1999 holds that if a person merely facilitates another to create a dangerous situation for himself , that person may be held criminally liable for a homicide offence if that self @-@ endangerment results in death . Evans 's sister made an intervening choice to self @-@ inject and it was her independent self @-@ injection that was the direct cause of the dangerous situation . Evans 's pre @-@ existing duty of care was grounded on her act of supply and her awareness of the fact that her act of supply had facilitated the creation of a dangerous and life @-@ threatening situation . Evans did not create the dangerous situation , but rather she merely made an indirect causative contribution to the dangerous situation . Furthermore , if she had merely supplied the drugs and had left the scene , and therefore had remained ignorant of the fact that her act of supply had resulted in a dangerous overdose situation , her act of mere supply per se would not have been sufficient for a conviction of gross negligence manslaughter . " Baker , Dennis J , Omissions Liability for Homicide Offences : Reconciling R V Kennedy with R V Evans ( May 21 , 2012 ) . ( 2010 ) 74 Journal of Criminal Law 310 . Available at SSRN : http : / / ssrn.com / abstract = 2063709 Elsewhere Baker argues : " In R. v. Evans , Gemma Evans , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old woman , purchased heroin and supplied her 16 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Carly . Carly self @-@ injected in a house in which she resided with Evans ( the defendant ) and her mother . After injecting the drug she developed and complained of symptoms consistent with an overdose . Evans appreciated that Carly ’ s condition was very serious and indicative of an overdose and , together with her mother , Andrea Townsend , who was also convicted of manslaughter , believed that she was responsible for Carly ’ s care . “ The appellant described in a later interview with the police that she had seen that Carly ’ s lips had turned blue , that she was ‘ in a mess ’ , and was incapable of responding to attempts to speak to her . The appellant and her mother decided not to seek medical assistance because they feared that they themselves and possibly Carly would get into trouble . ” Instead , they put Carly in bed with the hope that she would make a miraculous recovery . The defendant and her mother checked on Carly occasionally and slept in the same room , but tragically , Carly died during the night . The medical evidence demonstrated that the cause of death was heroin poisoning . Evans and Townsend were charged with manslaughter .... Lord Judge C.J. held that Gemma Evans assisted Carly Evans to create a dangerous situation and was aware of the danger she assisted Carly to bring about for herself and that these two factors gave rise to a duty of reasonable rescue . The mother was convicted on the basis of her parental duty , which required her to take reasonable steps to summon assistance . Since Evans was an older half @-@ sister , she was not covered by the parental duty doctrine . Instead , a new law had to be minted to catch her conduct . The new law being that mere assistance gives rise to duty of care . Since Evans assisted her sister ’ s overdose by supplying the drug she had a duty to summon help once she realised her sister was in peril . This category of duty is a newly minted one . Arguably , the courts cannot create further situations ( or declare further relationships such as roommate / roommate ) where a duty will be imposed the breach of which will amount to manslaughter . Hence , the categories should be regarded as closed . Cases not covered by the aforementioned duties should not give rise to a duty of care . It is arguable that since the conduct in R. v. Evans ( assisting another to create a dangerous situation for herself ) is not covered by the R. v. Miller doctrine ( perpetrating an act that directly creates a dangerous situation ) , nor by the category of duty as set down in R. v. Stone , the Court of Appeal should have held that Evans had no duty of care . There is nothing wrong with applying R. v. Miller to a manslaughter case , but the court extended the R. v. Miller doctrine to cover mere facilitation , and then applied that new doctrine to manslaughter . The category of duty created in R. v. Evans seems to contravene the ruling in R. v. Rimmington , which holds that judges cannot extend common law offences to cover new forms of conduct . It is one thing to apply an existing doctrine to new facts , and another to apply it to conceptually different conduct such as assistance rather than perpetration . " Dennis J. Baker , Glanville Williams : Textbook of Criminal Law , ( London : Sweet & Maxwell , 2015 ) at paragraph 10 @-@ 024 .
There are no specific rules that apply to acts or omissions in homicide : an omission is criminal if the defendant fails to prevent the avoidable death of the victim where he or she has the duty to do so and that the defendant had the capacity to do so . As noted below , unlawful omissions have been excluded from unlawful act manslaughter . Like in other areas , a duty of care may now be owed , following R. v Evans , even where the dangerous situation which results in the victim 's death was not caused by the defendant . Medical professionals may be relieved of their responsibility to sustain a patient 's life , where terminating life support is dubiously legally classified as an omission .
= = = Other features = = =
The year and a day rule was abolished in England and Wales by the Law Reform ( Year and a Day Rule ) Act 1996 . As a matter of practice , the defendant may already have been prosecuted for the initial offence ( for example , another offence against the person ) . Accordingly , the Attorney General 's consent is required if more than three years has elapsed , or where the defendant has already been prosecuted in the circumstances alleged to have resulted in the victim 's death .
A person who is not " under the Queen 's Peace " cannot be the victim of a homicide . This includes the killing of alien enemies during a time of war . Murder or manslaughter committed by a British citizen is triable in an English ( or Northern Irish ) court , regardless of where the crime took place . The same is true for homicides committed on British ships or aircraft , regardless of the nationality of the offender . There are other statutory provisions which extend jurisdiction regarding types of offender on foreign ships , and , in the case of murder , terrorist activities . Although most crimes committed overseas are generally dealt with in the home jurisdiction , the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 formally brings the offences of a British citizen under the jurisdiction of the British courts , and therefore the " Queen 's Peace " rule is usefully retained .
= = = Defences = = =
The killing of another person must be unlawful . Some defences are therefore open to the defendant , among them self @-@ defence . Carrying a lawful activity , for example , a fully qualified doctor carrying out an abortion in the required circumstances , could not result in an unlawful homicide even if the child was born alive . Consent might be relevant to some forms of homicide , but not to murder .
= = Murder = =
Murder has never been statutorily defined , despite being recognised as either the most serious crime , or certainly among them . The actus reus ( prohibited act ) of murder , unlawfully causing the death of another person , fits the general provisions for homicide . The mens rea ( mental element ) of murder was long held to be " malice aforethought " , which took on a meaning only of the required mental state for murder , since malice aforethought required neither malice ( compassionate killing is still murder ) nor aforethought ( no premeditation is required ) . It is this mental component that marks murder out from manslaughter .
The mental element is taken to be either an intention to kill , or an intention to inflict grievous bodily harm . Grievous bodily harm is " really serious " harm . The extension of the intention to inflict grievous bodily harm has been criticised , although it has remained in place despite several legal challenges , and , in the case of R v Hyam the minority judgments of Lord Diplock and Lord Kilbrandon which would have removed it . The judges there made reference to the abolition under the Homicide Act 1957 of constructive malice ( causing death whilst committing a felony or resisting arrest ) , believing the rule for grievous bodily harm to be a hang @-@ over of the old system . It can now be concluded that only legislative intervention could abolish this form of murder , and , although the Law Commission proposed a change in the law , none has yet been enacted . The current law was judged to be compatible with Article 7 of the European Convention on Human Rights in relation to Northern Ireland . It can also be defended with reference to the actor taking responsibility for his actions , even unforeseen consequences , or merely as an appropriate response in itself . Intent is subjective : that the defendant must surely have intended their actions because a reasonable person would , knowing what the defendant knew , have foreseen death as a result , is insufficient . This seemed to have been allowed as a form of intent in DPP v Smith , but that case has been considered overturned following legislative changes , and more recent cases leave no room for doubt on this issue .
Core intent would be where the defendant acted either to cause at least grievous bodily harm to the victim , or where the defendant acted to achieve some other aim , where the death caused was a necessary means to that other end . In general , the jury is directed that " intent " is to be taken as meaning what it does in ordinary life , and that the judge should not attempt to define it in other terms . However , following R v Woollin , it is also possible for a jury to convict if they " feel sure that death or serious injury was a virtual certainty ( barring some unforeseen intervention ) as a result of the defendant 's actions and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case " – known as " oblique intent " . Despite appearing to present an alternative to the primary , core sense of intent , courts have generally seen Woollin as allowing the jury to infer core intent from the evidence of virtual certainty . The jury are entitled to convict in these circumstances , and they should not be directed that they , finding virtual certainty , must convict . However , if it is difficult to imagine circumstances where a jury would find virtual certainty but not convict , which would support this complicating factor . The exception for medical care is mentioned as a general principle for homicide .
There is a mandatory life sentence for murder in England and Wales . David Ormerod describes the evidence for abolishing it – instead giving judges discretion to impose a life sentence , or some lesser term – as " overwhelming " since murders and murderers differ greatly , as in any other crime . However , no government has yet , or seems likely to , institute such reform . The former role of the Home Secretary in deciding the minimum time spent in jail was successfully challenged with reference to the ECHR in R v Home Secretary , ex p Anderson , but the mandatory life sentence itself has been judged compatible . The sentencing and release of life prisoners was reformed by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 .
= = Manslaughter = =
Previously , all deaths which were not murder were classified as " manslaughter " – however , the law now requires that the death fit a particular type of manslaughter . Modern manslaughter does , however , retain a very wide scope .
There are three main forms of manslaughter in English law : voluntary manslaughter , cases which would otherwise amount to murder but for some legally recognised mitigating factor ; and involuntary manslaughter which includes cases of gross negligence manslaughter and unlawful act manslaughter .
= = = Voluntary manslaughter = = =
There are three types of voluntary manslaughter : that resulting from loss of self @-@ control ; that resulting from statutorily defined diminished responsibility ; and killing in perseverance of a suicide pact .
Loss of control is defined in sections 54 and 55 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 . Section 56 abolishes the common law defence of provocation , which also dealt only with murder . There is no mandatory life sentence for voluntary manslaughter . The defence operates whether the defendant is a principal or an accomplice . Broadly speaking , the defendant must have actually lost self @-@ control ; the trigger for this must be a qualifying trigger ; and it must be that a " normal " person might also have lost control in the circumstances . The loss of control need not be sudden , but cannot be in a " considered desired for revenge " . The loss of control is a subjective test which asks whether this defendant actually lost control , and if so , whether that loss of control led to their killing . The qualifying trigger may take one of two forms , or be a combination of both : that the killing was attributable to the defendant 's fear of serious violence from the victim against the defendant or another identified person ; or where the defendant 's loss of self @-@ control was attributable to a thing or things done or said ( or both ) which constituted circumstances of an extremely grave character , and caused the defendant to have a justifiable sense of being seriously wronged . The meaning of the terms " extremely grave character " and " justifiable sense of being seriously wronged " used in the second form is currently unclear . Section 51 ( 1 ) ( c ) requires that " a person of [ the defendant ] ' s sex and age , with a normal degree of tolerance and self @-@ restraint and in the circumstances of [ the defendant ] , might have reacted in the same or in a similar way to [ the defendant ] . " These issues are complicated and directing a jury on issues of loss of control is likely to be difficult .
Diminished responsibility occurs where the defendant has an " abnormality of mental functioning " atrributable to a recognised medical condition . It must " substantially impair " the defendant 's ability to either : under the nature of his or her conduct ; form a rational judgment ; or exercise self @-@ control . It must provide an explanation for the defendant 's actions . There is some sort of causal link required between the defendant 's condition and his acts or omissions , a change on the previous law . A.P. Simester and G. R. Sullivan have argued that it is more clearly worded and more schematic provision than the earlier law , although they are worried if the wording of the section is taken to imprison those better suited to psychiatric help outside of prison .
A killing in puseverance of a suicide pact , where the defendant had the " settled intention " of also committing suicide – although not necessarily by the same act – is a partial defence to murder . He or she must intend to fulfil that pact at the time of the killing and may renege on it later . Where the jury is not satisfied that the killing can be attributed to the defendant , a charge of encouraging or assisting suicide may be substituted to a charge of murder or voluntary manslaughter .
= = = Involuntary manslaughter = = =
Involuntary manslaughter involves the causing of the death of another person without intent to kill or intention to commit grievous bodily harm . Some cases are in form similar to murder cases ; whilst , in others , had death not been caused , the defendant would only be liable for an insignificant crime .
= = = = " Constructive " or " unlawful act " manslaughter = = = =
" Constructive " or " unlawful act " manslaughter results from the continuation of aspects of the felony murder rule , which was abolished in English law . Under that rule , the perpetrator of any ( civil or criminal ) illegality were held responsible for manslaughter for any death they caused . It had a huge scope . Constructive manslaughter has been narrowed , but remains broad . It requires a criminal act that causes the death ; that that act is inherently criminal ; and that that act is dangerous . Civil liability is insufficient for constructive manslaughter to result . It is deemed " constructive " in the sense that a greater crime – manslaughter – is constructed from a lesser .
The typical case will be of an non @-@ fatal offence against the person that causes death . There must be a criminal act , rather than an omission , following R v Lowe . Although acts and omissions may be equally culpable , the extension to omissions – where there is no need to show intent – would have made illegal a huge class of persons . Cases such as Lowe , which there was parental neglect , can be dealt with by gross negligence manslaughter . Judges have often failed to identify a single unlawful act on which the crime of manslaughter is to be constructed , rather assuming the presence of one in particular circumstances . There is a required mental element ( mens rea ) for this crime , but it has in some cases not actually been formally established . This mens rea might be very low , such as recklessness . The requirement of an unlawful act also means that no lawful defence must be available to the defendant in respect of the lesser crime .
The act must be inherently criminal – the case in point is that of R v Andrews , where the defendant had killed whilst driving dangerously . It was only the fact that the driving was dangerous that made it a crime , not the driving itself . Accordingly , Andrews removed driving and regulatory offences from the scope of constructive manslaughter . There are separate rules for causing death by dangerous driving and some regulatory offences . Some commentators took Andrews as excluding strict liability and negligence cases out of constructive manslaughter , although contrary to the exact wording in the judgment there ; however , a separate case also called R v Andrews convicted the defendant of constructive manslaughter based on a strict liability offence and this alternative proposition cannot be supported . Gross negligence manslaughter exists as a complementary form , and , if a driver was sufficiently negligent , as well he might , he would be liable for it . This provides an additional reason to exclude such cases from constructive manslaughter .
The requirement that the action be dangerous was confirmed in R v Newbury , which applied the previous reasoning on R v Church : " the unlawful act must be such that all sober and reasonable people would inevitably recognise it as an act which must subject the other person to at least the risk of some harm resulting therefrom albeit not serious harm " . This is an ( almost completely ) objective test , it disregards whether the defendant in particular foresaw the danger , and requires only that it would create a risk of some harm . The ordinary person knows only what the defendant did , at least in relation to the susceptibility of the victim . R v Ball did , however , create a class of dangerous – that of the act itself – where the jury knew more than the defendant ; in this case , whilst the defendant knew he was loading a blank cartridge , the jury was entitled to ascribe knowledge that it might be a live cartridge to the reasonable man . This has been criticised , and may not have been necessary . The act need not be directed at the victim : the killing of an innocent bystander by mistake could be manslaughter .
This act must be causally linked to the death . In the case of an offence against the person , it is usually obvious ; however , rather more controversial cases have founded constructive manslaughter on drug possession crimes involving the subsequent injection of the drug into another .
= = = = Gross negligence manslaughter = = = =
Gross negligence manslaughter requires a much greater level of wrongdoing that the civil tort of negligence .
It requires that the defendant owed a duty of care to the victim ( it is for the judge to decide on which facts such a duty would be created ) . These rules are typically those of tort . For example , in R v Pittwood , the defendant was put under a duty to act on account of being contractually obliged to close the gates at a railway crossing . Similar duties include those of a doctor of his patients , an electrician over a householder he has done work for , parents over their children , and , developed more recently , a police officer over persons he arrests . Included , however , are those of a criminal enterprise , which would not attract tortious liability in the civil law . Where the defendant is liable through an omission and not an act , then a legal duty to act – rather than a duty of care – is needed . Andrew Ashworth has criticised the nature of the duty of care requirement as " decision @-@ making at its retrospective worst " .
Once a duty of care ( or duty to act , as required ) has been shown , the jury should then be asked , following Lord Mackay in R v Adamoko : " having regard to the risk of death involved , [ was ] the conduct of the defendant ... so bad in all the circumstances as to amount to a criminal act or omission " . This has two elements : firstly , the breach of the duty of care must relate to the risk of death ( confirmed in R v Singh ) , and not to any lesser harm . In other words , the breach of the duty of care must cause the victim 's death . Secondly the breach of the duty of care must be so egregious as to amount to a crime . For example , on the fact of Adomako itself , the defendant , an anaesthetist , failed to spot a problem with the victim 's breathing tube for 11 minutes , something expert evidence suggested a competent anaesthetist would spot within thirty seconds or so . The defendant was convicted . This definition has been opposed as being circular , as defining the crime of manslaughter as gross negligence as being negligence to a criminal degree . The jury may , under this characterisation , be ruling upon a point of law and not a point of fact .
= Clitoris =
The clitoris ( / ˈklɪtərᵻs / or / klᵻˈtɔərᵻs / ) is a female sex organ present in mammals , ostriches and a limited number of other animals . In humans , the visible button @-@ like portion is near the front junction of the labia minora ( inner lips ) , above the opening of the urethra . Unlike the penis , the male homologue ( equivalent ) to the clitoris , it usually does not contain the distal portion ( or opening ) of the urethra and is therefore not used for urination . While few animals urinate through the clitoris , the spotted hyena , which has an especially well @-@ developed clitoris , urinates , mates and gives birth via the organ . Some other carnivorous animals , or mammals in particular , such as lemurs and spider monkeys , also have a well @-@ developed clitoris .
The clitoris is the human female 's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure . In humans and other mammals , it develops from an outgrowth in the embryo called the genital tubercle . Initially undifferentiated , the tubercle develops into either a penis or a clitoris , depending on the presence or absence of the protein tdf , which is codified by a single gene on the Y chromosome . The clitoris is a complex structure , and its size and sensitivity can vary . The glans ( head ) of the human clitoris is roughly the size and shape of a pea , and is estimated to have more than 8 @,@ 000 sensory nerve endings .
Extensive sociological , sexological and medical debate have focused on the clitoris , primarily concerning anatomical accuracy , orgasmic factors and their physiological explanation for the G @-@ spot , and whether the clitoris is vestigial , an adaptation , or serves a reproductive function . Social perceptions of the clitoris range from the significance of its role in female sexual pleasure , assumptions about its true size and depth , and varying beliefs regarding genital modification such as clitoris enlargement , clitoris piercing and clitoridectomy ; genital modification may be for aesthetic , medical or cultural reasons .
Knowledge of the clitoris is significantly impacted by cultural perceptions of the organ . Studies suggest that knowledge of its existence and anatomy is scant in comparison with that of other sexual organs , and that more education about it could help alleviate social stigmas associated with the female body and female sexual pleasure ; for example , that the clitoris and vulva in general are visually unappealing , that female masturbation is taboo , or that men should be expected to master and control women 's orgasms .
= = Etymology = =
The Oxford English Dictionary states that the word clitoris likely has its origin in the Ancient Greek κλειτορίς , kleitoris , perhaps derived from the verb κλείειν , kleiein , " to shut " . Clitoris is also Greek for the word key , " indicating that the ancient anatomists considered it the key " to female sexuality . In addition to key , the Online Etymology Dictionary suggests other Greek candidates for the word 's etymology include a noun meaning " latch " or " hook " ; a verb meaning " to touch or titillate lasciviously " , " to tickle " ( one German synonym for the clitoris is der Kitzler , " the tickler " ) , although this verb is more likely derived from " clitoris " ; and a word meaning " side of a hill " , from the same root as " climax " . The Oxford English Dictionary also states that the shortened form " clit " , the first occurrence of which was noted in the United States , has been used in print since 1958 : until then , the common abbreviation was " clitty " .
The plural forms are clitorises in English and clitorides in Latin . The Latin genitive is clitoridis , as in " glans clitoridis " . In medical and sexological literature , the clitoris is sometimes referred to as " the female penis " or pseudo @-@ penis , and the term clitoris is commonly used to refer to the glans alone ; partially because of this , there have been various terms for the organ that have historically confused its anatomy ( see below ) .
= = Structure = =
= = = Development = = =
In mammals , sexual differentiation is determined by the sperm that carries either an X or a Y ( male ) chromosome . The Y chromosome contains a sex @-@ determining gene ( SRY ) that encodes a transcription factor for the protein tdf ( testis determining factor ) and triggers the creation of testosterone and Anti @-@ Müllerian hormone for the embryo 's development into a male . This differentiation begins about eight or nine weeks after conception . Some sources state that it continues until the twelfth week , while others state that it is clearly evident by the thirteenth week and that the sex organs are fully developed by the sixteenth week .
The clitoris develops from a phallic outgrowth in the embryo called the genital tubercle . Initially undifferentiated , the tubercle develops into either a clitoris or penis during development of the reproductive system depending on exposure to androgens ( primarily male hormones ) . The clitoris forms from the same tissues that become the glans and upper shaft of the penis , and this shared embryonic origin makes these two organs homologous ( different versions of the same structure ) .
If exposed to testosterone , the genital tubercle elongates to form the penis . By fusion of the urogenital folds – elongated spindle @-@ shaped structures that contribute to the formation of the urethral groove on the belly aspect of the genital tubercle – the urogenital sinus closes completely and forms the spongy urethra , and the labioscrotal swellings unite to form the scrotum . In the absence of testosterone , the genital tubercle allows for formation of the clitoris ; the initially rapid growth of the phallus gradually slows and the clitoris is formed . The urogenital sinus persists as the vestibule of the vagina , the two urogenital folds form the labia minora , and the labioscrotal swellings enlarge to form the labia majora , completing the female genitalia . A rare condition that can develop from higher than average androgen exposure is clitoromegaly .
= = = General structure and histological evaluation = = =
The clitoris is a complex structure , containing external and internal components . It consists of the glans ( including the frenulum clitoridis , which is a frenulum on the under @-@ surface of the glans and is created by the two medial parts of the labia minora ) , the clitoral body ( which is composed of two erectile bodies known as the corpora cavernosa ) , two clitoral crura , the clitoral hood ( formed by the labia minora ) and the vestibular or clitoral bulbs . The clitoral body is commonly referred to as the shaft ( or internal shaft ) , while the length of the clitoris between the glans and the body may also be referred to as the shaft ( or external shaft ) because , like the shaft as a whole , it supports the glans , and its shape can be seen and felt through the clitoral hood .
Research indicates that clitoral tissue extends into the vagina 's anterior wall . Şenaylı et al. said that the histological evaluation of the clitoris , " especially of the corpora cavernosa , is incomplete because for many years the clitoris was considered a rudimentary and nonfunctional organ . " They added that Baskin and colleagues examined the clitoris 's masculinization after dissection and , using imaging software after Masson chrome staining , put the serial dissected specimens together ; this revealed that the nerves of the clitoris surround the whole clitoral body ( corpus ) .
The clitoris , vestibular bulbs , labia minora , and urethra involve two histologically distinct types of vascular tissue ( tissue related to blood vessels ) , the first of which is trabeculated , erectile tissue . The trabeculated tissue has a spongy appearance ; along with blood , it fills the large , dilated vascular spaces of the clitoris and the bulbs . Beneath the epithelium of the vascular areas is smooth muscle . It may also be that the urethral lumen ( the inner open space or cavity of the urethra ) , which is surrounded by spongy tissue , has tissue that " is grossly distinct from the vascular tissue of the clitoris and bulbs , and on macroscopic observation , is paler than the dark tissue " of the clitoris and bulbs .
The second type of vascular tissue is non @-@ erectile . Although the clitoral body becomes engorged with blood upon sexual arousal , erecting the clitoral glans , some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non @-@ erectile tissue ; this is especially the case for the glans . They state that the clitoral glans and labia minora have blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle , or that the clitoral glans is " a midline , densely neural , non @-@ erectile structure " . Other sources state that the glans is composed of erectile tissue and that erectile tissue is present within the labia minora ; adipose tissue is absent in the labia minora , but the organ may be described as being made up of dense connective tissue , erectile tissue and elastic fibers .
Yang et al. are among the researchers who challenge the notion that the glans is not formed of erectile tissue , stating that their dissections clearly show glanular vascular spaces , although not as prominent as those in the clitoral body . " The erectile tissue of the glans is slightly different from that of the body and crura . The vascular spaces are separated more by smooth muscle than in the body and crura , " they concluded . They stated that there is a thick layer of tissue that supports the tissue between the epithelium and vascular spaces and that " there is a dense distribution of nerves and sensory receptors " in the epithelium and supporting tissue .
= = = Glans and body = = =
Highly innervated , the glans exists at the tip of the clitoral body as a fibro @-@ vascular cap , and is usually the size and shape of a pea , although it is sometimes much larger or smaller . While whether or not the glans is composed of erectile or non @-@ erectile tissue is subject to debate ( see above ) , it , or the entire clitoris , is estimated to have 8 @,@ 000 or more sensory nerve endings .
The clitoral body forms a wishbone @-@ shaped structure containing the corpora cavernosa – a pair of sponge @-@ like regions of erectile tissue which contain most of the blood in the clitoris during clitoral erection . The two corpora forming the clitoral body are surrounded by thick fibro @-@ elastic tunica albuginea , literally meaning " white covering " , connective tissue . These corpora are separated incompletely from each other in the midline by a fibrous pectiniform septum – a comblike band of connective tissue extending between the corpora cavernosa .
The clitoral body extends up to several centimeters before reversing direction and branching , resulting in an inverted " V " shape that extends as a pair of crura ( " legs " ) . The crura are the proximal portions of the arms of the wishbone . Ending at the glans of the clitoris , the tip of the body bends anteriorly away from the pubis . Each crus ( singular form of crura ) is attached to the corresponding ischial ramus – extensions of the copora beneath the descending pubic rami . Concealed behind the labia minora , the crura end with attachment at or just below the middle of the pubic arch . Associated are the urethral sponge , perineal sponge , a network of nerves and blood vessels , the suspensory ligament of the clitoris , muscles and the pelvic floor .
There is no identified correlation between the size of the clitoral glans , or clitoris as a whole , and a woman 's age , height , weight , use of hormonal contraception , or being post @-@ menopausal , although women who have given birth may have significantly larger clitoral measurements . Centimeter ( cm ) and millimeter ( mm ) measurements of the clitoris show variations in its size . The adult clitoral glans usually has a width less than 1 cm , with an average length of 1 @.@ 5 to 2 cm . A 1992 study gives clitoral glans widths of 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 098 to 0 @.@ 177 in ) , with the average size smaller than a pencil @-@ top eraser . The study concluded that the total clitoral length , including glans and body , is 16 @.@ 0 ± 4 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 ± 0 @.@ 17 in ) .
Concerning other studies , researchers from the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital in London measured the labia and other genital structures of 50 women from the age of 18 to 50 , with a mean age of 35 @.@ 6 . , from 2003 to 2004 , and the results given for the clitoral glans were 3 – 10 mm for the range and 5 @.@ 5 [ 1 @.@ 7 ] mm for the mean . Other research indicates that the clitoral body can measure 5 – 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in length , while the clitoral body and crura together can be 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) or more in length .
= = = Hood and bulbs = = =
The clitoral hood projects at the front of the labia commissure , where the edges of the labia majora ( outer lips ) meet at the base of the pubic mound ; it forms as part of the external folds of the labia minora ( inner lips ) and covers the glans and external shaft . There is considerable variation in how much of the glans protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it , ranging from completely covered to fully exposed , and tissue of the labia minora also encircles the base of the glans .
The vestibular bulbs are more closely related to the clitoris than the vestibule because of the similarity of the trabecular and erectile tissue within the clitoris and bulbs , and the absence of trabecular tissue in other genital organs , with the erectile tissue 's trabecular nature allowing engorgement and expansion during sexual arousal . The vestibular bulbs lie close to the crura on either side of the vaginal opening ; internally , they are beneath the labia majora . When engorged with blood , they cuff the vaginal opening and cause the vulva to expand outward . Though some texts state that they surround the vaginal opening , this does not appear to be the case and tunica albuginea does not envelop the erectile tissue of the bulbs . In Yang et al . ' s assessment of the bulbs ' anatomy , they conclude that the bulbs " arch over the distal urethra , outlining what might be appropriately called the ' bulbar urethra ' in women . "
= = = Clitoral and penile similarities and differences = = =
The clitoris and penis are generally the same anatomical structure , although the distal portion ( or opening ) of the urethra is absent in the clitoris of humans and most other animals . The idea that males have clitorises was suggested in 1987 by researcher Josephine Lowndes Sevely , who theorized that the male corpora cavernosa ( a pair of sponge @-@ like regions of erectile tissue which contain most of the blood in the penis during penile erection ) are the true counterpart of the clitoris . She argued that " the male clitoris " is directly beneath the rim of the glans penis , where the frenulum of prepuce of the penis ( a fold of the prepuce ) is located , and proposed that this area be called the " Lownde 's crown . " Her theory and proposal , though acknowledged in anatomical literature , did not materialize in anatomy books . Modern anatomical texts instead show that the clitoris displays a hood that is the equivalent of the penis 's foreskin , which covers the glans , and a shaft that is attached to the glans ; the male corpora cavernosa are homologous to the corpus cavernosum clitoridis ( the female cavernosa ) ; the corpus spongiosum is homologous to the vestibular bulbs beneath the labia minora , and the scrotum is homologous to the labia minora and labia majora .
Upon anatomical study , the penis can be described as a clitoris that has been mostly pulled out of the body and grafted on top of a significantly smaller piece of spongiosum containing the urethra . With regard to nerve endings , the human clitoris 's estimated 8 @,@ 000 or more ( for its glans or clitoral body as a whole ) is commonly cited as being twice as many as the nerve endings found in the human penis ( for its glans or body as a whole ) , and as more than any other part of the human body . These reports sometimes conflict with other sources on clitoral anatomy or those concerning the nerve endings in the human penis . For example , while some sources estimate that the human penis has 4 @,@ 000 nerve endings , other sources state that the glans or the entire penile structure have the same amount of nerve endings as the clitoral glans , or discuss whether the uncircumcised penis has thousands more than the circumcised penis or is generally more sensitive .
Some sources state that in contrast to the glans penis , the clitoral glans lacks smooth muscle within its fibrovascular cap and is thus differentiated from the erectile tissues of the clitoris and bulbs ; additionally , bulb size varies and may be dependent on age and estrogenization . Though the bulbs are considered the equivalent of the male spongiosum , they do not completely encircle the urethra .
The thin corpus spongiosum of the penis runs along the underside of the penile shaft , enveloping the urethra , and expands at the end to form the glans . It partially contributes to erection , which are primarily caused by the two corpora cavernosa that comprise the bulk of the shaft ; like the female cavernosa , the male cavernosa soak up blood and become erect when sexually excited . The male corpora cavernosa taper off internally on reaching the spongiosum head . With regard to the Y @-@ shape of the cavernosa – crown , body , and legs – the body accounts for much more of the structure in men , and the legs are stubbier ; typically , the cavernosa are longer and thicker in males than in females .
= = Sexual stimulation , findings and debates = =
= = = General stimulation , practices , and arousal = = =
The abundance of nerve endings in the clitoris , the majority of which exist specifically for sexual enjoyment , make it the human female 's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure . Sexual stimulation of the clitoris can produce female sexual arousal and orgasm , and may be achieved by masturbation or with a sexual partner . The most effective sexual stimulation of the organ is usually through manual or oral stimulation ( cunnilingus ) , often referred to as direct clitoral stimulation ; in cases involving sexual penetration , these activities may also be referred to as additional or assisted clitoral stimulation .
Direct clitoral stimulation involves physical stimulation to the external anatomy of the clitoris – glans , hood and the external shaft . Stimulation of the labia minora ( inner lips ) , due to its external connection with the glans and hood , may have the same effect as direct clitoral stimulation . Though these areas may also receive indirect physical stimulation during sexual activity , such as when in friction with the labia majora ( outer lips ) , indirect clitoral stimulation is more commonly attributed to penile @-@ vaginal penetration . Penile @-@ anal penetration may also indirectly stimulate the clitoris , either by the shared sensory nerves ( especially the pudendal nerve , which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into two terminal branches : the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris ) or by the crura ( " legs " ) .
Due to the glans 's high sensitivity , direct stimulation to it is not always pleasurable ; instead , direct stimulation to the hood or the areas near the glans are often more pleasurable , with the majority of females preferring to use the hood to stimulate the glans , or to have the glans rolled between the lips of the labia , for indirect touch . It is also common for women to " enjoy a light caressing of the shaft of the clitoris " combined with the occasional circling of the clitoral glans , with or without manual penetration of the vagina , while other women enjoy having the entire area of the vulva caressed . As opposed to use of dry fingers , stimulation from fingers that have been well @-@ lubricated , either by vaginal lubrication or a personal lubricant , is usually more pleasurable for the external anatomy of the clitoris .
As the clitoris 's external location does not allow for direct stimulation by sexual penetration , any external clitoral stimulation while in the missionary position usually results from the pubic bone area , the movement of the groins when in contact . As such , some couples may engage in the woman @-@ on @-@ top position or the coital alignment technique , a technique combining the " riding high " variation of the missionary position with pressure @-@ counterpressure movements performed by each partner in rhythm with sexual penetration , to maximize clitoral stimulation . Lesbian couples may engage in tribadism for ample clitoral stimulation or for mutual clitoral stimulation during whole @-@ body contact . Pressing the penis or a dildo in a gliding or circular motion against the clitoris ( intercrural sex ) , or stimulating it by movement against another body part , during any number of sex positions , may also be practiced . A vibrator , or specifically a clitoral vibrator , or other sex toys , may be used during or absent of any of the aforementioned practices . Other women stimulate the clitoris by use of a pillow or other inanimate object , by a jet of water from the faucet of a bathtub or shower , or by closing their legs and rocking .
During sexual arousal , the clitoris and the whole of the genitalia engorge and change color as the erectile tissues fill with blood ( vasocongestion ) , and the individual experiences vaginal contractions . The ischiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles , which insert into the corpora cavernosa , " contract and compress the dorsal vein of the clitoris , the only vein that drains the blood from the spaces in the corpora cavernosa " and the arterial blood " continues to pour in and , having no way to drain out , fills the venous spaces until they become turgid and engorged with blood " . It is this mechanism that " causes the stiffening and erection of the clitoris " .
The clitoral glans doubles in diameter upon arousal , and , upon further stimulation , it becomes less visible as it is covered by the swelling of tissues of the clitoral hood . The swelling protects the glans from direct contact , as direct contact at this stage can be more irritating than pleasurable . Vasocongestion eventually " sets off a muscular reflex " which expels the blood that was trapped in surrounding tissues , and leads to an orgasm . A short time after stimulation has stopped , especially if orgasm has been achieved , the glans becomes visible again and returns to its normal state , with a few seconds ( usually 5 – 10 ) to return to its normal position and 5 – 10 minutes to return to its original size . If orgasm is not achieved , the clitoris may remain engorged for a few hours , which women often find uncomfortable . Additionally , the clitoris is very sensitive after orgasm , making further stimulation initially painful for some women . Masters and Johnson documented the sexual response cycle , which has four phases and is still the clinically accepted definition of the human orgasm . >
= = = Clitoral and vaginal orgasmic factors = = =
Physical sexual stimulation of the clitoris is the most common way for women to achieve orgasm ; general statistics indicate that 70 – 80 percent of women require direct clitoral stimulation ( consistent manual , oral or other concentrated friction against the external parts of the clitoris ) to reach orgasm , though indirect clitoral stimulation ( for example , via vaginal penetration ) may also be sufficient for female orgasm . The area near the entrance of the vagina ( the lower third ) contains nearly 90 percent of the vaginal nerve endings , and there are areas in the anterior vaginal wall and between the top junction of the labia minora and the urethra that are especially sensitive , but intense sexual pleasure , including orgasm , solely from vaginal stimulation is occasional or otherwise absent because the vagina has significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris .
Prominent debate over the quantity of vaginal nerve endings began with Alfred Kinsey ; although Sigmund Freud 's theory that clitoral orgasms are a prepubertal or adolescent phenomenon and that vaginal ( or G @-@ spot ) orgasms are something that only physically mature females experience had been criticized by few researchers before , Kinsey was the first researcher to harshly criticize the theory . Through his observations of female masturbation and interviews with thousands of women , Kinsey found that most of the women he observed and surveyed could not have vaginal orgasms , a finding that was also supported by his knowledge of sex organ anatomy . He " criticized Freud and other theorists for projecting male constructs of sexuality onto women " and " viewed the clitoris as the main center of sexual response " . He considered the vagina to be " relatively unimportant " for sexual satisfaction , relaying that " few women inserted fingers or objects into their vaginas when they masturbated " . Believing that vaginal orgasms are " a physiological impossibility " because the vagina has insufficient nerve endings for sexual pleasure or climax , he " concluded that satisfaction from penile penetration [ is ] mainly psychological or perhaps the result of referred sensation " .
Masters and Johnson 's research , as well as Shere Hite 's , generally supported Kinsey 's findings about the female orgasm . Masters and Johnson were the first researchers to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia . They observed that both clitoral and vaginal orgasms have the same stages of physical response , and found that the majority of their subjects could only achieve clitoral orgasms , while a minority achieved vaginal orgasms . On that basis , they argued that clitoral stimulation is the source of both kinds of orgasms , reasoning that the clitoris is stimulated during penetration by friction against its hood . The research came at the time of the second @-@ wave feminist movement , which inspired feminists to reject the distinction made between clitoral and vaginal orgasms . Feminist Anne Koedt argued that because men " have orgasms essentially by friction with the vagina " and not the clitoral area , this is why women 's biology had not been properly analyzed . " Today , with extensive knowledge of anatomy , with [ C. Lombard Kelly ] , Kinsey , and Masters and Johnson , to mention just a few sources , there is no ignorance on the subject [ of the female orgasm ] , " she stated in her 1970 article The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm . She added , " There are , however , social reasons why this knowledge has not been popularized . We are living in a male society which has not sought change in women 's role . "
Supporting an anatomical relationship between the clitoris and vagina is a study published in 2005 , which investigated the size of the clitoris ; Australian urologist Helen O 'Connell , described as having initiated discourse among mainstream medical professionals to refocus on and redefine the clitoris , noted a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the clitoral bulbs and corpora , and the distal urethra and vagina while using MRI technology . While some studies , using ultrasound , have found physiological evidence of the G @-@ spot in women who report having orgasms during vaginal intercourse , O 'Connell argues that this interconnected relationship is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G @-@ Spot and experience of vaginal orgasms , taking into account the stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration . " The vaginal wall is , in fact , the clitoris , " she said . " If you lift the skin off the vagina on the side walls , you get the bulbs of the clitoris – triangular , crescental masses of erectile tissue . " O 'Connell et al . , having performed dissections on the female genitals of cadavers and used photography to map the structure of nerves in the clitoris , made the assertion in 1998 that there is more erectile tissue associated with the clitoris than is generally described in anatomical textbooks , and were thus already aware that the clitoris is more than just its glans . They concluded that some females have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others , especially having observed this in young cadavers compared to elderly ones , and therefore whereas the majority of females can only achieve orgasm by direct stimulation of the external parts of the clitoris , the stimulation of the more generalized tissues of the clitoris via vaginal intercourse may be sufficient for others .
French researchers Odile Buisson and Pierre Foldès reported similar findings to that of O 'Connell 's . In 2008 , they published the first complete 3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris , and republished it in 2009 with new research , demonstrating the ways in which erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina . On the basis of their findings , they argued that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G @-@ spot , because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration . They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris , stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible . In their 2009 published study , the " coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall " . Buisson and Foldès suggested " that the special sensitivity of the lower anterior vaginal wall could be explained by pressure and movement of clitoris 's root during a vaginal penetration and subsequent perineal contraction " .
Researcher Vincenzo Puppo , who , while agreeing that the clitoris is the center of female sexual pleasure and believing that there is no anatomical evidence of the vaginal orgasm , disagrees with O 'Connell and other researchers ' terminological and anatomical descriptions of the clitoris ( such as referring to the vestibular bulbs as the " clitoral bulbs " ) and states that " the inner clitoris " does not exist because the penis cannot come in contact with the congregation of multiple nerves / veins situated until the angle of the clitoris , detailed by Kobelt , or with the roots of the clitoris , which do not have sensory receptors or erogenous sensitivity , during vaginal intercourse . Puppo 's belief contrasts the general belief among researchers that vaginal orgasms are the result of clitoral stimulation ; they reaffirm that clitoral tissue extends , or is at least stimulated by its bulbs , even in the area most commonly reported to be the G @-@ spot .
The G @-@ spot being analogous to the base of the male penis has additionally been theorized , with sentiment from researcher Amichai Kilchevsky that because female fetal development is the " default " state in the absence of substantial exposure to male hormones and therefore the penis is essentially a clitoris enlarged by such hormones , there is no evolutionary reason why females would have an entity in addition to the clitoris that can produce orgasms . The general difficulty of achieving orgasms vaginally , which is a predicament that is likely due to nature easing the process of child bearing by drastically reducing the number of vaginal nerve endings , challenge arguments that vaginal orgasms help encourage sexual intercourse in order to facilitate reproduction . Supporting a distinct G @-@ spot , however , is a study by Rutgers University , published in 2011 , which was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain ; the scans indicated that the brain registered distinct feelings between stimulating the clitoris , the cervix and the vaginal wall – where the G @-@ spot is reported to be – when several women stimulated themselves in a functional magnetic resonance ( fMRI ) machine . Barry Komisaruk , head of the research findings , stated that he feels that " the bulk of the evidence shows that the G @-@ spot is not a particular thing " and that it is " a region , it 's a convergence of many different structures " .
= = Clinical significance = =
= = = Clitoral modification = = =
There are intentional and unintentional modifications concerning the clitoris , including female genital mutilation ( FGM ) , sex reassignment surgery , clitoris enlargement and genital piercings . For example , use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders and other athletes can result in significant enlargement of the clitoris in concert with other masculinizing effects on their bodies . Abnormal enlargement of the clitoris may also be referred to as clitoromegaly , but clitoromegaly is more commonly seen as a congenital anomaly of the genitalia .
Parts of the clitoris may be partially or completely removed during FGM ; this may be additionally known as a clitoridectomy , female circumcision , or female genital cutting ( FGC ) . Removing the glans of the clitoris does not mean that the whole structure is lost , since the clitoris reaches deep into the genitals .
In reduction clitoroplasty , a common intersex operation , the glans is preserved and parts of the erectile bodies are excised . Problems with this technique include loss of sensation , sexual function , and sloughing of the glans . One way to preserve the clitoris with its innervations and function is to imbricate and bury the clitoral glans ; however , Şenaylı et al. state that " pain during stimulus because of trapped tissue under the scarring is nearly routine . In another method , 50 percent of the ventral clitoris is removed through the level base of the clitoral shaft , and it is reported that good sensation and clitoral function are observed in follow up " ; additionally , it has " been reported that the complications are from the same as those in the older procedures for this method " .
What is often referred to as " clit piercing " is actually the more common ( and significantly less complicated ) clitoral hood piercing . Since clitoral piercing is difficult and very painful , piercing of the clitoral hood is more common than piercing the clitoral shaft , owing to the small percentage of people who are anatomically suited for it . Clitoral hood piercings are usually channeled in the form of vertical piercings , and , to a lesser extent , horizontal piercings . The triangle piercing is a very deep horizontal hood piercing , and is done behind the clitoris as opposed to in front of it . For styles such as the Isabella , which pass through the clitoral shaft but are placed deep at the base , they provide unique stimulation and still require the proper genital build ; the Isabella starts between the clitoral glans and the urethra , exiting at the top of the clitoral hood ; this piercing is highly risky with regard to damage that may occur because of intersecting nerves .
= = = Sexual disorders = = =
Persistent genital arousal disorder ( PGAD ) results in a spontaneous , persistent , and uncontrollable genital arousal in women , with or without orgasm , unrelated to any feelings of sexual desire . Clitoral priapism , also known as clitorism , is a rare , potentially painful medical condition and is sometimes described as an aspect of PGAD , in which the erect clitoris does not return to its relaxed state for an unusually extended period of time ( ranging from minutes to days ) , despite the absence of both physical and psychological stimulation ; PGAD can also be associated with morphometric and vascular modifications of the clitoris .
Drugs may cause or affect clitoral priapism . The drug trazodone is known to cause male priapism as a side effect , but there is only one documented report that it may have caused clitoral priapism , in which case discontinuing the medication may be a remedy . Additionally , nefazodone is documented to have caused clitoral engorgement , as distinct from clitoral priapism , in one case , and clitoral priapism can sometimes start as a result of , or only after , the discontinuation of antipsychotics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs ) .
Because PGAD is relatively rare and , as its own concept apart from clitoral priapism , has only been researched since 2001 , there is little research into what may cure or remedy the disorder . In some recorded cases , PGAD was caused by , or caused , a pelvic arterial @-@ venous malformation with arterial branches to the clitoris ; surgical treatment was effective in these cases .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Ancient Greek – 16th century knowledge and vernacular = = =
With regard to historical and modern perceptions of the clitoris and associated sexual stimulation , for more than 2 @,@ 500 years there were scholars who considered the clitoris and the penis equivalent in all respects except their arrangement . The clitoris was , however , subject to " discovery " and " rediscovery " through empirical documentation by male scholars , due to it being frequently omitted from , or misrepresented , in historical and contemporary anatomical texts . The ancient Greeks , ancient Romans , and Greek and Roman generations up to and throughout the Renaissance , were aware that male and female sex organs are anatomically similar , but prominent anatomists , notably Galen ( 129 AD – 200 AD ) and Vesalius ( 1514 – 1564 ) , regarded the vagina as the structural equivalent of the penis , except for being inverted ; Vesalius argued against the existence of the clitoris in normal women , and his anatomical model described how the penis corresponds with the vagina , without a role for the clitoris .
Ancient Greek and Roman sexuality additionally designated penetration as " male @-@ defined " sexuality . The term tribas , or tribade , was used to refer to a woman or intersex individual who actively penetrated another person ( male or female ) through use of the clitoris or a dildo . As any sexual act was believed to require that one of the partners be " phallic " and that therefore sexual activity between women was impossible without this feature , mythology popularly associated lesbians with either having enlarged clitorises or as incapable of enjoying sexual activity without the substitution of a phallus .
In 1545 , Charles Estienne was the first writer to identify the clitoris in a work based on dissection , but he concluded that it had a urinary function . Following this study , Realdo Colombo ( also known as Matteo Renaldo Colombo ) , a lecturer in surgery at the University of Padua , Italy , published a book called De re anatomica in 1559 , in which he describes the " seat of woman 's delight " . In his role as researcher , Colombo concluded , " Since no one has discerned these projections and their workings , if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me , it should be called the love or sweetness of Venus . " , in reference to the mythological Venus . Colombo 's claim was disputed by his successor at Padua , Gabriele Falloppio ( discoverer of the fallopian tube ) , who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris . In 1561 , Falloppio stated , " Modern anatomists have entirely neglected it ... and do not say a word about it ... and if others have spoken of it , know that they have taken it from me or my students . " This caused an upset in the European medical community , and , having read Colombo 's and Falloppio 's detailed descriptions of the clitoris , Vesalius stated , " It is unreasonable to blame others for incompetence on the basis of some sport of nature you have observed in some women and you can hardly ascribe this new and useless part , as if it were an organ , to healthy women . " He concluded , " I think that such a structure appears in hermaphrodites who otherwise have well formed genitals , as Paul of Aegina describes , but I have never once seen in any woman a penis ( which Avicenna called albaratha and the Greeks called an enlarged nympha and classed as an illness ) or even the rudiments of a tiny phallus . "
The average anatomist had difficulty challenging Galen 's or Vesalius 's research ; Galen was the most famous physician of the Greek era and his works were considered the standard of medical understanding up to and throughout the Renaissance ( i.e. for almost two thousand years ) , and various terms being used to describe the clitoris seemed to have further confused the issue of its structure . In addition to Avicenna 's naming it the albaratha or virga ( rod ) and Colombo 's calling it sweetness of Venus , Hippocrates used the term columella ( little pillar ) , and Albucasis , an Arabic medical authority , named it tentigo ( tension ) . The names indicated that each description of the structures was about the body and glans of the clitoris , but usually the glans . It was additionally known to the Romans , who named it ( vulgar slang ) landica . However , Albertus Magnus , one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages , felt that it was important to highlight " homologies between male and female structures and function " by adding " a psychology of sexual arousal " that Aristotle had not used to detail the clitoris . While in Constantine 's treatise Liber de coitu , the clitoris is referred to a few times , Magnus gave an equal amount of attention to male and female organs .
Like Avicenna , Magnus also used the word virga for the clitoris , but employed it for the male and female genitals ; despite his efforts to give equal ground to the clitoris , the cycle of suppression and rediscovery of the organ continued , and a 16th @-@ century justification for clitoridectomy appears to have been confused by hermaphroditism and the imprecision created by the word nymphae substituted for the word clitoris . Nymphotomia was a medical operation to excise an unusually large clitoris , but what was considered " unusually large " was often a matter of perception . The procedure was routinely performed on Egyptian women , due to physicians such as Jacques Daléchamps who believed that this version of the clitoris was " an unusual feature that occurred in almost all Egyptian women [ and ] some of ours , so that when they find themselves in the company of other women , or their clothes rub them while they walk or their husbands wish to approach them , it erects like a male penis and indeed they use it to play with other women , as their husbands would do ... Thus the parts are cut " .
= = = 17th century – present day knowledge and vernacular = = =
Caspar Bartholin , a 17th @-@ century Danish anatomist , dismissed Colombo 's and Falloppio 's claims that they discovered the clitoris , arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to medical science since the second century . Although 17th @-@ century midwives recommended to men and women that women should aspire to achieve orgasms to help them get pregnant for general health and well @-@ being and to keep their relationships healthy , debate about the importance of the clitoris persisted , notably in the work of Regnier de Graaf in the 17th century and Georg Ludwig Kobelt in the 19th .
Like Falloppio and Bartholin , De Graaf criticized Colombo 's claim of having discovered the clitoris ; his work appears to have provided the first comprehensive account of clitoral anatomy . " We are extremely surprised that some anatomists make no more mention of this part than if it did not exist at all in the universe of nature , " he stated . " In every cadaver we have so far dissected we have found it quite perceptible to sight and touch . " De Graaf stressed the need to distinguish nympha from clitoris , choosing to " always give [ the clitoris ] the name clitoris " to avoid confusion ; this resulted in frequent use of the correct name for the organ among anatomists , but considering that nympha was also varied in its use and eventually became the term specific to the labia minora , more confusion ensued . Debate about whether orgasm was even necessary for women began in the Victorian era , and Freud 's 1905 theory about the immaturity of clitoral orgasms ( see above ) negatively affected women 's sexuality throughout most of the 20th century . From the 18th – 20th century , especially during the 20th , details of the clitoris from various genital diagrams presented in earlier centuries were omitted from later texts .
The full extent of the clitoris was alluded to by Masters and Johnson in 1966 , but in such a muddled fashion that the significance of their description became obscured ; in 1981 , the Federation of Feminist Women 's Health Clinics ( FFWHC ) continued this process with anatomically precise illustrations identifying 18 structures of the clitoris . Despite the FFWHC 's illustrations , Josephine Lowndes Sevely , in 1987 , described the vagina as more of the counterpart of the penis .
Concerning other beliefs about the clitoris , Hite ( 1976 and 1981 ) found that , during sexual intimacy with a partner , clitoral stimulation was more often described by women as foreplay than as a primary method of sexual activity , including orgasm . Further , although the FFWHC 's work created " fertile ground for feminist reformation of anatomical texts " and " revolutionized existing descriptions and renderings of the clitoris " , it did not have a general impact on anatomical texts ; it took Helen O 'Connell 's late 1990s research for the medical community to start changing the way the clitoris is anatomically defined . O 'Connell describes typical textbook descriptions of the clitoris as lacking detail and including inaccuracies , such as older and modern anatomical descriptions of the female human urethral and genital anatomy having been based on dissections performed on elderly cadavers whose erectile ( clitoral ) tissue had shrunk . She instead credits the work of Georg Ludwig Kobelt as the most comprehensive and accurate description of clitoral anatomy . MRI measurements , which provide a live and multi @-@ planar method of examination , now complement the FFWHC 's , as well as O 'Connell 's , research efforts regarding the clitoris , showing that the volume of clitoral erectile tissue is ten times that which is shown in doctors ' offices and in anatomy text books .
In Bruce Bagemihl 's survey of The Zoological Record ( 1978 – 1997 ) – which contains over a million documents from over 6 @,@ 000 scientific journals – 539 articles focusing on the penis were found , while 7 were found focusing on the clitoris . In 2000 , researchers Shirley Ogletree and Harvey Ginsberg concluded that there is a general neglect of the word clitoris in common vernacular . They looked at the terms used to describe genitalia in the PsycINFO database from 1887 to 2000 and found that penis was used in 1 @,@ 482 sources , vagina in 409 , while clitoris was only mentioned in 83 . They additionally analyzed 57 books listed in a computer database for sex instruction . In the majority of the books , penis was the most commonly discussed body part – mentioned more than clitoris , vagina , and uterus put together . They last investigated terminology used by college students , ranging from Euro @-@ American ( 76 % / 76 % ) , Hispanic ( 18 % / 14 % ) , and African American ( 4 % / 7 % ) , regarding the students ' beliefs about sexuality and knowledge on the subject . The students were overwhelmingly educated to believe that the vagina is the female counterpart of the penis . The authors found that the students ' belief that the inner portion of the vagina is the most sexually sensitive part of the female body correlated with negative attitudes toward masturbation and strong support for sexual myths .
A 2005 study reported that , among a sample of undergraduate students , the most frequently cited sources for knowledge about the clitoris were school and friends , and that this was associated with the least amount of tested knowledge . Knowledge of the clitoris by self @-@ exploration was the least cited , but " respondents correctly answered , on average , three of the five clitoral knowledge measures " . The authors stated that " [ k ] nowledge correlated significantly with the frequency of women 's orgasm in masturbation but not partnered sex " and that their " results are discussed in light of gender inequality and a social construction of sexuality , endorsed by both men and women , that privileges men 's sexual pleasure over women 's , such that orgasm for women is pleasing , but ultimately incidental . " They concluded that part of the solution to remedying " this problem " requires that males and females are taught more about the clitoris than is currently practiced .
In 2012 , New York artist Sophia Wallace started work on a multimedia project to challenge misconceptions about the clitoris . Based on O 'Connell 's 1998 research , Wallace 's work emphasizes the sheer scope and size of the human clitoris . She says that ignorance of this still seems to be pervasive in modern society . " It is a curious dilemma to observe the paradox that on the one hand the female body is the primary metaphor for sexuality , its use saturates advertising , art and the mainstream erotic imaginary , " she said . " Yet , the clitoris , the true female sexual organ , is virtually invisible . " The project is called Cliteracy and it includes a " clit rodeo " , which is an interactive , climb @-@ on model of a giant golden clitoris , including its inner parts , produced with the help of sculptor Kenneth Thomas . " It 's been a showstopper wherever it 's been shown . People are hungry to be able to talk about this , " Wallace said . " I love seeing men standing up for the clit [ ... ] Not having access to the pleasure that is your birthright is a deeply political act . "
In May 2013 , humanitarian group Clitoraid launched the first annual International Clitoris Awareness Week , from May 6 to May 12 . Clitoraid spokesperson Nadine Gary stated that the group 's mission is to raise public awareness about the clitoris because it has " been ignored , vilified , made taboo , and considered sinful and shameful for centuries " .
= = = Reasons for clitoral modification = = =
Motivations for clitoral modification and mutilation vary . Those taking hormones or other medications as part of female @-@ to @-@ male transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth ; individual desires and the difficulties of phalloplasty ( construction of a penis ) often result in the retention of the original genitalia with the enlarged clitoris as a penis analogue ( metoidioplasty ) . However , the clitoris cannot reach the size of the penis through hormones . A surgery to add function to the clitoris , such as metoidioplasty , is an alternative to phalloplasty that permits retention of sexual sensation in the clitoris .
Significant controversy surrounds female genital mutilation ( FGM ) , with the World Health Organization ( WHO ) being one of many health organizations that have campaigned against the procedures on behalf of human rights , stating that " FGM has no health benefits " and that it is " a violation of the human rights of girls and women " and " reflects deep @-@ rooted inequality between the sexes " . The practice has existed at one point or another in almost all human civilizations , most commonly to exert control over the sexual behavior , including masturbation , of girls and women , but also to change the clitoris 's appearance . Custom and tradition are the most frequently cited reasons for FGM , with some cultures believing that not performing it has the possibility of disrupting the cohesiveness of their social and political systems , such as FGM also being a part of a girl 's initiation into adulthood . Often , a girl is not considered an adult in a FGM @-@ practicing society unless she has undergone FGM , and the " removal of the clitoris and labia – viewed by some as the male parts of a woman 's body – is thought to enhance the girl 's femininity , often synonymous with docility and obedience " .
Female genital mutilation is carried out in several countries , especially in Africa , with 85 percent of genital mutilations performed in Africa consisting of clitoridectomy or excision , and to a lesser extent in other parts of the Middle East and Southeast Asia , on girls from a few days old to mid @-@ adolescent , often to reduce sexual desire in an effort to preserve vaginal virginity . In the United States , it is sometimes practiced on girls born with a clitoris that is larger than usual . Comfort Momoh , who specializes in the topic of FGM , states that FGM might have been " practiced in ancient Egypt as a sign of distinction among the aristocracy " ; there are reports that traces of infibulation are on Egyptian mummies . FGM is still routinely practiced in Egypt . Greenberg et al. report that " one study found that 97 % of married women in Egypt had had some form of genital mutilation performed . " Amnesty International estimated in 1997 that more than two million FGM procedures are performed every year .
With regard to females who have the condition congenital adrenal hyperplasia , the largest group requiring surgical genital correction , researcher Atilla Şenaylı stated , " The main expectations for the operations are to create a normal female anatomy , with minimal complications and improvement of life quality . " Şenaylı added that " [ c ] osmesis , structural integrity , and coital capacity of the vagina , and absence of pain during sexual activity are the parameters to be judged by the surgeon . " He stated that although " expectations can be standardized within these few parameters , operative techniques have not yet become homogeneous . Investigators have preferred different operations for different ages of patients " .
Gender assessment and surgical treatment are the two main steps in intersex operations . " The first treatments for clitoromegaly were simply resection of the clitoris . Later , it was understood that the clitoris glans and sensory input are important to facilitate orgasm , " stated Atilla . The clitoral glans 's epithelium " has high cutaneous sensitivity , which is important in sexual responses " and it is because of this that " recession clitoroplasty was later devised as an alternative , but reduction clitoroplasty is the method currently performed . "
= = = Vestigiality , adaptionist and reproductive views = = =
Whether the clitoris is vestigial , an adaptation , or serves a reproductive function has also been debated . Geoffrey Miller states that Helen Fisher , Meredith Small and Sarah Blaffer Hrdy " have viewed the clitoral orgasm as a legitimate adaptation in its own right , with major implications for female sexual behavior and sexual evolution " . Like Lynn Margulis and Natalie Angier , Miller believes , " The human clitoris shows no apparent signs of having evolved directly through male mate choice . It is not especially large , brightly colored , specifically shaped or selectively displayed during courtship . " He contrasts this with other female species such as spider monkeys and spotted hyenas that have clitorises as long as their male counterparts . He suggests that the human clitoris " could have evolved to be much more conspicuous if males had preferred sexual partners with larger brighter clitorises " and that " its inconspicuous design combined with its exquisite sensitivity suggests that the clitoris is important not as an object of male mate choice , but as a mechanism of female choice . "
While Miller states that male scientists such as Stephen Jay Gould and Donald Symons " have viewed the female clitoral orgasm as an evolutionary side @-@ effect of the male capacity for penile orgasm " and that they " suggested that clitoral orgasm cannot be an adaptation because it is too hard to achieve " , Gould acknowledged that " most female orgasms emanate from a clitoral , rather than vaginal ( or some other ) , site " and that his nonadaptive belief " has been widely misunderstood as a denial of either the adaptive value of female orgasm in general , or even as a claim that female orgasms lack significance in some broader sense " . He explained that although he accepts that " clitoral orgasm plays a pleasurable and central role in female sexuality and its joys , " " [ a ] ll these favorable attributes , however , emerge just as clearly and just as easily , whether the clitoral site of orgasm arose as a spandrel or an adaptation " . He said that the " male biologists who fretted over [ the adaptionist questions ] simply assumed that a deeply vaginal site , nearer the region of fertilization , would offer greater selective benefit " due to their Darwinian , summum bonum beliefs about enhanced reproductive success .
Similar to Gould 's beliefs about adaptionist views and that " females grow nipples as adaptations for suckling , and males grow smaller unused nipples as a spandrel based upon the value of single development channels " , Elisabeth Lloyd suggests that there is little evidence to support an adaptionist account of female orgasm . " Lloyd views female orgasm as an ontogenetic leftover ; women have orgasms because the urogenital neurophysiology for orgasm is so strongly selected for in males that this developmental blueprint gets expressed in females without affecting fitness " and this is similar to " males hav [ ing ] nipples that serve no fitness @-@ related function , " stated Meredith L. Chivers .
At the 2002 conference for Canadian Society of Women in Philosophy , Dr. Nancy Tuana asserted that the clitoris is unnecessary in reproduction ; she states that it has been ignored because of " a fear of pleasure . It is pleasure separated from reproduction . That 's the fear . " She reasoned that this fear causes ignorance , which veils female sexuality . O 'Connell states , " It boils down to rivalry between the sexes : the idea that one sex is sexual and the other reproductive . The truth is that both are sexual and both are reproductive . " She reiterates that the vestibular bulbs appear to be part of the clitoris and that the distal urethra and vagina are intimately related structures , although they are not erectile in character , forming a tissue cluster with the clitoris that appears to be the location of female sexual function and orgasm .
= = Other animals = =
= = = General = = =
Although the clitoris exists in all mammal species , few detailed studies of the anatomy of the clitoris in non @-@ humans exist . The clitoris is especially developed in apes , lemurs , and , like the penis , often contains a small bone , the os clitoridis . The clitoris exists in ostriches , and it erects in squirrel monkeys during dominance displays , which indirectly influences the squirrel monkeys ' reproductive success . In female galagos ( bush babies ) , the clitoris is long and pendulous with a urethra extending through the tip for urination . Some intersex female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris ; these species are grizzly bears , brown bears , American black bears and polar bears . Although the bears have been described as having " a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina " ( a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears ' population ) , scientists state that female spotted hyenas are the only non @-@ hermaphroditic female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening , and whose sexual anatomy is distinct from usual intersex cases .
= = = Spider monkeys and bonobos = = =
In spider monkeys , the clitoris is especially developed and has an interior passage , or urethra , that makes it almost identical to the penis , and it retains and distributes urine droplets as the female spider monkey moves around . Scholar Alan F. Dixson stated that this urine " is voided at the bases of the clitoris , flows down the shallow groove on its perineal surface , and is held by the skin folds on each side of the groove " . Because spider monkeys of South America have pendulous and erectile clitorises long enough to be mistaken for a penis , researchers and observers of the species look for a scrotum to determine the animal 's sex ; a similar approach is to identify scent @-@ marking glands that may also be present on the clitoris .
The clitoris of bonobos is larger and more externalized than in most mammals ; Natalie Angier said that a young adolescent " female bonobo is maybe half the weight of a human teenager , but her clitoris is three times bigger than the human equivalent , and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks " . Female bonobos often engage in the practice of genital @-@ genital ( GG ) rubbing , which is the non @-@ human form of tribadism that human females engage in . Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds , and this behavior , " which may be repeated in rapid succession , is usually accompanied by grinding , shrieking , and clitoral engorgement " ; he added that , on average , they engage in this practice " about once every two hours " , and as bonobos sometimes mate face @-@ to @-@ face , " evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse " .
= = = Spotted hyenas = = =
While female spotted hyenas are sometimes referred to as hermaphrodites or as intersex , and scientists of antiquity ( ancient and later historical times ) believed that they were hermaphrodites , modern scientists do not refer to them as such . That designation is typically reserved for those who simultaneously exhibit features of both sexes ; the genetic makeup of female spotted hyenas " are clearly distinct " from male spotted hyenas .
Female spotted hyenas have a clitoris 90 percent as long and the same diameter as a male penis ( 171 millimeters long and 22 millimeters in diameter ) , and this pseudo @-@ penis 's formation seems largely androgen @-@ independent because it appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland . The spotted hyenas have a highly erectile clitoris , complete with a false scrotum ; author John C. Wingfield stated that " the resemblance to male genitalia is so close that sex can be determined with confidence only by palpation of the scrotum " . The pseudo @-@ penis can also be distinguished from the males ' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans . The female possesses no external vagina , as the labia are fused to form a pseudo @-@ scrotum . In the females , this scrotum consists of soft adipose tissue . Like male spotted hyenas with regard to their penises , the female spotted hyenas have small penile spines on the head of their clitorises , which scholar Catherine Blackledge said makes " the clitoris tip feel like soft sandpaper " . She added that the clitoris " extends away from the body in a sleek and slender arc , measuring , on average , over 17 cm from root to tip . Just like a penis , [ it ] is fully erectile , raising its head in hyena greeting ceremonies , social displays , games of rough and tumble or when sniffing out peers " .
Due to their higher levels of androgen exposure , the female hyenas are significantly more muscular and aggressive than their male counterparts ; social @-@ wise , they are of higher rank than the males , being dominant or dominant and alpha , and the females who have been exposed to higher levels of androgen than average become higher @-@ ranking than their female peers . Subordinate females lick the clitorises of higher @-@ ranked females as a sign of submission and obedience , but females also lick each other 's clitorises as a greeting or to strengthen social bonds ; in contrast , while all males lick the clitorises of dominant females , the females will not lick the penises of males because males are considered to be of lowest rank .
The urethra and vagina of the female spotted hyena exit through
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Transformers .
= = = Accidents = = =
Filming was temporarily delayed on September 2 , 2010 , when an extra was seriously injured during a stunt in Hammond , Indiana . Due to a failed weld , a steel cable snapped from a car being towed and hit the extra 's car , damaging her skull . The extra , identified as Gabriela Cedillo , had to undergo brain surgery . The injury has left her permanently brain @-@ damaged , paralyzed on her left side and her left eye stitched shut . Paramount admitted responsibility for the accident and covered all of Cedillo 's medical costs . Nevertheless , Cedillo 's family filed a lawsuit on October 5 , citing seven counts of negligence against Paramount , and several other defendants ( not including Bay ) , with total damages sought in excess of $ 350 @,@ 000 . Cedillo 's attorney , Todd Smith , said , " This was an attractive 24 @-@ year old girl who had dreams and aspirations involving acting , and this kind of injury may well have a serious impact on her dreams . " The filed complaint reads that " Cedillo has endured and will in the future endure pain and suffering ; has become disfigured and disabled ; has suffered a loss of the enjoyment of a normal life ; has been damaged in her capacity to earn a living ; has incurred and will in the future incur expenses for medical services , all of which are permanent in nature . " In response to the suit , Paramount released the following statement : " We are all terribly sorry that this accident occurred . Our thoughts , prayers and best wishes are with Gabriela , her family and loved ones . The production will continue to provide all the help we can to Gabriela and her family during this difficult time . " On May 2012 , it was revealed that an $ 18 million settlement had been reached between Paramount and the Cedillo family .
A second accident occurred on October 11 , 2010 , in Washington , D.C. While filming a chase scene at 3rd Street and Maryland Avenue , SW , a Metropolitan Police K9 Unit SUV accidentally rammed the Camaro that portrays Bumblebee in the film . The area had been closed off by the Washington , D.C. , police , and it is unclear why the SUV was there . Both drivers were uninjured , but the Camaro was severely damaged .
= = = Effects = = =
As with the previous Transformers installments , Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) was the main visual effects company for Dark of the Moon . ILM had been working on the pre @-@ visualization for six months before principal photography started , resulting in 20 minutes worth of footage . Digital Domain also rendered 350 shots , including the characters Laserbeak , Brains , Wheelie , and the Decepticon protoforms concealed on the moon , the space bridge , and a skydiving sequence .
ILM 's visual effects supervisor Scott Farrar said that " not only were the film 's effects ambitious , they also had to be designed for 3 @-@ D " , and explained the company 's solutions for the new perspective : " We did make sure things are as bright as possible ; Michael called up theatre owners to make sure they keep the lamps bright in the theatres ... make everything a little sharper , because we know that through the steps , no matter what , when you get to the final screening things tend to go less sharp . " On the last weekend of ILM 's work on Dark of the Moon , the company 's entire render farm was being used for the film , giving ILM more than 200 @,@ 000 hours of rendering power a day — or equivalent to 22 @.@ 8 years of rendering time in a 24 @-@ hour period . Farrar embraced the detail in creating giant robots for 3 @-@ D , making sure that in close @-@ ups of the Transformers ' faces " you see all the details in the nooks and crannies of these pieces . It 's totally unlike a plain surface subject like a human head or an animated head . " The supervisor said that Bay 's style of cinematography helped integrate the robots into the scenes , as " Michael is keen on having foreground / midground / background depth in his shots , even in normal live @-@ action shots . He 'll say , ’ Put some stuff hanging here ! ' It could be women 's stockings or forks and knives dangling from a string out of focus – it doesn 't matter , but it gives you depth , and focus depth , and makes it more interesting . "
The most complicated effects involved the " Driller " , a giant snake @-@ like creature with an eel @-@ like body and spinning rotator blades , knives and teeth . In Revenge of the Fallen , it took 72 hours per frame to fully render Devastator for the IMAX format , which is approximately a frame amount of 4 @,@ 000 . For the Driller , which required the entire render farm , it was up to 122 hours per frame . The most complex scene involved the Driller destroying a computer @-@ generated skyscraper , which took 288 hours per frame . For said sequence , ILM relied on its internal proprietary physics simulation engine to depict the destruction of the building , which included breaking concrete floors and walls , windows , columns and pieces of office furnishings . ILM digital production supervisor Nigel Sumner explained : " We did a lot of tests early on to figure out how to break the building apart exploring a lot of the procedural options . A building that 's 70 feet tall – to go in and hand @-@ score the geometry so when it fractures or falls apart – would be a time consuming laborious process . The floor of a building may be made of concrete . How does concrete fracture when it tears apart ? The pillars would be made of a similar material but made of rebar or other engineering components . We 'd look at how a building would blow apart and then choose the best tool to help achieve the properties of that during a simulation . "
The scenes in Chicago were mostly shot on location , as Bay believed the plates had to really be shot in the actual city . Farrar was always fascinated with the idea of shooting on location , and then blending the film with computer @-@ generated imagery . The visual effects team used aerial plates of the city 's actual buildings and added destruction elements such as smoke , fire , debris , fighter planes , war , battles , and torn up streets . Four ILM employees also travelled to Chicago and photographed buildings from top to bottom at six different times of the day in order to create a digital model of the city to be used in certain scenes . ILM 's crew designed many major action scenes , with many of the Chicago battle concepts coming from the helicopter shooting of the aerial plates .
Animator Scott Benza said Sentinel Prime had a face " more human @-@ like than any of the other robots " , having a more complex frame and " a greater number of plates " so it could be more expressive . ILM had based most of Sentinel Prime 's features on Sean Connery , and after Leonard Nimoy was cast to voice the role , the effects were altered to incorporate Nimoy 's acting as well . Every robot would take approximately 30 weeks to build visually . Originally , the fight between Sentinel Prime , Optimus Prime , and Megatron was considered to be on water in the Chicago River , but the budget was cut and the ILM realized that they would not want to present that version of the final battle to Bay , so they decided to have the battle take place on the bridge over the river . For a sequence where Bumblebee catches Sam and Lennox while transforming in mid @-@ air , a digital double of Shia LaBeouf was combined with footage of the actor in high speed so that the effects team could time it for slow @-@ motion .
Since Bay shoots all his films in anamorphic format , Dark of the Moon 's representation would be " squeezed in " to distort the image , and ILM would add in the robots and " un @-@ distort " the image . The ample variety of filming formats used – single camera , 3 @-@ D stereo rigs with two cameras , anamorphic and spherical lenses – proved a challenge , specially as ILM had a deadline to deliver the 2 @-@ D plates to the companies responsible for the 3 @-@ D conversion . ILM made 600 3 @-@ D shots , and Digital Domain had under 200 , while Legend3 @-@ D , the lead 3 @-@ D conversion company of the film , completed 78 minutes of work on the film and finalized the work of approximately 40 minutes of challenging non @-@ visual effects and 38 minutes of visual effects shots .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Steve Jablonsky , who had before collaborated with Bay on The Island and the first two Transformers films , returned to compose the Dark of the Moon score . Jablonsky 's musical score was lauded by critics and fans . The score was released on June 24 , 2011 , five days before the actual release of the film .
The album was originally set for release in June 28 , 2011 , but Amazon.com listed the album as unavailable while the album was still being listed for release during the week of the film 's global release . It was available for download on Amazon on June 30 , 2011 , and the score currently features 17 pre @-@ recorded tracks that are featured in the final film . The score 's length is approximately 59 : 47 . The album for the film was released on June 14 , 2011 . It consists of singles produced by different artists and bands , and rock and alternative tracks . American rock band Linkin Park composed the lead single for the film , " Iridescent " , as they did with the first two films : " What I 've Done " was used in the 2007 film and " New Divide " for the 2009 film . The music video for " Iridescent " was directed by Joe Hahn . Two other singles were released specifically for the soundtrack , " Monster " by Paramore and " All That You Are " by the Goo Goo Dolls . Several other unreleased songs make their debut on the album , including " The Pessimist " by Stone Sour and " The Bottom " by Staind . My Chemical Romance 's song " The Only Hope for Me Is You " also appeared and can also be found on their fourth studio album Danger Days : The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys and on the soundtrack . The song was not exclusively for the movie , and was featured in the credits . The Black Veil Brides ' song " Set The World on Fire " is also included .
= = Marketing = =
Most of the characters returned for Hasbro 's new toyline , which was released on May 16 , 2011 . In October 2010 , Entertainment Tonight previewed the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes filming in Chicago . A two @-@ minute teaser trailer was announced on November 27 , and was posted to the Internet on December 9 , 2010 . A 30 @-@ second television advertisement for the film aired during Super Bowl XLV on Fox on February 6 , 2011 . The first full theatrical trailer was released on April 28 , 2011 . The very first clip was released on May 18 . A second clip was released the next day on May 19 . The North American promotional costs came to approximately $ 75 million .
= = = Novelizations = = =
In May 2011 , the novelization , junior novel , and graphic novel of Transformers : Dark of the Moon were released . Both the novel and the graphic novel featured Skids and Mudflap as supporting characters , but the characters were missing from the junior novel . The graphic novel made reference to several Autobots from the IDW Publishing tie @-@ in comics who died in the stories between Revenge of the Fallen and Dark of the Moon . Another novel , written by Peter David , was published on May 24 , 2011 , and was released only paperback . Though it is slightly different from the film , the novel still pertains to the topic and synopsis of the film it is based on in the outcome of the final battle . The novel features about 400 pages and is published by Del Rey Books . Its synopsis is :
All humankind was watching that day in 1969 . And yet only a handful knew the real mission behind America 's triumph in the space race : to explore the alien ship that has crashed on the far side of the moon . Decades later , scientists are still struggling to understand the technology found on board — though with the treacherous Decepticons after it , a powerful force must be at stake . The only hope of averting a crisis is to reawaken Sentinel Prime , the long @-@ lost leader of the Autobots — but who knows what else remains in the shadows , hidden from man and machine ?
= = = Video game = = =
On June 14 , 2011 , Activision published a video game based on Dark of the Moon for the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Wii , Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS . The versions for Nintendo 's consoles were developed by Behaviour Interactive , while the versions for the rest of the consoles were developed by High Moon Studios , who had previously developed Transformers : War for Cybertron . Electronic Arts released the game Transformers : Dark of the Moon on June 28 , 2011 for Nokia Symbian smartphones , Apple products iPod Touch , iPhones , and iPad and Research In Motion 's BlackBerry devices .
= = Release = =
Transformers : Dark of the Moon first premiered at the Moscow International Film Festival on June 23 , 2011 . Linkin Park performed a special outdoor concert in Red Square in Moscow on the same night in celebration of the event . Initially scheduled to be released on July 1 , 2011 , the release was brought forward to June 29 , 2011 . It was announced in November 2010 that unlike Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen , no scenes in the film were shot with IMAX cameras .
= = = Critical reception = = =
While many critics praised the film 's visual effects and 3 @-@ D action sequences , criticism was directed towards the film 's running time , acting , and script . Several critics also felt that Dark of the Moon failed to live up to the first Transformers film . Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 35 % based on 244 reviews and a rating average of 4 @.@ 9 / 10 , saying " Its special effects and 3 @-@ D shots are undeniably impressive , but they aren 't enough to fill up its loud , bloated running time or mask its thin , indifferent script . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , gave the film a Metascore of 42 / 100 , indicating " mixed or average reviews " from 37 critics .
Roger Ebert gave the film one out of four stars , criticizing its visuals , plot , characters , and dialogue . Richard Roeper likewise panned the film , giving it a D and responded that " rarely has a movie had less of a soul and less interesting characters . " A.O. Scott in The New York Times wrote " I can 't decide if this movie is so spectacularly , breathtakingly dumb as to induce stupidity in anyone who watches , or so brutally brilliant that it disarms all reason . What 's the difference ? "
Several critics felt that Shia LaBeouf and Rosie Huntington @-@ Whiteley 's performances were ineffective . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 0 stars , the same rating that he had given to Revenge of the Fallen , and stated the two actors " couldn 't be duller . " Tirdad Derakhshani of The Philadelphia Inquirer stated that LaBeouf " plays Witwicky as if he had a ferocious case of attention deficit disorder . After two films , his fidgeting isn 't cute anymore . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews wrote that LaBeouf " has sunk to greater levels of incompetence here . It 's hard to call his posturing and screaming ' acting ' . " Jason Solomons of The Observer wrote " [ W ] e 're first introduced to [ Huntington @-@ Whiteley ] via a close @-@ up of her bum , segueing straight from the film 's opening sequence and titles on to the pert buttocks and underwear of our heroine " , and that her English posh girl accent " renders her practically unintelligible when surrounded by American accents and falling masonry . " Much of the criticism towards Rosie Huntington @-@ Whiteley compared her in an unfavorable light to Megan Fox . Lou Lumenick of the New York Post wrote that her " ' acting ' makes ... Megan Fox look like Meryl Streep in comparison . " Baz Bamigboye of the Daily Mail titled his review of the film , ' Come back Megan Fox , all is forgiven ... ' . Huntington @-@ Whitely was later nominated for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress for her performance , but lost to David Spade for Jack and Jill .
In a more positive review , Steve Prokopy of Ain 't It Cool News found the film to better than the first two . Jim Vejvoda of IGN gave the film a score of seven out of ten , also stating that it was the best of the franchise . E ! Online graded the film a B + while noting if this film is truly the end of a trilogy , its main antagonists should have played more of a part . Website Daily Bhaskar also praised the film , rating it three and a half out of five stars , citing it as an improvement on the previous film , and writing that it " gives fans something to cheer about " . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an A on an F to A + scale .
Many reviews praised the film 's special effects and aggressive use of 3 @-@ D. After previewing a partial , unfinished cut of the film , Kofi Outlaw of Screen Rant declared that Bay had created the best 3 @-@ D experience since James Cameron 's Avatar . Neil Schneider of Meant to be Seen , a website focused on stereoscopic 3 @-@ D gaming and entertainment , remarked that " while Transformers : Dark of the Moon had the scrapings of a really good story , this 3 @-@ D movie was shot with a 2 @-@ D script . " On the topic of 3 @-@ D , Schneider said " Transformers 3 was a mix of native stereoscopic 3 @-@ D camera capturing and 2 @-@ D / 3 @-@ D conversion ( as a 3 @-@ D tool ) , and most was done very well . " He added , " At a minimum , Transformers 3 demonstrates that fast cutting sequences are indeed possible and practical in stereoscopic 3 @-@ D. More than that , it was a comfortable experience and helped exemplify great use of stereoscopic 3 @-@ D with live action and digital characters . That said , I think they still could have taken it much further . "
Charlie Jane Anders of io9 believed that some elements of the film were deliberate self @-@ references to Michael Bay 's own sense of under @-@ appreciation after the backlash to the second film : " After a few hours of seeing Shia get dissed , overlooked and mistreated , the message becomes clear : Shia , as always , is a stand @-@ in for Michael Bay . And Bay is showing us just what it felt like to deal with the ocean of Haterade — the snarking , the Razzie Award , the mean reviews — that Revenge of the Fallen unleashed . " She went on to say that the film 's frequent , often jarring shifts in tone were an intentional endorsement of Michael Bay 's own filmmaking style . " Tone is for single @-@ purpose machines . Consistency is for Decepticons . Michael Bay 's ideal movie shifts from action movie to teen comedy to political drama with the same well @-@ lubricated ease that his cars become men . By the time you 've finished watching , you will speak Michael Bay 's cinematic language . "
= = = Box office = = =
= = = = Worldwide = = = =
Transformers : Dark of the Moon grossed $ 352 @,@ 390 @,@ 543 in North America , and $ 771 @,@ 403 @,@ 536 in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 123 @,@ 794 @,@ 079 . Worldwide , it is the thirteenth highest @-@ grossing film , the second highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the highest @-@ grossing film of the Transformers series , the second highest @-@ grossing film by Paramount ( behind Titanic ) , the third highest @-@ grossing threequel ( behind Iron Man 3 and Captain America : Civil War ) , and the highest @-@ grossing Hasbro film as of 2013 . It is also the tenth film in cinematic history to earn more than $ 1 @,@ 000 million , and the fifth @-@ fastest film to achieve this . Its worldwide opening weekend ( $ 382 @.@ 4 million ) is the fourth @-@ largest ever and the largest for Paramount . It set an IMAX worldwide opening @-@ weekend record with $ 23 @.@ 1 million ( first surpassed by Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ) . It reached $ 400M ( 6 days ) , $ 500M ( 9 days ) , $ 600M ( 12 days ) and $ 700M ( 16 days ) in record time , but lost all records to Deathly Hallows – Part 2 .
= = = = North America = = = =
The film opened in 4 @,@ 088 theaters including a then @-@ record total of 2 @,@ 789 3D locations . It made $ 5 @.@ 5 million during Tuesday 9 p.m. showings , $ 8 million during midnight showings. and $ 37 @.@ 7 million on its opening day ( Wednesday ) – including Tuesday showings . This was the sixth @-@ best opening Wednesday . However , all these figures were lower than Revenge of the Fallen . On Thursday , it earned $ 21 @.@ 5 million , falling 43 % , an improvement from its predecessor 's Wednesday @-@ to @-@ Thursday decline . It grossed $ 33 @.@ 0 million on Friday totaling $ 97 @.@ 8 million . Its 3D share accounted for 60 % of its gross , which was atypical due to the downturn in 3D attendance in North America . For its three @-@ day opening weekend ( Friday @-@ to @-@ Sunday ) , it grossed $ 97 @.@ 9 million . It achieved the third @-@ largest opening weekend of 2011 , the fourth @-@ largest opening weekend in July , the fifth @-@ largest opening weekend for a film not released on Friday and the second @-@ largest five @-@ day gross for a film opening on Wednesday . It set records for the 3 @-@ day ( $ 97 @.@ 9 million ) and 4 @-@ day ( $ 115 @.@ 9 million ) Independence Day weekend , surpassing Spider @-@ Man 2 's record in both cases ( $ 88 @.@ 2 million and $ 115 @.@ 8 million respectively ) . It retained first place on its second weekend , dropping 52 % to $ 47 @.@ 1 million . Closing on October 13 , 2011 with $ 352 @.@ 4 million , it is the second @-@ highest grossing film of 2011 and the second @-@ highest grossing film in the franchise .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
The film grossed $ 32 @.@ 5 million on its opening day , pacing 38 % ahead of its predecessor . Including some early Tuesday previews , it earned $ 36 @.@ 6 million in one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half days , and by Thursday its overseas total reached $ 66 million . By the end of its first weekend , it had earned $ 219 @.@ 8 million , which stands as the fifth @-@ largest opening weekend of all time overseas and the largest for Paramount . Its foreign launch was 57 % ahead of that of Revenge of the Fallen ( $ 139 @.@ 6 million ) . 70 % of its grosses came from 3 @-@ D ( a higher 3 @-@ D share than Pirates 4 's 66 % ) . Don Harris , general manager of distribution for Paramount , commented on the results of Dark of the Moon : " If we hadn 't chosen to debut the movie later in Japan and China , we probably would have had the all @-@ time record . " The film topped the box office outside North America for two weekends in a row .
In China , its highest @-@ grossing market after North America , the film set records for an opening day with $ 15 @.@ 9 million , a single day with $ 17 @.@ 4 million ( overtaken by Journey to the West : Conquering the Demons ) and an opening weekend with $ 46 @.@ 8 million ( $ 62 @.@ 7 million with previews ) . The latter was taken from Avatar ( $ 42 @.@ 0 million ) . The opening weekend record , when including previews , was surpassed by Titanic 3D ( $ 74 @.@ 2 million ) . Dark of the Moon ended its run with $ 167 @.@ 95 million , marking the highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 . Besides China , it broke the opening @-@ day record in Russia and South Korea ; the single @-@ day record in Hong Kong ; and the opening weekend record in South Korea , Hong Kong , Malaysia , Taiwan , Thailand , Singapore , the UAE , the Philippines and Peru ( the last three records were surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) . Following China in total earnings were South Korea ( $ 69 @.@ 1 million ) and Japan ( $ 54 @.@ 2 million ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
During Hasbro Investor Day , it was announced that the DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc would be released in the fourth quarter of 2011 . The NTSC home release for the film was released on September 30 , 2011 , with a Blu @-@ ray 3D version of the film slated for release in " the coming months " . However , the first home release was criticized for the lack of bonus features .
A Walmart exclusive edition of Transformers : Dark of the Moon also was released on September 30 , 2011 . The PAL DVD and Blu @-@ ray Discs of Transformers : Dark of the Moon was released on November 28 , 2011 .
In North America , it sold 716 @,@ 218 DVD units ( equivalent of $ 13 @,@ 565 @,@ 169 ) in its first week , topping the weekly DVD chart . As of February 26 , 2012 , it has sold 2 @,@ 829 @,@ 285 DVD units ( equivalent of $ 48 @,@ 058 @,@ 979 ) . It also topped the Blu @-@ ray charts on the same week and it has sold 2 @,@ 381 @,@ 657 Blu @-@ ray units ( earning $ 50 @,@ 934 @,@ 911 ) by October 23 , 2011 . The Blu @-@ ray 3D release of the film was released on January 31 , 2012 .
= = Sequels = =
The fourth film in the Transformers film series , Age of Extinction , was released June 27 , 2014 . A fifth film , The Last Knight , is scheduled for release on June 23 , 2017 .
= Bravado ( song ) =
" Bravado " is a song by New Zealand singer Lorde , originally included on her debut EP The Love Club EP . It was later featured on her Tennis Court EP and the extended version of her debut album Pure Heroine ( 2013 ) . The song was written by Lorde and Joel Little and was produced by the latter . The track was released as a single on 6 September 2013 , via iTunes Stores , in a number of European countries and India . Characterised as a chamber pop and electropop song , " Bravado " addresses Lorde 's introverted nature and the need to feign confidence in the music industry . The single was well received by music critics and peaked at number five on the New Zealand Artist Singles chart .
= = Background and composition = =
" Bravado " was written by Lorde ( credited under her birth @-@ name Ella Yelich @-@ O 'Connor ) and Joel Little , while production for the song was handled by the latter . The track was written and recorded in 2012 at Little 's Golden Age Studios in Auckland . Within a week , Lorde had finished recording " Bravado " alongside " Royals " and " Biting Down " during a school break . Chris Schulz , from The New Zealand Herald , described " Bravado " as a chamber pop piece , while The Village Voice 's Brittany Spanos called it an electropop song . Running for a duration of 3 : 41 ( three minutes and 41 seconds ) , the track is composed on electronic beats in the key of B minor and plays in common time at a moderate tempo of 88 beats per minute . Lorde 's vocal range on the song spans from F ♯ 3 to D5 . The lyrics of " Bravado " address the idea " of false confidence delivering real confidence " and of Lorde stepping into a line of work where , she said , " everyone would be watching me , and everyone would want to talk to me and confront me " . Lorde cited the line " Me found bravery in my bravado " from Kanye West 's song " Dark Fantasy " as an influence . Simon Collins , of The West Australian , called " Bravado " a particularly prescient song , preempting Lorde 's rise to prominence . At a point of the song , Lorde confesses " to a battle between shyness and show @-@ business aspirations " :
= = Promotion and reception = =
On 6 September 2013 , " Bravado " was released as a digital download single on iTunes Stores in India and various European countries . Lorde held a concert at Le Poisson Rouge in New York , which was her first U.S. live show , and performed the song among other tracks from The Love Club EP . On 3 October 2013 , the singer held a concert at the Warsaw Venue in Brooklyn and performed the song among other tracks from the album . In November 2013 , Lorde performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote The Love Club EP and Pure Heroine . Throughout the show , she was only backed by a drummer and a keyboard player . " Bravado " was additionally performed during Lorde 's debut concert tour throughout 2013 and 2014 . In 2014 , she performed the track at Silo Park , Auckland on 29 January 2014 as part of her make @-@ up show for the 2014 Laneway Festival , and at the Brazil edition of the Lollapalooza .
" Bravado " was well received by music critics . Chris Schulz from The New Zealand Herald picked the song and " Million Dollar Bills " as the two best tracks from The Love Club EP . Jason Lipshutz , writing for Billboard , described the track as " delightfully spooky " . In a review published in The Dominion Post , Tom Cardy compared the track 's style to that of works by Florence Welch and Marina Diamandis , labelling it a " sharp , refreshing and smart " song . The song peaked at number five on the New Zealand National Singles and number twenty @-@ nine on the US Hot Rock Songs chart .
= = Weekly charts = =
= = Release history = =
= A9 ( Croatia ) =
The A9 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A9 ) is a north – south motorway in Croatia , with a length of 78 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 48 @.@ 7 miles ) . Beginning in Pula , the largest city on the Istrian peninsula , it runs north to the Croatian motorway and expressway network at the Kanfanar interchange . Here it meets the A8 motorway , forming the Istrian Y road system . The A9 continues north from here to the Kaštel and Plovanija border crossings into Slovenia . The motorway represents a significant north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and is a part of the European route E751 . The motorway 's national significance is reflected in the positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects , as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia . Importance of the motorway for tourism is particularly high during summer tourist seasons , when traffic volume increases by more than 80 % .
The A9 motorway construction works began in 1988 with its first section opening in 1991 , the second one following the next year and extending the completed route to just 13 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 5 miles ) . Lack of funding caused delays in further development , and in 1995 , BINA Istra was awarded a 32 @-@ year build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession to develop the Istrian Y , including the A9 . Construction soon resumed , and by 2006 the entire route was completed as a two @-@ lane expressway with grade separated intersections . In 2008 further construction works were initiated , aimed at upgrading the newly built road to a six @-@ lane motorway . By June 2011 the entire A9 route was brought up to motorway standard , except for the Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct . The motorway is planned to connect to the Slovenian H5 expressway .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction , separated by a central reservation , except at the two bridges . All intersections of the A9 motorway are grade separated , and as of September 2011 , there are 10 exits and 6 rest areas along the route . Since the motorway is tolled , using a ticket system , each exit includes a toll plaza ; and the A9 motorway and the A8 motorway have an integrated toll system in place .
= = Route description = =
The A9 motorway spans the peninsula of Istria and is a significant north – south motorway in Croatia connecting Pula , the largest city in the south of the region , to the cities of Rovinj , Poreč , Novigrad , Umag ; and ending at Kaštel and Plovanija at the border crossings into Slovenia south of Koper . This part of the road network of Croatia is also a part of European route E751 ; Koper – Kanfanar – Pula and Kanfanar – Rijeka . The motorway is of major importance to Croatia in terms of economic development , especially for tourism and as a transit and transport route . The road carries significant transit and tourist traffic as it runs along Adriatic Sea coast linking a large number of tourist resorts .
The motorway runs for 78 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 48 @.@ 7 miles ) between the border crossing access roundabout — the junction of the D200 and D510 state roads — at its northern end and the D66 state road serving Pula and Pula Airport at its southern end . The route connects towns and resorts in the western , southern and central parts of Istria through a total of 9 interchanges and the state road network acting as feeder roads . The route largely runs about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) inland relative to the west coast of Istria , serving a number of tourist resorts , such as Savudrija and Umag via the eponymous interchange with the Ž5002 and Ž5003 county roads , and Novigrad via the D301 . There is also an alternate , southern link to Umag via the D300 state road . This part of the route generally follows a north – south path as it approaches Lim valley . After crossing the valley , which is spanned by the Limska Draga Viaduct , the route turns southeast towards Višnjan . Thereafter , the A9 route resumes the original north – south orientation to Baderna interchange with the D302 road serving Poreč and Medaki interchange with the D21 road . The D21 runs generally parallel to the A9 and it is accessible from all A9 interchanges directly or through short connectors . From there , the route again turns to the southeast to cross the Mirna River , until it reaches the Kanfanar interchange . The interchange is a junction of the A9 and the A8 routes forming the Istrian Y system , while providing access to Rovinj via the D303 road . Between Kanfanar and Pula , the route turns more to the south and gradually approaches the west coast of the peninsula , bypassing Vodnjan and providing access to Fažana and Brijuni National Park . The route terminates in Pula interchange with the D66 road and the Pula bypass road .
The A9 motorway has at least two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each direction along its entire length , except at the Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct where there are two traffic lanes instead . The motorway comprises several types of interchanges at the motorway exits : At Kanfanar and Pula there are cloverleaf interchanges ; Višnjan and both Vodnjan exits are trumpet interchanges ; Buje exit is a diamond interchange ; and the rest are partial cloverleaf interchanges . There are a number of rest areas along the motorway providing various types of services , ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to filling stations and other facilities . As of September 2011 the motorway has ten interchanges , in addition to the roundabout at the northern terminus , providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signalling devices located in zones where driving conditions may vary ; such as at interchanges , viaducts , bridges and zones where fog and strong wind are known to occur . The system uses variable traffic signs to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions , and other information to motorway users . The A9 motorway mainly runs through the coastal plains and rolling hills of Istria , although the northern part of the route traverses two large valleys , requiring two large structures , the Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct , to carry the route across .
= = Toll = =
The A9 is a tolled motorway and uses a closed toll system based on the Croatian toll categories . The ticket system was introduced all along the Istrian Y system as of June 2011 . Tolls charged along the A9 motorway vary depending on the length of route travelled , and ranges from 3 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 0 @.@ 40 ) to 26 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 3 @.@ 51 ) for passenger cars and 15 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 2 @.@ 02 ) to 185 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 25 @.@ 00 ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards , debit cards and a number of prepaid toll collection systems . The latter includes various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and " ENC " , an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) system which is shared at most motorways in Croatia and provides drivers with discounted toll rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas .
The operator of the motorway , BINA Istra , reported 65 @.@ 8 million kuna ( 8 @.@ 9 million euro ) of income in the first half of 2011 ; an increase of 30 @.@ 8 percent compared to the same period in the previous year . The figure includes the entire Istrian Y system , i.e. the A9 motorway and the A8 motorway . A major factor causing the increase is attributed to the introduction of the closed toll system , where tolls are charged at every junction , which replaced an open toll system where the toll was charged at the Mirna Bridge and the Učka Tunnel only .
= = Notable structures = =
The Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct are the longest individual structures on the A9 motorway . The Mirna Bridge is the most significant structure built on the route , spanning the Mirna River to carry the motorway across the river and its valley , and has been in use since 2005 . The bridge is 1 @,@ 354 metres ( 4 @,@ 442 feet ) long , while the superstructure of the bridge is 10 @.@ 1 metres ( 33 feet ) wide . Prior to the introduction of the ticket system on the A9 , a toll was charged for using the bridge . As of September 2011 the bridge consists of a single carriageway . The Limska Draga Viaduct was built in 1991 to span the Limska Draga valley . The viaduct is 522 metres ( 1 @,@ 713 feet ) long , and 12 @.@ 1 metres ( 40 feet ) wide and , therefore , is the second longest structure of the motorway . It comprises continuous box girders of varying depth , across five spans with a maximum height of 125 metres ( 410 feet ) . The viaduct has been incorporated into the A9 motorway route since 1999 . Like the Mirna Bridge , as of December 2011 , the viaduct comprises a single carriageway .
= = History = =
Construction of the A9 motorway , and the Istrian Y as a whole , began in 1968 when the Croatian Parliament endorsed a petition of its members from Istria to promote construction of a modern road between the Istria peninsula and the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , municipalities in Istria started a public loan to fund construction of the Učka Tunnel , which started in 1976 . The works were completed in 1981 and also included construction of a 22 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 0 miles ) long two @-@ lane expressway section between Matulji and Lupoglav . The " Y " shape , formed by the A9 motorway and the A8 expressway , was originally defined by Rijeka and Istria spatial planning documents and later incorporated in the spatial planning documents of the Republic of Croatia in 1988 — defining the Kanfanar interchange as a junction between the A9 and A8 routes .
The first section of the A9 to be built was a 7 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 6 mi ) section between Medaki and Kanfanar . Its construction started in 1988 and was completed in 1991 , including the 552 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 811 ft ) viaduct across the Lim Valley . The 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) section between Buje and Nova Vas was built between 1990 and 1992 . Between 1997 and 1999 all sections between Medaki and Vodnjan were completed . The construction works on the section between Umag and Medaki started in 2003 and were completed by 2005 . Finally , construction of the southernmost section between Vodnjan and Pula started in 2005 , and was completed by the end of the 2006 ; marking completion of the Istrian Y as a two @-@ lane expressway with grade – separated intersections .
Upgrading the expressway to a four @-@ lane motorway started on October 6 , 2008 . The upgrade was scheduled to take place in two stages , designated by the BINA Istra as 2A and 2B . The 2A stage entailed construction of the second carriageway between Umag and Pula , except at the Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct . The upgrade of the Pula – Kanfanar interchange section of the A9 , approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) long , was completed on June 20 , 2010 . At that moment a ticket system was introduced at section as the first tolled portion of the motorway that included the Mirna Bridge . On June 28 , 2010 , the northern terminus of the A9 motorway was completed with an access roundabout where two connector roads to the border crossings of Kaštel and Plovanija on the Slovenian border intersected it . The upgrade construction works continued in the remaining part of the motorway encompassed by the 2A stage , and the 50 @-@ kilometre ( 31 mi ) section between the Kanfanar interchange and Umag was upgraded to a four @-@ lane motorway by June 14 , 2011 ; eight months ahead of schedule . Total costs of the upgrade to the A9 motorway were 228 million euros .
Since September 21 , 1995 , the motorway has been operated by the BINA Istra company , as part of a 32 @-@ year build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession contract . The concession provided for the takeover of the existing 54 @-@ kilometre ( 34 mi ) section of the road , and a completed tube of the Učka Tunnel . The concession agreement also mandated construction , maintenance and management of the roads , and their upgrade to motorway standards ( dual carriageway ) , when the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) reaches 10 @,@ 000 vehicles ; or when the average summer daily traffic reaches 16 @,@ 000 vehicles . The latter was achieved in 2005 , and the motorway upgrade works started in 2008 — even though the AADT at the time was only 8 @,@ 500 vehicles .
= = Further construction = =
The 2B stage of the upgrade to be carried out along the A9 includes construction of parallel structures at the Mirna Bridge and the Limska Draga Viaduct intended for each to carry an additional carriageway of the motorway .
The final section of the motorway , the northernmost section between the Umag interchange and the Slovenian border at Kaštel and Dragonja border crossing , is currently spanned by a two @-@ lane connector road via a roundabout located at the provisional northern terminus of the A9 . Since the Kaštel and Dragonja border crossing is the agreed contact point for the motorway link between Croatia and Slovenia , the section is expected to be built when Slovenia completes its H5 expressway ; connecting the border crossing to Koper and its motorway system . The Slovenian motorway development company DARS made plans in 2010 to build the expressway .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted and reported by BINA Istra , operator of the motorway , and results are published by Hrvatske ceste . In 2015 the largest annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) volume was recorded in the Buje – Nova Vas section .
Variations between AADT and average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts along the Istria peninsula . On average , the A9 motorway carries 218 % more ASDT than AADT . The largest increase of the ASDT relative to the AADT is observed on the Nova Vas – Višnjan section , at 229 % . BINA Istra expects the motorway to carry more than 20 @,@ 000 vehicles per day during peak tourist season periods .
= = Rest areas = =
There are six rest areas along the A9 motorway . Legislation identifies four types of rest areas , designated as types A through D : A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodations ; D @-@ type rest areas offer parking spaces , restrooms , and possibly picnicking tables and benches . Even though rest areas found along the A9 motorway generally follow this ranking system , there are considerable variations , as some of them offer extra services . The filling stations regularly have small convenience stores , and some of them may offer LPG fuel .
The primary motorway operator , BINA Istra , leases A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . Rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations . As of September 2011 there are two type C rest areas , and only one operator present on the A9 motorway : INA . The rest areas are accessible from both directions of the motorway and are open 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .
= = Exit list = =
= Tyrone Garland =
Tyrone W. " Ty " Garland ( born August 13 , 1992 ) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Mississauga Power of the National Basketball League of Canada ( NBL ) . A native of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , he joined the Power midway in the 2014 – 15 season , a few months after completing his senior year at La Salle University . He had several impactful performances with Mississauga in his rookie season and was awarded several starts . Garland primarily plays the point guard position , but is known as an all @-@ around guard .
Garland , whom Rivals.com and 247Sports.com rated a three @-@ star recruit coming out of high school , started out his collegiate career with Virginia Tech after being recruited by a number of high major college basketball programs . However , after seeing very limited minutes from head coach Seth Greenberg during his first two seasons there , he transferred to La Salle and started competing for the Explorers in late 2012 . As a junior with his new team , he famously made a game @-@ winning floater in the 2013 NCAA Tournament .
Before playing college basketball , Garland starred for John Bartram High School in his hometown and was a first @-@ team All @-@ State selection and one of the top scorers in the history of the Philadelphia Public League ( PPL ) . In his time , he scored the third @-@ most points by any player in the Public League , only being exceeded by Maureece Rice and Wilt Chamberlain . Garland is currently the fourth @-@ best scorer in PPL history .
= = Early life and high school = =
Garland was raised in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , by his mother , Audrey Tyler . He grew up on South Yewdall Street , near 54th Street and Greenway Avenue in Southwest Philadelphia 's Kingsessing neighborhood . He attended middle school at Richard Allen Preparatory Charter School in the same area . His cousin Bernard Tyler , a former player at Overbrook High School in Philadelphia , helped him learn a basketball move known as the floater . Tyler told Garland to " just get it over the big man and leave it in God 's hands " .
Initially , Garland was enrolled at Delaware Valley Charter School , which was located only half a mile from his future college , La Salle University . However , his cousin Donnel Feaster , an alumnus of John Bartram High School , recommended that Garland attend his alma mater . The team 's head coach , James Brown , said , " I 'm always telling my ex @-@ players , ' If you see any good ones , send them my way ' ... Not that they listen . Don did , though . That 's how I got Ty " .
Garland ultimately enrolled at Bartram and played under Brown . A four @-@ year letter winner , he was promoted to team captain in his senior season and garnered several Philadelphia Public League ( PPL ) accolades . In both his junior and senior years , the Philadelphia Daily News named Garland first @-@ team All @-@ City and the Associated Press named him a first @-@ team All @-@ State selection . He led Bartram in his last two seasons there , averaging 28 @.@ 5 points and 25 @.@ 1 points per game as a junior and senior respectively . The team went 73 – 35 in the years that Garland was with them , and he led them to a PPL championship appearance against Imhotep Institute Charter High School , where Bartram lost 48 – 56 . He scored 32 points and 6 three @-@ pointers , but his teammates were only 5 @-@ for @-@ 37 in their shot attempts .
In an earlier 2009 Class AAAA playoff contest vs Pocono Mountain East High School , Garland scored eight consecutive points in the final 44 seconds of regulation . He capped the streak by making a 30 @-@ foot shot with 3 @.@ 3 seconds remaining , and his 40 total points helped Bartram win , 72 – 67 . Garland scored a total of 2 @,@ 198 points , making him the top scorer in school history and the third @-@ leading scorer in Public League history . Maureece Rice , who scored 2 @,@ 681 , and Wilt Chamberlain , who scored 2 @,@ 206 , were the only players who had accumulated more points in their high school careers in the league . Maurice Watson , from the Boys ' Latin of Philadelphia Charter School , broke both Chamberlain 's and Garland 's records in 2012 , pushing Garland to fourth on the list .
= = = AAU = = =
While in high school , Garland also played Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball with the Philly Pride . Amauro Austin , a statistician for the Philadelphia Daily News , directed the program while Garland was there . Austin commented , " Everybody liked Ty . Not one person didn 't . He was loyal , honest ; just a solid @-@ gold individual . He didn 't have a malicious bone in his body " . Garland often slept during the day and stayed awake at night , leading his peers to think of him as a vampire . Before becoming a senior , he led the Pride to sixth place at the under @-@ 17 national AAU tournament in Orlando , Florida . The team finished with an 8 – 1 record due largely to Garland 's contributions .
= = Collegiate career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
On July 9 , 2009 , Garland committed to play college basketball for the Hokies of Virginia Tech . He announced his decision to attend the school at a press conference at the Reebok All @-@ American Camp . Garland had also considered joining the programs at La Salle , Nebraska , Temple , St. Bonaventure , Maryland , Seton Hall , Providence , and Butler . La Salle University is based in Garland 's hometown of Philadelphia and its head coach , John Giannini , recruited him especially hard out of high school . His old coach at John Bartram High School , James Brown , supported his commitment to Virginia Tech . Assistant coach James Johnson was the man primarily responsible for recruiting Garland . Rivals.com rated the point guard a three @-@ star recruit , and ESPN ranked him as the 31st @-@ best player of his position in the Class of 2010 . Garland officially signed a National Letter of Intent with the team on February 3 , 2010 and enrolled at Virginia Tech on June 30 . Garland would play his freshman season for a Virginia Tech Hokies team that had a large part of its scoring coming from Malcolm Delaney , Jeff Allen , and Dorenzo Hudson in the 2009 – 10 season . Delaney , their leading scorer , chose to withdraw from the 2010 NBA draft in May 2010 and returned for another season with the Hokies . Garland weighed approximately 170 lbs ( 77 kg ) entering college , and because of his shooting guard qualities , he was not as highly rated as some of the team 's other 2010 recruits , like Jarell Eddie .
On November 12 , 2010 , Garland made his career debut with Virginia Tech against the Campbell Fighting Camels , seeing one minute of playing time on the court and going 0 @-@ of @-@ 1 from the field . However , the Hokies easily won the game , 70 – 60 . Garland scored his first points as a Hokie on November 26 , vs Oklahoma State , putting up 6 in spite of very limited playing time . He was allowed to play more than 20 minutes for the first time in his collegiate career against Mount St. Mary 's . The opposing team was easily defeated , 99 – 34 . Seven of the ten Hokies that appeared throughout the contest played more than 20 minutes , and Garland – who recorded 16 points – was one of five to score double digits . It would be his season @-@ high performance and also the only time he scored more than 10 points as a freshman . On March 16 , 2011 , Garland played a career @-@ high 23 minutes vs Bethune @-@ Cookman in the first round of the 2011 National Invitational Tournament ( NIT ) , recording seven points and having perfect free throw shooting . In 6 @.@ 8 minutes per game in his first season , he averaged 2 @.@ 8 points , 0 @.@ 3 rebounds , and 0 @.@ 5 assists .
= = = Sophomore = = =
Entering the 2011 – 12 season , the Hokies lost star Malcolm Delaney , who signed a conditional one @-@ year contract with the French professional basketball team Élan Chalon following his senior year . Garland debuted as a sophomore on November 12 , 2011 against East Tennessee State , making his first @-@ ever start at the collegiate level due to the absence of Erick Green . He played 24 minutes throughout the game , recording 13 points , 3 assists , and 2 steals . In Tech 's next contest with Monmouth , Garland scored a career @-@ high 18 points off the bench , shooting 7 @-@ for @-@ 7 from the field .
However , as the season progressed , head coach Seth Greenberg began giving Garland fewer minutes . Following the recovery of freshman Marquis Rankin from a torn meniscus , Garland played a total of one minute in three games . He also scored a combined six points following his initial two performances that season . On December 11 , 2011 , Garland did not even remove his warm @-@ up shirt in his team 's game vs Norfolk State . When Greenberg was asked about Garland 's playing time , the coach said , " Marquis [ Rankin ] is right now a good play @-@ starter and good on ball defender . We 've got to get other guys more minutes " . When asked a similar question the day before , he said that " you can 't play 13 guys " . On December 16 , 2011 , Garland announced on Twitter that he was planning to transfer out of Virginia Tech . Following his exams , he returned to his hometown of Philadelphia . Garland became the third men 's basketball player to transfer out of the Hokies ' team in the past academic year , following the footsteps of Ben Boggs , who moved to Valparaiso , and Manny Atkins , who would end up with Georgia State . Garland finished his sophomore year at Virginia Tech averaging 4 @.@ 6 points , 1 @.@ 3 assists , and 1 @.@ 3 turnovers in eight appearances . In late December 2011 , he began competing for La Salle . Explorers head coach John Giannini said , " We recruited Tyrone extremely hard out of high school . He is known as a scorer and can also be a very good passer and defender . He is the type of all @-@ around guard , talent and person that will make our team better . He gives us an experienced player to continue our growth over the next 2 years . With his addition we will have tremendous team quickness and depth . " Several of the team 's top scorers in 2011 – 12 had experience playing high school basketball in the Philadelphia Public and Catholic Leagues .
= = = Junior = = =
Following his transfer , Garland opened his stint with La Salle on December 15 , 2012 in a road game against Bucknell , scoring 9 points in 22 minutes off the bench and recording 2 turnovers and 4 personal fouls . He did not take part in the team 's earlier games because he was ineligible due to NCAA regulations regarding player transfers . In the game that followed , he posted a career @-@ best 26 points as a bench player in a win over Iona . He also added 3 rebounds , an assist , and a steal in the 23 minutes he was on the court . In a seven @-@ minute stretch in the second half , Garland scored 14 straight points . He said after the game , " I used to do it in high school . It kind of felt like high school when I was out there ; it just felt good " . Garland , who led the Explorers in scoring , also received praise from head coach John Giannini . On December 22 , 2012 , he had another impactful performance vs Sacred Heart , with six assists in 31 minutes of play . This was also his first @-@ ever start under Giannini . The coach commented about Garland , " He 's a very underrated passer . People think because he scored all those points in high school he 's a scorer first and foremost . I think he 's a very good passer " . However , this would be his sole start in his junior year at La Salle . Garland was effective in the opening , First Four round of the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament against Boise State , finishing with a team @-@ high 22 points and , in turn , scoring 20 or more points for the second time as a junior . After the game , Giannini told Garland , " This is why I chased you all over the place , to win NCAA tournament games and see if you could be a great player " . On March 23 , 2014 , against the Ole Miss Rebels , Garland made a scooping layup off the backboard with 2 @.@ 5 seconds left in regulation to send La Salle into the Sweet 16 round of the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . The game @-@ winner was known as the " Southwest Philly Floater , " following Garland 's post @-@ game comments , in which he said , " That 's the Southwest Philly Floater , man . Shoutout to my Cousin Bern , shoutout to my Mom " . He made the shot in spite of defensive efforts from the Rebels ' 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) center Reginald Buckner , who had blocked the Explorer multiple times in the game . Garland recalled the play , saying , " Time was running out , and I felt like I could get the drive . When I cut , I just saw an opening and took the ball up ... I went in there and knew if I could get an open shot , I could make it " . Following a defeat to Wichita State that ended the team 's tournament run and their season , Garland was averaging 13 @.@ 1 points , 2 @.@ 1 rebounds , and 2 assists .
= = = Senior = = =
Garland entered the season as one of four seniors on La Salle 's men 's basketball roster . Ramon Galloway , who led the team in scoring in 2012 – 13 , graduated the previous year . Garland debuted as a senior in an exhibition game vs Indiana University of Pennsylvania on November 2 , 2013 , scoring 16 points on .500 shooting . He made his first official appearance in a double @-@ overtime home contest against Manhattan . Garland led a 13 – 3 run , highlighted by two key shots , that forced overtime . He made a three @-@ pointer with minutes left in the game , but his team ran out of time before they could rally . Nevertheless , Garland scored a career @-@ high 28 points , hitting 12 free throws . He had an effective second game as well . Against Quinnipiac at the ESPN Tip @-@ Off Marathon , despite scoring far fewer points , his last @-@ minute rebound was instrumental to the Explorers ' victory . Head coach John Giannini said , " He had zero rebounds in 44 minutes against Manhattan . The rebound that really iced the game today was a defensive rebound by Tyrone . Sometimes you don 't play well , you don 't do something , and then you learn from it and do better , so I am pleased with him " . The guard had another notable performance on November 22 , 2013 , against Morgan State , when he led both teams with 25 points . He also added four three @-@ pointers . On January 25 , 2014 , Garland notched a career @-@ best 30 points vs VCU . His team 's 10 @-@ point 2014 Atlantic 10 Tournament loss to St. Bonaventure , in which he contributed 0 points in 30 minutes , marked the end of his collegiate career . He finished the season averaging 12 @.@ 6 points , 2 @.@ 3 rebounds , 2 @.@ 6 assists , and 0 @.@ 7 steals . Garland , Sam Mills , Tyreek Duren , and Taylor Dunn , recorded the most wins for a single senior class at La Salle in 22 years .
= = = Statistics = = =
Cited from RealGM .
= = Professional career = =
Following his graduation from La Salle University , Garland signed with the sports agent Gilad Berkowitz from Berkowitz Career Ventures . Berkowitz , a law student at Duke University , was certified with the National Basketball Players Association but was only two years older than his client . The agent said , " What he has to overcome is his size and range and I have to overcome my age . We are going to market ourselves to NBA teams " . Garland 's connections with Berkowitz helped him get to know trainer Kendrick Williams and get an endorsement deal with Under Armour . He had hopes of playing in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , regardless of whether he had to compete in Europe before reaching that level . In mid @-@ October 2014 , Garland planned on entering the 2014 NBA Development League Draft . However , on November 16 , he agreed to terms with Michelin Etha Engomis Nicosia of the Cyprus Basketball Division 1 , but would not make an official appearance for them .
On January 14 , 2015 , after placing one of their players , Mike Allison , on the injury reserve list , the Mississauga Power of the National Basketball League of Canada ( NBL ) signed and activated Garland . On January 15 , 2015 , he made his professional debut for the Power against the Brampton A 's , recording 18 points , 6 rebounds , and 6 assists and being named Peak Performer of the Game . The opposing team won the game with a score of 101 – 90 . Garland had another impact performance on January 22 , 2015 against the Halifax Rainmen , as he scored 26 points , grabbed 5 rebounds , and recorded 7 assists , leading Mississauga to a victory . In an overtime loss to the Windsor Express on February 17 , he scored 20 or more points for the second time that season , notching 23 . He made two key three @-@ pointers in the closing minutes . On February 28 , in Mississauga 's regular season finale vs the London Lightning , Garland recorded a season @-@ high 31 points . He finished his rookie season averaging 12 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 1 assists , and 1 @.@ 3 steals . He started in 12 of his 16 appearances . In late June 2015 , the Mississauga Power folded after the creation of the NBA Development League affiliate for the Toronto Raptors , known as Raptors 905 . The Power 's rights were purchased by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment ( MLSE ) and their home court , the Hershey Centre , became the venue for Raptors 905 games . The move ended Garland 's stint with Mississauga . He would not join Raptors 905 , as it had no connections with the Power players and was merely a development team for the Toronto Raptors . As of late 2015 , Garland is not signed to any team .
= = = Statistics = = =
Cited from RealGM .
= = Personal life = =
As a freshman at Virginia Tech , Garland was named to the 2011 All @-@ Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) Academic Team along with Kyle Singler , Mason Plumlee , Ryan Kelly , and Tyler Zeller . He earned a grade @-@ point average of above 3 @.@ 00 for the previous semester and maintained it as a cumulative average through his academic career . He was also one of 2 @,@ 835 student @-@ athletes recognized by the ACC on its 2010 – 11 Academic Honor Roll . Garland majored in university studies at Virginia Tech , but majored in sociology at La Salle University . He recalled the final months of his senior year at La Salle , saying , " I was really focused on graduating school and locking down my grades for graduation . I was focused on the next step , but I had to graduate school . That degree is very big to me . I told my mom I was going to graduate college and I just wanted to put that smile on her face " .
In the summer of 2015 , Garland participated in The Basketball Tournament ( TBT ) , a five @-@ on @-@ five , single @-@ elimination basketball tournament in which the winner out of the 96 teams wins a total of $ 1 million . He competed for a team made up of former La Salle men 's basketball players , called 20th & Olney , reuniting with Ramon Galloway , Steve Zack , and Tyreek Duren . Explorers video coordinator Andrew McGlynn , who acted as the team 's general manager and coach , said , " The main reason [ for entering ] is how close the program is here . [ Coach Dr. John Giannini ] has done such a good job of making it a family atmosphere around here " . Garland was one of 50 players with NBL Canada experience that were playing in TBT . On July 18 , 2015 at Philadelphia University , he debuted with 22 points in a win over Max 's All Stars , a team led by Dominique Jones . 20th & Olney lost in the next round to Boeheim 's Army , which was led by Hakim Warrick and Olu Famutimi , as Garland notched 21 points .
= Polikarpov I @-@ 3 =
The Polikarpov I @-@ 3 ( Russian : Поликарпов И @-@ 3 ) was a Soviet fighter designed during the late 1920s . It entered service in 1929 , but was retired in 1935 with the advent of fighters with higher performance .
= = Design and development = =
Development of the I @-@ 3 began in mid @-@ 1926 after investigations into the loss of the Polikarpov DI @-@ 1 were completed . Although the new biplane shared many of the characteristics of the earlier design , including the staggered sesquiplane layout of the wings , it was a new design . It was designed by the OSS ( Russian : Otdel Sookhoputnykh Samolyotov — Landplane Department ) of Aviatrest ( Aviation Trust ) under the supervision of Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov , head designer of the department . There was much debate within the OSS about the proper powerplant for the new fighter , but Polikarpov rejected the Wright Tornado radial engine and decided in favor of the BMW VI liquid @-@ cooled V12 engine . A wooden mock @-@ up was completed in April 1927 , but formal approval of the design did not come until 3 June 1927 . Static tests of a full @-@ sized model began in October at the same time as negotiations for a license for the BMW engine were finished .
The I @-@ 3 had an oval @-@ section semi @-@ monocoque fuselage covered with ' shpon ' , molded birch plywood , with a small headrest faired into the fuselage , although the engine was enclosed in a metal cowling . The two @-@ spar wings were covered in plywood and fabric and had a Clark Y profile . Internal bracing wires were fitted to reinforce the wings . The control surfaces were framed in duralumin , but covered in fabric . It was provided with differential Frise @-@ type ailerons . The duralumin N @-@ type struts that separated the wings , and attached the upper wing to the fuselage , had a teardrop profile . They were reinforced with steel bracing wires . The conventional undercarriage was fixed with rubber shock absorbers and the tailskid was made from duralumin . The main gear could be replaced by skis like those fitted to the Polikarpov R @-@ 1 . The engine 's semi @-@ retractable radiator extended below the fuselage behind the rear main gear struts . Two fuel tanks were fitted , the main one in the fuselage , but a small 2 @.@ 5 @-@ litre ( 0 @.@ 55 imp gal ; 0 @.@ 66 US gal ) tank , mainly used to start the engine , was in the center section of the upper wing , along with the engine coolant tank . A total of 210 kg ( 460 lb ) of fuel was carried . Initially the I @-@ 3 was fitted with two fixed 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) synchronized Vickers machine guns , but these were later replaced by PV @-@ 1 machine guns . A central OP @-@ 1 optical gunsight was provided with a KP @-@ 5 ring sight offset to starboard . Some aircraft had bomb racks to carry two 11 @.@ 5 kg ( 25 lb ) bombs .
The first prototype was completed in early 1928 and made its first flight on 21 February . Its manufacturer 's trials were finished by 10 March and the state acceptance trials by 14 April . The pilots of the NII VVS ( Russian : Naoochno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot Voyenno @-@ Vozdooshnykh Seel – Air Force Scientific Test Institute ) criticized the lack of directional stability at high speeds and a slight problem in control response between maneuvers . The area of the vertical tail was increased and the elevators were given horn balances to alleviate the first problem while split ailerons addressed the second problem . Since production had begun before the aircraft was actually approved for service use , the first forty aircraft were completed with the smaller tailplane . A second prototype was completed in August 1928 and tested a different propeller optimized for high speed which increased the top speed to 283 km / h ( 176 mph ) , although it lengthened the take @-@ off run . The first 39 aircraft completed , plus the two prototypes , used imported engines , but the remainder used the license @-@ built Mikulin M @-@ 17 .
Approximately 400 were built , with Gordon and Dexter citing sources that state 389 or 399 . They also provide a yearly production table that lists 35 built in 1928 , 47 in 1929 , 250 in 1930 and 55 in 1931 , which add up to 389 when the two prototypes are included .
= = Operational use = =
Initial deliveries in 1929 were to units in the Belorussian Military District where they replaced the Grigorovich I @-@ 2 . They equipped the 4th and 7th Squadrons ( Russian : Aviaeskadril 'ya – Air Squadron ) , later the 106th and 107th Fighter Squadrons ( Russian : Istrebitel 'naya aviaeskadril 'ya — Fighter Air Squadrons ) at Smolensk ; the 13th and 5th Squadrons , later the 108th and 7th Fighter Squadrons , at Bryansk , the 9th Squadron , and the 17th and 19th Squadrons , which later became the 116th and 117th Fighter Squadrons . Units based in the Ukraine began to receive theirs the following year . They equipped the 3rd Squadron , later the 109th Fighter Squadron , and the 73rd Air Detachment ( Aviaotryad ) at Kiev and the 91st Squadron , later the 33rd Fighter Squadron , at Bobruisk . Others were delivered to the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Schools of Military Pilots .
By 1 October 1930 252 I @-@ 3s were in service and 282 a year later . 297 were on hand on 1 January 1932 , although it fell to 249 a year later and 239 towards the end of 1933 . It was relegated to secondary roles in 1935 as newer and more powerful Polikarpov fighters entered service . Notably the I @-@ 5 , I @-@ 15 , and the I @-@ 16 .
= = Variants = =
The DI @-@ 2 ( Russian : ДИ @-@ 2 ) was an enlarged two @-@ seat variant . It had an extra frame added to the fuselage , an extended wingspan and an enlarged rudder . Two 7 @.@ 62 mm DA machine guns were mounted on a Scarff ring in the observer 's cockpit . A prototype was completed in early 1929 and made its first flight in May of that year . However the prototype crashed due to stabilizer failure in a dive later in 1929 , killing the pilot .
= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Force
= = Specifications ( I @-@ 3 ) = =
Data from Shavrov , Istoriia konstruktskii samoletov v SSSR do 1938 g .
General characteristics
Crew : One
Length : 8 @.@ 08 m ( 26 ft 6 in )
Wingspan : 11 m ( 36 ft 1 in )
Height : ( )
Wing area : 27 @.@ 85 m ² ( 299 @.@ 8 ft ² )
Airfoil : Clark Y
Empty weight : 1 @,@ 400 kg ( 3 @,@ 086 lb )
Loaded weight : 1 @,@ 846 kg ( 4 @,@ 070 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × BMW VI V12 engine , 545 kW ( 730 hp )
Performance
Maximum speed : 278 km / h ( 150 kn , 173 mph )
Range : 585 km ( 316 nmi , 364 mi )
Service ceiling : 7 @,@ 200 m ( 23 @,@ 620 ft )
Wing loading : 66 kg / m ² ( 14 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 295 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 18 hp / lb )
Time to altitude : 12 @.@ 6 min to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft )
Horizontal turn time : 14 sec
Armament
2 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) PV @-@ 1 machine guns
= Polish cochineal =
Polish cochineal ( Porphyrophora polonica ) , also known as Polish carmine scales , is a scale insect formerly used to produce a crimson dye of the same name , colloquially known as " Saint John 's blood " . The larvae of P. polonica are sessile parasites living on the roots of various herbs — especially those of the perennial knawel — growing on the sandy soils of Central Europe and other parts of Eurasia . Before the development of aniline , alizarin , and other synthetic dyes , the insect was of great economic importance , although its use was in decline after the introduction of Mexican cochineal to Europe in the 16th century .
= = Biology = =
= = = Life cycle = = =
In mid @-@ July , the female Polish cochineal lays approximately 600 @-@ 700 eggs , encased with a white waxy ootheca , in the ground . When the larvae hatch in late August or early September , they do not leave the egg case but remain inside until the end of winter . In late March or early April , the larvae emerge from the ground to feed for a short time on the low @-@ growing leaves of the host plant before returning underground to feed on the plant 's roots . At this point , the larvae undergo ecdysis , shedding their exoskeletons together with their legs and antennae , and they encyst by forming outer protective coatings ( cysts ) within the root tissues .
The cysts are small dark red or violet bubbles clustered on the host plant 's roots . Female cysts are 3 – 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 16 in ) in diameter . Males are half the size of their female counterparts and smaller in number , with only one male per 500 females . The cysts undergo ecdysis a number of times . When the male larva reaches the third @-@ instar developmental stage , it forms a delicate white cocoon and transforms into a pupa in early June . In late June or early July , females , which are neotenous and retain their larval form , re @-@ emerge from the ground and slowly climb to the top of the host plant , where they wait until winged adult males , with characteristic plumes at the end of their abdomens , leave the cocoons and join them a few days later . Male imagines ( adult insects ) do not feed and die shortly after mating , while their female counterparts return underground to lay eggs . After oviposition , the female insects shrink and die .
= = = Host plants and geographic distribution = = =
The Polish cochineal lives on herbaceous plants growing in sandy and arid , infertile soils . Its primary host plant is the perennial knawel ( Scleranthus perennis ) , but it has also been known to feed on plants of 20 other genera , including mouse @-@ ear hawkweed ( Hieracium pilosella ) , bladder campion ( Silene inflata ) , velvet bent ( Agrostis canina ) , Caragana , smooth rupturewort ( Herniaria glabra ) , strawberry ( Fragaria ) , and cinquefoil ( Potentilla ) .
The insect was once commonly found throughout the Palearctic and was recognised across Eurasia , from France and England to China , but it was mainly in Central Europe where it was common enough to make its industrial use economically viable . Excessive economic exploitation as well as the shrinking and degradation of its habitat have made the Polish cochineal a rare species . In 1994 , it was included in the Ukrainian Red Book of endangered species . In Poland , where it was still common in the 1960s , there is insufficient data to determine its conservation status , and no protective measures are in place .
= = History = =
Ancient Slavs developed a method of obtaining red dye from the larvae of the Polish cochineal . Despite the labor @-@ intensive process of harvesting the cochineal and a relatively modest yield , the dye continued to be a highly sought @-@ after commodity and a popular alternative to kermes throughout the Middle Ages until it was superseded by Mexican cochineal in the 16th century .
= = = Dye production = = =
Similar to some other red dyes obtained from scale insects , the red coloring is derived from carminic acid with traces of kermesic acid . The Polish cochineal carminic acid content is approximately 0 @.@ 6 % of the insect 's dried body weight . The insects were harvested shortly before the female larvae reached maturity , i.e. in late June , usually around Saint John the Baptist 's day ( June 24 ) , hence the dye 's folk name , Saint John 's blood . The harvesting process involved uprooting the host plant and picking the female larvae , averaging approximately ten insects from each plant . In Poland , including present @-@ day Ukraine , and elsewhere in Europe , plantations were operated in order to deal with the high toll on the host plants . The larvae were killed with boiling water or vinegar and dried in the sun or in an oven , ground , and dissolved in sourdough or in light rye beer called kvass in order to remove fat . The extract could then be used for dyeing silk , wool , cotton , or linen . The dyeing process requires roughly 3 @-@ 4 oz of dye per pound ( 180 @-@ 250 g per kilogram ) of silk and one pound of dye to color almost 20 pounds ( 50 g per kilogram ) of wool .
= = = Trade = = =
Polish cochineal was widely traded in Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance . In the 15th and 16th centuries , along with grain , timber , and salt , it was one of Poland 's chief exports , mainly to southern Germany and northern Italy as well as to France , England , the Ottoman Empire , and Armenia . In Poland , the cochineal trade was mostly monopolized by Jewish merchants , who bought the dye from peasants in Red Ruthenia and other regions of Poland and Lithuania . The merchants shipped the dye to major Polish cities such as Kraków , Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , and Poznań . From there , the merchandise was exported to wholesalers in Breslau ( Wrocław ) , Nuremberg , Frankfurt , Augsburg , Venice , and other destinations . The Polish cochineal trade was a lucrative business for the intermediaries ; according to Marcin of Urzędów ( 1595 ) , one pound of Polish cochineal cost between four and five Venetian pounds . In terms of quantities , the trade reached its peak in the 1530s . In 1534 , 1963 stones ( about 30 metric tons ) of the dye were sold in Poznań alone .
The advent of cheaper Mexican cochineal led to an abrupt slump in the Polish cochineal trade , and the 1540s saw a steep decline in quantities of the red dye exported from Poland . In 1547 , Polish cochineal disappeared from the Poznań customs registry ; a Volhynian clerk noted in 1566 that the dye no longer paid in Gdańsk . Perennial knawel plantations were replaced with cereal fields or pastures for raising cattle . Polish cochineal , which until then was mostly an export product , continued to be used locally by the peasants who collected it ; it was employed not only for dyeing fabric but also as a vodka colorant , an ingredient in folk medicine , or even for decorative coloring of horses ' tails .
With the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century , vast markets in Russia and Central Asia opened to Polish cochineal , which became an export product again — this time , to the East . In the 19th century , Bukhara , Uzbekistan , became the principal Polish cochineal trading center in Central Asia ; from there the dye was shipped to Kashgar in Xinjiang , and Kabul and Herat in Afghanistan . It is possible that the Polish dye was used to manufacture some of the famous oriental rugs .
= = = Studies = = =
The earliest known scientific study of the Polish cochineal is found in the Herbarz Polski ( Polish Herbal ) by Marcin of Urzędów ( 1595 ) , where it was described as " small red seeds " that grow under plant roots , becoming " ripe " in April and from which a little " bug " emerges in June . The first scientific comments by non @-@ Polish authors were written by Segerius ( 1670 ) and von Bernitz ( 1672 ) . In 1731 , Johann Philipp Breyne , wrote Historia naturalis Cocci Radicum Tinctorii quod polonicum vulgo audit ( translated into English during the same century ) , the first major treatise about the insect , including the results of his research on its physiology and life cycle . In 1934 , Polish biologist Antoni Jakubski wrote Czerwiec polski ( Polish cochineal ) , a monograph taking into account both the insect 's biology and historical role .
= = Linguistics = =
The historical importance of the Polish cochineal is still reflected in most modern Slavic languages where the words for the color red and for the month of June both derive from the Proto @-@ Slavic * čьrvь ( probably pronounced [ t ͡ ʃĭrwĭ ] ) , meaning " a worm " or " larva " . ( See examples in the table below . ) In the Czech language , as well as old Bulgarian , this is true for both June and July , the two months when harvest of the insect 's larvae was possible . In modern Polish , czerwiec is a word for June , as well as for the Polish cochineal ( czerwiec polski ) and its host plant , the perennial knawel ( czerwiec trwały ) .
= Madhouse on Castle Street =
Madhouse on Castle Street is a British television play , broadcast by BBC Television on the evening of 13 January 1963 , as part of the Sunday Night Play strand . It was written by Evan Jones and directed by Philip Saville . The production featured the young American folk music singer Bob Dylan , who soon became a major musical star .
The play was made with electronic video cameras , although recorded onto film rather than tape . The only known copy of the play was junked in 1968 , as was the standard practice of the time , despite the fact that Dylan and lead actor David Warner were by then famous . Although extensive searches have been made by the BBC , only partial audio recordings of four songs sung by Dylan survive .
= = Plot = =
The play is set in an English boarding house . One of the lodgers locks himself in his room , leaving a note stating that he has decided to retire from the world until the world has changed . Other lodgers and his sister try to coax him out and establish what the problem is . The action is punctuated by songs performed by Bob Dylan .
= = Production = =
Madhouse on Castle Street was commissioned as part of the Sunday Night Play strand which had been running on BBC Television since 1960 . The play was written by Evan Jones , who wrote the screenplays for films such as Modesty Blaise and Funeral in Berlin , and directed by Philip Saville . Saville had seen Bob Dylan performing in New York City in 1962 , and in December that year he contracted Dylan to come to London for three weeks to star in Madhouse on Castle Street , in spite of Dylan 's complete lack of acting training or experience . This was the performer 's first trip outside of North America . Dylan was originally supposed to have played the leading role in the play , but during rehearsals it became apparent that he lacked the ability to learn lines – stating that he would rather " express himself in song " – was lax in his time keeping , and would often wander off to smoke cannabis .
Saville was still keen to include Dylan , so – together with Jones – re @-@ structured the play to create two characters out of the original one that Dylan had been hired to perform . Actor David Warner was hired to play the main acting role of Lennie , while Dylan performed songs commenting on the action in the manner of a Greek chorus as the new character Bobby , essentially playing himself . At the conclusion of the play , Dylan performed " Blowin ' in the Wind " , one of the first major public performances of the song . The play was planned to be recorded in one session on 30 December 1962 , but it overran and the Technical Operating Manager told cast and crew to go home , even though they were willing to complete the filming . London was in the grip of a major blizzard and it was not possible to arrange a further session until 4 January 1963 , when the play was completed , and it was transmitted on 13 January 1963 .
= = Cast information = =
David Warner as Lennie
Bob Dylan as Bobby
Maureen Pryor as Mrs Griggs
Ursula Howells as Martha Tompkins
Reg Lye as Walter Tompkins
James Mellor as Bernard
Georgina Ward as Susan Taylor
Ian Dallas as Reverend Spooner
= = Songs = =
" Blowin ' in the Wind " was used in the opening and closing credits , replacing a song written by Evan Jones , " Cut Me Down , My Love " . Dylan also performed " Hang Me , O Hang Me " , " Cuckoo Bird " , and " Ballad of the Gliding Swan " . Philip Saville had heard Dylan singing " Blowin ' in the Wind " to two Spanish au pairs , early one morning whilst the singer was staying in his house . " Hang Me , O Hang Me " and " Cuckoo Bird " were traditional folk songs but Dylan altered the words . Jones provided the original lyrics for " Ballad of the Gliding Swan " which Dylan rewrote in performance .
= = Reception = =
The play was described by The Times as a " strange free @-@ wheeling piece about a man who has said goodbye to the world and simply shut himself up in his room . " The reviewer added " It is a strange unpredictable world Mr. Jones conjures up and Mr. Saville , with the aid of an excellent cast ( Miss Maureen Pryor and Miss Ursula Howells were particularly good ) and some haunting songs by Mr. Bob Dylan , brought it powerfully to life . " The Observer , in 2005 , reports that the play " got stinking reviews " according to folk singer Martin Carthy , adding that the Western Daily Mail reviewer was " baffled " and The Listener had " noted that Dylan had ' sat around playing and singing attractively , if a little incomprehensibly ' " .
= = Junking = =
As was the usual method of BBC television drama production at the time , the play was produced in a multi @-@ camera electronic studio on video cameras , although it was recorded as a 35 mm film telerecording rather than on videotape . This 35mm master was released for junking in 1968 , and no copy of the play is known to exist .
Still photographs and scripts for the production survive , as do some amateur off @-@ air reel @-@ to @-@ reel audio tape recordings of four of Dylan 's songs . In 2005 the BBC launched a search for a video recording of the play , uncovering some audio recordings of the songs , but it seems that a full off @-@ air audio copy does not exist . In April 2007 , BBC Four broadcast a documentary about the making of the play in the Arena strand , featuring interviews with Saville , Jones , Martin Carthy , Peggy Seeger , Dylan collector Ian Woodward , and the first re @-@ broadcast of the songs from the play . In November 2008 , BBC Radio 2 broadcast a documentary , narrated by Bob Harris , about Dylan 's visit to London and the making of the play .
= Masters Tournament =
The Masters Tournament , also known as The Masters or The US Masters , is one of the four major championships in professional golf . The Masters is scheduled for the first full week of April , and it is the first of the majors to be played each year . Unlike the other major championships , the Masters is held each year at the same location , Augusta National Golf Club , a private golf club in the city of Augusta , Georgia , USA . The Masters was started by Clifford Roberts and Bobby Jones . Jones designed Augusta National with course architect Alister MacKenzie . The tournament is an official money event on the PGA Tour , the European Tour , and the Japan Golf Tour . The field of players is smaller than those of the other major championships because it is an invitational event , held by the Augusta National Golf Club .
The tournament has a number of traditions . Since 1949 , a green jacket has been awarded to the champion , who must return it to the clubhouse one year after his victory , although it remains his personal property and is stored with other champions ' jackets in a specially designated cloakroom . In most instances , only a first @-@ time and currently reigning champion may remove his jacket from the club grounds . A golfer who wins the event multiple times uses the same green jacket awarded upon his initial win ( unless he needs to be re @-@ fitted with a new jacket ) . The Champions Dinner , inaugurated by Ben Hogan in 1952 , is held on the Tuesday before each tournament , and is open only to past champions and certain board members of the Augusta National Golf Club . Beginning in 1963 , legendary golfers , usually past champions , have hit an honorary tee shot on the morning of the first round to commence play . These have included Fred McLeod , Jock Hutchinson , Gene Sarazen , Sam Snead , Byron Nelson , Arnold Palmer , Jack Nicklaus , and Gary Player . Since 1960 , a semi @-@ social contest at the par @-@ 3 course has been played on Wednesday , the day before the first round .
Nicklaus has the most Masters wins , with six between 1963 and 1986 . Palmer and Tiger Woods won four each , and five have won three titles at Augusta : Jimmy Demaret , Sam Snead , Gary Player , Nick Faldo , and Phil Mickelson . Gary Player , from South Africa , was the first non @-@ American player to win the tournament , in 1961 ; the second was Seve Ballesteros of Spain , the champion in 1980 and 1983 .
The Augusta National course first opened 83 years ago in 1933 and has been modified many times by different architects . Among the changes : greens have been reshaped and , on occasion , entirely re @-@ designed , bunkers have been added , water hazards have been extended , new tee boxes have been built , hundreds of trees have been planted , and several mounds have been installed .
= = History = =
= = = Augusta National Golf Club = = =
The idea for Augusta National originated with Bobby Jones , who wanted to build a golf course after his retirement from the game . He sought advice from Clifford Roberts , who later became the chairman of the club . They came across a piece of land in Augusta , Georgia , of which Jones said : " Perfect ! And to think this ground has been lying here all these years waiting for someone to come along and lay a golf course upon it . " The land had been an indigo plantation in the early nineteenth century and a plant nursery since 1857 . Jones hired Alister MacKenzie to help design the course , and work began in 1931 . The course formally opened in 1933 , but MacKenzie died before the first Masters Tournament was played .
= = = Early tournament years = = =
The first " Augusta National Invitational " Tournament , as the Masters was originally known , began on March 22 , 1934 , and was won by Horton Smith . The present name was adopted in 1939 . The first tournament was played with current holes 10 through 18 played as the first nine , and 1 through 9 as the second nine then reversed permanently to its present layout for the 1935 tournament .
Initially the Augusta National Invitational field was composed of Bobby Jones ' close associates . Jones had petitioned the USGA to hold the U.S. Open at Augusta but the USGA denied the petition , noting that the hot Georgia summers would create difficult playing conditions .
Gene Sarazen hit the " shot heard ' round the world " in 1935 , holing a shot from the fairway on the par 5 15th for a double eagle ( albatross ) . This tied Sarazen with Craig Wood , and in the ensuing 36 @-@ hole playoff Sarazen was the victor by five strokes . The tournament was not played from 1943 to 1945 , due to World War II . To assist the war effort , cattle and turkeys were raised on the Augusta National grounds .
= = = 1960s – 1970s = = =
The Big Three of Arnold Palmer , Gary Player , and Jack Nicklaus dominated the Masters from 1960 through 1978 , winning the event 11 times among them during that span . After winning by one stroke in 1958 , Palmer won by one stroke again in 1960 in memorable circumstances . Trailing Ken Venturi by one shot in the 1960 event , Palmer made birdies on the last two holes to prevail . Palmer would go on to win another two Masters in 1962 and 1964 .
Jack Nicklaus emerged in the early 1960s , and served as a rival to the popular Palmer . Nicklaus won his first green jacket in 1963 , defeating Tony Lema by one stroke . Two years later , he shot a then @-@ course record of 271 ( 17 under par ) for his second Masters win , leading Bobby Jones to say that Nicklaus played " a game with which I am not familiar . " The next year , Nicklaus won his third green jacket in a grueling 18 @-@ hole playoff against Tommy Jacobs and Gay Brewer . This made Nicklaus the first player to win consecutive Masters . He won again in 1972 by three strokes . In 1975 , Nicklaus won by one stroke in a close contest with Tom Weiskopf and Johnny Miller in one of the most exciting Masters to date .
Gary Player became the first non @-@ American to win the Masters in 1961 , beating Palmer , the defending champion . In 1974 , he won again by two strokes . After not winning a tournament on the U.S. PGA tour for nearly four years , and at the age of 42 , Player won his third and final Masters in 1978 by one stroke over three players . Player currently shares ( with Fred Couples ) the record of making 23 consecutive cuts , and has played in a record 52 Masters .
A controversial ending to the Masters occurred in 1968 . Roberto De Vicenzo signed a scorecard ( scored by playing partner Tommy Aaron ) which incorrectly showed him as making a par 4 instead of a birdie 3 on the 17th hole of the final round . By the rules of golf , if a player signs a scorecard ( thereby attesting to its veracity ) that records a score on a hole higher than what he actually made on the hole , the player receives the higher score for that hole . This extra stroke cost De Vicenzo a chance to be in an 18 @-@ hole Monday playoff with Bob Goalby , who won the green jacket . De Vicenzo 's mistake led to the famous quote , " What a stupid I am . "
In 1975 , Lee Elder became the first African American to play in the Masters , doing so 15 years before Augusta National admitted its first black member , Ron Townsend , as a result of the Shoal Creek Controversy .
= = = 1980s – 2000s = = =
Non @-@ Americans collected 11 victories in 20 years in the 1980s and 1990s , by far the strongest run they have had in any of the three majors played in the United States since the early days of the U.S. Open . The first European to win the Masters was Seve Ballesteros in 1980 . Nicklaus became the oldest player to win the Masters in 1986 when he won for the sixth time at age 46 .
During this period , no golfer suffered from the pressure of competing at Augusta more than Greg Norman . In 1987 , Norman lost a sudden @-@ death playoff to Larry Mize when Mize holed out a remarkable 45 @-@ yard pitch shot to birdie the second playoff hole and win the Masters . In 1996 , Norman tied the course record with an opening round 63 , and had a six @-@
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just to boost his career . Dr. Halford Fairchild stated Jackson and other African American celebrities would try " to look more like white people in order to get in films and on television " .
New York plastic surgeon Dr. Pamela Lipkin , who has never treated Jackson or reviewed his medical records , said , " when you look at the other features , the skin bleaching sort of goes along with what I think was his quest for beauty , so I have to wonder what came first ? Vitiligo or lighter skin ? " Noting that Jackson had even skin tone when he was younger , Lipkin 's interpretation was that " probably he 's trying to look Caucasian : His skin is whiter . His nose is getting thinner every six months . His lips are getting thinner . His eyebrows are getting higher . His eyes are getting wider every time . His cheekbones are getting bigger . "
However , in 1993 , Jackson told Oprah Winfrey " there , as I know of , there is no such thing as skin bleaching . I 've never seen it , I don 't know what it is . " It was in this interview that Jackson stated he had a skin disorder ( vitiligo ) and also stated that the disorder was hereditary , rather than something he caused , though he also said he used make @-@ up to even out the uneven skin tone . " It is something I cannot help , " explained Jackson . " When people make up stories that I don 't want to be who I am , it hurts me . It 's a problem for me . I can 't control it . But what about all the millions of people who sit in the sun to become darker , to become other than what they are . Nobody says nothing about that . " Winfrey 's interview of Jackson was watched by 62 million Americans . It also started a public discourse on the topic of vitiligo , a relatively unknown condition before then .
Jackson had publicly stated that he was proud to be black . He also wrote a letter to photographer William Pecchi Jr. in 1988 which reads : " Maybe I look at the world through rose colored glasses but I love people all over the world . That is why stories of racism really disturb me . [ … ] Because in truth I believe ALL men are created equal , I was taught that and will always believe it . I just can ’ t conceive of how a person could hate another because of skin color . I love every race on the planet earth . Prejudice is the child of ignorance . Naked we come into the world and naked we shall go out . And a very good thing too , for it reminds me that I am naked under my shirt , whatever its color . "
Taraborrelli stated that Jackson was diagnosed with lupus , that the vitiligo partially lightened his skin , and the lupus was in remission , and both illnesses made him sensitive to sunlight , which could have caused his lupus condition to recur . Jackson 's autopsy did not confirm or refute the claim that he had lupus , but it confirmed that he had vitiligo . His skin was found to have a reduced ( though not absent ) melanocytes , the cells active in skin pigmentation .
To treat these conditions , Jackson used Solaquin , Tretinoin , and Benoquin . On June 29 , 2009 , multiple tubes of Benoquin and hydroquinone were found in Jackson 's home . Both creams are commonly used to treat vitiligo ; Dr. David Sawcer said some patients with vitiligo get to the point where it makes more sense to remove the brown bits because so much of the skin is pale . On the other hand , getting depigmented skin to darken is extremely difficult . Depigmentation causes a permanent and extreme sensitivity to the sun . Vitiligo patients are at risk to contract melanoma . An annual cancer check @-@ up is recommended . Jackson also had hydroxychloroquine injected directly into his scalp regularly . Another common way of treating vitiligo is using makeup to camouflage depigmented skin . The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin tone , and with the application of pancake makeup to even out his skin tone , he could appear very pale . For example , Stevie Nicks recalled , in a Rolling Stone interview : " I remember before [ we performed at Bill Clinton 's 1993 inauguration ] , Michael sent somebody to find out if I had any foundation make @-@ up he could borrow . I was using some light Chanel foundation at that time , and Michael sent back a note to say , thanks , but the foundation wasn 't quite light enough for him . " Jackson also covered his skin disorder with clothing wearing long sleeves and long pants . In the music video for " Remember the Time " , all dancers and actors except for Jackson are lightly dressed following the example set by ancient Egyptians . Jackson usually didn 't wear patterned clothing in order to avoid attention to the disorder .
Vitiligo occurs in three different patterns . Segmental depigmentation means only one side of the body is affected , generalized depigmentation means many parts of the body are affected . Jackson 's autopsy report states a " focal depigmentation of the skin " ( i.e. , the depigmentation occurs on one or a few areas of the body ) . In Jackson 's case , there were 5 affected areas .
In 1996 , during the Australian leg of the HIStory World Tour , Jackson married his dermatologist 's nurse , Debbie Rowe . The pair first met in the mid @-@ 1980s , when Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo . She spent many years treating his illness as well as providing emotional support , and they built a strong friendship before their marriage . The couple divorced in 1999 and remained friends thereafter .
= = Cosmetic procedures and diet = =
Over time , Jackson 's facial structure changed as well . Surgeons speculated he also had a rhinoplasty , a forehead lift , cheekbone surgery , altered his lips , and had a cleft put in his chin . Those close to the singer estimated that , by 1990 , he had undergone around ten procedures . According to biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , Jackson had his first rhinoplasty after breaking his nose during a complex dance routine in 1979 . However , the surgery was not a complete success , and he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career . He was referred to Steven Hoefflin , who performed his second rhinoplasty in 1981 . Katherine Jackson , though , has said in a recent interview that Michael intentionally got his first nosejob from Steven Hoefflin . Taraborrelli stated Jackson had a third rhinoplasty three years later and a fourth in 1986 . Jackson wrote in his 1988 autobiography Moonwalk that , in addition to the two rhinoplasties , he also had a dimple created in his chin . From 1986 onward he was a regular client of Arnold Klein , a dermatologist who specializes in dermal filler injection , a non @-@ surgical cosmetic procedure .
In his book , Jackson attributed the changes in the structure of his face to puberty , a strict vegetarian diet , weight loss , a change in hair style and stage lighting . Jackson denied allegations that he had altered his eyes . By 1990 , the full extent of Jackson 's surgery was widely debated ; those close to him estimated he had undergone ten operations on his face up to this point . In June 1992 , the Daily Mirror ran a full front @-@ page picture , allegedly of Jackson 's face , which they described as " hideously disfigured " by plastic surgery . Jackson sued the tabloid , and , in 1998 , they agreed to an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement with Jackson . At the High Court , the paper 's former editor acknowledged that after meeting Jackson in person , he believed that Jackson was neither hideously disfigured nor scarred at all . A Daily Mirror solicitor maintained that the publication did not tamper with the picture .
Media reports stated that Jackson 's autopsy reported one scar beside each of his nostrils , one scar behind each of his ears , and two scars on his neck , " probably " from cosmetic surgery , plus cosmetic tattoos on his eyebrows , around his eyes and lips , and on his scalp ( at his receding hairline ) .
In the unedited version of the documentary Living With Michael Jackson , which was shown in court in 2005 , Jackson said he had two procedures on his nose so that he could breathe better . When he was asked about his cheeks , Jackson answered : " These cheekbones ? No . My father has the same thing . We have Indian blood . "
= = Health concerns = =
Over the years , Jackson had various medical problems that were covered by the media . In early 1984 , Jackson was treated for scalp burns ; his hair had caught fire during a shooting for a commercial . In June 1990 , Jackson was admitted to a Santa Monica hospital with chest pains . According to Dr. Mark Zatzkis " laboratory and X @-@ ray tests of Jackson 's heart and lungs revealed no abnormalities " ; the pains " were caused by bruised ribs suffered during a vigorous dance practice " .
Various concerts were cancelled owing to illness and a remaining tour was called off due to addiction . On March 12 , 1988 , Jackson cancelled a show in St. Louis which was rescheduled for March 14 ; on March 13 , Jackson performed in St. Louis although he was fighting a cold . The cold progressed to laryngitis ; the show on March 14 , was also cancelled . Three shows in Tacoma , scheduled from October 31 to November 2 , 1988 , had to be cancelled on his physicians ' advice because Jackson had the flu . Two shows in Los Angeles were cancelled due to swollen vocal cords ; three shows in Los Angeles scheduled for November 20 , 21 and 22 were also cancelled ; these five concerts were rescheduled for January 1989 .
In August 1992 , a concert in London , England had to be postponed due to a viral infection . Four days later , Jackson performed in Cardiff , Wales . In September 1992 , a concert in Gelsenkirchen , Germany was cancelled because Jackson was taken ill with the flu . In Lausanne , Switzerland , an ambulance took Jackson back to his hotel after the show held on September 8 ; another show in Basel , Switzerland , scheduled for September 11 , was also cancelled . In October 1992 , two concerts in Turkey , Istanbul and Izmir , and another one in Athens , Greece had to be cancelled due to loss of voice caused by a cold . His private doctor attended to Jackson in Istanbul . According to organisers Jackson 's " vocal cords were irritated " . These concerts were supposed to be the last three shows of the tour 's European leg . Jackson was seen by a throat specialist in London , and was advised to seek further treatment in Los Angeles .
In August 1993 , two shows of Jackson 's Dangerous Tour in Thailand had to be cancelled due to dehydration . On August 27 , 1993 , Jackson " returned to the concert stage " . On August 30 , 1993 , a show in Singapore had to be cancelled due to nausea and a severe headache . In the opinion of his physician , Dr. David Forecast , Jackson " was in no condition to perform " . A neurology specialist attended to Jackson . The specialist confirmed Forecast 's diagnosis of " late @-@ onset migraine " , and medication was prescribed for Jackson who also underwent tests in a hospital in Singapore . The show was held two days later . Jackson consumed a lot of water , a step which prevents both dehydration and voice problems .
The first concert in Santiago de Chile , scheduled for October 21 , 1993 , was cancelled due to lumbar problems ; two days later , Jackson performed at Estadio Nacional . Another concert in Lima , Peru , scheduled for October 26 , 1993 , was cancelled due to a torn muscle suffered during a show in Brazil . Several concerts in Mexico City were cancelled due to tooth problems . Two abscessed molars were pulled . However , there were five shows in Mexico City . The last concert of the Dangerous Tour was held in Mexico City , on November 11 , 1993 .
In November 1993 , Jackson announced the cancellation of the remaining Dangerous Tour due to an addiction to painkillers which had been prescribed after a recent constructive scalp surgery .
It was also reported , Jackson cancelled shows in Russia and Israel . However , these two concerts did take place . The rescheduling of the concert in Israel was not due to health problems .
According to Dr. Neil Ratner , Jackson suffered a back injury in July 1997 ; one of the stages collapsed during a concert in Munich , Germany . However , the History Tour continued ; there was only one concert cancelled after the fatal accident of Princess Diana about two months later . In fact , such an incident happened during a charity concert in Munich , in 1999 . Jackson was later taken to a hospital . Jackson 's promoter Marcel Avram said he [ Jackson ] received abrasions and bruises . Jackson left the hospital the next morning .
On February 15 , 2005 , Jackson was admitted to the Marian Medical Center in Santa Maria with " flu @-@ like symptoms . " According to Dr. Chuck Merrill , Jackson was in stable condition and would recover within a few days . Jackson left the hospital on February 16 , 2005 ; Dr. Todd Bailey said Jackson " continued to need care for some persistent viral symptoms , but otherwise he was in good spirits . " One week later , the jury selection for the child molestation trial resumed , in Jackson 's presence .
On March 10 , 2005 , Jackson appeared late in court after having received treatment in a hospital due to a back problem . During the trial , Jackson occasionally needed help to get to his seat . On June 5 , 2005 , Jackson was taken to the emergency room at the Santa Ynez Valley Cottage Hospital to seek treatment of a back pain . Jackson 's spokeswoman , Raymone Bain , said " stress contributed to the back problem " . During the trial Jackson had been briefly in hospital several times .
Dr. Christopher Rogers testified in the trial against Dr. Conrad Murray that , in his opinion , Jackson " was healthier than the average person of his age . " Rogers said the arteries around Jackson 's heart were free of fat and cholesterol , which is unusual for a 50 @-@ year @-@ old individual .
= = = Childhood and mental health = = =
Another publicly discussed aspect of Jackson 's private life is his childhood particularly his relationship with his father . Jackson and some of his siblings stated that they were physically and mentally abused by their father Joseph from a young age , through incessant rehearsals , whippings and the use of derogatory names such as " big nose " for Michael ; this abuse had affected Michael throughout his life . In one altercation — later recalled by Marlon Jackson , Joseph held Michael upside down by one leg and " pummeled him over and over again with his hand , hitting him on his back and buttocks " . Joseph would often trip the boys or push them into walls .
One night while Jackson was asleep , Joseph climbed into his room through the bedroom window . Wearing a fright mask , he entered the room screaming and shouting . Joseph said he wanted to teach his children not to leave the window open when they went to sleep . For a number of years afterward , Jackson suffered nightmares about being kidnapped from his bedroom . By the early 1980s , he was deeply unhappy ; Jackson explained , " Even at home , I 'm lonely . I sit in my room sometimes and cry . It 's so hard to make friends ... I sometimes walk around the neighborhood at night , just hoping to find someone to talk to . But I just end up coming home . "
Although it had been reported for a number of years that Jackson had an abusive childhood , he first spoke openly about it in his 1993 interview with Oprah Winfrey . He grimaced when speaking of the childhood abuse at the hands of his father ; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years , acknowledging that he often cried from loneliness . In the same interview , speaking of his father , Jackson said , " There were times when he 'd come to see me , I 'd get sick ... I 'd start to regurgitate . I 'm sorry ... Please don 't be mad at me ... But I do love him . " In Jackson 's other high profile interview Living with Michael Jackson ( 2003 ) , he covered his face with his hand and began crying when talking about his childhood abuse .
Jackson recalled that Joseph sat in a chair as the group rehearsed , saying , " He had this belt in his hand . If you didn 't do it the right way , he would tear you up , really get you . It was bad . Real bad . " Both of Jackson 's parents have rejected the longstanding allegations of child abuse by saying that spankings were common when disciplining children back then . The child abuse allegations polarized some of the siblings , with some of them rejecting the claims .
In 2003 , Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse and was acquitted two years later . During the investigation , Jackson 's profile was examined by Stan Katz , a mental health professional , who spent several hours with the accuser as well . According to J. Randy Taraborrelli , the assessment made by Katz was that Jackson had become a regressed ten @-@ year @-@ old . Some medical professionals have publicly stated their belief that Jackson also had body dysmorphic disorder , a psychological condition whereby the sufferer has no concept of how his or her physical appearance is perceived by others .
= = = Weight and drug addiction = = =
The changes to his face were , in part , due to periods of significant weight loss . Jackson became slimmer in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for " a dancer 's body " . By 1984 , Jackson had lost 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) , bringing his weight to 105 pounds ( 48 kg ) on a 6.1ft ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) frame , the slimmest he had ever been as an adult . Witnesses reported that Jackson was often dizzy and speculated that he was suffering from anorexia nervosa . Following accusations of child molestation in 1993 , Jackson stopped eating , losing even more weight .
In late 1995 , Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance ( which was subsequently cancelled ) ; a non @-@ related writer claims that the incident was caused by a stress @-@ related panic attack , while medics cited irregular beats , gastro @-@ intestinal inflammation , dehydration , and kidney and liver irregularities . In none of these hospitalizations , including this one , did medics find drugs in Jackson 's system . The BBC reported that during his 2005 trial , the singer again suffered from stress @-@ related illnesses and severe weight loss .
A biographer states that in 1993 , the entertainer admitted taking Valium , Xanax and Ativan to deal with the stress of the child sexual abuse allegations made against him , while Jackson himself does not mention sedatives , he stated that painkillers actually were prescribed to soothe excruciating pain that he was suffering after recent reconstructive surgery on his scalp resulting from his accident in 1984 . A few months after the allegations became news , Jackson had lost approximately 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) in weight and had stopped eating . In a court deposition unrelated to alleged child abuse , Jackson was visibly drowsy , lacked concentration and repeatedly slurred while speaking . He could not remember the dates of his prior album releases or names of people he had worked with . It took him several minutes to name some of his recent albums .
Jackson also stated during the 1993 interview that he first began taking painkiller medications regularly in 1984 . In January 24 of that year , Jackson was filming a Pepsi commercial when his hair caught on fire from faulty pyrotechnics on stage that were intended to be part of one of many being filmed . He sustained second @-@ degree burns to his scalp and never fully recovered from the injury or from the lingering pain . He reportedly began taking the painkillers after refusing at first in order to deal with the intense pain .
On November 9 , and November 10 , 1993 , Jackson was questioned about a copyright matter . According to the sworn declaration from the plaintiffs ' lawyer , he had been told that Jackson " was taking painkillers because of recent oral surgery . "
In November 1993 , Jackson announced that he was addicted to painkillers ; he said he had recently undergone a scalp surgery , and the painkillers had been prescribed . Jackson said due to the pressure caused by the child molestation allegations , and the energy he needed for the Dangerous Tour he was " physically and emotionally exhausted " . He said he had " become increasingly more dependent on painkillers " , and would seek treatment . His lawyers said , Jackson would be treated for addiction overseas for one and a half months to two months . In December 1993 , Jackson returned to the United States .
Jackson 's health had deteriorated to the extent that he cancelled the remainder of his tour and flew with friends Elizabeth Taylor and her husband to London . When the singer arrived at the airport , he had to be held up by his two friends ; he was then rushed to the home of Elton John 's manager and then to a clinic . He was searched for drugs on entry ; vials of medicine were found in a suitcase . He took over the fourth floor of the hospital and was put on Valium IV to wean him from painkillers . The singer 's spokesperson then told reporters that Jackson was " barely able to function adequately on an intellectual level " . While in the clinic , Jackson took part in group and one @-@ on @-@ one therapy sessions . According to Taraborrelli , in January 2004 , as his trial approached , Jackson became dependent on morphine and Demerol and was being treated for this dependency by herbalist Alfredo Bowman in Colorado .
In an interview with Aphrodite Jones , Patrick Treacy , a cosmetic surgeon who treated Jackson between July 2006 and early 2007 , as well as shortly before his death , stated that he would have known if Jackson would have been also treated by another physician and that he never saw any drugs in the house . He also said that Jackson did not have insomnia and never asked him for narcotics . Treacy stated Jackson was in good physical health ; he said Jackson always insisted on the presence of an anesthetist when Propofol was administered .
Jackson was 5 ft . 9in and weighed 136 lbs , which would be within a normal weight range , although he was thin , Dr. Rogers testified in court . According to his costumer Michael Bush , Jackson lost so much weight during a concert due to loss of water that the costumes Jackson wore at the end of the show had to be smaller than those he wore at the beginning of the show ; usually , he was a 28 @-@ inch waist . According to Dr. Nader Kamangar , a sleeping expert at UCLA drugs such as Demerol can cause insomnia . In the case of Jackson , insomnia could have been caused by " anxiety for performing " as well .
Following Jackson 's death , a police warrant issued against his attending physician , Conrad Murray , stated that Jackson 's many doctors had used nineteen distinct aliases , such as " Omar Arnold , " " Josephine Baker , " " Fernand Diaz , " " Paul Farance , " " Peter Madonie , " " Faheem Muhammad , " " Roselyn Muhammad , " " Blanca Nicholas , " " Jimmy Nicholas , " " Bryan Singleton , " " Frank Tyson , " and " Rob Kaufman " while prescribing medications for Jackson . He also took prescriptions as " Prince , " " Michael Amir , " and " Kai Chase , " the names of one of his sons , his spokesperson , and his former personal chef , respectively . Police found a CD mentioning the " Omar Arnold " alias when they raided the Las Vegas , Nevada home and office of Conrad Murray , Jackson 's personal physician . Use of pseudonyms by celebrities ' doctors is common practice for maintaining the confidentiality of patients ' medical history , and does not necessarily indicate addiction .
= = Death = =
Following Jackson 's death , reports of his use of pethidine ( Demerol ) surfaced . Cherilyn Lee , a nurse who provided nutritional counseling to Jackson , said that on April 12 , 2009 he asked her for unspecified " products for sleep . " On April 19 , 2009 he told her the only medicine that would help was propofol . Lee refused , telling him , " Michael , the only problem with you taking this medication ... is you 're going to take it and you 're not going to wake up . " Jackson dismissed the warning , telling her he had been given the drug before , by IV injection , and that his doctor told him it was safe . He did not name the doctor . An overdose of propofol can cause the patient to stop breathing , leading to a shortage of oxygen and a buildup of carbon dioxide in the body which can lead to arrhythmias and cardiac arrest . It was the last time they met .
Due to an enquiry about a cancellation insurance for the upcoming tour , insurance carriers demanded a medical exam by a doctor they trusted . In February 2009 , Jackson had an examination performed by Dr. David Slavit of New York . Later , the broker told an AEG senior vice president Jackson had only slight hay fever and had passed the exam " with flying colors " . A second medical exam was supposed to take place on July 6 , 2009 .
According to Lee , she received a frantic call on June 21 , 2009 from an aide on Jackson 's staff . The aide reported that Jackson was feeling ill . Lee reported overhearing Jackson complain that one side of his body was hot , the other side cold . She believed that somebody had given him something that affected his central nervous system . She advised the aide to take him to the hospital .
After his death , the autopsy report revealed that Jackson had a strong heart and was a " fairly healthy " 50 @-@ year @-@ old . According to BBC , his weight was in the acceptable range for a man of his height , but he had punctured arms , and suffered from lung damage and some arthritis . The document shows that Jackson 's most serious health problem was his chronically inflamed lungs , but this was not serious enough to be a contributing factor to his death . The post mortem did not uncover any physical problems that may have limited Jackson 's ability to perform . " His overall health was fine , " said Dr Zeev Kain of the University of California , who reviewed the report for AP but was not involved in the post @-@ mortem examination , " The results are in normal limits . " The autopsy also revealed that he was partially bald , and that his lips , eyebrows and scalp were tattooed .
In 2011 Dr. Rogers said in his testimony : " The theory that seems less reasonable to me is that Mr. Jackson woke up , and although he was under the influence of sedative medications , managed to give himself another dose . " Toxicologist Dan Anderson testified that Demerol was not detected in Jackson 's system .
= If We Are the Body =
" If We Are the Body " is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman , it was released as the lead single from the band 's 2003 self @-@ titled debut album through Beach Street Records on July 26 , 2003 . The song , originally written by Hall as a " teaching tool " for his youth group , is a CCM and acoustic rock song . It incorporates the violin , mandolin , and accordion in its arrangement and questions why the Christian church does not minister impartially .
" If We Are the Body " received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its lyrics and arrangement , and it was nominated for the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards . The song spent three weeks at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and Christian CHR charts and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Background and recording = =
According to lead singer Mark Hall , " If We Are the Body " was originally written for use as a " teaching tool " in his youth group . Hall , a youth pastor , said that " [ the youth group had ] forgotten what the body of Christ looked like " and commented that " The world is well aware of what the church is against , but they aren ’ t always aware of what it ’ s for . Everybody in the body of Christ is given gifts to minister with ; and when Christians aren ’ t using these gifts , the body suffers " . Hall 's inspiration for writing the song came from the second chapter of the book of James , where the writer " admonishes " readers to " steer clear of giving preferential treatment to any one particular group over another , such as favoring the rich over the poor " .
" If We Are the Body " was produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman . It was recorded at Glow In The Dark Studio in Decatur , Georgia and Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee . The song was engineered by Matt Goldman and Sam Hewitt .
= = Composition = =
" If We Are the Body " is a song with a length of three minutes and 58 seconds . It is set in common time in the key of F ♯ minor and has a tempo of 126 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B1 to the high note of A2 . A CCM song , it has an acoustic rock sound and incorporates the violin , mandolin , and accordion in its arrangement . Featuring " energetic instrumental spurts and tight melodies " , the song " admonishes the church for giving preferential treatment to any one particular group over another " and questions why the church does not minister impartially . The song 's chorus , which references the Christian concept of the body of Christ , asks " If we are the body , why aren 't his arms reaching ? / Why aren 't his hands healing ? / Why aren 't his words teaching ? / And if we are the body ? / Why aren 't his feet going ? / Why is his love not showing them there is a way ? " " If We Are the Body " challenges the church to welcome outsiders and to " get more visibly involved in changing this world " .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
" If We Are the Body " received positive reviews from music critics . Kim Jones of About.com noted it as a " highlight " from Casting Crowns . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine said that the song " commands attention " of lead singer Mark Hall . Belinda S. Ayers of Christian Broadcasting Network described it as " powerful " and " catchy " . Steve Best of Cross Rhythms felt it was an example of Casting Crowns being " more ... than rock bluster " . Russ Breimeier of The Fish felt " If We Are the Body " evokes " Michael Card and Keith Green " in its lyrical message . At the 35th GMA Dove Awards , " If We Are the Body " was nominated for the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year .
= = Chart performance = =
" If We Are the Body " was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on July 26 , 2003 as the lead single from Casting Crowns ' eponymous debut album . It debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of August 23 , 2003 and dropped off the chart the following week . The song re @-@ entered at number 37 for the chart week of September 6 , 2003 , In its seventh chart week , " If We Are the Body " advanced to number 24 and in its 10th chart week , it advanced to number seven . In its twelfth chart week , " If We Are the Body " reached its peak position of number three on the Hot Christian Songs chart . It also peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and spent three weeks atop both the Radio & Records Christian AC and Christian CHR charts .
= = Live performances = =
Casting Crowns has performed " If We Are the Body " live in concert . At a concert on April 1 , 2005 at Giant Center in Hershey , Pennsylvania , the band opened up their set list with the song . At a concert on November 12 , 2005 at the Stabler Arena in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , they performed it as the third song on their set list . They performed the song at a concert held on March 22 , 2008 at Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena in Jacksonville , Florida . Casting Crowns performed " If We Are the Body " as the second song on their set list at their February 4 , 2010 concert at Sprint Center in Kansas City , Missouri . The band performed it at their February 16 , 2012 concert at Van Andel Arena in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release and radio history = =
= ATL ( film ) =
ATL is a 2006 American drama film , and the feature film directorial debut of music video director Chris Robinson . The screenplay was written by Tina Gordon Chism from an original story by Antwone Fisher , and is loosely based on the experiences of the film 's producers Dallas Austin and Tionne " T @-@ Boz " Watkins ( of the R & B group TLC ) growing up in Atlanta , Georgia ( ATL ) . The film is a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale concerning Rashad , played by Atlanta native and hip hop artist T.I. in his film debut , and his friends in their final year in high school and on the verge of adulthood . The film also stars Antwan Andre Patton , aka Big Boi of the hip hop group OutKast , Evan Ross , Jackie Long , Lauren London , and Mykelti Williamson .
ATL was the first feature film for its director and the majority of its cast . Filmed in Atlanta , Georgia in summer 2005 , many celebrities from the city make cameo appearances , including Jazze Pha , Killer Mike , and Monica . ATL received generally favorable reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Rashad ( T.I. ) is a teen living in Atlanta , Georgia with his Uncle , George ( Mykelti Williamson ) and his little brother Ant ( Evan Ross ) . He and his brother were raised by their uncle George since their parents died in a car accident , and they work with him as part of his custodial company . When not working or finishing his last year of high school , Rashad spends most of his time with his friends Brooklyn ( Albert Daniels ) , Teddy ( Jason Weaver ) , and Esquire ( Jackie Long ) . Rashad is a talented artist but does not see much of a future in that field as he has become accustomed to working the family business . Esquire , Rashad 's best friend , goes to a prep school on the opposite side of town from where they live , and is trying to attend an Ivy League college after senior year . However , he finds out that he will need a letter of recommendation from someone of high stature to better his chances of acceptance at the school he wants to attend .
Rashad and his friends are also a skate crew , known as " The Ones " , on Sunday nights at Cascade , a skating rink where local teens hang out . While there , Rashad catches the eye of New @-@ New ( Lauren London ) , a round @-@ the @-@ way girl with a mysterious background , since he only sees her around when she is hanging out with her friends Veda ( Khadijah Haqq ) and Star ( Malika Haqq ) . The two become attracted to one another and they later kiss when he gives her a ride home in his Chevrolet El Camino . However , in contrast , Esquire instantly develops a disliking for Rashad 's new love interest , considering her bad company . Meanwhile , no longer under Rashad 's watchful eyes , Ant becomes involved with a drug dealer named Marcus ( Patton ) and begins to sell for him . He also starts dating a girl named Tondie ( April Clark ) , who takes a liking to him only after he began to make money through drug dealing .
At work one day , Esquire meets John Garnett ( Keith David ) , a millionaire who heads a successful business venture called the United Express . The two quickly become friends , with Garnett 's admiration for Esquire 's ambition and Esquire 's respect for Garnett 's success driving the relationship . Esquire sees an opportunity to obtain the letter of recommendation that would bring about his acceptance to his primary college choice . When Esquire goes to Garnett 's house to pick up the letter , he meets his daughter Erin , who , to his surprise , turns out to be New @-@ New , whose real name is Erin . Erin says that she will reveal where Esquire is really from ( something he lied to her father about ) if he tells Rashad about her .
Things soon begin to fall apart for Rashad ; Ant is arrested for selling weed , and later Rashad finds out the truth about Erin . He no longer speaks to his friends , realizing that Esquire knew about Erin the whole time . Esquire , feeling guilty about the way he obtained the letter , decides to return it to Garnett , and reveals the truth about himself and his background . He , Brooklyn , and Teddy attempt to make peace with Rashad and ask him to attend Skate Wars , Cascade 's annual skate competition , with them ; Rashad , however , refuses their offer . Just as he decides that he will go , after being persuaded by his uncle , he finds out that Marcus is looking for Ant on the streets , searching for cash that Ant owes to him . Rashad tracks the two down and throws the money that Ant owes Marcus in his face . Marcus then holds Rashad at gunpoint and makes a rude comment . Rashad knocks the gun off of Marcus 's hand , it goes off , and they fight briefly until Rashad gets up to leave . Rashad tells Ant to get into the car while Marcus grabs his gun and ends up shooting Ant ( later revealed ) in the chest . At the hospital , Rashad and Ant are able to reconnect ; likewise , Erin , Esquire , and Rashad make peace , as the scene ends with the poem " Love 's Deceit " by rapper Big Rube playing .
In the film 's final scene , Teddy opens his own business concerning the production of gold teeth , Brooklyn finds a job at a Krystal restaurant , while Esquire receives a mysterious letter of recommendation ( presumably from Garnett ) and is able to attend his college . The twins Veda and Star remain in the old neighborhood and hang out at Cascade on Sundays , while Erin goes to Spelman College , the school she wanted to attend . Uncle George starts attending church more often and finds a good woman to date . Ant changes direction , discarding the notion of drug dealing , finds a new girlfriend and begins to focus on his studies in school . Rashad , lastly , becomes a comic artist for the Sunday edition of the Atlanta Evening Standard , the city 's newspaper . The film ends with Rashad leaving his skates in Cascades , and the building 's lights go off .
= = Cast = =
T.I. as Rashad , the narrator of the story . Chris Robinson had directed Harris ' first music video four years prior to the creation of ATL , and was very impressed by his charisma and presence . " But on this film he came to the table , worked so hard and never tried to be T.I. — he became Rashad . " On being a part of the film 's production , Harris said he felt " it was the most honest representation of my culture and my city ever to be put on screen and the largest production to be ever filmed in Atlanta , so I [ feel ] somewhat obligated . "
Evan Ross as Ant , Rashad 's younger brother . ATL marks Ross ' film debut , which he says actually made his first foray easier , since it was also co @-@ star T.I. ' s debut . " It ’ s his first movie too , and that has been good because we ’ ve been able to find ways of doing it together that has made it a lot easier for each of us . "
Lauren London as New New / Erin Garnett , Rashad 's love interest and John Garnett 's daughter . The character of New @-@ New was loosely based on R & B group TLC 's " T @-@ Boz as a kid , " said London . " I talked to her about my character ... she explained to me how it was when she was young — the attitude and the flavor . And it ’ s funny , a lot of people say that I act like she used to act at the skating rink . ” Director Robinson was impressed by London and " everything from her look , to the fact that she 's new . And there 's just so much truth in her , and she doesn 't know how to lie yet as an actress . It was perfect . "
Jackie Long as Benjamin " Esquire " Gordon , a close friend of Rashad 's . The character of Esquire was inspired by a friend of producer Austin 's , who worked at a country club but would tell his friends he worked at a hot dog joint . " And you ’ d think his family had money , but he lived in the projects . " Long auditioned a year prior to shooting the film at the director 's home in California . " And he was a long shot but he came in and he became that character , " said Robinson .
Albert Daniels as Brooklyn , a New York transplant and one of Rashad 's closest friends . Robinson had known Daniels since he was a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old production assistant on his music video shoots in New York . " He was an annoying little kid who got fired every time he was a P.A. because he was so inquisitive . But every time they fired him I 'd bring him back because I felt like he always had something . " Eight years later , Robinson ran into Daniels at a poetry reading in New York City , and told him to audition for the film . Daniels didn 't have any money to get to Atlanta where he had to audition , so he hustled money doing poetry in subways , and bought a bus ticket to get there .
Jason Weaver as Teddy , a close friend of Rashad 's . Weaver impressed producer Austin in his previous film Drumline enough to get a role in ATL . The director felt that Weaver , the veteran of the young cast , and his experience would be helpful to the other cast members .
Antwan " Big Boi " Patton as Marcus , the drug dealer Ant begins to work for . He serves as the antagonist of the film , as he plans to lure Ant from Rashad for his own profit . The film also marked Big Boi 's film debut . As said by director Robinson in reference to Big Boi 's performance , " he wasn 't the normal kind of a bad guy . He put so much charisma and flavor behind it . We loved it . "
Nicholas Sheriff as Zero the leader of the gang D @-@ Boys . Nick is a great actor and a pleasure to work with . As said by director Robinson in reference to Nick 's performance , " he wasn 't the normal type of gang member . He put so much charisma and attitude behind it .
Keith David as John Garnett , Erin 's father and Esquire 's acquaintance . He is unaware of the fact that Esquire is lying about who he really is .
Mykelti Williamson as Uncle George , Rashad and Ant 's uncle and guardian . George means well but he is very stingy with his snacks so he keeps them locked up in his room or labels them " Property of George " . When Rashad and Ant fall out about Ant 's drug dealing , George says things to Rashad he doesn 't mean but they later make up .
April Clark as Tondie , Ant 's girlfriend . At first , she was rude to Ant when he would try to talk to her . After he begins to become more popular , she begins to develop a crush on him and asks him to be her boyfriend .
Khadijah Haqq as Veda , New New 's friend and Star 's twin sister .
Malika Haqq as Star , New New 's friend and Veda 's twin sister .
Lonette McKee as Priscilla Garnett , Erin 's mother and John Garnett 's wife .
Markice Moore as Austin , Ant 's friend and Marcus ' cousin .
La 'Shontae Heckerd as Tonya , Rashad 's ex @-@ girlfriend .
Tasha Smith as Gayle , Veda and Star 's mother .
Monique " Whyte Chocolate " Harris @-@ Ford as Sexy Pizza Customer .
Buffie Carruth as Big Booty Judy .
Monica as Waffle House Waitress .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music for ATL was to be released as a soundtrack but they recorded so much music it became T.I. ' s 4th studio album King . It features such singles as What You Know , Top Back , Why You Wanna and Aaliyah 's At Your Best ( You Are Love ) .
= = Production = =
ATL 's story is loosely based on material by producers Dallas Austin and Tionne Watkins , who set out to describe their experiences growing up on the south side of Atlanta in the early ' 90s . Watkins and producer Jody Gerson approached James Lassiter with the idea of a story about a skating rink that many involved in the Atlanta music scene had started at , and how all of these people would attend the rink every Sunday night in their teen years .
Chris Robinson , a renowned music video director , was contacted with an offer to direct Austin and Watkins ' visualization , and took on his first feature with ATL . The films producers decided Robinson would be well @-@ suited for the project because of his ability to capture the music @-@ driven aspects of the film , as provided by his experience in the field . They also cited his talent in storytelling . According to producer Austin , " a lot of music video directors can 't capture the story , so what we 'd do was turn on the directors ' tapes , turn down the music and just watch to see if we could find the story . Chris was far and away the best . " About making ATL his first feature , Robinson stated that " as a music video director , I 'd get a lot of scripts that had to do with really big visual pictures . But I wanted to start off doing something that had heart . " After being hired , Robinson traveled to Atlanta and spent time with Austin to try to soak up the vibe and energy of the unique city .
Open auditions were held in Atlanta , Chicago , Los Angeles , and New York to comb the crowd for candidates who could compose the film 's ensemble cast . Robinson had already decided he wanted relatively unknown actors to perform in the film . Once the cast was assembled , Robinson had his actors converge in Atlanta for six weeks to rehearse the script and familiarize themselves with each other . " All this young black talent out there , all these young black actors who don 't get a shot or who have to wait years to get their shot , are getting their shot in this film , and they 're bringing it . "
Three months prior to the start of production , the actors gathered at Atlanta ’ s Skatetown to begin training for the skating sequences in the film . Some had never been on roller skates before . Vaughn Newton , the actors ' skate captain , worked with them rigorously , usually practicing five hours a day . “ Lauren and the twins , Malika and Khadijah , adapted very quickly , " said Newton . " The guys came along a little slower . Al Be , Jason and Jackie Long developed very fast . T.I. was determined to learn . They were all great students and very supportive of each other . ” In addition to the main cast , Robinson decided to include numerous cameos in the film , generally involving people popular in the Atlanta music scene , a core element of the movie . Music producer Jazze Pha played the skating rink 's DJ ; Rico Wade , a part of the Atlanta @-@ based production team Organized Noize , who also frequented Jellybeans in the early ' 90s , made an appearance as well . R & B singer Monica , a protégé of producer Austin 's , also plays a Waffle House waitress in the film . A few of the south 's most sought after music video models made appearances as well including ' Whyte Chocolate ' also known as Monique Harris @-@ Ford . There are also cameos from rappers Bone Crusher , Konkrete , and Killer Mike .
Dallas Austin coordinated the music for the film , which executive producer Timothy M. Bourne says is " all new music that 's rooted in the Atlanta vibe . " Austin had already produced his first feature with Drumline in 2002 , and wanted to be sure ATL would be similarly authentic to the culture of his hometown by using its current hip @-@ hop scene as the story 's backdrop . Music in the environment of the rink was the way Austin pitched the film " as a way to make a musical without putting Singin ' in the Rain on the screen ... without the kids breaking into song . I 'm determined to show Hollywood and New York the culture from the South . "
Under the working title " Jellybean " , the film was shot over a span of six weeks in fifty @-@ two locales throughout the city of Atlanta . Filming took place in the summer , sometimes in temperatures over a hundred degrees , challenging the cast and crew 's ability to stay motivated . " A lot of times we had to motivate each other to say ' listen , up your game . Go hard , ' " said Robinson . " And sometimes we needed to step back , take a breath , so we could get through . "
= = = Design = = =
Chris Robinson and Robb Buono , the film 's production designer , decided that the script was composed of two distinct parts — the reality of the teens ' lives and the time they spent at the skating rink . According to Buono , " we wanted to look at it [ the rink ] through rose colored glasses , because when you think back on your memories of that time period — no matter what age you are — you see everything bigger . Our goal was to make that roller skating rink a character that grows as we keep coming back , and each time it ’ s more magical — a Saturday Night Fever @-@ like contrast to the reality of life . ” Robinson and Buono chose to shoot at the Cascade Family Skating Rink in Atlanta after visiting and witnessing the energy and excitement of the rink . However , the filmmakers felt Cascade 's interior design was too bland and decided it should be redesigned .
Buono chose black and red for the rink 's new color palette . Red was used for its intensity and energy , and black was utilized because the rink would appear larger . Additionally , usage of black would contrast more boldly with the red colors . The ceiling above the rink was removed for lighting purposes . The rink floor was also refinished with darker colors to provide better light reflection . Rigging for the lights became an artistic challenge for Buono . Working with the art department , the rigging electrics and the rigging grips , he designed a wagon wheel effect that moved with the motion of the skating and allowed the lights to be programmed , aesthetically lighting both ends of the rink and capturing the action of the skating sequences . The skate rental section , arcade and snack bar were redesigned at the rink as well , so that the areas besides the skating floor wouldn 't feel monotonous . “ We did every inch of that rink , ” said Buono . “ The carpet on the walls , painting the ceiling , putting in the lights , painting the snack bar , changing the color of the tables . We used a lot of neon and bold bright colors . ”
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
ATL was released on March 31 , 2006 in 1 @,@ 602 theatres across the U.S. The film grossed at $ 11 @,@ 554 @,@ 404 , and ranked third at the box office behind Ice Age : The Meltdown at one and Spike Lee 's Inside Man at two ; the film 's opening weekend was a success . Its second weekend profits were considerably lower , as the film only earned $ 3 @,@ 710 @,@ 215 , enough for it to be reach seventieth place on the list of widely released films with the biggest weekend drops in the last twenty @-@ six years . The film made less money in the following weekends , and by the end of its theatrical run ATL had accumulated a total of $ 21 @,@ 170 @,@ 563 . After the theater take of approximately 50 % , ATL earned around half of its production cost , producing a significant loss .
= = = Home video = = =
The film was released in the U.S. on video and DVD July 18 , 2006 . DVD features include a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette , deleted scenes , star T.I. ' s music video for his single " What You Know , " and the film 's theatrical trailer . The film was also released on Blu @-@ ray on November 14 , 2006 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
ATL received generally positive reviews from critics . At Allmovie , the film was given three stars , and critic Derek Armstrong , in a positive review of the film , stated that the film is only an average coming of age story " because some substance must take a backseat to all this beautifully crafted style . " Melissa Walters at BlackFilm.com , while believing some of the writing to be clichéd and the story familiar , also called the film " heartfelt , genuine , and enjoyable . " Film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film three stars in his Chicago Sun @-@ Times review , declaring the film " warm " and praising the screenplay 's " unforced , genuine affection for its characters . " IGN.com gave the film a 4 / 5 rating , naming Robinson 's directorial debut " masterful . " Metacritic , a normalized film rating website , provided the film a 63 / 100 score . At the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes , the film averaged a 62 % approval rate . Ruthe Stein from the San Francisco Chronicle called the film one of the better kind of its genre , praising the performances of the young cast , and the film 's star T.I. in particular . At Yahoo ! Movies , based on 13 reviews the film has averaged a B- by the critics standards .
All reviews of the picture weren 't so enthusiastic , however . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly graded the film a B- , saying that while the skating scenes are a blast , the film stumbles when it attempts to be too much for too many audiences . Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times said he was surprised that with so many untested actors rounding out the main cast , " the most amateurish thing about it is the script . " Genzlinger also called the screenplay cliché- marred and predictable , while giving credit to the young actors of the film . He was also critical of Chris Robinson 's direction , stating that he " can 't stay with a scene long enough to let his actors build momentum . " At The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , Bob Longino provided a negative review of the movie , pointing it out as " boring , uninteresting , and slow " . However , Longino did say that stars T.I. and Big Boi 's performances improved as the film progressed , and that there were a few laugh @-@ out @-@ loud comedic moments in the film .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Sequel = =
On January 7 , 2015 Chris Robinson posted a teaser poster of the sequel on Instagram with the main cast in it confirming that a sequel is in the works . On March 4 , 2015 T.I. confirmed on his instagram , that an ATL 2 is to be released .
= Striped honeyeater =
The striped honeyeater ( Plectorhyncha lanceolata ) is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae , found in Australia . It is a medium @-@ sized honeyeater , about 23 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in length . Both sexes are a light greyish brown with dark brown centres to the feathers , which give the appearance of stripes . The stripes are particularly distinct on the head and back of the neck . While it is found mainly in inland eastern Australia where it inhabits the drier open forests , it is also found in coastal swamp forests from south east Queensland to the central coast of New South Wales .
Although a honeyeater , the striped honeyeater relies on insects as its major food source , and its bill has been adapted to an insect diet . When not breeding it has been recorded feeding and travelling in small groups , but it nests singly , laying around three eggs in a deep cup @-@ shaped nest suspended from the end of drooping branches . It is widely distributed and common within its range , thus the population is listed as being of least concern for conservation by the IUCN .
= = Taxonomy = =
The striped honeyeater was first described by English ornithologist and bird artist , John Gould , in A Synopsis of the Birds of Australia and the Adjacent Islands , published in 1838 . It is a member of the family Meliphagidae , the honeyeaters , and the sole member of the monotypic genus Plectorhyncha . Molecular studies indicate that genus is closely allied to the monotypic genus Grantiella , though dissimilar in appearance . The painted honeyeater ( Grantiella picta ) and the striped honeyeater are part of a subclade that includes also Philemon and Xanthotis .
The genus name Plectorhyncha is derived from a combination of the Greek words for " a spear point " and " the bill " and refers to the fine pointed bill . The species name lanceolata comes from the Latin for " lance @-@ shaped " in reference to the long pointed feathers on the throat and breast . The bird is also referred to as the lanceolated honeyeater .
Honeyeaters are related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
= = Description = =
The striped honeyeater is a medium @-@ sized honeyeater with a body length of 22 – 25 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) , a wingspan of 28 – 36 centimetres ( 11 – 14 in ) , and an average weight of 40 grams ( 1 @.@ 4 oz ) .
The upper parts are generally light greyish brown with dark brown centres to the feathers , giving the appearance of stripes . These stripes are marked on the head and nape , less distinct on the rump and almost absent from the upper tail coverts . The underparts are whitish with faint streaks on the belly . The feathers of the upper breast and throat are long and pointed , giving the head a spiky appearance . The wing and tail are both moderately long with rounded tips . The bill is short , with a sharp pointed appearance , dark blue @-@ grey grading to a grey @-@ black at the tip and around the nostrils . Legs and feet are blue @-@ grey with black claws . The bare skin around the eye is dark brown and the iris a dark black @-@ brown .
Males and females are similar in appearance . Juvenile birds are slightly browner than the adults , with buff or brown edges to the feathers of the wings and back . Juveniles have a duller , less streaked appearance than adults . Juveniles moult into adult plumage at around one year old . There is no seasonal difference in the plumage of breeding birds .
The striped honeyeater 's song is described as a chirp , chirp , cherry , cherry , its contact call as a sharp chewee and its alarm call as a shrill whistling note .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species is found mainly in eastern Australia , predominantly inland . It inhabits the drier open forests such as mallee and mulga but also heathland and mangroves on the coast . An observer in 1923 was surprised to find a small number of striped honeyeaters nesting at Forster on the New South Wales mid @-@ north coast , saying " it is a remarkable fact for this bird to leave its proper habitat so far inland , to come to the coast " . However the range has expanded , and contemporary accounts give its distribution as eastern Australia from central and south @-@ east Queensland extending inland to south @-@ east South Australia , and to the coast south to the Tuggerah Lakes , New South Wales . Small irruptions associated with weather patterns and habitat changes have been recorded in areas outside its usual range including the Grampians and the Adelaide Plains .
It occurs in a wide variety of habitats , including riparian woodlands such as river red gum , bimble box and black box with an understory of lignum or saltbush ; mallee woodland , especially where mixed with thickets of Broombush or Emu Bush ; woodlands of Native Pine growing on sand ridges ; and semi @-@ arid scrubland dominated by Acacia including lancewood . On the coast The striped honeyeater is found in swamp forests of paperbark and Casuarina , and in developed areas containing native and exotic trees and shrubs such as caravan parks , reserves , gardens , and farms and orchards .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Although a honeyeater in origin , the striped honeyeater 's food source is primarily insects , and its diet includes seeds and fruits as well as nectar . Its bill has evolved to a short , straight , sharply pointed shape more suited to probing crevices for insects , than to probing flower tubes . It has the honeyeater ’ s brush tongue and takes nectar from shallow flowers such as eucalypt blossoms .
It is arboreal , mostly feeding amongst the foliage in the canopy of trees . Most food is obtained from the leaves , and less often from the bark or flowers and fruit . The major foraging methods are gleaning from leaves and dead branches , probing under loose bark and in crevices , probing woody fruits of Black Oak , probing flowers of Yorrell ( Eucalyptus gracilis ) and sallying for insects . The striped honeyeater occasionally hangs upside @-@ down to extract insects .
= = = Social behaviour = = =
The striped honeyeater has most often been observed singly or in twos , and occasionally in small flocks . When not breeding it has been recorded feeding in loose mobile groups , drinking in mixed groups with miners , and travelling in small groups . It engages in a high level of social activity , including perching closely and allopreening , and when feeding in groups chasing , calling and scolding . The non @-@ breeding striped honeyeater is vocal , calling while feeding and perching , though only occasionally calling in flight . It has been recorded engaged in a display of wing raising and calling , and performing duets and call @-@ and @-@ response song .
While the striped honeyeater aggressively defends its nest by dive @-@ bombing people and animals who come too close , and has been observed singing from display perches , it is not known to be territorial . It often feeds near other species of honeyeater and no inter @-@ species aggression has been noted .
= = = Breeding = = =
The striped honeyeater breeds throughout its distribution range , usually as simple pairs , with both sexes building the nest , incubating and feeding the young . However cooperative breeding has been observed , with a third adult bird involved in feeding nestlings . It nests solitarily , and pairs use the same or adjoining trees for nesting over two or more seasons .
The breeding season is from August to January , though dependent on local conditions . The nest site is usually in the drooping foliage of a tall shrub or low tree , such as Casuarina , Melaleuca , Acacia , and mallee eucalypts . The site is sometimes near to or overhanging water , and the nest is usually constructed at the end of a drooping branch , suspended from twigs or foliage . The striped honeyeater often nests in the vicinity of a nesting butcherbird . It builds a deep cup @-@ shaped or bag @-@ shaped nest , with thick walls and the lip of the opening turned slightly inwards . The nest is made from thin dry grass and coated with plant down , feathers or wool , the coating often completely obscuring the grass framework . It is lined with spider webs , hair , wool or rootlets , and on occasion flowers and tissue paper . The striped honeyeater will commonly re @-@ use material from previous nests .
The eggs are an elongated oval 2 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) by 1 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) somewhat pointed at one end . They are a dull white , smooth and lustreless or slightly lustrous , and moderately blotched with reddish @-@ brown marks over the whole shell , though more profusely towards and over the larger end . The striped honeyeater lays an average of three eggs at 24 @-@ hour intervals . The eggs are incubated by both parents who sit constantly in alternating periods of around 20 minutes for 16 or 17 days . The fledging period is also around 16 days .
The nests of the striped honeyeater are parasitized by the pallid cuckoo ( Cacomantis pallidus ) .
= = Conservation status = =
Because of its wide distribution and stable numbers , the population status of the striped honeyeater has been evaluated by the IUCN as being of least concern .
= Joseph McCarthy =
Joseph Raymond " Joe " McCarthy ( November 14 , 1908 – May 2 , 1957 ) was an American politician who served as a U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957 . Beginning in 1950 , McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion . He was noted for making claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the United States federal government and elsewhere . Ultimately , the controversy he generated led him to be censured by the United States Senate .
The term " McCarthyism " , coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy 's practices , was soon applied to similar anti @-@ communist activities . Today , the term is used by critics of McCarthy in reference to what they consider demagogic , reckless , and unsubstantiated accusations , as well as public attacks on the character or patriotism of political opponents .
McCarthy was born in 1908 in the Town of Grand Chute in Outagamie County , Wisconsin , and attended Marquette University , eventually earning an LL.B. from Marquette University Law School . At age 33 , McCarthy volunteered for the United States Marine Corps and served during World War II . He successfully ran for the United States Senate in 1946 , defeating Robert M. La Follette Jr . After three largely undistinguished years in the Senate , McCarthy rose suddenly to national fame in February 1950 when he asserted in a speech that he had a list of " members of the Communist Party and members of a spy ring " who were employed in the State Department .
In succeeding years after his 1950 speech , McCarthy made additional accusations of Communist infiltration into the State Department , the administration of President Harry S. Truman , the Voice of America , and the United States Army . He also used various charges of communism , communist sympathies , disloyalty , or sex crimes to attack a number of politicians and other individuals inside and outside of government .
McCarthy made various attempts to investigate , and hold accountable ( as the practice was still against the law in many locations ) , persons whom he accused , or threatened to publicly accuse , of homosexuality . Former U.S. Senator Alan K. Simpson has written , " The so @-@ called ' Red Scare ' has been the main focus of most historians of that period of time . A lesser @-@ known element ... and one that harmed far more people was the " Lavender Scare " , a witch @-@ hunt McCarthy and others conducted against homosexuals . " With the highly publicized Army – McCarthy hearings of 1954 , and following the suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester C. Hunt that same year , McCarthy 's support and popularity faded . On December 2 , 1954 , the Senate voted to censure Senator McCarthy by a vote of 67 – 22 , making him one of the few senators ever to be disciplined in this fashion . McCarthy died at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Bethesda , Maryland on May 2 , 1957 , at the age of 48 . The official cause of death was acute hepatitis ; some biographers say this was caused , or exacerbated , by alcoholism .
= = Early life and career = =
McCarthy was born on a farm in the Town of Grand Chute , Wisconsin , near Appleton , the fifth of seven children . His mother , Bridget Tierney , was from County Tipperary , Ireland . His father , Timothy McCarthy , was born in the United States , the son of an Irish father and a German mother . McCarthy dropped out of junior high school at age 14 to help his parents manage their farm . He entered Little Wolf High School , in Manawa , Wisconsin , when he was 20 and graduated in one year .
McCarthy worked his way through college from 1930 to 1935 , studying first engineering , then law , and receiving an LL.B. degree in 1935 from Marquette University Law School in Milwaukee . He was admitted to the bar in 1935 . While working at a law firm in Shawano , Wisconsin , he launched an unsuccessful campaign for district attorney as a Democrat in 1936 . In 1939 , McCarthy had better success when he ran for the nonpartisan elected post of 10th District circuit judge . ( During his years as an attorney , McCarthy made money on the side by gambling . ) McCarthy became the youngest circuit judge in the state 's history by defeating incumbent Edgar V. Werner , who had been a judge for 24 years . In the campaign , McCarthy exaggerated Werner 's age of 66 , claiming that he was 73 , and so allegedly too old and infirm to handle the duties of his office . Writing of Werner in Reds : McCarthyism In Twentieth @-@ Century America , Ted Morgan wrote : " Pompous and condescending , he was disliked by lawyers . He had been reversed often by the Wisconsin Supreme Court , and he was so inefficient that he had piled up a huge backlog of cases . "
McCarthy 's judicial career attracted some controversy because of the speed with which he dispatched many of his cases as he worked to clear the heavily backlogged docket he had inherited . Wisconsin had strict divorce laws , but when McCarthy heard divorce cases , he would expedite them whenever possible , and he made the needs of children involved in contested divorces a priority . When it came to other cases argued before him , McCarthy compensated for his lack of experience as a jurist by demanding and relying heavily upon , precise briefs from the contesting attorneys . The Wisconsin Supreme Court reversed a low percentage of the cases he heard , but he was also censured in 1941 for having lost evidence in a price fixing case .
= = = Military service = = =
In 1942 , shortly after the U.S. entered World War II , McCarthy was commissioned into the United States Marine Corps , despite the fact that his judicial office exempted him from compulsory service . His education qualified him for an automatic commission as an officer , and he became a second lieutenant after completing basic training . He served as an intelligence briefing officer for a dive bomber squadron in the Solomon Islands and Bougainville . McCarthy reportedly chose the Marines with the hope that being a veteran of this branch of the military would serve him best in his future political career .
According to Morgan , writing in Reds , Joe 's friend Urban P. Van Susteren , a lawyer , and later judge , whom McCarthy had named divorce counsel for Shawano County , and who had applied for active duty in the Army Air Force in early 1942 , advised him : " Be a hero — join the Marines . " When McCarthy seemed hesitant , Van Susteren asked , " You got shit in your blood ? " Van Susteren managed McCarthy 's 1946 Senate campaign , and during McCarthy 's Senate career he stayed with Van Susteren whenever he was in Appleton .
McCarthy served 30 months as an intelligence officer ( August 1942 -- February 1945 ) , and he held the rank of captain by the time he was discharged in April 1945 . He volunteered to fly twelve combat missions as a gunner @-@ observer , acquiring ( or perhaps giving himself ) the nickname of " Tail @-@ Gunner Joe " in the course of one of these missions .
He later falsely claimed 32 aerial missions in order to qualify for a Distinguished Flying Cross , which he received in 1952 . McCarthy also publicized a letter of commendation which he claimed had been signed by his commanding officer and countersigned by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , then Chief of Naval Operations . However , it was revealed that McCarthy had written this letter himself , in his capacity as intelligence officer . A " war wound " that McCarthy made the subject of varying stories involving airplane crashes or anti @-@ aircraft fire was in fact received aboard ship during a ceremony for sailors crossing the equator for the first time . Because of McCarthy 's various lies about his military heroism , his " Tail @-@ Gunner Joe " nickname was sarcastically used as a term of mockery by his critics .
McCarthy campaigned for the Republican Senate nomination in Wisconsin while still on active duty in 1944 but was defeated for the GOP nomination by Alexander Wiley , the incumbent . He resigned his commission in April 1945 , five months before the end of the Pacific war in September 1945 . He was then reelected unopposed to his circuit court position , and began a much more systematic campaign for the 1946 Republican Senate primary nomination , with support from Thomas Coleman , the Republican Party 's political boss in Wisconsin . In this race , he was challenging three @-@ term senator Robert M. La Follette Jr . , founder of the Wisconsin Progressive Party and son of the celebrated Wisconsin governor and senator Robert M. La Follette , Sr.
= = = Senate campaign = = =
In his campaign , McCarthy attacked La Follette for not enlisting during the war , although La Follette had been 46 when Pearl Harbor was bombed . He also claimed La Follette had made huge profits from his investments while he , McCarthy , had been away fighting for his country . In fact , McCarthy had invested in the stock market himself during the war , netting a profit of $ 42 @,@ 000 in 1943 . La Follette 's investments consisted of partial interest in a radio station , which earned him a profit of $ 47 @,@ 000 over two years .
The suggestion that La Follette had been guilty of war profiteering was deeply damaging , and McCarthy won the primary nomination 207 @,@ 935 votes to 202 @,@ 557 . It was during this campaign that McCarthy started publicizing his war @-@ time nickname " Tail @-@ Gunner Joe " , using the slogan , " Congress needs a tail @-@ gunner " . Arnold Beichman later stated that McCarthy " was elected to his first term in the Senate with support from the Communist @-@ controlled United Electrical , Radio and Machine Workers , CIO " , which preferred McCarthy to the anti @-@ communist Robert M. La Follette . In the general election against Democratic opponent Howard J. McMurray , McCarthy won 61 @.@ 2 % to Democrat McMurray 's 37 @.@ 3 % , and thus joined Senator Wiley , whom he had challenged unsuccessfully two years earlier , in the Senate .
= = United States Senate = =
Senator McCarthy 's first three years in the Senate were unremarkable . McCarthy was a popular speaker , invited by many different organizations , covering a wide range of topics . His aides and many in the Washington social circle described him as charming and friendly , and he was a popular guest at cocktail parties . He was far less well liked among fellow senators , however , who found him quick @-@ tempered and prone to impatience and even rage . Outside of a small circle of colleagues , he was soon an isolated figure in the Senate .
He was active in labor @-@ management issues , with a reputation as a moderate Republican . He fought against continuation of wartime price controls , especially on sugar . His advocacy in this area was associated by critics with a $ 20 @,@ 000 personal loan McCarthy received from a Pepsi bottling executive , earning the Senator the derisive nickname " The Pepsi @-@ Cola Kid " . He supported the Taft – Hartley Act over Truman 's veto , angering labor unions in Wisconsin but solidifying his business base .
In an incident for which he would be widely criticized , McCarthy lobbied for the commutation of death sentences given to a group of Waffen @-@ SS soldiers convicted of war crimes for carrying out the 1944 Malmedy massacre of American prisoners of war . McCarthy was critical of the convictions because of allegations of torture during the interrogations that led to the German soldiers ' confessions . He charged that the U.S. Army was engaged in a coverup of judicial misconduct , but never presented any evidence to support the accusation . Shortly after this , a poll of the Senate press corps voted McCarthy " the worst U.S. senator " currently in office .
= = = Wheeling speech = = =
McCarthy experienced a meteoric rise in national profile on February 9 , 1950 , when he gave a Lincoln Day speech to the Republican Women 's Club of Wheeling , West Virginia . His words in the speech are a matter of some debate , as no audio recording was saved . However , it is generally agreed that he produced a piece of paper that he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department . McCarthy is usually quoted to have said : " The State Department is infested with communists . I have here in my hand a list of 205 — a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department . "
There is some dispute about whether or not McCarthy actually gave the number of people on the list as being " 205 " or " 57 " . In a later telegram to President Truman , and when entering the speech into the Congressional Record , he used the number 57 . The origin of the number 205 can be traced : in later debates on the Senate floor , McCarthy referred to a 1946 letter that then – Secretary of State James Byrnes sent to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath . In that letter , Byrnes said State Department security investigations had resulted in " recommendation against permanent employment " for 284 persons , and that 79 of these had been removed from their jobs ; this left 205 still on the State Department 's payroll . In fact , by the time of McCarthy 's speech only about 65 of the employees mentioned in the Byrnes letter were still with the State Department , and all of these had undergone further security checks .
At the time of McCarthy 's speech , communism was a significant concern in the United States . This concern was exacerbated by the actions of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe , the victory of the communists in the Chinese Civil War , the Soviets ' development of a nuclear weapon the year before , and by the contemporary controversy surrounding Alger Hiss and the confession of Soviet spy Klaus Fuchs . With this background and due to the sensational nature of McCarthy 's charge against the State Department , the Wheeling speech soon attracted a flood of press interest in McCarthy 's claim .
= = = Tydings Committee = = =
McCarthy himself was taken aback by the massive media response to the Wheeling speech , and he was accused of continually revising both his charges and figures . In Salt Lake City , Utah , a few days later , he cited a figure of 57 , and in the Senate on February 20 , he claimed 81 . During a five @-@ hour speech , McCarthy presented a case @-@ by @-@ case analysis of his 81 " loyalty risks " employed at the State Department . It is widely accepted that most of McCarthy 's cases were selected from the so @-@ called " Lee list " , a report that had been compiled three years earlier for the House Appropriations Committee . Led by a former Federal Bureau of Investigation agent named Robert E. Lee , the House investigators had reviewed security clearance documents on State Department employees , and had determined that there were " incidents of inefficiencies " in the security reviews of 108 employees . McCarthy hid the source of his list , stating that he had penetrated the " iron curtain " of State Department secrecy with the aid of " some good , loyal Americans in the State Department " . In reciting the information from the Lee list cases , McCarthy consistently exaggerated , representing the hearsay of witnesses as facts and converting phrases such as " inclined towards Communism " to " a Communist " .
In response to McCarthy 's charges , the Senate voted unanimously to investigate , and the Tydings Committee hearings were called . This was a subcommittee of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations set up in February 1950 to conduct " a full and complete study and investigation as to whether persons who are disloyal to the United States are , or have been , employed by the Department of State " . Many Democrats were incensed at McCarthy 's attack on the State Department of a Democratic administration , and had hoped to use the hearings to discredit him . The Democratic chairman of the subcommittee , Senator Millard Tydings , was reported to have said , " Let me have him [ McCarthy ] for three days in public hearings , and he 'll never show his face in the Senate again . "
During the hearings , McCarthy moved on from his original unnamed Lee list cases and used the hearings to make charges against nine specific people : Dorothy Kenyon , Esther Brunauer , Haldore Hanson , Gustavo Durán , Owen Lattimore , Harlow Shapley , Frederick Schuman , John S. Service , and Philip Jessup . Some of them no longer worked for the State Department , or never had ; all had previously been the subject of charges of varying worth and validity . Owen Lattimore became a particular focus of McCarthy 's , who at one point described him as a " top Russian spy " . Throughout the hearings , McCarthy employed colorful rhetoric , but produced no substantial evidence , to support his accusations .
From its beginning , the Tydings Committee was marked by partisan infighting . Its final report , written by the Democratic majority , concluded that the individuals on McCarthy 's list were neither Communists nor pro @-@ communist , and said the State Department had an effective security program . The Tydings Report labeled McCarthy 's charges a " fraud and a hoax " , and said that the result of McCarthy 's actions was to " confuse and divide the American people [ ... ] to a degree far beyond the hopes of the Communists themselves " . Republicans responded in kind , with William E. Jenner stating that Tydings was guilty of " the most brazen whitewash of treasonable conspiracy in our history " . The full Senate voted three times on whether to accept the report , and each time the voting was precisely divided along party lines .
= = = Fame , notoriety , and personal life = = =
From 1950 onward , McCarthy continued to exploit the fear of Communism and to press his accusations that the government was failing to deal with Communism within its ranks . McCarthy also began investigations into the numerous homosexuals working in the foreign policy bureaucracy , who were considered prime candidates for blackmail by the Soviets . These accusations received wide publicity , increased his approval rating , and gained him a powerful national following .
" In Congress , there was little doubt that homosexuals did not belong in sensitive government positions . " Since the late 1940s , the government had been dismissing about five homosexuals a month from civilian posts ; by 1954 , the number had grown twelve @-@ fold . " Mixed in with the hysterics were some logic , though : homosexuals faced condemnation and discrimination , and most of them — wishing to conceal their orientation--were vulnerable to blackmail . " DCI Roscoe Hillenkoetter was called to Congress to testify on homosexuals being employed at the CIA . He said , " The use of homosexuals as a control mechanism over individuals recruited for espionage is a generally accepted technique which has been used at least on a limited basis for many years . " As soon as the DCI said these words , his aide signaled to take the remainder of the DCI 's testimony off the record . Political historian David Barrett uncovered Hillenkoetter 's notes , which reveal the remainder of the statement : " While this agency will never employ homosexuals on its rolls , it might conceivably be necessary , and in the past has actually been valuable , to use known homosexuals as agents in the field . I am certain that if Josef Stalin or a member of the Politburo or a high satellite official were known to be a homosexual , no member of this committee or of the Congress would balk against our use of any technique to penetrate their operations ... after all , intelligence and espionage is , at best , an extremely dirty business . " The Senators reluctantly agreed the CIA had to be flexible .
McCarthy 's methods also brought on the disapproval and opposition of many . Barely a month after McCarthy 's Wheeling speech , the term " McCarthyism " was coined by Washington Post cartoonist Herbert Block . Block and others used the word as a synonym for demagoguery , baseless defamation , and mudslinging . Later , it would be embraced by McCarthy and some of his supporters . " McCarthyism is Americanism with its sleeves rolled , " McCarthy said in a 1952 speech , and later that year he published a book titled McCarthyism : The Fight For America .
McCarthy has been accused of attempting to discredit his critics and political opponents by accusing them of being Communists or communist sympathizers . In the 1950 Maryland Senate election , McCarthy campaigned for John Marshall Butler in his race against four @-@ term incumbent Millard Tydings , with whom McCarthy had been in conflict during the Tydings Committee hearings . In speeches supporting Butler , McCarthy accused Tydings of " protecting Communists " and " shielding traitors " . McCarthy 's staff was heavily involved in the campaign , and collaborated in the production of a campaign tabloid that contained a composite photograph doctored to make it appear that Tydings was in intimate conversation with Communist leader Earl Russell Browder . A Senate subcommittee later investigated this election and referred to it as " a despicable , back @-@ street type of campaign " , as well as recommending that the use of defamatory literature in a campaign be made grounds for expulsion from the Senate . The pamphlet was clearly labeled a composite . McCarthy said it was " wrong " to distribute it ; though staffer Jean Kerr thought it was fine . After his election defeat , Tydings claimed foul play ( he had lost by almost 40 @,@ 000 votes ) , however , his reelection campaign was in trouble before Tydings butted heads with McCarthy : Tydings was the highly visible chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee and had some responsibility for the lack of preparedness for the Korean campaign , he was increasingly unpopular with African @-@ American voters because of his support for Jim Crow laws , and McCarthy and anti @-@ communism were popular with Maryland 's Catholic voters at election time .
In addition to the Tydings – Butler race , McCarthy campaigned for several other Republicans in the 1950 elections , including Everett Dirksen against Democratic incumbent and Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas . Dirksen , and indeed all the candidates McCarthy supported , won their elections , and those he opposed lost . The elections , including many that McCarthy was not involved in , were an overall Republican sweep . Although his impact on the elections was unclear , McCarthy was credited as a key Republican campaigner . He was now regarded as one of the most powerful men in the Senate and was treated with new @-@ found deference by his colleagues . In the 1952 Senate elections McCarthy was returned to his Senate seat with 54 @.@ 2 % of the vote , compared to Democrat Thomas Fairchild 's 45 @.@ 6 % .
In 1950 McCarthy assaulted journalist Drew Pearson in the cloakroom of a Washington club , reportedly kneeing him in the groin . McCarthy , who admitted the assault , claimed he merely " slapped " Pearson . In 1952 , using rumors collected by Pearson , Nevada publisher Hank Greenspun wrote that McCarthy was a homosexual . The major journalistic media refused to print the story , and no notable McCarthy biographer has accepted the rumor as probable . In 1953 , McCarthy married Jean Kerr , a researcher in his office . He and his wife adopted a baby girl , whom they named Tierney Elizabeth McCarthy , in January 1957 .
= = = McCarthy and the Truman administration = = =
McCarthy and President Truman clashed often during the years both held office . McCarthy characterized Truman and the Democratic Party as soft on , or even in league with , Communists , and spoke of the Democrats ' " twenty years of treason " . Truman , in turn , once referred to McCarthy as " the best asset the Kremlin has " , calling McCarthy 's actions an attempt to " sabotage the foreign policy of the United States " in a cold war and comparing it to shooting American soldiers in the back in a hot war . It was the Truman Administration 's State Department that McCarthy accused of harboring 205 ( or 57 or 81 ) " known Communists " . Truman 's Secretary of Defense , George Catlett Marshall , was the target of some of McCarthy 's most vitriolic rhetoric . Marshall had been Army Chief of Staff during World War II and was also Truman 's former Secretary of State . Marshall was a highly respected General and statesman , remembered today as the architect of victory and peace , the latter based on the Marshall Plan for post @-@ war reconstruction of Europe , for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 . McCarthy made a lengthy speech on Marshall , later published in 1951 as a book titled America 's Retreat From Victory : The Story of George Catlett Marshall . Marshall had been involved in American foreign policy with China , and McCarthy charged that Marshall was directly responsible for the loss of China to Communism . In the speech McCarthy also implied that Marshall was guilty of treason ; declared that " if Marshall were merely stupid , the laws of probability would dictate that part of his decisions would serve this country 's interest " ; and most famously , accused him of being part of " a conspiracy so immense and an infamy so black as to dwarf any previous venture in the history of man " .
During the Korean War , when President Truman dismissed General Douglas MacArthur , McCarthy charged that Truman and his advisors must have planned the dismissal during late @-@ night sessions when " they 've had time to get the President cheerful " on bourbon and Bénédictine . McCarthy declared , " The son of a bitch should be impeached . "
= = = Support from Roman Catholics and the Kennedy Family = = =
One of the strongest bases of anti @-@ Communist sentiment in the United States was the Catholic community , which constituted over 20 % of the national vote . McCarthy identified himself as Catholic , and although the great majority of Catholics were Democrats , as his fame as a leading anti @-@ Communist grew , he became popular in Catholic communities across the country , with strong support from many leading Catholics , diocesan newspapers , and Catholic journals . At the same time , some Catholics did oppose McCarthy , notably the anti @-@ Communist author Father John Francis Cronin and the influential journal Commonweal .
McCarthy established a bond with the powerful Kennedy family , which had high visibility among Catholics . McCarthy became a close friend of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. , himself a fervent anti @-@ Communist , and was a frequent guest at the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port . He dated two of Kennedy 's daughters , Patricia and Eunice , and was godfather to Robert F. Kennedy 's first child , Kathleen Kennedy . Robert Kennedy was chosen by McCarthy as a counsel for his investigatory committee , but resigned after six months due to disagreements with McCarthy himself and committee Counsel Roy Marcus Cohn . Joseph Kennedy had a national network of contacts and became a vocal supporter , building McCarthy 's popularity among Catholics and making sizable contributions to McCarthy 's campaigns . The Kennedy patriarch hoped that one of his sons would be president . Mindful of the anti @-@ Catholic prejudice Al Smith faced during his 1928 campaign for that office , Joseph Kennedy supported McCarthy as a national Catholic politician who might pave the way for a younger Kennedy 's presidential candidacy .
Unlike many Democrats , John F. Kennedy , who served in the Senate with McCarthy from 1953 until the latter 's death in 1957 , never attacked McCarthy . McCarthy had refused to campaign for Kennedy 's 1952 opponent , Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge Jr . , due to his friendship with the Kennedys . When a speaker at a February 1952 final club dinner stated that he was glad McCarthy had not attended Harvard College , an angry Kennedy jumped up , denounced the speaker , and left the event . Asked by Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. why he avoided criticism of McCarthy , Kennedy said , " Hell , half my voters in Massachusetts look on McCarthy as a hero . "
= = = McCarthy and Eisenhower = = =
During the 1952 presidential election , the Eisenhower campaign toured Wisconsin with McCarthy . In a speech delivered in Green Bay , Eisenhower declared that while he agreed with McCarthy 's goals , he disagreed with his methods . In draft versions of his speech , Eisenhower had also included a strong defense of his mentor , George Marshall , which was a direct rebuke of McCarthy 's frequent attacks . However , under the advice of conservative colleagues who were fearful that Eisenhower could lose Wisconsin if he alienated McCarthy supporters , he deleted this defense from later versions of his speech . The deletion was discovered by William H. Laurence , a reporter for The New York Times , and featured on its front page the next day . Eisenhower was widely criticized for giving up his personal convictions , and the incident became the low point of his campaign .
With his victory in the 1952 presidential race , Dwight Eisenhower became the first Republican president in 20 years . The Republican party also held a majority in the House of Representatives and the Senate . After being elected president , Eisenhower made it clear to those close to him that he did not approve of McCarthy and he worked actively to diminish his power and influence . Still , he never directly confronted McCarthy or criticized him by name in any speech , thus perhaps prolonging McCarthy 's power by giving the impression that even the President was afraid to criticize him directly . Oshinsky disputes this , stating that " Eisenhower was known as a harmonizer , a man who could get diverse factions to work toward a common goal . ... Leadership , he explained , meant patience and conciliation , not ' hitting people over the head ' . "
McCarthy won reelection in 1952 with 54 % of the vote , defeating former Wisconsin State Attorney General Thomas E. Fairchild but badly trailing a Republican ticket which swept the state of Wisconsin ; all the other Republican winners , including Eisenhower himself , received at least 60 % of the Wisconsin vote . Those who expected that party loyalty would cause McCarthy to tone down his accusations of Communists being harbored within the government were soon disappointed . Eisenhower had never been an admirer of McCarthy , and their relationship became more hostile once Eisenhower was in office . In a November 1953 speech that was carried on national television , McCarthy began by praising the Eisenhower Administration for removing " 1 @,@ 456 Truman holdovers who were ... gotten rid of because of Communist connections and activities or perversion " . He then went on to complain that John Paton Davies Jr. was still " on the payroll after eleven months of the Eisenhower Administration " , even though Davies had actually been dismissed three weeks earlier , and repeated an unsubstantiated accusation that Davies had tried to " put Communists and espionage agents in key spots in the Central Intelligence Agency " . In the same speech , he criticized Eisenhower for not doing enough to secure the release of missing American pilots shot down over China during the Korean War . By the end of 1953 , McCarthy had altered the " twenty years of treason " catchphrase he had coined for the preceding Democratic administrations and began referring to " twenty @-@ one years of treason " to include Eisenhower 's first year in office .
As McCarthy became increasingly combative towards the Eisenhower Administration , Eisenhower faced repeated calls that he confront McCarthy directly . Eisenhower refused , saying privately " nothing would please him [ McCarthy ] more than to get the publicity that would be generated by a public repudiation by the President . " On several occasions Eisenhower is reported to have said of McCarthy that he did not want to " get down in the gutter with that guy " .
= = = Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations = = =
With the beginning of his second term as senator in 1953 , McCarthy was made chairman of the Senate Committee on Government Operations . According to some reports , Republican leaders were growing wary of McCarthy 's methods and gave him this relatively mundane panel rather than the Internal Security Subcommittee — the committee normally involved with investigating Communists — thus putting McCarthy " where he can 't do any harm " , in the words of Senate Majority Leader Robert A. Taft . However , the Committee on Government Operations included the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations , and the mandate of this subcommittee was sufficiently flexible to allow McCarthy to use it for his own investigations of Communists in the government . McCarthy appointed Roy Cohn as chief counsel and 27 @-@ year @-@ old Robert F. Kennedy as an assistant counsel to the subcommittee .
This subcommittee would be the scene of some of McCarthy 's most publicized exploits . When the records of the closed executive sessions of the subcommittee under McCarthy 's chairmanship were made public in 2003 – 04 , Senators Susan Collins and Carl Levin wrote the following in their preface to the documents :
Senator McCarthy 's zeal to uncover subversion and espionage led to disturbing excesses . His browbeating tactics destroyed careers of people who were not involved in the infiltration of our government . His freewheeling style caused both the Senate and the Subcommittee to revise the rules governing future investigations , and prompted the courts to act to protect the Constitutional rights of witnesses at Congressional hearings . ... These hearings are a part of our national past that we can neither afford to forget nor permit to reoccur .
The subcommittee first investigated allegations of Communist influence in the Voice of America , at that time administered by the State Department 's United States Information Agency . Many VOA personnel were questioned in front of television cameras and a packed press gallery , with McCarthy lacing his questions with hostile innuendo and false accusations . A few VOA employees alleged Communist influence on the content of broadcasts , but none of the charges were substantiated . Morale at VOA was badly damaged , and one of its engineers committed suicide during McCarthy 's investigation . Ed Kretzman , a policy advisor for the service , would later comment that it was VOA 's " darkest hour when Senator McCarthy and his chief hatchet man , Roy Cohn , almost succeeded in muffling it " .
The subcommittee then turned to the overseas library program of the International Information Agency . Cohn toured Europe examining the card catalogs of the State Department libraries looking for works by authors he deemed inappropriate . McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro @-@ communist authors before his subcommittee and the press . The State Department bowed to McCarthy and ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves " material by any controversial persons , Communists , fellow travelers , etc . " Some libraries went as far as burning the newly forbidden books . Shortly after this , in one of his carefully oblique public criticisms of McCarthy , President Eisenhower urged Americans : " Don 't join the book burners . ... Don 't be afraid to go in your library and read every book . "
Soon after receiving the chair to the Subcommittee on Investigations , McCarthy appointed Joseph Brown Matthews ( generally known as J. B. Matthews ) as staff director of the subcommittee . One of the nation 's foremost anti @-@ communists , Matthews had formerly been staff director for the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . The appointment became controversial when it was learned that Matthews had recently written an article titled " Reds and Our Churches " , which opened with the sentence , " The largest single group supporting the Communist apparatus in the United States is composed of Protestant Clergymen . " A group of senators denounced this " shocking and unwarranted attack against the American clergy " and demanded that McCarthy dismiss Matthews . McCarthy initially refused to do this but as the controversy mounted , and the majority of his own subcommittee joined the call for Matthews ' ouster , McCarthy finally yielded and accepted his resignation . For some McCarthy opponents , this was a signal defeat of the senator , showing he was not as invincible as he had formerly seemed .
= = = Investigating the Army = = =
In autumn 1953 , McCarthy 's committee began its ill @-@ fated inquiry into the United States Army . This began with McCarthy opening an investigation into the Army Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Monmouth . McCarthy , newly married to Jean Kerr , cut short his honeymoon to open the investigation . He garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers , but after weeks of hearings , nothing came of his investigations . Unable to expose any signs of subversion , McCarthy focused instead on the case of Irving Peress , a New York dentist who had been drafted into the Army in 1952 and promoted to major in November 1953 . Shortly thereafter it came to the attention of the military bureaucracy that Peress , who was a member of the left @-@ wing American Labor Party , had declined to answer questions about his political affiliations on a loyalty @-@ review form . Peress ' superiors were therefore ordered to discharge him from the Army within 90 days . McCarthy subpoenaed Peress to appear before his subcommittee on January 30 , 1954 . Peress refused to answer McCarthy 's questions , citing his rights under the Fifth Amendment . McCarthy responded by sending a message to Secretary of the Army , Robert T. Stevens , demanding that Peress be court @-@ martialed . On that same day , Peress asked for his pending discharge from the Army to be effected immediately , and the next day Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker , his commanding officer at Camp Kilmer in New Jersey , gave him an honorable separation from the Army . At McCarthy 's encouragement , " Who promoted Peress ? " became a rallying cry among many anti @-@ communists and McCarthy supporters . In fact , and as McCarthy knew , Peress had been promoted automatically through the provisions of the Doctor Draft Law , for which McCarthy had voted .
= = = Army – McCarthy hearings = = =
Early in 1954 , the U.S. Army accused McCarthy and his chief counsel , Roy Cohn , of improperly pressuring the Army to give favorable treatment to G. David Schine , a former aide to McCarthy and a friend of Cohn 's , who was then serving in the Army as a private . McCarthy claimed that the accusation was made in bad faith , in retaliation for his questioning of Zwicker the previous year . The Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations , usually chaired by McCarthy himself , was given the task of adjudicating these conflicting charges . Republican Senator Karl Mundt was appointed to chair the committee , and the Army – McCarthy hearings convened on April 22 , 1954 .
The Army consulted with an attorney familiar with McCarthy to determine the best approach to attacking him . Based on his recommendation , it decided not to pursue McCarthy on the issue of communists in government : " The attorney feels it is almost impossible to counter McCarthy effectively on the issue of kicking Communists out of Government , because he generally has some basis , no matter how slight , for his claim of Communist connection . "
The hearings lasted for 36 days and were broadcast on live television by ABC and DuMont , with an estimated 20 million viewers . After hearing 32 witnesses and two million words of testimony , the committee concluded that McCarthy himself had not exercised any improper influence on Schine 's behalf , but that Cohn had engaged in " unduly persistent or aggressive efforts " . The committee also concluded that Army Secretary Robert Stevens and Army Counsel John Adams " made efforts to terminate or influence the investigation and hearings at Fort Monmouth " , and that Adams " made vigorous and diligent efforts " to block subpoenas for members of the Army Loyalty and Screening Board " by means of personal appeal to certain members of the [ McCarthy ] committee " .
Of far greater importance to McCarthy than the committee 's inconclusive final report was the negative effect that the extensive exposure had on his popularity . Many in the audience saw him as bullying , reckless , and dishonest , and the daily newspaper summaries of the hearings were also frequently unfavorable . Late in the hearings , Senator Stuart Symington made an angry and prophetic remark to McCarthy , upon being told by McCarthy that " You 're not fooling anyone " : " Senator , the American people have had a look at you now for six weeks ; you 're not fooling anyone , either . " In Gallup polls of January 1954 , 50 % of those polled had a positive opinion of McCarthy . In June , that number had fallen to 34 % . In the same polls , those with a negative opinion of McCarthy increased from 29 % to 45 % .
An increasing number of Republicans and conservatives were coming to see McCarthy as a liability to the party and to anti @-@ communism . Congressman George H. Bender noted , " There is a growing impatience with the Republican Party . McCarthyism has become a synonym for witch @-@ hunting , Star Chamber methods , and the denial of ... civil liberties . " Frederick Woltman , a reporter with a long @-@ standing reputation as a staunch anti @-@ communist , wrote a five @-@ part series of articles criticizing McCarthy in the New York World @-@ Telegram . He stated that McCarthy " has become a major liability to the cause of anti @-@ communism " , and accused him of " wild twisting of facts and near facts [ that ] repels authorities in the field " .
The most famous incident in the hearings was an exchange between McCarthy and the army 's chief legal representative , Joseph Nye Welch . On June 9 , the 30th day of the hearings , Welch challenged Roy Cohn to provide U.S. Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr. with McCarthy 's list of 130 Communists or subversives in defense plants " before the sun goes down " . McCarthy stepped in and said that if Welch was so concerned about persons aiding the Communist Party , he should check on a man in his Boston law office named Fred Fisher , who had once belonged to the National Lawyers Guild , which Brownell had called " the legal mouthpiece of the Communist Party " . In an impassioned defense of Fisher that some have suggested he had prepared in advance and had hoped not to have to make , Welch responded , " Until this moment , Senator , I think I never really gauged your cruelty or your recklessness ... " When McCarthy resumed his attack , Welch interrupted him : " Let us not assassinate this lad further , Senator . You 've done enough . Have you no sense of decency , sir , at long last ? Have you left no sense of decency ? " Mr. Welch said this even after he had already outed Fred Fisher to the New York Times , where a full length article was published . When McCarthy once again persisted , Welch cut him off and demanded the chairman " call the next witness " . At that point , the gallery erupted in applause and a recess was called .
= = = Edward R. Murrow , See It Now = = =
Even before Welch asked McCarthy , " Have you no sense of decency , sir , at long last ? " in the hearings , one of the most prominent attacks on McCarthy 's methods was an episode of the television documentary series See It Now , hosted by journalist Edward R. Murrow , which was broadcast on March 9 , 1954 . Titled " A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy " , the episode consisted largely of clips of McCarthy speaking . In these clips , McCarthy accuses the Democratic party of " twenty years of treason " , describes the American Civil Liberties Union as " listed as ' a front for , and doing the work of ' , the Communist Party " , and berates and harangues various witnesses , including General Zwicker .
In his conclusion , Murrow said of McCarthy :
No one familiar with the history of this country can deny that congressional committees are useful . It is necessary to investigate before legislating , but the line between investigating and persecuting is a very fine one , and the junior Senator from Wisconsin has stepped over it repeatedly . His primary achievement has been in confusing the public mind , as between the internal and the external threats of Communism . We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty . We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law . We will not walk in fear , one of another . We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason , if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine , and remember that we are not descended from fearful men — not from men who feared to write , to speak , to associate and to defend causes that were , for the moment , unpopular .
This is no time for men who oppose Senator McCarthy 's methods to keep silent , or for those who approve . We can deny our heritage and our history , but we cannot escape responsibility for the result . There is no way for a citizen of a republic to abdicate his responsibilities . As a nation we have come into our full inheritance at a tender age . We proclaim ourselves , as indeed we are , the defenders of freedom , wherever it continues to exist in the world , but we cannot defend freedom abroad by deserting it at home .
The actions of the junior Senator from Wisconsin have caused alarm and dismay amongst our allies abroad , and given considerable comfort to our enemies . And whose fault is that ? Not really his . He didn 't create this situation of fear ; he merely exploited it — and rather successfully . Cassius was right : " The fault , dear Brutus , is not in our stars , but in ourselves . "
The following week See It Now ran another episode critical of McCarthy , this one focusing on the case of Annie Lee Moss , an African @-@ American army clerk who was the target of one of McCarthy 's investigations . The Murrow shows , together with the televised Army – McCarthy hearings of the same year , were the major causes of a nationwide popular opinion backlash against McCarthy , in part because for the first time his statements were being publicly challenged by noteworthy figures . To counter the negative publicity , McCarthy appeared on See It Now on April 6 , 1954 , and made a number of charges against the popular Murrow , including the accusation that he colluded with VOKS , the " Russian espionage and propaganda organization " . This response did not go over well with viewers , and the result was a further decline in McCarthy 's popularity .
Murrow and his staff spent two months editing film . McCarthy was shown picking his nose and belching . Nothing in the episode showed McCarthy being business @-@ like or reasonable . McCarthy 's most hostile Catholic critic , John Cogley of Commonweal , pointed out , " A totally different selection of film would turn McCarthy into a man on a shining white steed — infinitely reasonable , burdened with the onus of single @-@ handedly cleaning out subversives in the face of violent criticism . " Cogley wrote that when television is " Combined with selectivity it would explode in any person 's or any group 's face . " Cogley said Murrow used " partial truth and innuendo " that Murrow and other critics accused McCarthy of using .
= = = The " Joe Must Go " recall attempt = = =
On March 18 , 1954 Sauk @-@ Prairie Star editor Leroy Gore of Sauk City , Wisconsin urged the recall of McCarthy in a front page editorial that ran alongside a sample petition that readers could fill out and mail to the newspaper . A Republican and former McCarthy supporter , Gore cited the senator with subverting President Eisenhower 's authority , disrespecting Wisconsin 's @-@ own Gen. Ralph Wise Zwicker and ignoring the plight of Wisconsin dairy farmers faced with price @-@ slashing surpluses .
Despite critics ' claims that a recall attempt was foolhardy , the " Joe Must Go " movement caught fire and was backed by a diverse coalition including other Republican leaders , Democrats , businessmen , farmers and students . Wisconsin 's constitution stipulates the number of signatures needed to force a recall election must exceed one @-@ quarter the number of voters in the most recent gubernatorial election , requiring the anti @-@ McCarthy movement to gather some 404 @,@ 000 signatures in sixty days . With little support from organized labor or the state Democratic Party , the roughly organized recall effort attracted national attention , particularly during the concurrent Army @-@ McCarthy hearings .
Following the deadline of June 5 , the final number of signatures was never determined because the petitions were sent out of state to avoid a subpoena from the Sauk County district attorney , an ardent McCarthy supporter who was investigating the leaders of the recall campaign on the grounds that they had violated Wisconsin 's Corrupt Practices Act . Chicago newspapermen later tallied 335 @,@ 000 names while another 50 @,@ 000 were said to be hidden in Minneapolis , with other lists buried on Sauk County farms .
= = = Public opinion = = =
= = = Censure and the Watkins Committee = = =
Several members of the U.S. Senate had opposed McCarthy well before 1953 . Senator Margaret Chase Smith , a Maine Republican , delivered her " Declaration of Conscience " on June 1 , 1950 , calling for an end to the use of smear tactics without mentioning McCarthy or anyone else by name . Six other Republican Senators – Wayne Morse , Irving Ives , Charles W. Tobey , Edward John Thye , George Aiken , and Robert C. Hendrickson – joined her in condemning McCarthy 's tactics . McCarthy referred to Smith and her fellow Senators as " Snow White and the six dwarfs " .
On March 9 , 1954 , Vermont Republican Senator Ralph E. Flanders gave a humor @-@ laced speech on the Senate floor , questioning McCarthy 's tactics in fighting communism , likening McCarthyism to " housecleaning " with " much clatter and hullabaloo " . He recommended that McCarthy turn his attention to the worldwide encroachment of Communism outside North America . In a June 1 speech , Flanders compared McCarthy to Adolf Hitler , accusing him of spreading " division and confusion " and saying , " Were the Junior Senator from Wisconsin in the pay of the Communists he could not have done a better job for them . " On June 11 , Flanders introduced a resolution to have McCarthy removed as chair of his committees . Although there were many in the Senate who believed that some sort of disciplinary action against McCarthy was warranted , there was no clear majority supporting this resolution . Some of the resistance was due to concern about usurping the Senate 's rules regarding committee chairs and seniority . Flanders next introduced a resolution to censure McCarthy . The resolution was initially written without any reference to particular actions or misdeeds on McCarthy 's part . As Flanders put it , " It was not his breaches of etiquette , or of rules or sometimes even of laws which is so disturbing , " but rather his overall pattern of behavior . Ultimately a " bill of particulars " listing 46 charges was added to the censure resolution . A special committee , chaired by Senator Arthur Vivian Watkins , was appointed to study and evaluate the resolution . This committee opened hearings on August 31 .
After two months of hearings and deliberations , the Watkins Committee recommended that McCarthy be censured on two of the 46 counts : his contempt of the Subcommittee on Rules and Administration , which had called him to testify in 1951 and 1952 , and his abuse of General Zwicker in 1954 . The Zwicker count was dropped by the full Senate on the grounds that McCarthy 's conduct was arguably " induced " by Zwicker 's own behavior . In place of this count , a new one was drafted regarding McCarthy 's statements about the Watkins Committee itself .
The two counts on which the Senate ultimately voted were :
That McCarthy had " failed to cooperate with the Subcommittee on Rules and Administration " , and " repeatedly abused the members who were trying to carry out assigned duties ... "
That McCarthy had charged " three members of the [ Watkins ] Select Committee with ' deliberate deception ' and ' fraud ' ... that the special Senate session ... was a ' lynch party ' " , and had characterized the committee " as the ' unwitting handmaiden ' , ' involuntary agent ' and ' attorneys in fact ' of the Communist Party " , and had " acted contrary to senatorial ethics and tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute , to obstruct the constitutional processes of the Senate , and to impair its dignity " .
On December 2 , 1954 , the Senate voted to " condemn " McCarthy on both counts by a vote of 67 to 22 . The Democrats present unanimously favored condemnation and the Republicans were split evenly . The only senator not on record was John F. Kennedy , who was hospitalized for back surgery ; Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted . Immediately after the vote , Senator H. Styles Bridges , a McCarthy supporter , argued that the resolution was " not a censure resolution " because the word " condemn " rather than " censure " was used in the final draft . The word " censure " was then removed from the title of the resolution , though it is generally regarded and referred to as a censure of McCarthy , both by historians and in Senate documents . McCarthy himself said , " I wouldn 't exactly call it a vote of confidence . " He added , " I don 't feel I 've been lynched . "
= = Final years = =
After his censure , McCarthy continued senatorial duties for another two and a half years , but his career as a major public figure had been unmistakably ruined . His colleagues in the Senate avoided him ; his speeches on the Senate floor were delivered to a near @-@ empty chamber or were received with conspicuous displays of inattention . The press that had once recorded his every public statement now ignored him , and outside speaking engagements dwindled almost to nothing . President Eisenhower , finally freed of McCarthy 's political intimidation , quipped to his Cabinet that McCarthyism was now " McCarthywasm " .
Still , McCarthy continued to rail against Communism . He warned against attendance at summit conferences with " the Reds " , saying that " you cannot offer friendship to tyrants and murderers ... without advancing the cause of tyranny and murder . " He declared that " coexistence with Communists is neither possible nor honorable nor desirable . Our long @-@ term objective must be the eradication of Communism from the face of the earth . " In one of his final acts in the Senate , McCarthy opposed President Eisenhower 's nomination to the Supreme Court of William J. Brennan , after reading a speech Brennan had given shortly beforehand in which he characterized McCarthy 's anti @-@ Communist investigations as " witch hunts " . McCarthy 's opposition failed to gain any traction , however , and he was the only Senator to vote against Brennan 's confirmation .
McCarthy 's biographers agree that he was a changed man after the censure ; declining both physically and emotionally , he became a " pale ghost of his former self " in the words of Fred J. Cook . It was reported that McCarthy suffered from cirrhosis of the liver and was frequently hospitalized for alcoholism . Numerous eyewitnesses , including Senate aide George Reedy and journalist Tom Wicker , reported finding him alarmingly drunk in the Senate . Journalist Richard Rovere ( 1959 ) wrote :
He had always been a heavy drinker , and there were times in those seasons of discontent when he drank more than ever . But he was not always drunk . He went on the wagon ( for him this meant beer instead of whiskey ) for days and weeks at a time . The difficulty toward the end was that he couldn 't hold the stuff . He went to pieces on his second or third drink . And he did not snap back quickly .
= = = Death = = =
McCarthy died in Bethesda Naval Hospital on May 2 , 1957 , at the age of 48 . The official cause of his death was listed as acute hepatitis , an inflammation of the liver . It was hinted in the press that he died of alcoholism , an estimation that is now accepted by contemporary biographers . He was given a state funeral attended by 70 senators , and a Solemn Pontifical Requiem Mass was said before more than 100 priests and 2 @,@ 000 others at Washington 's St. Matthew 's Cathedral . Thousands of people viewed the body in Washington . He was buried in St. Mary 's Parish Cemetery , Appleton , Wisconsin , where more than 17 @,@ 000 filed through St. Mary 's Church to pay their last respects . Three senators — George W. Malone , William E. Jenner , and Herman Welker — had flown from Washington to Appleton on the plane carrying McCarthy 's casket . Robert F. Kennedy quietly attended the funeral in Wisconsin . McCarthy was survived by his wife , Jean , and their adopted daughter , Tierney .
In the summer of 1957 , a special election was held to fill McCarthy 's seat . In the primaries , voters in both parties turned away from McCarthy 's legacy . The Republican primary was won by Walter J. Kohler , Jr . , who called for a clean break from McCarthy 's approach ; he defeated former Congressman Glenn Robert Davis , who charged that Eisenhower was soft on Communism . The Democratic winner was William Proxmire , who called the late McCarthy " a disgrace to Wisconsin , to the Senate , and to America " . On August 27 , Proxmire won the election , serving in the seat for 32 years until the end of his fifth full term at the start of 1989 .
= = Legacy = =
Joseph McCarthy remains a very controversial figure . In the view of a few conservative latter @-@ day authors , such as commentators William Norman Grigg and Medford Stanton Evans , McCarthy 's place in history should be reevaluated . Many scholars , including some generally regarded as conservative , have opposed these views .
Other authors and historians , including Arthur Herman , assert that new evidence — in the form of Venona @-@ decrypted Soviet messages , Soviet espionage data now opened to the West , and newly released transcripts of closed hearings before McCarthy 's subcommittee — has partially vindicated McCarthy by showing that many of his identifications of Communists were correct and that the scale of Soviet espionage activity in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s was larger than many scholars suspected .
After reviewing evidence from Venona and other sources , historian John Earl Haynes concluded that , of 159 people identified on lists used or referenced by McCarthy , evidence was substantial that nine had aided Soviet espionage efforts . He suggested that a majority of those on the lists could legitimately have been considered security risks , but that a substantial minority could not . Among those implicated in files later made public from the Venona project and Soviet sources were Cedric Belfrage , Frank Coe , Lauchlin Currie , Harold Glasser , David Karr , Mary Jane Keeney , and Leonard Mins .
These viewpoints are considered revisionist by many scholars . Challenging efforts aimed at the " rehabilitation " of McCarthy , Haynes argues that McCarthy 's attempts to " make anti @-@ communism a partisan weapon " actually " threatened [ the post @-@ War ] anti @-@ Communist consensus " , thereby ultimately harming anti @-@ Communist efforts more than helping .
Diplomat George Kennan drew on his State Department experience to provide his view that " The penetration of the American governmental services by members or agents ( conscious or otherwise ) of the American Communist Party in the late 1930s was not a figment of the imagination ... it really existed ; and it assumed proportions which , while never overwhelming , were also not trivial . " Kennan wrote that under the Roosevelt administration : " warnings which should have been heeded fell too often on deaf or incredulous ears . " However , Kennan made his assessment before the revelation of the Venona decrypts . The facts in the Venona documents were damning . The previous cautious assessments had to be revised . Not a few “ but hundreds of American Communists abetted Soviet espionage in the United States ” in the 1930s and 1940s . No modern government had been more thoroughly penetrated . Plus , only a tiny fraction of the Venona intercepts have been decrypted ( about 3 % ) , so no one knows the entire extent of the penetration . All anyone can know for sure is that the Soviet penetration into the United States government was massive .
William Bennett , former Reagan Administration Secretary of Education , summed up this perspective in his 2007 book America : The Last Best Hope :
The cause of anti @-@ communism , which united millions of Americans and which gained the support of Democrats , Republicans and independents , was undermined by Sen. Joe McCarthy ... McCarthy addressed a real problem : disloyal elements within the U.S. government . But his approach to this real problem was to cause untold grief to the country he claimed to love ... Worst of all , McCarthy besmirched the honorable cause of anti @-@ communism . He discredited legitimate efforts to counter Soviet subversion of American institutions .
= = HUAC and SACB = =
McCarthy 's hearings are often incorrectly conflated with the hearings of the House Committee on Un @-@ American Activities ( HUAC ) . HUAC is best known for the investigation of Alger Hiss and for its investigation of the Hollywood film industry , which led to the blacklisting of hundreds of actors , writers , and directors . HUAC was a House committee , and as such had no formal connection with McCarthy , who served in the Senate , although the existence of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee thrived in part as a result of McCarthy 's activities . HUAC was active for 29 years .
Similarly , the Subversive Activities Control Board ( SACB ) was a five @-@ member committee established by the McCarran Internal Security Act , which had a mandate , similar to HUAC and inspired by McCarthy , to locate and investigate so @-@ called " subversives " , or those sympathetic to the Communists . They were accused of promoting the establishment of a " totalitarian dictatorship " in the United States . Truman vetoed the act , sending Congress a lengthy veto message in which he criticized specific provisions as " the greatest danger to freedom of speech , press , and assembly since the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 , " and called it a " mockery of the Bill of Rights " and a " long step toward totalitarianism " . His veto was overridden . SACB was active for 22 years .
= = In popular culture = =
From the start of his notoriety , McCarthy was a favorite subject for political cartoonists . He was traditionally depicted in a negative light , normally pertaining to McCarthyism and his accusations . Herblock 's cartoon that coined the term McCarthyism appeared less than two months after the senator 's now famous February 1950 speech in Wheeling , West Virginia . In 1953 , the popular daily comic strip Pogo introduced the character Simple J. Malarkey , a pugnacious and conniving wildcat with an unmistakable physical resemblance to McCarthy . After a worried Rhode Island newspaper editor protested to the syndicate that provided the strip , creator Walt Kelly began depicting the Malarkey character with a bag over his head , concealing his features . The explanation was that Malarkey was hiding from a Rhode Island Red hen , a clear reference to the controversy over the Malarkey character .
As his fame grew , McCarthy increasingly became the target of ridicule and parody . He was impersonated by nightclub and radio impressionists and was satirized in Mad magazine , on The Red Skelton Show , and elsewhere . Several comedy songs lampooning the senator were released in 1954 , including " Point of Order " by Stan Freberg and Daws Butler , " Senator McCarthy Blues " by Hal Block , and unionist folk singer Joe Glazer 's " Joe McCarthy 's Band " , sung to the tune of " McNamara 's Band " . Also in 1954 , the radio comedy team Bob and Ray parodied McCarthy with the character " Commissioner Carstairs " in their soap opera spoof " Mary Backstayge , Noble Wife " . That same year , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation radio network broadcast
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25 % . With the copyright secured , Ricketts ' name was dropped from the cover , though the title page acknowledged that the book was " the narrative portion of the Sea of Cortez by John Steinbeck and E.F. Ricketts " , and throughout his life , Steinbeck insisted on referring to the work as a collaboration . The republished narrative is unchanged from the original published in Sea of Cortez .
The republished version enjoyed greater success than the original . Although , by the time of his death in 1968 , Steinbeck 's reputation was at an all @-@ time low owing to his mediocre output during the last decades of his life and his support for American involvement in Vietnam , his books have slowly regained their popularity . The Log from the Sea of Cortez became an important work within his oeuvre , not only as an interesting travelogue and work of non @-@ fiction , but for its first @-@ hand account of Ed Ricketts , the man whose thinking had so much influence on the course of Steinbeck 's writing and on whom he had based so many of his pivotal characters . Whereas earlier critics mostly assumed that " Mr. Ricketts contributed some of the biology , and Mr. Steinbeck all of the prose " , the publication of Ricketts ' rediscovered original notes in 2003 has revealed how closely Steinbeck followed Ricketts ' journal . This has forced a re @-@ evaluation of how far it is fair to attribute authorship of the narrative portion of Sea of Cortez to Steinbeck , and has caused critics to view the removal of Ricketts ' name from the cover as reflecting badly on Steinbeck .
Travels With Charley : In Search of America , another non @-@ fiction travelogue which Steinbeck wrote in 1962 , is seen as a more rounded view of the author late in life , but The Log from the Sea of Cortez is regarded as showing the direct influence of Ed Ricketts and his philosophies on Steinbeck , and provides clues to the underlying rationales for some events in his novels . In particular , " About Ed Ricketts " reveals how closely he was tied to the characters in Steinbeck 's novels : parts are taken almost verbatim from descriptions of " Doc " in Cannery Row . The book is also important for seeing something of Ed Ricketts himself . It was the only example of his philosophical writings published in his lifetime . The " Essay on Non @-@ teleological Thinking " was part of a trilogy of philosophical essays he had written before the trip , and which , with Steinbeck 's help , he continued to try to have published until his death . As a travelogue it captures a lost world . Even as they were making the trip , a new hotel was being built in La Paz . Steinbeck bemoaned the coming of tourism :
Probably the airplanes will bring week @-@ enders from Los Angeles before long , and the beautiful poor bedraggled old town will bloom with a Floridian ugliness .
Today , Cabo San Lucas is home to luxury hotels and the houses of American rock stars , and many of the small villages have become suburbs of the larger towns of the Gulf , but people still visit , attempting to capture something of the spirit of the leisurely journey Steinbeck and Ricketts took around the Sea of Cortez .
= Ayn Rand =
Ayn Rand ( / ˈaɪn ˈrænd / ; born Alisa Zinov 'yevna Rosenbaum , Russian : Али ́ са Зино ́ вьевна Розенба ́ ум ; February 2 [ O.S. January 20 ] 1905 – March 6 , 1982 ) was a Russian @-@ born American novelist , philosopher , playwright , and screenwriter . She is known for her two best @-@ selling novels , The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged , and for developing a philosophical system she called Objectivism . Educated in Russia , she moved to the United States in 1926 . She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935 – 1936 . After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful in America , she achieved fame with her 1943 novel , The Fountainhead .
In 1957 , Rand published her best @-@ known work , the novel Atlas Shrugged . Afterward , she turned to non @-@ fiction to promote her philosophy , publishing her own magazines and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982 . Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge , and rejected faith and religion . She supported rational and ethical egoism , and rejected altruism . In politics , she condemned the initiation of force as immoral , and opposed collectivism and statism as well as anarchism , and instead supported laissez @-@ faire capitalism , which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights . In art , Rand promoted romantic realism . She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her , except for Aristotle and some Aristotelians , and classical liberals .
Literary critics received Rand 's fiction with mixed reviews , and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy , though academic interest has increased in recent decades . The Objectivist movement attempts to spread her ideas , both to the public and in academic settings . She has been a significant influence among libertarians and American conservatives .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Rand was born Alisa Zinov 'yevna Rosenbaum ( Russian : Али ́ са Зиновьевна Розенбаум ) on February 2 , 1905 , to a Russian Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg . She was the eldest of the three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife , Anna Borisovna ( née Kaplan ) , largely non @-@ observant Jews . Zinovy Rosenbaum was a successful pharmacist and businessman , eventually owning a pharmacy and the building in which it was located . With a passion for the liberal arts , Rand later said she found school unchallenging and she began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten . At the prestigious Stoiunina Gymnasium , her closest friend was Vladimir Nabokov 's younger sister , Olga . The two girls shared an intense interest in politics and would engage in debates at the Nabokov mansion : while Nabokova defended constitutional monarchy , Rand supported republican ideals . She was twelve at the time of the February Revolution of 1917 , during which she favored Alexander Kerensky over Tsar Nicholas II .
The subsequent October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed . Her father ’ s business was confiscated and the family displaced . They fled to the Crimean Peninsula , which was initially under control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War . She later recalled that , while in high school , she determined that she was an atheist and that she valued reason above any other human virtue . After graduating from high school in the Crimea at 16 , Rand returned with her family to Petrograd ( as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time ) , where they faced desperate conditions , on occasion nearly starving .
After the Russian Revolution , universities were opened to women , allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University , where , at the age of 16 , she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy , majoring in history . At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato , who would be her greatest influence and counter @-@ influence , respectively . A third figure whose philosophical works she studied heavily was Friedrich Nietzsche . Able to read French , German and Russian , Rand also discovered the writers Fyodor Dostoevsky , Victor Hugo , Edmond Rostand , and Friedrich Schiller , who became her perennial favorites .
Along with many other " bourgeois " students , Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating . However , after complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists , many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate , which Rand did in October 1924 . She subsequently studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad . For one of her assignments , she wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri , which became her first published work .
By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand , possibly as a Cyrillic contraction of her birth surname , and she adopted the first name Ayn , either from a Finnish name Aino or from the Hebrew word עין ( ayin , meaning " eye " ) .
= = = Arrival in the United States = = =
In the autumn of 1925 , Rand was granted a visa to visit American relatives . She departed on January 17 , 1926 . When she arrived in New York City on February 19 , 1926 , she was so impressed with the skyline of Manhattan that she cried what she later called " tears of splendor " . Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter , she lived for a few months with relatives in Chicago , one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free . She then set out for Hollywood , California .
Initially , Rand struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses . A chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to a job as an extra in his film The King of Kings as well as subsequent work as a junior screenwriter . While working on The King of Kings , she met an aspiring young actor , Frank O 'Connor ; the two were married on April 15 , 1929 . She became a permanent US resident in July 1929 , and became an American citizen on March 3 , 1931 . Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing , she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios . She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States , but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate .
= = = Early fiction = = =
Rand 's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios in 1932 , although it was never produced . This was followed by the courtroom drama Night of January 16th , first produced by E.E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on Broadway in 1935 . Each night the " jury " was selected from members of the audience , and one of the two different endings , depending on the jury 's " verdict " , would then be performed . In 1941 , Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play . Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result . Ideal is a novel and play written in 1934 which were first published in 2015 by her estate . The heroine is an actress who embodies Randian ideals .
Rand 's first published novel , the semi @-@ autobiographical We the Living , was published in 1936 . Set in Soviet Russia , it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state . In a 1959 foreword to the novel , Rand stated that We the Living " is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write . It is not an autobiography in the literal , but only in the intellectual sense . The plot is invented , the background is not ... " Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print , although European editions continued to sell . After the success of her later novels , Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies . In 1942 , without Rand 's knowledge or permission , the novel was made into a pair of Italian films , Noi vivi and Addio , Kira . Rediscovered in the 1960s , these films were re @-@ edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re @-@ released as We the Living in 1986 .
Her novella Anthem was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel , The Fountainhead . It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word ' I ' has been forgotten and replaced with ' we ' . It was published in England in 1938 , but Rand initially could not find an American publisher . As with We the Living , Rand 's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946 , which has sold more than 3 @.@ 5 million copies .
= = = The Fountainhead and political activism = = =
During the 1940s , Rand became politically active . Both she and her husband worked full @-@ time in volunteer positions for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie . This work led to Rand 's first public speaking experiences , including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had just viewed pro @-@ Willkie newsreels , an experience she greatly enjoyed . This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free @-@ market capitalism . She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife , and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises . Despite her philosophical differences with them , Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career , and both of them expressed admiration for her . Once Mises referred to Rand as " the most courageous man in America " , a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said " man " instead of " woman " . Rand also developed a friendship with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson . Rand questioned the well @-@ informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only nonfiction book , The God of the Machine .
Rand 's first major success as a writer came with The Fountainhead in 1943 , a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years . The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as " second @-@ handers " — those who attempt to live through others , placing others above themselves . It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs @-@ Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden , who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it . While completing the novel , Rand was prescribed Benzedrine , a brand of amphetamine , to fight fatigue . The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the finished novel , but when the book was done , she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks ' rest . Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings .
The Fountainhead eventually became a worldwide success , bringing Rand fame and financial security . In 1943 , Rand sold the rights for a film version to Warner Bros. , and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay . Finishing her work on that screenplay , she was hired by producer Hal Wallis as a screenwriter and script @-@ doctor . Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the Oscar @-@ nominated Love Letters and You Came Along . This role gave Rand time to work on other projects , including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called The Moral Basis of Individualism . Although the planned book was never completed , a condensed version was published as an essay titled " The Only Path to Tomorrow " , in the January 1944 edition of Reader 's Digest magazine .
Rand extended her involvement with free @-@ market and anti @-@ communist activism while working in Hollywood . She became involved with the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals , a Hollywood anti @-@ Communist group , and wrote articles on the group 's behalf . She also joined the anti @-@ Communist American Writers Association . A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand 's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments to valued political allies , which Rand considered rude . In 1947 , during the Second Red Scare , Rand testified as a " friendly witness " before the United States House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film Song of Russia . Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union , portraying life there as being much better and happier than it actually was . She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film The Best Years of Our Lives for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world , but she was not allowed to testify about it . When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations , Rand described the process as " futile " .
After several delays , the film version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949 . Although it used Rand 's screenplay with minimal alterations , she " disliked the movie from beginning to end " , complaining about its editing , acting , and other elements .
= = = Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism = = =
In the years following the publication of The Fountainhead , Rand received numerous letters from readers , some of whom the book profoundly influenced . In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City , where she gathered a group of these admirers around her . This group ( jokingly designated " The Collective " ) included future Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan , a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal ( later Nathaniel Branden ) and his wife Barbara , and Barbara 's cousin Leonard Peikoff . At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy . Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel , Atlas Shrugged , as the manuscript pages were written . In 1954 Rand 's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair , with the consent of their spouses .
Atlas Shrugged , published in 1957 , was considered Rand 's magnum opus . Rand described the theme of the novel as " the role of the mind in man 's existence — and , as a corollary , the demonstration of a new moral philosophy : the morality of rational self @-@ interest . " It advocates the core tenets of Rand 's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement . The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists , scientists , and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy . The novel 's hero and leader of the strike , John Galt , describes the strike as " stopping the motor of the world " by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation 's wealth and achievement . With this fictional strike , Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive , the economy would collapse and society would fall apart . The novel includes elements of romance , mystery , and science fiction , and it contains Rand 's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction , a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt .
Despite many negative reviews , Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller . In an interview with Mike Wallace , Rand declared herself " the most creative thinker alive " . After completing the novel , Rand fell into a severe depression . Atlas Shrugged was Rand 's last completed work of fiction ; a turning point in her life , it marked the end of Rand 's career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher .
In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures , later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute ( NBI ) , to promote Rand 's philosophy . Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals that she edited . Rand later published some of these articles in book form . Critics , including some former NBI students and Branden himself , have described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand , with some describing NBI or the Objectivist movement itself as a cult or religion . Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics , from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair , and some of her followers mimicked her preferences , wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers . Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards , sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her . However , some former NBI students believe the extent of these behaviors has been exaggerated , with the problem being concentrated among Rand 's closest followers in New York .
= = = Later years = = =
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s , Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as Yale , Princeton , Columbia , Harvard , and MIT . She received an honorary doctorate from Lewis & Clark College in 1963 . She also began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum , responding afterward to questions from the audience . During these speeches and Q & A sessions , she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day . These included supporting abortion rights , opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft ( but condemning many draft dodgers as " bums " ) , supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as " civilized men fighting savages " , saying European colonists had the right to develop land taken from American Indians , and calling homosexuality " immoral " and " disgusting " , while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it . She also endorsed several Republican candidates for President of the United States , most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964 , whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for The Objectivist Newsletter .
In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott , whom he later married . Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand . When she learned of it in 1968 , though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended , Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens , which led to the closure of NBI . Rand published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other " irrational behavior in his private life " . Branden later apologized in an interview to " every student of Objectivism " for " perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique " and for " contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement . " In subsequent years , Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company .
Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking . In 1976 , she retired from writing her newsletter and , despite her initial objections , allowed Evva Pryor , a social worker from her attorney 's office , to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare . During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined , especially after the death of her husband on November 9 , 1979 . One of her final projects was work on a never @-@ completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged .
Rand died of heart failure on March 6 , 1982 , at her home in New York City , and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery , Valhalla , New York . Rand 's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers , including Alan Greenspan . A 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket . In her will , Rand named Leonard Peikoff the heir to her estate .
= = Philosophy = =
Rand called her philosophy " Objectivism " , describing its essence as " the concept of man as a heroic being , with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life , with productive achievement as his noblest activity , and reason as his only absolute . " She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics , epistemology , ethics , political philosophy and aesthetics .
In metaphysics , Rand supported philosophical realism , and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism , including all forms of religion .
In epistemology , she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception , the validity of which she considered axiomatic , and reason , which she described as " the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man 's senses . " She rejected all claims of non @-@ perceptual or a priori knowledge , including " ' instinct , ' ' intuition , ' ' revelation , ' or any form of ' just knowing . ' " Rand argued that the requirements of cognition determine the objective criteria of conceptualization , which she summarized in the form of a philosophical razor . Known as " Rand 's razor , " it states that " concepts are not to be multiplied beyond necessity — the corollary of which is : nor are they to be integrated in disregard of necessity . " In her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology , Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic – synthetic dichotomy .
In ethics , Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism ( rational self @-@ interest ) , as the guiding moral principle . She said the individual should " exist for his own sake , neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself . " She referred to egoism as " the virtue of selfishness " in her book of that title , in which she presented her solution to the is @-@ ought problem by describing a meta @-@ ethical theory that based morality in the needs of " man 's survival qua man " . She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness , and held that the initiation of force was evil and irrational , writing in Atlas Shrugged that " Force and mind are opposites . "
Rand 's political philosophy emphasized individual rights ( including property rights ) , and she considered laissez @-@ faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights . She opposed statism , which she understood to include theocracy , absolute monarchy , Nazism , fascism , communism , democratic socialism , and dictatorship . Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government . Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian , she preferred the term " radical for capitalism " . She worked with conservatives on political projects , but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics . She denounced libertarianism , which she associated with anarchism . She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice .
Rand 's aesthetics defined art as a " selective re @-@ creation of reality according to an artist 's metaphysical value @-@ judgments . " According to Rand , art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped , thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness . As a writer , the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature , where she considered romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will . She described her own approach to literature as " romantic realism " .
Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend " three A 's " — Aristotle , Aquinas , and Ayn Rand . In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace , when asked where her philosophy came from , she responded , " Out of my own mind , with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle , the only philosopher who ever influenced me . I devised the rest of my philosophy myself . " However , she also found early inspiration in Friedrich Nietzsche , and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand 's journals , in passages from the first edition of We the Living ( which Rand later revised ) , and in her overall writing style . However , by the time she wrote The Fountainhead , Rand had turned against Nietzsche 's ideas , and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed . Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was Immanuel Kant , whom she referred to as a " monster " , although philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences .
Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her " theory of concepts , [ her ] ethics , and [ her ] discovery in politics that evil — the violation of rights — consists of the initiation of force . " She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy , stating , " I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism , but of egoism ; and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism , but of reason . If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently , all the rest follows . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Reviews = = =
During Rand 's lifetime , her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation . Rand 's first novel , We the Living , was admired by the literary critic H. L. Mencken , her Broadway play Night of January 16th was both a critical and popular success , and The Fountainhead was hailed by a reviewer in The New York Times as " masterful " . Rand 's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic . However , they became bestsellers largely through word of mouth .
The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th . Reviews of the production were largely positive , but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer . Rand believed that her first novel , We the Living , was not widely reviewed , but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says " it was the most reviewed of any of her works " , with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications . Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work . Her 1938 novella Anthem received little attention from reviewers , both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re @-@ issues .
Rand 's first bestseller , The Fountainhead , received far fewer reviews than We the Living , and reviewers ' opinions were mixed . There was a positive review in The New York Times that Rand greatly appreciated . The reviewer called Rand " a writer of great power " who wrote " brilliantly , beautifully and bitterly " , and stated that " you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time " . There were other positive reviews , but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications . Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel , such as one that called it " a whale of a book " and another that said " anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper @-@ rationing " . Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand 's style " offensively pedestrian " .
Rand 's 1957 novel Atlas Shrugged was widely reviewed , and many of the reviews were strongly negative . In the National Review , conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book " sophomoric " and " remarkably silly " . He described the tone of the book as " shrillness without reprieve " and accused Rand of supporting a godless system ( which he related to that of the Soviets ) , claiming " From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged , a voice can be heard , from painful necessity , commanding : ' To a gas chamber — go ! ' " Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications , including praise from the noted book reviewer John Chamberlain , but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that " reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put @-@ downs " , calling it " execrable claptrap " and " a nightmare " ; they said it was " written out of hate " and showed " remorseless hectoring and prolixity " . Author Flannery O 'Connor wrote in a letter to a friend that " The fiction of Ayn Rand is as low as you can get re fiction . I hope you picked it up off the floor of the subway and threw it in the nearest garbage pail . "
Rand 's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had . The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book , For the New Intellectual , was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged , with philosopher Sidney Hook likening her certainty to " the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union " , and author Gore Vidal calling her viewpoint " nearly perfect in its immorality " . Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers .
On the 100th anniversary of Rand 's birth in 2005 , Edward Rothstein , writing for The New York Times , referred to her fictional writing as quaint utopian " retro fantasy " and programmatic neo @-@ Romanticism of the misunderstood artist , while criticizing her characters ' " isolated rejection of democratic society " . In 2007 , book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as " romance novels with a patina of pseudo @-@ philosophy " . In 2009 , GQ 's critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as " capitalism 's version of middlebrow religious novels " such as Ben @-@ Hur and the Left Behind series .
= = = Popular interest = = =
In 1991 , a survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month Club asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent 's life was . Rand 's Atlas Shrugged was the second most popular choice , after the Bible . Rand 's books continue to be widely sold and read , with over 29 million copies sold as of 2013 ( with about 10 % of that total purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute ) . In 1998 , Modern Library readers voted Atlas Shrugged the 20th century 's finest work of fiction , followed by The Fountainhead in second place , Anthem in seventh , and We the Living eighth ; none of the four appeared on the critics ' list . Although Rand 's influence has been greatest in the United States , there has been international interest in her work . Rand 's work continues to be among the top sellers among books in India .
Rand 's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists , such as Ira Levin , Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith , and later writers such as Erika Holzer and Terry Goodkind have been influenced by her . Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist Steve Ditko and musician Neil Peart of Rush . Rand provided a positive view of business , and in response business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work . John Allison of BB & T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand 's ideas , while Mark Cuban , owner of the Dallas Mavericks , and John P. Mackey , CEO of Whole Foods , among others , have said they consider Rand crucial to their success .
Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media : on television shows including animated sitcoms , live @-@ action comedies , dramas , and game shows , as well as in movies and video games . She , or a character based on her , figures prominently ( in positive and negative lights ) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors . Nick Gillespie , editor in chief of Reason , has remarked that " Rand 's is a tortured immortality , one in which she 's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist ... " and that " jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman , run through the popular culture " . Two movies have been made about Rand 's life . A 1997 documentary film , Ayn Rand : A Sense of Life , was nominated for the Academy Award for Documentary Feature . The Passion of Ayn Rand , a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name , won several awards . Rand 's image also appears on a 1999 U.S. postage stamp designed by artist Nick Gaetano .
= = = Political influence = = =
Although she rejected the labels " conservative " and " libertarian " , Rand has had continuing influence on right @-@ wing politics and libertarianism . Jim Powell , a senior fellow at the Cato Institute , considers Rand one of the three most important women ( along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson ) of modern American libertarianism , and David Nolan , one of the founders of the Libertarian Party , stated that " without Ayn Rand , the libertarian movement would not exist " . In his history of the libertarian movement , journalist Brian Doherty described her as " the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large " , and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as " the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right " .
She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley , Jr. and other contributors for the National Review magazine . They published numerous criticisms in the 1950s and 1960s by Whittaker Chambers , Garry Wills , and M. Stanton Evans . Nevertheless , her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other National Review contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism .
The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives ( often members of the United States Republican Party ) , despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives , such as being pro @-@ choice and an atheist . A 1987 article in The New York Times referred to her as the Reagan administration 's " novelist laureate " . Republican Congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and recommended her novels .
The late @-@ 2000s financial crisis spurred renewed interest in her works , especially Atlas Shrugged , which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis , and opinion articles compared real @-@ world events with the plot of the novel . During this time , signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests . There was also increased criticism of her ideas , especially from the political left , with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets , particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan . For example , Mother Jones remarked that " Rand 's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy , the talented , and the powerful as the oppressed " , while equating Randian individual well @-@ being with that of the Volk according to Goebbels . Corey Robin of The Nation alleged similarities between the " moral syntax of Randianism " and fascism .
= = = Academic reaction = = =
During Rand 's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars . When the first academic book about Rand 's philosophy appeared in 1971 , its author declared writing about Rand " a treacherous undertaking " that could lead to " guilt by association " for taking her seriously . A few articles about Rand 's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982 , many of them in The Personalist . One of these was " On the Randian Argument " by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick , who argued that her meta @-@ ethical argument is unsound and fails to solve the is – ought problem posed by David Hume . Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in The Personalist arguing that Nozick misstated Rand 's case . Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited . Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand 's novels when she began researching her in 1973 , and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s .
Since Rand 's death , interest in her work has gradually increased . Historian Jennifer Burns has identified " three overlapping waves " of scholarly interest in Rand , the most recent of which is " an explosion of scholarship " since the year 2000 . However , few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area , with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study .
Gladstein , Chris Matthew Sciabarra , Allan Gotthelf , Edwin A. Locke and Tara Smith have taught her work in academic institutions . Sciabarra co @-@ edits the Journal of Ayn Rand Studies , a nonpartisan peer @-@ reviewed journal dedicated to the study of Rand 's philosophical and literary work . In 1987 Gotthelf helped found the Ayn Rand Society with George Walsh and David Kelley , and has been active in sponsoring seminars about Rand and her ideas . Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand 's ideas , including Ayn Rand 's Normative Ethics : The Virtuous Egoist , a volume on Rand 's ethical theory published by Cambridge University Press . Rand 's ideas have also been made subjects of study at Clemson and Duke universities . Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work , although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s .
Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen , while stressing the importance and originality of her thought , describe her style as " literary , hyperbolic and emotional " . Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite " the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage " , Rand 's ethics are " a most immense achievement , the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought . " In the Literary Encyclopedia entry for Rand written in 2001 , John David Lewis declared that " Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation " . In a 1999 interview in the Chronicle of Higher Education , Sciabarra commented , " I know they laugh at Rand " , while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community .
Libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer has argued that very few people find Rand 's ideas convincing , especially her ethics , which he believes is difficult to interpret and may lack logical coherence . He attributes the attention she receives to her being a " compelling writer " , especially as a novelist . Thus , Atlas Shrugged outsells not only the works of other philosophers of classical liberalism such as Ludwig von Mises , Friedrich Hayek , or Frederic Bastiat , but also Rand 's own non @-@ fiction works .
Political scientist Charles Murray , while praising Rand 's literary accomplishments , criticizes her claim that her only " philosophical debt " was to Aristotle , instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche .
Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system , philosopher Robert H. Bass has argued that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas .
= = = Objectivist movement = = =
In 1985 , Rand 's heir Leonard Peikoff established the Ayn Rand Institute , a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand 's ideas and works . In 1990 , philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies , now known as The Atlas Society . In 2001 historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship , which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia . The charitable foundation of BB & T Corporation has also given grants for teaching Rand 's ideas or works . The University of Texas at Austin , the University of Pittsburgh , and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill are among the schools that have received grants . In some cases these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand .
= = Selected works = =
Novels :
1936 We the Living
1943 The Fountainhead
1957 Atlas Shrugged
Other fiction :
1934 Night of January 16th
1938 Anthem
2015 Ideal
Non @-@ fiction :
1961 For the New Intellectual
1964 The Virtue of Selfishness
1966 Capitalism : The Unknown Ideal
1969 The Romantic Manifesto
1971 The New Left : The Anti @-@ Industrial Revolution
1979 Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology
1982 Philosophy : Who Needs It
= Kitsunegari =
" Kitsunegari " is the eighth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Vince Gilligan and Tim Minear , and directed by Daniel Sackheim . It aired in the United States on January 4 , 1998 on the Fox network . " Kitsunegari " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 6 , being watched by 19 @.@ 75 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully search for the infamous killer Robert " Pusher " Modell ( Robert Wisden ) — a human with the ability to force his will onto others — after he escapes from prison . The agents soon discover that he is not their only concern ; he has a sister , and she is just as capable of mind @-@ control as he is .
" Kitsunegari " serves as a sequel to the third season episode " Pusher " . The episode 's title means " Fox hunt " in Japanese . Minear 's original story for the episode was one where a convicted criminal who happened to be an atheist would have heard the voice of God , commanding him to kill a truly evil man . Series creator Frank Spotnitz suggested that Minear should use fan favorite Robert Modell .
= = Plot = =
In Lorton , Virginia , Robert Patrick Modell escapes from a prison hospital , after which the guard on duty dazedly says , " He had to go . " Later , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , and Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) arrive at the prison and learn that Modell had suddenly woken up from his coma , induced by Mulder , six months previously .
Scully worriedly asks Mulder if he 's deliberately playing Modell 's game again by heading the investigation . The agents learn from Modell 's physical therapist that the Little Sisters of Charity , who try to visit all the hospitalized inmates , have been seeing Modell . Modell calls the prison and talks to Mulder , who refuses to listen . The call is traced to a sports shop in Occoquan , Virginia where a Carbo @-@ Bar wrapper is left on the counter . Later , Modell is holding a picture of a young woman in a house where a man is covered in Cerulean Blue paint .
The agents identify the dead man as Nathan Bowman , who was the prosecutor at Modell 's trial . " Kitsunegari " , the Japanese term for " fox hunt " , is written on the walls in blue paint . A paint smudge leads the agents to Nathan 's wife Linda , a realtor who has an appointment with a " Mr. Fox Mulder " at a commercial property . Modell uses his influence to affect the first two officers to arrive , but he is not found . When she arrives , Linda tells the agents that her husband had talked about Modell . Mulder is confused , as Modell 's actions do not fit his previous modus operandi . He investigates a nearby building , where he runs into Modell . Modell tries to get Mulder to listen to him , and eventually breaks Mulder 's resolve .
Mulder later tells Scully that he does not believe Modell is on another killing spree , and , after an odd interview with Linda , believes she is the killer and has the same powers as Modell . Skinner suspends Mulder , but Mulder vows to prove his theory right . He talks with Modell 's therapist again , who mentions that a nun from the Little Sisters of Charity had called him a " conquered warrior " . On a hunch , Mulder tries to show her a picture of Linda . The phone rings and , after stating she is with Mulder , she sticks her hand into a fuse box and is fatally electrocuted .
At the FBI safe house , a police car arrives with Modell . Modell enters the room that Linda is in and locks the door behind him . Mulder tells Scully the news of the therapist 's death and urges her to keep Linda away from a phone . At the safe house , Skinner finds Linda 's room door locked . He kicks the door down to find Modell and Linda , with Modell calmly saying that he has a gun . Without hesitation , Skinner shoots Modell when he sees a gun in Modell 's hand , but once he is on the ground Skinner sees that his hand is curled into the shape of the gun .
As Modell is taken away on a stretcher , Mulder arrives and thinks that Modell forced Skinner to shoot him on purpose in order to protect Linda Bowman . Scully says that Linda has been taken home , at which an annoyed Mulder leaves to see Modell in the hospital . A nurse enters the hospital room and tells Mulder that she has to change the patient 's bandages . When Mulder leaves , it is revealed that the nurse is actually Linda Bowman wearing a paper with " Nurse " written on it . Linda then talks Modell 's heart into stopping . A nurse runs past Mulder and he follows her into Modell 's room , where Modell is pronounced dead . Mulder notices the " Nurse " paper has " 214 Channel Avenue " on the back . That night , Mulder visits the address and finds Scully , pointing a gun at him and claiming to be controlled by Linda ; she kills herself . Mulder hears footsteps behind him and turns around to see Linda Bowman pointing a gun at him ; " Linda " states personal information about Mulder , revealing herself to indeed be Scully despite what Mulder sees . She fires a shot at a figure moving behind Mulder , and he then sees Scully in front of him , and a wounded Linda behind him . In Skinner 's office , Linda Bowman 's brain scan shows an advanced temporal lobe tumor , just like her fraternal twin , Robert Modell ; the two had been separated at birth . Mulder has misgivings about nearly killing Scully and feels that he ultimately lost Linda 's game .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Tim Minear and Vince Gilligan , and directed by Daniel Sackheim . Minear 's original idea for the episode involved a convicted criminal who happened to be an atheist . While in prison , he would have heard the voice of God , commanding him to kill a truly evil man , and then he would have suddenly found himself mystically transferred out of the prison . Although the police would be after him , only Mulder would believe he was working for the greater good . Minear noted that " I pitched it and I was going to do it , eventually , until we found ourselves at a point in the year where we needed a script really fast . " Executive producer Frank Spotnitz suggested to Minear that the " convicted atheist " should actually be Robert Modell from the third season episode " Pusher " . After this was decided , Minear put aside the " Word of God " story , as it was called , teamed up with Gilligan , and the two wrote the final script .
Robert Wisden , who had played the original role , was available for the episode . In addition to his appearance on The X @-@ Files , he had also appeared on the Chris Carter @-@ created series Millennium . Diana Scarwid was cast as Modell 's sister . The body of Nathan Bowman , Linda 's husband , was created by drenching an in @-@ house dummy with the correct shade of paint .
The scenes filmed to look as if they were at the Lorton Penitentiary cafeteria were actually filmed at a former hospital storage facility . In order to dress the set , the structure had to be completely cleared of debris and garbage ; this required that several old pump housings be " jackhammered into smithereens " . The episode 's title , " Kitsunegari " ( 狐狩り ) is the Japanese term for " fox hunting " . The series hired two Japanese translators to yield a proper translation of the phrase , due to the fact that " fox hunting " is not readily rendered in Japanese .
= = Reception = =
" Kitsunegari " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 4 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 19 @.@ 75 million viewers .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two wrote that , while " it lacks Vince Gilligan 's trademark wit " , the episode takes the plot threads started in " Pusher " to their " logical conclusions " . Shearman and Pearson explained that the episode 's acting , most notably that of Robert Wisden and Diana Scarwid , " helps raise ' Kitsunegari ' above the average . " Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it a C + . He wrote that , despite his love for " Pusher " , " ' Kitsunegari ' isn 't anywhere near as good as its predecessor " . Handlen cited the change in Modell 's personality , his lack of a desire to kill , and Scully 's portrayal as a " humorless scold who only sees the truth when required to for narrative convenience " as reasons why the episode was weak . He concluded that " Kitsunegari " was " not very well put together " .
John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it a 4 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode was a disappointing sequel to one of the most popular episodes of the series . Bringing back Modell for this story was an ill @-@ advised attempt to capitalize on impressions of continuity , especially since the character aspects of ' Pusher ' were completely absent this time around . It 's hard to believe that Vince and Tim , both strong writers on their own , were responsible for this material . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She called the entry " tame " compared to its original , although she understood the show 's desire to write a sequel . Vitaris also criticized the fact that Modell never murdered anyone and called the episode 's basic plot " cheesy " . She did , however , compliment several of the episode 's set pieces , such as " Nathan Bowman covered in cerulean blue paint " — which she called " striking " — and the scene wherein " Linda stops the heart of the suffering Modell " , calling the latter " sensately performed . "
= Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea =
Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea is a seaside town in north @-@ east Kent , England , with a population of 6 @,@ 996 at the 2011 Census . It is within the Thanet local government district and borders the larger seaside resort of Margate . Its two sandy beaches have remained a popular tourist attraction since the town 's development in the 1860s from a small farming community .
The town is notable for once being the location of a Royal Naval Air Service seaplane base at St Mildred 's Bay , which defended the Thames Estuary coastal towns during World War I. The town is the subject of Sir John Betjeman 's poem , Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . Residents have included the 19th @-@ century surgeon Sir Erasmus Wilson and former Archbishop of Canterbury William Temple . The artist Sir William Quiller Orchardson painted several of his most well @-@ known pictures while living in Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . The British composer Arnold Cooke attended the town 's Streete Preparatory School in the early 20th century , and Eton headmaster Anthony Chenevix @-@ Trench spent the earliest few years of his education in the town .
= = History = =
Before the 1860s , Westgate consisted of only a farm , a coastguard station ( built 1791 and still standing in Old Boundary Road ) and a few cottages for the crew that surrounded it . These were located beside the coast at St Mildred 's Bay , named after Mildrith , Thanet 's patron saint and a one @-@ time Abbess of Minster . The town inherited its name from the Westgate Manor , which was located in the area in medieval times . In the early 20th century , the remains of a Roman villa were discovered in what is now Beach Road , where a stream once used to flow . Fresh water can still be seen rising from the sand at low tide .
During the late 1860s , businessmen developed the area into a seaside resort for the upper to middle @-@ classes . A stretch of sea wall , with promenade on top , was constructed around the beaches at St Mildred 's Bay and West Bay , and the land divided into plots to be sold for what would become an exclusive development by the sea for wealthy metropolitan families within a ' gated community ' , rather than for occasional tourists . The opening of a railway station , in 1871 , led to the rapid expansion of the population , which reached 2 @,@ 738 by 1901 . The demands of the increasing population led to the building of the parish churches of St. James in 1872 and St. Saviour in 1884 . St. Saviour 's was designed by the architect C.N. Beazley . In 1884 it was reported that Essex , on the other side of the Thames Estuary , was hit by a tremor so large that it caused the bells of St. James ' Church to ring . In 1884 , ownership of most of the resort passed to Coutts Bank , after the previous proprietors had gone bankrupt .
Around twenty schools were opened during the late 19th century , although many had only a few pupils or closed within a few years . The largest of the schools were Streete Court School , Wellington House Preparatory School and St Michael 's School .
Wellington House was established in 1886 by two clergymen , the Bull brothers . It closed in 1970 and was demolished in 1972 . Notable old boys included Doctor Who actor Jon Pertwee and cabinet minister John Profumo , known for his involvement in the Profumo affair . Streete Court School was opened in 1894 by John Vine Milne , the father of the author A. A. Milne . In the 1890s , the school was attended by St John Philby , the father of the spy Kim Philby .
The Coronation Bandstand was built by the cliff edge in 1903 , at a cost of £ 350 , to celebrate the coronation of King Edward VII . The following year , a group of French Ursuline nuns , who were banned from teaching in France , fled with some of their pupils to Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea and established the Ursuline Convent School , which in 1995 was re @-@ established as Ursuline College . In 1910 , a Swiss @-@ Gothic styled town hall was built . However , it was soon decided that the building could be put to better use , and in 1912 , it was transformed into the Town Hall Cinema . In 1932 , it was renamed the Carlton Cinema .
On 1 August 1914 , after the outbreak of World War I , a Royal Navy seaplane base was opened by the coast to defend the Thames Estuary naval towns against attack . It was at first used for both seaplanes and landplanes , but due to landing problems , a separate landplane base was opened in Manston in 1916 . After the war , the seaplane base was decommissioned , and the landplane base in Manston eventually became Kent International Airport . During the war , the Coronation Bandstand was converted into sleeping quarters for use by the Royal West Kent Regiment . In 1925 , the bandstand was refurbished and reopened as the 600 @-@ seat Westgate Pavilion theatre . By 1931 , the town 's population had reached 4 @,@ 554 . During World War II , several schools were evacuated to inland areas , with some , such as Streete Court School , leaving the town permanently . On 24 August 1942 , a German fighter pilot , Herbert Bischoff , was captured after being shot down and crash landing in a field adjacent to Linksfield Rd , just south of the town .
On 27 April 1944 a Liberator aircraft from the 392nd USAAF bombing group Based in East Anglia near Wendling , Norfolk , crashed off the beach , adjacent to the Westgate Pavilion , with five of the crew killed and four injured in the crash . A special memorial service was held for the crew by the Mayor of Margate and veterans organisations on 27 April 2009 at the war memorial overlooking the crash site .
In 1975 , five historic church bells were transferred to St Saviour 's Church from the Holy Cross Church in Canterbury , which had closed in 1972 . Three of the bells date back to the early 17th century and one was cast in the 14th century . From the 1970s to the 1990s , the Westgate Pavilion was a bingo hall , after which it closed and became derelict . In 2001 , a group of volunteers formed a charitable trust to repair the pavilion and it was eventually reopened as a theatre .
= = Geography = =
Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea is located in northeast Kent , on the coast of the Thames Estuary . It is bordered by the town of Margate to the east and the village of Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea to the west . The town is built beside the two sandy bays of St Mildred 's Bay and West Bay , which both have a sea wall and groynes to prevent coastal flooding . Chalk cliffs are present in between the bays and either side of the bays . The whole of the northeast Kent coast has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest .
The town is situated on the Isle of Thanet , a separate island from mainland Kent until around two hundred years ago , when the channel in between silted up . The geology of Thanet consists mainly of chalk , deposited when the area was below the sea . The Isle of Thanet was formed when the English Channel was formed by the sea breaking through , an island of chalk being left on the east side of the county . It was separated from the rest of Kent by the Wantsum Channel .
= = = Climate = = =
In East Kent , the warmest time of the year is July and August , when maximum temperatures average around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . The coolest time of the year is January and February , when minimum temperatures average around 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) . The average maximum and minimum temperatures are around 1 / 2 ° C higher than the national average . East Kent 's average annual rainfall is about 728 millimetres ( 29 in ) , with October to January being the wettest months , compared with the national average of 838 millimetres ( 33 in ) .
These are average temperature and rainfall figures taken between 1971 and 2000 at the Met Office weather station in Wye , around 25 miles ( 40 km ) southwest of Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea :
= = = Transport links = = =
Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea railway station is on the Chatham Main Line , which runs between Ramsgate in East Kent and London Victoria . Other stations on this line include Broadstairs , Margate , Herne Bay , Faversham , Gillingham , Rochester and Bromley South . Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea is around 1 hour and 45 minutes to London by fast @-@ service train . A National Express coach service runs between London Victoria and Ramsgate , and a selection of trains run to London 's Cannon Street station , primarily for business commuting . There is a Stagecoach bus service running to neighbouring Birchington and Margate , and a service running between Broadstairs and Canterbury via Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . The A28 road runs between Hastings and Margate via Ashford , Canterbury , Birchington and Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . 4 miles ( 6 km ) southwest of Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea , the A28 crosses the A299 road , which leads along North Kent towards London , becoming the M2 motorway at Faversham .
= = Demographics = =
At the 2001 UK census , the Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea electoral ward had 6 @,@ 594 residents and 2 @,@ 845 households . Of those households , 38 @.@ 0 % were married couples , 8 @.@ 4 % were cohabiting couples and 9 @.@ 4 % were lone parents . 39 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 21 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone at pensionable age . 23 @.@ 6 % of households included children aged under 16 , or a person aged 16 to 18 who was in full @-@ time education . There was a high percentage of households made up of individuals , compared with the percentage for the whole of England . The average household size was 2 @.@ 7 .
The town has a low proportion of non @-@ white people compared to national figures ; the ethnicity recorded in the 2001 census was 97 @.@ 4 % white , 1 @.@ 0 % mixed race , 0 @.@ 4 % Chinese , 0 @.@ 6 % other Asian , 0 @.@ 3 % black and 0 @.@ 3 % other . The number of foreign @-@ born residents is relatively low , with the place of birth of residents in 2001 being 94 @.@ 5 % United Kingdom , 1 @.@ 0 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 5 % Germany , 0 @.@ 6 % other Western Europe countries , 0 @.@ 3 % Eastern Europe , 0 @.@ 8 % Far East , 0 @.@ 6 % North America , 0 @.@ 5 % Africa , 0 @.@ 4 % South Asia , 0 @.@ 2 % Middle East and 0 @.@ 2 % Oceania . Religion was recorded as 75 @.@ 8 % Christian , 0 @.@ 5 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 1 % Buddhist and 0 @.@ 3 % Jewish . 14 @.@ 4 % were recorded as having no religion , 0 @.@ 3 % had an alternative religion and 8 @.@ 3 % did not state their religion .
The age distribution was 5 % aged 0 – 4 years , 13 % aged 5 – 15 years , 5 % aged 16 – 19 years , 28 % aged 20 – 44 years , 22 % aged 45 – 64 years and 27 % aged 65 years and over . There was a high percentage of residents over 65 , compared with the national average of 16 % , mainly due to seaside towns being popular retirement destinations . For every 100 females , there were 85 @.@ 7 males .
= = Economy = =
As a seaside resort , the economy is mainly based around tourism ; there are several hotels and guest houses near the seafront , to accommodate the influx of visitors during the summer . The High Street has a variety of shops and services , and there are a small number of factories . The elderly population has led to many health and social care jobs at local care homes . At the 2001 UK census , 6 @.@ 9 % of the population resided in a medical or care establishment , compared with the national average of only 0 @.@ 8 % .
At the 2001 census , the economic activity of residents in the Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea electoral ward was 32 @.@ 9 % in full @-@ time employment , 12 @.@ 3 % in part @-@ time employment , 7 @.@ 8 % self @-@ employed , 4 @.@ 3 % unemployed , 2 @.@ 1 % students with jobs , 4 @.@ 3 % students without jobs , 18 @.@ 1 % retired , 6 @.@ 2 % looking after home or family , 9 @.@ 5 % permanently sick or disabled and 2 @.@ 3 % economically inactive for other reasons . The percentage of retired people was significantly higher than the national figure of 14 % and the percentage of unemployed people was high compared with the national rate of 3 @.@ 4 % . The number of permanently sick or disabled people was much higher than the national figure of 5 @.@ 3 % . 12 % of residents aged 16 – 74 had a higher education qualification or the equivalent , compared with 20 % nationwide . The Office for National Statistics estimated that during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 , the average gross weekly income of households was £ 430 ( £ 22 @,@ 421 per year ) .
The industry of employment of residents , at the 2001 census , was 16 % retail , 16 % health and social work , 13 % manufacturing , 9 % construction , 9 % real estate , 9 % education , 7 % transport and communications , 5 % public administration , 5 % hotels and restaurants , 3 % finance , 1 % agriculture and 6 % other community , social or personal services . Compared with national figures , there was a relatively high number of workers in the construction and health and social care industries and a relatively low number in finance and real estate . Many residents commute to work outside the town ; at the 2001 census , the town had 2 @,@ 388 employed residents , but only 1 @,@ 464 jobs .
= = Politics = =
Since the constituency was created in 1983 , the Member of Parliament for North Thanet , covering northern Thanet and Herne Bay , has been the Conservative Roger Gale . At the 2005 general election , the Conservatives won a majority of 7 @,@ 634 and 49 @.@ 6 % of the vote in North Thanet . Labour won 32 @.@ 2 % of the vote , Liberal Democrats 14 @.@ 4 % and United Kingdom Independence Party 3 @.@ 9 % . At the 2001 general election , the Conservatives had a higher share of the vote with 50 @.@ 3 % but a lower majority of 6 @,@ 650 . During Labour 's landslide victory at national level at the 1997 general election , the Conservative majority in North Thanet was reduced to 2 @,@ 766 , with the Conservatives on 44 @.@ 1 % of the vote and Labour on 38 @.@ 4 % . The voter turnout during the past three general elections has been between 59 @.@ 3 % and 68 @.@ 8 % .
The town is in the Thanet local government district . It is within the electoral ward of Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea , which has three of the fifty six seats on the Thanet District Council . At the 2007 local elections , two of those seats were won by the Conservative Party and one by an independent candidate . Conservative candidates in the ward won 45 @.@ 8 % of the vote , independent candidates won 27 @.@ 0 % , Labour Party candidates 17 @.@ 6 % and a Grey Party candidate 4 @.@ 6 % . The turnout was 34 @.@ 5 % .
In 2015 Thanet Council set up a parish council for the Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea ward . The new council took office at its first meeting in May 2015 as Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea Town Council . It meets in Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea Town Hall .
= = Education = =
The town 's secondary school is Ursuline College , a specialist sports college and Roman Catholic aided comprehensive school , with nearly 800 pupils and facilities for boarding students . In 2005 , 32 % of its pupils gained at least five GCSEs at grades A * – C including English and maths , ranking it 71st out of Kent 's 120 secondary schools . Many secondary students commute to schools in other nearby towns , especially to the grammar schools in Ramsgate and Broadstairs . The Westgate College For Deaf People for students aged 16 and over closed on 11 December 2015 . An inspection the previous month by the Care Quality Commission uncovered what the inspectors called " shocking examples of institutionalised failings and abuse " and the trust running the schools subsequently went into administration . The London House School of English provides English language courses for foreign students .
The primary state schools are St Crispin 's Infant School and St Saviour 's Church of England Primary School , which is owned by the church but run by Kent County Council . Chartfield School is an independent primary school , educating children from 3 to 11 years .
= = Culture = =
The town has sandy beaches at both St Mildred 's Bay and West Bay . The larger of the beaches is at St Mildred 's Bay , where it is possible to hire beach huts , deck chairs and jet @-@ skis . The beach is a short distance from tennis courts and a golf putting course . At West Bay , there are many small rock pools , which are popular with children . Each beach has nearby cafés , restaurants and public houses , and a European Blue Flag Award is shared between them due to their cleanliness and safety .
The town centre has several Victorian canopied shops , a library and the three @-@ screen Carlton Cinema . In addition to the theatre , the Westgate Pavilion is a venue for discos , yoga , indoor bowls and dance classes .
Formed in 1896 , Westgate and Birchington Golf Club has an 18 @-@ hole 4 @,@ 889 @-@ yard ( 4 @,@ 471 m ) course on the cliff tops between Westgate and Birchington . Based at Hawtreys Field , Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea Cricket Club runs two Saturday teams and two Sunday teams . In the 2007 season , both Saturday teams played in the Kent Cricket Feeder League East ; the Saturday 1st XI team in Division 1C and the Saturday 2nd XI in Division 2C . The Sunday teams do not play in competitive matches . In 2006 , Thanet Council opened a free skatepark at the Lymington Road recreation ground . Designed by local young people , the park caters for skateboarders and in line skaters of all ages and skill levels .
= = Local media = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
There are four local weekly newspapers providing news on the Thanet district area . Isle Of Thanet KM Extra is owned by the KM Group , and the Isle of Thanet Gazette , Thanet Adscene and Thanet Times are owned by Trinity Mirror . Isle Of Thanet KM Extra and Thanet Adscene are free newspapers , whereas the other two are paid @-@ for . KOS publish newspapers covering this area .
= = = Radio = = =
KMFM Thanet is a radio station on frequency 107.2FM , owned by the KM Group and previously known as TLR ( Thanet Local Radio ) . Community radio station Academy FM ( Thanet ) launched in 2010 on 107 @.@ 8 .
= = Notable residents = =
Notable residents of the town have included :
the 19th @-@ century surgeon Sir Erasmus Wilson , who spent the latter part of his life in the town until his death in 1884 .
former Archbishop of Canterbury William Temple , who died in the town in 1944 .
In 1888 , the astronomer and journalist Joseph Norman Lockyer built an observatory on the side of his house in Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea , from where he took observations that formed the basis for his book , The Sun 's Place in Nature .
British composer Arnold Cooke attended Streete Preparatory School in the early 20th century .
The artist Sir William Quiller Orchardson painted several of his most well @-@ known pictures while living in Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . He was buried in the town in 1910 .
While staying at nearby Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea in the 1930s , the poet Sir John Betjeman wrote about the town in his poem Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea .
In 1957 , suspected serial killer Dr John Bodkin Adams spent two weeks in hiding in the town ( to escape the press ) following his controversial acquittal at the Old Bailey .
= Moodu Pani =
Moodu Pani ( English : The Mist ) is a 1980 Indian Tamil @-@ language thriller film written , directed and filmed by Balu Mahendra and produced by Raja Cine Arts . Starring Shoba and Pratap K. Pothen in the lead roles , with N. Viswanathan , Ganthimathi , Mohan and Bhanu Chander in supporting roles , it is based on the 1978 novel Idhuvum Oru Viduthalai Thaan by Rajendra Kumar . The film tells the story of Chandru ( Pothen ) , who has a strong hatred towards prostitutes and would kill any such woman whom he encounters . He falls in love with Rekha ( Shoba ) and believes marrying her will end his psychological distress .
Moodu Pani was the third directorial venture of Mahendra and his second Tamil film after Azhiyatha Kolangal ( 1979 ) . It was the last film featuring Shoba to be produced before her death in the same year , and the first appearance of Mohan in a Tamil film ; he would later become a successful actor in the industry . Moodu Pani was shot mostly in Bangalore , with additional filming taking place in Ooty . The film 's similarities to Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) and the Oedipal elements between Chandru and his mother have been widely discussed . The soundtrack was composed by Ilaiyaraaja , this being his 100th film , and his brother Gangai Amaran was the main lyricist .
Moodu Pani was released on 6 November 1980 to critical acclaim , with particular praise for the way the story was told visually with minimum dependence on dialogue and acting , though the performances of Pothen and Shoba and Ilaiyaraaja 's music also received wide praise , especially the song " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " . The film was a commercial success , running for 250 days in theatres . It was also responsible for a resurgence of the thriller genre in Tamil cinema at that point . Despite the film propelling Pothen to stardom , it also led to him being typecast in similar roles .
= = Plot = =
Chandru ( Pratap K. Pothen ) , the managing director of an export company in Bangalore , has a hatred for prostitutes since childhood , as he was the victim of a prostitute who ruined his family by taking his father away from his mother . Raghunath ( N. Viswanathan ) is a police inspector who knows Chandru and his mother . Raghunath 's son Ravi ( Bhanu Chander ) is engaged to Rekha ( Shoba ) .
Haunted by memories of the prostitute , Chandru lures two prostitutes to lonely places and murders them as he sees that woman in each of them . Rekha 's female friend Pallavi comes to Bangalore to meet her , and telephones her for her residential address . The conversation is overheard by the Madam of a brothel ( Ganthimathi ) , who misleads Pallavi . Instead of being taken to Rekha 's house , Pallavi is taken to the brothel and forced into prostitution . Rekha and Raghunath search for Pallavi . Chandru comes to the same brothel and takes Pallavi in his car , but kills her . Rekha learns of Pallavi 's murder through Raghunath ; neither Rekha nor Raghunath are aware that Chandru is the murderer .
Still photographer Bhaskar ( Mohan ) takes pictures of his lover with a motorbike in the background . Chandru , who had come on that motorbike , had parked it there and murdered a prostitute ( Vijaychandrika ) who enticed him near the same location , then rode away . Reading about the murder in a newspaper , Bhaskar shows Raghunath the pictures with the murderer 's motorbike in the background . Raghunath investigates and learns that the owner has lent it to his friend .
Troubled by his constant anger , Chandru meets with a psychiatrist who advises him to marry soon so that he will no longer be lonely , saying the loneliness is leading him to dwell on his past and indulge in extreme acts . Chandru meets Rekha at a theatre and then at a book stall . He proposes to Rekha and even pleads with her to marry him . Surprised at his extreme pleading , Rekha politely informs him that she loves someone else ( Ravi ) , and their marriage is already fixed . Raghunath is startled when Rekha tells him about Chandru 's marriage proposal .
Chandru keeps following Rekha ; one day when she goes to visit her friend , he makes her unconscious and takes her away to a bungalow in Ooty . When she regains consciousness , he tells her that he had purchased this house in Ooty only for her , and again asks her to marry him . When Rekha refuses and begs to be freed , he asks her to stay for at least a month so that she can understand him better , and then reduces it to a week . He makes all the arrangements to ensure that she cannot escape . One day , Rekha slams Chandru with a spade and runs away . However , he catches and traps her in the garage of his house , but is hospitalised for his injury .
Raghunath visits Chandru 's office for an enquiry and learns that he has gone to Ooty . He also meets Chandru 's psychiatrist and learns about his hatred for prostitutes . He immediately connects this with the recent news of the prostitutes murdered in the city . He visits Chandru 's house . Hidden in the garage , he finds the same motorbike photographed by Bhaskar . With his suspicions growing stronger , he arrives in Ooty to meet Chandru and visits the police station , where he finds Chandru 's car . The area 's inspector tells Raghunath that an unknown person came in the car to the hospital and was admitted ; the car was brought to the police station for safety . Raghunath visits the hospital , but finds that Chandru has left . Raghunath is joined by Ravi , and both rush to Chandru 's house .
Meanwhile , Rekha escapes from the garage and enters the room where Chandru earlier claimed his mother stays . However , she finds only a skeleton and is cornered by Chandru , who tries to assault her . Ravi and Raghunath hear Rekha screaming and rush to the room . Raghunath subdues Chandru , who collapses and reveals that the skeleton is his mother 's . Raghunath understands Chandru 's love for his mother and his traumatic childhood , which had made him develop a hatred for women with loose morals . Chandru is arrested , while Rekha and Ravi unite .
= = Cast = =
Shoba as Rekha
Pratap K. Pothen as Chandru
N. Viswanathan as Raghunath
Ganthimathi as the Madam of the brothel
Mohan as Bhaskar
Vijaychandrika as the prostitute
Bhanu Chander as Ravi ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
Moodu Pani , which was Balu Mahendra 's third feature film and second in Tamil after Azhiyatha Kolangal ( 1979 ) , was based on Rajendra Kumar 's 1978 novel Idhuvum Oru Viduthalai Thaan . It was produced by Raja Cine Arts and edited by D. Vasu . In addition to scripting and directing the film , Mahendra also served as the cinematographer .
Pratap K. Pothen was cast as Chandru , the mild @-@ mannered and psychopathic serial killer of prostitutes . He had previously collaborated with Mahendra on Azhiyatha Kolangal . Shoba was chosen to play Rekha , the female lead . This was her last film to be produced ; she died after filming was complete . It was her third appearance in a film directed by Mahendra , following the Kannada film Kokila ( 1977 ) , and Azhiyatha Kolangal .
N. Viswanathan was cast as the police inspector Raghunath , and Bhanu Chander was chosen to play Raghunath 's son and Rekha 's fiancé Ravi ( although he was not credited ) , while Ganthimathi was cast as the Madam of a brothel . Vijaychandrika appeared as a prostitute murdered by Chandru . Mohan , who later became a leading actor in Tamil cinema , made his debut in Tamil with this film , playing the photographer Bhaskar . It was his second film under Mahendra 's direction , following Kokila .
Moodu Pani was shot in 30 days in Bangalore with 36 @,@ 000 feet of negative film . It was also shot at Ooty . According to cinematographer Rajiv Menon , Mahendra was " trying to capture that misty feel " while shooting the film in hilly places . In the post @-@ production phase , Mahendra had dubbed the voice for Pothen . In making Moodu Pani , Mahendra faced the challenge of distinguishing it from P. Bharathiraja 's Sigappu Rojakkal ( 1978 ) , which had a similar theme . The final length of the film was 3 @,@ 848 metres ( 12 @,@ 625 ft ) .
= = Themes = =
Although Moodu Pani is officially based on the novel Idhuvum Oru Viduthalai Thaan , it has frequently been described as also having been inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's thriller Psycho ( 1960 ) . According to Rukmini Krishnan of Daily News and Analysis , it was Psycho that inspired Mahendra to make Moodu Pani . R. Ilangovan of Frontline stated that while Mahendra was inspired by Psycho , his camera work , the " mist @-@ covered nights " of Bangalore and Ooty , and the " weirdness " of the subject made the film " unique " . While Idhuvum Oru Viduthalai Thaan and its author were acknowledged in the opening credits of the film , Hitchcock and Psycho were not . According to Sify , there is a strong similarity between Moodu Pani and Psycho as the male leads in both films keep the skeletal remains of their respective mothers , which they continue to communicate with . Mahendra 's disciple Ameer noted the Oedipal elements between Chandru and his deceased mother .
Mahendra , in his now defunct blog Moondram Pirai ... , referred to the film as a suspense thriller , while N. Venkateswaran of The Times of India described it as a psychological thriller . Devika Bai , writing for the New Straits Times , referred to Moodu Pani as a whodunit film . K. Hariharan , director of the L. V. Prasad Film & TV Academy , noted that sexuality and the repression of desire were the dominant motifs in Moodu Pani , expressed through the mysterious misty atmospheres of Ooty where the protagonist confronts their psychological antagonist . He also noted that Moodu Pani , like many of Mahendra 's films , borrowed its themes and stylistic devices from French New Wave and New Hollywood styles of filmmaking . Ilangovan noted that Chandru 's character , which was depicted as having flashes of wickedness bordering on perversion , was new to Tamil cinema . Crime and detective fiction writer Pattukkottai Prabakar considers Moodu Pani , along with Sigappu Rojakkal and Nooravathu Naal ( 1984 ) , to explore the personalities and behavioural traits of psychopaths in detail .
= = Music = =
The film 's soundtrack and score were composed by Ilaiyaraaja , this being his 100th film . It was also the first film in which he collaborated with Mahendra ; Ilaiyaraaja would later compose for all of Mahendra 's films until Thalaimuraigal ( 2013 ) , the director 's last film before his death in February 2014 . According to Mahendra , " When I first met [ Ilaiyaraaja ] I explained him what my kind of movie is and what I expect from him . The background score should allow meaningful silences in my films . I believe silence conveys more than words or music " . The soundtrack cover shows a scene from the song " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " involving Chandru ( Pothen ) and Rekha ( Shoba ) . The scene shows Chandru 's dream of being together with Rekha , even though she dislikes him because he has abducted and taken her to Ooty , and she seeks to escape .
Moodu Pani marked A. R. Rahman 's first association with Ilaiyaraaja ; the former ( then known by his birth name Dilip ) worked as a keyboard player in the film . During the re @-@ recording of Moodu Pani 's soundtrack and score , Ilaiyaraaja fired his original keyboard player owing to the person 's drinking behaviour . At that time , another one of his troupe members asked Ilaiyaraaja to meet a boy named Dilip , who knew how to play the keyboard . Ilaiyaraaja agreed and sent for Dilip , whom he instructed regarding the notes and tune he had to play . Dilip , under Ilaiyaraaja 's supervision , successfully completed the re @-@ recording process .
The soundtrack was released under the label EMI Records . " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " was written in January 1980 , and had the longest prelude and interlude using a guitar . Ilaiyaraaja had composed the song " Ilaya Nila " which was initially supposed to feature in this film , but Mahendra rejected it and chose " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " instead . " Ilaya Nila " was subsequently used in Payanangal Mudivathillai ( 1982 ) . According to A. S. Panneerselvan of Frontline , the dominant genre of the music used in Moodu Pani was " modern jazz with a sprinkling of avant @-@ garde elements . " Ilaiyaraaja 's brother Gangai Amaran was the main lyricist of the soundtrack , except for the English language number " Sing Swing " ( also known as " Swing Swing " ) which was written by Viji Manuel ( credited as Vijaysamuel on the first soundtrack edition , and Vijaymanuel on the second ) ; the lyricist of " Aasai Raja " , is not credited . The first soundtrack edition did not feature " Aasai Raja " ; the song was , however , included in a 1981 edition of the soundtrack .
The songs were praised for their superior quality . Due to the popularity of its music , Moodu Pani became the first Tamil film for which a cutout was made for Ilaiyaraaja and displayed in theatres . According to film producer and writer G. Dhananjayan , Ilaiyaraaja was the first music director to have been honoured with a cutout . Writing for The Times of India , Deepauk Murugesan praised " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " for showing K. J. Yesudas ' versatility as a singer . In July 2011 , D. Karthikeyan of The Hindu singled out the film 's re @-@ recording and ranked it alongside the music director 's other films such as Mullum Malarum ( 1978 ) , Uthiripookkal ( 1979 ) , Moondram Pirai ( 1982 ) , Nayakan ( 1987 ) and Thalapathi ( 1991 ) . Indo @-@ Asian News Service described " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " as one of Yesudas ' " best songs " . The song was included in Master Pieces , a compilation album featuring 14 songs composed by Ilaiyaraaja , which was released by Saregama in 2008 . Elements of " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " were incorporated by Ilaiyaraaja in his song " Baatein Hawa " from Cheeni Kum ( 2007 ) . A remix version of " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " is featured on music artist M. Rafi 's album Aasaiyae Alaipolae . In 2006 , Yesudas performed " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " during a programme held at PSG College of Technology , organised by Helpline Arts Academy to sponsor the education of underprivileged children in and around Coimbatore . In March 2010 , singer Vijay Prakash performed " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " as part of a medley , at the Star Vijay music show " Kaadhal Unplugged " . Singer Ajeesh also performed " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " live , at the Puthuyugam TV music show " Yugam Unplugged " in March 2014 .
Tracklist
= = Release and reception = =
Moodu Pani was released on 6 November 1980 and was commercially successful , running for 250 days in theatres . The film received critical acclaim , with critics praising the way the story was told visually with minimum dependence on dialogues and acting , though the performances of Pothen and Shoba also received praise . On 30 November 1980 , Ananda Vikatan said , " Half the dialogues in the film were spoken by the camera ... Balu Mahendra 's camera challenges and asks when I am there , where is the need for screenplay and dialogues ... " The 1991 book Indian Cinema by India 's Ministry of Information and Broadcasting states that Mahendra and Pothen " had brought superb craftsmanship to their sensitively told stories " such as Moodu Pani . English journalist Phil Hardy stated in his 1997 book The BFI Companion to Crime , " Finally , given the tendency in Indian cinema to remake successful Hollywood films , it is worth signalling Balu Mahendra 's remake of Psycho in Tamil , Moodupani ( 1980 ) . "
Bhama Devi Ravi of The Times of India said , " With his easygoing manners , Pothan was brilliant as a serial killer , and the last few minutes of the film were rivetting . " In an interview with India Today , cinematographer Natarajan Subramaniam called Moodu Pani his " eureka moment " . G. Dhananjayan , in his 2011 book The Best of Tamil Cinema called the film a " sleek thriller " , appreciating it for its " quality of making and camera work " . In February 2014 , S. Saraswathi of Rediff.com included Moodu Pani in her list , " The Best Films of Balu Mahendra " . K. S. Sivakumaran of Ceylon Today described the film as " halfway between artistic and merely entertaining . " The Telegraph called it one of Mahendra 's " masterpieces " , as did U. Tejonmayam , writing for The New Indian Express .
= = Legacy = =
After Sigappu Rojakkal , there was a resurgence of the thriller genre in Tamil cinema , as evidenced by films like Moodu Pani . According to G. Dhananjayan , the film became a " benchmark for every cinematographer on how it was shot frame by frame " , and it " inspired a generation to take up film @-@ making " . M. Suganth of The Times of India stated that Mahendra " changed the landscape of Tamil cinema with his distinctive visuals and eclectic films " such as Moodu Pani . Pothen recalled in January 2015 that it was the simultaneous release of Moodu Pani and his other film Varumayin Niram Sivappu that made him a star . However , both Varumayin Niram Sivappu , which depicted Pothen as an eccentric director obsessed with an actress , and Moodu Pani led to him being typecast in similar roles . " Both roles caught the public imagination , and I admit I cashed in when I was offered similar stuff . Now , unless I 'm offered an unreasonable amount of money , I doubt I 'll accept these roles , " he said in a 2014 interview .
In Iruvar Mattum ( 2006 ) , Azhagu ( Abhay ) keeps the skeletal remains of his mother and frequently talks to her ; Sify compared this plot detail to that of Moodu Pani and Psycho . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu , in her review of Julie Ganapathi ( 2003 ) a film about a mentally deranged woman ( Saritha ) who saves an accident victim ( Jayaram ) from death , nurses him in her own home and also falls in love with him , but holds him captive there , stated that the film had " shades " of Moodu Pani . Actor Veera Bahu stated that he watched Moodu Pani in preparation for his role as a psychopath in the thriller Nadunisi Naaygal .
Mahendra 's 2001 film En Iniya Pon Nilavae was named after the song of the same name . Veena player Rajhesh Vaidhya 's 2005 album was also titled En Iniya Pon Nilaave . In Vaaranam Aayiram ( 2008 ) , when Suriya 's character first sees Sameera Reddy 's character and falls in love with her , he takes his guitar and performs " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " . Pothen expressed appreciation for Suriya 's version of the song in a May 2015 interview , saying that he had " enjoyed it " . In June 2014 during Ilaiyaraaja 's 71st birthday , singers Shweta Mohan and Aalap Raju collaborated to make a video in which they performed some of Ilaiyaraaja 's songs as a tribute to him ; one song was " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " . In May 2015 , the FM radio station , Radio City , commemorated Ilaiyaraaja 's 72nd birthday by broadcasting the composer 's songs in a special show titled Raja Rajathan for 91 days . " Yen Iniya Pon Nilavae " was one of the most requested songs on the show . Although no print of Moodu Pani has survived , the film is still available on home video .
= 4chan =
4chan is an English @-@ language imageboard website . Users generally post anonymously , with the most recent posts appearing above the rest . 4chan is split into various boards with their own specific content and guidelines . Registration is not required , nor is it possible ( except for staff ) .
Launched on October 1 , 2003 , its boards were originally used for posting pictures and discussing manga and anime , as the site was modeled on Japanese imageboards , particularly 2chan . The site quickly became popular and expanded , though much of 4chan 's content still features otaku , anime , and other Japanese cultural influences .
The site has been linked to Internet subcultures and activism , most notably Anonymous and Project Chanology . 4chan users have been responsible for the formation or popularization of Internet memes such as lolcats , Rickrolling , " Chocolate Rain " , Pedobear and many others . The site 's " Random " board , also known as " / b / " , was the site 's first forum , and is the one that receives the most traffic . As its name suggests , the Random board has minimal rules on posted content . Gawker once jokingly claimed that " reading / b / will melt your brain " . The site 's anonymous community and culture have often provoked media attention . For media planners , this enterprise is " further proof that creativity is everywhere and new media is less accessible " to advertisement agencies .
4chan users have been instrumental in pranks such as hijacking Internet destinations to cause images of Rick Astley to appear in place of their content , coordinating attacks against other websites and Internet users , and posting threats of violence in order to elicit individual and public reactions . The Guardian once summarized the 4chan community as " lunatic , juvenile [ ... ] brilliant , ridiculous and alarming . "
= = Background = =
The activity of 4chan takes place on message boards and imageboards . The website is split into six categories : Japanese culture , Interests , Creative , Adult ( 18 + ) , Other , and Misc ( 18 + ) . These provide for on @-@ topic boards to discuss anime , manga , technology , sport , photography , music , hentai , torrents , travel , physical fitness , as well as a random board . 4chan originally hosted discussion boards on a separate domain called " world4ch " , but these were later moved to the dis.4chan.org subdomain . The site has had at least one employee , a programmer whom 4chan 's founder Christopher Poole met via online Tetris . All other moderators are volunteers . The / b / ( Random ) , / v / ( Video games ) , / a / ( Anime and Manga ) , and / s / ( explicit images ) boards are respectively the site 's first , second , third , and fourth most popular boards .
4chan is one of the Internet 's most trafficked imageboards , according to the Los Angeles Times . 4chan 's Alexa rank is generally around 700 , though it has been as high as number 56 at times . It is provided to its users free of charge and consumes a large amount of bandwidth ; as a result , its financing has often been problematic . Poole acknowledges that donations alone cannot keep the site online , so he has turned to advertising to help make ends meet . However , the explicit content hosted on 4chan has deterred businesses who do not want to be associated with the site 's content . In January 2009 , Poole signed a new deal with an advertising company ; in February 2009 , he was $ 20 @,@ 000 in debt and the site was continuing to lose money . The 4chan servers were moved from Texas to California in August 2008 , which upgraded the maximum bandwidth throughput of 4chan from 100Mbit / s to 1Gbit / s .
Unlike most web forums , 4chan does not have a registration system , allowing users to post anonymously . Any nickname may be used when posting , even one that has been previously adopted , such as " Anonymous " or " moot " . In place of registration , 4chan has provided tripcodes as an optional form of authenticating a poster 's identity . As making a post without filling in the " Name " field causes posts to be attributed to " Anonymous " , general understanding on 4chan holds that Anonymous is not a single person but a collective ( hive ) of users . Moderators generally post without a name even when performing sysop actions . A " capcode " may be used to attribute the post to " Anonymous # # Mod " , although moderators often post without the capcode . In a 2011 interview on Nico Nico Douga , Poole explained that there are approximately 20 volunteer moderators active on 4chan . 4chan also has a junior moderation team , called " janitors " , who may delete posts or images and suggest that the normal moderation team ban a user , but who can not post with a capcode . Revealing oneself as a janitor is grounds for immediate dismissal .
4chan has been the target of occasional denial of service attacks . For instance , on December 28 , 2010 , 4chan and other websites went down due to such an attack , following which Poole said on his blog , " We now join the ranks of MasterCard , Visa , PayPal , et al . — an exclusive club ! "
= = History = =
4chan was started in 2003 in the bedroom of Christopher Poole , a then @-@ 15 @-@ year @-@ old student from New York City whose 4chan handle is " moot " . Prior to starting 4chan , Poole had been a regular participant on the Something Awful forums . He intended 4chan to be a place to discuss Japanese comics and anime , as an American counterpart to the popular Japanese Futaba Channel ( " 2chan " ) imageboard . Upon the creation of 4chan , Poole encouraged users from the Something Awful subforum titled " Anime Death Tentacle Rape Whorehouse " , who also happened to be dissatisfied with the forum , to discuss anime on his website . Poole originally used the Futaba Channel to obtain anime @-@ related images , and liked the concept of a message board where people anonymously shared images , which eventually led to his idea of creating a similar English @-@ based website . During the creation of 4chan , he obtained the source code for the Futaba Channel website , and translated the Japanese text into English using Altavista 's Babelfish online translator . When he first created the website , it had only two boards : " / a / – Anime / General " and " / b / – Anime / Random " ; more boards were created over time , and / b / was eventually renamed to simply " / b / – Random " .
During the early days of 4chan , the boards that originally existed were the anime , random , cute , hentai , and yaoi boards ; a lolicon board also existed at / l / , but after being disabled for a week around the turn of the year 2004 it was removed in October 2004 . The / g / board also was initially dedicated to guro , before it was deleted and later remade as the " technology " board . During 2004 , 4chan briefly went offline , then returned fully online a few months later . Following 4chan 's return , non @-@ anime related boards , such as the weapons , automobile , and video games boards , were introduced . In 2008 , the " Japan / General " board at / jp / was created for topics that did not fit under the anime and manga category of / a / ; / jp / was later renamed to " Otaku Culture " .
In January 2011 , Poole announced the deletion of the / r9k / ( " ROBOT9000 " ) and / new / ( News ) boards , saying that / new / had become devoted to racist discussions , and / r9k / no longer served its original purpose of being a test implementation of xkcd 's ROBOT9000 script . During the same year , the / soc / board was created in an effort to reduce the number of socialization threads on / b / . / r9k / was restored on October 23 , 2011 , along with / hc / ( " Hardcore " , previously deleted ) , / pol / ( a rebranding of / new / ) and the new / diy / board , in addition to an apology by Poole where he recalls how he criticized the deletion of Encyclopedia Dramatica , and realized that he had done the same .
In 2010 , 4chan had implemented reCAPTCHA in an effort to thwart spam arising from JavaScript worms . By November 2011 , 4chan made the transition to utilizing CloudFlare following a series of distributed denial of service attacks . The 4chan imageboards were rewritten in valid HTML5 / CSS3 in May 2012 in an effort to improve client @-@ side performance . On September 28 , 2012 , 4chan introduced a " 4chan pass " that , when purchased , " allows users to bypass typing a reCAPTCHA verification when posting and reporting posts on the 4chan image boards " ; the money raised from the passes will go towards supporting the site .
On January 21 , 2015 , moot stepped down as the site 's administrator . On September 21 , 2015 , moot announced that Hiroyuki Nishimura had purchased from him the ownership rights to 4chan , without disclosing the terms of the acquisition . Nishimura was the former administrator of 2channel between 1999 and 2014 , the website forming the basis for anonymous posting culture which influenced later websites such as Futaba Channel and 4chan ; Nishimura lost the rights for 2channel to ex @-@ US Army officer Jim Watkins following financial difficulties and a series of scandals involving Nishimura 's alleged datamining and sales of 2channel personal user data to political parties .
= = = Christopher Poole = = =
Poole kept his real @-@ life identity hidden until it was revealed on July 9 , 2008 , in The Wall Street Journal . Before that time he had used the alias " moot " .
In April 2009 , Poole was voted the world 's most influential person of 2008 by an open Internet poll conducted by Time magazine . The results were questioned even before the poll completed , as automated voting programs and manual ballot stuffing were used to influence the vote . 4chan 's interference with the vote seemed increasingly likely , when it was found that reading the first letter of the first 21 candidates in the poll spelled out a phrase containing two 4chan memes : " mARBLECAKE . ALSO , THE GAME . "
On September 12 , 2009 , Poole gave a talk on why 4chan has a reputation as a " Meme Factory " at the Paraflows Symposium in Vienna , Austria , which was part of the Paraflows 09 festival , themed Urban Hacking . In this talk , Poole mainly attributed this to the anonymous system , and to the lack of data retention on the site ( " The site has no memory . " ) .
In April 2010 , Poole gave evidence in the trial United States of America v. David Kernell as a government witness . As a witness , he explained the terminology used on 4chan to the prosecutor , ranging from " OP " to " lurker " . He also explained to the court the nature of the data given to the FBI as part of the search warrant , including how users can be uniquely identified from site audit logs .
= = Links to Anonymous and Project Chanology = =
4chan has been labeled as the starting point of the Anonymous meme by The Baltimore City Paper , due to the norm of posts signed with the " Anonymous " moniker . The National Post 's David George @-@ Cosh said it has been " widely reported " that Anonymous is associated with 4chan and 711chan , as well as numerous Internet Relay Chat ( IRC ) channels .
Through its association with Anonymous , 4chan has become associated with Project Chanology , a worldwide protest against the Church of Scientology held by members of Anonymous . On January 15 , 2008 , a 4chan user posted to / b / , suggesting participants " do something big " against the Church of Scientology 's website . This message resulted in the Church receiving threatening phone calls . It quickly grew into a large real @-@ world protest . Unlike previous Anonymous attacks , this action was characterized by 4chan memes including rickrolls and Guy Fawkes masks . The raid drew criticism from some 4chan users who felt it would bring the site undesirable attention .
= = Notable imageboards = =
As of January 2016 , 4chan hosts 66 discussion @-@ based imageboards , one upload @-@ only Flash board , and a number of trial boards .
= = = / b / = = =
The " random " board , / b / , follows the design of Futaba Channel 's Nijiura board . It was the first board created , and is by far 4chan 's most popular board , with 30 % of site traffic . Gawker.com 's Nick Douglas summarized / b / as a board where " people try to shock , entertain , and coax free porn from each other . " / b / has a " no rules " policy , except for bans on certain illegal content , such as child pornography , invasions of other websites ( posting floods of disruptive content ) , and under @-@ 18 viewing , all of which are inherited from site @-@ wide rules . The " no invasions " rule was added in late 2006 , after / b / users spent most of the summer " invading " Habbo Hotel . The " no rules " policy also applies to actions of administrators and moderators , which means that users may be banned at any time , for any reason , including no reason at all . Due partially to its anonymous nature , board moderation is not always successful — indeed , the site 's anti @-@ child pornography rule is a subject of jokes on / b / . Christopher Poole told The New York Times , in a discussion on the moderation of / b / , that " the power lies in the community to dictate its own standards " and that site staff simply provided a framework .
The humor of / b / ' s many users , who refer to themselves as " / b / tards " , is often incomprehensible to newcomers and outsiders , and is characterized by intricate inside jokes and dark comedy . Users often refer to each other , and much of the outside world , as fags . They are often referred to by outsiders as trolls , who regularly act with the intention of " doing it for the lulz " : a corruption of " LOL " used to denote amusement at another 's expense . The New York Observer has described posters as " immature pranksters whose bad behavior is encouraged by the site 's total anonymity and the absence of an archive " . Douglas said of the board , " reading / b / will melt your brain " , and cited Encyclopedia Dramatica 's definition of / b / as " the asshole of the Internets [ sic ] " . Mattathias Schwartz of The New York Times likened / b / to " a high @-@ school bathroom stall , or an obscene telephone party line " , while Baltimore City Paper wrote that " in the high school of the Internet , / b / is the kid with a collection of butterfly knives and a locker full of porn . " Wired describes / b / as " notorious " .
Each post is assigned a post number . Certain post numbers are sought after with a large amount of posting taking place to " GET " them . A " GET " occurs when a post 's number ends in a special number , such as 12345678 , 22222222 , or every millionth post . A sign of 4chan 's scaling , according to Poole , was when GETs lost meaning due to the high post rate resulting in a GET occurring every few weeks . He estimated / b / ' s post rate in July 2008 to be 150 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 posts per day .
= = = / pol / = = =
/ pol / is 4chan 's political discussion board , titled " Politically Incorrect " . A stickied thread on its front page states that the board 's intended purpose is " discussion of news , world events , political issues , and other related topics " . / pol / was created in October 2011 as a rebranding of 4chan 's news board , / new / , which was deleted that January for a high volume of racist discussion .
Media sources have characterized / pol / as predominantly racist and sexist , with many of its posts taking an explicitly neo @-@ Nazi bent . The Southern Poverty Law Center regards / pol / ' s rhetorical style as widely emulated by white supremacist websites such as The Daily Stormer ; the Stormer 's editor , Andrew Anglin , concurred .
/ pol / was where screenshots of Trayvon Martin 's hacked social media accounts were initially posted . The board 's users have started antifeminist , transphobic , and anti @-@ Arab Twitter campaigns .
= = Internet memes = =
Many Internet memes – – catchphrases or images that spread quickly , peer to peer , across the Internet – have originated on 4chan , usually / b / , as its fast moving , crowd psychology nature enables content to quickly be passed on to large numbers of viewers . Other memes originating on the site have gained media attention of a lesser degree . These include " So I herd u liek mudkipz " [ sic ] , which involves a phrase based on Pokémon and which generated numerous YouTube tribute videos , and the term " an hero " [ sic ] as a synonym for suicide , after a misspelling in the Myspace online memorial of seventh grader Mitchell Henderson . 4chan , and other websites , such as the satirical Encyclopedia Dramatica , have also contributed to the development of significant amounts of leetspeak . Adult fans of My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic are also known to frequent 4chan , having had a board dedicated to their interest .
= = = Lolcats = = =
A lolcat is an image combining a photograph of a cat with text intended to contribute humour . The text is often idiosyncratic and grammatically incorrect . In 2005 , the meme was widely popularized by 4chan in the form of " Caturday " . Every Saturday , users posted pictures of cats with image macros relating to that day 's theme .
= = = Rickrolling = = =
In 2005 , a meme known as the " duckroll " began , after Poole used a word filter to change " egg " to " duck " across 4chan . Thus , words such as " eggroll " were changed to " duckroll " . This led to a bait @-@ and @-@ switch in which external links disguised as relevant to a discussion instead led to a picture of a duck on wheels .
An unidentified 4chan user applied the concept of the duckroll to a 2007 post relating to the video game Grand Theft Auto IV . In March of that year , the game 's trailer had been released , and the game 's immense popularity caused publisher Rockstar Games ' website to crash . The user posted a YouTube link that purportedly led to the trailer , but in reality directed users the music video for Rick Astley 's 1987 song " Never Gonna Give You Up " . Thus , the " rickroll " was born . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Astley said he found the meme " bizarre and funny " .
= = = " Chocolate Rain " = = =
A link to the YouTube video of Tay Zonday 's song " Chocolate Rain " was posted on / b / on July 11 , 2007 . The Age reported that 4chan posters urged each other to " swarm " the video on YouTube and thus increase its ranking . The video became an immensely popular Internet meme , resulting in cover versions by John Mayer and Green Day drummer Tré Cool . The portion of the song in which Zonday turns away from the microphone , with a caption stating " I move away from the mic to breathe in " , became an oft @-@ repeated meme on 4chan and inspired remixes .
= = = Boxxy = = =
The character of Boxxy is portrayed by Catherine " Catie " Wayne , an American Internet celebrity known for her highly energetic vlogs . Her rise to exposure began in late 2008 and early 2009 , surrounding self @-@ made videos that were initially made to be posted to her Gaia Online profile . They then spread to 4chan and other sites , resulting in a large online following .
= = = Pedobear = = =
In his American incarnation , Pedobear is an anthropomorphic bear child predator that is often used within the community to mock contributors showing a sexual interest in children . Pedobear is one of the most popular memes on non @-@ English imageboards , and has gained recognition across Europe . In February 2010 , a photoshopped version of Pedobear appeared along with mascots of the 2010 Winter Olympics in an article on the games in Gazeta Olsztyńska , a Polish newspaper . This was done accidentally ; due to the image being used from Google Images , the authors were unaware of the joke . Similarly , the Dutch television guide Avrobode used one of the images . It has been used as a symbol of pedophilia by Maltese graffiti vandals prior to a papal visit .
= = Other media attention = =
= = = " This post is art " = = =
On July 30 , 2014 , an anonymous user made a reply in a thread on the board / pol / " Politically Incorrect " of 4chan , criticizing modern art in an ironic fashion , saying
Art used to be something to cherish
Now literally anything could be art
This post is art .
Less than an hour later the post was photographed off the screen and framed by another user who posted another reply in the thread with a photo of the framed quote . Later the user , after endorsement by other anonymous users in the thread , created an auction on eBay for the framed photo which quickly rose to high prices , culminating in a price of $ 90 @,@ 900 @.@ 00 .
= = = Arrests for animal abuse = = =
On February 15 , 2009 , a user uploaded two YouTube videos that showed the physical abuse of a domestic cat named Dusty by a person calling himself " Timmy . " The 4chan community was able to track down the originator of the videos , a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old from Lawton , Oklahoma , and passed his details to his local police department . As a result of this , a suspect was arrested and the cat was treated by a veterinarian and taken to a safe place .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Internet attacks = = =
According to the Washington Post , " the site 's users have managed to pull off some of the highest @-@ profile collective actions in the history of the Internet . "
Users of 4chan and other websites " raided " Hal Turner by launching DDoS attacks and prank calling his phone @-@ in radio show during December 2006 and January 2007 . The attacks caused Turner 's website to go offline . This cost thousands of dollars of bandwidth bills according to Turner . In response , Turner sued 4chan , 7chan , and other websites ; however , he lost his plea for an injunction and failed to receive letters from the court .
KTTV Fox 11 aired a report on Anonymous , calling them a group of " hackers on steroids " , " domestic terrorists " , and collectively an " Internet hate machine " on July 26 , 2007 . Slashdot founder Rob Malda posted a comment made by another Slashdot user , Miang , stating that the story focused mainly on users of " 4chan , 7chan and 420chan " . Miang claimed that the report " seems to confuse / b / raids and motivational poster templates with a genuine threat to the American public " , arguing that the " unrelated " footage of a van exploding shown in the report was to " equate anonymous posting with domestic terror " .
On July 10 , 2008 , the swastika CJK unicode character ( 卐 ) appeared at the top of Google 's Hot Trends list — a tally of the most popular search terms in the United States — for several hours . It was later reported that the HTML numeric character reference for the symbol had been posted on / b / , with a request to perform a Google search for the string . A multitude of / b / visitors followed the order and pushed the symbol to the top of the chart , though Google later removed the result .
Later that year , the private Yahoo ! Mail account of Sarah Palin , Republican vice presidential candidate in the 2008 United States presidential election , was hacked by a 4chan user . This followed criticism of Palin and other politicians supposedly using private email accounts for governmental work . The hacker posted the account 's password on / b / , and screenshots from within the account to Wikileaks . A / b / user then logged in and changed the password , posting a screenshot of his sending an email to a friend of Palin 's informing her of the new password on the / b / thread . However , he forgot to blank out the password in the screenshot . A multitude of / b / users attempted to log in with the new password , and the account was automatically locked out by Yahoo ! . The incident was criticized by some / b / users , in that most reports on the hack focused on 4chan , rather than Palin 's violation of campaign law . One user commented , " seriously , / b / . We could have changed history and failed , epically . " The FBI and Secret Service began investigating the incident shortly after its occurrence . On September 20 it was revealed they were questioning David Kernell , the son of Democratic Tennessee State Representative Mike Kernell .
The stock price of Apple Inc. fell significantly in October 2008 after a hoax story was submitted to CNN 's user @-@ generated news site iReport.com claiming that company CEO Steve Jobs had suffered a major heart attack . The source of the story was traced back to 4chan .
In May 2009 , members of the site attacked YouTube , posting pornographic videos on the site . A 4chan member acknowledged being part of the attack , telling the BBC that it was in response to YouTube " deleting music " . In January 2010 , members of the site attacked YouTube again in response to the suspension of YouTube user lukeywes1234 for failing to meet the minimum age requirement of thirteen . The videos uploaded by the user had apparently become popular with 4chan members , who subsequently became angered after the account was suspended and called for a new wave of pornographic videos to be uploaded to YouTube on January 6 , 2010 . Later the same year , 4chan made numerous disruptive pranks directed at singer Justin Bieber .
In September 2010 , in retaliation against the Bollywood film industry 's hiring of Aiplex Software to launch cyberattacks against The Pirate Bay , Anonymous members , recruited through posts on 4chan boards , subsequently initiated their own attacks , dubbed Operation Payback , targeting the website of the Motion Picture Association of America and the Recording Industry Association of America . The targeted websites usually went offline for a short period of time due to the attacks , before recovering .
The website of the UK law firm ACS : Law , which was associated with an anti @-@ piracy client , was affected by the cyber @-@ attack . In retaliation for the initial attacks being called only a minor nuisance , Anonymous launched more attacks , bringing the site down yet again . After coming back up , the front page accidentally revealed a backup file of the entire website , which contained over 300 megabytes of private company emails , which were leaked to several torrents and across several sites on the Internet . It has been suggested that the data leak could cost the law firm up to £ 500 @,@ 000 in fines for breaching British Data Protection Laws . In January 2011 , BBC News reported that the law firm have announced they are to stop " chasing illegal file @-@ sharers " . Head of ACS : Law Andrew Crossley in a statement to a court addressed issues which influenced the decision to back down " I have ceased my work ... I have been subject to criminal attack . My e @-@ mails have been hacked . I have had death threats and bomb threats . "
In August 2012 , 4chan users attacked a third @-@ party sponsored Mountain Dew campaign , Dub the Dew , where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of the drink . Users submitted entries such as " Diabeetus " , " Fapple " , several variations of " Gushing Granny " , and " Hitler did nothing wrong " .
= = = Threats of violence = = =
On October 18 , 2006 , the Department of Homeland Security warned National Football League officials in Miami , New York City , Atlanta , Seattle , Houston , Oakland , and Cleveland about a possible threat involving the simultaneous use of dirty bombs at stadiums . The threat claimed that the attack would be carried out on October 22 , the final day of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan . Both the FBI and the Department of Homeland Security expressed doubt concerning the credibility of the threats , but warned the relevant organizations as a precaution . The games proceeded as planned but under a higher level of security awareness . The threats came to light in the national media after Jake Brahm admitted to having posted the threats on 4chan and repeating them on other websites approximately 40 times .
Brahm did not expect the message to be taken seriously since he " would never take anything posted on 4chan as fact " ; an FBI official was quoted as saying the " credibility of [ the threat ] was beyond ridiculous " . As a parody of the incident , 4chan temporarily added " Don 't mess with football " as an additional rule for / b / . On October 20 , 2006 , Brahm turned himself in to federal authorities , and was charged with fabricating a fake terrorist threat and taken into custody . On February 28 , 2008 , he pleaded guilty to the federal charges . On June 5 , 2008 , he was sentenced to six months in prison , six months ' house arrest , and ordered to pay $ 26 @,@ 750 in restitution .
Around midnight on September 11 , 2007 , a student posted photographs of mock pipe bombs and another photograph of him holding them while saying he would blow up his high school — Pflugerville High School in Pflugerville , Texas — at 9 : 11 am on September 11 . Users of 4chan helped to track him down by finding the perpetrator 's father 's name in the Exif data of a photograph he took , and contacted the police . He was arrested before school began that day . The incident turned out to be a hoax ; the " weapons " were toys and there were no actual bombs .
Jarrad Willis , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old from Melbourne , Australia was arrested on December 8 , 2007 , after apparently posting on 4chan that he was " going to shoot and kill as many people as I can until which time I am incapacitated or killed by the police " . The post , accompanied by an image of another man holding a shotgun , threatened a shopping mall near Beverly Hills . While the investigation was still open , Willis was charged with criminal defamation for a separate incident but died before the case was heard .
On February 4 , 2009 , a posting on the 4chan / b / board said there would be a school shooting at St Eskils Gymnasium in Eskilstuna , Sweden , leading 1250 students and 50 teachers to be evacuated . A 21 @-@ year @-@ old man was arrested after 4chan provided the police with the IP address of the poster . Police said that the suspect called it off as a joke , and they released him after they found no indication that the threat was serious .
On January 21 , 2014 , an anonymous poster started a thread on / b / identifying a student named Westley Sullivan who apparently went to the same high school as the poster . The original post included a link to Westley Sullivan 's Facebook profile , which has since been taken down , and a screenshot of a post which said " if fairview isnt closed tomorrow im going to blow it up " , referring to Sullivan 's high school , Fairview High School , in Fairview , Kentucky . A few anonymous individuals went to Sullivan 's Facebook profile and found his address , phone number , school ID number , school schedule and teachers , and other personal information . Information like his teachers and ID number had been posted directly , and the more personal information like his address was found in the EXIF data of some of the pictures posted on his profile . These individuals then contacted Fairview school officials and the local police department , as well as the FBI . The next day it was learned that police had arrested Sullivan in his home and he had been charged with 2nd degree terroristic threatening , a Class D felony in Kentucky .
= = = Arrests for child pornography and cyberbullying = = =
On November 29 , 2010 , Ali Saad , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old , was arrested and had his home raided by the FBI for posting child pornography and death threats on 4chan . Ali had first visited 4chan " a week before [ the FBI raid ] happened " . He admitted to downloading about 25 child pornography images from 4chan .
In January 2011 , Matthew Riskin Bean , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old man from New Jersey was sentenced to 45 days in prison for cyberbullying on 4chan .
Collin Campbell , a U.S. Navy Machinist 's Mate , was arrested in February 2011 after a fellow seaman found child pornography on his iPhone that he downloaded entirely from 4chan .
Ronald Ohlson , 37 , was raided April 2011 , at his upstate New York home by the Department of Homeland Security after he obtained child pornography from 4chan .
In May 2011 , Lucas Henderson , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Rochester Institute of Technology student , was arrested for counterfeit couponing on 4chan .
After 4chan reported a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy in California who posted child pornography , the United States Department of Homeland Security raided his home on June 7 , 2011 , and took all electronic items .
On February 17 , 2012 , Thaddeus McMichael was arrested by the FBI for child pornography charges , after posting comments on Facebook claiming that he possessed child pornography . According to the official criminal complaint filed against Thaddeus , he admitted to obtaining child pornography from the / b / board on 4chan .
= = = Celebrity photo leaks = = =
On August 31 , 2014 , a large number of private photographs taken by celebrities were posted online due to a compromise of user passwords at iCloud . The images were initially posted on 4chan . As a result of the incident , 4chan announced that it would enforce a Digital Millennium Copyright Act policy , which would allow content owners to remove material that had been shared on the site illegally , and would ban users who repeatedly posted stolen material .
= = = Gamergate = = =
Also in August 2014 , 4chan was involved in the Gamergate controversy , which began with false allegations about indie game developer Zoë Quinn . Later , users of 4chan began donating to The Fine Young Capitalists , which had been involved in a dispute with Quinn , donating thousands of dollars to the group 's women in video games project through Indiegogo ; 4chan also created a video game character , Vivian James , to be used by The
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) north of Memphis by water , they described the area as " a good landing for Mississippi River flatboats " . The Hatchie River , joining the Mississippi River just north of Randolph , was accessible to steamboats upriver to Bolivar . Brown and Bedford chose the site to lay out the plan for Randolph , a promising river town . The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture gives the date of Randolph 's official establishment as 1823 . Other reports date the foundation to 1827 or 1828 . The settlement is named for John Randolph ( 1773 – 1833 ) , a leader in the United States Congress from Virginia .
= = = Cotton commerce = = =
= = = = Success = = = =
Located on the banks of the Mississippi River , the topography of Randolph provided for an ideal harbor for steamboats and flatboats at all river stages . Randolph became the center of steamboat commerce in Tennessee . The town was an early rival of Memphis over commercial superiority on the Mississippi River . In 1830 , Randolph was the most important shipping point in Tennessee . In the mid @-@ 1830s , Randolph shipped up to 40 @,@ 000 bales of cotton on the Mississippi River every year . More cotton was shipped from Randolph than from Memphis until 1840 . At the peak of its commercial success , the community was called the " great steamboat depot of West Tennessee " .
By 1829 , Randolph had three commission warehouses , six dry goods stores , ten physicians and one tavern . In 1834 , Randolph had a population of approximately 1 @,@ 000 . By that time , the town had four hotels , almost fifty businesses , private schools , and more than ten saloons . In the 1830s , two newspapers were published in Randolph , the Randolph Recorder and the Randolph Whig . In the 1830s , the first bank was founded and a stagecoach line provided a connection between Randolph and Jackson twice a week . The commercial success of Randolph can be attributed in part to the use of slave labor , mostly for the cultivation of cotton . Corn , beans and peas were also cultivated . In the Randolph Recorder during the early 1830s , landowners announced public auctions of slaves or offered rewards for runaway or stolen slaves .
= = = = Decline = = = =
The fortunes of Randolph declined in the later 1840s and the 1850s due to many factors , starting shortly after the establishment of the town . Five years after the settlement was founded , a dispute over the ownership of the land the town was established on , arose over a faulty land title with land owner Ann Grambelling from New York . Until 1835 , the pending lawsuit " prevented the growth of population " in and around Randolph . The residents of the community bought back the land their town was founded on for $ 8 @,@ 000 in a settlement .
An unfavorable mail line also had an early and lasting influence on the fortunes of the town . When the mail route was established in 1829 , Randolph was put at the end of a branch route of the mail line and received mail only once a week . Failed railroad development further contributed to the demise of the town ; and in 1852 , residents of Randolph unsuccessfully tried to move the county seat from Covington to Randolph . Financial depression and David Crockett 's failed attempt to cut a canal from the Hatchie River to the Tennessee River also were problems that had a negative impact on the future of commercial prosperity in Randolph . During the Civil War , the town was burned down twice , in September 1862 and again in 1865 , discouraging many residents from re @-@ building residences and businesses a second time .
= = = Civil War = = =
= = = = Fortifications = = = =
Fort Wright was the first Confederate Army fortification built at Randolph . On January 20 , 1861 , the Memphis Appeal published a pro @-@ secessionist proposal to build a fort at Randolph to defend Memphis . In April 1861 , Tennessee Governor Isham G. Harris ordered to establish a camp and complete the fortification at Randolph . About 5 @,@ 000 troops from Tennessee , Arkansas and the Confederate Army were stationed at the location to accomplish the task . By June 1861 , fifty cannons were reported to be ready at Fort Wright .
Nathan Bedford Forrest ( 1821 – 77 ) trained at Fort Wright . Forrest and other future leaders in the Confederate States Army and the Army of Tennessee received training at Fort Wright . The fort was Tennessee 's first military training camp in which soldiers could gain experience in the construction of fortifications and the setup of artillery batteries . Fort Wright was the forwardmost defensive position on the Mississippi River until July 1861 . In 2008 , only a powder magazine is left of Fort Wright .
Fort Randolph , the second Confederate stronghold in the area during the Civil War , was constructed in Fall 1861 . The fortification was situated on the Mississippi River bluffs , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) southwest of Fort Wright . In a dispatch published by the New York Times in March 1862 , Fort Randolph is described as a " rough and incomplete earthwork ( ... ) , more than 100 feet above the river " . The position of the fortification allowed a view of the Mississippi River for 6 miles ( 10 km ) , both upstream and downstream . In 2008 , Fort Randolph is no longer in existence .
= = = = Destruction = = = =
In 1862 , Union Army Major General William T. Sherman ( 1820 – 91 ) and his troops assumed control of Memphis and the surrounding areas . While trying to keep the area under Union control , Sherman became " frustrated by the constant guerrilla activity in his sector " . Confederate guerrillas from the Randolph area weakened the Union forces along the Mississippi River .
In September 1862 , the Union supply ship Eugene was fired at from Randolph . Sherman ordered to " destroy the place , leaving one house to mark the place " . Union Army soldiers burned down Randolph in retaliation for the guerrilla attack . To his superior officer , General Ulysses S. Grant , Sherman reported that he had " given public notice that a repetition [ of guerrilla attacks ] will justify any measures of retaliation " . Randolph was burned down a second time by federal soldiers in 1865 .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
Randolph is located at 35 ° 30 ′ 59 ″ N 89 ° 53 ′ 19 ″ W. The elevation above sea level is 315 feet ( 96 m ) .
The surface soil in the Randolph area is composed mostly of silt loam of different qualities and at different stages of erosion . About 15 % of the surface soil consists of " Adler silt loam " with a slope of 0 – 1 % , found in the frequently flooded plains at Randolph . About 20 % of the soil is severely eroded " Memphis silt loam " with 12 – 25 % slopes , and ca . 35 % of the soil consists of " Memphis silt loam " with 20 – 40 % slopes . Less than 8 % consists of moderately eroded " Memphis silt loam " with slopes from 1 – 5 % . The remaining surface soil is composed of other silts , sands or clays , including " Robinsonville fine sandy loam " ( ca . 6 % ) and " Tunica clay " ( ca . 1 @.@ 5 % ) . Approximately 1 @.@ 5 % of the area is covered by water . The parent material of the " Memphis silt loam " is Pleistocene loess . Loess is a fine @-@ grained , slightly coherent , silty , windblown sediment . Eroded loess consists of extremely fine , sandy particles and forms silt in environments that provide sufficient moisture of the soil , usually caused by occasional flooding or precipitation . Soil derived from eroded loess is sometimes also referred to as loess .
= = = = Landscape = = = =
The settlement of Randolph is situated on top of the second Chickasaw Bluff , on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River in Tipton County . The four Chickasaw Bluffs are high grounds above the Mississippi River flood plains , composed of eroded pre @-@ historic loess over glacial gravel . The Chickasaw Bluffs west of the community , on the banks of the Mississippi River , and flat cotton @-@ fields east of Randolph dominate the rural landscape surrounding the settlement .
In the last 150 years , the general landscape around Randolph has not changed much . In 1862 , the hinterland of the town is described to be " full of ravines and gorges " . Ravines and gorges are valleys or canyons carved from the landscape as a product of erosion , caused by a stream or river or by seasonal precipitation , funneling water towards less elevated locations of the drainage basin . The landscape cut into the soil of the Mississippi River bluffs by water erosion for centuries is still present in modern times .
= = = = Roads = = = =
In 1833 , a stagecoach road from Randolph to Jackson in Madison County , 70 miles ( 100 km ) east of Randolph , was established . The antebellum route connected the two towns as well as the villages along the way two times per week . Randolph and Memphis were connected by a direct travel route later in the 1830s . The road was part of a mail line between Jackson and Memphis in Shelby County on which mail was delivered weekly on horseback . The exact routing of the segment between Randolph and Memphis is unknown . A fragment of the route bearing the former name , about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in length , was in existence until about 2005 . The remaining piece of Old Randolph Road was located about 2 miles ( 3 km ) north of the mouth of the Wolf River and 800 feet ( 240 m ) east of the Mississippi River , just south of the mouth of the Loosahatchie River in Memphis . As of 2010 , the remaining fragment of Old Randolph Road is destroyed , the land on which the historic mail route was located is used as an industrial property . A publication dated 1862 , reports that Randolph is " approached in the rear by several good roads " .
In 2008 , Randolph is located near " good roads " as well as it was during the Civil War , with the exception that modern roads in the area are paved for the most part . U.S. Route 51 passes Randolph 5 miles ( 8 km ) in the southeast and Tennessee State Route 59 ( TN 59 ) passes 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) southeast of the town . Four roads at county level converge at Randolph , as shown in the table below . A portion of Ballard Slough Road is located in the flood plains , this segment is prone to flooding and unpaved .
= = = = Waterways = = = =
Randolph is located on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River , just south of the lower mouth of the Hatchie River . In the 1820s , the Hatchie River at Randolph was accessible to steamboats for 60 miles ( 100 km ) upriver to Bolivar in Hardeman County .
The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) is the federal agency responsible for navigable waters and flood protection , among many other peacetime and wartime tasks . From 2005 to 2007 , the USACE spent $ 9 @,@ 773 @,@ 662 to ensure the navigation of the Mississippi River at Randolph for boats and barges and to provide flood protection for the immediately surrounding areas of the town . Contracts include surveying and mapping , engineering and construction , as well as tasks related to conservation and development of the Mississippi River and the river basin at Randolph . Maintenance related projects include dredging of the navigable channel of the Mississippi River at Randolph to remove sedimented sand and mud . Tasks related to conservation include dike construction to protect low @-@ lying areas at Randolph from flooding and subsequent erosion . The Navigation Bulletin No. 2 , issued by the USACE in 2006 , describes a stone dike construction at Randolph with an approximate elevation of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) at river mile 770L .
= = = = Earthquakes = = = =
Located on the southeastern edge of the New Madrid Seismic Zone , the settlement of Randolph is situated in an area with a high earthquake risk . Between 1974 and 2004 , ten earthquakes have been recorded in a radius of 10 miles ( 16 km ) around Randolph . The magnitude of the temblors ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale . The hypocenter depth ranged from 3 @.@ 1 miles ( 5 @.@ 0 km ) to 8 @.@ 2 miles ( 13 @.@ 2 km ) . In the same time period , at a radius of 20 miles ( 32 km ) around Randolph , forty five earthquakes have been reported with magnitudes ranging from 1 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 2 at a depth between 656 feet ( 200 m ) and 12 @.@ 1 miles ( 19 @.@ 5 km ) . The highest magnitude earthquake recorded in the area since 1974 occurred on August 19 , 1994 – the temblor was measured 3 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale with an epicenter at coordinates 35 @.@ 51 ° N 89 @.@ 92 ° W / 35 @.@ 51 ; -89.92 ( Earthquake 08 @-@ 19 @-@ 1994 ) , ca . 2 miles ( 3 km ) west of Randolph , at a depth of 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) .
On January 16 , 2009 at 3 : 09 p.m. local time ( 21 : 09 UTC ) , " a small earthquake shook portions of Tipton County " . The earthquake was measured at a magnitude 2 @.@ 8 on the Richter scale . According to the Center for Earthquake Research and Information ( CERI ) , the epicenter of the temblor was reported to be at coordinates 35 @.@ 645 ° N 89 @.@ 694 ° W / 35 @.@ 645 ; -89.694 ( Earthquake 01 @-@ 16 @-@ 2009 ) at a depth of 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) . There were no reports of damage caused by the earthquake . The location of the epicenter was near the first Chickasaw Bluff , about 2 miles ( 3 km ) east of Fort Pillow State Park and ca . 8 miles ( 13 km ) northeast of Randolph . Smaller earthquakes along the New Madrid Seismic Zone are not uncommon .
= = = Climate = = =
Randolph is located in a humid subtropical climate zone . The climate is characterized by hot , humid summers and chilly to mild winters . Significant amounts of precipitation occur in all seasons . At Randolph , July is the warmest month on the average . In 1930 , the highest recorded temperature was measured at 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) . January is the coolest month on the average . In 1951 , the lowest recorded temperature was measured at − 11 ° F ( − 24 ° C ) . Precipitation peaks in December on the average . The table below displays the average monthly high and low temperatures and precipitation at Randolph .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture is the predominating source of income in the area surrounding Randolph , especially the cultivation of cotton . Corn , beans and peas were also cultivated during the last century . After the abolition of slavery in 1865 , sharecropping was the primary means of income for low income families in the area . Mostly for the cultivation of cotton , land would be used by sharecroppers in return for a share of the crop to the landowner . Modern machines such as the cotton picker have made the manual cultivation obsolete over time as they took over the work from the manual laborers .
In 2008 , Randolph has a population of c . 200 , and consists of about two dozen dwellings . The economy of the rural community is dominated by agriculture with no major industries and businesses present .
= = Culture = =
= = = Churches = = =
= = = = Randolph United Methodist Church = = = =
In 1834 , Reverend Samuel R. Davidson became the first pastor at Randolph . He was appointed by the Tennessee Conference of the United Methodist Church . After his appointment as a pastor of the community , a congregation formed around Davidson and built a church at Randolph . The second church at Randolph was built by the congregation in 1883 . In 1953 , construction of a new church was completed , the building was remodeled in 1975 and serves as a place of worship for the Methodist congregation of Randolph as of 2008 .
The United Methodist Church at Randolph had 78 pastors as of 1983 . In 2008 , Reverend Thomas M. Yoder and Reverend Ben Rainey are the appointed pastors at the Randolph Methodist community . Randolph United Methodist Church is located at 98 Ballard Slough Road . The worship attendance for the church is reported as 76 members of the congregation on the average .
= = = = Randolph Assembly of God = = = =
Randolph Assembly of God is a second place of worship in the town , the church was founded in 2001 . In 2008 , the congregation is led by Pastor Larry Rose and Pastor Frank Russell . Randolph Assembly of God is located at 1135 Randolph Road .
= = = Randolph Bluff Historic Park = = =
On October 11 , 2008 , the Tennessee Parks and Greenways Foundation , a non @-@ profit organization , dedicated Randolph Bluff Historic Park in a celebration with politicians , conservationists , historians and community members . The 19 acres ( 77 @,@ 000 m2 ) property on the second Chickasaw Bluff was purchased for $ 378 @,@ 000 . The park is intended to promote the Civil War history of the community and make the unique views of the Mississippi River available to a wider public , additional revenue from tourism is expected for the community . Once Randolph Bluff Historic Park is finished , it will be part of the Mississippi River Corridor Tennessee , a project to " create a scenic byway that connects historic sites along the Mississippi River " , the project also promotes economical development and the preservation of land and wildlife in the Tennessee counties bordering the Mississippi River .
= = = Girl Scouts Heart of the South = = =
Girl Scouts Heart of the South is a girl scout organization serving 16 @,@ 500 girls in the Memphis metropolitan area , including counties in West Tennessee , North Mississippi and Crittenden County , Arkansas . Girl Scouts Heart of the South operates six camps and one training center in their area of coverage , including a 104 acres ( 420 @,@ 000 m2 ) property in Tipton County , " Camp Annemeekee " . The scout camp is located on Girl Scout Road south of Randolph .
= = Cemeteries = =
Old Randolph Cemetery is at coordinates 35 @.@ 523693 ° N 89 @.@ 885643 ° W / 35 @.@ 523693 ; -89.885643 ( Old Randolph Cemetery ) .
Historic Randolph Cemetery is on McClerkin Lane at coordinates 35 @.@ 52163 ° N 89 @.@ 87909 ° W / 35 @.@ 52163 ; -89.87909 . Graves in the cemetery date from the early 19th century to present day .
= = Postal = =
A post office was established at Randolph in 1827 . The Randolph Post Office was in operation until 1932 . The exact location of the post office at Randolph is unknown .
In 2008 , the U.S. ZIP code for Randolph is 38015 ( Burlison , Tennessee ) . The telephone area code is 901 ( Memphis metro area ) .
= = Notable natives = =
William Parsons Miller ( c.1802 – 62 ) , an early settler of Randolph and commander of the Confederate Nashville Battalion .
William Clyde Martin ( 1893 – 1984 ) , a bishop of three Methodist churches , born in Randolph on July 28 , 1893 .
= New York State Route 239 =
New York State Route 239 ( NY 239 ) was a state highway in eastern Erie County , New York , in United States . The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 354 in Marilla . Its northern terminus was at a junction with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in the village of Alden . NY 239 was about 3 miles ( 5 km ) in length and named Exchange Street . When NY 239 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it extended eastward to the Wyoming County village of Attica . NY 239 was truncated to Marilla in 1949 and removed from the state highway system completely in September 1980 as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Erie County earlier that year . The roadway is now County Route 578 ( CR 578 ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 239 began at an intersection with NY 354 just west of the Erie – Wyoming county line in the town of Marilla . The route then traveled to the northeast , climbing in elevation as it proceeded onward . It then made a turn to the north , descending in elevation . Running at about a height of 900 feet ( 270 m ) above sea level , NY 239 crossed into the town of Alden and continued toward downtown . NY 239 continued northward , passing nearby Henskee Road , a connector between NY 239 and County Line Road , which ran parallel to NY 239 along the Erie – Genesee county line . The route dipped further in elevation , entering the village of Alden . Inside the village , it passed the Buffalo Water Filtration Plant to the west and crossed the Conrail @-@ owned Buffalo Line . NY 239 passed through a primarily residential area of the village just before terminating at US 20 in the village center .
= = History = =
NY 239 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to an alignment extending from NY 35 in the village of Alden to NY 98 in the village of Attica by way of the hamlet of Cowlesville . The east – west road linking NY 239 near Cowlesville to Two Rod Road ( then NY 358 ) north of Marilla was initially unnumbered . It became part of a realigned NY 354 c . 1935 . NY 354 was extended eastward on January 1 , 1949 , over NY 239 's alignment to a new terminus in Attica . As a result , NY 239 was truncated to its junction with NY 354 in the town of Marilla .
On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 239 was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County as part of a larger highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The NY 239 designation was removed on September 25 of that year . The highway is now designated by Erie County as CR 578 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Erie County .
= Hebron glass =
Hebron Glass ( Arabic : زجاج الخليل , zajaj al @-@ Khalili ) refers to glass produced in Hebron as part of a flourishing art industry established in the city during Roman rule in Palestine . Hebron 's Old City still contains a quarter named the " Glass @-@ Blower Quarter " and Hebron glass continues to serve as a tourist attraction for the city .
Traditionally , the glass was melted using local raw materials , including sand from neighbouring villages , sodium carbonate ( from the Dead Sea ) , and coloring additives such as iron oxide and copper oxide . Nowadays , recycled glass is often used instead . Glass production in Hebron is a family trade , the secrets of which have been preserved and passed down by a few Palestinian families who operate the glass factories located just outside the city . The products made include glass jewellery , such as beads , bracelets , and rings , as well as stained glass windows , and glass lamps . However , due to the Palestinian @-@ Israeli conflict , glass production has suffered a decline .
= = History = =
The glass industry in Hebron was established during Roman rule in Palestine ( 63 BCE @-@ 330 CE ) . As the ancient Phoenician glass industry shrank from the exposed cities along the eastern Mediterranean coastline , the industry migrated inland , to Hebron in particular . Glass artifacts from Hebron dating to the 1st and 2nd centuries have been found , and are on exhibit as part of the Drake Collection . Stained glass windows made of Hebron glass dating to the 12th century are found in the structure built over the Cave of Machpelah , which served as a church during the Crusader era in Palestine . Another example of stained glass windows produced in Hebron are those adorning the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem .
" Hebron ’ s medieval reputation in glassmaking is corroborated by some of the many Christian pilgrims who visited the city over the centuries . Between 1345 and 1350 , Franciscan monk Niccolò da Poggibonsi noted that “ they make great works of art in glass . ” In the late 15th century , the German friar Felix Faber and his companions also stopped in this “ exceeding ancient city , ” and he described how “ we came forth from our inn , and passed through the long street of the city , in which work @-@ people of divers crafts dwelt , but more particularly workers in glass ; for at this place glass is made , not clear glass , but black , and of the colors between dark and light . ”
While acknowledging that the production of glass in Palestine dates back to Roman period , Nazmi Ju 'beh , director of RIWAQ : Centre for Architectural Conservation , contends that the practices of today 's glass industry in Hebron most likely emerged in the 13th century CE . This corresponds to what foreigners observed , like Jacques de Vitry who around 1080 mentioned Acre and Tyre , ( but not Hebron ) , as glass @-@ producing cities , while by 1483 , when Felix Fabri visited the city , he described passing " through the long street of the city , in which work @-@ people of divers crafts dwelt , but particularely workers in glass ; for at this place glass is made , not clear glass , but black , and of the colours between dark and light . "
Ju 'beh notes that an alternate theory assigns today 's techniques to the Venetian glass tradition and that still other researchers claim they were already extant at the time of the Crusades and were carried back to Europe from Hebron , possibly originating in Syria .
Glass produced by these factories were typically functional items including drinking and eating vessels , as well as olive oil and later petrol @-@ based lamps , although the factories also produced jewellery and accessories . Bedouins pf the Negev ( Naqab ) , the Arabian Desert , and Sinai were the primary purchasers of jewellery , but large exports of expensive Hebron glass items were sent by guarded camel caravans to Egypt , Syria , and the Transjordan . Marketing communities of Hebron glass were established in al @-@ Karak ( Crac ) in southern Jordan and Cairo in Egypt by the 16th century .
The glass industry was a principal employer and a generator of wealth for its owners . Well known for glass production throughout the Arab world , Western travellers to Palestine in the 19th century provided descriptions of the Hebron glass industry as well . For example , Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1807 @-@ 09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron , while later , in A New and Complete History of the Holy Bible as Contained in the Old and New Testaments ( 1844 ) , Robert Sears writes , " The population of Hebron is considerable : the inhabitants manufacture glass lamps , which are exported to Egypt . Provisions are abundant , and there is a considerable number of shops . "
Later in the century , the production declined due to competition from imported European glass @-@ ware . However , the products of Hebron continued to be sold , particularly among the poorer populace , particularly by travelling Jewish traders from the city . At the World Fair of 1873 in Vienna , Hebron was represented with glass ornaments . A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass @-@ making remained an important source of income for Hebron with four factories making 60 @,@ 000 francs per annum .
The tradition of glassblowing continues in the 21st century in three factories located outside of the traditional quarter of the Old City , north of Hebron and south of the neighboring town of Halhul which generally produce functional household souvenirs . Two of the factories are owned by the Natsheh family . These are displayed in large halls close to each of the factories .
Hebron glass is an attraction for both domestic and foreign tourists . Today , however , due to ongoing export problems , the decline in tourism , and restrictions on Palestinian freedom of movement in the aftermath of the Second Intifada , industry production has suffered . According to Nazmi al @-@ Ju 'bah , the director of RIWAQ : Centre for Architectural Conservation , under these circumstances , the survival of the Hebron glass industry is in question .
= = Production = =
Hebron glass was traditionally produced using sand from the village of Bani Na 'im , east of Hebron , and sodium carbonate taken from the Dead Sea . Instead of sand , recycled glass is the primary raw material used to make Hebron glass today .
The precise production process is a trade secret maintained by the few Palestinian families who run the factories which continue to produce Hebron glass today , passed through generations by apprenticing children . As one master of the craft said , " You can learn to play the ' oud at any age , but unless you begin [ glasswork ] as a child , you will never become a master . "
According to the Holy Land Handicraft Cooperative Society , the blowing technique employed is the same as was used by the ancient Phoenicians , though archaeologists and historians of glass agree that glassblowing was not common until the last few centuries BCE . Molten glass is withdrawn from a furnace on the end of an iron pipe , which is blown into as a metal tool called a kammasha is used to shape the glass . It is returned to the furnace and reshaped by the same process before being detached from the pipe and placed into a cooling chamber .
= = Jewellery = =
Glass beads for jewellery have traditionally been made in Hebron . Blue beads and glass beads with ' eyes ' ( owayneh ) were made for use as amulets since they were considered particularly effective against the evil @-@ eye . In the Museum of Mankind collections , there exist several glass necklaces that were made in Hebron during the Mandate period or earlier . Besides necklaces made of blue and green beads , and ' eyes ' beads , there are examples of beads of small hands , also called a Hamsa , representing the hand of Fatimah , the daughter of the prophet Muhammad . Most of a woman 's jewellery was given to her at marriage ; in the early 1920s , in Bayt Dajan , a glass bracelet ( ghwayshat ) made in Hebron would be considered a necessary part of the jewellery of a bride 's trousseau .
= = = Hebron trade beads = = =
In 1799 , English traveller William George Browne mentioned the production of " Coarse glass beads ... called Hersh and Munjir " in Palestine ; The " Munjir " ( Mongur ) were large beads , while the Hersh ( Harish ) were smaller . These Hebron glass beads were used for trade , and export primarily to Africa from the early to mid @-@ 19th century . Spread throughout West Africa , in Kano , Nigeria , they were grounded on the edges to make round beads fit together on a strand more suitably . There , they picked up the name " Kano Beads " , although they were not originally produced in Kano . By the 1930s , their value had decreased ; in 1937 , A. J. Arkell recorded the beads being sold " for a song " by Sudanese women to Hausa traders in Dafur .
= University of California , Riverside =
The University of California , Riverside ( UCR or UC Riverside ) , is a public research university and one of the 10 general campuses of the University of California system . The main campus sits on 1 @,@ 900 acres ( 769 ha ) in a suburban district of Riverside , California , United States , with a branch campus of 20 acres ( 8 ha ) in Palm Desert . Founded in 1907 as the UC Citrus Experiment Station , Riverside pioneered research in biological pest control and the use of growth regulators responsible for extending the citrus growing season in California from four to nine months . Some of the world 's most important research collections on citrus diversity and entomology , as well as science fiction and photography , are located at Riverside .
UCR 's undergraduate College of Letters and Science opened in 1954 . The Regents of the University of California declared UCR a general campus of the system in 1959 , and graduate students were admitted in 1961 . To accommodate an enrollment of 21 @,@ 000 students by 2015 , more than $ 730 million has been invested in new construction projects since 1999 . Preliminary accreditation of the UC Riverside School of Medicine granted in October 2012 and the first class of 50 students was enrolled in August 2013 . It is the first new research @-@ based public medical school in 40 years .
UCR is consistently ranked as one of the most ethnically and economically diverse universities in the United States . The 2016 U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges rankings places UCR tied for 58th among top public universities , tied for 121st nationwide and ranks 16 + graduate school programs including the Graduate School of Education and the Bourns College of Engineering based on peer assessment , student selectivity , financial resources , and other factors . Washington Monthly ranked UCR 2nd in the United States in terms of social mobility , research and community service , while U.S. News ranks UCR as the fifth most ethnically diverse and , by the number of undergraduates receiving Pell Grants ( 42 percent ) , the 15th most economically diverse student body in the nation . Nearly two @-@ thirds of all UCR students graduate within six years without regard to economic disparity . UCR 's extensive outreach and retention programs have contributed to its reputation as a " campus of choice " for minority students , including LGBT students . In 2005 , UCR became the first public university campus in the nation to offer a gender @-@ neutral housing option .
UCR 's sports teams are known as the Highlanders and play in the Big West Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I. Their nickname was inspired by the high altitude of the campus , which lies on the foothills of Box Springs Mountain . The UCR women 's basketball team won back to back Big West championships in 2006 and 2007 . In 2007 , the men 's baseball team won its first conference championship and advanced to the regionals for the second time since the university moved to Division I in 2001 .
= = History = =
At the turn of the 20th century , Southern California was a major producer of citrus , the region 's primary agricultural export . The industry developed from the country 's first navel orange trees , planted in Riverside in 1873 . Lobbied by the citrus industry , the UC Regents established the UC Citrus Experiment Station ( CES ) on February 14 , 1907 , on 23 acres ( 9 ha ) of land on the east slope of Mount Rubidoux in Riverside . The station conducted experiments in fertilization , irrigation and crop improvement . In 1917 , the station was moved to a larger site , 475 acres ( 192 ha ) near Box Springs Mountain .
The 1944 passage of the GI Bill during World War II set in motion a rise in college enrollments that necessitated an expansion of the state university system in California . A local group of citrus growers and civic leaders , including many UC Berkeley alumni , lobbied aggressively for a UC @-@ administered liberal arts college next to the CES . State Senator Nelson Dilworth , former Assemblyman Philip L. Boyd and Riverside State Assemblyman John Babbage were instrumental in shepherding the legislation through the State Legislature . Governor Earl Warren signed the bill in 1949 , allocating $ 2 million for initial campus construction .
Gordon S. Watkins , dean of the College of Letters and Science at UCLA , became the first provost of the new college at Riverside . Initially conceived of as a small college devoted to the liberal arts , he ordered the campus built for a maximum of 1 @,@ 500 students and recruited many young junior faculty to fill teaching positions . He presided at its opening with 65 faculty and 127 students on February 14 , 1954 , remarking , " Never have so few been taught by so many . "
UCR 's enrollment exceeded 1 @,@ 000 students by the time Clark Kerr became president of the UC system in 1958 . Anticipating a " tidal wave " in enrollment growth required by the baby boom generation , Kerr developed the California Master Plan for Higher Education and the Regents designated Riverside a general university campus in 1959 . UCR 's first chancellor , Herman Theodore Spieth , oversaw the beginnings of the school 's transition to a full university and its expansion to a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 students . UCR 's second chancellor , Ivan Hinderaker led the campus through the era of the free speech movement and kept student protests peaceful in Riverside . According to a 1998 interview with Hinderaker , the city of Riverside received negative press coverage for smog after the mayor asked Governor Ronald Reagan to declare the South Coast Air Basin a disaster area in 1971 ; subsequent student enrollment declined by up to 25 % through 1979 . Hinderaker 's development of innovative programs in business administration and biomedical sciences created incentive for enough students to enroll at Riverside to keep the campus open .
In the 1990s , the UC experienced a new surge of enrollment applications , now known as " Tidal Wave II " . The Regents targeted UCR for an annual growth rate of 6 @.@ 3 % , the fastest in the UC system , and anticipated 19 @,@ 900 students at UCR by 2010 . By 1995 , African American , American Indian , and Latino student enrollments accounted for 30 % of the UCR student body , the highest proportion of any UC campus at the time . The 1997 implementation of Proposition 209 — which banned the use of affirmative action by state agencies — reduced the ethnic diversity at the more selective UC campuses but further increased it at UCR .
With UCR scheduled for dramatic population growth , efforts have been made to increase its popular and academic recognition . The students voted for a fee increase to move UCR athletics into NCAA Division I standing in 1998 . In the 1990s , proposals were made to establish a law school , a medical school , and a school of public policy at UCR , with the UCR School of Medicine and the School of Public Policy becoming reality in 2012 . In June 2006 , UCR received its largest gift , 15 @.@ 5 million from two local couples , in trust towards building its medical school . The Regents formally approved UCR 's medical school proposal in 2006 . Projected to be completed by 2013 , it will be the first new medical school in 40 years built in California .
= = Campus = =
UCR 's main campus sits at an elevation of 1 @,@ 100 ft ( 340 m ) to 1 @,@ 450 ft ( 440 m ) near Box Springs Mountain , 3 miles ( 5 km ) east of downtown Riverside , and comprises 1 @,@ 112 acres ( 450 ha ) divided into eastern and western areas by the State Route 60 freeway .
East Campus , occupying approximately 600 acres ( 243 ha ) , hosts the core cluster of academic buildings and services . The original buildings that formed the earliest kernel of the campus included the UC Citrus Experiment Station , residential buildings , and barn , all of which are still in use . They were designed by Lester H. Hibbard , in association with H.B. Cody . Built by 1917 at a cost of $ 165 @,@ 000 , the architecture of the major buildings followed the Mission Revival style suggesting the Spanish colonial heritage of Southern California .
Further major construction largely ceased on the site until the groundbreaking for the College of Humanities Arts and Social Sciences ( CHASS ) in April 1951 . A group of five buildings designed by different architects in a decidedly more Modern style were completed by 1954 : the Rivera Library , Webber Hall , Geology Building , Physical Education Building and Watkins Hall . After the Regents declared UCR a " general campus " of the UC system in 1958 , many new buildings and additions were laid out over the following decade . Following an east – west axis , new student residence halls and athletic facilities were developed along the southeastern quadrant of the main campus , while academic and research facilities were built along the central campus area closer to the freeway . The Bell Tower , one of only five carillons in California , was built in this period . Designed by A. Quincy Jones , the tower is 161 ft ( 49 m ) tall and contains 48 bells , each weighing from 28 pounds ( 13 kg ) to 5 @,@ 091 pounds ( 2 @,@ 309 kg ) , covering four chromatic octaves .
After the drop in enrollment and subsequent restructuring of academic programs in the 1970s , little capacity construction was undertaken over the next two decades . However , enrollment growth in the late 1980s justified considerable further campus expansion over the 1990s . Major additions built in the period include : Bourns Hall , completed in 1995 ; the Humanities & Social Science building , completed in 1996 ; and the Science Library , completed in 1998 . The Pentland and Stonehaven residence halls were completed in 2000 , and the Arts building was completed in 2001 . Active construction projects include new buildings for Engineering and Materials Science , Psychology Research , and Genomics . The first phase of a new Commons was completed in 2007 , and phase II is in development . Other ongoing projects include a new CHASS Instructional and Research Center and Students Academic Support Services Building . Since 1999 , more than $ 730 million has been invested in construction projects .
Of the 511 acres ( 207 ha ) of UCR property constituting West Campus , approximately 216 acres ( 87 ha ) along University Avenue have been developed . These include facilities such as University Extension , the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) Germplasm Repository , International Village ( student housing ) , Human Resources and Highlander Hall . University Village , a mixed use commercial development , features a movie theater , stores , restaurants , office space , and an apartment complex , along with a parking structure and surface parking . Citrus groves and row crops occupy the remaining 295 acres ( 119 ha ) stretching northwest to the intersection of Chicago Avenue and Le Conte Drive . Plans for future expansion include converting a portion of these fields into new UCR infrastructure .
The University of California , Riverside , has recently united its three downtown arts presentation venues under the umbrella name of the UCR ARTSblock . The ARTSblock is composed of the UCR / California Museum of Photography , The Sweeney Art Gallery , and the Culver Center of the Arts , a media lab and presentation facility . The three institutions reside side by side in the heart of downtown Riverside 's historic pedestrian mall .
= = = Palm Desert Graduate Center = = =
The Richard J. Heckmann International Center for Entrepreneurial Management was founded in Palm Desert in 2001 . After the 540 @-@ acre ( 219 ha ) Coachella Valley Agricultural Research Station , it is UCR 's second institutional presence in the Coachella Valley . Initially funded by a $ 6 million gift from Richard J. Heckmann , a water treatment entrepreneur , the institution was planned as a teaching and research center of the A. Gary Anderson Graduate School of Management at the UCR School of Business Administration . The center encourages local entrepreneurship through the Coachella Valley Angel Network , an angel investment network . A further investment of $ 10 million from the State of California and a donation of 20 acres ( 8 ha ) of land from the City of Palm Desert allowed for the opening of an expanded graduate center on April 15 , 2005 , adjacent to the California State University , San Bernardino Palm Desert Campus . The center is also home to university researchers in conservation biology , technology transfer and Native American studies . Master 's level instruction in business management and creative writing is available at the center .
= = Academics = =
As a campus of the University of California system , UCR is governed by a Board of Regents and administered by a president . The current president is Janet Napolitano , and the administrative head of UCR is Kim Wilcox . UCR 's academic policies are set by its Academic Senate , a legislative body composed of all UCR faculty members .
UCR is organized into four academic colleges , two professional schools , and several interdisciplinary divisions . UCR 's liberal arts college , the College of Humanities , Arts and Social Sciences , was founded in 1954 , and began accepting graduate students in 1960 . The College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences , founded in 1960 , incorporated the CES as part of the first research @-@ oriented institution at UCR ; it eventually also incorporated the natural science departments formerly associated with the liberal arts college to form its present structure in 1974 . UCR 's newest academic unit , the Bourns College of Engineering , was founded in 1989 . Comprising the professional schools are the Graduate School of Education , founded in 1968 , and the UCR School of Business Administration , founded in 1970 . These units collectively provide 81 majors and 52 minors , 48 master 's degree programs , and 42 Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) programs . UCR is the only UC campus to offer undergraduate degrees in creative writing and public policy and one of three UCs ( along with Berkeley and Irvine ) to offer an undergraduate degree in business administration . Through its Division of Biomedical Sciences , founded in 1974 , UCR offers the Thomas Haider medical degree program in collaboration with UCLA . UCR 's doctoral program in the emerging field of dance theory , founded in 1992 , was the first program of its kind in the United States , and UCR 's minor in lesbian , gay and bisexual studies , established in 1996 , was the first undergraduate program of its kind in the UC system . A new BA program in bagpipes was inaugurated in 2007 .
= = = Rankings = = =
Institutional rankings of UC Riverside vary widely , depending on the criteria of the publication . For instance , UC Riverside was ranked the # 8 college in the United States by the Social Mobility Index college rankings . In the 2016 edition of U.S. News & World Report 's " America 's Best Colleges " , UCR was ranked tied for 121st among national universities ; criteria include professor peer assessment , student selectivity and retention , as well as faculty resources , financial resources , and alumni giving . In the 2015 edition of the Washington Monthly college rankings , UCR ranked 2nd among national universities . Washington Monthly assesses the quality of schools based on social mobility ( recruiting and graduating low @-@ income students ) , research ( producing cutting @-@ edge scholarship and PhDs ) , and service ( encouraging students to give something back to their country ) . Money magazine ranked UC Riverside 150th in the country out of the nearly 1500 schools it evaluated for its 2014 Best Colleges ranking . The Daily Beast ranked UC Riverside 153rd in the country out of the nearly 2000 schools it evaluated for its 2013 Best Colleges ranking . According to the Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index published by Academic Analytics in 2006 , UCR as an institution ranked 46th among top research universities considering such criteria as faculty publications , citations , research funding and other honors . Since 1997 , more than 110 UCR faculty members have been elected fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science . Over the course of UCR 's history , seven current or former faculty members have been elected to the National Academy of Sciences , and more than 50 have received Guggenheim Fellowships .
= = = Economic and research impact = = =
UCR operated under a $ 435 million budget in fiscal year 2005 – 06 . The state government provided $ 153 million , student fees accounted for $ 111 million , the federal government financed $ 84 million , and $ 45 million came from university sales and services . Private support and other sources accounted for the remaining $ 18 million . Overall , monies spent at UCR have an economic impact of nearly $ 1 billion in California . Faculty members received nearly $ 87 million in research funding in 2005 – 06 , mostly from federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health . Total research expenditures at Riverside are significantly concentrated in agricultural science , accounting for 53 % of total research expenditures spent by the university in 2002 . Top research centers by expenditure , as measured in 2002 , include the Agricultural Experiment Station , the Center for Environmental Research and Technology , the Center for Bibliographical Studies , the Air Pollution Research Center , and the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics .
Throughout UCR 's history , researchers have developed more than 40 new citrus varieties and invented new techniques to help the $ 960 million @-@ a @-@ year California citrus industry fight pests and diseases . In 1927 , entomologists at the CES introduced two wasps from Australia as natural enemies of a major citrus pest , the citrophilus mealybug , saving growers in Orange County $ 1 million in annual losses . This event was pivotal in establishing biological control as a practical means of reducing pest populations . In 1963 , plant physiologist Charles Coggins proved that application of gibberellic acid allows fruit to remain on citrus trees for extended periods . The ultimate result of his work , which continued through the 1980s , was the extension of the citrus @-@ growing season in California from four to nine months . In 1980 , UC Riverside released the Oroblanco grapefruit , its first patented citrus variety . Since then , the citrus breeding program has released other varieties such as the Melogold grapefruit , the Gold Nugget mandarin ( or tangerine ) , and others that have yet to be given trademark names . To assist entrepreneurs in developing new products , UCR is a primary partner in the Riverside Regional Technology Park , which includes the City of Riverside and the County of Riverside . It also administers six reserves of the University of California Natural Reserve System . UCR recently announced a partnership with China Agricultural University to launch a new center in Beijing , which will study ways to respond to the country 's growing environmental issues . UCR can also boast the birthplace of two name reactions in organic chemistry , the Castro @-@ Stephens coupling and the Midland Alpine Borane Reduction .
= = = Admissions and enrollment = = =
Admission to UC Riverside is rated as " selective " by U.S. News & World Report .
For Fall 2015 , UCR received 38 @,@ 505 freshmen applications ; 21 @,@ 608 were admitted ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) . The average GPA of the enrolled freshmen was 3 @.@ 69 , while the average SAT scores were 545 for critical reading , 574 for math , and 549 for writing .
In 2006 , 43 @.@ 4 percent of admitted students were first generation college students , 38 @.@ 7 percent came from low family income backgrounds , and 24 percent graduated from low @-@ performing high schools as measured by Academic Performance Index ( API ) scores . In 2007 , U.S. News ranked UCR as the third most ethnically diverse and , by the number of undergraduates receiving Pell Grants ( 42 percent ) , the 15th most economically diverse student body in the nation .
According to statistics released by the Education Trust , a national nonprofit , in 2005 UC Riverside graduated 65 @.@ 3 percent of its students in six years , a figure consistent with national averages but behind the average set by the top five public research universities by as much as 22 percent . However , UCR 's consistency with the national average is well above the median of 39 percent for low @-@ income @-@ serving institutions as calculated in 2006 by the National Center for Education Statistics , making the campus a model for successful approaches to diversity in higher education .
= = Libraries and collections = =
Total library collections at UCR comprise more than 2 million volumes , 14 @,@ 017 electronic journals , 23 @,@ 000 serial subscriptions , and 1 @.@ 7 million microformats . Two large , four @-@ story libraries house most of the physical collections . The 179 @,@ 595 ft ( 54 @,@ 741 m ) Rivera library was constructed in 1954 and named after Tomás Rivera in 1985 . It seats a capacity of 956 and houses general humanities and social science collections , as well as special collections , including the world 's largest collection of science fiction , horror and fantasy literature , the 110 @,@ 000 @-@ volume Eaton Collection . The Rivera Library also hosts the only U.S. Patent and Trademark Depository based on a UC campus . The 125 @,@ 752 ft ( 38 @,@ 329 m ) Raymond L. Orbach Science Library , built in 1998 , seats a capacity of 1 @,@ 360 and houses 533 @,@ 000 volumes in the physical , natural , agricultural , biomedical , engineering and computer sciences , with special strengths in the areas of citrus and sub @-@ tropical horticulture , entomology , and arid lands agriculture . On November 3 , 2009 , the Science library was officially renamed the Raymond L. Orbach Science Library in honor of former Chancellor Raymond L. Orbach . Smaller libraries include the Media and Cultural Library , the Music Library , and a branch digital library in Palm Desert . The UCR Library is one of 116 members of the Association of Research Libraries , and is ranked 93rd in this group .
UCR 's academic colleges administer significant museum collections in the arts and sciences . The Citrus Variety Collection constitutes 1 @,@ 800 trees representing two of each of the 640 types of Citrus and 28 other related genera in the Rutaceae family , the largest such collection in the world . The Herbarium houses more than 110 @,@ 000 dried plant specimens from across the Western hemisphere . UCR is also home to 40 acres ( 16 ha ) of botanical gardens containing more than 3 @,@ 500 plant species from around the world . The Gardens are located in the eastern foothills of the Box Springs Mountain on the University of California , Riverside campus . Over four miles ( 6 km ) of trails wind through many microclimates and hilly terrain . The Entomology Research Museum contains more than three million insect specimens , with particular strengths in Hymenoptera , Chalcidoidea , Aphelinidae , Thysanoptera and Meloidae . The UCR / California Museum of Photography and Sweeney Art Gallery house UCR 's primary art collections . The UCR / CMP includes the world 's largest holding of vintage stereographs , one of the three great public collections of photographic apparatus in the US , and the University Print Collection of contemporary and historical images by over 1000 photographers . Located adjacent to the UCR / CMP , the Sweeney Art Gallery holds approximately 650 unique works , with especially strong collections from the modern to contemporary periods , including pieces by Alexander Calder , Roy Lichtenstein , Millard Sheets and Kara Walker .
= = Student life = =
Much of the student life on campus revolves around extensive local outreach and retention programs . Riverside enrolls the highest percentage of African American students of any of the 10 UC campuses and the second highest percentage of Latino students after Merced , prompting the Los Angeles Times and New York Times to run stories stating that UCR is a " campus of choice " for minority students . UCR was the first college in California to open a staffed lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender ( LGBT ) resource center in 1993 , the first UC campus to offer a LGBT minor studies program in 1996 , and the first campus in the nation to offer a gender @-@ neutral housing option in 2005 . In recognition of this , The Advocate recognized UCR as one of the nation 's best campuses for LGBT students in 2006 , although it did not make the top 20 . The Princeton Review listed UCR as a " Best Western College . " While over 83 percent of students are non @-@ white , there is a tendency for the different ethnic groups to self @-@ segregate .
= = = Housing = = =
UCR 's residence halls consist of three structures — Aberdeen @-@ Inverness , Lothian , and Pentland Hills — which as of 2002 housed 2 @,@ 930 students in triple , double and single rooms . In addition , UCR features several on @-@ campus apartment complexes such as Stonehaven , Bannockburn Village , University Plaza , Falkirk , Oban , Glen Mor and International Village , which together house 959 students . UCR also offers student family housing at Canyon Crest , a low @-@ density residential community that serves 268 and is slated for demolition to make room for higher @-@ density residence halls . Glen Mor , an apartment housing complex adjacent to Pentland Hills , was opened in 2007 , and the university also purchased a nearby apartment complex , which is now known as Falkirk , for student housing in 2007 . About half of the student population lives in off @-@ campus apartments , one @-@ fourth commute , and one @-@ fourth live on campus . Thirty percent of students remain on campus for the weekend .
Reflecting UCR 's diversity , a number of residence halls have been established for specific social , cultural and academic needs . Ethnic and gender @-@ oriented theme halls include Unete a Mundo , for students seeking to support Latino or Chicano students in acclimating to life at UCR ; a Pan African Theme Hall for students interested in developing consciousness of African culture in relation to other cultures of the world ; and Stonewall Hall , dedicated to students of all gender identities and sexual orientations who wish to live in a gender @-@ neutral community . UCR 's three academic colleges in the humanities , sciences and engineering fields are represented by respective theme halls , and halls exist for honor students and transfer students .
= = = Student organizations and activities = = =
UCR hosts over 375 registered student organizations , including the Associated Students of the University of California , Riverside ( ASUCR ) , which represents undergraduates on administrative and policy issues . ASUCR is guided by a Senate composed of 16 elected officers , who represent the three undergraduate colleges in proportion to their enrollment , 10 Directors , who are in charge of the various parts of ASUCR , and a Judicial Council of 6 , which adjudicates any cases involving personnel misconduct or interpretation of the Constitution . Membership is composed of all UCR students who pay mandatory activity fees . ASUCR assesses these fees and distributes funds to registered student groups on campus , including student lobbying groups , a right that ASUCR won in a federal court case against the Regents in 1999 .
Of the registered student groups , 40 are fraternities and sororities . Nine men 's fraternities belong to the North @-@ American Interfraternity Conference ; seven women 's sororities belong to the National Panhellenic Conference ; seven men 's fraternities and ten women 's sororities represent the National Multicultural Greek Council , and two others fall under the campus Raza Assembly and are unique to UCR . Thirteen percent of the undergraduate student body participates in Greek life , although chapter houses are not permitted . Including the Greek letter organizations , more than 60 student volunteer service organizations at UCR contribute to more than 100 @,@ 000 hours of collective and individual service done in the community each year . Jewish student life has existed for over a decade through UCR Hillel .
Student media organizations include The Highlander student newspaper , currently published every Tuesday during the academic year . First published in 1954 , the Highlander remains an independent student media outlet . It was an entirely self @-@ funded organization until 2001 , when ASUCR passed a funding referendum for it . Student fees from the referendum go towards overhead and printing costs , however the Highlander is primarily funded through its own advertising revenue . In 2003 , the Highlander published a comic depicting a stereotypical Asian American graduate teaching assistant with poor English skills , inciting community backlash and prompting an apology from Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief Kahlil Ford . Other student news publications on campus include the Asian Community Times , Indian Time , Nuestra Cosa , Queeriosity , and the X @-@ Factor Student Newspaper . Campus literary magazines include Mosaic , published at UCR since 1959 , and Crate , published by graduate students in UCR 's master 's level creative writing program since 2005 . UCR broadcasts over radio as KUCR at 88 @.@ 3 FM . The station programs a variety of independent music , news and commentary .
On @-@ campus entertainment events are planned by a 14 @-@ member Associated Students Program Board ( ASPB ) , comprising six student @-@ run divisions that include concerts , films and lectures , cultural events and special events , as well as a marketing and leadership division . ASPB 's major events include the Block Party Concert , Student Film Festival , International Film Festival , World Fest , Welcome Week , Homecoming and Spring Splash .
Still other on @-@ campus events take place at The Barn , one of the original buildings on campus grounds . Throughout the 60s ' , 70s ' and 80s ' popular up and coming bands played at The Barn including No Doubt and Radiohead . During the 90s ' however , the university administration sought to avoid a " party school " stigma and did away with the concerts and events and remodeled the facility into a restaurant , The Big West Bar and Grill . As recently as the fall of 2007 , concerts returned to The Barn and efforts are underway to rejuvenate it and once again make it into an on @-@ campus venue attracting students as well as the larger university community .
The Graduate Student Association of the University of California , Riverside ( GSAUCR ) is ASUCR 's counterpart on the graduate level . It is guided by a Graduate Student Council consisting of representatives from every department on campus . GSAUCR assesses fees required of all graduate students and uses them to fund research awards and colloquiums , conference travel grants , and speaker funds .
= = = Athletics = = =
UCR 's varsity teams compete in the Big West Conference of NCAA Division I. Programs include men 's and women 's soccer , cross country , basketball , track and field , baseball , softball , tennis , golf and women 's volleyball . After students voted to assess themselves $ 35 a quarter to fund the athletic programs in 1998 , men 's and women 's soccer and golf were added , and the athletic department switched from NCAA Division II in 2000 . While at Division II level , UCR produced 5 national championship teams in men 's baseball and women 's volleyball . As of 2006 , UCR had produced 17 individual national champions , 175 All @-@ Americans and many conference and regional champions . The men 's golf team represented UCR in the 2004 and 2005 NCAA West Regionals after winning back to back Conference Championships in those respective years while having three athletes ranked in the top 100 in the country . In 2006 , 2007 , and 2010 the UCR women 's basketball team represented the conference in the Division I tournament but lost all three times in the first round . In December 2008 , the UCR women 's basketball team upset the # 16 @-@ seeded Vanderbilt Commodores .
In 2005 the women 's soccer team competed in the first round of the NCAA tournament . In 2007 , UCR 's baseball team won their first Big West championship and reached the Division I postseason for the second time since 2003 , and the cross country team sent its first two athletes to the national championships . Football was played until 1975 , and the team won two CCAA championships before the sport was discontinued because of low attendance and in anticipation of the impact of Title IX regulations .
The volleyball and basketball teams play home games in the Student Recreation Center ( SRC ) , which seats 3 @,@ 168 . The baseball team competes at the Riverside Sports Complex , just off campus at the corner of Blaine and Rustin streets . UCR graduate Troy Percival personally built UCR 's baseball clubhouse to major league quality standards . Softball is played at the Amy S. Harrison Field , named after a UCR graduate who donated $ 300 @,@ 000 towards its upgrade in 2004 . Adjacent to the softball field are the soccer and track fields . The soccer field was resurfaced with artificial turf in 2007 . In 2011 , the old track and field facility , which had bleachers that dated back to the 1950s and a track surface that was over 15 years old , was completely torn out and replaced with a brand new facility .
Non @-@ varsity student sports clubs that compete with other area universities include the Rugby Football Club , established in 2006 , which plays in the Southern California Rugby Football Union . The karate program is provided through the UC Riverside Recreation Center 's Leisure Line classes . The classes are provided by top of the line USA Shotokan karate team coaches from the American JKA Karate Association , an association that has been in the city for over 40 years . It is one of the largest collegiate programs in the United States , that take competitors to local , national and international competitions . A Men 's and Women 's Club Soccer team also competes in the West Coast Soccer Association .
In 1954 , UCR 's founding class adopted the name " Highlanders " , reflecting the campus ' high altitude . After the student body passed a referendum to move to Division I competition in 1998 , the bear mascot , formerly called " Scotty " , was professionally redesigned to look more ferocious . The new mascot featured a half @-@ blue face in homage to William Wallace , the subject of the movie Braveheart . In line with the Scottish motif , UCR assembles a bagpipe band made up of students and staff who play at graduation and other campus events . The blue and gold tartan worn by the pipe band and the mascot is a registered trademark of the University of California . For the women 's basketball team 's first appearance at the NCAA Tournament in 2006 , UCR sent 22 members of the pipe band to play at halftime .
= = = National Championship Teams ( Division II ) = = =
Baseball ( 1977 and 1982 ) .
Women 's Volleyball ( 1977 – AIAW , 1982 and 1986 ) .
Women 's Soccer ( 1983 ) First place in the California Collegiate Women 's Soccer Conference .
= = Alumni = =
More than 94 @,@ 000 alumni have graduated from UCR over the course of its history . A 13 @,@ 865 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 288 @.@ 1 m2 ) Alumni and Visitors Center was established in 2007 . It is used as a central gathering place for alumni and holds several facilities for use including meeting rooms , a formal board room , a central lobby area , a library , several alumni affairs offices , and a café .
Some of the most notable alumni include the following :
Steve Breen : Editorial cartoonist and two time Pulitzer Prize winner ( 1998 and 2009 . )
Billy Collins : The 11th U.S. Poet Laureate .
Brenda Martinez : an American track and field athlete .
Dr. Richard R. Schrock : Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) and winner of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry .
Tim D. White : Paleoanthropologist – named one of Time Magazine 's " 100 Most Influential People of 2010 " for his work with Lucy , one of the oldest known Hominin .
Charles E. Young : UCR 's first student body president , later became Chancellor of UCLA .
= Beechwood ( Vanderlip mansion ) =
Beechwood is a Hudson River estate in Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson , in Briarcliff Manor , New York . The estate was most notably the home of Frank A. Vanderlip and his family , and is a contributing property to the Scarborough Historic District . The house and property were owned by the Vanderlip family from 1906 to 1979 . The property is now a 37 @-@ condominium complex as the result of a development project that began in the 1980s .
Contemporarily , Beechwood is known for being a filming location of the 1970 film House of Dark Shadows , and a filming location and the primary setting of Savages , a 1972 Merchant Ivory film . In June 2016 , Money Man : Frank Vanderlip and the Birth of the Federal Reserve premiered there . The film documents Vanderlip 's life and was filmed at Beechwood .
= = History = =
The first portion of the main residence dates to 1780 , and includes the original kitchen 's fireplace . Benjamin and Ann Folger were among the earliest residents , and named their residence " Heartt Place " . In the 1830s , Folger deeded the estate to a self @-@ proclaimed prophet , Robert Matthews , who believed himself to be the resurrected Matthias of the New Testament . Matthews convinced his followers to fund an expansion to the house , which he had named " Zion Hill " . During this time , Isabella Baumfree ( Sojourner Truth ) was a housekeeper to him . After he spent the money his followers and Folger had given him , Matthews became violent . Further on , he was tried for murder , and acquitted for lack of evidence . Matthews was later found guilty of assaulting his grown daughter , and he served a short jail term .
The property containing the mansion had been in the Remsen family for decades . Anna Remsen Webb was one of the inheritors of the estate . In the 1890s , her husband 's half @-@ brother Henry Walter Webb substantially added to the estate from numerous properties , including the Remsen estate and William Creighton 's estate ( Creighton had named his house " Beechwood " after he purchased it in 1836 ) . Henry Webb attached the name Beechwood to the entire estate and house . He renovated and expanded the mansion , hiring R. H. Robertson to double the size of the house . Robertson designed the expansion in the Colonial Revival style , to be compatible with the neoclassical Federal style of the original but more ornate .
Frank Vanderlip purchased the 23 @-@ acre ( 9 @.@ 3 ha ) property from Webb 's widow in 1906 , and bought more property to make the estate a total 125 acres ( 51 ha ) . He hired William Welles Bosworth soon after to further enlarge the house and to design a wing for his library and the lawns of the estate . In 1907 , while Vanderlip was vice president of the First National City Bank ( later Citibank ) , he had two columns from the headquarters 55 Wall Street shipped to Beechwood ( 55 Wall Street was being remodeled and the columns were re @-@ spaced , with two left over ) . He had the columns placed two @-@ thirds above ground in Beechwood 's entranceway off of Albany Post Road ( now U.S. Route 9 ) , an entrance which was later closed due to increasing traffic volume on Route 9 ( the current entrance is off Scarborough Station Road ) . Vanderlip also made a cage for his children 's pet rabbits using a discarded wrought @-@ iron elevator , also discarded from the bank . Among the guests the Vanderlips hosted at the house were Woodrow Wilson , Henry Ford , Sarah Bernhardt , Annie Oakley , Franklin D. Roosevelt , John D. Rockefeller , and Isadora Duncan . The Wright Brothers even landed a plane on the property . In 1910 , Vanderlip bought the nearby mansion Woodlea , although his wife Narcissa Vanderlip prevented the family from moving , due to her preference of Beechwood over the grandiose Woodlea . In 1979 , Vanderlip descendants sold the property . Three condominiums were built during a transformation of the mansion in the 1980s . A later expansion resulted in a total of 37 condominiums on the property 's 33 acres .
= = Description = =
Near the center of the property , at the southwest corner of Route 9 and Scarborough Station Road , sits the eponymous mansion that features two large porticoed entryways , a two @-@ story octagonal library , numerous porches , verandas , and over 100 interior rooms . Other major structures included a hunting lodge , a second mansion built for the Vanderlips ' daughter Charlotte , a home for the Vanderlips ' physician , and the Scarborough School , a progressive school which the Vanderlips established just south of the mansion in 1916 .
The 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) private parkland was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted for the Vanderlips and has expansive lawns , a grove of large beech trees , imported trees , and an Italianate garden with an alcove , fountain , and small pool with Wisteria @-@ covered trellises . The lawns , formal gardens , and stone gazebo , erected by the Vanderlips , have been preserved and feature in wedding ceremonies that occasionally occur on the property .
The Beechwood estate also contained a carriage house , gatehouse , squash court ( no longer extant ) , and a white @-@ stucco artist 's studio named Beech Twig , which was home to author John Cheever , whose children attended the school on the property . The family rented the house until they moved to Ossining . Descriptions of the building 's interior closely match descriptions employed by Cheever in some short stories . Novelist Richard Yates also lived in the same house as a child , as well as other artists , writers , and composers . The estate 's garage is located northeast of the mansion , and is a flat @-@ roof , two @-@ story concrete building dating to the early 1900s .
= The World Needs a Hero =
The World Needs a Hero is the ninth studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth , released in May 2001 by Sanctuary Records . After the critical and commercial failure of the previous album Risk ( 1999 ) , The World Needs a Hero represented a change back to a heavier musical direction . Subsequently , the album charted at number 16 on the Billboard 200 upon release .
After parting with former label Capitol Records , the album was the first of two Megadeth studio albums to be released by Sanctuary . It was the last of two studio albums to feature drummer Jimmy DeGrasso and the only one to feature Al Pitrelli on lead guitar . Furthermore , The World Needs a Hero was the last album with original bassist David Ellefson until his return to Megadeth in 2010 . Additionally , mascot Vic Rattlehead appears on the cover of a Megadeth album for the first time since Rust in Peace ( 1990 ) .
= = Background and production = =
In 1999 , Megadeth released its eighth studio album , Risk . The album was noteworthy for being a drastic musical departure for the band , and the culmination of the band 's increasing attempts for mainstream success throughout the 1990s , a trend starting with Countdown to Extinction ( 1992 ) . The World Needs a Hero marks a stylistic transition towards the band 's thrash metal roots . Furthermore , the album had been touted by the band as an " antidote " to Risk in a press release . However , the album has been noted by several music critics as still retaining some commercial feel from previous albums .
According to frontman Dave Mustaine , the album title refers to stereotypical rock stars . When asked about the matter , and an earlier comment about Axl Rose having killed the traditional rock star image , Mustaine explained that " People want heroes . Most bands look like average Joes , wearing gas @-@ station shirts , have funky hair @-@ dos and I think people wanna be able to go ' they may not be popular , but they 're MY band . ' " Mustaine went on to say that many of contemporary rock music groups looked and sounded the same , and that the music industry needed a hero . He then proceeded to contrast a perceived lack of image of then current music scenes with the image of 1980s metal bands like Iron Maiden and Judas Priest .
In another interview , Mustaine offered a more straightforward interpretation of the album title . Commenting on negative stories in the news , such as wars and natural disasters , Mustaine inferred that the world at that time was in need of a hero to solve various problems around the planet .
The album cover by Hugh Syme shows mascot Vic Rattlehead breaking out of Mustaine .
= = Songs = =
The album 's lead single was " Moto Psycho " , and a video was also made for this song . The song is about people who commute every day to work , spending a lot of time on the road . " Dread and the Fugitive Mind " was released on the Capitol Punishment compilation a year earlier , at the insistence of Megadeth 's former label , Capitol Records . The album 's opener , " Disconnect " , is explained by Mustaine as being about living a double life and " the person I want you to think that I am and the person inside that I really know I am . " " Coming Home " was only available on the Japanese pressing as a bonus track , but has since been released on the Warchest box set . Mustaine has stated that concept for " Promises " is " prejudiced relationships , " such as those between a Catholic and a Protestant in Ireland , interracial and same @-@ sex relationships , " it could be about a guy and a sheep for all I care . It just means that if we can 't be together in this life , maybe we 'll make it in the next . "
When asked if " Recipe for Hate ... Warhorse " was written about any particular person , Mustaine said that there were " a whole bunch of people that 'd probably deserve that song , " but didn 't single out anyone in particular . " Silent Scorn " is an instrumental song which is often played over the sound system at concerts ; this can be heard on the band 's live album Rude Awakening ( 2002 ) right after the final song in the set , " Holy Wars ... The Punishment Due " . " Return to Hangar " is a sequel to " Hangar 18 " from Rust in Peace ; the captive aliens from the first song escape and kill their captors . On the live albums Rude Awakening and That One Night : Live in Buenos Aires ( 2007 ) it is played back @-@ to @-@ back with " Hangar 18 " . The main riff and structure of " When " , the album 's closing number , is reminiscent of " Am I Evil ? " by Diamond Head , which Mustaine said was intentional .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released on May 15 , 2001 in the United States and sold 61 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , entering the Billboard 200 at number 16 . The album sold another 25 @,@ 000 copies in its second week , falling to number 59 . The album also charted in Poland ( # 17 ) , Germany ( # 36 ) , Sweden ( # 38 ) , and Switzerland ( # 55 ) as well . By December 2005 , The World Needs a Hero had sold about 219 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Megadeth commenced a tour to promote the album on June 8 , 2001 at Milton Keynes National Bowl in England , where they were featured alongside acts such as AC / DC , The Offspring , and Queens of the Stone Age . The appearance at the Dynamo Festival in the Netherlands was canceled without explanation . A show scheduled for August 2 , 2001 in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia was banned because the band 's imagery was considered " unsuitable " by the country 's government . Following the breakup of the band in 2002 , six of the album 's songs appeared on Still Alive ... and Well ? , a 2002 compilation combining studio tracks from The World Needs a Hero , with six live tracks .
= = Critical reception = =
The World Needs a Hero received generally mediocre reviews and was regarded as a " return to roots " by critics . Writing for AllMusic , reviewer Steve Huey opined that Mustaine " tries to conjure memories " of Rust in Peace and Countdown to Extinction , but while comparing " Dread and the Fugitive Mind " to " Sweating Bullets " ( from Countdown to Extinction ) said that much of the material " feels like rehashed Megadeth " . Huey critiqued the production as still being " radio @-@ friendly " and said because of that , the group " never quite kicks up the fury or flash of past glories " . Neil Arnold of Metal Forces wrote that even though the album was " lacking the menace of the band ’ s earlier work " , it was still a more accomplished effort than the previous record . He concluded that Megadeth were " clearly opting for melody over aggression " , albeit rarely breaking into " thrash mode " .
Meanwhile , reviewer Greg Pratt of Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles was more sympathetic towards the album . Pratt , after briefly critiquing the lack of a thrashy sound , positively compared the record to Youthanasia ( 1994 ) and Countdown to Extinction ( 1992 ) . Additionally , he commented that even in the absence of longtime members Nick Menza and Marty Friedman , that the band still sounded good . Pratt reacted positively to a number of the album 's songs , but cited " Recipe for Hate ... Warhorse " as being the album 's " most intense moment " . Mike Stagno of Sputnikmusic had mixed feelings about the music on the record . While Stagno noted that the album was advertised as a return towards the band 's roots , he explained that those who were hoping for an album in the style of the band 's first four records would be disappointed . Stagno ultimately defined the album as " more of an all @-@ out metal record " .
The Rolling Stone Album Guide described the album as " sluggish " and " retrograde " and called it a " step back for the band " . Orlando Weekly 's John Engels felt that the void left by former guitarist Marty Friedman was successfully filled by Al Pitrelli . However , he noted that the album occasionally sounds repetitive , and criticized a number of songs for their " childish " lyrics . Friedman stated he was " a little disappoint [ ed ] " by the album . Friedman specifically singled out the album 's cover for criticism , though he also commented that he thought that the music was " very well done " .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Dave Mustaine , all music composed by Mustaine , except where noted .
The track listing of the Japanese edition features the bonus track , " Coming Home " , as track 3 ; " Moto Psycho " becomes track 4 and all subsequent songs are moved one track back .
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes , except where otherwise noted .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Release history = =
= Australia at the Winter Olympics =
Australia first competed in the Winter Olympic Games in 1936 in Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , and has participated in every games since , with the exception of the 1948 Games in St. Moritz .
In the early years , Australia 's athletes did poorly ; only two athletes placed in the top half of their events before 1976 , while the vast majority placed in the bottom quarter , including some who finished last . This lack of success was attributed to the Australian culture , climate and lack of snow , as well as the lack of support for the athletes — sports administrators regarded investment in winter sports as futile .
After the appointment of Geoff Henke — who had been unable to compete in 1956 after the administrators neglected to endorse his ice hockey team 's application — as team manager in 1976 , the results slowly began to improve , and by the 1990s , some Australians were regarded as medal prospects . The upturn in performance was accompanied by increased government funding for winter sports , the creation of the Olympic Winter Institute of Australia and the purchase of an alpine training base in Austria .
Australia won its first medal , a bronze , in 1994 in the men 's 5 @,@ 000 metres short track relay speed skating event . Zali Steggall gained Australia 's first individual medal in 1998 , when she won bronze in the slalom event . In 2002 , Steven Bradbury won the 1 @,@ 000 metres short track speed skating and Alisa Camplin won the aerials event , making Australia the only southern hemisphere country to have won a gold medal at a Winter Olympics .
Australia sent 40 competitors to compete in 10 sports at the 2006 Games in Turin . Their goal of winning a medal was achieved when Dale Begg @-@ Smith won the gold in men 's freestyle moguls skiing . Camplin claimed her second medal , a bronze in the aerials event .
At the 2010 Games in Vancouver Australia had its most successful Winter Olympics taking home two gold and one silver . Begg @-@ Smith won a silver in the moguls , while Torah Bright and Lydia Lassila won the women 's half @-@ pipe snowboarding and aerial freestyle skiing respectively .
At the 2014 Games , Australia sent its largest ever Winter Olympic Team , 60 athletes , to Sochi , competing in 10 sports . The Sochi Team included 31 female athletes making it the first Australian Olympic Team , Summer or Winter , with more female athletes than male . Australia again won three medals with David Morris ( aerial skiing ) and Torah Bright ( snowboard halfpipe ) winning silver and Lydia Lassila ( aerial skiing ) finishing with bronze .
Overall Australia has won 12 Winter Olympic medals - 5 gold , 3 silver and 4 bronze .
= = History = =
= = = Early struggles = = =
Winter sports have traditionally been second to summer pursuits in Australian sporting culture , but interest and support in the former has grown . The decision @-@ making bodies of the Australian Olympic Federation ( AOF ) allowed winter sports to be represented , but their representatives were usually overruled by their summer counterparts .
The first Winter Olympics took place in 1924 . Australia first competed at the Winter Olympics in 1936 , when its sole representative , Kenneth Kennedy , participated in speed skating . Kennedy came 33rd in both the 1500 m and 5000 m , near the bottom of the standings . He was entirely on his own ; no Australian support staff were in attendance , even though the AOF officially sanctioned Kennedy 's entry .
The Olympics were then halted due to the outbreak of World War II . Australia did not send a team to the 1948 Winter Olympics , but has competed at every Winter Olympics since , sending nine athletes to the 1952 Olympics . There were five skiers , two cross @-@ country and three downhill — who either failed to finish or whose results were unknown — three figure skaters and one speed skater . Adrian Swan and Nancy Burley , who finished 10th and 14th in figure skating , were the only two Australia competitors to place in the top 20 , although neither placed in the top half of the field . Burley and fellow figure skater Gweneth Molony were the first two women to represent Australia at the Winter Olympics .
Supervision and support for the athletes were relatively minimal in the early years . Colin Hickey said that he never received clothing from the AOF , except for a black armband and tie for the 1952 Olympics to mourn the death of King George VI . He also said that Australian officials had " no control over me ... All they 'd do was tell me what times I had to do " . Hickey was uncoached and had travelled to Europe at the age of 18 to support himself and race . In 1952 , a support staffer was present for the first time ; Robert " George " Chisholm was the first manager of an Australian Winter Olympic team . The lack of administrative attention was highlighted when Chisholm incorrectly declared that the campaign was Australia 's first at the Winter Olympics .
At the 1956 Winter Olympics , Hickey , a " rink rat " who was overlooked for ice hockey when he was young because of his small frame , came seventh in the 500 and 1000 metres speed skating at his second Olympics . He later won a bronze medal at the world championships . Australia 's nine other competitors were less successful ; two male figure skaters — Allan Ganter and Charles Keeble — placed in the top 15 but in the bottom 25 % in the individual event , while the pairs combination of Mervyn Bower and Jacqueline Mason failed to take to the ice after Bower was injured . The five downhill skiers were Australia 's least successful entrants ; the highest finish was 33rd and the median was 60th , and all were near the bottom of their events . Australia sent its first coach and female staffer for the 1956 campaign ; C. Mason oversaw the skaters and Lillian Chisholm acted as the chaperone . The ice hockey team offered to pay their own way to compete ; the only thing that they needed from the AOF was formal permission . However , the AOF never responded to their request ; they were unable to attend , and criticised the AOF for their disinterest . One of the affected athletes was Geoff Henke , later credited for ending the neglect of winter sports when he became an administrator .
Australia sent 31 athletes in 1960 , its largest team before the 2006 Winter Olympics ; their size was boosted by an outclassed 18 @-@ man ice hockey team , which conceded 83 goals in losing all six matches . They lost to Czechoslovakia 18 – 1 and the United States 12 – 1 in their two group matches , and were then placed into a group with Finland and Japan , the last @-@ placed teams in the two other preliminary groups . The Australians played two matches against each of the other teams to determine the three worst teams in the nine @-@ country contest . They lost all four matches , conceding a total of 53 goals . The heaviest margins were in the defeats to Czechoslovakia and Finland , 18 – 1 and 19 – 2 respectively . Australia scored only 10 goals in reply .
Hal Nerdal competed in Nordic combined , the only time that Australia has participated in the event at the Olympics , and finished last . Four years after injury prevented them from competing , Bower and Mason recorded Australia 's best result , placing 12th in the pairs figure skating , although they were still second to last . Hickey and two male figure skaters — who were close to last — were the only Australians to place in the top 20 , while Christine Davy became the first Australian to break into the top 30 in a skiing event , although she too was in the bottom 20 % of the competition . The athletes were accompanied by seven staff members , the largest Australian support contingent until 1988 . Chisholm mistakenly noted in his official report that it was Australia 's second participation , forgetting the delegations sent in 1936 , 1952 and 1956 .
With the ice hockey team in mind , there was debate about the trade @-@ off between selection standards and participation after the 1960 Winter Olympics . At a 1963 meeting , Kenneth Kennedy complained that the ice hockey team was not given overseas trips to compete because they were not world class , but could never become competitive unless they had experience in international matches . Edgar Tanner said " I ask the winter sports whether they really believe they are in world class , or world ranking , in the field of sport and whether they can do Australia credit , or just be there . " Bill Young , of cycling , disagreed , saying " I thought the first spirit of the Games was to compete " , but was overruled by Tanner .
In contrast to the large 1960 team , the teams in subsequent Olympics were scaled back and were the smallest since 1936 . The 1964 Winter Olympics were marred by the deaths of Australian skier Ross Milne — who crashed during a practice run — and a British luge competitor . Milne had skidded off the course and crashed into a tree . Members of the IOC asked the AOF whether Milne was negligently sent to compete despite a lack of experience , which the AOF denied . The Australian manager John Wagner blamed the accident on a large group of skiers who had congregated lower down on the course during the practice session , forcing Milne to take evasive action . The Australian delegation felt that the training arrangements had not been enacted strictly , making the course unsafe . Australia was represented by five skiers — excluding Milne . Christine Smith placed in the top 30 in two events , but the remainder placed 40th or lower , although all were in the bottom half of the field . Milne 's replacement Peter Wenzel placed 68th in both the downhill and giant slalom .
Motivated in part by a desire to prove that Australians could compete at the highest level , and believing that claims that his brother died due to inexperience was a smokescreen intended to cover @-@ up the poor safety standards , Malcolm Milne represented Australia at the next two Winter Olympics , won a World Cup event and came third in a World Championship . In 1968 , Milne finished 24th in both the downhill and slalom events , Australia 's best result in a skiing event up to that point . Ross Martin came 60th in both cross @-@ country events , and Colin Coates came 41st and 49th in his two speed skating events . Australia had more officials present than athletes , with five competitors and three administrators . This trend continued at the 1972 Olympics in Sapporo , which were attended by five staff and four athletes . Milne rose up the rankings to finish 23rd and 24th in the downhill and slalom respectively , as did Coates , who came in the top 30 in three of his four events , including an 18th @-@ place result in the 10 @,@ 000 m event . Milne was considered a medal contender and the team manager felt that but for a near @-@ fall , he would have placed near the medalists .
= = = Henke era = = =
Up to this point , Australia 's performances had been poor , and winter athletes were often derided by the summer @-@ dominated administrators . During one meeting , a cross @-@ country representative asked for the selection of six athletes , prompting the selection committee chairman to interject . The chairman said that a seventh place would be needed , and went on to explain that a dog was required to find the athletes after they got lost in the snow . The majority of his colleagues burst into laughter .
After the 1968 Winter Olympics , at which the only Australian alpine skier was Milne , skiing delegate Peter Blaxland said that the country should not send a solitary skier for psychological reasons . The Winter Olympics team manager reported that his European counterparts were surprised by Australia 's small team . The response from the board — dominated by Summer Olympics delegates — was unsympathetic , with Sir Wilfrid Kent Hughes expressing concern that uncompetitive athletes might be selected . The neglect of the Winter Olympics continued until Henke 's appointment as team manager in 1976 . Henke held the position for two decades , until Ian Chesterman took over in 1998 . He rose to become vice @-@ president of the AOF , and is credited with ending the administrative neglect of winter sport . Up until Henke 's appointment , Hickey and Milne were the only athletes to have placed in the top half of any event . In 1981 , Henke took AOF board members into the Australian Alps for a board meeting , allowing him to exploit the environment to promote winter sport . He said that the next Olympics " was the first time the AOF ever really got behind the winter team " .
Coates reached his peak at the 1976 games in Innsbruck . He competed in five events , and apart from a 25th @-@ place finish in the 500 m event , did no worse than 11th in the remaining four . He came sixth in the 10 @,@ 000 m , eighth in the 1 @,@ 500 m and tenth in the 5 @,@ 000 m . It was only the second time that an Australian had placed in the top 10 , and remained Australia 's best result until 1994 . His five skiing compatriots were less productive ; they registered in 13 races between them and completed only seven due to crashes and disqualifications , with only one top 30 result .
In 1980 , Australia 's competing contingent rose into double figures for the first time since 1960 , with 10 representatives . Jacqui Cowderoy became the first Australian to break into the top 20 in a skiing event , placing 17th in the slalom . The brother @-@ and @-@ sister pairing of Peter and Elizabeth Cain , Australia 's first representatives in figure skating in 20 years , came 11th . Coates was unable to repeat his performances of four years earlier and his 18th and 19th places were Australia 's only other top 20 results .
In 1984 in Sarajevo , Steven Lee and Cameron Medhurst placed 19th in the downhill and individual figure skating respectively . No other top 20 finishes were recorded among the 11 athletes , and the two cross @-@ country skiers and the first Australian Olympic biathlete , Andrew Paul , finished no better than 47th in their eight events . Australia sent 15 athletes to the 1988 Olympics in Calgary , where they competed in the bobsleigh for the first time . The two two @-@ man bobsleigh teams came 23rd and 26th respectively , well down the field .
Although a competitor on paper in 1988 , Coates was supposed to only be a coach and was forbidden to compete . The Australian Skating Union had refused to select him as they wanted to allow younger athletes an opportunity to race . However , the AOF officially listed Coates as a competitor so that he could train with the others on the ice , and because the artificially inflated athlete count would entitle the Australian team to take more support staff . However , Coates was informed that the registration was only for show and that he was not to race . However , when it was time for his event , he put on a uniform , defied team orders and skated his best time ever . Henke publicly excoriated Coates in front of the cameras , but stopped when he found out that Prime Minister Bob Hawke had sent Coates a congratulatory message . However , Coates ' new Australian record was only good enough for 26th place and ended his sixth and final Olympic campaign . His speed skating teammates Michael Richmond and Danny Kah managed two top 15 finishes each , and Medhurst was the only other Australian to place in the top 20 .
The 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville , France was viewed as the potential start of a new era in Australian winter sports , with hopes that a maiden medal would result . Australia 's short track relay team went into the 1992 Olympics as world champions , but crashed in the semi @-@ finals . The Australians were in third place when Richard Nizielski lost his footing and knocked over team @-@ mate John Kah during a changeover ; they finished fourth and failed to reach the final . In the individual speed skating events , Australia scored only four top 20 finishes from 12 starts , with none higher than 12th , and only one placing in the top half . Kirstie Marshall was in the process of winning the 1992 World Cup series , and was one of the favourites for the women 's aerial skiing , which was a demonstration event , but she crash @-@ landed and finished seventh . Lee managed two top 20 finishes in alpine skiing events , and finished in the top half of the competitors in four events ; most of the Australians remained in the bottom half in all of their events . Despite the disappointments of the near @-@ misses , Australia increased their investment in the Winter Olympics , purchasing a training base called Sonnpark in Austria in 1993 . The 1992 Games also included Speedskiing as a demonstration sport four athletes qualified for the Games . Nick Kirshner , Les Herstik , Geoff Tasker and Daniel Guerin . Tasker and Kirshner 's Nominations where both rejected after their arrival In the village
= = = First medals = = =
In 1994 , the short track relay team won Australia 's first Winter Olympic medal , a bronze . They qualified for the four @-@ team final after edging out Japan and New Zealand , finishing second in their semi @-@ final . The quartet adopted a plan of staying on their feet as the first priority , and remaining undisqualified and defeating at least one of the other three finalists . During the race , the Canadians fell and lost a significant amount of time , meaning that Australia would win a medal if they raced conservatively and avoided a crash . Late in the race , Nizielski was fighting with his American counterpart for track position to claim the silver medal , but took the safe option and yielded , mindful of the lost opportunity of the crash in Albertville . It was a successful campaign for the largest team that Australia had sent — apart from 1960 . The 27 athletes recorded an unprecedented five top 10 finishes . Marshall placed first in the opening round of the aerials , but faded to sixth in the final , while Kerryn Rim placed eighth in the 15 km biathlon and Steven Bradbury and Nizielski of the medal @-@ winning relay team placed eighth and tenth in the 500 m and 1 @,@ 000 m short track events respectively . In contrast to the previous games , the Australian short track speed skaters placed in the top half of the field in six of their eight individual starts . However , the Australians in the remaining disciplines generally finished in the bottom half of their competition .
Further medal success was anticipated at the 1998 Olympics in Nagano , which were attended by 24 Australian athletes . Zali Steggall , who months earlier had become the first Australian woman to win a World Cup event and was ranked sixth in the world , won the country 's first individual medal with a bronze in slalom skiing . Her time of 1 m 32 @.@ 67 s was only 0 @.@ 27 s behind the gold medallist . Marshall , the world champion in 1997 and 1999 , and Jacqui Cooper — ranked second in the world — were expected to do well in the aerials , but both crashed and failed to make the final . Bradbury , Nizielski and Kieran Hansen , three of the quartet that won Australia 's maiden medal in 1994 , returned but finished last , in eighth place .
= = = Golden breakthrough = = =
The improved results of the 1990s prompted higher expectations from the Australian Winter Olympic hierarchy . At the start of the 2002 Olympics , the Australian chef de mission Ian Chesterman addressed the team , saying " historically our winter teams have been the child racked by self @-@ doubt , shy in nature as we saw our big brother , our summer Games team , take on and conquer the world . " He added , " but over time we have developed a belief in ourselves " .
Australia competed in five sports in 2002 , the fewest sports entered in since 1984 . Australian cross @-@ country skiers were absent for the first time since 1976 , and there were no bobsleigh sliders for the first time since Australia 's debut in the sport in 1988 . This was partly due to the AOC 's higher selection standards than those of the IOC . Australian bobsledder Will Alstergren lamented that " We also beat half the teams currently in Salt Lake City , but unfortunately we couldn 't meet the very high standard of the AOC " . According to the Skiing Australia Cross Country Committee , tougher AOC selection standards contributed to the failure to compete in the discipline in 2002 .
In 2002 , Australia won their first two gold medals , the first time any southern hemisphere country had won an event . Australia 's maiden gold came in highly unlikely circumstances . Steven Bradbury , a member of the bronze @-@ winning 1994 relay team , won gold in short track speed skating on 17 February when all of his competitors in the 1 @,@ 000 m final crashed out on the final turn while jostling for the medal positions . He had qualified for the final after benefiting from similar incidents and disqualifications in the quarter and semifinals . Bradbury came third in his quarterfinal and would have been eliminated , but world champion Marc Gagnon was disqualified for obstruction and the Australian progressed .
Bradbury 's strategy from the semifinal onwards was to cruise behind his opponents and hope that they crashed , as he realised that he could not match their raw pace . His reasoning was that risk @-@ taking by the favourites could cause a racing incident , and if two ( or more ) riders collided and fell , the remaining three would all receive medals , and that as he was slower than his opponents , trying to challenge them directly would only increase his chance of being caught in a collision and falling .
In the semifinal , three skaters , including the defending champion , crashed into each other and Bradbury moved up into second place to qualify for the final . In the final , Bradbury was substantially slower than his opponents and was safely in last place , around 15 m behind with only 50 m to go , when all four rivals collided and fell over , allowing him to avoid the pile @-@ up and take the victory . The unlikely win turned Bradbury into something of a folk hero across Australia and around the world .
Having won three consecutive World Cup titles , Jacqui Cooper was the favourite in the aerials , but injured herself in training and was sent home days before the competition . Alisa Camplin , who had never won a World Cup event , won after exceeding her rivals ' points tally on the second and final jump .
In 2006 , Australia sent 40 athletes to compete in 10 sports . It was a record number of competitors and events , and Australian officials publicly declared their expectations of medal success . Aerial skiing medal hopeful Lydia Ierodiaconou injured herself when she landed badly on the second qualification jump , while Jacqui Cooper , who placed first in the qualification round , crashed in both of her finals jumps . Camplin won bronze , her second Olympic medal . Dale Begg @-@ Smith , considered the favourite in moguls skiing , won gold in the event . Torah Bright was rated as a medal chance in snowboarding half @-@ pipe , and came fifth . Damon Hayler , rated as a medal chance in snowboard cross , came seventh . Michelle Steele , a beach flag sprinter less than two years earlier , was seen as a medal possibility in the skeleton , but inexperience with the intimidating and technical track contributed to her 13th place . As only eight teams competed in the men 's short track speed skating relay , Australia had a good mathematical chance of winning a medal , but they failed to reach the final .
In 2010 , Australia had its most successful Winter Olympics , ending with two gold and one silver . There were a further seven finishes in the top ten . Flagbearer Bright returned and won gold . After falling in her first run in the final — only the highest of the two runs is counted — she had to perform her second run before all the other competitors as she was ranked last after the first phase , and produced the top @-@ score ; the later competitors could not match her and she took victory . In 2010 , Lassila ( née Ierodiaconou ) took gold , having come into the event as the reigning World Cup champion and favourite after setting a record score at a recent World Cup competition . After being second after the first jump , she scored highly on her final attempt , and the leader Xu Mengtao from China failed to land her second jump cleanly , sealing Lassila 's win . Cooper returned for a final campaign and came fifth . Begg @-@ Smith was again the favorite after three consecutive World Cup wins , but he was narrowly beaten by local skier Alexandre Bilodeau .
Russian @-@ born short @-@ track speed skater Tatiana Borodulina , whose citizenship was expedited to allow her to compete , made the semifinals in two events , placing 7th and 11th . In the snowboard cross , Hayler came tenth , while Alex Pullin was fastest in the qualification time trial , but crashed in the first round of racing . Scott Kneller came seventh in the men 's ski cross , while Holly Crawford came eighth in half @-@ pipe and Emma Lincoln @-@ Smith tenth in the skeleton .
In 2014 at the Sochi , Russia Olympic Winter Games Australia won three Olympic medals and a total of 15 top 10 performances were recorded , a significant increase from the nine achieved in Vancouver in 2010 . In addition Australia recorded 27 top 16 performances compared to 15 in Vancouver four years earlier .
This was a Team of history makers . Torah Bright became Australia 's most successful female Winter Olympian by adding a silver medal to her gold from Vancouver in 2010 . In Sochi , Bright was the only athlete to attempt three Snowboard events at the one Olympics : Slopestyle , Halfpipe and Snowboard Cross . David Morris , Australia ’ s only male Aerialist at the Sochi Games wrote his own piece of Olympic history by completing a double @-@ full full @-@ full ( quad twisting somersault ) in the men ’ s Freestyle Skiing – Aerials super @-@ final . Morris scored 110 @.@ 41 points for his jump and was awarded the silver medal . He was later honoured for his achievement by carrying the Australian flag in the Closing Ceremony . Aerials team mate and defending Olympic Aerial Skiing Champion Lydia Lassila was in Sochi to make history . Lydia chose to execute a jump in the women ’ s super @-@ final that no other woman in the history of the sport had attempted in competition , a quad twisting triple somersault . The high degree of difficulty jump scored her 72 @.@ 12 points and the bronze medal . This historical effort has taken the sport of women ’ s Aerials to a whole new level . Lassila is also the first mother to win a Winter Olympic medal for Australia . Bobsleigh ’ s Jana Pittman became the first female Olympian to compete in both a Summer and Winter Olympics . Callum and Aimee Watson became the first siblings to compete at the same Games in Cross Country . Alex Almoukov pulled off the best ever performance by a male Australian biathlete when he finished 45th in the 20 km Individual . Other historic bests were John Farrow finishing 17th in the men ’ s Skeleton , Belle Brockhoff , eighth in the women ’ s Snowboard Cross and Kent Callister , ninth in the men ’ s Snowboard Halfpipe .
= = Infrastructure and training = =
Although Australia has competed in every Winter Olympics since 1936 , it was not until the late 1980s that the athletes were supported by institutionalised training , government infrastructure or sports science . Malcolm Milne 's success prompted the eventual starting of the Australian Ski Federation by Geoff Henke in the 1980s , and with it , a program to sponsor talented young skiers and send them to Europe to hone their craft . The beneficiaries of this program included Lee , Zali Steggall , and aerial skiers Cooper and Marshall . In 1993 , a training centre and base called Sonnpark was set up in Axams , near Innsbruck , Austria , a joint venture between the Australian and Austrian Olympic Committees for summer and winter sports . Colin Hickey said about Sonnpark " Yeah . It 's great ... With that sort of back @-@ up , we 'd have given them [ the Europeans ] a run for their money . " Australia sold the base in 2002 . After the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , the Olympic Winter Institute of Australia ( OWIA , initially called the Australian Institute of Winter Sports ) was created . It was given a million @-@ dollar annual budget ; for the first time , Australia had a federal government – funded full @-@ time winter sports training program to accompany the Australian Institute of Sport . This led to a steady rise in the number of Australians who won medals at World Cup events in the immediate years after the OWIA 's creation . After the 2010 Olympics , the OWIA mooted plans to build a half @-@ pipe course at Perisher in the Australian Alps , and a water jump in Brisbane for aerials freestyle training . In 2010 , the OWIA 's new training base , Icehouse , was opened in Melbourne . The largest facility of its type in the southern hemisphere , it features two large skating rinks and cost AUD58 million .
The Australian Olympic Committee ( AOC , formerly the Australian Olympic Federation ) is the peak body responsible for Australia 's participation at the Olympics . Aside from funding the participation at the Olympics , the AOC provides money for the training and preparation of athletes . This occurs through their funding of the OWIA , grants for athletes to travel overseas to compete and the provision of monetary awards to athletes and their coaches if they win medals at World Cup events or World Championships in the lead up to the Olympics . The funding of the OWIA by the AOC varies by year , but hovers between AUD500,000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , with a higher budget in the years immediately before an Olympics . Through the Australian Sports Commission , the federal government also sponsors OWIA , contributing more than half a million dollars a year . In 2009 , the OWIA lobbied the government for an increase in its annual budget from AUD2.1m to AUD29.4m , a fraction of the AUD132m spent by Canada — the host of the 2010 Olympics . In contrast , the current funding for the Summer Olympics team is AUD128m per annum and the AOC asked for an increase of AUD108m annually in 2009 . Australia aimed to win two medals in 2010 , something that was achieved , and which Chesterman touted as justification for further funding to maintain and increase rankings in the face of growing expenditure by other countries .
= = Public participation and support for winter sports in Australia = =
Although Australia is generally considered to be more suited to summer sport , several ice @-@ based sports take place as well . Snow falls on the Australian Alps and parts of Tasmania . The Australian Alps are within six hours ' drive for residents of Sydney , but within two hours ' drive for residents of Melbourne and Canberra , Tasmanian ski slopes are within a day 's drive for residents of the major cities of Hobart and Launceston . However , the season is quite short , as the snow is skiable for only about four months per year . Skiing in Australia was first introduced by Norwegian miners in the goldrush town of Kiandra , New South Wales , around 1859 , near today 's Selwyn Snowfields ski resort . The sport remains a popular winter activity in the south @-@ eastern states and territories . Major alpine skiing resorts include Thredbo , Perisher and Charlotte Pass in New South Wales ; Mount Hotham , Falls Creek and Mount Buller in Victoria and Mount Ben Lomond in Tasmania . Victoria has three dedicated cross @-@ country ski resorts and extensive areas are available for cross @-@ country skiing within national parks including Kosciuszko National Park ( NSW ) , Alpine National Park ( VIC ) ; Namadgi National Park ( ACT ) and in the Tasmanian Wilderness .
The Kiandra snow shoe club is easily among the oldest continuing ski clubs in the world and was established by Norwegian gold prospectors in the mid @-@ 19th century . The Australian gold rushes first brought a population of skiers to the Australian snowfields in the 1860s . Ski chalets were established closer to Mount Kosciuszko in the early 20th century and the construction of the Snowy Mountains Hydro @-@ Electric Scheme brought easier access and European workers with an interest in skiing , who helped build the modern ski resorts of New South Wales . In 2004 , a mogul course called " Toppa 's Dream " was constructed on Blue Cow . The Mount Buller World Aerials is an annual event on the World Cup calendar . Aerial skiers practice extensively on water before trying jumps on snow ; Camplin jumped in a pond outside Melbourne . The Kangaroo Hoppet , a member of the Worldloppet Ski Federation series of cross @-@ country skiing races , is an annual citizen race that attracts competitors from several countries . Ski jumping is currently non @-@ existent in Australia .
Many major Australian cities have indoor ice rinks , enabling participation in some winter sports regardless of the climate . These began to appear at the end of the 19th century , and ice hockey was played as early as 1904 . Sydney hosted the 1991 short @-@ track speed skating World Championships , and the 2001 Goodwill Games — hosted in Brisbane — included figure skating . Australia has no tracks usable for bobsleigh , luge and skeleton , but there is a bobsleigh push track in the Docklands area of Melbourne .
In keeping with an existing tradition for Australian gold medallists at the Summer Olympics , Bradbury , Camplin and Begg @-@ Smith 's victories were recognised by Australia Post , which released stamps depicting their triumphs , and gave the athletes royalties for the use of their image . Due to the relative lack of interest in winter sport in Australia , both Camplin and Bradbury had been without sponsorship before their Olympic triumphs , and were effectively broke .
= = Results = =
= = = Medalists = = =
= = = Medal tally = = =
= = Overview by sport = =
The Olympic Winter Institute of Australia has programs in alpine skiing , freestyle skiing ( aerial and mogul ) , snowboarding , short track speed skating , figure skating and ( along with the Australian Institute of Sport ) skeleton . Australia also competed in biathlon , cross @-@ country skiing , bobsleigh and luge at the 2006 Winter Olympics .
= = = Alpine skiing = = =
Australia has competed in alpine skiing at every Olympics since 1952 . Australia 's first female skier , Christine Davy , competed in 1956 . Malcolm Milne was considered a possible medalalist at the 1972 Olympics , having finished on the podium at the world championships , but a knee injury and a near fall snuffed out his chances .
Steven Lee represented Australia at three Winter Olympics ; he won a World Cup event in Furano , Japan in the Super G event in 1985 , and was the second Australian to do so . He achieved three top @-@ 25 finishes in his career . Zali Steggall won Australia 's second Olympic bronze in the slalom event in 1998 . Twelve skiers represented Australia at the 2002 Olympics with Jenny Owens achieving the best result in the Downhill Combined event with a 9th place . Four skiers represented Australia in 2006 and only half the number participated in 2010 .
= = = Biathlon = = =
Australia has participated in biathlon at every Olympics since 1984 except for 2002 ; Kerryn Rim 's eighth place in 1994 in the 15 km individual event was their best result . Cameron Morton represented Australia in 2006 and finished in the bottom 10 % in each of his two races . In 2010 , Australia 's sole representative Alexei Almoukov came second last in his event — one competitor did not finish . Rim 's result remains the only top @-@ 20 finish by an Australian in the discipline , and more than 80 % of Australian entrants have finished in the bottom half of the field , including many in the bottom fifth .
= = = Figure skating = = =
Australia first competed in figure skating in 1952 , and has competed in 1956 , 1960 and every Olympics since 1980 . In earlier years , Australia earned some last places or near @-@ misses . Until 1988 , no Australian had placed above the 20th percentile , but results have slowly improved ; Anthony Liu finished 10th out of 28 competitors in the men 's event in 2002 . Joanne Carter represented Australia in 2006 . She had placed 12th in 2002 and apart from Liu is the only Australian to have placed in the top half of the field . In 2010 , Australia 's lone participant Cheltzie Lee came 20th . Australia has competed in ice dancing only twice — in 1988 and 2014 — when their solitary representative in both the men and women 's individual event came last .
= = = Freestyle skiing = = =
Australia has contested moguls freestyle skiing in every Olympics since it became an official sport in 1992 , as well as 1988 , when it was a demonstration sport . Australia has participated in every aerial freestyle event since it became official in 1994 , as well as 1992 , when it was a demonstration event .
Unlike in other winter disciplines , Australia started in the upper half of the field in the moguls ; Nicholas Cleaver and Adrian Costa placed 11th and 14th out of 47 competitors in 1992 . Since then , the results deteriorated into the lower half of the rankings , until 2006 , when Canadian @-@ born Dale Begg @-@ Smith won gold and four Australians qualified for the 35 @-@ man competition . Manuela Berchtold , the only female Australian representative in 2006 , came 14th out of 30 competitors . In 2010 , Begg @-@ Smith won silver , while two other moguls racers , one male and one female , were outside the top half and did not pass the first round .
Australia has been strong in women 's aerial skiing , having recruited gymnasts into the sport , and Kirstie Marshall and Jacqui Cooper have both been regarded as major medal chances in the last 15 years . However , both were plagued by injuries and crashes and failed to medal at the Olympic level despite enjoying success in World Cup or world @-@ championship events . Alisa Camplin won Australia 's second gold in 2002 . Australia fielded 4 of the 23 qualifiers in the women 's aerials in 2006 . Lydia Ierodiaconou injured herself when she landed badly in the second qualification jump and failed to reach the final . Camplin and Cooper contested the aerials finals , after the latter qualified first with a world record score of 213 @.@ 36 . Cooper managed only 152 @.@ 69 in the final and finished eighth , and Camplin went on to win bronze . In 2010 , Lassila ( née Ierodiaconou ) took gold . After being second after the first jump , she scored highly on her final attempt , and the leader Xu Mengtao from China failed to land her second jump cleanly , sealing Lassila 's win . Cooper returned for a final campaign and came fifth , while Elizabeth Gardner came 12th in the final . In contrast , Australia has not had a strong male tradition . Until 2010 , no male had competed in aerials — one athlete was selected but did not end up taking to the snow due to injury . In 2010 , David Morris ended the trend and came 13th out of 25 entrants .
Ski cross was introduced in 2010 . Scott Kneller reach the semifinals and placed seventh in the male competition , while Jenny Owens and Katya Cremer came 13th and 15th , all in the top half of the field .
= = = Nordic events = = =
Australia has competed in cross @-@ country skiing in 1952 , 1960 , 1968 , 1980 to 1998 , and since 2006 . The two Australian representatives in 1952 occupied the last two places , and before 1984 , no Australian finished above the bottom 15 % of racers . Results have slowly improved , but most Australian entrants in the last two decades have placed in the bottom 25 % . In 1992 , Anthony Evans became the first Australian to place in the top half , finishing in the top 40 in two events . Australia fielded three competitors in cross @-@ country skiing in 2006 , its largest contingent in the event . Paul Murray and Esther Bottomley competed in the sprint ; Clare @-@ Louise Brumley was selected for the pursuit and 30 km freestyle , but competed only in the former due to illness . Nobody broke into the top half in their respective races . At the 2010 Games , Australia had three representatives . Ben Sim came in the top half in one event , but he , Bottomley and Murray finished in the bottom 20 % in their remaining four events . Australia has never competed in ski jumping , and their sole entry in Nordic combined was by Hal Nerdal in 1960 , who came last .
= = = Sliding events = = =
The first Australian to compete in bobsleigh represented Great Britain . Frederick McEvoy drove the British two @-@ man and four @-@ man bobsleighs in 1936 , earning fourth place and a bronze respectively , and carried the British flag at the opening ceremony . Australia first competed in bobsleigh in 1988 , and has competed in the event in every Olympics since , except for 2002 . Paul Narracott became the first Australian to compete at both the Summer and Winter Olympics : he competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in athletics , and participated in bobsleigh in 1992 as the brakeman . Australia competed in luge in 1992 and 1994 . They did not compete in skeleton in 2002 .
Australia competed in all three sports in 2006 . In bobsleigh , Australia competed in the two @-@ man and two @-@ woman events , and was the highest @-@ placed country to miss qualifications for an Olympic berth in the four @-@ man event at the 2006 Challenge Cup . The Australian Olympic Committee unsuccessfully tried to have the Brazilian bobsleigh team thrown out due to the use of drugs by Armando dos Santos , so that
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= = = Crafting the amendment = = =
Acting under presidential war powers , Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1 , 1863 , which proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the ten states that were still in rebellion . However , it did not affect the status of slaves in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union . That December , Lincoln again used his war powers and issued a " Proclamation for Amnesty and Reconstruction " , which offered Southern states a chance to peacefully rejoin the Union if they abolished slavery and collected loyalty oaths from 10 % of their voting population . Southern states did not readily accept the deal , and the status of slavery remained uncertain .
In the final years of the Civil War , Union lawmakers debated various proposals for Reconstruction . Some of these called for a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery nationally and permanently . On December 14 , 1863 , a bill proposing such an amendment was introduced by Representative James Mitchell Ashley . Representative James F. Wilson soon followed with a similar proposal . On January 11 , 1864 , Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri submitted a joint resolution for a constitutional amendment abolishing slavery . The Senate Judiciary Committee , chaired by Lyman Trumbull , became involved in merging different proposals for an amendment .
Radical Republicans led by Senator Charles Sumner and Representative Thaddeus Stevens sought a more expansive version of the amendment . On February 8 , 1864 , Sumner submitted a constitutional amendment stating :
All persons are equal before the law , so that no person can hold another as a slave ; and the Congress shall have power to make all laws necessary and proper to carry this declaration into effect everywhere in the United States .
Sumner tried to promote his own more expansive wording by circumventing the Trumbull @-@ controlled Judiciary Committee , but failed . On February 10 , the Senate Judiciary Committee presented the Senate with an amendment proposal based on drafts of Ashley , Wilson and Henderson .
The Committee 's version used text from the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 , which stipulates , " There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory , otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted . " Though using Henderson 's proposed amendment as the basis for its new draft , the Judiciary Committee removed language that would have allowed a constitutional amendment to be adopted with only a majority vote in each House of Congress and ratification by two @-@ thirds of the states ( instead of two @-@ thirds and three @-@ fourths , respectively ) .
= = = Passage by Congress = = =
The Senate passed the amendment on April 8 , 1864 , by a vote of 38 to 6 ; two Democrats , Reverdy Johnson of Maryland and James Nesmith of Oregon voted " aye . " However , just over two months later on June 15 , the House failed to do so , with 93 in favor and 65 against , thirteen votes short of the two @-@ thirds vote needed for passage ; the vote split largely along party lines , with Republicans supporting and Democrats opposing . In the 1864 presidential race , former Free Soil Party candidate John C. Frémont threatened a third @-@ party run opposing Lincoln , this time on a platform endorsing an anti @-@ slavery amendment . The Republican Party platform had , as yet , failed to include a similar plank , though Lincoln endorsed the amendment in a letter accepting his nomination . Fremont withdrew from the race on September 22 , 1864 and endorsed Lincoln .
With no Southern states represented , few members of Congress pushed moral and religious arguments in favor of slavery . Democrats who opposed the amendment generally made arguments based on federalism and states ' rights . Some argued that the proposed change so violated the spirit of the Constitution that it would not be a valid " amendment " but would instead constitute " revolution " . Representative White , among other opponents , warned that the amendment would lead to full citizenship for blacks .
Republicans portrayed slavery as uncivilized and argued for abolition as a necessary step in national progress . Amendment supporters also argued that the slave system had negative effects on white people . These included the lower wages resulting from competition with forced labor , as well as repression of abolitionist whites in the South . Advocates said ending slavery would restore the First Amendment and other constitutional rights violated by censorship and intimidation in slave states .
White Northern Republicans , and some Democrats , became excited about an abolition amendment , holding meetings and issuing resolutions . Many blacks , particularly in the South , focused more on landownership and education as the key to liberation . As slavery began to seem politically untenable , an array of Northern Democrats successively announced their support for the amendment , including Representative James Brooks , Senator Reverdy Johnson , and Tammany Hall , a powerful New York political machine .
President Lincoln had had concerns that the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 might be reversed or found invalid after the war . He saw constitutional amendment as a more permanent solution . He had remained outwardly neutral on the amendment because he considered it politically too dangerous . Nonetheless , Lincoln 's 1864 party platform resolved to abolish slavery by constitutional amendment . After winning the election of 1864 , Lincoln made the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment his top legislative priority , beginning his efforts while the " lame duck " session was still in office . Popular support for the amendment mounted. and Lincoln urged Congress on in his December 6 State of the Union speech : " there is only a question of time as to when the proposed amendment will go to the States for their action . And as it is to so go , at all events , may we not agree that the sooner the better ? "
Lincoln instructed Secretary of State William H. Seward , Representative John B. Alley and others to procure votes by any means necessary , and they promised government posts and campaign contributions to outgoing Democrats willing to switch sides . Seward had a large fund for direct bribes . Ashley , who reintroduced the measure into the House , also lobbied several Democrats to vote in favor of the measure . Representative Thaddeus Stevens commented later that " the greatest measure of the nineteenth century was passed by corruption , aided and abetted by the purest man in America " ; however , Lincoln 's precise role in making deals for votes remains unknown .
Republicans in Congress claimed a mandate for abolition , having gained in the elections for Senate and House . The 1864 Democratic vice @-@ presidential nominee , Representative George H. Pendleton , led opposition to the measure . Republicans toned down their language of radical equality in order to broaden the amendment 's coalition of supporters . In order to reassure critics worried that the amendment would tear apart the social fabric , some Republicans explicitly promised that the amendment would leave patriarchy intact .
In mid @-@ January 1865 , Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax estimated the amendment to be five votes short of passage . Ashley postponed the vote . At this point , Lincoln intensified his push for the amendment , making direct emotional appeals to particular members of Congress . On January 31 , 1865 , the House called another vote on the amendment , with neither side being certain of the outcome . With 183 House members present , 122 would have to vote " aye " to secure passage of the resolution ; however eight members abstained , reducing the number to 117 . Every Republican supported the measure , as well as 16 Democrats , almost all of them lame ducks . The amendment finally passed by a vote of 119 to 56 , narrowly reaching the required two @-@ thirds majority . The House exploded into celebration , with some members openly weeping . Black onlookers , who had only been allowed to attend Congressional sessions since the previous year , cheered from the galleries .
While under the Constitution , the President plays no formal role in the amendment process , the joint resolution was sent to Lincoln for his signature . Under the usual signatures of the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate , President Lincoln wrote the word " Approved " and added his signature to the joint resolution on February 1 , 1865 . On February 7 , Congress passed a resolution affirming that the Presidential signature was unnecessary . The Thirteenth Amendment is the only ratified amendment signed by a President , although James Buchanan had signed the Corwin Amendment that the 36th Congress had adopted and sent to the states in March 1861 .
= = = Ratification by the states = = =
When the Thirteenth Amendment was submitted to the states on February 1 , 1865 , it was quickly taken up by several legislatures . By the end of the month it had been ratified by eighteen states . Among them were the ex @-@ Confederate states of Virginia and Louisiana , where ratifications were submitted by Reconstruction governments . These , along with subsequent ratifications from Arkansas and Tennessee raised the issues of how many seceded states had legally valid legislatures ; and if there were fewer legislatures than states , if Article V required ratification by three @-@ fourths of the states or three @-@ fourths of the legally valid state legislatures . President Lincoln in his last speech , on April 11 , 1865 , called the question about whether the Southern states were in or out of the Union a " pernicious abstraction . " Obviously , he declared , they were not " in their proper practical relation with the Union " ; whence everyone 's object should be to restore that relation . Lincoln was assassinated three days later .
With Congress out of session , the new President , Andrew Johnson , began a period known as " Presidential Reconstruction " , in which he personally oversaw the creation of new state governments throughout the South . He oversaw the convening of state political conventions populated by delegates whom he deemed to be loyal . Three leading issues came before the convention : secession itself , the abolition of slavery , and the Confederate war debt . Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Mississippi , North Carolina , and South Carolina held conventions in 1865 , while Texas ' convention did not organize until March 1866 . Johnson hoped to prevent deliberation over whether to re @-@ admit the Southern states by accomplishing full ratification before Congress reconvened in December . He believed he could silence those who wished to deny the Southern states their place in the Union by pointing to how essential their assent had been to the successful ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment .
Direct negotiations between state governments and the Johnson administration ensued . As the summer wore on , administration officials began including assurances of the measure 's limited scope with their demands for ratification . Johnson himself suggested directly to the governors of Mississippi and North Carolina that they could proactively control the allocation of rights to freedmen . Though Johnson obviously expected the freed people to enjoy at least some civil rights , including , as he specified , the right to testify in court , he wanted state lawmakers to know that the power to confer such rights would remain with the states . When South Carolina provisional governor Benjamin Franklin Perry objected to the scope of the amendment 's enforcement clause , Secretary of State Seward responded by telegraph that in fact the second clause " is really restraining in its effect , instead of enlarging the powers of Congress " . White politicians throughout the South were concerned that Congress might cite the amendment 's enforcement powers as a way to authorize black suffrage .
When South Carolina ratified the amendment in November 1865 , it issued its own interpretive declaration that " any attempt by Congress toward legislating upon the political status of former slaves , or their civil relations , would be contrary to the Constitution of the United States " . Alabama and Louisiana also declared that their ratification did not imply federal power to legislate on the status of former slaves . During the first week of December , North Carolina and Georgia gave the amendment the final votes needed for it to become part of the Constitution .
The Thirteenth Amendment became part of the Constitution on December 6 , 1865 , based on the following ratifications :
Illinois — February 1 , 1865
Rhode Island — February 2 , 1865
Michigan — February 3 , 1865
Maryland — February 3 , 1865
New York — February 3 , 1865
Pennsylvania — February 3 , 1865
West Virginia — February 3 , 1865
Missouri — February 6 , 1865
Maine — February 7 , 1865
Kansas — February 7 , 1865
Massachusetts — February 7 , 1865
Virginia — February 9 , 1865
Ohio — February 10 , 1865
Indiana — February 13 , 1865
Nevada — February 16 , 1865
Louisiana — February 17 , 1865
Minnesota — February 23 , 1865
Wisconsin — February 24 , 1865
Vermont — March 8 , 1865
Tennessee — April 7 , 1865
Arkansas — April 14 , 1865
Connecticut — May 4 , 1865
New Hampshire — July 1 , 1865
South Carolina — November 13 , 1865
Alabama — December 2 , 1865
North Carolina — December 4 , 1865
Georgia — December 6 , 1865
Having been ratified by the legislatures of three @-@ fourths of the several states ( 27 of the 36 states , including those that had been in rebellion ) , Secretary of State Seward , on December 18 , 1865 , certified that the Thirteenth Amendment had become valid , to all intents and purposes , as a part of the Constitution . Included on the enrolled list of ratifying states were the three ex @-@ Confederate states that had given their assent , but with strings attached . Seward accepted their affirmative votes and brushed aside their interpretive declarations without comment , challenge or acknowledgment .
The Thirteenth Amendment was subsequently ratified by :
Oregon — December 8 , 1865
California — December 19 , 1865
Florida — December 28 , 1865 ( Reaffirmed – June 9 , 1869 )
Iowa — January 15 , 1866
New Jersey — January 23 , 1866 ( After rejection – March 16 , 1865 )
Texas — February 18 , 1870
Delaware — February 12 , 1901 ( After rejection – February 8 , 1865 )
Kentucky — March 18 , 1976 ( After rejection – February 24 , 1865 )
Mississippi — March 16 , 1995 ; Certified – February 7 , 2013 ( After rejection – December 5 , 1865 )
The Thirteenth Amendment became part of the Constitution 61 years after the Twelfth Amendment . This is the longest interval between constitutional amendments .
= = Effects = =
The impact of the abolition of slavery was felt quickly . When the Thirteenth Amendment became operational , the scope of Lincoln 's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation was widened to include the entire nation . Although the majority of Kentucky 's slaves had been emancipated , 65 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 people remained to be legally freed when the Amendment went into effect on December 18 . In Delaware , where a large number of slaves had escaped during the war , nine hundred people became legally free .
In addition to abolishing slavery and prohibiting involuntary servitude , except as a punishment for crime , the Thirteenth Amendment also nullified the Fugitive Slave Clause and the Three @-@ Fifths Compromise . The population of a state originally included ( for congressional apportionment purposes ) all " free persons " , three @-@ fifths of " other persons " ( i.e. , slaves ) and excluded untaxed Native Americans . The Three @-@ Fifths Compromise was a provision in the Constitution that required three @-@ fifths of the population of slaves be counted for purposes of apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and taxes among the states . This compromise had the effect of increasing the political power of slave @-@ holding states by increasing their share of seats in the House of Representatives , and consequently their share in the Electoral College ( where a state 's influence over the election of the President is tied to the size of its congressional delegation ) .
Even as the Thirteenth Amendment was working its way through the ratification process , Republicans in Congress grew increasingly concerned about the potential for there to be a large increase the congressional representation of the Democratic @-@ dominated Southern states . Because the full population of freed slaves would be counted rather than three @-@ fifths , the Southern states would dramatically increase their power in the population @-@ based House of Representatives . Republicans hoped to offset this advantage by attracting and protecting votes of the newly enfranchised black population .
= = = Political and economic change in the South = = =
Southern culture remained deeply racist , and those blacks who remained faced a dangerous situation . J. J. Gries reported to the Joint Committee on Reconstruction : " There is a kind of innate feeling , a lingering hope among many in the South that slavery will be regalvanized in some shape or other . They tried by their laws to make a worse slavery than there was before , for the freedman has not the protection which the master from interest gave him before . " W. E. B. Du Bois wrote in 1935 :
Slavery was not abolished even after the Thirteenth Amendment . There were four million freedmen and most of them on the same plantation , doing the same work that they did before emancipation , except as their work had been interrupted and changed by the upheaval of war . Moreover , they were getting about the same wages and apparently were going to be subject to slave codes modified only in name . There were among them thousands of fugitives in the camps of the soldiers or on the streets of the cities , homeless , sick , and impoverished . They had been freed practically with no land nor money , and , save in exceptional cases , without legal status , and without protection .
Official emancipation did not substantially alter the economic situation of most blacks who remained in the south .
As the amendment still permitted labor as punishment for convicted criminals , Southern states responded with what historian Douglas A. Blackmon called " an array of interlocking laws essentially intended to criminalize black life " . These laws , passed or updated after emancipation , were known as Black Codes . Mississippi was the first state to pass such codes , with an 1865 law titled " An Act to confer Civil Rights on Freedmen " . The Mississippi law required black workers to contract with white farmers by January 1 of each year or face punishment for vagrancy . Blacks could be sentenced to forced labor for crimes including petty theft , using obscene language , or selling cotton after sunset . States passed new , strict vagrancy laws that were selectively enforced against blacks without white protectors . The labor of these convicts was then sold to farms , factories , lumber camps , quarries , and mines .
After its ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in November 1865 , the South Carolina legislature immediately began to legislate Black Codes . The Black Codes created a separate set of laws , punishments , and acceptable behaviors for anyone with more than one black great @-@ grandparent . Under these Codes , Blacks could only work as farmers or servants and had few Constitutional rights . Restrictions on black land ownership threatened to make economic subservience permanent .
Some states mandated indefinitely long periods of child " apprenticeship " . Some laws did not target Blacks specifically , but instead affected farm workers , most of whom were Black . At the same time , many states passed laws to actively prevent Blacks from acquiring property .
Southern business owners sought to reproduce the profitable arrangement of slavery with a system called peonage , in which ( disproportionately black ) workers were entrapped by loans and compelled to work indefinitely because of their debt . Peonage continued well through Reconstruction and ensnared a large proportion of black workers in the South . These workers remained destitute and persecuted , forced to work dangerous jobs and further confined legally by the racist Jim Crow laws that governed the South . Peonage differed from chattel slavery because it was not strictly hereditary and did not allow the sale of people in exactly the same fashion . However , a person 's debt — and by extension a person — could still be sold , and the system resembled antebellum slavery in many ways .
= = Congressional and executive enforcement = =
As its first enforcement legislation , Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , which guaranteed black Americans citizenship and equal protection of the law , though not the right to vote . The Amendment was also used as authorization for several Freedmen 's Bureau bills . President Andrew Johnson vetoed these bills , but a Congressional supermajority overrode his veto to pass the Civil Rights Act and the Second Freedmen 's Bureau Bill .
Proponents of the Act including Trumbull and Wilson argued that Section 2 of the Thirteenth Amendment ( enforcement power ) authorized the federal government to legislate civil rights for the States . Others disagreed , maintaining that inequality conditions were distinct from slavery . Seeking more substantial justification , and fearing that future opponents would again seek to overturn the legislation , Congress and the states added additional protections to the Constitution : the Fourteenth Amendment ( 1868 ) , which defined citizenship and mandated equal protection under the law , and the Fifteenth Amendment ( 1870 ) , which banned racial voting restrictions .
The Freedmen 's Bureau enforced the Amendment locally , providing a degree of support for people subject to the Black Codes . ( Reciprocally , the Thirteenth Amendment established the Bureau 's legal basis to operate in Kentucky . ) The Civil Rights Act circumvented racism in local jurisdictions by allowing blacks access to the federal courts . The Enforcement Acts of 1870 – 1871 and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , in combating the violence and intimidation of white supremacy , were also part of the effort to end slave conditions for Southern blacks . However , the effect of these laws waned as political will diminished and the federal government lost authority in the South , particularly after the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in exchange for a Republican presidency .
= = = Peonage law = = =
With the Peonage Act of 1867 , Congress abolished " the holding of any person to service or labor under the system known as peonage " , specifically banning " the voluntary or involuntary service or labor of any persons as peons , in liquidation of any debt or obligation , or otherwise . "
In 1939 , the Department of Justice created the Civil Rights Section , which focused primarily on First Amendment and labor rights . The increasing scrutiny of totalitarianism in the lead @-@ up to World War II brought increased attention to issues of slavery and involuntary servitude , abroad and at home . The U.S. sought to counter foreign propaganda and increase its credibility on the race issue by combatting the Southern peonage system . Under the leadership of Attorney General Francis Biddle , the Civil Rights Section invoked the constitutional amendments and legislation of the Reconstruction Era as the basis for its actions .
In 1947 , the DOJ successfully prosecuted Elizabeth Ingalls for keeping domestic servant Dora L. Jones in conditions of slavery . The court found that Jones " was a person wholly subject to the will of defendant ; that she was one who had no freedom of action and whose person and services were wholly under the control of defendant and who was in a state of enforced compulsory service to the defendant . " The Thirteenth Amendment enjoyed a swell of attention during this period , but from Brown v. Board ( 1954 ) until Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co . ( 1968 ) it was again eclipsed by the Fourteenth Amendment .
= = = Human trafficking = = =
Victims of human trafficking and other conditions of forced labor are commonly coerced by threat of legal actions to their detriment . Victims of forced labor and trafficking are protected by Title 18 of the U.S. Code .
Title 18 , U.S.C. , Section 241 – Conspiracy Against Rights :
Conspiracy to injure , oppress , threaten , or intimidate any person 's rights or privileges secured by the Constitution or the laws of the United States
Title 18 , U.S.C. , Section 242 – Deprivation of Rights Under Color of Law :
It is a crime for any person acting under color of law ( federal , state or local officials who enforce statutes , ordinances , regulations , or customs ) to willfully deprive or cause to be deprived the rights , privileges , or immunities of any person secured or protected by the Constitution and laws of the U.S. This includes willfully subjecting or causing to be subjected any person to different punishments , pains , or penalties , than those prescribed for punishment of citizens on account of such person being an alien or by reason of his / her color or race .
= = = = Department of Justice definitions = = = =
Peonage
Refers to a person in " debt servitude , " or involuntary servitude tied to the payment of a debt . Compulsion to servitude includes the use of force , the threat of force , or the threat of legal coercion to compel a person to work .
Involuntary servitude
Refers to a person held by actual force , threats of force , or threats of legal coercion in a condition of slavery – compulsory service or labor against his or her will . This includes the condition in which people are compelled to work by a " climate of fear " evoked by the use of force , the threat of force , or the threat of legal coercion ( i.e. , suffer legal consequences unless compliant with demands made upon them ) which is sufficient to compel service . In Bailey v. Alabama ( 1911 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that peonage laws violated the amendment 's ban on involuntary servitude .
Requiring specific performance as a remedy for breach of personal services contracts has been viewed as a form of involuntary servitude by some scholars and courts , though other jurisdictions and scholars have rejected this argument ; it is a popular rule in academia and many local jurisdictions , but has never been upheld by higher courts .
Forced labor
Labor or service obtained by :
threats of serious harm or physical restraint ;
any scheme , plan , or pattern intended to cause a person to believe he would suffer serious harm or physical restraint if he did not perform such labor or services :
the abuse or threatened abuse of law or the legal process .
= = Judicial interpretation = =
In contrast to the other " Reconstruction Amendments " , the Thirteenth Amendment was rarely cited in later case law . As historian Amy Dru Stanley summarizes , " beyond a handful of landmark rulings striking down debt peonage , flagrant involuntary servitude , and some instances of race @-@ based violence and discrimination , the Thirteenth Amendment has never been a potent source of rights claims " .
= = = Black slaves and their descendants = = =
U. S. v. Rhodes ( 1866 ) , one of the first Thirteenth Amendment cases , tested the Constitutionality of provisions in the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that granted blacks redress in the federal courts . Kentucky law prohibited blacks from testifying against whites — an arrangement which compromised the ability of Nancy Talbot ( " a citizen of the United States of the African race " ) to reach justice against a white person accused of robbing her . After Talbot attempted to try the case in federal court , the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled this federal option unconstitutional . Noah Swayne ( a Supreme Court justice sitting on the Kentucky Circuit Court ) overturned the Kentucky decision , holding that without the material enforcement provided by the Civil Rights Act , slavery would not truly be abolished . With In Re Turner ( 1867 ) , Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase ordered freedom for Elizabeth Turner , a former slave in Maryland who became indentured to her former master .
In Blyew v. U.S. , ( 1872 ) the Supreme Court heard another Civil Rights Act case relating to federal courts in Kentucky . John Blyew and George Kennard were white men visiting the cabin of a black family , the Fosters . Blyew apparently became angry with sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Richard Foster and hit him twice in the head with an ax . Blyew and Kennard killed Richard 's parents , Sallie and Jack Foster , and his blind grandmother , Lucy Armstrong . They severely wounded the Fosters ' two young daughters . Kentucky courts would not allow the Foster children to testify against Blyew and Kennard . But federal courts , authorized by the Civil Rights Act , found Blyew and Kennard guilty of murder . When the Supreme Court took the case , they ruled ( 5 – 2 ) that the Foster children did not have standing in federal courts because only living people could take advantage of the Act . In doing so , the Courts effectively ruled that Thirteenth Amendment did not permit a federal remedy in murder cases . Swayne and Joseph P. Bradley dissented , maintaining that in order to have meaningful effects , the Thirteenth Amendment would have to address systemic racial oppression .
Though based on a technicality , the Blyew case set a precedent in state and federal courts that led to the erosion of Congress 's Thirteenth Amendment powers . The Supreme Court continued along this path in the Slaughter @-@ House Cases ( 1873 ) , which upheld a state @-@ sanctioned monopoly of white butchers . In United States v. Cruikshank ( 1876 ) , the Court ignored Thirteenth Amendment dicta from a circuit court decision to exonerate perpetrators of the Colfax massacre and invalidate the Enforcement Act of 1870 .
The Thirteenth Amendment was not solely a ban on chattel slavery , but also covers a much broader array of labor arrangements and social deprivations . As the U.S. Supreme Court explicated in the Slaughter @-@ House Cases ( 1873 ) with respect to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment and the Thirteenth Amendment in special :
Undoubtedly while negro slavery alone was in the mind of the Congress which proposed the thirteenth article , it forbids any other kind of slavery , now or hereafter . If Mexican peonage or the Chinese coolie labor system shall develop slavery of the Mexican or Chinese race within our territory , this amendment may safely be trusted to make it void . And so if other rights are assailed by the States which properly and necessarily fall within the protection of these articles , that protection will apply , though the party interested may not be of African descent . But what we do say , and what we wish to be understood is , that in any fair and just construction of any section or phrase of these amendments , it is necessary to look to the purpose which we have said was the pervading spirit of them all , the evil which they were designed to remedy , and the process of continued addition to the Constitution , until that purpose was supposed to be accomplished , as far as constitutional law can accomplish it .
In the Civil Rights Cases ( 1883 ) , the Supreme Court reviewed five consolidated cases dealing with the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , which outlawed racial discrimination at " inns , public conveyances on land or water , theaters , and other places of public amusement " . The Court ruled that the Thirteenth Amendment did not ban most forms of racial discrimination by non @-@ government actors . In the majority decision , Bradley wrote ( again in non @-@ binding dicta ) that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to attack " badges and incidents of slavery " . However , he distinguished between " fundamental rights " of citizenship , protected by the Thirteenth Amendment , and the " social rights of men and races in the community " . The majority opinion held that " it would be running the slavery argument into the ground to make it apply to every act of discrimination which a person may see fit to make as to guests he will entertain , or as to the people he will take into his coach or cab or car ; or admit to his concert or theatre , or deal with in other matters of intercourse or business . " In his solitary dissent , John Marshall Harlan ( a Kentucky lawyer who changed his mind about civil rights law after witnessing organized racist violence ) argued that " such discrimination practiced by corporations and individuals in the exercise of their public or quasi @-@ public functions is a badge of servitude , the imposition of which congress may prevent under its power . "
The Court in the Civil Rights Cases also held that appropriate legislation under the amendment could go beyond nullifying state laws establishing or upholding slavery , because the amendment " has a reflex character also , establishing and decreeing universal civil and political freedom throughout the United States " and thus Congress was empowered " to pass all laws necessary and proper for abolishing all badges and incidents of slavery in the United States . " The Court stated about the scope the amendment :
This amendment , as well as the Fourteenth , is undoubtedly self @-@ executing , without any ancillary legislation , so far as its terms are applicable to any existing state of circumstances . By its own unaided force and effect , it abolished slavery and established universal freedom . Still , legislation may be necessary and proper to meet all the various cases and circumstances to be affected by it , and to prescribe proper modes of redress for its violation in letter or spirit . And such legislation may be primary and direct in its character , for the amendment is not a mere prohibition of State laws establishing or upholding slavery , but an absolute declaration that slavery or involuntary servitude shall not exist in any part of the United States .
Attorneys in Plessy v. Ferguson ( 1896 ) argued that racial segregation involved " observances of a servile character coincident with the incidents of slavery " , in violation of the Thirteenth Amendment . In their brief to the Supreme Court , Plessy 's lawyers wrote that " distinction of race and caste " was inherently unconstitutional . The Supreme Court rejected this reasoning and upheld state laws enforcing segregation under the " separate but equal " doctrine . In the ( 7 – 1 ) majority decision , the Court found that " a statute which implies merely a legal distinction between the white and colored races — a distinction which is founded on the color of the two races and which must always exist so long as white men are distinguished from the other race by color — has no tendency to destroy the legal equality of the two races , or reestablish a state of involuntary servitude . " Harlan dissented , writing : " The thin disguise of ' equal ' accommodations for passengers in railroad coaches will not mislead any one , nor , atone for the wrong this day done . "
In Hodges v. United States ( 1906 ) , the Court struck down a federal statute providing for the punishment of two or more people who " conspire to injure , oppress , threaten or intimidate any citizen in the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privilege secured to him by the Constitution or laws of the United States " . A group of white men in Arkansas conspired to violently prevent eight black workers from performing their jobs at a lumber mill ; the group was convicted by a federal grand jury . The Supreme Court ruled that the federal statute , which outlawed conspiracies to deprive citizens of their liberty , was not authorized by the Thirteenth Amendment . It held that " no mere personal assault or trespass or appropriation operates to reduce the individual to a condition of slavery " . Harlan dissented , maintaining his opinion that the Thirteenth Amendment should protect freedom beyond " physical restraint " . Corrigan v. Buckley ( 1922 ) reaffirmed the interpretation from Hodges , finding that the amendment does not apply to restrictive covenants .
Enforcement of federal civil rights law in the South created numerous peonage cases , which slowly traveled up through the judiciary . The Supreme Court ruled in Clyatt v. United States ( 1905 ) that peonage was involuntary servitude . It held that although employers sometimes described their workers ' entry into contract as voluntary , the servitude of peonage was always ( by definition ) involuntary .
In Bailey v. Alabama the U.S. Supreme Court again reaffirmed its holding that Thirteenth Amendment was not solely a ban on chattel slavery , but also covers a much broader array of labor arrangements and social deprivations In addition to the aforesaid the Court also ruled on Congress enforcement power under the Thirteenth Amendment . The Court said :
The plain intention [ of the amendment ] was to abolish slavery of whatever name and form and all its badges and incidents ; to render impossible any state of bondage ; to make labor free , by prohibiting that control by which the personal service of one man is disposed of or coerced for another 's benefit , which is the essence of involuntary servitude . While the Amendment was self @-@ executing , so far as its terms were applicable to any existing condition , Congress was authorized to secure its complete enforcement by appropriate legislation .
= = = = Jones and beyond = = = =
Legal histories cite Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co . ( 1968 ) as a turning point of Thirteen Amendment jurisprudence . The Supreme Court confirmed in Jones that Congress may act " rationally " to prevent private actors from imposing " badges and incidents of servitude " . The Joneses were a black couple in St. Louis County , Missouri who sued a real estate company for refusing to sell them a house . The Court held :
Congress has the power under the Thirteenth Amendment rationally to determine what are the badges and the incidents of slavery , and the authority to translate that determination into effective legislation . [ ... ] this Court recognized long ago that , whatever else they may have encompassed , the badges and incidents of slavery -- its " burdens and disabilities " -- included restraints upon " those fundamental rights which are the essence of civil freedom , namely , the same right . . . to inherit , purchase , lease , sell and convey property , as is enjoyed by white citizens . " Civil Rights Cases , 109 U. S. 3 , 109 U. S. 22 .
Just as the Black Codes , enacted after the Civil War to restrict the free exercise of those rights , were substitutes for the slave system , so the exclusion of Negroes from white communities became a substitute for the Black Codes . And when racial discrimination herds men into ghettos and makes their ability to buy property turn on the color of their skin , then it too is a relic of slavery .
Negro citizens , North and South , who saw in the Thirteenth Amendment a promise of freedom — freedom to " go and come at pleasure " and to " buy and sell when they please " — would be left with " a mere paper guarantee " if Congress were powerless to assure that a dollar in the hands of a Negro will purchase the same thing as a dollar in the hands of a white man . At the very least , the freedom that Congress is empowered to secure under the Thirteenth Amendment includes the freedom to buy whatever a white man can buy , the right to live wherever a white man can live . If Congress cannot say that being a free man means at least this much , then the Thirteenth Amendment made a promise the Nation cannot keep .
The Court in Jones reopened the issue of linking racism in contemporary society to the history of slavery in the United States .
The Jones precedent has been used to justify Congressional action to protect migrant workers and target sex trafficking . The direct enforcement power found in the Thirteenth Amendment contrasts with that of the Fourteenth , which allows only responses to institutional discrimination of state actors .
= = = Other cases of involuntary servitude = = =
The Supreme Court has taken an especially narrow view of involuntary servitude claims made by people not descended from black ( African ) slaves . In Robertson v. Baldwin ( 1897 ) , a group of merchant seaman challenged federal statutes which criminalized a seaman 's failure to complete their contractual term of service . The Court ruled that seamen 's contracts had been considered unique from time immemorial , and that " the amendment was not intended to introduce any novel doctrine with respect to certain descriptions of service which have always been treated as exceptional . " In this case , as in numerous " badges and incidents " cases , Justice Harlan authored a dissent favoring broader Thirteenth Amendment protections .
In Selective Draft Law Cases , the Supreme Court ruled that the military draft was not " involuntary servitude " . In United States v. Kozminski , the Supreme Court ruled that the Thirteenth Amendment did not prohibit compulsion of servitude through psychological coercion . Kozminski defined involuntary servitude for purposes of criminal prosecution as " a condition of servitude in which the victim is forced to work for the defendant by the use or threat of physical restraint or physical injury or by the use or threat of coercion through law or the legal process . This definition encompasses cases in which the defendant holds the victim in servitude by placing him or her in fear of such physical restraint or injury or legal coercion . "
The U.S. Courts of Appeals , in Immediato v. Rye Neck School District , Herndon v. Chapel Hill , and Steirer v. Bethlehem School District , have ruled that the use of community service as a high school graduation requirement did not violate the Thirteenth Amendment .
= = Prior proposed Thirteenth Amendments = =
During the six decades following the 1804 ratification of the Twelfth Amendment two proposals to amend the Constitution were adopted by Congress and sent to the states for ratification . Neither has been ratified by the number of states necessary to become part of the Constitution . Commonly known as the Titles of Nobility Amendment and the Corwin Amendment , both are referred to as Article Thirteen , as was the successful Thirteenth Amendment , in the joint resolution passed by Congress .
The Titles of Nobility Amendment ( pending before the states since May 1 , 1810 ) would , if ratified , strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility or honor from a foreign country without the consent of Congress .
The Corwin Amendment ( pending before the states since March 2 , 1861 ) would , if ratified , shield " domestic institutions " of the states ( in 1861 this was a common euphemism for slavery ) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress .
= Empire State of Mind =
" Empire State of Mind " is a song written by Angela Hunte and Jane 't " Jnay " Sewell @-@ Ulepic and produced by American rapper Jay @-@ Z , featuring vocals sung by American singer Alicia Keys . It was released as the third single from Jay @-@ Z 's 11th studio album , The Blueprint 3 ( 2009 ) , by his Roc Nation label in October 2009 . The song was written as a tribute to both artists ' hometown , New York City , and features a music sample of " Love on a Two @-@ Way Street " ( 1970 ) , written by Sylvia Robinson and Bert Keyes and performed by The Moments . The following month they submitted the song to Jay @-@ Z 's Roc Nation , whose reviews were a discouragement . Following an incident that Hunte and Sewell @-@ Ulepic describe as an omen , they took the suggestion of an associate of EMI Music Publishing and resubmitted it to Jay @-@ Z , who kept the " New York " singing part on the hook , changed the verses , and recorded it as a single .
The single was supposed to feature Hunte on the song 's hook , but when Hunte and Sewell @-@ Ulepic were asked if they thought anyone else would be more appropriate for the chorus , Hunte suggested Keys . Mary J. Blige was also considered for the part , but Keys was chosen after Jay @-@ Z heard the song 's piano loop . The song was viewed as being an " orchestral rap ballad " and has pop @-@ rap musical styles . It contains references to various locations in New York and its famous residents , while describing the city 's essence . Profanity is present throughout the song and , although it is usually included during live performances , it was omitted during the performance at Game 2 of the 2009 World Series .
A critical success , the song was included in multiple critics ' top 10 list for the best songs of 2009 ; including Rolling Stone magazine and the New York Times . The song was also nominated for three Grammy Awards , winning Best Rap Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . " Empire State of Mind " achieved commercial success worldwide . The track peaked within the top 10 in countries including the United States , the United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , France , Italy and Sweden . The single was commercially successful in the United States , peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for five consecutive weeks , becoming Jay @-@ Z 's first number @-@ one single on the chart as a lead artist . It appeared in 2009 year @-@ end charts in Italy , Australia and the US , where the song was also the last number one hit of the 2000s . As of June 2014 , the single has sold over 5 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States .
In the song 's music video , which is primarily in black @-@ and @-@ white , Jay @-@ Z and Keys are shown performing the song in various locations in New York . " Empire State of Mind " has been performed by Jay @-@ Z and Keys multiple times , including during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the 2009 American Music Awards . Usually when the duo performs the song , an overhead screen shows images of places in New York . Keys has recorded a sequel entitled " Empire State of Mind ( Part II ) Broken Down " , which is featured on her fourth studio album The Element of Freedom ( 2009 ) . Her version was positively received by critics and did well commercially , although it was not as successful as its predecessor . It was , however , Top 10 in the UK , the Netherlands and Ireland . She said that she chose to record her own version of " Empire State of Mind " because she wanted to express her own personal feelings about New York .
= = Background and writing = =
" Empire State of Mind " was originally created by singer @-@ songwriter @-@ producer Angela Hunte , a native of Brooklyn , along with writing partner Jane 't " Jnay " Sewell @-@ Ulepic . Hunte grew up in the same building where rapper and hip hop artist Jay @-@ Z lived — 560 State Street , an address which is mentioned in the song . The track 's creation was inspired during an overseas trip Hunte and Sewell @-@ Ulepic made to London in February 2009 when they were both feeling homesick . Hunte was ill during that summer , while Sewell @-@ Ulepic 's mother was ill . Hunte recalls , " We said to ourselves , ' we complain so much about New York — about the busy streets , about the crowds and the pushing , about the subway system — but I would trade that for anything right now . ' Before we left the hotel that night , we knew we would write a song about our city . " Although they wrote the song as a simple way to voice their feelings for their hometown , they sent it to the Roc Nation music label the following month in hope that Jay @-@ Z would like it and record it . When they received negative reviews about the track they were convinced it would never be recorded . However , in the summer of the same year , EMI Music Publishing 's ( EMI ) Jon " Big Jon " Platt heard the track at a barbecue and fell in love with it , believing that " it would be perfect for Jay @-@ Z " .
Hunte and Sewell @-@ Ulepic were hesitant though , as they had sent the track for consideration already and been unsuccessful . According to Hunte , when a Notorious B.I.G. figure she kept by the computer fell over as they played the track for Platt — a statue that had never moved before regardless of how loud they 've blasted music — she realized it was an omen . She commented , " We all just looked at each other like , ' if Biggie approves , then , send it to Jay ' " . The next day Platt sent it to Jay @-@ Z and he " loved it and recorded it that night " . Hunte recalls , " We were just so happy he wanted to honor our work and our production . Two female producers / writers , and for him as a rapper to take our song — that 's not a combination you see a lot . For him to be so open @-@ minded about it , we just couldn 't be any more grateful and thankful . " Originally composed as a song to be sung , Jay @-@ Z ended up rewriting new verses inspired from the original lyrics and leaving Hunte on the song 's hook . However , when Hunte and Sewell @-@ Ulepic were asked if they thought someone else would be more appropriate for the chorus , Hunte suggested R & B and soul artist Alicia Keys . Hunte said , " She 's never done a record with him and she also has my same vocal tone . She made the song sound so close to the original , She just nailed it and brought it home . It was a great choice . " Keys also contributed to writing " Empire State of Mind " ' s new bridge .
Jay @-@ Z stated in an interview that after he first heard the track 's piano loops ( which are sampled from " Love on a Two @-@ Way Street " by The Moments ) , he immediately thought of Keys and wanted her to be featured on the song . Jay @-@ Z said that Mary J. Blige was initially considered for Keys ' part on " Empire State of Mind " and admitted that he was " two seconds away " from asking Blige to appear on the record 's chorus . His second choice for the track 's vocals was Keys and that using Blige on the song would have been a safe move , but said that the combination of Keys ' sound and piano talent had struck a chord with him . In December 2009 Hunte , who would not reveal many details , said the original version of " Empire State of Mind " will one day be released , adding that " The original is so powerful it 's only a matter of time till you hear it down the line " .
= = Composition = =
" Empire State of Mind " features rap verses from Jay @-@ Z and vocals during the song 's chorus from Keys . It is a rap hip hop song with influences of electropop and orchestral pop . The track also has pop @-@ rap musical styles and contains a music sample of the 1970 Billboard R & B chart @-@ topping single " Love on a Two @-@ Way Street " by The Moments , the sample being the piano component that runs throughout the song . The song is played at a moderate tempo of 84 beats per minute and is written in the key of F # major . It has a sequence of F ♯ – C ♯ / B – B – F ♯ as its chord progression , throughout the single Keys ' vocal range changes from the register of A ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 . Pete Cashmore of NME described Keys as having established " crashing piano chords " during her verses in the track . Mariel Concepcion of Billboard magazine noted that the track has a " simple piano pattern " . Stephen Dalton of The Times described the song as an " orchestral rap ballad " .
Lyrically , the single opens with lyrics referencing locations in New York , it name @-@ checks notable neighborhoods and captures the city 's essence ; from attending Knicks basketball games to its famous residents . Drug dealing references , " N @-@ words " , and profanity are also present throughout the song . Raju Mudhar of the Toronto Star commented on the track 's lyrics " I 'm the new Sinatra / And since I made it here / I can make it anywhere / Yeah they love me everywhere " remarking " who can argue ? " noting that he 's " one of those waffling retirees " , but is a living " hip hop legend " .
Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News felt that Keys " croons " on the track 's chorus line , " I 'm from Neeeeww Yooooork / These streets will make you feel brand @-@ new / Bright lights will inspire you . " Keys said that while recording the song she wanted to make sure she got the hook right explaining , " I did try it a couple of times , but it was more about capturing the kind of grand feeling of it . With the way I sang it the first time , I was actually kind of sick , and I knew that he needed the record , so I was like , ' Let me get to it . ' " She added , " I came back and revisited it so that it could be what it is now [ . ] So it actually took a couple of times , but every time , the energy was just so high . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly felt that the singer who sings the song 's hook has a " crucial role " , believing that " Empire State of Mind " is a " smash that concert attendees expect Jay to play , and it just wouldn 't work without a big , clear voice to sing that hook " . In November 2012 , Keys said she had to redo the vocals after Jay @-@ Z said he wasn 't happy with her original take . Keys said she had been battling " nasal congestion " when she did the first take .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
" Empire State of Mind " received acclaim from contemporary music critics , with most reviewers praising Keys ' vocal performance . Jon Bush of Allmusic listed the song as being a highlight from The Blueprint 3 . He commented that the song is Jay @-@ Z 's " king of crossovers ... a New York flag @-@ waver with plenty of landmark name @-@ dropping that turns into a great anthem with help on the chorus from Alicia Keys " . Los Angeles Times writer Greg Kot commended Jay @-@ Z for his ability to perform with cameos and called the song " the sound of Jay @-@ Z cruising for pop hits . " Pete Cashmore of NME described Alicia Keys 's cameo as " lusty bellowing " . Martin Andrew of PopMatters called the song " yet another chance " for Jay @-@ Z to show his respect to New York , but commented that it " remains interesting thanks to a fantastic Al Shux beat and celebratory hook from Alicia Keys . "
Writing in Rolling Stone magazine , Jody Rosen called it a " pallid New York shout @-@ out " . USA Today 's Steve Jones perceived a maturity by Jay @-@ Z in the song , writing that " The upper @-@ crust landmarks he now references are a far cry from the grimy Marcy Projects sights that he once detailed , something that perhaps is to be expected from the self @-@ described ' new Sinatra ' . " The Daily Telegraph described the song 's sound as " anthemic club pop " and called Keys 's chorus line a " singalong " . Shannon Barbour of About.com called " Empire State of Mind " the album 's apex , while commending Keys for her " excellent display of some unusually strong vocals " . Slant Magazine writer William McBee described it as a " glittering paean to the Big Apple " with Keys " soaring skyscraper @-@ level on the hook and Jay putting on for his city . "
IGN music reviewer Chris Carle described Keys as having " soaring vocals " in the song . New York Post writer Ryan Brockington called " Empire State of Mind " his favorite song from The Blueprint 3 and Tyler Gray from the same publication said " Empire State of Mind " was the " most soulful " song on the album . Francois Marchand of the Vancouver Sun called the song " shiver @-@ inducing " . The Times writer Stephen Dalton called the track a " heartfelt love letter to New York City , " with Jay @-@ Z playing the " hip @-@ hop Sinatra " over Keys ' " luscious " chorus , and The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis described its chorus as " incredible , breezy pop " . Killan Fox of the same publication felt that the track was a " terrific homage " to New York and listed the song as being one of the " really good tracks " on The Blueprint 3 . Pitchfork Media 's Ian Cohen stated that " the piledriver hooks of " Run This Town " and " Empire State of Mind " are content to annoy their way to ubiquity " .
= = = Rankings and honors = = =
" Empire State of Mind " has been included in multiple music critics list for the best songs of 2009 . The single was ranked the 8th best song of 2009 by MTV , the second @-@ best song of 2009 by Rolling Stone magazine , and was voted the best single of 2009 by The Village Voice 's 37th annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . On the 2010 Pazz & Jop list , the song was , along with a number of other songs , ranked at 226 . Jon Pareles of The New York Times placed " Empire State of Mind " at number three on his list of the top songs of 2009 , and Pitchfork Media also ranked it at number 44 on its The Top 100 Tracks of 2009 list . Entertainment Weekly placed it number one on its list of " The 10 Best Singles of 2009 " . " Empire State of Mind " was placed at number six on NME 's Albums and Tracks of the Year , 2009 list . It was placed at number nine on PopMatters ' list of " The Best Singles of 2009 " and at number twelve on Consequence of Sound 's list of " The Top 50 Songs of ’ 09 " . The song appears at number one on Rap @-@ Up 's list of the 25 best songs of 2009 . Jay @-@ Z , a long @-@ time fan of the New York Yankees , said that he was elated that his songs , namely " Empire State of Mind " and " Run This Town " , had been played during different Yankee player 's batting at home games in the 2009 World Series , commenting that it was " incredible " and " beyond explanation " to hear his music being played during Yankee games . New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg commented that " Empire State of Mind " had become " one of the newest anthems of the Yankees " . The New York Daily News included it at number ten on its list of " The 10 best songs about New York " .
At the 53rd Grammy Awards ceremony the track won Best Rap / Sung Collaboration and Best Rap Song . It had also been one of the five nominees for Record of the Year . In February 2011 , Billboard placed the song at number 15 on its list of " The 40 Biggest Duets Of All Time " and in September 2011 , the song was placed at number eight by VH1 on its list for the 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 00s . In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 13 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . Additionally , in Summer 2012 , an advertisement for New York State touting its economic comeback features the piano loop of this song along with Key 's voice singing " New York " . Complex placed the song at number nine on its list of " The 100 Best Jay @-@ Z Songs " and on number four on its list of " The 25 Best Alicia Keys Songs " , noting that the song " has replaced Frank Sinatra 's " New York , New York " as the city 's go @-@ to anthem , and remains one of Keys ' greatest contributions to pop culture " . In July 2013 , PopMatters placed the song at number six on its list of " The Top 20 Jay @-@ Z Songs to Date " , remarking that " Alicia Keys ’ voice soars through the city night as Hov offers up his typical wit and , in this case , New York authenticity " , making the song to become " the unofficial anthem of the most celebrated city in the world " . In May 2012 , in a poll published by the Official Charts Company , " Empire State of Mind " ranked as the 76th biggest selling single of the 21st century in the United Kingdom .
" Empire State of Mind " was ranked at number 14 the 2009 Pitchfork Media 's " Song of the Year " Reader 's Poll .
= = Chart performance = =
" Empire State of Mind " achieved commercial success worldwide . In the United States the track peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for five consecutive weeks , from November 28 to December 26 , replacing " Fireflies " by Owl City for the top position and giving Jay @-@ Z his first number one single on that chart as a lead artist in his fourteen @-@ year career . The song , which was both artists ' fourth number one entry on the chart , became the first Billboard Hot 100 number one single to reference New York in its title . Moreover , it was included in Billboard 's year @-@ end music charts for 2009 at number sixty two and was the last number one single for the 2000s ( decade ) . According to Billboard magazine , the song was the 15th biggest hit by two recording artists for all time .
The single sold 205 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US in its opening week and its highest week sale was of 360 @,@ 000 in December 2009 . " Empire State of Mind " has also peaked at number one on the Billboard component chart for the sales of legal digital downloads on October 3 , 2009 , as well as topping the Billboard component chart for singles with the most radio airplay throughout the country for eight consecutive weeks from November 28 to January 23 , 2010 . The track also peaked at the top position on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop songs chart for three consecutive weeks , as well as topping the Billboard Rap Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks . After five months of release " Empire State of Mind " was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the shipment of over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units in the US . By August 2012 , the single has reached its 5 millionth sales mark in the US , and as of June 2014 , the song has sold 5 @,@ 513 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
In the United Kingdom the track debuted at number fifteen and , in the two succeeding weeks , the single peaked at number two , having been held from the top position by Taio Cruz 's " Break Your Heart " . " Empire State of Mind " peaked at number three on the Canadian Hot 100 and was listed as being the top digital gainer on December 12 . The song peaked at number four in Australia , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the shipment of 35 @,@ 000 units in the country . " Empire State of Mind " was also included in Australia 's 2009 year @-@ end music chart at number sixty @-@ four . In New Zealand the song peaked at number six . Furthermore , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for the shipment of over 7 @,@ 500 units in New Zealand . The single debuted at number eighteen in France , eventually peaking at number eight in the following three weeks . It also peaked at number four in Belgium 's Flemish and French charts . The song also peaked within the top ten positions in the music charts of Denmark , Ireland , Italy , Finland , the Netherlands , and Sweden . In Italy " Empire State of Mind " was certified multi @-@ platinum . " Empire State of Mind " ' s least commercially successful charting territories were Austria , Brazil , and Spain ; peaking at number thirteen , seventeen , and twenty @-@ seven respectively .
= = Music video = =
= = = Original video = = =
The music video for " Empire State of Mind " was directed by Hype Williams . The video , which was filmed on location , features black @-@ and @-@ white images of New York City intercut with full @-@ color shots of Jay @-@ Z and Keys performing in Times Square . " Empire State of Mind " ' s music video began filming on September 29 , in Tribeca and around Ground Zero , and was released on October 30 , 2009 . Keys praised the music video and said that the video has all the key elements of a homage to her hometown .
The music video opens with black and white images of locations in New York being shown in the form of a slideshow . The slideshow is then intercut with a black and white clip of Jay @-@ Z , wearing a Yankees cap and a vest with no sleeves , performing the song on a street in front of apartment buildings . Then the video begins to rotate from images of New York being shown briefly , to clips of Jay @-@ Z singing " Empire State of Mind " in several locations with different outfits . Images shown include a monument to John D. Rockefeller , Jr . , street signs and stairwells leading to subway stations .
Next we see black and white clips of Keys , who is wearing large hoop @-@ earrings with high heels , a black shirt and pants , playing a Yamaha piano that has an image of the Statue of Liberty on it . She is singing her verse of the song in a street at night while cars drive by . Keys ' performance is then intercut with aerial views of skyscrapers and clips of the Yankee Stadium , clips of the New York Police , and NYPD cars and logos . Some people , such as ones who are walking around New York or wearing Yankee emblems , have their faces shown or blurred out . Keys and Jay @-@ Z , both wearing sunglasses at night , are then shown performing the song together as the video continues to be intercut with clips of them performing " Empire State of Mind " individually , as well as images of New York . The video ends with color vision of the duo performing at night on the red glass steps forming the roof of the TKTS pavilion in Times Square . Interspersed are clips of Keys playing piano and views of the New York skyline .
= = = Alternate video = = =
Jay @-@ Z 's Lifestyle blog came out with an alternative video which features supermodels lip @-@ syncing to the song in various locations in Manhattan . The video was directed by Justin Wu . The New York Observer wrote of the video that " [ w ] e ’ re not sure exactly what this video is promoting " but " the caliber of the cast ’ s sheer ubiquity is impressive " . A blogger on Yahoo Music commented that the models " do a better job modeling clothes than miming Jigga " , but concluded , however , that the video is " without a doubt the greatest lip @-@ dub ever committed to video " .
= = Live performances = =
" Empire State of Mind " was first performed at Jay @-@ Z 's " Answer the Call " benefit concert in Madison Square Garden on September 11 , 2009 , where it was the opening song . All ticket proceeds from the show went to the New York Police and Fire Widows and Children 's Fund . The song was then performed live at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards ( MTV VMA ) on September 13 , 2009 , where it closed the awards show . The VMA performance was the first time Jay @-@ Z and Keys performed the song together . Shaheem Redi of MTV News commented on the performance that , " Their set was elegant and ' hood at the same time , and it was such a powerful moment " . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post wrote " Alicia 's buttery voice and Jay @-@ Z 's impeccable stage presence made for an audio adrenaline overload " and placed the performance third on his list of the " top six performances " from the MTV VMAs . For the performance Jay @-@ Z wore his signature Yankees cap and Keys wore all black while playing the piano . During the MTV VMA performance images of locations in New York , such as the Empire State Building and the Apollo Theatre , were shown on an overhead screen behind Jay @-@ Z and Keys . Towards the end of the performance rapper Lil ' Mama got up onto the stage uninvited and posed with Jay @-@ Z and Keys while they were finishing the final verse of the track . Lil ' Mama said she did not mean to disrespect either performer but the song had her " emotions running high " , adding that " in that moment I came up onstage to celebrate my two icons singing about NY . " Keys responded to the incident saying " We can appreciate her being overwhelmed and inspired , but we would have appreciated it if she would have done it from her seat " , and Jay @-@ Z added , " It was a lot of planning that went into that performance . To disrupt that was outta line . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said that the duo " brought some genuine street heat to the tongue @-@ twisting torrents " of " Empire State of Mind " . She added that " Keys , on piano and soaring chorus , brought the feminine strength and soul . "
Jay @-@ Z was due to perform " Empire State of Mind " with Keys during the opening game of the baseball 2009 World Series in early October 2009 but , due to an inclement weather , the duo did not perform . They ultimately performed the song live in the Yankee Stadium before Game 2 of the 2009 World Series in mid October . The two musicians performed the song on a custom @-@ made stage adorned with Yankees flags , while images of New York City flashed across several large screens throughout the stadium . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News wrote of the performance , " If the Yankees were looking to change their tune heading into Game 2 of the World Series , they couldn 't have picked better musical guests . " During most live performances of the track , the lyrics containing profanity are included in the song , but they were omitted for the World Series set . On November 5 , 2009 , Jay @-@ Z and Keys sung " Empire State of Mind " at the MTV Europe Music Awards ( EMA ) in Berlin , Germany , while performing in front of a New York cityscape . Jocelyn Vena and Eric Ditzian of MTV News noted that Jay @-@ Z " took his hometown pride rather seriously " during the performance . Jay @-@ Z also performed the song at the Yankees ' World Series victory ceremonies in New York City Hall on November 6 , 2009 . Keys was not in attendance for the performance , so singer and Roc Nation recording artist Bridget Kelly filled in . As the last verse of the song was sung , Yankee members got up from their seats to shower Jay @-@ Z with handshakes and hugs .
The single was also performed by Jay @-@ Z and Keys at the American Music Awards ( AMA ) on November 22 , 2009 . They began their performance of " Empire State of Mind " with a rendition of Frank Sinatra 's " New York , New York " . Keys played on a piano on a stage with blue lights in front of a backdrop that had tall buildings . Also , the words " New York " scrolled across screens on the stage . Towards the end of the song , Keys sung with Jay @-@ Z at the front of the stage while holding up a " I love you " sign . Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times felt that the song had " worn out its welcome " , and gave the performance a letter grade " D " . However , Jeremy Blacklow of Access Hollywood had a more positive feeling towards the performance , describing it as being " so great " in his live blog for the award ceremony . " Empire State of Mind " was performed by Jay @-@ Z and Alicia Keys at the 2010 BRIT Awards on February 16 , 2010 . The Guardian wrote that Jay @-@ Z and Alicia Keys " dazzled with their rendition of " Empire State of Mind " " . The Daily Mail commented on the performance that it was " a rare highlight in a show of lowlights " . According to Metro , Jay @-@ Z and Alicia Keys " blew the place away " with their performance and " Jay @-@ Z was given a welcome befitting a cultural hero " while " Keys oozed elegance and soul as her startlingly powerful voice stopped everyone in their tracks ” . The Nation opined that the pair " delivered a powerful rendition " of the song .
In March , Jay @-@ Z joined Keys onstage during one of her Freedom Tours New York concerts to perform " Empire State of Mind " , while images of New York were shown throughout the concert arena . Jay @-@ Z performed " Empire State of Mind " as well as three of his other singles , at California 's Coachella music festival in April 2010 . Jay @-@ Z performed the song live on an episode of Saturday Night Live on May 9 , 2010 . Jay @-@ Z performed the song with a medley of his other singles , including " On to the Next One " . Jay @-@ Z wore a white T @-@ shirt with a black leather vest while performing the song on a stage light by blue lights , with musicians playing instruments in the far back . Caitlyn Millat of San Diego 's NBC felt that Jay @-@ Z " brought the house down " during his performances of the melodies . Rodriguez of MTV News said that Bridget Kelly , who sang Keys ' part , " turned more than a few heads " because the outfit she was wearing was " tighter than her boss ' rhyme " .
= = Sequel = =
Following the release of " Empire State of Mind " in January 2010 , Keys stated that she was planning to release a second version of the song as a single the following month , featuring only her vocals . The track , entitled " Empire State of Mind ( Part II ) Broken Down " , appeared on Keys ' fourth studio album The Element of Freedom which was released in December 2009 . The original version , entitled " Empire State of Mind Part 2 " , included both Keys ' vocals and a new rap verse from Jay @-@ Z , but the final product did not include Jay @-@ Z. Discussing the record , Keys claimed that it acts as a dichotomy of strength and vulnerability , commenting that " The music is really strong , and the drums are really aggressive , but my voice is vulnerable and delicate " .
" Empire State of Mind ( Part II ) Broken Down " was generally well received by contemporary music critics in their reviews for The Element of Freedom . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post noted that the track , which is a pop ballad , had replaced " Empire State of Mind " sports team references and ruminations with " even milder and less controversial string of generalities " , highlighting Keys ' version 's lyrics " If I could make it here / I could make it anywhere " . The track was not as commercially successful as " Empire State of Mind " , peaking at number four in the United Kingdom , number forty on the Canadian Hot 100 , and number sixty @-@ nine in Sweden . It also debuted on the Billboard R & B charts at number seventy @-@ seven and peaked at number fifty @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 without an official release .
= = Reaction and covers = =
The comedy website CollegeHumor parodied the song in a video titled " Galactic Empire State of Mind " which re @-@ writes the lyrics to follow the events of the first three Star Wars films from the perspective of Darth Vader . The video has been viewed nearly four million times on YouTube .
The music video for " Newport ( Ymerodraeth State of Mind ) " parodies the song , replacing references to the " Empire State " of New York with of the smaller Welsh city of Newport . In the Welsh language Ymerodraeth means " empire " . " Newport ( Ymerodraeth State of Mind ) " was directed by British filmmaker M @-@ J Delaney and featured London @-@ based actors Alex Warren and Terema Wainwright , rapping and singing respectively . Days after its release Delaney said : " I hope Jay @-@ Z and Alicia get to see the video as long as their publishing people don 't force us to take it offline . It 's only tongue in cheek . " Its participants were invited to appear on national television news and their work was reported in national newspapers . Their work was also so well received in Wales that they were invited to the reopening of the Newport Transporter Bridge . It achieved viral video status when it reached nearly a million hits in 3 days and , by August 2010 , nearly 2 @.@ 5 million people had watched it on YouTube . In July both Warren and Wainwright met with Universal Records ( the music publishers ) to discuss releasing the track as a single , with some of the proceeds going to the mental health charity Newport Mind . But the seven co @-@ writers of " Empire State of Mind " refused to give permission for the Newport single , a situation which led to the video being removed from YouTube on August 10 .
" Empire State of Mind " was covered by the cast of the US television series Glee for the second season premiere episode " Audition " on September 21 , 2010 . In the episode the fictional William McKinley High School glee club , upon learning that Nationals will be held in New York , decide to perform " Empire State of Mind " at the school courtyard , in the hopes it will pique the interest of their schoolmates . MTV 's Kyle Anderson felt that the choreography of " Empire State of Mind " compensated for any awkwardness in its delivery . Aly Semigran , also writing for the same publication , thought the cast 's performance was lacking the gravitas of the original version , but reported that Keys had deemed the Glee cover " amazing " . Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post found the song 's performance to be " maybe @-@ trying @-@ too @-@ hard " . Music critic Tom Stack , of Entertainment Weekly , had a more positive assessment of Glee 's take on it in the episode , stating that from the wardrobe to the choreography , it was " spectacular " and elating . He gave it a letter grade of " A " . MTV Buzzworthy wrote that " [ t ] hings get a little dicey when the male cast members make their way through Jay ’ s rapped first verse " . Glee 's cover version was released as a single and debuted at number twenty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 , taking the title for biggest jump of that week . It also charted number twenty in Australia .
In 2010 , American alternative dance band LCD Soundsystem played " Empire State of Mind " in concert , performing a verse of the song as a duet between James Murphy and keyboardist Nancy Whang . In May 2011 , at 64th Cannes Film Festival , British singer @-@ songwriter Jamie Cullum performed a piano medley of Frank Sinatra 's " New York , New York " and " Empire State of Mind " in honour of Robert De Niro . In February 2012 , British singer Ed Sheeran did a soulful acoustic rendition of the song at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . Sheeran later sang it as a duet with Jason Mraz at the Jingle Ball Viewing Party in December 2012 . In April 2012 , British glam rock band Sweet released an updated version of the Hello and Ace Frehley hit single " New York Groove " that incorporated the chorus of " Empire State of Mind " into its own chorus .
The song was also parodied in The Simpsons episode " The Food Wife " as " Bloggin ' a Food Blog " , sung by Tim Heidecker , Eric Wareheim and Carmen Carter .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Vocals – Jay @-@ Z , Alicia Keys
Writer ( s ) – Janet Sewell , Angela Hunte , Shawn " Jay @-@ Z " Carter , Sylvia Robinson , Burt Keyes , Alicia Keys , Alexander Shuckburgh
Producer ( s ) – Alexander Shuckburgh
Keyboards – Jeff Bhasker , Kevin Randolph
Engineer – Chris Godbey , Andrew Dawson , Karl Heilbron , Marcos Tovar , Miki Tsutsumi , Ann Mincieli
Arranger – Hart Gunther ,
Assistant – Jason Wilkie
Audio Mixing – Ken Duro Ifill
Assistant Audio Mixing – Jordan " DJ Swivel " Young
Mastering – Tony Dawsey
Editor – Jason Wilkie
Recording – Gimel " Young Guru " Keaton , Ann Mincieli , Luke Steele
Music samples – " Love on a Two @-@ Way Street " by The Moments
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Richard Mohun =
Richard Dorsey Loraine Mohun ( April 12 , 1864 – July 13 , 1915 ) was an American explorer , diplomat , mineral prospector and mercenary . Mohun worked for the United States government as a commercial agent in Angola and the Congo Free State . During his time as commercial agent , he volunteered to command a unit of Belgian artillery in a campaign to force Arab slavers from the colony .
Mohun remained in the service of the US government during this time and was subsequently posted as consul to Zanzibar . In this capacity , he was called upon to act as an intermediary between the combatants in the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War . Following the conclusion of his three @-@ year posting , Mohun returned to the Congo to prospect for minerals , and later worked with the Belgian authorities .
His most ambitious undertaking was a three @-@ year expedition , beginning in 1898 , that laid a telegraph line from Lake Tanganyika to Stanley Falls . He then spent some time prospecting in South Africa before returning to the Congo to reform the Abir Congo Company on behalf of Leopold II of Belgium .
= = Early life = =
Richard Dorsey Mohun was born in Washington , D.C. on April 12 , 1864 . Mohun 's family had a long association with Africa - his grandfather , William McKenny , had been a prominent figure during the colonisation of the continent and built up a comprehensive collection of photographs during his time there . Mohun , who was privately tutored at the family home , is known to have seen these photographs whilst growing up . Mohun developed an interest in the slave trade , which continued under Arab control in Eastern and Southern Africa , and became the fourth member of his family to campaign for its eradication . Mohun 's sister , Lee intended to train as a nun to join a Catholic mission in the Congo , where the slavers were active , and was only dissuaded by her family who asked her to minister to African @-@ Americans in Washington instead .
Mohun received a commission in the Pay Corps of the United States Navy in 1881 and served on a four @-@ year cruise in the Mediterranean . His grandmother , religious writer Anna Hanson Dorsey , arranged for him to meet her acquaintance , Monsignor Denis J. O 'Connell , at the Pontifical North American College in Rome in 1885 . Mohun was appointed Assistant Paymaster in 1885 and served with the United States Department of the Navy upon his return from the cruise . He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in 1889 , the same year he reigned his navy commission to join the United States Department of State .
Mohun and his brother , Louis , were involved in the short @-@ lived Nicaragua Canal Construction Company , a private American enterprise seeking link the Pacific and Atlantic oceans . Louis had been on survey expeditions with the company since 1888 and construction works began at Corinto in 1890 . Richard secured a position as an auditor with the company 's transportation division by 1891 but the project was hit by tropical disease and the Mohuns returned home to Washington by January 1892 .
= = United States agent in the Congo = =
The well @-@ connected Anna Hanson Dorsey was close friends with the mother of the American Secretary of State James Blaine and Blaine and Dorsey shared ties with Notre Dame University . Dorsey was able to use this influence to arrange the appointment of Mohun as US commercial agent to the Congo Free State on 22 January 1892 , filling a vacancy caused by the death @-@ in @-@ post of US Navy Lieutenant Emory Taunt the previous year . The US had maintained an agent in the Congo ever since it had been formally recognised and the commercial agent also acted as the nation 's diplomatic representative to the Free State . The post came with a $ 5 @,@ 000 annual budget and a remit to investigate the commercial potential of Congo and to promote trade between the two countries , which previously had been almost non @-@ existent . Mohun was appointed ahead of the missionary Samuel Norvell Lapsley who had been championed by a state senator from Alabama .
Mohun left America for Genoa , Italy with Louis and their sister , Laura . The three travelled in Europe for 2 – 3 months before Mohun reported to Brussels to meet with King Leopold II who , in spite of his callous reputation , impressed him with his apparent ambition to bring peace and western civilization to the Congo . Mohun then journeyed to the Congo with Louis , who was to act as his sub @-@ agent . The US commercial post in the Free State was then at Boma near the Atlantic coast , but Mohun also operated from Léopoldville , further inland . In July 1892 he assisted US citizen Warren C. Unckless in establishing a rubber factory on the Sankuru River near Lusambo for the Société anonyme belge pour le commerce du Haut @-@ Congo . Unckless , a plantation manager in Costa Rica , had imported experienced rubber cutters from South America to begin the enterprise but came under attack from tribesmen and a Belgian force had to be dispatched to provide security . Mohun spent much of his time in exploration of the country 's interior , visiting several areas where no white man had ever ventured and making a survey of the quality of the agricultural land and the crops grown by the native population .
Mohun frequently came into conflict with the native tribesmen . When his mail bag and personal papers were stolen and a local chief refused to return them he proceeded to wage war on the chief accompanied by four gunmen and a steamboat . Mohun attacked and burnt at least ten villages before he captured the chief 's son whom he threatened to hang . In return for his son 's life the chief returned the mail bag , alongside a second that Mohun had not noticed was missing . Another time , seeking to view the native method of making cloth , he visited a remote town accompanied by only six followers covertly armed with revolvers . The party came under attack by spears and poisoned arrows . Having fought off their assailants Mohun captured the town and " burned it to the ground to teach them a lesson " . Mohun was always conscious of his public image and wrote a diary with a view to later publication . Mohun 's diary contains little in the way of self @-@ criticism and he reflects upon his responsibility for this incident by stating that he was " satisfied in my own conscience that I had rid the country of a brute and unnecessary member of society . " On another occasion he witnessed the funeral of a local chief who had four of his wives and 10 slaves buried alive with him . Mohun was unable to intervene , in spite of his horror at the situation , as he had only a small escort and was heavily outnumbered .
Mohun , who came under attack five or six times within six months , blamed much of the violence on Arab slavers who Mohun claimed had directed the killing of all of the white men in the east of the country and allowed their bodies to be eaten by cannibals . The slavers , who originated from the East coast of Africa , were in conflict with the heavily @-@ outnumbered Belgian authorities in the Congo Arab War . Francis , Baron Dhanis , vice @-@ governor general to the Free State , had been leading an expedition against slavers - who were led by Sefu , the son of Tippu Tip - since July 1892 .
= = Chaltin Expedition = =
In 1893 Mohun was appointed commander of the artillery attached to a Belgian expedition , commanded by Louis Napoléon Chaltin , sent against the slavers led by Rumaliza . Mohun had risen to the position owing to the illness of the original Chief of Artillery , a Belgian Army officer , and joined the expedition via the steamer Bruxelles sometime after it had started off from Basoko . Just prior to his joining the expedition had destroyed entirely the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ house village of Tchari . Mohun accompanied the expedition to Bena @-@ Kamba where the party suffered an outbreak of smallpox before 555 of the survivors continued on towards Riba Riba . The expedition passed through Ikhamba , entirely deserted except for an array of 16 severed heads left as a warning by the slavers . Around this time Mohun led part of the expedition into a village where he disturbed a cannibal feast , he arrested the village chief who was tried and hanged . On another occasion he was traversing the jungle alone when he came across 6 armed Arab slavers in a clearing . In the subsequent fight he killed four of the slavers before the remaining two fled .
On March 29 the Chaltin Expedition reached a deep stream and , in searching for a fording place , came across a large group of Arab slavers . The expedition launched a surprise attack on the camp , supported by an artillery piece , and routed them after several hours fighting . The expedition found only one dead body left on the field , though it was supposed that the Arabs had lost more men and carried the bodies away with them in retreat . Mohun was with a force of 150 men sent over the stream to Riba Riba with the intention of reaching the town before the retreating slavers could give warning . Once again they encountered a deserted town , except for two hands nailed to a flagstaff taken from the corpses of two European men killed the week before . Mohun 's group burned the town to the ground before returning to the main party of the expedition . The force suffered another outbreak of smallpox and it was decided to send the sick back to the steamer at Bene @-@ Kamba . The main force rested for a number of days before following on . During the three @-@ day march the expedition encountered the bodies of the sick that had died on the return journey and a roll call at Bene @-@ Kamba revealed some 104 men had died in the first 2 weeks of the expedition .
The expedition proceeded by the steamer to Stanley Falls and split into two detachments . One attacked the slaver 's factory and the other their nearby boma under supporting artillery fire from the steamer . Some 75 slavers were killed , including their chief , and a further 100 slaves , soldiers , women and retainers taken prisoner . The slavers , comprehensively defeated , were driven from the country and the war effectively brought to a close . Mohun accompanied a force sent to investigate the slavers town of Romie and discovered it to already be in the hands of Congo State forces . At Romie Mohun encountered several of the Belgian native troops engaging in cannibalism of the dead Arabs . This practice had been outlawed by Chaltin and was punishable by death . Mohun recorded that he fired a single shot which put an end to the matter .
Mohun then marched 500 miles with the expedition to Kasongo , the former home of Tippu Tip , in January 1894 . There his force of 1 @,@ 400 native auxiliaries and porters and 150 soldiers joined with Dhanis ' 26 @,@ 000 men for an assault on the fortified town . In the subsequent fighting the Belgian forces , assisted by artillery , killed 3 @,@ 000 of the slaver 's men , blew up their powder magazines and burnt the town . Still in Kasongo by February Mohun had intended to take a force of some sixty soldiers , 100 porters and 90 others to Tanganyika where he planned to catch a steamer to South Africa to arrange passage to the Congolese coast . From there he planned to settle his affairs , resign his post and return to America . He hoped in the process to intercept a slave caravan that had been fleeing eastwards from the expedition loaded with slaves , ivory and gold .
Instead Mohun , recognised for the leading role he played in many of the engagements , was in March 1894 appointed by Dhanis to be second @-@ in @-@ command of an expedition to determine whether there was a navigable watercourse between Lake Tanganyika and the upper Lualaba River . The expedition encountered difficulties in traversing the terrain and waterways of the country and with hostile natives . Mohun discovered the confluence of the Luabala and Lumbridgi rivers and was able to disprove the existence of Lake Lanchi , which had been marked on many maps at this location . The river itself proved to be highly variable ranging from 2500m to just 90m in width , contained in gorges up to 1,200m deep and with one 110 km stretch proving entirely unnavigable by canoe . Mohun recorded that the soil in the valley was highly fertile , the local Barua people quite numerous and named two new peaks Mount Dhanis and Mount Cleveland .
The expedition reached as far as Mount Buli on the Lukuga River when its commander , Dr Sidney Langford Hinde , fell ill with an abscess on the liver , Mohun assumed command from 11 April and successfully completed the remainder of the task . Mohun delivered Hinde , who was incapable even of sitting upright or eating , through native attacks to Kasongo on 25 April . Hinde 's abscess , which could not be treated as there was no other doctor nearer than Basoko , successfully resolved itself by bursting during travel and saved his life .
In April 1894 whilst at Kasongo Mohun 's sergeant Omari bo Hamise , who had been Stanley 's chief sergeant in the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition , identified two men who had murdered Emin Pasha on the orders of the slaver Kibonge . Mohun questioned the pair , garnered their confessions and sent them for trial after which they were hanged . During his time in the Congo Mohun also took part in big @-@ game hunting killing 20 elephants and 50 leopards within two years .
In this role Mohun was given responsibility for the government of some five million natives and tasked with improving internal markets in the country .
Mohun continued his work to eradicate the slave trade , made several surveying expeditions , established new trade markets , and assisted in the suppression of cannibalism . He estimated that there were 20 million cannibals in the Free State , and spoke of witnessing both a cannibal feast , and the practice of burying people alive . Mohun 's work in the Congo has been described as the last " spectacular contribution " by an American in opening up the country . The record he kept of this expedition was used by Belgian author and cartographer AJ Wauters to compose a map of the Lomami River , which was published in 1901 .
Mohun had remained US commercial agent throughout this time , and insisted on drawing no pay from the Belgian government for his services , though he did receive $ 5000 from the Société Anonyme Belge pour le commerce du Haut @-@ Congo . Although he never held a commission in the Belgian Army during this , and later expeditions , he would often wear a uniform to maintain discipline amongst his men . Mohun is quoted as saying , of the reason for choosing to assist the Belgian military operations , that " I prefer killing Arabs in the interior to killing time at Boma " . In 1894 , he was awarded honorary membership of the Société Royale Belge de Géographie ( Royal Belgian Geographical Society ) , and Leopold I appointed him a chevalier of the Royal Order of the Lion for his accomplishments in the slaver war . Mohun also received decorations from the United Kingdom and France for his work in the Congo . Mohun 's stated priority in the Congo was to improve conditions for the inhabitants by bringing them within the Belgian sphere of influence . He also claimed that the popular image of Belgian brutality in the region was a lie spread by missionaries — a statement contradicted by evidence of unnecessary cruelty by Belgian troops .
It seems that Mohun later had second thoughts about the removal of the Arab slavers from the Congo and their replacement by pro @-@ Belgian Congolese village chiefs . In the late 1890s he made his views known to Roger Casement , the British @-@ Irish diplomat who was then campaigning for reform in the Congo . Mohun stated " we were all called upon to admire as an achievement of civilisation over barbarism " the removal of the Arab slavers but that " I believe the Arabs when they permanently occupied a country did a very great deal of good , much more than they will ever be given credit for " . It was then his , and Casement 's , belief that " slavery still exists ... For the native I believe the change has been for the worst as they certainly don 't have the same respect for a dirty native chief as they had for the powerful Arab always clean , and even the worst of them with the manners of gentlemen " . Mohun also recounts the case of Nyangwe , a town of 3 @,@ 000 houses and up to 45 @,@ 000 inhabitants that he encountered , within a year of a Free State army post being established there the town had been completely destroyed . In 1896 he noted that one of the Belgian generals had encouraged the cruelty and that the situation improved after he was recalled by King Leopold .
= = Zanzibar = =
Due to the frequent expeditions Mohun carried out in the Congo , Mohun was unable to spend much time on his duties as commercial agent . The US State Department was , perhaps surprisingly , pleased with Mohun 's undiplomatic conduct in assisting the Belgians . This may have been because he did not receive a salary for his work and assisted in making the Congo more commercially stable . Mohun left the Congo and returned to the United States where he married Harriette Louise Barry from New York and had his Congo report presented to Congress . After a short period of leave Mohun was appointed to be the State Department 's Consul to Zanzibar on May 24 , 1895 . His appointment , which he then held until November 22 , 1897 , may have been a reward for his work in the Free State . Mohun was not replaced as commercial agent and the office ceased to exist in July 1895 - the next US government appointment to the Free State was not until 1906 when a consul @-@ general was appointed . Mohun arranged a period of five minutes between his resignation as commercial agent and acceptance of the post of consul so that he could accept his Order of the Lion without contravening the US constitutions Title of Nobility Clause that prohibits those holding public office from accepting gifts from foreign powers . Harriette accompanied Mohun to Zanzibar and , on April 18 , 1896 , gave birth to their first son , Reginald Dorsey Mohun . Casement served as Reginald 's godfather and , shortly after his birth , sent him an autographed copy of his " Careless Chicken " fable .
During his time on the island , he became involved in the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War of 27 August 1896 , as an intermediary between the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British authorities . He reported the outcome of the war and the safety of all American subjects to the State Department on the same morning . In return for his services and conduct during the engagement , he was decorated by the new Sultan . During the course of the war Mohun compiled a portfolio of photographs that he later published . After the war Mohun served as a mediator between the Sultan and the British authorities . On 6 July 1897 he informed his superiors of an outbreak of smallpox on the island among the Indian and native population and that an English missionary had been attacked for carrying a victim around in his arms . Mohun was concerned that the outbreak might spread to the white population and noted that vaccination doses had been ordered from Marseilles for the native population .
During his time in Africa Mohun had acquired a leopard cub after killing its mother , who was attacking the livestock of a native village . He named the young male Dijini ( " Devil " ) and raised him in his house . During a visit to Europe Dijini accompanied his master in his carriage . After terrifying the staff and residents of a hotel in Antwerp Mohun was forced to cage the leopard . Despite receiving several bids from menagerie @-@ owners Mohun made a gift of the animal to the Washington Zoo and arranged to have him shipped to his hometown . Mohun returned to Washington six months layer , upon completion of his posting in Zanzibar , and visited his former pet . Mohun amazed staff at the zoo by jumping the railings and passing his hand between the bars of Dijini 's enclosure to allow the animal to lick his hand .
= = Tanganyika @-@ Nile telegraph expedition = =
Mohun 's appointment at Zazibar ended in November 1897 and he returned to Belgium with Harriette , purchasing a house in Brussels . Harriette remained at this house during the rest of Mohun 's subsequent postings in Africa . Mohun was contacted by the Belgian government , which had been impressed by his work on behalf of the United States , and was appointed a district commissioner ( 1st class ) in their colonial service in June 1898 . In July King Leopold commissioned Mohun to lay a telegraph line from Lake Tanganyika to Wadelai on the White Nile . Mohun accepted the position despite , just months before , condemning the region as a " wretched country in the heart of Africa " . Mohun left Antwerp , Belgium for Africa at the end of August 1898 .
The overhead telegraph may have been intended as a link in the proposed line from the Cape to Cairo , it was to be supported by 7m @-@ high poles at 150m spacings and had been allocated a budget of three million francs . Mohun was allowed free rein to choose his own staff and set out with five electricians / engineers ( including some from Britain and France ) , Dr. Raan Horace Castellote as medical officer and a military escort commanded by Belgian Captain Verhellen . He advertised among the Askari of Zanzibar for volunteers to provide the escort required by the expedition , and received more than one thousand responses . From these , he selected one hundred men to accompany him , twenty of whom had served with him in the Congo expedition of 1894 . The work was hoped to have been completed by 1900 .
In order to negotiate with the local population along his route , Mohun took " 100 boxes [ of ] trade goods consisting of bells , knives , locks , mirrors , music boxes , watches , clocks , fezzes , and other odds and ends " . His diary also notes that spectacles , Arab @-@ made incense and American @-@ made cloth were popular , and that he used the latter to pay his Askari escort . The expedition also included porters to carry the equipment and to lay the telegraph line . In addition to laying the telegraph Mohun was instructed by Dhanis to use his askaris against parties of Batetela mutineers that still plagued the region in the aftermath of the rebellion of 1897 @-@ 8 .
A ship named Sir Harry Johnson took them from Zanzibar to the African mainland in the German colony of Tanganyika . The expedition then proceeded to the settlement of Fort Johnston at the southern tip of Lake Nyasa where they replenished their food stocks with fish from the Shire River . Mohun 's party then proceeded along the western bank of the lake to the settlement of Karonga in North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia . The expedition probably used the Stevenson Road which connected Karonga to Zombe at the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika . At Longwe the group encountered Ewart Grogan , the British explorer then in the process of completing the first crossing of Africa from south to north . Captain Verhellen drew Grogan 's attention to a group of pale Southern Reedbucks . Grogan shot one and sent its pelt to the Zoological Society of London where it was regarded as potentially the first sighting of a new form of the species .
Mohun 's group then began laying the telegraph line ( starting at Albertville ) , heading north along the western bank of the Lake and entering the Congo Free State before turning west to meet the River Congo at Kasongo . Shortly after entering the Congo in July 1899 the party , then comprising just ten European men , came under attack by a force of cannibal tribesmen . Mohun estimated that his opponents numbered some 1 @,@ 500 men and claimed to have inflicted 300 dead and 600 wounded in exchange for 9 men killed and 47 wounded in his party . Mohun was said to have contributed much to the party 's defence with his Winchester rifle and was reinforced part way through the engagement by three companies of native infantry sent by Dhanis . The cannibals subsequently fled towards Lake Tanganyika . Castellote died on the expedition on 26 September . In December 1900 Mohun 's family contacted the US ambassador to Belgium , Lawrence Townsend , to ask him to investigate rumours of his death which had been announced at a lecture in Washington .
Mohun 's party followed the river north to Stanley Falls where , after three years , the expedition completed the line some distance short of the Nile . The telegraph was some 286 miles ( 460 km ) long and enabled the transmission of messages across the African interior for the first time . As a result , Mohun claimed to be known amongst the indigenous peoples along the route as " Big master of the telephone " . Mohun , the only white survivor of the expedition , returned to Belgium from the west coast Congo ports and thus completed an east @-@ west traverse of the continent . Mohun claimed to be the first American to achieve the feat , a credit usually given to Henry Morton Stanley for his 1874 @-@ 77 expedition . Mohun 's claim may have been due to knowing Stanley was a naturalised American citizen born in Wales . He is regarded as one of three Americans who played key roles in opening the Belgian Congo to outsiders , alongside Stanley and the missionary William Henry Sheppard .
= = After the expedition = =
Mohun 's contract was the Belgian crown came to an end in October 1901 and he returned to Harriette in Brussels where he acted as an advisor to King Leopold on the management of the Congo . His second son , Cecil Peabody Mohun , who later became a stockbroker , was born in Brussels on March 27 , 1904 . Not wishing to embark upon another long appointment in Africa , Mohun wrote a request for employment to former US State Department official Thomas W. Cridler , commissioner for the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition . Mohun suggested the inclusion of an anthropological exhibit with " a few pygmies , from the Congo . Cannibals of course would be amongst the Congo lot , as it would be impossible to bring natives from interior Africa without finding a large percentage of man eaters amongst them ... I am not proposing any dime Museum , or Midway Plaisance sort of show . Make it a part of the Equatorial African Section , an integral part of the Exhibition itself " . Mohun was unsuccessful and never received a formal position with the exposition , though his suggestion might have led to the inclusion of the pygmy Ota Benga and other African tribesmen as part of the exhibition . He is believed to have written to Roger Casement during this time in an attempt to counter the accounts of Belgian abuses in the Congo that Casement was then compiling for publication in his 1905 Casement Report .
In December 1905 , on the recommendation of King Leopold , he was appointed director of the Abir Congo Company . The Abir Rubber Company was the only company mentioned by name in a Congo Commission report , which reported : " the imprisonment of women as hostages , flogging to excess , and various acts of brutality are not contested . It is the black spot on the history of Central African settlement . " Mohun was appointed to institute reforms addressing these practices . He enjoyed some success in this regard and also devoted much time to an attempt to exterminate the tsetse fly . In 1906 successfully proposed that Leopold II buy out Abir and take the concession under direct control of the crown . He appears to have left Abir around the same time and was , in March 1907 , proposed by the Congo Free State government to assume the role of African manager for the American Congo Company .
Mohun was selected , in May 1907 , by Thomas Fortune Ryan and Daniel Guggenheim , founders of the Forminière company to undertake a prospecting operation on the Uele River in the Kasai and Maniema regions . The result was the 1908 Ryan @-@ Guggenheim Expedition , a rubber and mineral prospecting party funded by American capital and accompanied by a member of the US Geological Service . This was in two parts , a scientific expedition led by SP Verner for the American Congo Company that sought to trial the " Mexican Process " of utilising acetone for rubber extraction in the Congo , and a mineral prospecting party , the Mohun @-@ Ball Expedition ( also known as the Mission de Recherches Minières ) , with mineralogist Sydney Hobart Ball and mining engineer Alfred Chester Beatty , that sought out new gold , copper and coal deposits . The expedition was also tasked with capturing a live specimen of the Okapi for which a wealthy resident of Paris had offered a $ 5 @,@ 000 reward . Mohun was appointed chief of the Mohun @-@ Ball expedition when it set out in 1907 .
Late that year the party came under attack by a force of flintlock @-@ armed cannibals and , with the assistance of a 25 @-@ strong unit of Belgian native soldiers , repelled the attack — inflicting 125 dead for the loss of five native porters . In press reports of the time Mohun was described as an ex @-@ US Army officer who had been involved in revolutions in several South American countries . The incident became locally known as the " Battle of Ball 's Run " . A further attack in January 1908 was more successful , causing the party to flee the area . Mohun 's men eventually reached safety at Kamgamyka in March .
The expedition ended in 1909 , by which time it had uncovered valuable diamond deposits at Tshikapa , the first such to be located in the country , and recommended the mineral @-@ rich Kasai region to Forminière for further investigation The expedition was judged favourably in relation to Verner 's party , who were forced to abandon their attempts to introduce the Mexican process . The discovery of diamonds opened a new source of revenue for the colony and many subsequent American expeditions were carried out in search of further deposits . Mohun 's contract with Forminière expired in November 1909 and he returned briefly to his family in the USA . In 1910 he was commissioned by the Rubber Exploration Company to inspect rubber concessions in South Africa , Rhodesia , Mozambique , Madagascar and Equatorial Africa and to negotiate their purchase on behalf of the company . Although Mohun left the company early the next year , the concessions proved successful with the first shipments of rubber arriving in the USA in August 1911 .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In August 1911 Mohun returned to his home at Royal Oak , Maryland to recover from wounds he had received during his twenty years service in Africa . His convalescence included a period spent in the Virginia mountains . He served as on officer on an American Red Cross ship sent to Belgium during the first year of World War One . Aged 50 and without any prior signs of illness , he died of a fever on July 13 , 1915 . Although he was alone when he fell ill at two o 'clock in the morning a non @-@ Catholic woman made a 26 miles ( 42 km ) journey to fetch a priest to conduct the Last Rites . Mohun 's funeral service was held at the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle and he was interred in the family plot at Oak Hill Cemetery . During his postings in Africa he had returned to the USA only three times .
During his career Mohun received honours from the British , French and Belgian governments and was a member of the Royal Geographical Societies of Britain , France and Belgium . He was a fluent speaker of Arabic and Swahili in addition to his native English . A sizeable collection of ethnographic information and objects that Mohun collected in Africa is now held in the collection of the Smithsonian Museum and many of his papers are held by the Belgian Royal Museum for Central Africa and the US National Archives and Records Administration . Harriette Mohun died on October 6 , 1942 in Stamford , Connecticut and was buried alongside her husband .
= U.S. Route 412 in Oklahoma =
U.S. Route 412 ( abbreviated US @-@ 412 ) is a U.S. highway in the south @-@ central prtion of the United States , connecting Springer , New Mexico to Columbia , Tennessee . A 504 @.@ 11 @-@ mile ( 811 @.@ 29 km ) section of the highway crosses the state of Oklahoma , traversing the state from west to east . Entering the state southwest of Boise City , US @-@ 412 runs the length of the Oklahoma Panhandle and serves the northern portion of the state 's main body , before leaving the state at West Siloam Springs . Along the way , the route serves many notable cities and towns , including Boise City , Guymon , Woodward , Enid
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could not have been written by one person ( Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen ) . The corpus was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity , and its teaching generally followed his principles ; thus it came to be known by his name . It might be the remains of a library of Kos , or a collection compiled in the 3rd century BC in Alexandria .
The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks , lectures , research , notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine , in no particular order . These works were written for different audiences , both specialists and laymen , and were sometimes written from opposing viewpoints ; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus . Notable among the treatises of the Corpus are The Hippocratic Oath ; The Book of Prognostics ; On Regimen in Acute Diseases ; Aphorisms ; On Airs , Waters and Places ; Instruments of Reduction ; On The Sacred Disease ; etc .
= = = Hippocratic Oath = = =
The Hippocratic Oath , a seminal document on the ethics of medical practice , was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death . This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus . Recently the authenticity of the document 's author has come under scrutiny . While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today , it serves as a foundation for other , similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals . Such derivatives are regularly taken today by medical graduates about to enter medical practice .
= = Legend of Hippocrates ' daughter = =
The Travels of Sir John Mandeville reports ( incorrectly ) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of " Kos and Lango " [ sic ] , and recounts a legend about Hippocrates ' daughter . She was transformed into a hundred @-@ foot long dragon by the goddess Diana , and is the " lady of the manor " of an old castle . She emerges three times a year , and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her , making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands . Various knights try , but flee when they see the hideous dragon ; they die soon thereafter . This is a version of the legend of Melusine .
= = Legacy = =
Hippocrates is widely considered to be the " Father of Medicine " . His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine ; but after his death the advancement stalled . So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time . The centuries after Hippocrates ' death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement . For instance , " after the Hippocratic period , the practice of taking clinical case @-@ histories died out , " according to Fielding Garrison .
After Hippocrates , the next significant physician was Galen , a Greek who lived from AD 129 to AD 200 . Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine , moving both forward and backward . In the Middle Ages , the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies . After the European Renaissance , Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century . Notable among those who employed Hippocrates ' rigorous clinical techniques were Thomas Sydenham , William Heberden , Jean @-@ Martin Charcot and William Osler . Henri Huchard , a French physician , said that these revivals make up " the whole history of internal medicine . "
The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form .
= = = Image = = =
According to Aristotle 's testimony , Hippocrates was known as " The Great Hippocrates " . Concerning his disposition , Hippocrates was first portrayed as a " kind , dignified , old country doctor " and later as " stern and forbidding " . He is certainly considered wise , of very great intellect and especially as very practical . Francis Adams describes him as " strictly the physician of experience and common sense . "
His image as the wise , old doctor is reinforced by busts of him , which wear large beards on a wrinkled face . Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius . Accordingly , the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities . Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals . Fielding Garrison , an authority on medical history , stated , " He is , above all , the exemplar of that flexible , critical , well @-@ poised attitude of mind , ever on the lookout for sources of error , which is the very essence of the scientific spirit . " " His figure ... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician , " according to A Short History of Medicine , inspiring the medical profession since his death .
= = Genealogy = =
Hippocrates ' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles . According to Tzetzes 's Chiliades , the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is :
1 . Hippocrates II . " The Father of Medicine "
2 . Heraclides
4 . Hippocrates I.
8 . Gnosidicus
16 . Nebrus
32 . Sostratus III .
64 . Theodorus II .
128 . Sostratus , II .
256 . Thedorus
512 . Cleomyttades
1024 . Crisamis
2048 . Dardanus
4096 . Sostratus
8192 . Hippolochus
16384 . Podalirius
32768 . Asklepius
= = Namesakes = =
Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe those . Hippocratic face is the change produced in the countenance by death , or long sickness , excessive evacuations , excessive hunger , and the like . Clubbing , a deformity of the fingers and fingernails , is also known as Hippocratic fingers . Hippocratic succussion is the internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax . Hippocratic bench ( a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones ) and Hippocratic cap @-@ shaped bandage are two devices named after Hippocrates . Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are also his namesakes . The drink hypocras is also believed to be invented by Hippocrates . Risus sardonicus , a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile .
In the modern age , a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates . The Hippocratic Museum , a museum on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him . The Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology . Project Hippocrates ( an acronym of " HIgh PerfOrmance Computing for Robot @-@ AssisTEd Surgery " ) is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center , " to develop advanced planning , simulation , and execution technologies for the next generation of computer @-@ assisted surgical robots . " Both the Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times .
= Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The year 's team included two athletes engaged in track and field events ( Kineke Alexander and Jared Lewis ) , and was accompanied by the team coach , manager , and chaperone . Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ' appearance in Beijing marked its sixth consecutive Olympic appearance since its 1988 debut in Seoul , South Korea , and its smallest delegation to date . Alexander bore the flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in the opening ceremony and neither athlete medaled in their events or advanced to later rounds .
= = Background = =
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines debuted in the Olympic Games at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea and , as of 2008 , has participated in every edition since . The Beijing Games marked the smallest Vincentian delegation in the country 's history , the size having declined over the years from its largest delegation of eight participants at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta . At the conclusion of the 2008 Summer Olympics , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ' team has yet to medal in an event . The delegation arrived in Beijing on 28 July 2008 , and stayed in the Olympic Village for the duration of their time in China . The Vincentians arrived early , three days after the Village itself opened , to make adjusting to the new environment easier . The delegation was accompanied by coach Gideon Labban ; team manager Leroy Llewellyn ; and chaperone Jacintha Ballantyne . Kineke Alexander was the flagbearer at the opening ceremony , leading Saint Vincent and the Grenadines as the 64th nation in line .
= = Athletics = =
The athletes competing on behalf of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines competed in track and field . Kineke Alexander participated in the women 's 400 m sprint , while Jared Lewis took part in the men 's 100 m sprint . Neither medaled or advanced to subsequent rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Mississauga Track and Field Club member Jared Lewis qualified for the men ’ s 100 m sprint . At the Beijing Olympics , the first round of Lewis ’ event took place on 14 August . Lewis was placed in Heat 3 , competing against athletes such as Trinidad and Tobago ’ s Richard Thompson , who would later win silver in the event . Lewis ran his event in 11 @.@ 00 seconds , ranking seventh among of eight competitors , 0 @.@ 29 seconds ahead of Kiribati ’ s Rabangaki Nawai and 0 @.@ 54 seconds slower than Indonesia ’ s Suryo Agung Wibowo . Thompson , who took first place in the heat , was 0 @.@ 76 seconds faster than Lewis . Overall , Lewis tied Danny D 'Souza of the Seychelles for 63rd place out of 80 people and did not advance to the second round , which took place on the same day .
Women
University of Iowa student Kineke Alexander qualified for the 400 m sprint , an event in which she earned eight all @-@ American honors during college competitions . Her participation in the Beijing Olympics marked her Olympic debut . At the Games Alexander competed in the first round of the event on 16 August . She was placed in Heat 6 and ranked fourth , completing the race in 52 @.@ 87 seconds . She was 0 @.@ 01 seconds faster than Grenada 's Trish Bartholomew ( 5th place ) , 0 @.@ 10 seconds slower than Sudan 's Nawal El Jack ( 3rd place ) , and 1 @.@ 35 seconds slower than heat leader Novelene Williams of Jamaica . Overall , in the first round , Alexander ranked 32 out of 50 competitors , finishing just ahead of Bartholomew and India 's Mandeep Kaur and just behind Poland 's Monika Bejnar . The overall round one leader , the United States ' Sanya Richards , ran 2 @.@ 33 seconds faster than Alexander . Alexander did not advance to the semifinal round , as she was neither in the top three places in her given heat nor in the top three fastest of those who did fall below third place in their heats .
= Gorilla ( advertisement ) =
Gorilla is a British advertising campaign launched by Cadbury Schweppes in 2007 to promote Cadbury Dairy Milk @-@ brand chocolate . The 90 @-@ second television and cinema advertisement , which formed the centrepiece of the £ 6 @.@ 2 million campaign , was created and directed by Juan Cabral and starred actor Garon Michael . The campaign itself , which comprised appearances on billboards , print newspapers and magazines , television and cinema spots , event sponsorships and an internet presence , was handled by advertising agency Fallon London , with the online segment contracted out to Hyper .
The advertisement , which first appeared on British television on 31 August 2007 , has since gone on to appear in a number of other countries , including Canada , Australia , South Africa and New Zealand . It has been well received by the public – a version uploaded to video sharing website YouTube received 500 @,@ 000 page views in the first week after the launch . Polling company YouGov reported that public perception of the brand had noticeably improved in the period following the launch , reversing the decline experienced in the first half of 2007 .
= = Description = =
The ad consists of a simple , 90 @-@ second tracking shot across a music studio , with Phil Collins ' " In the Air Tonight " playing in the background . A large gorilla sitting at a drum kit plays along with the song 's famous drum fill .
= = Background = =
Gorilla formed a major part of the pitch by Fallon London to secure the contract with Cadbury Schweppes in 2006 . Their proposal was to step away from pushing the product through traditional advertising means , and instead produce " entertainment pieces " which would appeal to a broader range of consumers and spread through viral marketing – that is , through word of mouth . To this end , Cadbury ended its ten @-@ year sponsorship of the popular soap Coronation Street .
Public perception of the Cadbury brand had slipped through 2006 @-@ 7 after a series of public relations blunders and product recalls . In mid @-@ 2006 , a number of Cadbury lines were found to contain salmonella bacteria , originating from a leaking pipe at the company 's factory in Marlbrook . The incident was widely reported in the media , and had a number of knock @-@ on effects : 40 people became ill , and a product recall costing £ 20 million was initiated . The failure of Cadbury to inform the Food Standards Agency for five months after the problem was discovered resulted in a £ 1 million fine from Birmingham 's Crown Court , and the Food Standards Agency advised the company to improve their " out of date " contamination testing procedures .
Other public relations blunders in the run @-@ up to the campaign included the distribution of a number of Easter eggs containing traces of nuts without nut allergy warnings , a £ 5 million campaign for Trident chewing gum which was cancelled after complaints that it was offensive , and the temporary closure of Granary Burying Ground , a historic cemetery near Boston , United States , as a result of a treasure hunt organised as a sales promotion . In mid @-@ 2007 , Cadbury announced that it would be cutting around 7 @,@ 500 jobs . An internal memo which later leaked revealed that many of the jobs would be moved to Poland , causing an outcry from the manufacturers ' trade unions .
= = Production = =
It was hoped that the new campaign would serve to boost sales within the UK and prompt higher brand engagement from the public . Much effort was put into making the first advertisement of the new marketing strategy a hit . The creative idea was " founded upon the notion that all communications should be as effortlessly enjoyable as eating the bar itself . " Argentine @-@ born Fallon creative director Juan Cabral , who had created the immensely successful Balls and Paint spots for Sony 's BRAVIA line of high @-@ definition television sets , wrote and directed the piece , acting as creative director , art director , copywriter and director . It marked his directorial debut . Other people involved in the campaign at Fallon included senior planner Tamsin Davies , account executive Chris Willingham , executive creative director Richard Flintham , and agency producer Nicky Barnes . Matthew Fone was the production company producer . Actor Garon Michael was hired to fill the central role for his previous work in similar roles , having played great apes in the feature films Congo , Instinct and the 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes .
The gorilla suit was created by Stan Winston Studios in California and the ' Meerkat of Moorgate ' - the City of London 's most famous FX trader - Anthony Wood ( known in the East End simply as ' Angry Ant ' ) was the man inside it . Once his secret was out , Anthony immediately released his own cover of ' I can feel it coming in the air tonight ' , with a B side of Tina Turner 's Private Dancer , that Rolling Stone magazine called the best thing to happen to music since Victoria Beckham stopped singing .
It took three months to produce , though pieces had been used in a large number of other projects prior to Gorilla . The " fur " of the suit is composed of knotted yak hairs . The exposed facial features are silicone , and are moved animatronically , through 27 remote @-@ controlled motors and several levers . Two technicians were needed , in addition to the actor inside the suit , to produce the range of motions displayed in the commercial . The suit was cooled by ice @-@ water tubing and a handheld fan pointed at the mouth between takes . While much of the suit had existed prior to the project , several adaptations were made , including custom @-@ made hands for the drum sequence , foam muscle around the chest and shoulders , a new styling for the pelt , and the addition of a gold tooth , grey hairs , and a studio earpiece to give a more " wizened rock star " appearance .
Shooting took place over several days at Music Bank , the famous rehearsal studios in London . Actor Michael spent forty hours practising the drumming beforehand , but with vision inside the suit limited to a camera feed piped to a small screen inside the head , precision was almost impossible . Many takes ended with the wooden drum sticks broken against the rims , sending shards of wood flying off @-@ camera . This , combined with the difficulty of choreographing the delicate movements of the gorilla head with Michael 's acting , meant that 35 takes were required to produce the final 90 @-@ second scene .
The spot was lensed by director of photography Daniel Bronks , and edited by Jo Guest at Final Cut , London . Post production was handled by London companies The Moving Picture Company ( main body , producer Graham Bird ) and Golden Square ( end frame , producer Jessica Mankowitz ) . Sound was designed and arranged by Parv Thind at Wave Studios , London .
= = Release and marketing = =
The television premiere of the advertisement was on Friday 31 August 2007 , during the finale of the eighth series of the United Kingdom reality television show Big Brother , watched by around 14 % of British viewers . Additional 90 @-@ second spots were commissioned through September , switching to 10 @-@ second cuts in October . The 90 @-@ second version was rebroadcast as the final commercial in the break before the final of the 2007 Rugby World Cup between England and South Africa on 20 October , with the face of the bass drum emblazoned with an English flag and the slogan " Bring It Home " . Another variant of the advert was broadcast a week earlier before the semi @-@ final of the 2007 Rugby World Cup between England and France on 13 October , with the face of the bass drum emblazoned with an English flag and the slogan " Come On Lads " . The spot cost Cadbury an estimated £ 700 @,@ 000 .
Billboard and print campaigns were set up to run alongside the television commercial , and a sponsorship deal with the " Great Gorilla Run " charity fun run through London on 23 September 2007 was set up through Sputnik Communications . An online presence was established with a competition on the Glass and a Half Full Productions website offering tickets to Las Vegas . The Glass and a Half Full Productions website was created by Hyper as part of a UK @-@ focussed digital marketing strategy .
Following the positive reception of the commercial in the United Kingdom and online , Cadbury Canada arranged to show the advertisements in 850 cinemas across Canada throughout November 2007 . Further online tie @-@ ins were launched , including an online game and a competition to win a gorilla suit , a purple drum kit and a year 's supply of bananas and Cadbury chocolate bars .
The advertisement premiered on New Zealand television on Monday , 30 June 2008 . The advertisement also helped " In the Air Tonight " re @-@ enter the New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart at number three in July 2008 and went on to number one the following week , beating its original 1981 # 6 peak .
In August 2008 , the ad commenced airing on Australian television . It was also re @-@ released in the United Kingdom and Ireland with a new backing track ( Bonnie Tyler 's " Total Eclipse of the Heart " . According to UK newspaper The Guardian " The new version pays homage to the internet mash @-@ up artist who remixed the original with Tyler 's Total Eclipse of the Heart "
In July 2009 , the Cadbury World visitor attraction in Birmingham opened a new area , Advertising Avenue . Towards the end of the attraction , in the Music Shop , a chocolate DJ ( ' D.J. Choc ' ) invites guests to enjoy four selected clips of favourite Cadbury TV adverts - three of these are broadcast on flatscreen monitors , culminating with the lights in a previously @-@ un @-@ noticed drum booth coming on , with a full @-@ sized anamatronic gorilla drumming to In the Air Tonight .
= = Reception = =
The campaign was well received by the British public . The commercial was uploaded to video sharing website YouTube shortly after it first aired , and was viewed over 500 @,@ 000 times in the first week . As of November 2007 , it has been viewed over six million times across a large number of video sharing webhosts . 70 Facebook groups appreciating the ad have been set up , with one , named " We love the Cadbury 's drumming gorilla " , boasting 200 members . A number of spoofs and parodies were quickly uploaded by amateurs with the tacit approval of Cadbury , and the British branch of Wonderbra created and uploaded their own , Dan Cadan @-@ directed version of the advertisement , replacing the gorilla with Wonderbra model ( and musician ) Jentina with the Cadbury strapline " A glass and half full of joy " being replaced with " Two cups full of joy . " While Cadbury tacitly permitted limited display and modification of the commercial without authorisation , the Wonderbra spot was later removed from YouTube following notification from Phil Collins Limited that the piece infringed their copyright to " In The Air Tonight . " Gorilla was further parodied as an introduction to the second half of the 2007 Children in Need special , with an actor dressed as Pudsey Bear taking the central role . British comedy series The Mighty Boosh features a drumming gorilla named Bollo , played by Dave Brown , and the actor appeared as Bollo in a viral video auditioning for the Cadbury advert to promote the third series of the show . This video was later included as an easter egg on the DVD release of series three .
There was much speculation when the advert first appeared on how it was made – whether the gorilla was real , animatronic , or a man in a suit . Many believed that Phil Collins himself was the drummer . When asked about Gorilla , Collins jokingly commented that " Not only is he a better drummer than me , he also has more hair . Can he sing too ? " " In the Air Tonight " became a popular online download following its appearance in the commercial , reaching a chart position of 14 within the UK Singles Chart despite not being given a physical re @-@ release , and becoming the third @-@ most @-@ downloaded track of the day on the iTunes Store .
Despite reservations that the campaign might prove too abstract and have little effect , Cadbury reported that sales of Dairy Milk had increased 9 % from the same period in 2006 . Measurements of public perception of the brand carried out by market research firm YouGov showed that 20 % more people looked favourably on the brand in the period after the advert 's general release than in the previous period . Spokesmen for the company have expressed amazement at the success of the campaign . Notwithstanding the fact that the spot was originally only broadcast online and within the United Kingdom , the commercial appeared in the news in many English @-@ speaking countries such as Canada and Australia , and plans were made for limited expansion of the campaign into these markets . From 23 June 2008 , Gorilla was also broadcast in New Zealand with further marketing both on the Cadbury NZ website , and in shopping centres and supermarkets , with models and men in gorilla suits handing out samples of Dairy Milk chocolate .
The advertisement has won numerous awards , including the Epica d ’ Or for Film 2007 , the Grand Cristal at Festival de la Publicité de Méribel , Gold at the British Television Advertising Awards 2008 , Gold at the Advertising Creative Circle Awards 2008 , Gold at the International ANDY Awards , Black and Yellow Pencils at the D & AD Awards 2008 , Gold at the Clio Awards 2008 , Bronze at the One Show 2008 , the FAB Award 2008 , Gold at the Fair Go Ad Awards 2008 , and the Film Grand Prix Lion at Cannes Lions 2008 , widely considered the most prestigious prize within the advertising community .
VH1 Classic UK also made an ident which shows a man play " In The Air Tonight " , and when the famous drum solo comes on , he holds a pair of drumsticks and bangs the pillows in front of him in the tune of the drum solo .
= = Sequels and remixes = =
On 30 March 2008 , Cadbury began rolling out the sequel to the Gorilla campaign . Using many of the same ideas , Airport Trucks , again written and directed by Juan Cabral , features heavily customised airport ground support equipment racing at night to Queen 's " Don 't Stop Me Now " .
On 5 September 2008 , a second Gorilla advertisement , featuring Bonnie Tyler 's " Total Eclipse of the Heart " , was broadcast on Channel 4 during the Big Brother 9 final . The new version paid homage to the internet mash @-@ up artist who remixed the original with Tyler 's " Total Eclipse of the Heart " . This advert was immediately followed by a version of Airport Trucks with Bon Jovi 's " Livin ' on a Prayer " . In mid March 2009 , a version of the advert was shown in Australia , with the gorilla playing the drums along to John Farnham 's " You 're the Voice " . This version of the ad was heavily criticised by the Australian public because it was seen as an inferior copy of the original and tried to make use of a potential resurgence of John Farnham due to the singer being mentioned in Cold Play concerts at the time .
In January 2009 , a new advert for Cadbury Dairy Milk was launched featuring dancing eyebrows .
September 2009 saw the move to Fairtrade cocoa beans in Cadbury 's Dairy Milk , and a new record label based on Gorilla 's campaign ( " A Glass and a Half " ) saw the advert / song Zingolo .
= Dirleton Castle =
Dirleton Castle is a medieval fortress in the village of Dirleton , East Lothian , Scotland . It lies around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of North Berwick , and around 19 miles ( 31 km ) east of Edinburgh . The oldest parts of the castle date to the 13th century , and it was abandoned by the end of the 17th century .
Begun in around 1240 by John De Vaux , the castle was heavily damaged during the Wars of Scottish Independence , when it was twice taken by the English . In the 14th century , Dirleton was repaired by the Haliburton family , and it was acquired by the Ruthvens in 1505 . The Ruthvens were involved in several plots against Mary , Queen of Scots , and King James VI , and eventually forfeited the castle in 1600 . Dirleton ceased to be a residence , although Oliver Cromwell was forced to besiege the castle to flush out a band of " mosstroopers " ( marauders ) , during the Third English Civil War in 1650 . The damaged castle was then acquired by John Nisbet , Lord Dirleton , who decided to build a new country house on the nearby Archerfield Estate . The Nisbet family of Dirleton continued to maintain the castle 's gardens , before handing Dirleton into state care in 1923 . The ruins and gardens are now maintained by Historic Scotland .
Dirleton Castle stands on a rocky outcrop , at the heart of the rich agricultural lands of the barony of Dirleton , and guards the coastal approach to Edinburgh from England , via the port of North Berwick . The ruins comprise a 13th @-@ century keep , and a 16th @-@ century house which the Ruthvens built adjacent . Only the basement levels survive of the 14th- and 15th @-@ century additions built by the Haliburtons , although these comprised a large hall and tower house along the east range . Other buildings within the courtyard have also been demolished . Surrounding the castle are gardens , which may have been first laid out in the 16th century , although the present planting is largely of the 20th century . The garden walls enclose a 16th @-@ century doocot , or pigeon house .
= = History = =
= = = de Vaux = = =
The Norman family of de Vaux originated in Rouen , northern France , and settled in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066 . Two de Vaux brothers , or cousins , were among a number of Anglo @-@ Norman knights invited to Scotland , and granted land , by King David I of Scotland in the 12th century . Hubert de Vaux was given the barony of Gilsland in Cumbria , at that time part of Scotland , while John de Vaux was granted the barony of Dirleton . John built a castle at Eldbotle , probably to the north @-@ west of modern Dirleton , and another , named Tarbet Castle , on the island of Fidra , although neither survives .
In 1220 , Fidra was gifted to the monks of Dryburgh Abbey by William de Vaux . William 's son , another John , had been held hostage in England as surety for the good conduct of King William the Lion in 1213 , and succeeded to the barony in the 1220s . He then began the construction of a replacement for Tarbet at Dirleton , which was recorded as a " castellum " in 1225 , although this may refer to an earlier timber structure . In 1239 , de Vaux was appointed seneschal , or steward , to Marie de Coucy , on her marriage to King Alexander II . Marie de Coucy was the daughter of Enguerrand III , Lord of Coucy ( d.1242 ) , builder of the Château de Coucy , in Picardy ( c.1220s ) , which probably served as a model for Dirleton . The 13th @-@ century stone castle , of which only the donjon , or keep , remains , represented a show of de Vaux 's status , and would have required peaceful times to permit a prolonged construction project .
Peaceful times ended in 1296 , with the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence . Dirleton , which guarded the route between Edinburgh and the English border , changed hands several times through the invasions of the English under King Edward I. During the campaign of summer 1298 , the castle was besieged by English forces under Antony Bek , the Bishop of Durham . Dirleton withstood the assault for several months , until the English victory at Falkirk allowed them to bring up large siege engines , after which the castle was soon reduced . Dirleton was garrisoned by the English , but must have been retaken by the Scots before 1306 , when the English commander Aymer de Valence , 2nd Earl of Pembroke recaptured Dirleton once more . It was finally retaken by the Scots some time before 1314 , and was slighted , or deliberately damaged , to prevent its reuse by the English .
= = = Haliburton = = =
The castle and lands of Dirleton passed to the Berwickshire family of Haliburton ( or Halyburton ) when John Haliburton ( d.1355 ) married the heiress of the de Vaux family , shortly before 1350 . The castle had been repaired by 1363 , when it was seized by William Douglas , 1st Earl of Douglas , during his brief rebellion against King David II , although it was later returned to the Haliburtons . In the 1420s , Sir Walter Haliburton ( d. before 1447 ) acted as a hostage in exchange for the release of King James I , who had been held captive by the English since 1406 . He was rewarded in 1439 by being appointed Treasurer of Scotland . Either Walter , or his eldest son John ( d. before 1454 ) , was ennobled as a Lord of Parliament in the 1440s , with the title Lord Dirletoun . The Haliburtons carried out extensive works at Dirleton , heightening the original towers , and constructing a new gatehouse to the south @-@ east . A large hall and tower house were added to the castle in the 15th century , forming the east range . King James IV visited Dirleton in 1505 , and gave money to the masons then engaged on works in the north @-@ east part of the castle . Later that year , Patrick , the last Haliburton of Dirleton , died , and his estates were divided among his three daughters , Janet , Margaret , and Mariotta .
= = = Ruthven = = =
The eldest daughter , Janet , married William Ruthven , 2nd Lord Ruthven ( d . 1552 ) in 1515 , and the castle and lordship of Dirleton passed to the Ruthven family . The son of William and Janet , Patrick , 3rd Lord Ruthven ( c . 1520 – 1566 ) , was one of the leaders of the group who murdered David Riccio , private secretary to Mary , Queen of Scots , in 1566 . Patrick was forced to flee to England , where he died , leaving Dirleton to his son William ( c . 1541 – 1584 ) , who was created Earl of Gowrie in 1581 . Lord Gowrie led a plot , later known as the Raid of Ruthven , in which the 16 @-@ year @-@ old King James VI was seized , in August 1582 . Ruthven then ruled in the king 's name , while James was held captive . Although Gowrie was pardoned the following year , he was executed in 1584 for his part in another plot to seize Stirling Castle , and his lands were forfeited to the crown . A keen amateur arboriculturalist , Lord Gowrie is thought to have laid out the gardens at Dirleton , and planted numerous trees . Except today , it is known that most of the stories told about the Ruthvens and the plot of Gowrie House , and the attempted kidnap of King James , was made up by the king , after he and his men murdered John Ruthven 3rd Earl of Gowrie and his brother Alexander , in a plot for revenge , murder and also to get the king out of paying a large debt he owed the Ruthven Earl , and most evidence was forged at the kings order .
James VI granted Dirleton to the Earl of Arran , who entertained the King there in 1585 . The following year , the castle was restored to Lady Dorothea , widow of the first Earl , and by 1600 had passed to John Ruthven , 3rd Earl of Gowrie ( c . 1577 – 1600 ) , their second son . However , in August that year , in an event known as the " Gowrie Conspiracy " , Lord Gowrie and his younger brother were killed attempting to kidnap or assassinate James VI at Perth . Lord Gowrie is said to have persuaded Robert Logan of Restalrig to join the plot by offering , as a bribe , Dirleton Castle , which Logan described as " the pleasantest dwelling in Scotland " . However , the failure of the plot led to the attainder of the Ruthven family , and the castle was forfeited once again . Dirleton was granted to Thomas Erskine of Gogar , who had killed Lord Gowrie and helped to save the King , although Lady Dorothea was permitted to live there until her death in 1605 , after which the castle ceased to be a noble residence . Erskine was later created the 1st Earl of Kellie , but sold the castle to Sir James Douglas in 1625 . Douglas sold it on to Alexander Morieson of Prestongrange , who sold it in turn , in 1631 , to James Maxwell of Innerwick ( d. c . 1650 ) , who was created Earl of Dirletoun in 1646 .
= = = Cromwell = = =
Oliver Cromwell 's army invaded Scotland in 1650 , during the Third English Civil War , and defeated the Scots Royalists at Dunbar on 3 September . With this victory , Cromwell gained effective control of southern Scotland , but bands of Royalist moss @-@ troopers continued to harry the English supply lines . One such band was based at Dirleton , and Cromwell ordered General Monck and General Lambert , with 1 @,@ 600 troops , to capture the castle . This was achieved on 10 November , using mortars to destroy the drawbridge and inner gate . The captain of the moss @-@ troopers was hanged from the walls with two of his comrades . The castle was slighted once more , and although briefly used as a field hospital , it was then left to decay . The soldier and engineer responsible for Cromwell 's effective use of artillery was a German , Major Joachim Hane . He also designed fortresses near Inverness and in Ayr , and directed the mortar fire at the siege of Stirling Castle in August 1651 . He later spent a year spying for Cromwell 's Secretary of State , John Thurloe .
= = = Nisbet = = =
Dirleton Castle and estate were purchased , from the widowed Countess of Dirletoun , by the lawyer John Nisbet ( c . 1609 – 1687 ) in 1663 . Nisbet , who took the title Lord Dirleton when he was appointed as a judge , built a new house at Archerfield , to the north @-@ west of the village . The Nisbets continued to maintain the gardens around the castle as part of the park around Archerfield , and installed the bowling green . The 19th @-@ century garden walls were added by Mary Nisbet , Lady Elgin ( 1778 – 1855 ) , wife of the Earl of Elgin , as part of a " beautification " of Dirleton village . In the mid @-@ 19th century , two new parterres were laid out by the head gardener , David Thompson . Although neither survived , the west garden was restored , based on 19th @-@ century plans , in 1993 . The north garden was replaced in the 1920s with an Arts and Crafts @-@ style garden of herbaceous borders . Also in the 1920s , the castle was passed into state care , and is now maintained by Historic Scotland , an agency of the Scottish Government .
The castle and grounds are protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument , while the gardens appear on the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland , the national register of historic gardens . The castle , doocot , and boundary walls are Category A listed buildings , the highest level of protection for a historic building in Scotland .
= = = The Barony of Dirleton = = =
The Barony of Dirleton was re @-@ erected by the Crown for the benefit of Camilo Agasim @-@ Pereira of Fulwood and Dirleton , who is the present Baron of Dirleton . He was born in Brazil and educated in the US , Brazil , and Israel . After serving in the Israeli Defense Forces , he served as an assistant community envoy and spokesman in the Israeli Consulate in Philadelphia . Late on he was also a member of the Israel Police and Security Forces . From 1993 to 2000 he was acting Hon. Consul of Mozambique in United States , and Consul from 2000 to 2006 . Presently he heads the Barony of Fulwood Foundation and The Brazilian Art Exchange Foundation , The Florida Bureau of Mediation , Breeze Broadcast Group , and Camax Communication Group . He is a Patron of the Royal Academy of Arts in London and The Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Museum in South Africa . The Baron is married to Maxine Ann Agasim @-@ Pereira of Fulwood and Dirleton . They have four children : Jay , Sara , Elio and Yaalit .
= = Description = =
The castle is built on a natural rocky outcrop , on a low ridge overlooking the farmland of East Lothian . It comprises a kite @-@ shaped courtyard , 40 metres ( 130 ft ) by 27 metres ( 89 ft ) , flanked by buildings on the south and east sides . The most substantial remains are the Ruthven Lodging , the gatehouse , and the de Vaux keep to the south , while only the basement of the east range survives . Fragments of the north and west curtain walls outline the courtyard , which was formerly divided in two by further 16th @-@ century buildings . The castle was originally approached from the south , via a bridge and 3 @.@ 4 @-@ metre ( 11 ft ) drawbridge , across a 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft ) wide ditch . In the 16th century , steps were built to access the Ruthven lodging from the west .
= = = The keep = = =
The keep , or donjon , survives largely intact from the 13th century , and forms the south @-@ west part of the present castle . Described by architectural historian W. D. Simpson as a " cluster keep " , it comprises a large round tower to the south , a smaller round tower to the west , with the two joined by a square tower . The masonry is of squared ashlar , or dressed stone blocks . Internally , the original use of the rooms is difficult to interpret , although the round towers may have served as private suites for Lord Dirleton and his Lady . The large tower contains a six @-@ sided chamber at ground level , possibly a kitchen , with a seven @-@ sided main chamber above . This room has a pointed vaulted ceiling , window seats in the large windows around the south wall , and a carved fireplace at the north . To the east is a postern , or side door , and beyond is a well . Adjacent to the well is a floor hatch , which would have allowed food to be transferred directly from the kitchen to a servery above . A room in the square tower to the west , possibly the lord 's bedroom , has holes in the ceiling to allow smoke from braziers to escape . The more ruined west round tower probably contained another hall , with chambers above and storage below . In the 17th century , the top of the main round tower was lowered and remodelled to form a gun platform .
Only fragments of the rest of the 13th @-@ century castle remain . A fourth tower , where the Ruthven lodging now stands , may have completed the " cluster keep " . Bases of round towers at the south @-@ east and north @-@ east corners of the castle are visible below the later walls . Parts of the north @-@ west wall are 13th @-@ century work , as is the blocked postern in the basement of the east range . The overall plan of the castle , however , was not greatly changed through later rebuilding work . Dirleton is the earliest dated example in Scotland of a castle with round towers that project beyond the curtain wall , as opposed to those at Dunstaffnage , for example , where the towers are contained within the walls . This new form was subsequently used in other 13th @-@ century Scottish castles , including Bothwell and Kildrummy .
= = = The east range and gatehouse = = =
The gatehouse , kitchens , and east range were built by the Haliburtons in the 14th and 15th centuries . The gatehouse , built in the 14th century to the east of the keep , is similar to the one at nearby Tantallon Castle . It is fronted by a high , pointed arch , formerly with bartizans , small round turrets , at the top . The gate was protected by a drawbridge over the outer ditch , a portcullis , and three sets of doors . Guard rooms open off the entrance passage , and a round opening in the roof , known as a " murder hole " , allowed defenders to drop objects on to any attacker who breached the outer gate .
The large kitchens occupy the south @-@ east angle of the castle . The 9 @-@ metre ( 30 ft ) high main kitchen has two 4 @-@ metre ( 13 ft ) wide fireplaces for cooking , and a circular vent in the vaulted ceiling . Hatches in the floor give access to a well ( 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 38 ft ) deep ) and cellars below . The adjacent passage linked the kitchen to the hall in the east range .
The east range itself runs the length of the east side of the castle , and originally comprised a large hall , with a square tower house at the north @-@ east corner . Although only the basement survives , this once formed one of the finest noble residences of its time in Scotland , and would have been similar to the contemporary buildings at Doune Castle . The basement is a single tunnel vault , with low walls subdividing the area into stores . Two large ovens and a well lie at the south end , while at the east is the 13th @-@ century postern , blocked when the wall was thickened to support the new buildings above , and re @-@ used as a fireplace . At the north end of the basement is a vaulted prison for freemen , and below this , a rock @-@ cut pit , 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) square , to house prisoners of the peasant classes . Above the prison , but still within the basement , is a vaulted chapel with various ceremonial recesses , such as a sacristy and a piscina , or water basin . A private chamber for the priest is next door . The hall above is 22 metres ( 72 ft ) by 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) , and once had a high timber roof , and a minstrel 's gallery at the south end . An ornately carved stone buffet , or cupboard , is located on this wall , which formed part of the servery next to the kitchen . At the north @-@ east corner of the castle , a tower house provided accommodation for the Lord 's family and guests . Again , only the lowest floor remains , above the chapel . This probably formed a private chamber for the Lord , and was connected to the adjacent hall .
= = = The Ruthven Lodging = = =
Constructed by the Ruthvens after they acquired the castle around 1515 , the Ruthven Lodging represents the final stage of building at Dirleton . In the later part of the 16th century , it served as the main residence of Lady Dorothea , wife of the first Earl of Gowrie , and their 15 children . The three @-@ storey building is constructed , like the Haliburton range , from undressed stone , although the Ruthven Lodging is decorated with string courses , horizontal mouldings running around the walls . The large windows were protected by iron grilles and small gun holes . The rectangular Lodging is immediately to the north of the de Vaux building , separated by a narrow irregular courtyard , which is accessed via a passage in the ground floor of the Lodging . The remainder of the ground floor was occupied by cellars , with family rooms and bedrooms on the upper floors . The first @-@ floor dining room was paved with patterned floor tiles , and may once have had a painted timber ceiling .
= = The gardens = =
The castle is set within extensive gardens , bounded by a 19th @-@ century wall . The gardens were first laid out in the 16th century , but have undergone many changes . A bowling green lies to the west of the castle , fringed by yew trees , which may once have formed a hedge around a parterre in this area . West of the bowling green is a flower garden , laid out in 1993 to an 18th @-@ century design , and containing yew , cedar , monkey puzzle and Lawson 's cypress trees . To the north is the 1920s Arts and Crafts garden , which is home to a 215 @-@ metre ( 705 ft ) -long herbaceous border , and is overlooked by a castellated 19th @-@ century gazebo , or summer house . The border is recognised by the Guinness Book of Records as being the longest in the world . The rest of the gardens comprise lawns , with numerous mature specimen trees , including redwood , beech , and sycamore .
There is a well @-@ preserved 16th @-@ century beehive @-@ shaped doocot , or pigeon house , in the castle grounds . The doocot is 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 25 ft ) high , and contains around 1000 nesting boxes for pigeons , which were an important source of food for the castle 's inhabitants . To the north @-@ east , now located outside the castle gardens , is a 16th @-@ century gateway which formerly served the castle , but now serves the adjacent farm .
= Watching the River Flow =
" Watching the River Flow " is a song by Bob Dylan . It was written and recorded during sessions in spring 1971 at Blue Rock Studios in New York City and produced by Leon Russell . The recording was issued as a single on June 3 , 1971 , backed with " Spanish is the Loving Tongue " . It reached the Top 40 in a number of countries and No. 41 in the United States . It was included on Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II , released on November 17 , 1971 , and has appeared on various other Dylan compilation albums . Since 1987 , Dylan has performed the composition often at his concerts . Critics have written that , in this song , Dylan sang about the temptation to withdraw from public life , and the problem of lack of inspiration .
The song has been covered by artists including the Earl Scruggs Revue , Steve Gibbons , Colin James , and Russell himself . In 2011 , musician Ben Waters released a version featuring five past and present members of the Rolling Stones as part of a tribute album for former Rolling Stones pianist Ian Stewart .
= = Writing and recording = =
Between 1967 and 1970 , Dylan recorded and released four albums that incorporated country rock elements : John Wesley Harding , Nashville Skyline , Self Portrait , and New Morning ; all four were produced by Bob Johnston . At some point during the New Morning sessions , Dylan apparently decided that he did not want to work with Johnston anymore . For his next recording session , Dylan asked Leon Russell , who had made a name for himself through his work with Joe Cocker , to help him find a new sound . Russell suggested that Dylan come record with him at Blue Rock Studios in New York City . It was the first time for Dylan to work with an independent producer , as opposed to an in @-@ house Columbia one .
The session took place on March 16 – 19 , 1971 . Russell assembled a musical backing group that included Carl Radle , Jesse Ed Davis , and Jim Keltner . Dylan recorded a number of covers , among them " That Lucky Old Sun " and " Spanish Harlem " , as well as two originals : " When I Paint My Masterpiece " and " Watching the River Flow " – the final song put on tape at the session . Russell recalls that when developing the song , the basic track was recorded first , before any words or melody were written . The track was based on in @-@ studio jams done during the session . The music of " Watching the River Flow " has been described by different critics as a " Blues @-@ powered sound " , " featur [ ing ] some blistering guitar work ... and rollicking piano work from Russell " , and as " an energetic , funky @-@ gospel rocker " . Later during the session , Dylan wrote the lyrics and melody , which took him ten minutes . Biographer Clinton Heylin notes that Dylan borrowed lines from " The Water is Wide " and " Old Man River " for the composition .
Four and a half months after the recording session , on August 1 , Russell backed Dylan on bass during his set at the Concert for Bangladesh , organized by George Harrison . In November 1971 , Russell accompanied Dylan into the studio again to record Dylan 's next single , " George Jackson " . At this session also , Russell played bass . Russell has not recorded with Dylan since , although they did tour together in 2011 .
= = Release = =
" Watching the River Flow " was released as a single on June 3 , 1971 , with " Spanish is the Loving Tongue " as its B @-@ side . ( " Spanish is the Loving Tongue " later also appeared on Dylan in 1973 , but this was a different recording . ) In the USA , Columbia 's promotion of the single included a full @-@ page advertisement in Billboard magazine with the caption " ' Watching the River Flow . ' A unique new single by Bob Dylan . " The advertisement showed a picture of Dylan holding a camera to his eye .
The song was a Top 40 hit in Canada , the Netherlands ( on both of two competing charts ) , and the United Kingdom , as well as reaching No. 41 on the U.S. Billboard charts . Billboard writer Paul Grein notes that it was the second consecutive American Dylan single , after 1970 's " Wigwam " , to miss the Top 40 by one spot . On November 17 , 1971 , " Watching the River Flow " appeared on Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II . It was later included on the compilations Greatest Hits , Vol . 1 – 3 ( 2003 ) , Playlist : The Very Best of Bob Dylan ' 70s ( 2009 ) , The Essential Bob Dylan [ Limited Tour Edition ] ( 2009 ) , and Beyond Here Lies Nothin ' : The Collection ( 2011 ) .
= = Live performances = =
Dylan first performed the song live on November 21 , 1978 , in El Paso , Texas and again , two days later , in Norman , Oklahoma . He did not play it in concert again until July 19 , 1987 in Eugene , Oregon ; from that point on , he has often included the song in his sets . In total , he has performed the song 500 times .
= = Critical comments = =
Dylan biographer Robert Shelton has written that , in the early 1970s , Dylan was frequently criticized for " selling out " . " Watching the River Flow " , for Shelton , expresses Dylan 's desire just to be an observer , and not a political activist .
Writing about " Watching the River Flow " in 1971 , Greil Marcus discusses the importance of pushing past one 's initial impression of the song . " The first impression is that Bob Dylan is setting up the usual private scene : ' I 'll sit here and watch the river flow . ' Well that 's certainly a boring idea . It 's the implicit message of just about everything James Taylor has written . " Marcus goes on to say that Dylan is exploring " his myth of retirement and withdrawal " , and the problem of retaining his privacy while making public art . For Marcus , the song is about Dylan " growing up without growing away " from both his audience and his own past . Marcus argues that the reason the single was not a hit in the USA was because " the time has passed when people are interested in hearing Bob Dylan say he 'll just sit there and watch the river flow ... even though that 's not quite what he 's saying . " For Marcus , " Watching the River Flow " is a compelling work , but the subtlety of the song may have prevented it from reaching a wide audience .
Literary critic Christopher Ricks , in his book on Dylan , writes that what is striking about this song is how Dylan conveys a restlessness which is at odds with the bucolic notion of enjoying watching the river flow . Ricks notes that the phrasing and the musical arrangements conflict with the lyrics ; the choppy rhythms , and " stroppy stomping " of the backing track , disrupt the theme of contentedly watching the river . He notes that the third and the last verse both begin with the words " People disagreeing " , bringing conflict into the song . For Ricks , " Watching the River Flow " is " tarred with a realism that qualifies and complicates the lure of the lazy " .
Dylan critic Clinton Heylin has placed the writing and release of " Watching the River Flow " in the context of conflicting critical estimates of Dylan 's work in the late 1960s and early 1970s . Heylin writes that in the song " Ballad of Easy Rider " , co @-@ written by Dylan and Roger McGuinn two years earlier , Dylan had claimed that he was content to watch while " The river flows , flows to the sea / Wherever it flows , that 's where I want to be " . In " Watching the River Flow " , Dylan writes that he is restless , wishing he was " back in the city / Instead of this old bank of sand " . In June 1970 , Dylan had released Self Portrait , an album that received very negative reviews ; Dylan 's next album that year , New Morning , was viewed much more favorably by critics , with Ralph Gleason proclaiming " We 've got Dylan back again ! " For Heylin , by beginning " Watching the River Flow " with the question " What 's the matter with me ? / I don 't have much to say " , Dylan sought to subvert critics like Gleason . Heylin writes that both " Watching the River Flow " and " When I Paint My Masterpiece " confront " the same subject matter , a continuing dearth of inspiration , in a refreshingly honest matter . " Pointing to the fact that Dylan made no attempt to record either a single or an album in the following year of 1972 , Heylin believes that " Dylan had now concluded that he must simply sit by that bank of sand " and await the return of his muse .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians who recorded " Watching the River Flow " are :
Bob Dylan – vocal , guitar , harmonica
Leon Russell – piano , production
Jesse Ed Davis – guitar
Don Preston – guitar
Carl Radle ( called Charlie Radle on the session notes ) – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
= = Covers = =
On April 18 , 2011 , musician Ben Waters released Boogie 4 Stu , a tribute to former Rolling Stones pianist Ian Stewart , which included a recently recorded version of " Watching the River Flow " featuring Rolling Stones Mick Jagger , Keith Richards , Charlie Watts , and Ronnie Wood , as well as former member Bill Wyman . The five Stones recorded their contributions separately , in different studios at different times , but the track constituted the first time since 1992 that Wyman had recorded on the same song as his former bandmates . The choice of the song was based on Ian Stewart 's judgment that " Watching the River Flow " was " the only decent thing Bob Dylan ever did " .
The song has also been covered by numerous other artists , including Joe Cocker , the Earl Scruggs Revue , Colin James , Steve Gibbons , the Heart of Gold Band , Chris Farlowe , Asylum Street Spankers , Gordon Johnson , the Lamont Cranston Band , Seatrain , and Candye Kane . Leon Russell released his own version in 1999 on the compilation Tangled Up in Blues .
= = Charts = =
= Monster ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Monster " is a song by American recording artist Lady Gaga , from her third EP , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) . Inspired by her " Fear of Attachment Monster " , the record was written by Gaga , RedOne and Space Cowboy , with RedOne producing the track . Gaga had explained that " Monster " describes her fear of sex and relationships , and described the lyrics as being in love with the bad boy all the time , but instead of running away , one keeps going back to the same person . She added that the fear in " Monster " erupted from her need to have a stable relationship . Incorporating the usage of heavy bass lines , descending keyboard lines and " massive " choruses , " Monster " contains zombie like metaphors , and a reference to Gaga 's debut single " Just Dance " .
" Monster " received generally positive reviews from critics who appreciated the song 's musical arrangement and frequently rated it as a top track from The Fame Monster , while some disliked its lyrics . " Monster " enjoyed brief commercial success in 2010 , charting on four singles charts , as well as the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs and Latin Pop Airplay . Gaga has mostly performed " Monster " on her 2009 – 11 The Monster Ball Tour . The performance included the portrayal of homicide and was criticized following a real @-@ life incident at Manchester in the United Kingdom . She also performed " Monster " on The Oprah Winfrey Show .
= = Writing and production = =
" Monster " was written by Lady Gaga , RedOne and Space Cowboy , with RedOne producing the track . The song was recorded at the Record Plant Studio in Los Angeles , California . In an interview with MTV News , Gaga said that " Monster " describes her fear of sex and relationships and the literal meaning is about a " guy with a big dick " . She elaborated , " It 's the fear of attachment and the fear of loving something that 's bad for you ... If you listen to the lyrics , it 's like being in love with the bad boy all the time , and you keep going back for more . " Gaga added that the fear in " Monster " erupted from her need to have a stable relationship . " I keep falling in love with the monster ... But what I really need is the security and the safety and the womanhood , responsibility of my femininity . And so that 's what that song is about .
= = Composition = =
" Monster " begins with Gaga 's voice uttering the line , " Don 't call me Gaga " . It contains stuttering synths and 1980s drums that , according to PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey , create a playful environment . It uses heavy bass lines , descending keyboard lines and " massive " choruses , while a male voice sounding like Timbaland sings about Gaga being " hot as hell " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Monster " is set in the time signature of common time , and composed in the key of C major , with a tempo of 120 beats per minute and Gaga 's vocal range spanning from the low note of E3 to the high note of B4 . " Monster " has a basic sequence of F – G – Am – Em as its chord progression . Lyrically , " Monster " contains zombie @-@ like metaphors about having one 's heart eaten . The song also features references to " Just Dance " , Gaga 's debut single , with the line " I wanna ‘ Just Dance ’ / But he took me home instead " . Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH believed that the lines in the last verse " get a bit gruesome at the end " with the lines saying " He tore my clothes right off / He ate my heart and then he ate my brain . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Michael Hubbard from musicOMH called " Monster " " a potential single " , praising its musical composition , but criticizing the lyrics . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters also criticized the metaphors contained in the lyrics of the song , but ultimately called it " one surprisingly effective pop cocktail " . Ben Patashnik from NME felt that it was " slightly too disposable " . Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork Media saw similarities between Gaga 's voice on " Monster " and the work of Kylie Minogue . Brian Linder from IGN felt that the track was lighter compared to the other songs on The Fame Monster , and complimented the line " We French kissed on a subway train / He tore my clothes right off / He ate my heart and then he ate my brain " , calling it a lyrical gem . He also added that " Monster " was a " dance floor riot " . Jaime Gill from Yahoo ! felt that " ' Monster ' is a squirmy little beast that wriggles into your brain slowly and is almost impossible to remove . " Monica Herrera from Billboard called the song " 80s adoring " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " Monster " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at sixty @-@ eight , on December 12 , 2009 , but slipped off the chart the next week . On August 16 , 2010 , the song debuted at number thirty on the New Zealand Singles Chart due to digital downloads and radio airplay , and later peaked at number twenty @-@ nine . The song was present on the chart for seven weeks . In Hungary , it debuted on the Mahasz Single Top 10 lista chart at number six on November 23 , 2009 , but fell off the next week . " Monster " debuted and peaked on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number eighty on the issue dated November 30 , 2009 . The song debuted on the United States Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs at number forty @-@ nine on September 18 , 2010 , before moving to its highest position of number twenty @-@ nine on October 9 , 2010 , where it remained for another week . It fell off the chart after eight weeks . On the Latin Pop Airplay chart , the song was initially seen at number thirty @-@ two , and later peaked at number twenty @-@ two . " Monster " has spent fourteen weeks on the chart . According to Nielsen Soundscan , the song has sold 207 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US .
= = Live performances = =
On January 15 , 2010 , Gaga performed " Monster " as part of a three song medley on The Oprah Winfrey Show . The performance began with Gaga appearing on the stage wearing a dress , that looked both like a pantsuit and dress . Her hair was in spikes and she held a spiked ball and chain in her hand . " Monster " was the first song of the medley that she performed , others being " Bad Romance " and " Speechless " . She also performed the song on all legs of The Monster Ball Tour . The performance was preceded by a video interlude featuring snarling dogs and brooding ravens . " Monster " began with Gaga emerging in a black feathered jacket and performing dance moves reminiscent of Michael Jackson . The backdrop featured the close @-@ up of a black bird 's wings .
During the 2010 shows of the tour , the performance of " Monster " was changed a little to include an ending , where Gaga is portrayed as getting killed by a murderer , after which she lies " dying " in a pool of blood . Her performances of that scene in Manchester , England triggered protests from family groups and fans in the aftermath of the Cumbria shootings , in which 12 people were murdered by a taxi driver . " What happened in Bradford is very fresh in people 's minds and given all the violence which happened in Cumbria just hours earlier , it was insensitive , " said Lynn Costello of Mothers Against Violence . Chris Rock later defended her flamboyant , provocative behavior . " Well , she 's Lady Gaga , " he said . " She 's not ' Lady Behave Yourself . ' Do you want great behavior from a person named Gaga ? Is this what you were expecting ? "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , co @-@ producer , vocal arrangement , background vocals
RedOne – songwriter , producer , vocal editing , vocal arrangement , background vocals , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , recording at Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles , California
Space Cowboy – songwriter , recording , background vocals
Johnny Severin – vocal editing and audio engineering
Dave Russel – audio engineering
Robert Orton – audio mixing at Sarm Studios , London , England
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Credits adapted from The Fame Monster album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= The Division Bell =
The Division Bell is the fourteenth studio album by English progressive rock group Pink Floyd . It was released in the UK by EMI Records on 28 March 1994 , and the US by Columbia Records on 4 April .
The music was written mostly by David Gilmour and Rick Wright ; lyrically , the album deals with themes of communication . Recording took place in several locations , including the band 's Britannia Row Studios , and Gilmour 's houseboat , Astoria . The production team included Pink Floyd stalwarts such as producer Bob Ezrin , engineer Andy Jackson and saxophonist Dick Parry . Gilmour 's new wife , Polly Samson , co @-@ wrote many of the album 's lyrics , and Wright performed his first lead vocal on a Pink Floyd album since 1973 's The Dark Side of the Moon .
The album reached number one in the UK and the US , but received mixed reviews . Its release was followed immediately by a tour of the US and Europe . The Division Bell was certified gold , platinum and double platinum in the US in 1994 , and triple platinum in 1999 .
= = Concept = =
The Division Bell deals with themes of communication and the idea that talking can solve many of life 's problems . In the Studio radio host Redbeard suggested that the album offered " the very real possibility of transcending it all , through shivering moments of grace " . Songs such as " Poles Apart " and " Lost for Words " have been interpreted as references to the estrangement between Pink Floyd and former band member Roger Waters , who left in 1985 ; however , Gilmour denied this , and said : " People can invent and relate to a song in their personal ways , but it 's a little late at this point for us to be conjuring Roger up . " The title refers to the division bell rung in the British parliament to announce a vote . Drummer Nick Mason said : " It does have some meaning . It 's about people making choices , yeas or nays . "
Produced a few years after the collapse of the Eastern Bloc , " A Great Day for Freedom " juxtaposes the general euphoria of , for instance , the fall of the Berlin Wall , with the subsequent wars and ethnic cleansing , particularly in Yugoslavia . Audio samples of Stephen Hawking , originally recorded for a BT television advertisement , were used in " Keep Talking " ; Gilmour was so moved by Hawking 's sentiment in the advert that he contacted the advertising company for permission to use the recordings on the album . Mason said it felt " politically incorrect to take ideas from advertising , but it seemed a very relevant piece . " At the end of the album Gilmour 's stepson Charlie is heard hanging up the telephone receiver on Pink Floyd manager Steve O 'Rourke , who had pleaded to be allowed to appear on a Pink Floyd album .
= = Recording = =
In January 1993 , Gilmour , Mason and Wright began improvising new material in sessions at a remodelled Britannia Row Studios . Although the band were initially apprehensive about recording together , because Roger Waters had left the group after the album The Final Cut . They were in need of a new bass player , and after the first day their confidence improved and soon , bassist Guy Pratt ( who had , since the end of the Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour , started a relationship with Wright 's daughter , Gala ) was asked to contribute . According to Mason , " an interesting phenomenon occurred , which was that Pratt 's playing tended to change the mood of the music we had created on our own " . Without the legal problems experienced during production of their 1987 album , A Momentary Lapse of Reason , Gilmour was at ease ; if he felt the band were " getting somewhere " , he would press the record key of a two @-@ track DAT recorder . At one point Gilmour surreptitiously recorded Wright playing the keyboard , and captured material which later formed the basis for three pieces of music .
The improvisations the band recorded helped spur their creative process , and after about two weeks they had around 65 pieces of music . With engineer Andy Jackson back on the team , and Bob Ezrin employed as co @-@ producer , production moved to Gilmour 's houseboat and recording studio , Astoria . The band listened to and voted on each track , and whittled the material down to about 27 pieces of music . Eliminating some tracks , and merging others , they arrived at a list about fifteen strong songs , before cutting another four to produce a tracklist of eleven . Song selection was based upon a system of points , whereby all three members would award marks out of ten to each candidate song , a system skewed somewhat by Wright 's decision to award his songs ten points each , and the other songs no points . Wright was not contractually a full member of the band , a situation which upset him . Wright later reflected : " It came very close to a point where I wasn 't going to do the album , because I didn 't feel that what we 'd agreed was fair . " Despite his frustration he chose to remain , and received his first songwriting credits on any Pink Floyd album since 1975 's Wish You Were Here .
Gilmour 's new wife , Polly Samson , also received songwriting credits . Initially , her role was limited to providing encouragement for her husband , but she later helped Gilmour write " High Hopes " ( a song about Gilmour 's childhood and early life in Cambridge ) . Her role expanded to co @-@ writing a further six songs , something which did not sit well with Ezrin . In an interview for Mojo magazine Gilmour admitted that Samson 's contributions had " ruffled the management 's [ feathers ] " , but Ezrin later reflected that her presence was inspirational for Gilmour , and that she " pulled the whole album together " . She also helped Gilmour , who , following his divorce , had developed a cocaine addiction .
Keyboard player Jon Carin and drummer / percussionist Gary Wallis were brought in to complete the band before recording began . Five backing vocalists were also hired , including Sam Brown , and Momentary Lapse tour singer Durga McBroom . The band then moved to Olympia Studios , recorded most of the ' winning ' tracks over the space of a week . After a summer break , they returned to Astoria to record more backing tracks . Ezrin worked on the various drum sounds , and previous collaborator and orchestral composer Michael Kamen provided the album 's string arrangements which were recorded at Abbey Road Studio Two by Steve McLaughlin . Dick Parry played saxophone on his first Pink Floyd album for almost 20 years , on " Wearing the Inside Out " , and Chris Thomas was booked to undertake the final mix . Between September and December recording and mixing sessions were held at Metropolis Studios in Chiswick , and the Creek Recording Studios in London . In September , the band performed at a celebrity charity concert at Cowdray House , in Midhurst . The album was mastered at the Mastering Lab in Los Angeles , by Doug Sax and James Guthrie .
Jackson edited unused material from the Division Bell sessions , described by Mason as ambient music , into an hour @-@ long composition tentatively titled The Big Spliff , but Pink Floyd decided not to release it . Some of The Big Spliff was used to create the band 's final album , The Endless River ( 2014 ) .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
With the aid of Gilmour 's guitar technician , Phil Taylor , Carin located some of Pink Floyd 's older keyboards from the warehouse in which they had been stored , including a Farfisa organ . Some of the sounds sampled from these instruments were used on the tracks " Take It Back " , and " Marooned " . Carin was joined on keyboards by Ezrin , Durga McBroom supplied backing vocals alongside Sam Brown , Carol Kenyan , Jackie Sheridan , and Rebecca Leigh @-@ White .
Gilmour used several styles on the album . " What Do You Want from Me " is influenced by Chicago blues , and " Poles Apart " contains folksy overtones . Gilmour 's improvised guitar solos on " Marooned " used a DigiTech Whammy pedal to pitch @-@ shift the guitar notes over a full octave . On " Take It Back " , he used an EBow , an electronic device which simulates the sound of a bow on the strings , on a Gibson J @-@ 200 guitar through a Zoom effects unit .
= = Packaging and title = =
To avoid competing against other album releases ( as had happened with A Momentary Lapse ) Pink Floyd set a deadline of April 1994 , at which point they would begin a new tour . By January of that year however , the band still had not decided on a title for the album . The list of names being considered included Pow Wow and Down to Earth . At a dinner one night , writer Douglas Adams , spurred on by the promise of a payment to his favourite charity , the Environmental Investigation Agency , suggested " the division bell " ( used in the lyrics for " High Hopes " ) , and the name stuck .
Longtime Floyd collaborator Storm Thorgerson provided the album artwork . He erected two large metal heads , each the height of a double @-@ decker bus , in a field near Ely . The sculptures were positioned close together , and photographed in profile , to give the illusion that not only were they either facing or talking to each other , they also presented the viewer with a third face . The sculptures were devised by Keith Breeden , and constructed by John Robertson . Ely Cathedral is visible on the horizon . The sculptures are now in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio .
The album was released in the UK and US on CD , vinyl , and compact cassette , each with its own format and label @-@ specific design . It was also available in mini @-@ disc format . Two 7 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 25 ft ) stone sculptures were made by Aden Hynes for the cassette releases , and photographed in the same style as the metal heads . The artwork inside the CD liner notes revolves around a similar theme , with the image of the two heads formed by various other objects , such as newspapers ( " A Great Day for Freedom " ) , coloured glass ( " Poles Apart " ) , and boxing gloves ( " Lost for Words " ) . Pages two and three portray a picture from the Chilean Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory . The CD case itself had the name of Pink Floyd printed in Braille on the left front side .
= = Release and reception = =
On 10 January 1994 a press reception to announce The Division Bell and world tour was held at a former US Naval Air Station in North Carolina , in the US . A purpose @-@ built Skyship 600 airship , manufactured in the UK , toured the US until it returned to Weeksville , and was destroyed by a thunderstorm on 27 June . Pieces of the aircraft were sold as souvenirs . The band held another reception , in the UK , on 21 March . This time they used an A60 airship , translucent , and painted to look like a fish , which took journalists on a tour of London . The airship , which was lit internally so it glowed in the night sky , was also flown in northern Europe .
The Division Bell was released in the UK by EMI Records on 28 March 1994 , and in the US on 4 April , and went straight to # 1 in both countries . The Division Bell was certified silver and gold in the UK on 1 April 1994 , platinum a month later and 2x platinum on 1 October . In the US , it was certified gold and double platinum on 6 June 1994 , and triple platinum on 29 January 1999 .
Despite strong sales , The Division Bell received mixed reviews . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly gave it a " D " , writing that " avarice is the only conceivable explanation for this glib , vacuous cipher of an album , which is notable primarily for its stomach @-@ turning merger of progressive @-@ rock pomposity and New Age noodling " . Rolling Stone 's Tom Graves criticised Gilmour 's performance , stating that his guitar solos had " settled into rambling , indistinct asides that are as forgettable as they used to be indelible ... only on ' What Do You Want from Me ' does Gilmour sound like he cares " . Nevertheless , the album was nominated in the 1995 Brit awards for the " Best Album by a British Artist " , but lost to Blur 's Parklife . In March the same year the band was awarded with a Grammy for the " Best Rock Instrumental Performance " on " Marooned " .
In Uncut 's 2011 Pink Floyd : The Ultimate Music Guide , Graeme Thomson wrote that The Division Bell " might just be the dark horse of the Floyd canon . The opening triptych of songs is a hugely impressive return to something very close to the eternal essence of Pink Floyd , and much of the rest retains a quiet power and a meditative quality that betrays a genuine sense of unity . "
Uncut reviewed the album once again in 2014 to celebrate the 20th anniversary reissue , and in their review praised the album for its production , citing that the album sounded much " more like a classic Pink Floyd album than 1983 's The Final Cut " and throughout the album noted the empathy and connection between Wright and Gilmour , stating that these moments were " at the album 's musical heart " .
= = Tour = =
Two days after the album 's release , the band 's Division Bell Tour began at Joe Robbie Stadium , in suburban Miami . The set list began with 1967 's " Astronomy Domine " , before moving to tracks from 1987 's A Momentary Lapse of Reason , and The Division Bell . Songs from Wish You Were Here and The Dark Side of the Moon featured , as well as The Wall . Backing musicians included Sam Brown , Jon Carin , Claudia Fontaine , Durga McBroom , Dick Parry , Guy Pratt , Tim Renwick , and Gary Wallis . The tour continued in the US through April , May and mid @-@ June , before moving to Canada , and then returning to the US in July . As the tour reached Europe in late July , Waters was invited to join the band , but he declined , and later expressed his annoyance that some Floyd songs were being performed again in large venues . On the first night of the UK leg of the tour on 12 October , a 1 @,@ 200 capacity stand collapsed , but with no serious injuries ; the performance was rescheduled .
During the tour an anonymous person named Publius posted a message on an internet newsgroup , inviting fans to solve a riddle supposedly concealed in the new album . The veracity of the message was demonstrated when white lights in front of the stage at a performance in East Rutherford spelled out the words Enigma Publius . During a televised concert at Earls Court in October 1994 , the word enigma was projected in large letters on to the backdrop of the stage . Mason later acknowledged that the Publius Enigma did exist , and that it had been instigated by the record company rather than the band . As of 2014 the puzzle remains unsolved .
The tour ended at Earls Court on 29 October 1994 , and was the group 's final concert performance until Live 8 . Estimates placed the total number of tickets sold at over 5 @.@ 3 million , and gross income at about $ 100 million . A live album of the tour , named Pulse , and a concert video , also named Pulse , ( which was shot on 20 October 1994 ) were released in June 1995 .
= = Track listing = =
All lead vocals performed by David Gilmour , except where noted .
= = = LP = = =
= = = 20th anniversary double @-@ LP edition = = =
= = = Reissues = = =
Since its release in 1994 , The Division Bell has been reissued twice . The first was part of the 2011 Why Pink Floyd ... ? campaign which saw it remastered by Andy Jackson and released as a standalone CD and as part of the Discovery box set which collects all of the 14 studio albums together for the first time . The second reissue occurred on 30 June 2014 , which saw the album released as a " 20th anniversary deluxe edition " box set and a 20th anniversary double @-@ LP vinyl reissue . The box set contains the 2011 remaster of the album ; a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound remix by Andy Jackson ; 2 @-@ LP record on 180g vinyl ; a red 7 " " Take It Back " single ; a clear 7 " " High Hopes / Keep Talking " single ; a blue , laser @-@ etched 12 " " High Hopes " single ; book and assorted art cards . The 2014 reissues saw the first release of the full album on vinyl as the 1994 vinyl release saw only edited versions of the songs to keep it to a single LP .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Ernest Joyce =
Ernest Edward Mills Joyce AM ( ca . 1875 – 2 May 1940 ) was a Royal Naval seaman and explorer who participated in four Antarctic expeditions during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , early in the early 20th century . He served under both Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton . As a member of the Ross Sea party in Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , Joyce earned an Albert Medal for his actions in bringing the stricken party to safety , after a traumatic journey on the Great Ice Barrier . He was awarded the Polar Medal with four bars , one of only two men to be so honoured , the other being his contemporary , Frank Wild .
Joyce came from a humble seafaring background and began his naval career as a boy seaman in 1891 . His Antarctic experiences began 10 years later , when he joined Scott 's Discovery Expedition as an Able Seaman . In 1907 Shackleton recruited Joyce to take charge of dogs and sledges on the Nimrod Expedition . Subsequently Joyce was engaged in a similar capacity for Douglas Mawson 's Australasian Antarctic Expedition in 1911 , but left the expedition before it departed for the Antarctic . In 1914 Shackleton recruited Joyce for the Ross Sea party ; despite his heroics this expedition marked the end of Joyce 's association with the Antarctic , and of his exploring career , although he made repeated attempts to join other expeditions .
Throughout his career Joyce was known as an abrasive personality who attracted adverse as well as positive comments . His effectiveness in the field was widely acknowledged by many of his colleagues , but other aspects of his character were less appreciated – his capacity for bearing grudges , his boastfulness and his distortions of the truth . Joyce 's diaries , and the book he wrote based on them , have been condemned as self @-@ serving and the work of a fabulist . He made no significant material gains from his expeditions , living out his post @-@ Antarctic life in humble circumstances before dying suddenly in 1940 .
= = Early years = =
Details of Joyce 's early life are sketchy . It has been said that he was born about 1875 at Bognor , England , but the exact date has not been verified . The birth of an Ernest Edward Joyce was registered ( see GRO index , volume 2b page 381 ) in Westhampnett district , which includes Bognor , in the first quarter of 1876 , and the 1881 census shows an Ernest E Mill Joyce aged 5 , born Feltham [ sic ] or Felpham , a village by Bognor . His father and grandfather had both been sailors , his father probably within the coastguard service After the father 's early death his widow , with three children to support on her limited earnings as a seamstress , sent the young Ernest to the Lower School of Greenwich Royal Hospital School for Navy Orphans at Greenwich . Here , in austere surroundings , he received a vocational education that would prepare him for a lower @-@ deck career in the Royal Navy . After leaving the school aged 15 in 1891 , he joined the navy as a boy seaman , progressing over the next ten years to Ordinary Seaman and then Able Seaman .
No detailed records of his naval service between 1891 and 1901 appear to have survived . The last @-@ named year saw him serving on HMS Gibraltar in Cape Town where , in September , Scott 's expedition ship Discovery stopped on the way to the Antarctic . Scott was short @-@ handed , and requested volunteers ; from a response of several hundreds , Joyce was one of four seamen chosen to join Discovery . He sailed south with her on 14 October 1901 .
= = Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 04 = =
The Discovery expedition was Joyce 's Antarctic baptism , although for the next three years he kept a relatively low profile ; Scott scarcely mentions him in The Voyage of the Discovery , and Edward Wilson 's diaries not at all . It seems that he took readily to Antarctic life , gaining experience in sledging and dog @-@ driving techniques and other aspects of Antarctic exploration . He did not figure in the main journeys of the expedition , although towards the end he joined Arthur Pilbeam and Frank Wild in an attempt to climb Mount Erebus , ascending to some 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . Joyce was at times badly affected by frostbite ; on one occasion two officers , Michael Barne and George Mulock , held Joyce 's frostbitten foot against the pits of their stomachs and kneaded the ankle for several hours to save it from amputation . However , such experiences left Joyce undaunted ; the polar historian Beau Riffenburgh writes that Joyce was repeatedly drawn to the Antarctic by " a curious combination of affection and antipathy " that " impelled [ him ] to return again and again " .
During the expedition Joyce encountered several men who would feature prominently in Antarctic polar history during the following years , including Scott , Wilson , Frank Wild , Tom Crean , William Lashly , Edgar Evans and , most significantly , Ernest Shackleton . Joyce made several sledging trips with Shackleton and created an impression of competence and reliability . He also impressed Scott as " sober , honest , loyal and intelligent " , and expedition organiser Sir Clements Markham later described him as " an honest and trustworthy man " . His reward , at the conclusion of the expedition , was promotion to Petty Officer 1st Class on Scott 's recommendation . However , he had been bitten by the bug of Antarctic exploration , and ordinary naval duty no longer appealed . He left the navy in 1905 but found shore life unsatisfying and re @-@ enlisted in 1906 . When the chance came a year later to join Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition , he took it immediately .
= = British Antarctic Expedition ( Nimrod ) 1907 – 09 = =
When Shackleton was selecting the crew for his Antarctic expedition in Nimrod , Joyce was one of his earliest recruits . Most accounts tell the story that Shackleton saw Joyce on a bus that was passing his expedition offices , sent someone out to fetch him , and recruited him on the spot . To join the expedition , Joyce bought his release from the Navy ; in later years he would claim that Shackleton had failed to recompense him for this , despite a promise to do so , one of several disputes over money which eventually strained his relations with Shackleton . Joyce , Shackleton and Frank Wild were the only members of the expedition with previous Antarctic experience , and on the basis of his Discovery exploits , Joyce was put in charge of the new expedition 's general stores , sledges and dogs . Before departure in August 1907 , he and Wild took a crash course in printing at Sir Joseph Causton 's printing firm in Hampshire , as Shackleton intended to publish a book or magazine while in the Antarctic .
Nimrod left New Zealand on 1 January 1908 , and as a fuel @-@ saving measure was towed towards the Antarctic pack ice by the tug Koonya . On 23 January , by now under her own power , she reached the Ross Ice Shelf ( then known as the " Great Ice Barrier " , or " Barrier " ) , where Shackleton planned to base his headquarters in an inlet discovered during the Discovery voyage . This proved impossible ; the inlet , where Scott and Shackleton had taken balloon flights in February 1902 , had greatly expanded to become an open bay , christened the " Bay of Whales " . Shackleton was convinced that the ice was not secure enough as a landing ground , and could find no feasible alternative site on nearby King Edward VII Land . Before leaving for the Antarctic Shackleton had promised Scott that he would not base his expedition in or near Scott 's former headquarters in McMurdo Sound . Shackleton was now forced to break this agreement , and take Nimrod to the safer waters of McMurdo Sound . The site finally chosen as a base was at Cape Royds , some 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Scott 's old Discovery headquarters at Hut Point . During the extended and often difficult process of unloading the ship Joyce remained ashore , looking after the dogs and ponies , and helping to build the expedition hut . In March Joyce assisted the party that made the first successful ascent of Mount Erebus , although he did not make the climb himself .
During the following winter Joyce , with Wild 's help , printed copies of the expedition book Aurora Australis , edited by Shackleton . About 25 or 30 copies of the book were printed , sewn and bound . Otherwise Joyce was busy preparing equipment and stores for the next season 's journey to the Pole in which , in view of his experience , he fully expected to be included . However , various mishaps had reduced the number of ponies to four , so Shackleton cut the southern party to that number . One of those dropped was Joyce , on advice from expedition doctor Eric Marshall , who noted that Joyce had a liver problem and the early stages of heart disease . Frank Wild , who along with Marshall and Jameson Adams was selected for the southern journey , wrote in his diary after the party 's bid to reach the Pole had fallen short : " If we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of these two useless grub @-@ scoffing beggars " – ( Marshall and Adams ) – " we would have done it easily . " Joyce showed no particular resentment at his exclusion ; he assisted the preparatory work and accompanied the polar party on the southward march for the first seven days . In the following months he took charge of enhancing the depots , to ensure adequate supplies for the returning southern party . He deposited a special cache of luxuries at Minna Bluff , together with life @-@ saving food and fuel , earning Wild 's spontaneous praise when the cache was discovered .
Shackleton and his party returned safely from their polar journey , on Nimrod 's last feasible date for sailing home . They had established a new Farthest South at 88 ° 23 ′ S , only 97 nautical miles ( 180 km ; 112 mi ) from the South Pole . Joyce had been ready to remain at the base with a rearguard , to wait for the party or to establish its fate if it did not return in time to catch the ship . Nimrod finally reached London in September 1909 and was prepared , under Joyce 's direction , as a floating exhibition of polar artefacts . Shackleton paid him a salary of £ 250 a year for this ( 2008 equivalent approx . £ 18 @,@ 000 ) , a generous amount for the time .
= = Australasian Antarctic Expedition , 1911 = =
Joyce was not invited to join Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition , although several of Shackleton 's men were , including Frank Wild who declined . Instead , Joyce and Wild both signed up for Douglas Mawson 's Australasian Antarctic Expedition . In 1911 Joyce travelled to Denmark to acquire dogs for this expedition , and took them on to Tasmania . Joyce did not subsequently sail with Mawson . According to one account he was " dismissed " before the expedition left Australia , while another suggests that Joyce was dropped when Mawson reduced his expedition from three shore parties to two . Whatever the reason , it appears that there was a falling @-@ out ; Mawson reportedly distrusted Joyce , saying that " he spent too much time in hotels " , which suggests that drink was an issue . Joyce remained in Australia , obtaining work with the Sydney Harbour Trust .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1914 – 17 = =
= = = Membership of Ross Sea party = = =
In February 1914 Joyce , still in Australia , was contacted by Shackleton. who outlined plans for his Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition . Shackleton wanted Joyce in the expedition 's supporting Ross Sea party ; should the plans change to a one @-@ ship format , Shackleton promised to find a different role for Joyce within the expedition . Joyce would later claim without justification that Shackleton had offered him a place on the main transcontinental party . In his subsequent book , The South Polar Trail published in 1929 , Joyce also misrepresented the nature of his appointment to the Ross Sea party , omitting Shackleton 's order that placed him under an officer and claiming that he had been given sole authority over dogs and sledging .
The task of the Ross Sea party , under the command of another Nimrod veteran , Aeneas Mackintosh , was to establish a base in McMurdo Sound and then lay a series of supply depots across the Ross Ice Shelf to assist the transcontinental party . Shackleton saw this task as routine ; he wrote : " I had not anticipated that the work would present any great difficulties " . However , the party had been assembled rather hurriedly , and was inexperienced . Only Joyce and Mackintosh had been to the Antarctic before , and Mackintosh 's participation in polar work had been brief ; he had been invalided from the Nimrod Expedition before the initial landing , after an accident led to the loss of his right eye and had returned only for the final stages of the expedition
= = = Major setbacks = = =
Aurora 's departure from Australia was delayed by a series of organisational and financial setbacks , and the party did not arrive in McMurdo Sound until 16 January 1915 — very late in the season for depot @-@ laying work . Mackintosh , who believed that Shackleton might attempt to cross the continent in that first season , insisted that sledging work should begin without delay , with a view to laying down supply depots at 79 ° and 80 ° S. Joyce opposed this ; more time , he maintained , should be set aside to acclimatise and train men and dogs . However he was overruled by Mackintosh , who was unaware that Shackleton had ruled out a crossing that season .
Mackintosh further vexed Joyce by deciding to lead this depot @-@ laying party himself , unmoved by Joyce 's claim to have independent authority over this area . The party was divided into two teams , and the journey began on 24 January , in an atmosphere of muddle . Initial attempts at travelling on the Barrier were thwarted by the condition of the surface , and Mackintosh 's team got lost on the sea ice between Cape Evans and Hut Point . Joyce privately gloated over this evidence of the captain 's inexperience . The teams eventually reached the 79 ° mark , and laid the " Bluff depot " there ( Minna Bluff was a prominent visible landmark at this latitude ) on 9 February . It seemed that Joyce 's party had the enjoyed the easier journey . Mackintosh 's plan to take the dogs on to the 80 ° mark led to more words between him and Joyce , who argued that several dogs had already died and that the remainder should needed to be kept for future journeys , but again he was overruled . On 20 February the party reached the 80 ° latitude and laid their depot there . The outcome of this journey was 105 lb ( 48 kg ) of provisions and fuel at 80 ° S and 158 lb ( 72 kg ) at 79 ° S. But a further 450 lb ( 200 kg ) , intended for the depots , had been dumped on the journey , to save weight .
By this time men and dogs were worn out . On the return journey , in appalling Barrier weather , all the dogs perished , as Joyce had predicted , and the party returned to Hut Point on 24 March exhausted and severely frostbitten . After being delayed for ten weeks at Hut Point by the condition of the sea ice , the party finally got back to their base at Cape Evans on 2 June . They then learned that Aurora , with most of the shore party 's stores and equipment still aboard , had been torn from its moorings in a gale , and blown far out to sea with no prospect of swift return . Fortunately , the rations for the next season 's depot @-@ laying had been landed before the ship 's involuntary departure . However , the shore party 's own food , fuel , clothing and equipment had been largely carried away ; replacements would have to be improvised from supplies left at Cape Evans after Scott 's 1910 – 13 Terra Nova expedition , augmented by seal meat and blubber . In these circumstances Joyce proved his worth as a " master scavenger " and improviser , unearthing from Scott 's abandoned stores , among other treasures , a large canvas tent from which he fashioned roughly tailored clothing . He also set about stitching 500 calico bags , to hold the depot rations .
= = = Depot @-@ laying journey = = =
The party set out on 1 September 1915 . The men were under @-@ trained and half @-@ fit , in primitive clothing and with home @-@ made equipment . With only five dogs remaining from the previous season 's debacle , the task would mostly be one of manhauling . Before beginning the march south — a return distance of 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) — approximately 3 @,@ 800 pounds ( 1 @,@ 700 kg ) of stores had to be taken to the base depot at Minna Bluff . This phase of the task lasted until 28 December . Mackintosh had divided his forces into two parties , himself in charge of one and Joyce of the other . The two men continued to disagree over methods ; finally , Joyce confronted Mackintosh with incontrovertible evidence that his party 's methods were much the more effective , and Mackintosh capitulated . " I never came across such an idiot in charge of men " , Joyce wrote in his diary .
The weaker members of the party — Arnold Spencer @-@ Smith and Mackintosh himself — were by this time showing signs of physical breakdown , as the long march south began from Bluff Depot towards Mount Hope at 83 ° 30 ′ S , where the final depot was to be laid . The party was reduced to six when three men were forced to turn back because of a Primus stove failure . With Mackintosh and Joyce in the final party were Spencer @-@ Smith , Ernest Wild ( younger brother of Frank ) , Dick Richards and Victor Hayward . With four dogs they trekked southward , increasingly afflicted by frostbite , snow blindness and , eventually , scurvy . Spencer @-@ Smith collapsed , and thereafter had to be carried on the sledge . Mackintosh , barely able to walk , fought on until the final depot was laid at Mount Hope . On the homeward journey the effective leadership of the party fell increasingly to Joyce , as Mackintosh 's condition deteriorated until , like Spencer @-@ Smith , he had to be carried on the sledge . The journey became a protracted struggle which eventually cost the life of Spencer @-@ Smith and took the others to the limits of their endurance . Mackintosh suffered further physical and mental collapse , and had to be left in the tent while Joyce , himself suffering from severe snow blindness , led the rest to the safety of Hut Point . He and Ernest Wild then returned for Mackintosh , and the five survivors were all back at Hut Point on 18 March 1916 .
= = = Rescue = = =
All five men were showing symptoms of scurvy with varying severity . However , a diet of fresh seal meat , rich in Vitamin C , enabled them to recover slowly . By mid @-@ April they were ready to consider travelling the final 13 miles ( 21 km ) across the frozen sea to the base at Cape Evans .
Joyce tested the sea @-@ ice on 18 April and found it firm , but the following day a blizzard from the south swept all the ice away . The ambience at Hut Point was gloomy , and the unrelieved diet of seal was depressing . This seemed particularly to affect Mackintosh , and on 8 May , despite the urgent pleadings of Joyce , Richards and Ernest Wild , he decided to risk the re @-@ formed ice and walk to Cape Evans . Victor Hayward volunteered to accompany him . Joyce recorded in his diary : " I fail to understand how these people are so anxious to risk their lives again " . Shortly after their departure a blizzard descended , and the two were never seen again .
Joyce and the others learned the fate of Mackintosh and Hayward only when they were finally able to reach Cape Evans in July . Joyce immediately set about organising searches for traces of the missing men ; in the subsequent months parties were sent to search the coasts and the islands in McMurdo Sound , but to no avail . Joyce also organised journeys to recover geological samples left on the Barrier and to visit the grave of Spencer @-@ Smith , where a large cross was erected . In the absence of the ship , the seven remaining survivors lived quietly , until on 10 January 1917 , the refitted Aurora arrived with Shackleton aboard to take them home . They learned then that their depot @-@ laying efforts had been futile , Shackleton 's ship Endurance having been crushed by the Weddell Sea ice nearly two years previously .
= = Later life = =
= = = Post @-@ expedition career = = =
After his return to New Zealand Joyce was hospitalised , mainly from the effects of snow blindness , and according to his own account had to wear dark glasses for a further 18 months . During this period he married Beatrice Curtlett from Christchurch . He was now probably unfit for further polar work , although he attempted , unsuccessfully , to rejoin the Navy in 1918 . In September 1919 he was seriously injured in a car accident , which led to months of convalescence followed by a return to England.In 1920 he signed up for a new Antarctic expedition to be led by John Cope of the Ross Sea party , but this venture proved abortive . He continued to maintain his claims to financial compensation from Shackleton , which caused a breach between them , and he was not invited to join Shackleton 's Quest expedition which departed in 1921 . He applied to join the British Everest expedition of 1921 – 22 , but was rejected .
He was in the public eye again in 1923 when he was awarded the Albert Medal for his efforts to save the lives of Mackintosh and Spencer @-@ Smith during on the 1916 depot @-@ laying journey . Richards received the same award ; Hayward , and also Ernest Wild who had died of typhoid during naval service in the Mediterranean in 1918 , received the award posthumously . In 1929 Joyce published a contentious version of his diaries under the title The South Polar Trail , in which he boosted his own role , played down the contributions of others , and incorporated fictitious colourful details . Thereafter he indulged in various schemes for further expeditions , and wrote numerous articles and stories based on his exploits before settling into a quiet life as a hotel porter in London . Bickel asserts that Joyce lived into his eighties , beyond the date ( 1958 ) of the first Antarctica crossing by Vivian Fuchs and his party ; in fact , he died from natural causes , aged about 65 , on 2 May 1940 @.@ is not supported by any other sources . Joyce is commemorated in Antarctica by Mount Joyce at 75 ° 36 ′ S 160 ° 38 ′ E.
= = = Assessment = = =
Polar chronicler Roland Huntford sums up Joyce as a " strange mixture of fraud , flamboyance and ability " . This mixed assessment is endorsed in the assortment of views expressed by those associated with him . Dick Richards of the Ross Sea party described him as " a kindly soul and a good pal " , and others shared the favourable opinions expressed by Scott and Markham , confirm Joyce as a " jolly good sort " , though unsuited for command . On the other hand , Eric Marshall of the Nimrod Expedition had found him " of limited intelligence , resentful and incompatible " , while John King Davis , when refusing to join the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , told Shackleton : " I absolutely decline to be associated with any enterprise with which people of the Joyce type are connected " .
Joyce 's versions of events recorded in his published diaries have been described as unreliable and sometimes as outright invention — a " self @-@ aggrandizing epic " . Specific examples of this " fabulism " include his self @-@ designation as " Captain " after the Ross Sea expedition ; his invented claim to have seen Scott 's death tent on the Barrier ; the misrepresentation of his instructions from Shackleton regarding his sledging role , and his claim to independence in the field ; his claim to have been offered a place on the transcontinental party when Shackleton had made it clear he did not want him there , and his habit , late in life , of writing anonymously to the press praising " the famous Polar Explorer Ernest Mills Joyce " . This self @-@ promotion neither surprised nor upset his former comrades . " It is what I would have expected " , said Richards . " He was bombastic [ ... ] but true @-@ hearted and a staunch friend " . Alexander Stevens , the party 's chief scientist , concurred . They knew that Joyce , for all his swaggering style , had the will and determination to " drag men back from certain death " . Lord Shackleton , the explorer 's son , named Joyce ( with Mackintosh and Richards ) as " one of those who emerge from the ( Ross Sea party ) story as heroes " .
= Interstate 40 in Arizona =
Interstate 40 ( I @-@ 40 ) is an east – west Interstate Highway that has a 359 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 578 @.@ 72 km ) section in the U.S. state of Arizona connecting sections in California to New Mexico . It enters Arizona from the west at a crossing of the Colorado River southwest of Kingman . It travels eastward across the northern portion of the state connecting the cities of Kingman , Ash Fork , Williams , Flagstaff , Winslow , and Holbrook . I @-@ 40 continues into New Mexico , heading to Albuquerque . The highway has major junctions with U.S. Route 93 ( US 93 ) in Kingman , the main highway connecting Phoenix and Las Vegas , Nevada , and I @-@ 17 in Flagstaff , the Interstate linking Phoenix and Flagstaff .
For the majority of its routing through Arizona , I @-@ 40 follows the historic alignment of U.S. Route 66 . The lone exception is a stretch between Kingman and Ash Fork where US 66 took a more northerly , less direct route that is now State Route 66 . Construction of I @-@ 40 was ongoing in the 1960s and 1970s and reached completion in 1984 . With the completion of I @-@ 40 in 1984 , the entire routing of US 66 had been bypassed by Interstate Highways which led to its decertification a year later in 1985 .
= = Route description = =
= = = California to Flagstaff = = =
I @-@ 40 enters Arizona from California at a bridge that crosses the Colorado River at Topock in Mohave County . It heads east from Topock and begins to curve towards the north at Franconia and completes the curve to the north at Yucca . The interstate continues to head north until it reaches Kingman . In this city , I @-@ 40 has a junction with US 93 at exit 48 . US 93 heads towards the northwest from this junction to Hoover Dam and Las Vegas . US 93 south begins to run concurrently with I @-@ 40 as they both head east through Kingman . The two separate at exit 71 as US 93 heads towards the south towards Phoenix while I @-@ 40 heads east towards Flagstaff . I @-@ 40 continues towards the east , passing through the town of Seligman and then at Ash Fork , where it meets State Route 89 , the main highway that heads south to Prescott . Next , it passes through Williams at exit 165 with SR 64 , and heads north towards Grand Canyon National Park . I @-@ 40 continues to the east to Flagstaff , where it has a junction with I @-@ 17 at exit 195 . I @-@ 17 heads south from the interchange with I @-@ 40 to Phoenix .
= = = Flagstaff to New Mexico = = =
East of Flagstaff , I @-@ 40 heads towards the east @-@ southeast direction as it goes through the town of Winslow . It continues towards this direction until it reaches Holbrook , where it curves towards the northeast . Along this stretch , it passes through Petrified Forest National Park and continues to the northeast , passing through Chambers , and enters the Navajo Indian Reservation . The highway still continues to the northeast to the New Mexico border southwest of Gallup , New Mexico as it continues on towards Albuquerque .
= = History = =
With the exception of a stretch between Kingman and Flagstaff , I @-@ 40 directly replaced the famed US 66 across northern Arizona . Where possible , US 66 was upgraded to Interstate standards to become I @-@ 40 directly . Exceptions to this were through the central business districts of the cities and towns that US 66 passed through , and I @-@ 40 had to be built as a bypass outside the cities . On October 26 , 1984 , after the last section of I @-@ 40 was completed in Williams , US 66 was removed from the state highway system of Arizona . The portions through cities that did not overlap I @-@ 40 would become business loops of I @-@ 40 .
= = = Before the U.S. Highways = = =
The routing of a road near the current corridor of I @-@ 40 in Arizona was first surveyed and built between 1857 and 1859 . Lt. Edward Beale and his soldiers built the road along the 35th parallel that would come to be known as the Beale Wagon Road from Ft . Smith , Arkansas to the Colorado River to serve as a military wagon road . The road was a popular route for immigrants during the 1860s and 1870s until the transcontinental railroad was built across northern Arizona in the 1880s . In the early 1900s , the road became part of the National Old Trails Road , a transcontinental route from Baltimore , Maryland to California , and the National Park to Park Highway , an auto trail linking the national parks of the west .
= = = U.S. Route 66 = = =
In the 1920s , as a nationwide system of highways called the United States Numbered Highways was being developed , the route through was given the designation of U.S. Route 60 . This designation was controversial since designations that are multiples of 10 are assigned to transcontinental east – west routes and this route was a diagonal route from Chicago to Los Angeles . As a compromise to states east of Chicago that felt US 60 should go through their state , a different route was given the number 60 , while the route from Chicago to Los Angeles was given the number 66 .
By 1927 , the routing of US 66 through Arizona had been laid out , but none of it had been paved yet . By 1935 , nearly the entire route had been paved , with the lone exceptions being a short stretch northeast of Valentine and a stretch between Peach Springs and Seligman . By 1938 , the entire route in Arizona had been paved . In 1953 , US 66 was realigned between the California border and Kingman to an alignment to the southeast to avoid the mountain curves and grades of the original alignment . By 1961 , several sections of the highway had been expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway in anticipation of the coming Interstate Highway . Four @-@ lane sections included a section near Ash Fork , another section east of Winslow and a section east of Holbrook near the Petrified Forest National Monument .
= = = Planning = = =
In Flagstaff , several different alternatives were considered as a potential routing of the new Interstate through the area . The alternatives consisted of a routing north of downtown , south of downtown , through downtown along the Santa Fe Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way near the alignment of US 66 , and a more elaborate alternative of a routing above downtown on a long overpass . In January 1959 , the Flagstaff Chamber of Commerce recommended to the Bureau of Public Roads that the route south of downtown be used which was approved by the Flagstaff City Council and the Board of Supervisors for Coconino County . This recommendation was accepted and would become the planned routing of I @-@ 40 in Flagstaff . Business owners along US 66 were opposed to this routing as it would draw motorists away from main through route of the time , US 66 . As a result , they created the No By @-@ Pass Committee and sent a proposal to the Chamber of Commerce ’ s Roads and Highways Committee to conduct a study of the feasibility of a route for I @-@ 40 through downtown along the Santa Fe railroad right @-@ of @-@ way . The Committee sent an inquiry to the railroad concerning the proposal . The railroad rejected the proposed rerouting of their main rail lines citing that it would result in worse grades than what currently exists and in order to reduce those grades , considerable lengthening of the rail line would be required . With a routing through town now out of the question , the business owners along US 66 drafted a city ordinance , known as Initiative 200 , that was filed with the city of Flagstaff in November 1959 to appear on the general election ballot in March 1960 . The ordinance would in effect ban all new commercial businesses on I @-@ 40 , all routes leading from I @-@ 40 to US 66 , and the area between I @-@ 40 and US 66 . In a record voter turnout , voters overwhelmingly voted against the ordinance by a vote of 2 @,@ 280 to 556 .
In 1965 , the routing of I @-@ 40 west of Kingman was being reconsidered from the planned route through Needles , California to a route to the north passing through Searchlight in southern Nevada and connecting with I @-@ 15 further north of its present connection with I @-@ 15 . The rationale for the proposal was that it would be an overall shorter route and would cost much less to construct . The proposal was met with stiff opposition including all four U.S. senators from California and Arizona sending the Secretary of Commerce letters requesting that the routing through Needles be retained . This proposal was eventually abandoned in 1966 and the routing through Needles was kept .
= = = Construction = = =
The construction of the 360 @-@ mile ( 579 km ) route of I @-@ 40 across Arizona took nearly 25 years to complete with the last segment being completed in 1984 , much longer than the ambitious goal of finishing by 1972 . By the end of 1960 , 15 miles ( 24 km ) had been completed with an additional 23 miles ( 37 km ) miles being worked on . In 1964 , construction was still on schedule with 58 miles ( 93 km ) complete and an additional 71 miles ( 114 km ) under construction . Funding was becoming an issue at this time as the state lacked the available funds to stay on pace with a 1972 completion goal . By 1967 , Arizona had completed almost half of the highway with 155 @.@ 3 miles ( 249 @.@ 9 km ) complete and another 82 @.@ 4 miles ( 133 km ) under construction . In 1968 , the bypass around Flagstaff was complete with three interchanges , two at each end of where US 66 split off from I @-@ 40 to enter the city and one at the I @-@ 17 interchange . An additional interchange at Butler Avenue was completed a year later . One of the big improvements of I @-@ 40 over US 66 was the construction of the segment between Kingman and Ash Fork . The 94 @-@ mile ( 151 km ) section is a more direct route between the two cities and travels as far as 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of the US 66 alignment , bypassing Hackberry and Peach Springs and creating ghost towns . Construction of the $ 69 @.@ 1 million segment was also to be a much safer route as the US 66 alignment had one of the highest fatality rates of any section
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= = = Retirement = = =
The name Joan was retired in 1989 and replaced by Joyce on the list for the 1994 season . The name will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . Because the impact of the Miriam portion of the tropical cyclone was minimal , the name Miriam was not retired in the Pacific and is still on the list of names for that basin , and was most recently used in the 2012 season .
= Saturday ( novel ) =
Saturday ( 2005 ) is a novel by Ian McEwan set in Fitzrovia , London , on Saturday , 15 February 2003 , as a large demonstration is taking place against the United States ' 2003 invasion of Iraq . The protagonist , Henry Perowne , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old neurosurgeon , has planned a series of chores and pleasures culminating in a family dinner in the evening . As he goes about his day , he ponders the meaning of the protest and the problems that inspired it ; however , the day is disrupted by an encounter with a violent , troubled man .
To understand his character 's world @-@ view , McEwan spent time with a neurosurgeon . The novel explores one 's engagement with the modern world and the meaning of existence in it . The main character , though outwardly successful , still struggles to understand meaning in his life , exploring personal satisfaction in the post @-@ modern , developed world . Though intelligent and well read , Perowne feels he has little influence over political events .
The book , published in February 2005 by Jonathan Cape in the United Kingdom and in April in the United States , was critically and commercially successful . Critics noted McEwan 's elegant prose , careful dissection of daily life , and interwoven themes . It won the 2005 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction . It has been translated into eight languages .
= = Composition and publication = =
Saturday is McEwan 's ninth novel , published between Atonement and On Chesil Beach , two novels of historical fiction . McEwan has discussed that he prefers to alternate between writing about the past and the present .
While researching the book , McEwan spent two years work @-@ shadowing Neil Kitchen , a neurosurgeon at The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery in Queen Square , London . Kitchen testified that McEwan did not flinch in the theatre , a common first reaction to surgery ; " He sat in the corner , with his notebook and pencil " . He also had several medical doctors and surgeons review the book for accuracy , though few corrections were required to the surgical description . Saturday was also proof @-@ read by McEwan 's longstanding circle of friends who review his manuscripts , Timothy Garton Ash , Craig Raine , and Galen Strawson .
There are elements of autobiography in Saturday : the protagonist lives in Fitzroy Square , the same square in London that McEwan does and is physically active in middle age . Christopher Hitchens , a friend of McEwan 's , noted how Perowne 's wife , parents and children are the same as the writer 's . McEwan 's son , Greg , who like Theo played the guitar reasonably well in his youth , emphasized one difference between them , " I definitely don 't wear tight black jeans " .
Excerpts were published in five different literary magazines , including the whole of chapter one in the New York Times Book Review , in late 2004 and early 2005 . The complete novel was published by the Jonathan Cape Imprint of Random House Books in February 2005 in London , New York , and Toronto ; Dutch , Hebrew , German , French , Spanish , Polish , Russian , and Japanese translations followed .
= = Synopsis = =
The book follows Henry Perowne , a middle @-@ aged , successful surgeon . Five chapters chart his day and thoughts on Saturday the 15 February 2003 , the day of the demonstration against the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the largest protest in British history . Perowne 's day begins in the early morning , when he sees a burning aeroplane streak across the sky . This casts a shadow over the rest of his day as reports on the television change and shift : is it an accident , or terrorism ?
En route to his weekly squash game , a traffic diversion reminds Perowne of the anti @-@ war protests occurring that day . After being allowed through the diversion , he collides with another car , damaging its wing mirror . At first the driver , Baxter , tries to extort money from him . When Perowne refuses , Baxter and his two companions become aggressive . Noticing symptoms in Baxter 's behaviour , Perowne quickly recognises the onset of Huntington 's disease . Though he is punched in the sternum , Perowne manages to escape unharmed by distracting Baxter with discussions of his disease .
Perowne goes on to his squash match , still thinking about the incident . He loses the long and contested game by a technicality in the final set . After lunch he buys some fish from a local fishmonger for dinner . He visits his mother , suffering from vascular dementia , who is cared for in a nursing home .
After a visit to his son 's rehearsal , Perowne returns home to cook dinner , and the evening news reminds him of the grander arc of events that surround his life . When Daisy , his daughter , arrives home from Paris , the two passionately debate the coming war in Iraq . His father @-@ in @-@ law arrives next . Daisy reconciles an earlier literary disagreement that led to a froideur with her maternal grandfather ; remembering that it was he who had inspired her love of literature . Perowne 's son Theo returns next .
Rosalind , Perowne 's wife , is the last to arrive home . As she enters , Baxter and an accomplice ' Nige ' force their way in armed with knives . Baxter punches the grandfather , intimidates the family and orders Daisy to strip naked . When she does , Perowne notices that she is pregnant . Finding out she is a poet , Baxter asks her to recite a poem . Rather than one of her own , she recites Dover Beach , which affects Baxter emotionally , effectively disarming him . Instead he becomes enthusiastic about Perowne 's renewed talk about new treatment for Huntington 's disease . After his companion abandons him , Baxter is overpowered by Perowne and Theo , and knocked unconscious after falling down the stairs . That night Perowne is summoned to the hospital for a successful emergency operation on Baxter . Saturday ends at around 5 : 15 a.m. on Sunday , after he has returned from the hospital and made love to his wife again .
= = Themes = =
= = = Happiness = = =
McEwan 's earlier work has explored the fragility of existence using a clinical perspective , Hitchens hails him a " chronicler of the physics of every @-@ day life " . Saturday explores the feeling of fulfilment in Perowne : he is respected and respectable but not quite at ease , wondering about the luck that has him where he is and others homeless or in menial jobs . The family is materially well @-@ off , with a plush home and a Mercedes , but justifiably so — Perowne and his wife work hard . McEwan tells of his success rate and keeping cool under pressure ; there is a trade off , as he and his wife work long hours and need to put their diaries side by side to find time to spend together .
Perowne 's composure and success mean the implied violence is in the background . His personal contentment , ( at the top of his profession , and " an unashamed beneficiary of the fruits of late capitalism " ) provides a hopeful side to the book , instead of the unhappiness in contemporary fiction . McEwan 's previous novels highlighted the fragility of modern fulfilled life , seemingly minor incidents dramatically upsetting existence . Saturday returns to a theme explored in Atonement , which plotted the disruption of a lie to a middle @-@ class family , and in The Child in Time , where a small child is kidnapped during a day 's shopping . This theme is continued in Saturday , a " tautly wound tour @-@ de @-@ force " set in a world where terrorism , war and politics make the news headlines , but the protagonist has to live out this life until he " collides with another fate " . In Saturday Perowne 's medical knowledge captures the delicate state of humanity better than novelists ' imaginations : his acquaintance with death and neurological perspective better capture human frailty .
= = = Political engagement = = =
The burning aeroplane in the book 's opening , and the suspicions it immediately arouses , quickly introduces the problems of terrorism and international security . The day 's political demonstration and the ubiquity of its news coverage provide background noise to Perowne 's day , leading to him to ponder his relationship with these events . Christopher Hitchens pointed out that the novel is set on the " actual day the whole of bien @-@ pensant Britain moved into the streets to jeer at George Bush and Tony Blair " and placed the novel as " unapologetically anchored as it is in the material world and its several discontents " . The Economist newspaper set the context as a " world where terrorism and war make headlines , but also filter into the smallest corners of people 's lives . " McEwan said himself , " The march gathered not far from my house , and it bothered me that so many people seemed so thrilled to be there " . The characterisation of Perowne as an intelligent , self @-@ aware man : " .. a habitual observer of his own moods ' [ who ] is given to reveries about his mental processes , " allows the author to explicitly set out this theme .
" It 's an illusion to believe himself active in the story . Does he think he 's changing something , watching news programmes , or lying on his back on the sofa on Sunday afternoon , reading more opinion columns of ungrounded certainties , more long articles about what really lies behind this or that development , or what is surely going to happen next , predictions forgotten as soon as they are read , well before events disprove them ? "
Physically , Perowne is neither above nor outside the fray but at an angle to it ; emotionally his own intelligence makes him apathetic , he can see both sides of the argument , and his beliefs are characterised by a series of hard choices rather than sure certainties .
He is concerned for the fate of Iraqis ; through his friendship with an exiled Iraqi professor he learned of the totalitarian side of Saddam Hussein 's rule , but also takes seriously his children 's concerns about the war . He often plays devil 's advocate , being dovish with this American friend , and hawkish with his daughter .
= = = Rationalism = = =
McEwan establishes Perowne as anchored in the real world . Perowne expresses a distaste for some modern literature , puzzled by , even disdaining magical realism :
" What were these authors of reputation doing – grown men and women of the twentieth century – granting supernatural powers to their characters ? " Perowne earnestly tried to appreciate fiction , under instruction from his daughter he read both Anna Karenina and Madame Bovary , but could not accept their artificiality , even though they dwelt on detail and ordinariness .
Perowne 's dismissive attitude towards literature is directly contrasted with his scientific world @-@ view in his struggle to comprehend the modern world . Perowne explicitly ponders this question , " The times are strange enough . Why make things up ? " .
Perowne 's world view is rebutted by his daughter , Daisy , a young poet . In the book 's climax in chapter four , while he struggles to remain calm offering medical solutions to Baxter 's illness , she quotes Matthew Arnold 's poem Dover Beach , which calls for civilised values in the world , temporarily placating the assailant 's violent mood . McEwan described his intention as wanting to " play with this idea , whether we need stories " . Brian Bethune interpreted McEwan 's approach to Perowne as " mercilessly [ mocking ] his own protagonist ... But Perowne 's blind spot [ literature ] is less an author 's little joke than a plea for the saving grace of literature . "
Similarly he is irreligious , his work making him aware of the fragility of life and consciousness 's reliance on the functioning brain . His morality is nuanced , weighing both sides of an issue . When leaving the confrontation with Baxter , he questions his use of his medical knowledge , even though it was in self @-@ defense , and with genuine Hippocratic feeling . While shopping for his fish supper , he cites scientific research that shows greater consciousness in fish , and wonders whether he should stop eating them . An Iraqi professor he treated has told him of the brutality of Saddam Hussein 's rule , but also takes seriously his children 's concerns about the war .
= = Genre and style = =
Saturday is a " post 9 / 11 " novel , dealing with the change in lifestyle faced by Westerners after the 11 September attacks in the United States . As such , Christopher Hitchens characterised it as " unapologetically anchored as it is in the material world and its several discontents " . " Structurally , Saturday is a tightly wound tour de force of several strands " ; it is both a thriller which portrays a very attractive family , and an allegory of the world after 11 September 2001 which meditates on the fragility of life .
In this respect the novel correctly anticipates , at page 276 , the July 7 , 2005 bombings on London 's Underground railway network , which occurred a few months after the book was published :
London , his small part of it , lies wide open , impossible to defend , waiting for its bomb , like a hundred other cities . Rush hour will be a convenient time . It might resemble the Paddington crash – twisted rails , buckled , upraised commuter coaches , stretchers handed out through broken windows , the hospital 's Emergency Plan in action . Berlin , Paris , Lisbon . The authorities agree , an attack 's inevitable .
The book obeys the classical unities of place , time and action , following one man 's day against the backdrop of a grander historical narrative – the anti @-@ war protests happening in the city that same day . The protagonist 's errands are surrounded by the recurring leitmotif of hyper real , ever @-@ present screens which report the progress of the plane and the march Perowne has earlier encountered . Saturday is in tune with its protagonist 's literary tastes ; " magical realism " it is not . The 26 @-@ hour narrative led critics to compare the book to similar novels , especially Ulysses by James Joyce , which features a man crossing a city , and Virginia Woolf 's Mrs. Dalloway , of which Michiko Kakutani described Saturday as an " up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ moment , post @-@ 9 / 11 variation . "
The novel is narrated in the third person , limited point of view : the reader learns of events as Perowne does . Using the free indirect style the narrator inhabits Perowne , a neurosurgeon , who often thinks rationally , explaining phenomena using medical terminology . This allows McEwan to capture some of the " white noise that we almost forget as soon as we think it , unless we stop and write it down . " Hitchens highlighted how the author separates himself from his character with a " Runyonesque historical present ( " He rises … " " He strides … " ) that solidifies the context and the actuality . "
= = Reception = =
Saturday was both critically acclaimed and commercially successful , a best @-@ seller in Britain and the United States . It spent a week at No. 3 on both the New York Times Best Seller List on 15 April 2005 , and Publishers Weekly ( 4 April 2005 ) lists . A strong performance for literary fiction , Saturday sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies on release , and signings were heavily attended . The paperback edition sold another quarter of a million .
Ruth Scurr reviewed the book in The Times , calling McEwan " [ maybe ] the best novelist in Britain and is certainly operating at the height of his formidable powers " . She praised his examination of happiness in the 21st century , particularly from the point of view of a surgeon : " doctors see real lives fall to pieces in their consulting rooms or on their operating tables , day in , day out . Often they mend what is broken , and open the door to happiness again . " Christopher Hitchens said the " sober yet scintillating pages of Saturday " confirmed the maturation of McEwan and displayed both his soft , humane , side and his hard , intellectual , scientific , side .
Reviewers celebrated McEwan 's dissection of the quotidian and his talent for observation and description . Michiko Kakutani liked the " myriad of small , telling details and a reverence for their very ordinariness " , and the suspense created that threatens these . Tim Adams concurred in The Observer , calling the observation " wonderfully precise " . Mark Lawson in The Guardian said McEwan 's style had matured into " scrupulous , sensual rhythms , " and noted the considered word choice that enables his work . Perowne , for example , is a convincing neurosurgeon by the end of the book . This attention to detail allowed McEwan to use all the tricks of fiction to generate " a growing sense of disquiet with the tiniest finger @-@ flicks of detail " .
The " set @-@ piece " construction of the book was noticed by many critics ; Mrs Scurr praised it , describing a series of " vivid tableaux " , but John Banville was less impressed , calling it an assembly of discrete set pieces , though he said the treatment of the car crash and its aftermath was " masterful " , and said of Perowne 's visit to his mother : " the writing is genuinely affecting in its simplicity and empathetic force . " From the initial " dramatic overture " of the aircraft scene , there were " astonishing pages of description " , sometimes " heart @-@ stopping " , though it was perhaps a touch too artful at times , according to Michael Dirda in The Washington Post . Christopher Hitchens said that McEwan delivered a " virtuoso description of the aerodynamics of a squash game , " enjoyable even " to a sports hater like myself " , Banville said he , as a literary man , had been bored by the same scene . Zoe Heller praised the tension in the climax as " vintage McEwan nightmare " but questioned the resolution as " faintly preposterous " .
John Banville wrote a scathing review of the book for The New York Review of Books . He described Saturday as the sort of thing that a committee directed to produce a ' novel of our time ' would write , the politics were " banal " ; the tone arrogant , self @-@ satisfied and incompetent ; the characters cardboard cut @-@ outs . He felt McEwan strove too hard to display technical knowledge " and his ability to put that knowledge into good , clean prose " .
Saturday won the James Tait Black Prize for fiction ; and was nominated on the long @-@ list of the Man Booker Prize in 2005 .
= = Influence = =
According to songwriter Neil Finn , the Crowded House song " People Are Like Suns " , from Time on Earth ( 2007 ) , begins with lyrics inspired by the beginning of Saturday , stating " ... when I wrote it , I was reading Ian McEwan 's novel Saturday , which begins with a man on his balcony watching a plane go down , so the first lines borrow something from that image . "
= 1963 Syrian coup d 'état =
The 1963 Syrian coup d 'état , referred to by the Syrian government as the 8 March Revolution ( Arabic : ثورة الثامن من آذار ) , was the successful seizure of power in Syria by the military committee of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party . The planning and the unfolding conspiracy was inspired by the Iraqi Regional Branch 's successful military coup .
The coup was planned by the military committee , rather than the Ba 'ath Party 's civilian leadership , but Michel Aflaq , the leader of the party , consented to the conspiracy . The leading members of the military committee throughout the planning process and in the immediate aftermath of taking power were Muhammad Umran , Salah Jadid and Hafez al @-@ Assad . The committee enlisted the support of two Nasserists , Rashid al @-@ Qutayni and Muhammad al @-@ Sufi , and the independent Ziad al @-@ Hariri . The coup was originally planned for 7 March , but was postponed one day after the government discovered where the conspirators were planning to assemble .
= = Background = =
= = = Events leading up to the coup = = =
Modern Syria was first established in 1920 as the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faisal . This state was planned to be a new Arab kingdom , and not just Syrian , and the state espoused Arab nationalism and pan @-@ Islamic policies . However the British , who had helped establish the state after World War I , made a secret agreement with France and established the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon . The area thereby functioned as one of France 's colonies , and the newly established state was viewed unfavorably by most Syrians , with many of them regarding it as a vessel of European imperialism . At this stage , some movements tried to establish a Syrian identity , most notably the Syrian Social Nationalist Party , or became advocates of communism and Islamism . The majority of Syrians continued to see themselves as Arabs rather than Syrians .
The mandate was feudal in character , and it rested on a semi @-@ liberal oligarchic social base . This system remained unchanged until the establishment of the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) . This system created a class society reflecting urban – rural living patterns . An estimated three thousand families owned half of the land in Syria . The majority of small to medium properties were owned by the middle class . Some two @-@ thirds of peasants were landless . Agricultural revenues were highly skewed – the top two percent of the population received 50 percent of the income , while the middle class ( merchants or middle landowning groups ) , which was 18 percent of the population , earned 25 percent of agricultural revenues . The bottom 80 percent received the remainder . The landowner – peasant alliance was based on class differences , and social antagonism between each other – this would lead to the landowner 's downfall .
The mandate was dissolved in 1946 because of a British ultimatum to France , and Syria became an independent country on 17 April 1946 . The same elite that had governed Syria during the mandate continued in power and they governed in the same manner . The failure in the 1948 Arab – Israeli War led to the downfall of the traditional elite and the rise of the military in politics . Husni al @-@ Za 'im became the first military dictator of Syria in 1949 , but in 1950 , military officer Adib Shishakli gained power behind the scenes , and by 1953 had established another military dictatorship . The military 's introduction to the Syrian political scene destroyed the oligarchy enabling the middle class to participate in Syrian politics . However , while their powers were weakened , the traditional elite retained the majority of the wealth produced .
It was in this environment that the ideology of Ba 'athism came into being . The Arab Ba 'ath Movement was established by Michel Aflaq and Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar in the 1940s , others who played a notable role in the early stages of the Ba 'athist movement were Zaki al @-@ Arsuzi , Wahib al @-@ Ghanim and Jallal al @-@ Sayyid . Akram al @-@ Hawrani founded the Arab Socialist Party ( ASP ) in 1953 – the Ba 'ath Party was established through a merger of the ASP and the Arab Ba 'ath Party . Of the 150 delegates to the founding congress of the Arab Ba 'ath Party in 1947 , the majority were either middle @-@ class professionals or intellectuals . By the 1950s the party had managed to acquire an urban middle class base . However , the Ba 'ath Party was not a purely middle class party , and from the very beginning , it sent party cadres to rural areas to recruit new members and form new party organisations . In 1956 , the Ba 'ath Party organized the first labour protest in Syrian history . While the Ba 'ath Party was strong , its decision to recruit members from across society led to tribalism and clientelism within the party . Party leaders then opted to overlook democratic norms and procedures .
The Ba 'ath Party faced a major dilemma : take power through competitive elections or through forceful takeover . Even the liberal and democratic @-@ inclined founding leaders were partial to forceful takeover , citing the corrupt electoral process . Before taking power , the Ba 'ath Party gambled that it would be allowed to share power with Gamal Abdel Nasser in the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) . The UAR would prove to be Egypt @-@ dominated , and the Ba 'ath Party was forced to dissolve itself , but in 1961 the UAR collapsed because of a military coup in Syria . The establishment and the dissolution of the UAR was a catastrophe for the Ba 'ath Party as it divided among those who supported the UAR , those who opposed it and those who opposed or supported the traditional leaders of the party . In 1962 , Aflaq convened a Ba 'ath Party congress and re @-@ established the party . Several branches had not followed orders and had not dissolved during the UAR years . Instead they had become deeply hostile to pan @-@ Arabist thought and had become radical socialists instead . The military committee , which would launch the 8 March Revolution , shared most of their views .
= = = Economic and social context = = =
The 8 March Revolution has often been viewed as a mere military coup , but it had many of the ingredients of national revolts from below . The revolution was led by an anti @-@ oligarchical alliance of a radicalised lower middle class , strategic members of the officer corps , marginalised minorities and a significant number of peasants who were mobilised for agrarian conflict . In an international context , the revolution took place because the state boundaries established by France were artificial and the hostility within the newly established Syria to the creation of Israel . The traditional elite that took power in Syria when the country gained independence had come to power during the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon . The external imposition of arbitrary state boundaries on Syria with no corresponding popular acceptance led to discontent . The national struggle was shaped by ideologies such as Arab nationalism , pan @-@ Islamism and Greater Syrianism . The plebeian character of the struggle , and the radical ideologies , spawned radical solutions to the agrarian problem .
The growth of the new middle class in Syria fueled discontent since the traditional elite dominated the agrarian sector – the largest sector of the economy – and created most of the wealth . The new middle class consisted of capitalists and entrepreneurs who opposed the traditional elite – the monopolisation of power by the traditional elite led to the radicalisation of the new middle class . The military , which in many countries is conservative and elitist , became radicalised in Syria because the military wanted greater power , believing that the traditional elite were unable to defend the country . A significant group of military personnel were recruited from the new middle class or from the hinterlands .
In Syria , ethnic minorities were often underprivileged , and a specific ethnicity often belonged to a specific social class . The Alawites , the Druzes and the Isma 'ilis for instance , were ethnic groups with low social class who began to embrace a radical form of Arab nationalism , e.g. Ba 'athism . Without the peasantry there could not have been a Ba 'athist revolution in Syria . The new middle class alone could only produce instability , but together with the peasantry , the revolution became possible . The inequality between urban and rural dwellers , together with capitalist penetration of the agrarian sector and the traditional elites ' monopolisation of most large revenue sources , led to the establishment of peasant movements who fought for change , or opposed the system . The Syrian branch of the Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party was able to recruit young peasants from radical peasant movements , and because of it , was able to mobilise large sectors of the population .
= = Planning = =
In 1962 , the military committee of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party spent most of its time plannining to take power through a conventional military coup . The military committee decided it had to capture al @-@ Kiswah and Qatana , two military camps , seize control of the 70th Armoured Brigade at al @-@ Kiswah , the Military Academy in the city of Homs and the Damascus radio station . While the conspirators of the military committee were all young , the sitting regime had been slowly disintegrating and the traditional elite had lost effective political power .
For the coup to be successful , the military committee needed to gain the support of some of the Syrian officer corps . The collapse of the UAR , coupled with mutinies , purges and transfers left the officer corps in complete disarray and open to anti @-@ government agitation . At the time , the officer corps was split into five different factions ; the Damascus faction which supported the ancien régime , supporters of Akram al @-@ Hawrani , a Nasserist faction , a Ba 'athist faction and a group of independents . The Damascus faction was the enemy of the military committee because of their support for Nazim al @-@ Kudsi 's regime and the Hawranist were considered as rivals because of their stance against pan @-@ Arabism . The Nasserists became allies of the Ba 'ath , even while they supported Gamal Abdel Nasser and the reestablishment of the UAR .
The military committee 's alliance with the Nasserists led to the establishment of secret contact with Colonel Rashid al @-@ Qutayni , the head of the military intelligence , and Colonel Muhammad al @-@ Sufi , the commander of the Homs Brigade . The military committee ordered a group of junior officers to recruit the leading independent Colonel Ziad al @-@ Hariri , the commander of the front facing Israel , to their cause . The group was successful , and they promised al @-@ Hariri that " If we succeed , you can become chief of staff . If we fail , you can disown us . " Al @-@ Hariri supported the committee because Khalid al @-@ Azm , the Prime Minister of Syria , was planning to demote him .
While it planned the coup , the military committee and its members were frowned upon by civilian Ba 'athists . The reason for the army – party alliance in the first place was to safeguard the party from repression . The military committee did not look favourably on the civilian leadership led by Michel Aflaq , objecting to his dissolution the Ba 'ath Party during the UAR years . While Aflaq needed the military committee to seize power , the committee needed Aflaq to hold on power – without Aflaq they would have no support base . At the 5th National Ba 'ath Party Congress , held on 8 May 1962 , it was decided to reestablish the party and keep Aflaq as Secretary General of the National Command . Muhammad Umran , a leading member of the military committee , was a delegate at the 5th National Congress , and told Aflaq of the military committee 's intentions – Aflaq consented to the coup , but no agreement was made between him and the committee on how to share power after the coup .
= = The coup = =
On 8 February 1963 , the Iraqi Regional Branch , led by Ali Salih al @-@ Sa 'di , took power in Iraq by overthrowing Abd al @-@ Karim Qasim . He was a far more formidable opponent than al @-@ Kudsi , and the Iraqi Regional Branch managed to take power through an alliance not only with military officers , but also with segments of the middle class . Qasim 's downfall changed the rules of Arab politics – the Nasserists had monopolised the Arab nationalist movement since the UAR , but the takeover made the Ba 'ath Party a force to be reckoned with . In contrast to the Iraqi regional branch , the Syrian regional branch did not have mass support or a significant support base in the middle class . While Aflaq cautioned the plotters because of the party 's lack of support , they failed to share his worries , and launched the coup on 7 March . However , that day the military intelligence raided the apartment where the plotters were planning to assemble . Assad was given the task of reporting to other units that the coup had been postponed to 8 March .
On the night of 7 – 8 March , tanks and units loyal to the conspiracy began moving on Damascus . Al @-@ Hariri led a brigade from the Syrian front towards Israel , while Ba 'athists were able to gain control of a second brigade stationed in Suwayda . Caught in a pincer movement , the commander of the 70th Armoured Brigade , Lieutenant General Abd al @-@ Karim surrendered to the plotters – Umran took over as acting commander of the 70th Armoured Brigade . The potentially hostile unit stationed in Qatana , south @-@ west of Damascus , did not intervene – probably because Widad Bashir had taken control over communications in the Damascus area . With the forces in al @-@ Kiswah defeated and Qatana neutralised , al @-@ Hariri 's forces marched upon Damascus and began to set up road @-@ blocks in the city , while at the same time seizing critical facilities such as the central post office . Captain Salim Hatum , a party officer , seized the radio station . The Ministry of Defence headquarters were seized without a fight , and General Zahr al @-@ Din , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , was put under arrest . Both al @-@ Kudsi and al @-@ Hawrani were easily tracked down and arrested . Salah Jadid bicycled into the city that morning , and captured the Bureau of Officers ' Affairs , which later became his personal fiefdom .
Assad led a small group of conspirators to capture the al @-@ Dumayr air base , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Damascus – the only force that resisted the coup . Some of its planes were ordered to bomb rebel positions . The plan was that Assad would lead a company from al @-@ Hariri 's brigade to capture the air base before dawn to prevent air strikes . The surrender of the 70th Armoured Brigade took longer than expected , putting Assad 's forces behind schedule . When Assad 's forces reached the outskirts of the base , it was broad daylight . Assad sent an emissary to tell the commanders that he would start shelling the base if they did not surrender . They negotiated their surrender even though , according to Assad himself , their forces could have defeated them in combat .
Later that morning the coupmakers convened at the army headquarters to celebrate . The coup had been generally bloodless , and was met by indifference in the population at large . Saber Falhout , a Druze who was later known as " the poet of the revolution " , wrote and announced the first communique of the plotters . The ninth communique reinstated the five members of the military committee in the armed forces . The senior members of the newly established regime were Umran , Jadid and at last , Assad . 820 people were reported killed during the takeover and another 20 were executed shortly afterwards .
= = Immediate aftermath = =
The first act of the new rulers of Syria was to establish the twenty @-@ man National Council for the Revolutionary Command ( NCRC ) , composed of twelve Ba 'athists and eight Nasserists and independents . On 9 March , the NCRC ordered Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar , one of the Ba 'ath Party founders , to form a government , and to implement the policies of the NCRC . Later , six civilians were given membership in NCRC , three Ba 'athists ( Aflaq , al @-@ Bitar and Mansur al @-@ Atrash ) and three Nasserists . However , this did not change the balance of power , and the officers still controlled the country . From the beginning , the military committee members formed state policies behind the backs of other NCRC members – when the civilian leadership found out , al @-@ Atrash said : " Why do not these gentlemen speak ? May I suggest they appoint a liaison officer to communicate their views to us ? " From that day , Umran gave the civilians a faint idea of what the committee members were planning .
At the beginning , there were no signs of the quarrels that would destroy the military committee . At the time , the members were bound together by their goal of building a prosperous nation . On 9 March the NCRC released Lu 'ay al @-@ Atassi from jail , promoted him to the rank of lieutenant general , appointed him commander @-@ in @-@ chief and NCRC chairman , the de facto head of state . Hariri was appointed chief of staff . While Atassi and Hariri held powerful posts , they did not possess enough personal or political power to threaten the NCRC . The Nasserist officers were also given notable offices with Muhammad al @-@ Sufi becoming Minister of Defence and Rashid al @-@ Qutayni becoming deputy chief of staff . However , the Military Committee , which had expanded its membership with five new members , ensured that the Ba 'athists controlled the real levers of powers . The committee decided state policies before the sessions of the NCRC , and by doing so became the real seat of power .
Umran was first given the command of the 5th Brigade in Homs , but was promoted in June to become commander of the 70th Armoured Brigade . As head of the Bureau of Officers ' Affairs , Jadid appointed friends to senior positions , purged his enemies and appointed several Ba 'athists to senior positions . Ahmad Suwaydani , one of the new members of the Military Committee , was appointed Head of Military Intelligence and Mazyad Hunaydi became Head of the Military Police . The Military Academy at Homs was put under Ba 'athist control — several hundred Ba 'athists , including Assad 's brother Rifaat al @-@ Assad , were given a crash course in military teaching before being given command . Assad became the de facto head of the Syrian Air Force , a dizzying promotion for a man in his thirties . Considering that the members of the Military Committee were all too young to be perceived as the real leaders of Syria by the populace , the Military Committee appointed Colonel Amin al @-@ Hafiz to the post of Minister of the Interior .
= = = Purges and failed coup of 18 July = = =
Pressure from consistent pro @-@ Nasser demonstrations in northern Syria and Damascus and from pro @-@ union Ba 'athist leaders like Jamal al @-@ Atassi , the Nasserists and the Arab Nationalist Movement ( ANM ) , coupled with the weakness of the Ba 'athists at the popular level in Syria , led to unification efforts between the new government and the governments of Egypt and Iraq . The latter 's anti @-@ UAR government had also been overthrown by pro @-@ UAR officers in 1963 . On 17 April a new stage @-@ based unity agreement was reached that would include the three states in a federal union with Nasser as President and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces .
However , between 28 April @-@ 2 May , the Ba 'athist @-@ dominated Military Committee virtually renounced the agreement when it purged over 50 Nasserist officers from their high @-@ ranking positions in the armed forces , leading to a wide @-@ scale propaganda campaign by Egypt via radio denouncing the Ba 'ath ( Nasserist @-@ leaning newspapers had been previously shut down . ) Mass pro @-@ union rioting in Aleppo , Damascus , Hama and other parts of the country followed . The purges prompted the protest resignations of Nasserist officials , including Defense Minister al @-@ Sufi , Deputy Chief of Staff al @-@ Qutayni , and four other Nasserist cabinet members .
Later , on 19 June , Chief of Staff al @-@ Hariri led a high @-@ ranking delegation that included Prime Minister al @-@ Bitar , Aflaq and Education Minister Sami Droubi to Algeria for a state visit . While al @-@ Hariri was away , the Committee used the opportunity to undertake a purge of about 30 elite officers — mostly political independents — under al @-@ Hariri 's command . Al @-@ Hariri was ordered to take a direct flight to the Syrian embassy in the United States , where he was reassigned as the embassy 's military attache . Instead , he returned to Syria via a flight to Beirut on 23 June to protest the Committee 's move against him . Unsuccessful , he left the country for France in a self @-@ imposed exile on 8 July . The Committee 's virtual ousting of al @-@ Hariri was to the chagrin of al @-@ Bitar , who viewed al @-@ Hariri as the last military counterweight able to check the Committee 's domination over his government .
The Nasserists still maintained a relatively high level of strength in the military , despite the purges , and on 18 July , under the leadership of Jassem Alwan and the help of Egyptian intelligence , they attempted to launch a daytime coup against the new government . The Army Headquarters , personally defended by al @-@ Hafiz , and the broadcast station were attacked , and the ensuing battle left hundreds of people dead , including several civilian bystanders . The coup attempt failed and 27 participating officers were arrested and executed . The executions were a rare punitive action used to deal with the participants of a failed coup in Syria , with the typical punishment being exile , imprisonment or reassignment to a foreign diplomatic post . President Lu 'ay al @-@ Atassi subsequently resigned , signalling his disapproval of the executions . After evading the authorities for a short period , Alwan and his chief co @-@ conspirators Raef al @-@ Maarri and Muhammad Nabhan were apprehended and brought to military trial , where they were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death . They were released exactly a year later and exiled , after lobbying by Nasser and Iraqi President Abdul Salam Arif .
The failure of Alwan 's revolt marked the end of significant Nasserist influence in Syria 's military and civilian institutions , and with the pro @-@ Nasser forces largely defeated , the Military Committee became the sole power center of the country . Relations with Egypt immediately soured , with Nasser , still popular with the Syrian masses , issuing broadcasts denouncing the Ba 'athists as " murderers " and " fascists , " and representing the forces of heresy and atheism , a derogatory reference to the party 's embrace of strict secularism and the numerous leadership positions held by non @-@ Sunni Muslims . Nasser also announced his withdrawal from the 17 April unity agreement .
= You 'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again =
Y 'all Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again is an autobiography by Julia Phillips , detailing her career as a film producer and disclosing the power games and debauchery of New Hollywood in the 1970s and 1980s . It was first published in 1991 and became an immediate cause célèbre and bestseller . The book was reissued in 2002 after the author 's death .
= = Background = =
In partnership with her husband Michael , Julia Phillips was one of the most successful film producers in Hollywood during the 1970s . Their second film , The Sting , grossed almost $ 160 million and won seven Academy Awards , making Julia the first woman to win a Best Picture Oscar . Their third film , Taxi Driver , brought them a second Oscar nomination and won the Palme d 'Or in 1976 . In 1977 they co @-@ produced their most financially successful movie , Steven Spielberg 's $ 300 million @-@ grossing Close Encounters of the Third Kind .
However , Julia had long indulged in a self @-@ destructive lifestyle of excessive drug consumption , and it had begun to affect her work . François Truffaut , one of French cinema 's most iconic directors and a star of Close Encounters , blamed her for that film 's budget difficulties , and she was eventually fired during post @-@ production because of her cocaine dependence .
Phillips , by now divorced , spent the following years on a downward spiral which included , by her own account , spending $ 120 @,@ 000 on cocaine , before entering therapy to recover from her addiction . Then , in 1988 , having been out of Hollywood for eleven years , she sold all her assets to produce The Beat , about a kid in a tough neighbourhood trying to teach poetry to local gangs . It was a critical and commercial disaster , grossing less than $ 5 @,@ 000 at the box office , and Phillips turned to penning her scathing memoir to escape her financial difficulties .
= = Synopsis = =
The book begins by briefly introducing the reader to Phillips in 1989 , before quickly travelling back to her childhood in 1940s Brooklyn . It then covers her early life and first successes in the film industry : she and Michael earned $ 100 @,@ 000 from their debut feature , Steelyard Blues , moved to Malibu , California , and had a daughter , Kate . The most notorious chapters follow as Phillips enjoys her greatest career successes , perhaps most infamously when she recalls the amalgam of drugs she was under the influence of on the night she won her Oscar ( " a diet pill , a small amount of coke , two joints , six halves of Valium , and a glass and a half of wine " ) . She also reveals the personal peccadillos and vices of the biggest Hollywood A @-@ listers of the day , including Steven Spielberg , Martin Scorsese , Richard Dreyfuss , Goldie Hawn , and David Geffen . Many of these people were pivotal figures in the emergence of New Hollywood in the 1960s and ' 70s , but Phillips disparagingly refers to them as " a rogues ' gallery of nerds " . Later episodes in her life , including freebasing , and her abusive relationship with a violent drug addict which caused her to miss her own mother 's funeral , are also discussed candidly .
Most significant , from Phillips ' own point of view , is her exposé of the " Boys ' Club " in the higher echelons of Hollywood , where she claimed it was her gender that led to her ultimate ostracism . " If I had been a man , they would have closed ranks around me " , she said , referring to her drug addiction . " They hated the woman thing . And I wasn 't even regarded as a woman , I was a girl . " Writing about her in The Independent in 2002 , film critic David Thomson expressed Phillips ' attitude as : " you [ Hollywood ] guys don 't take women seriously ; you like us around ... [ but ] we aren 't allowed to be players " . Those same few men , like " Valley viper " Mike Ovitz who headed the Creative Artists Agency were , in her eyes , responsible for a qualitative decline in standards and the increasing banality of movies since the 1970s .
= = Reception = =
On its release most critics agreed that the book was both scandalous and career @-@ ending . ( Even with a quarter of the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ page original manuscript excised , it took lawyers at Random House fourteen months to approve it for publication . ) Lewis Cole , in The Nation , described it as being " [ not ] written but spat out , a breakneck , formless performance piece ... propelled by spite and vanity " . Newsweek 's review called it a " 573 @-@ page primal scream " , while one Hollywood producer said it was " the longest suicide note in history " . In the 2003 documentary version of Easy Riders , Raging Bulls , based on Peter Biskind 's 1998 anecdotal history of New Hollywood , Richard Dreyfuss recalled his initial fury at Phillips ' revelations , before more circumspectly listening to " a little voice inside my head [ saying ] ' Richard , Richard , the truth was so much worse ' . " Despite Phillips ' criticisms of Steven Spielberg in the book , Spielberg nevertheless invited her to a 1997 screening of Close Encounters of the Third Kind as a way of " keeping his friends close and his enemies closer . "
After Phillips ' death from cancer in 2002 the book was reissued in paperback by Faber and Faber , and gained renewed attention . Tim Appelo wrote in his Salon.com tribute that it was " mordant , merciless , [ and ] outdid Capote in shrieking truth to decadent power " , while David Thomson praised it as " compulsive , hilarious entertainment " .
Commercially , Phillips ' memoir became an enormous success . It quickly moved to the top of the New York Times Non Fiction Best Seller list and stayed at No. 1 for thirteen weeks . Additionally , several prominent Los Angeles bookstore owners reported it to be the fastest @-@ selling book they had ever seen . But Phillips was excoriated by Hollywood , and her autobiography 's publication cost her the chance to adapt Anne Rice 's Interview with a Vampire with David Geffen . Furthermore , in an example of life imitating art , pre @-@ eminent Los Angeles restaurant Morton 's fulfilled the book 's titular prediction by declining her future patronage .
Shortly before her death , when asked if she had been too cruel in her writing , Phillips replied , " We all have our standards . People behaved in an ugly and despicable fashion towards me . I felt no constraints . Nothing I did in my book is as mean as any of the people I wrote about . " She was similarly unrepentant about her subsequent expatriation , saying " I wasn 't a pariah because I was a drug @-@ addicted , alcoholic , rotten person and not a good mother . I was a pariah because I hit them with a harsh , fluorescent light and rendered them as contemptible as they truly are . "
= Liu Geping =
Liu Geping ( Chinese : 刘格平 ; 8 August 1904 – 11 March 1992 ) was a Chinese communist revolutionary and politician of Hui Muslim heritage . He is best known as the founding Chairman of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and later for seizing power in Shanxi during the Cultural Revolution , where he made himself the top leader of the province .
Liu spent his early days as a communist agitator , leading peasant uprisings and building the party organization in rural areas . A political survivor , he was arrested several times during the Warlord Era and served two prison terms . After the founding of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , he held important roles in the party and government but was branded a traitor in 1960 . He later returned to work , only to be purged again several years later during the Cultural Revolution . He was rehabilitated after the Cultural Revolution and spent the rest of his life in ceremonial positions .
= = Republic of China = =
= = = Warlord Era = = =
Liu Geping was born on 8 August 1904 into a large landowning family of Muslim Hui ethnicity in Dadi East Village ( 大堤东村 ) , Mengcun County , Hebei Province . He also used the names Liu Zimin ( 刘子敏 ) and Liu Xiangnong ( 刘襄侬 ) . In 1918 he joined the army of Li Chun , a warlord of the Zhili Clique , and entered its military school in Nanjing . The next year he participated in the May Fourth Movement as an activist . He joined the Chinese Socialist Youth League in 1922 , and returned home to spread revolutionary values . Instrumental in the founding of the first socialist youth cell in the area , in December 1925 he co @-@ led an armed peasant uprising against the Beiyang government , the first of its kind in northern China .
In July 1926 , Liu joined the Communist Party of China and then spearheaded a series of educational initiatives aimed at increasing the influence of the party in the Tianjin @-@ Hebei region . After founding schools and party organizations in dozens of counties , he took part in the founding of a 300 @-@ strong " Southern Tianjin Revolutionary Army " , which aimed to topple warlords and incite armed uprisings . In June 1928 he led a peasant uprising in Qingyun County , occupying the county seat and taking guns from the local police . He was arrested that year for his agitation and spent the next three years in prison . After he was released , the Communist Party sent him to Shaanxi to work for Yang Hucheng 's army .
= = = Japanese invasion and Civil War = = =
After the Mukden incident and subsequent Japanese incursions into China , Liu became a founding member of the " Hui People Against Japanese Invasion " organization . In 1932 he returned home to work on military operations and to coordinate underground party activities . He was again arrested on April 20 , 1934 , after organizing the Majia River ( 马颊河 ) uprising in Qingyun . He was held in Caolanzi Prison ( 草岚子监狱 ) in Beijing , along with 61 other Communist Party leaders including Bo Yibo , An Ziwen , and Liu Lantao ( no relation ) . To secure their release , the Communist Party Central Committee advised them to sign an announcement denouncing communism . Most complied and were released by the Kuomintang government , but Liu Geping was among the few who refused and served his full sentence .
After his release in 1944 , Liu took on more leadership roles within the Tianjin branch of the Communist Party . He then went to Shandong to found an organization for ethnic Hui to aid soldiers on the front lines of the Chinese Civil War . In March 1949 , he went south with the People 's Liberation Army to East China and served as vice @-@ principal of the newly established East China People 's Revolution University .
= = People 's Republic of China = =
= = = Early PRC = = =
In September 1949 , Liu Geping was selected as an ethnic minority representative to attend the first meeting of the Communist @-@ led Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference ; he was ranked first among minority delegates . At the founding ceremony of the People 's Republic of China on 1 October 1949 , he was selected to speak in Tiananmen Square as the official representative of China 's minority peoples .
Liu joined the government and became deputy director of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission . In this capacity Liu frequently visited western areas with high minority populations . He was a delegate to the 1st National People 's Congress in 1954 . After the congress , Liu and the Tibetan communist Phünwang were assigned to accompany the 14th Dalai Lama , also a delegate , on his tour of Chinese cities , which had a great impact on the Dalai Lama .
In 1956 , Liu was elected a member of the 8th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China . In 1958 , Liu began heading up the party organization of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region on an interim basis . He became the first Chairman of the autonomous region government in October 1958 . Because he took a moderate approach to policies toward ethnic minorities , he was branded an " ethnic splittist " in 1960 . In September he was dismissed from all of his positions and sent back to Beijing to take part in " rehabilitation " at the Central Party School .
= = = Cultural Revolution = = =
In December 1965 , Liu regained favour and was named Vice @-@ Governor of Shanxi province . At the beginning of the Cultural Revolution , having gained the support of leftist radicals in Beijing , Liu successfully overthrew his superior Wei Heng and became Chairman of the Shanxi Revolutionary Committee , the de facto top leader . Wei was imprisoned and committed suicide . Meanwhile , the Central Cultural Revolution Group , led by Kang Sheng and Jiang Qing , began to investigate the case of the 61 communist leaders who were instructed to denounce communism at Caolanzi Prison in the 1930s . The officials , notably Bo Yibo and An Ziwen , were branded as the " 61 Renegades Clique " and persecuted . In contrast , Liu Geping was heralded as a hero for his refusal to sign the denunciation . He was invited to make speeches all over the country and was re @-@ elected to the 9th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in April 1969 . However , Liu had also become involved in major disputes with the military leaders in Shanxi and was engaged in factional violence in the province . He was dismissed from office in July 1969 , just three months after his re @-@ election to the Central Committee . In 1970 , he was sent to perform manual labour at a pottery factory in Tangshan . He was allowed to return to Beijing in 1975 .
= = = Later life = = =
After the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 and the pivotal 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China , the post @-@ Mao Communist Party cleared Liu 's name and declared that he " did not have any political problems . " In 1983 , he was named a member of the National Committee of the 6th Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference , a ceremonial position .
Liu died in Beijing on 11 March 1992 . He was given full funeral rites at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery . His body was taken back to his native village and buried according to Muslim Hui rituals .
= Bharattherium =
Bharattherium is a mammal that lived in India during the Maastrichtian ( latest Cretaceous ) . The genus has a single species , Bharattherium bonapartei . It is part of the gondwanathere family Sudamericidae , which is also found in Madagascar and South America during the latest Cretaceous . The first fossil of Bharattherium was discovered in 1989 and published in 1997 , but the animal was not named until 2007 , when two teams independently named the animal Bharattherium bonapartei and Dakshina jederi . The latter name is now a synonym . Bharattherium is known from a total of eight isolated fossil teeth , including one incisor and seven molariforms ( molar @-@ like teeth , either premolars or true molars ) .
Bharattherium molariforms are high , curved teeth , with a height of 6 to 8 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 33 in ) . In a number of teeth tentatively identified as fourth lower molariforms ( mf4 ) , there is a large furrow on one side and a deep cavity ( infundibulum ) in the middle of the tooth . Another tooth , perhaps a third lower molariform , has two furrows on one side and three infundibula on the other . The tooth enamel has traits that have been interpreted as protecting against cracks in the teeth . The hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) teeth of sudamericids like Bharattherium are reminiscent of later grazing mammals , and the discovery of grass in Indian fossil sites contemporaneous with those yielding Bharattherium suggest that sudamericids were indeed grazers .
= = Taxonomy = =
A gondwanathere tooth , catalogued as VPL / JU / NKIM / 25 , was first discovered in the Maastrichtian ( latest Cretaceous , about 70 – 66 million years ago ) Intertrappean Beds of Naskal , India , in 1989 , but it was not identified as such until another gondwanathere , Lavanify , was found on Madagascar in the middle 1990s . The discoveries of Lavanify and VPL / JU / NKIM / 25 were announced in Nature in 1997 . Gondwanatheres were previously known only from Argentina ; these discoveries extended the range of the gondwanathere family Sudamericidae across the continents of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana .
In 2007 , two teams of scientists independently named the Indian gondwanathere on the basis of new material ; both teams included VPL / JU / NKIM / 25 in their newly named species . Guntupalli Prasad and colleagues named the animal Bharattherium bonapartei on the basis of an additional tooth , VPL / JU / IM / 33 , from another Intertrappean locality , Kisalpuri . The generic name , Bharattherium , combines Bharat , Sanskrit for " India " , with the Ancient Greek therion , meaning " beast " , and the specific name , bonapartei , honors Argentine paleontologist José Bonaparte , who was the first to describe a gondwanathere fossil . G.P. Wilson and colleagues named Dakshina jederi on the basis of six teeth ( in addition to VPL / JU / NKIM 25 ) , and identified some additional material as indeterminate gondwanatheres . Of these teeth , three ( GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G059 , G070 , and G074 ) are from a third Intertrappean site at Gokak and three ( GSI / SR / PAL @-@ N071 , N210 , and N212 ) are from Naskal . Dakshina , the generic name , derives from Sanskrit daakshinaatya " of the south " , and refers both to the animal 's occurrence in southern India and to the distribution of gondwanatheres in the southern continents . The specific name , jederi , honors University of Michigan paleontologist Jeffrey A. Wilson , nicknamed " Jeder " , who played an important role in the project that led to the discovery of Dakshina . Wilson and colleagues also described three other gondwanathere teeth from Gokak ( GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G111 , G112 , and G211 ) , which they tentatively identified as a different species of gondwanathere on their small size . In 2008 , Prasad commented that Bharattherium bonapartei and Dakshina jederi represented the same species and that Bharattherium , which was published first , was the correct name .
= = Description = =
Bharattherium bonapartei is known from a total of eight isolated teeth . Among the seven teeth in their sample , Wilson and colleagues tentatively identified five as fourth lower molariforms ( mf4 ) — because gondwanathere premolars and molars cannot be distinguished , they are collectively known as " molariforms " — one as a third lower molariform ( mf3 ) and one as a lower incisor ( i1 ) . These determinations were made on the basis of comparisons with a sample of the South American gondwanathere Sudamerica ameghinoi , in which all eight molariform positions are known . However , the large number of mf4s led Wilson and colleagues to suspect that the criteria used for distinguishing Sudamerica tooth positions may not apply directly to Bharattherium . Prasad and colleagues did not assign their two Bharattherium teeth to any tooth position , but suggested that they may represent different tooth positions and that one may come from the upper and the other from the lower side of the jaw . As is characteristic of sudamericids , Bharattherium molariforms are hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) and have a flat occlusal ( chewing ) surface atop a high tooth , with furrows that extend down the height of the tooth . Bharattherium molariforms are the smallest of any sudamericid ; those of Lavanify , for example , are about 35 % larger . Unlike Sudamerica molariforms , those of Bharattherium taper towards the top .
= = = Molariforms = = =
GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G074 , a well @-@ preserved right mf4 that Wilson and colleagues selected as the holotype of Dakshina jederi , is 7 @.@ 57 mm high and has a crown of 3 @.@ 66 × 2 @.@ 99 mm . It is curved , with the base more distal ( towards the back ) than the top . The occlusal surface is rectangular . On the lingual side ( towards the tongue ) , there is a deep furrow ( filled in part with cementum ) that extends from the top to near the base of the tooth . There is also a much smaller indentation on the buccal side ( towards the cheeks ) . The occlusal surface is mostly covered with enamel surrounding a dentine lake , but there is a V @-@ shaped islet in the middle , with the tip of the V towards the lingual side , that forms the remnant of an infundibulum — a deep cavity in the tooth . Perikymata — wave @-@ like bands and grooves — are visible in the enamel .
The right mf4 GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G070 , which is damaged on the buccal , distal , and lingual sides , is 8 @.@ 40 mm high , but has an occlusal surface of only 2 @.@ 49 × 1 @.@ 75 mm . Unlike in GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G074 , the dentine on the occlusal surface is not exposed , and the occlusal surface is oval in shape . Furthermore , the V @-@ shaped islet is larger and the lingual furrow is less prominent at the occlusal surface , because it tapers near the tip of the tooth . In the heavily damaged left mf4 GSI / SR / PAL @-@ N071 ( height 7 @.@ 16 mm ) , only the distal side is well preserved . The infundibulum is exposed internally ; it extends 4 @.@ 01 mm down the crown . The occlusal surface is poorly preserved , but its dimensions are at least 2 @.@ 14 × 2 @.@ 42 mm . GSI / SR / PAL @-@ N212 , a right mf4 , is damaged on the mesial side and has a height of 5 @.@ 86 mm and an occlusal surface of at least 2 @.@ 66 x 2 @.@ 04 mm . Cementum fills the V @-@ shaped islet .
VPL / JU / NKIM / 25 was the first Indian gondwanathere fossil to be described ; it is damaged on one side . Wilson and colleagues identified it as a left mf4 ( implying that the damaged side is buccal ) with strong similarities to GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G070 , including a curved crown and a V @-@ shaped enamel islet atop a deep infundibulum . The occlusal surface is oval . The tooth is 6 mm high and Wilson and colleagues estimate that the occlusal surface is 2 @.@ 5 × 1 @.@ 8 mm , close to the dimensions of GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G070 . They suggest the tooth probably had enamel on all sides of the crown , but Prasad and colleagues point to a possible enamel @-@ dentine junction on the damaged side as evidence that enamel may be absent there .
GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G059 , identified as a left mf3 , has a height of 5 @.@ 97 mm at the mesial side , but only 2 @.@ 02 mm at the distal side because of curvature . On the lingual side , two long furrows are visible , and on the buccal side breakage exposes three long infundibula , of which the most mesial one is the longest and the most distal one the shortest . In the occlusal surface , these three infundibula merge into a single islet . In addition , three dentine lakes are visible in the occlusal surface , which has dimensions of 4 @.@ 58 × at least 2 @.@ 52 mm . Although in Sudamerica , mf2 , mf3 , and the upper molariforms MF3 and MF4 all have three lophs , like GSI / SR / PAL @-@ G059 , its curvature matches the mf3 of Sudamerica best .
VPL / JU / IM / 33 , the holotype of Bharattherium bonapartei , is 7 @.@ 33 mm high , 2 @.@ 66 mm long , and 2 @.@ 0 mm wide . The occlusal surface is about rectangular and is mostly covered by a V @-@ shaped dentine lake , which encloses a small heart @-@ shaped enamel islet at the top of an cementum @-@ filled infundibulum . A vertical furrow is also present . Near the top of the tooth , enamel covers the entire crown , but further down there is no enamel on the concave face of the tooth .
= = = Incisor = = =
The left i1 GSI / SR / PAL @-@ N210 is flat on the medial side ( towards the middle of the head ) but convex on the lateral side ( towards the side of the head ) and bears a shallow groove on the lateral side . At the base , the tooth is broadest on the lower end . The tooth is slightly curved upward towards the tip . Measured on the lower side , the tooth is 11 @.@ 76 mm long , but breakage means the true length is probably larger . The depth of the tooth is about 3 @.@ 39 mm . Wilson and colleagues identified this incisor as Dakshina on the basis of its size ; the upper and lower incisor that they assigned to an indeterminate gondwanathere are smaller .
= = = Enamel microstructure = = =
The microstructure of the enamel of VPL / JU / NKIM / 25 has been studied . Unlike other gondwanatheres , it has enamel consisting of three layers — radial enamel , tangential enamel , and PLEX . The rows of small , round enamel prisms are separated by interprismatic matrix that forms crystals oriented at right angles relative to the prisms . Prisms arise at the enamel @-@ dentine junction , run through the enamel , and meet the outer enamel at a high angle . These features of the enamel are apparently adaptations that protect the tooth from cracks .
= = Relationships = =
Bharattherium is identifiable as a sudamericid because it has hypsodont molariforms with cementum @-@ filled furrows . Among the four known sudamericid genera — Gondwanatherium and Sudamerica from Argentina ; Lavanify from Madagascar ; and Bharattherium — it shares with Sudamerica and Lavanify the presence of furrows that extend down to the base of the tooth . In addition , it shares several features with Lavanify , suggesting the two are closely related . Wilson and colleagues list three features shared by the two : the presence of an infundibulum ( seen in only one of two specimens of Lavanify ) , interprismatic matrix , and perikymata . Prasad and colleagues also interpreted the interprismatic matrix as a shared character , but added the absence of enamel on one side of the tooth crown . Wilson and colleagues identified the presence of a V @-@ shaped enamel lake on mf4 and of three layers in the enamel as autapmorphies ( uniquely derived characters ) of the Indian sudamericid .
= = Range and ecology = =
Remains of Bharattherium have been found at three widely separated Late Cretaceous sites in peninsular India — Naskal , Andhra Pradesh ; Gokak , Karnataka ; and Kisalpuri , Madhya Pradesh . All sites are in the Intertrappean Beds ( part of the Deccan Traps ) and are Maastrichtian ( latest Cretaceous ) in age . The Intertrappean Beds have yielded a variety of fossil animals , including eutherian mammals such as Deccanolestes , Sahnitherium , and Kharmerungulatum . In the perhaps slightly older Infratrappean Beds , a possible member of the ancient and enigmatic mammalian group Haramiyida has been found , Avashishta . Members of the family Sudamericidae , in which Bharattherium is classified , are also known from the Cretaceous of Argentina , Madagascar , and possibly Tanzania and from the Paleogene of Argentina and Antarctica , and the second gondwanathere family , Ferugliotheriidae , is known with certainty only from the Cretaceous of Argentina . Thus , Bharattherium is an example of a Gondwanan faunal element in India and indicates biogeographic affinities with other Gondwanan landmasses such as Madagascar and South America .
In modern mammals , hypsodont teeth are often associated with diets that include abrasive vegetation such as grasses . Hypsodonty in sudamericids has been interpreted as indicating semiaquatic , terrestrial habits and a diet with items like roots or bark , because it was thought that grasses had not yet appeared when sudamericids lived . However , grass remains have been found at Intertrappean sites contemporary with those where Bharattherium was found , suggesting that sudamericids like Bharattherium were indeed the first grazing mammals .
= Never Let Me Down =
Never Let Me Down is the seventeenth studio album by David Bowie , released in April 1987 by EMI America . Bowie conceived the album as the foundation for a theatrical world tour , writing and recording most of the songs in Switzerland . He considered the record a return to rock ' n ' roll music . Three singles were released from the album , " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , " Time Will Crawl " and " Never Let Me Down " , which all reached the UK Top 40 .
One of Bowie 's better @-@ selling albums , Never Let Me Down was certified Gold by the RIAA in early July 1987 , less than three months after its release date , and charted in the top 10 in several European countries , although it only reached number 34 on the US charts . Despite its commercial success , this album was poorly received by fans and critics , who often regard the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s as a low point of creativity and musical integrity for Bowie . Bowie later distanced himself from the album , but admitted a fondness for many of the songs and eventually remixed the track " Time Will Crawl " ( one of his all @-@ time favourites ) for inclusion on his career retrospective release , iSelect ( 2008 ) .
In support of this album , Bowie embarked on the Glass Spider Tour , a world tour that was at that point the biggest , most theatrical and most elaborate tour he had undertaken in his career . The tour , like the album it supported , was commercially successful but critically panned . The critical failure of the album and tour were factors that led Bowie to look for a new way to motivate himself creatively , leading him to create the band Tin Machine in 1989 and to retire his back catalogue from live performances during his 1990 Sound + Vision Tour . Bowie did not release another solo album until Black Tie White Noise in 1993 .
= = Album development = =
Following the rise in fame and success from his 1983 album Let 's Dance and its subsequent Serious Moonlight Tour , Bowie felt disconnected from his new found large fan base , and after the poor reception of Tonight ( 1984 ) , he was looking to make the next album differently . As a result , Bowie said he wanted to return to recording with a small rock group like he had early in his career , and that he made the album as a " move back to rock ' n ' roll music . Very directly . " Bowie felt that the sound and style of his new album was reminiscent of his album Scary Monsters ( 1980 ) and was less like its immediate predecessors .
Bowie spent the middle of 1986 in his home in Switzerland writing the songs with his friend Iggy Pop . Bowie wrote Never Let Me Down with the intention of performing the songs in a theatrical show . He then recorded a few demos with Erdal Kızılçay before working on the album with the full band . For the first time since his Scary Monsters album , Bowie played instruments on the record in addition to singing . For some tracks on the album , Bowie played keyboards , synthesizer , rhythm guitar and on two of the album 's tracks ( " New York 's in Love " and " ' 87 and Cry " ) , he played lead guitar .
The album took three months to write and record . Bowie acknowledged that the songs on the album lacked a cohesive musical style , which he claimed reflected his eclectic musical tastes at the time , and stated that the album was " a reflection of all the styles of writing I 've used over the last few years . "
= = Song development = =
Bowie wrote the album 's lead track " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " because of his concern about the treatment of the homeless in the US , and he wanted to make a statement about it . Some networks banned the song 's video , which Bowie found ludicrous . This track was also the lead single for the album . A version of the song sung in Spanish was released in 2007 when the " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " EP was released digitally .
" Time Will Crawl " , which Bowie named as his favourite track from the album , was inspired by events from the Chernobyl disaster and the idea that someone from ones ' own neighborhood could be responsible for the end of the world . Bowie said his vocals on this song " owed a lot to Neil Young " , and noted that the variety of voices he used on the album were a nod to the musicians who had influenced him in the past . Bowie performed the song for the BBC show Top of the Pops , although that performance has never been aired . This track was the second single released from the album .
The title track , " Never Let Me Down " , is about Bowie 's long @-@ time personal assistant , Coco Schwab . Bowie wrote the song as a direct reference to his relationship with Coco as a counterpoint to the rest of the songs on the album , which he felt were mostly allegorical . The song was the last one written for the album , written and recorded in one day during the last week of mixing the album at New York 's Power Station studios . Bowie attributed his vocal performance on this track to John Lennon . Bowie 's performance of this song for the Top of the Pops was shown on the first airing of the US version of the show . This track was re @-@ recorded and released as the third single from the album . One reviewer later called it one of Bowie 's " most underrated songs . "
Bowie called the song " Beat of Your Drum " a Lolita song , a " reflection on young girls ... ' Christ , she ’ s only 14 years old , but jail ’ s worth it ! ' "
The song " Zeroes " , which Rolling Stone magazine called the most heartening and successful track on the album , is , according to Bowie , a nostalgia trip : " I wanted to put in every 60s cliche I could think of ! ' Stopping and preaching and letting love in , ' all those things . I hope there 's a humorous undertone to it . But the subtext is definitely that the trappings of rock are not what they 're made out to be . "
The track " Glass Spider " is a kind of mythological story based on a documentary Bowie had seen about black widow spiders that said that the spiders lay the skeletons of their prey out on their webs . Bowie also thought that the Glass Spider 's web would make a good enclosure for the tour , thus giving the supporting tour its name and stage dressing .
Actor Mickey Rourke asked Bowie to be involved in one of the songs , the two having met in London where Rourke was based while filming the movie A Prayer for the Dying . Bowie had him perform the mid @-@ song rap to the song " Shining Star ( Makin ' My Love ) . " Bowie jokingly referred to Rourke 's performance as " method rapping " . Bowie described the song as one that " reflects back @-@ to @-@ street situations , and how people are trying to get together in the face of so many disasters and catastrophes , socially around them , never knowing if they 're going to survive it themselves . The one thing they have got to cling on to is each other ; although it might resolve into something terrible , it 's the only thing that they 've got . It ’ s just a little love song coming out of that environment . " He rejected the notion that his " high , little " voice ( which he attributed to Smokey Robinson ) in the song was a new character ( to follow behind Ziggy Stardust or the Thin White Duke ) , instead saying it was just what the song needed , as he had tried the song in his regular voice and did not like the outcome : " That never bothered me , changing voices to suit a song . You can fool about with it . " " Shining Star " was one of Bowie 's early choices to be a single for the album , but EMI had the final say and did not release the song as a single . A 12 " remix of the song was made available on iTunes when the " Never Let Me Down " EP was released digitally for the first time in 2007 .
Bowie called " New York 's in Love " a sarcastic song about the vanity of big cities .
Bowie originally wrote the song " ' 87 & Cry " as a statement about Margaret Thatcher , who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the time . The song referred to the distinction between the authoritarian government and the citizens ( the " dogs " ) , and Bowie admitted that the lyrics verged on the surreal , describing people " eating the energies of others to get to what they wanted . " The track was released as the b @-@ side to the album 's third single , " Never Let Me Down " .
" Too Dizzy " was the first song Bowie and new collaborator Erdal Kizilcay wrote together for the album , and was written in homage to the 50s . Bowie said " a real Fifties subject matter was either love or jealousy , so I thought I ’ d stick with jealousy because it ’ s a lot more interesting " . Bowie at the time called the song a " throwaway " and seemed surprised that he included it on the album . The song has been deleted from subsequent reissues of Never Let Me Down .
When asked about his choice of including Iggy Pop 's song " Bang Bang " on the album ( instead of perhaps co @-@ writing a new song ) , Bowie stated " Iggy 's done so many good songs that people never get to hear ... I think it 's one of his best songs , ' Bang Bang , ' and it hasn 't been heard , and now it might be . " " Bang Bang " was released as a promotional CD single in 1987 .
Overall , Bowie summed up the album after it was released in 1987 as an effort to " reestablish what I used to do , which was a guitar @-@ oriented album . I think the next album will be even more so . " His follow @-@ up effort was to be the guitar @-@ oriented rock @-@ band album Tin Machine ( 1989 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Initial sales of the album were strong but dropped off disappointingly as contemporary reviews of the album were mixed . Critic Ira Robbins wrote " although this casual loud @-@ rock outing ... seems on first blush to be slapdash and slight , the first side is actually quite good , offering provocative pop @-@ culture lyrics delivered with first @-@ take enthusiasm and carefree backing . " In 1987 , Spin magazine called the album " an inspired and brilliantly crafted work . It 's charged with a positive spirit that makes art soul food ; imbued with the contagious energy that gives ideas a leg to dance on " , but in 1989 a different reviewer for the magazine called the album " disappointing " . Rolling Stone magazine called the work an " odd , freewheeling pastiche of elements from all the previous Bowies , " " unfocused , " and possibly " the noisiest , sloppiest Bowie album ever . ... Being noisy and sloppy isn 't necessarily a bad thing , but sad to say , Never Let Me Down is also something of a mess . " Another critic held a general optimism for the potential of the songs on the album , complaining only that the " oppressive production " ruined the songs . Billboard magazine 's 1987 retrospective issue called Never Let Me Down " arguably the year 's most underrated release " and considered the album a " Critic 's Choice " for the year .
Bowie was not concerned with the album 's relative poor performance in the charts , saying " I 've made about 20 albums during my career , and so far this is my third biggest seller . So I can 't be that disappointed , yet , it is a letdown that it hasn 't been as buoyant as it should be . ... But I don ’ t really feel that negative about it . As far as I 'm concerned it 's one of the better albums I 've made . As I 've said . Never Let Down has been a pretty big seller for me . So I 'm quite happy . " Despite growing criticism in the press , Bowie said that Never Let Me Down was one of the most enjoyable and energetic albums he had made in a long time .
= = Public image = =
Bowie , having just turned 40 the year the album was released , was a common sight on magazine covers during the year . He appeared alongside Tina Turner on the cover of In Fashion magazine ( to the tagline ' Forever cool ' ) , Musician magazine and on the cover of Rolling Stone 's US 20th Anniversary " Style " issue , part of a series of contemporary photographs of Bowie taken by photographer Herb Ritts . Articles about Bowie 's album and tour appeared inside such teen @-@ oriented publications such as Mademoiselle and Teen magazines , the former calling Bowie " a leading candidate for the coolest character in rock . " Bowie was chosen as one of the top male pop stars of the year ( 1987 ) in Billboards end @-@ of @-@ year retrospective issue .
= = Live performances = =
Bowie knew he 'd be taking this album on tour , and in early interviews said " I 'm going to do a stage thing this year , which I 'm incredibly excited about , ' cause I 'm gonna take a chance again " , but when pressed for details , he refused to give up any , saying " I 'll just be doing what I always did , which is keeping things interesting . "
Bowie performed several of the album 's songs during a press tour that preceded his highly theatrical Glass Spider Tour , which played to a combined audience of as many as six million fans . Bowie wanted to produce a live show that picked up where his aborted 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour left off . Although considered financially successful and well attended , the tour itself was critically dismissed . Bowie designed his next few tours specifically to avoid the problems that the Glass Spider Tour was criticized for by avoiding overly theatrical stage presentations and focusing on his music . Despite the criticism , Bowie maintained that performing on this tour was the most fun he had had on tour up to that point in his career .
= = Album legacy = =
Initially after the album 's release , Bowie was excited to return to the studio to record more material , having written more songs than were recorded for the album . He said he wanted to record more " experimental " music , referring to his work in the 1970s with Brian Eno . However , due to the poor critical reception of the album and subsequent tour , Bowie put those plans on hold and instead formed his rock band Tin Machine , which he used to rejuvenate himself creatively and artistically .
His view on the album soured as the years passed . In 1990 , during interviews for his Sound + Vision Tour , Bowie commented that he felt like he was in a " mire " while making this album , and expressed disappointment at having lost good songs by allowing the album 's production to give the songs too much of a session man feel .
A year later , while working with Tin Machine on their second album , he mused on his previous few albums : " You can tell I was terribly unhappy in the late ' 80s . ... I was in that netherworld of commercial acceptance . It was an awful trip . 1983 , ' 84 , ' 85 , ' 86 , ' 87 - those five years were simply dreadful . ... Never Let Me Down had good songs that I mistreated . I didn 't really apply myself . I wasn 't quite sure what I was supposed to be doing . I wish there had been someone around who could have told me . "
In 1993 , while doing press tours for his album Black Tie White Noise , Bowie acknowledged that , while the album sold more than any of his previous albums ( except Let 's Dance ) , he felt that while making it he had almost lost his interest in making music altogether . He elaborated , " In the end I didn 't lose the songs , but I lost the sound . ... I literally threw them away by giving them to very good people to arrange but not being involved myself , almost to the point of indifference . "
In 1995 , Bowie spoke more at length about how he felt his creativity and music had suffered after the success of Let 's Dance :
[ The great public esteem at that time ] meant absolutely nothing to me . It didn 't make me feel good . I felt dissatisfied with everything I was doing , and eventually it started showing in my work . Let 's Dance was an excellent album in a certain genre , but the next two albums after that [ Tonight and Never Let Me Down ] showed that my lack of interest in my own work was really becoming transparent . My nadir was Never Let Me Down . It was such an awful album . I 've gotten to a place now where I 'm not very judgmental about myself . I put out what I do , whether it 's in visual arts or in music , because I know that everything I do is really heartfelt . Even if it 's a failure artistically , it doesn 't bother me in the same way that Never Let Me Down bothers me . I really shouldn 't have even bothered going into the studio to record it . [ laughs ] In fact , when I play it , I wonder if I did sometimes .
No song from this album has been performed on any of Bowie 's tours after 1987 . However , Bowie had Mario J. McNulty remix the track " Time Will Crawl " in 2008 for his compilation of self @-@ selected favourite songs , iSelect , and later included the same mix on his career @-@ spanning 50th anniversary compilation , Nothing Has Changed .
= = Track listing = =
This was the first album to have different length songs on the vinyl release than on the cassette and CD , with almost all the songs appearing on the latter having a longer running time than on the former .
= = = LP : EMI AMLS 3117 ( UK ) = = =
All songs written and composed by David Bowie ( except where noted ) .
The shortened LP version of the album was released digitally for the first time in 2007 on iTunes ( minus " Too Dizzy " ) .
= = = CD : EMI CDP 7 46677 2 ( UK ) = = =
All songs written and composed by David Bowie ( except where noted ) .
= = = LP / CD : EMI EYS @-@ 91221 / CP32 @-@ 5398 ( Japan ) = = =
The original Japanese release of the album included an exclusive re @-@ recording of the song " Girls " sung in Japanese . On the LP the song was slotted at the end of side one .
= = Reissues = =
The track " Too Dizzy " has been deleted from subsequent reissues of the album , reportedly at Bowie 's request because it is his least favourite track on the album .
= = = 1995 reissue [ Virgin CDVUS 98 ( UK ) ] = = =
Virgin Records rereleased the album on CD with three bonus tracks .
= = = 1999 reissue ( EMI ) = = =
EMI released the second reissue in 1999 featuring 24 @-@ bit digitally remastered sound but no bonus tracks , and also without " Too Dizzy " .
= = = 2007 reissue = = =
A 2007 Japanese re @-@ release of the album , based on the EMI 1999 re @-@ issue , included " Too Dizzy " on the track listing although the song itself doesn 't appear on the CD .
= = = 2009 reissue = = =
In 2009 , the album was re @-@ issued in SHM @-@ CD format . The reissue had the same track listing as the 2007 reissue .
= = Production credits = =
Producers : David Bowie
David Richards
Musicians : David Bowie – vocals , guitar , keyboards , tambourine , background vocals
Carlos Alomar – guitar , guitar synthesizer , tambourine , background vocals
Erdal Kızılçay – keyboards , drums , bass , trumpet , background vocals , violins
Peter Frampton – lead guitar
Philippe Saisse – piano , keyboards
Carmine Rojas – bass
Earl Gardner – flugelhorn
Errol " Crusher " Bennett – percussion
Stan Harrison – alto saxophone
Laurie Frink – trumpet
Steve Elson – baritone saxophone
Lenny Pickett – tenor saxophone
Robin Clark , Lani Groves , Diva Gray , Gordon Grodie – background vocals
Sid McGinnis – lead guitar on " Bang Bang " , " Time Will Crawl " and " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out "
Mickey Rourke – mid @-@ song rap on " Shining Star ( Makin ' My Love ) "
= = Singles = =
= = Charts = =
= Dance ( Alexandra Stan song ) =
" Dance " is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her sophomore studio album , Unlocked (
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976 , the institute was offered a generous donation from Hussain Jamal Foundation , as a Harris naveedcHussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry . In due time , Siddiqui transformed the institute into a distinguished centre of international excellence in the field of chemistry and natural products . In March 1975 , he headed the National Commission for Indigenous Medicines His tireless efforts for the promotion of science and technology earned him Hilal @-@ e @-@ Imtiaz by the Government of Pakistan in 1980 . In 1983 , he played a major role in the establishment of the Third World Academy of Sciences and became its Founding Fellow . He remained the director of the Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry until 1990 . Later on , he continued research in his personal laboratory .
= = Death and legacy = =
Siddiqui died on 14 April 1994 due to cardiac arrest after a brief illness in Karachi . He was buried in the Karachi University Graveyard . Despite his death , the academic and research institutes that he founded during more than 65 years of his research career are still contributing to the international level research in natural products chemistry .
As a person of multiple talents , Siddiqui was also a refined poet , musician , and a painter . In August 1924 , he held his first international exhibition of paintings in Frankfurt . Later in 1927 , his works of art were exhibited at the Uzielli Gallery , Frankfurt . During his stay in Germany , he also translated Rainer Maria Rilke 's poetry into Urdu , which was published in the journal of Jamia Millia Islamia . Though , his passion for arts was superseded by the enthusiasm in scientific research , he continued to patronise arts and culture . In 1966 , he was at the forefront for setting up the Central Institute of Arts and Crafts in Karachi . He also compiled a selection of poetry of Mir Taqi Mir into Intekhab @-@ e @-@ Meer . In 1983 , he published a portfolio collection of charcoal drawings from 1920 to 1950s .
On 14 April 1999 , the Pakistan Post , as part of its ' Scientists of Pakistan ' series , issued a commemorative stamp to honour the contributions and services of Siddiqui . In the same year , the street leading to PCSIR Laboratories Complex in Karachi was named as Shahrah @-@ e @-@ Dr. Salim @-@ uz @-@ Zaman Siddiqui . Siddiqui was also remembered by his students and colleagues , many of whom continued to dedicate their international research and publications to his memory . In 2002 , a research article was published in the journal Tetrahedron in which , authors Faizi and Naz dedicated their break @-@ through research to the memory of Siddiqui , their mentor .
= = Awards and honours = =
Siddiqui was a founder @-@ member of the Indian and Pakistan Academies of Sciences , and later a founder member of the international body the Third World Academy of Sciences . The following are the honours he received , in reverse chronological order :
Gold medal of the Soviet Academy of Sciences
Hilal @-@ e @-@ Imtiaz , 1980
President of Pakistan 's Pride of Performance Medal , 1966
Sitara @-@ e @-@ Imtiaz , 1962
Fellow of the Royal Society , 1961
President , Pan @-@ Indian Ocean Science Association , 1960
Tamgha @-@ e @-@ Pakistan , 1958
D. Med . Honoris causa from the Frankfurt University , 1958
Foundation Fellow , Pakistan Academy of Sciences , 1953
MBE in 1946 .
= Doni Tondo =
The Doni Tondo or Doni Madonna , sometimes called The Holy Family , is the only finished panel painting by the mature Michelangelo to survive . Now in the Uffizi in Florence , Italy , and still in its original frame , the painting was probably commissioned by Agnolo Doni to commemorate his marriage to Maddalena Strozzi , the daughter of a powerful Tuscan family . The painting is in the form of a tondo , or round frame , which is frequently associated during the Renaissance with domestic ideas .
The work was most likely created during the period after the Doni 's marriage in 1503 or 1504 , as well as after the excavation of the Laocoön about 1506 , yet before the Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes were begun in 1508 , dating the painting to approximately late 1506 or 1507 . The Doni Tondo features the Christian Holy family ( the child Jesus , Mary , and Saint Joseph ) along with John the Baptist in the foreground and contains five ambiguous nude male figures in the background . The inclusion of these nude figures has been interpreted in a variety of ways .
= = Description = =
The Virgin Mary is the most prominent figure in the composition , taking up much of the center of the image . Mary sits directly on the ground without a cushion between herself and the ground , to better communicate the theme of her relationship to the earth . The grass directly below the figure is green , which sharply contrasts to the grassless ground surrounding her , although the green is now darker and less visible than it was originally . Saint Joseph has a higher position in the image compared to Mary , perhaps as the head of the family , although this is an unusual feature in compositions of the Holy Family . Mary is located between his legs , as if he is protecting her . There is some debate as to whether Mary is receiving the Christ child from Joseph or vice versa . Saint John the Baptist , the patron saint of Florence , is very commonly included in Florentine works depicting the Madonna and Child . He is in the middle @-@ ground of the painting , between the Holy Family and the background . The elements around the family include plants and perhaps water .
The painting is still in its original frame , one that Michelangelo might have influenced or helped design . The frame is ornately carved and rather unusual for the five heads it contains which protrude three @-@ dimensionally into space . Similar to the nudes of the background , the meanings of these heads has been subject to speculation . The frame also contains carvings of crescent moons , stars , vegetation , and lions ’ heads . These symbols are , perhaps , references to the Doni and Strozzi families , taken from each one ’ s coat of arms . As depicted on the frame , “ the moons are bound together with ribbons that interlock with the lions , ” possibly referencing the marriage of the two families .
There is a horizontal band separating the foreground and background , whose function is to separate the Holy Family from the background figures and St. John the Baptist . The background figures are five nudes , whose meaning and function are subject to much speculation and debate . The Holy Family is much larger in size than the nudes in the background , and there appears to be water in between the land where the Holy Family and the nudes are situated . The Holy Family all gaze at Christ , but none of the nudes look directly at him . The far background contains a landscape .
= = Technique = =
The Doni Tondo is believed to be the only existing panel picture Michelangelo painted without the aid of assistants ; and , unlike his Manchester Madonna and Entombment ( both National Gallery , London ) , the attribution to him has never been questioned . The juxtaposition of bright colors foreshadows the same use of color in Michelangelo ’ s later Sistine ceiling frescoes . The folds of the drapery are sharply modeled , and the skin of the figures is so smooth , it looks as if the medium is marble . The surface treatment of the massive figures resembles a sculpture more than a painting . The nude figures in the background have softer modeling and look to be precursors to the ignudi , the male nude figures in the Sistine Ceiling frescoes . Michelangelo ’ s technique includes shading from the most intense colors first to the lighter shades on top , using the darker colors as shadows , a technique called cangiante . By applying the pigment in a certain way , Michelangelo created an " unfocused " effect in the background and focused detail in the foreground . The most vibrant color is located within the Virgin ’ s garments , signifying her importance within the image . X @-@ rays of the painting show that Michelangelo incorporated every known pigment used at the time . The masculinity of Mary could be explained by Michelangelo ’ s use of male models for female figures , as was done for the Sistine Chapel .
Michelangelo used a limited palette of pigments comprising lead white , azurite , verdigris and few others . He avoided ochres and used very little vermilion .
= = Influences = =
The composition is , most likely , partially influenced by the cartoon ( term referring to a two @-@ dimensional preliminary drawing ) for Leonardo da Vinci ’ s The Virgin and Child with St. Anne . Like this earlier ' cartoon ' , Michelangelo ’ s figures seem to be compacted into very little pictorial space and a similar bilaterally symmetrical triangular composition is employed . Michelangelo saw the drawing in 1501 while in Florence working on the David .
The Doni Tondo is also associated with Luca Signorelli ’ s Medici Madonna in the Uffizi . Michelangelo probably knew of the work and its ideas , and he wanted to incorporate those ideas into his own work . Signorelli ’ s Madonna similarly uses a tondo form , depicts nude male figures in the background , and displays the Virgin sitting directly on the earth .
Three aspects of the painting can be attributed to an antique sardonyx cameo and a 15th @-@ century relief from the circle of Donatello , available to Michelangelo in the Palazzo Medici : the circular form , the masculinity of Mary , and the positioning of the Christ Child . The Virgin ’ s right arm mirrors the arm of the satyr in the cameo , and the cameo also depicts an infant located on the shoulders of the satyr , a position similar to the Christ Child on Mary ’ s shoulders .
Additionally , some scholars suggest that Michelangelo was inspired by the famous Greco @-@ Roman group of Laocoön and His Sons , excavated in 1506 , which Michelangelo would have seen . The body positioning and muscular syle of the nude figures in the background of the Doni Tondo resemble the twisting contortions of the figures captured by the serpent in the Laocoön .
Furthermore , the inclusion of the five protruding heads in the paintings frame is often seen as referencing a similar motif found on Ghiberti 's Porta del Paradiso , the bronze doors of the Florence baptistry which Michelangelo was known to greatly admire .
= = Plant symbolism = =
The plant in front of John the Baptist has aspects of both hyssop and cornflower , yet is most likely a hyssop because it grows from a wall . Cornflower is an attribute of Christ and symbolizes Heaven while hyssop symbolizes both the humility of Christ and baptism . There is a citron tree in the background , which represents the Cedar of Lebanon . Michelangelo uses the hyssop and tree as a visual representation of a quote by Rabanus Maurus , " From the Cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop which grows on a stony wall we have an explanation of the Divinity which Christ has in his Father and of the humanity that he derives from the Virgin Mary . " The clover in the foreground represents the Trinity and salvation . The anemone plant represents the Trinity and the Passion of Christ .
= = Scholarly theories = =
There are a multitude of interpretations for the various parts of the work . Most interpretations differ in defining the relationship between the Holy Family and the figures in the background .
Paul Barolsky argues that the Doni Tondo is a " devotional image [ … ] more than an example of style , symbolism , [ or ] iconography " . Barolsky bases much of his thesis on the language used by Giorgio Vasari in his work Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters , Sculptors , and Architects , from Cimabue to Our Times . His support for the idea of devotion comes from Christ being presented in the painting like a gift , which he links to the painting ’ s patron due to a perceived pun on the Italian word for " gift , " " donare , " and the patron ’ s name , Doni . Furthering the Christ @-@ as @-@ gift metaphor , Mary ’ s holding of Christ in the painting is seen to reference the elevating of the host during mass .
Mirella D ’ Ancona argues that the image reflects Michelangelo ’ s views on the roles of the members of the Holy Family in human salvation and the soul ’ s immortality . The Virgin ’ s placement and emphasis is due to her role in human salvation . She is both the mother of Christ and the best intercessor for appealing to him . Michelangelo , who had been strongly influenced by the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola in Florence , is using the picture to defend the Maculist point of view , a philosophy of the Dominican order rejecting the idea of the Immaculate Conception of Mary . The Maculist view is that the Virgin did not receive her sanctification at birth but at the moment of the incarnation of Christ ; thus , the image depicts the moment of Mary ’ s sanctification by showing the Christ Child blessing her . Michelangelo depicts Christ as if he is growing out of Mary ’ s shoulder to take human form , one leg hanging limply and the other not visible at all , therefore making him a part of Mary . Moreover , his muscles and balance convey an upward movement , as if he is growing out of her , although he is above Mary , asserting his superiority to her . Furthermore , she argues that the nudes are to be interpreted as sinners who have removed their clothes for cleansing and purification through baptism . The water , which separates the sinners from the Holy Family , just beyond the horizontal band in the middle of the painting , can therefore be seen as the “ waters of separation ” mentioned in the Bible . She also argues that the five figures may represent the five parts of the soul : the higher soul ( soul and intellect ) on the left and the lower soul ( imagination , sensation , and nourishing faculty ) on the right , a visual depiction of the views of Marsilio Ficino , whom Michelangelo references in other works . Additionally , in looking at them as separate groupings , she suggest that the two figures on Mary ’ s right represents the human and divine natures of Christ , while the three on her left represent the Trinity .
Andrée Hayum argues that the commissioning of the tondo by the Doni family helped to emphasize the " secular and domestic ideals " of the painting rather than seeing it as a " devotional object . " In choosing a tondo as the format for the picture , Michelangelo is referencing the form ’ s long association with depicting the " Adoration of the Magi , the Nativity , [ and ] the Madonna and Child . " Hayum also finds many allusions to Noah throughout the work . She posits a referencing of the Madonna to Noah ’ s daughter @-@ in @-@ law , a sibyl , which thus makes Joseph an embodiment of Noah himself . Hayum further supports this by acknowledging the direct link between Joseph and Noah as depicted in Michelangelo ’ s Sistine Ceiling paintings . This link to Noah also gives an explanation to the nudes in the background , whose forms may have inspired the sons in the Drunkenness of Noah . The allusion to the Noah story also brings up themes of baptismal water , thus giving rise to an interpretation of the nudes similar to D ’ Ancona ’ s : " catechumens awaiting baptism " from John the Baptist , whose " isolation within a pit @-@ like space " indicates his special role as baptizer .
Roberta Olson states that the painting depicts the " importance of the family " and is related to " Doni ’ s hoped @-@ for descendants . " One of the ways in which the painting depicts a " good marriage " is by the seemingly " reciprocal action " of the handling of Jesus between Joseph and Mary . Much importance is given to Joseph by way of the colors of his clothes : yellow , indicating the divine aspect of the family as well as " truth , " and purple , standing for royal lineage tracing from the House of David . Additionally , Joseph is important to the painting by referencing the middle name of the " Doni ’ s third child who lived beyond infancy . " Themes of baptism also are referenced by the influence of Ghiberti 's Porta del Paradiso on the paintings frame . Located on the doors of the Florentine Baptistry , these sculptural reliefs give reference to the rite of baptism , important for the Doni 's and their desire for a child as a product of the good marriage exampled by the Holy Family , perhaps one reasoning behind the commissioning of the work .
= Dølehest =
The Dole Gudbrandsdal , Dølahest or Dole is a draft- and harness @-@ type horse from Norway . The Dole Trotter is alternately considered a subtype of the Dole Gudbrandsdal and a separate breed ; it is also considered a part of the Coldblood trotter type . The Dole Gudbrandsdal is a small draft horse , known for its pulling power and agility , while the Dole Trotter is a smaller , faster horse used for harness racing ; the two types are commonly interbred . Both types are strictly critiqued before entry into the studbook , which has over time resulted in an improvement in the breed type . The Dole is originally from the Gudbrandsdal Valley , and is probably descended in part from the Friesian horse . Over time the breed has had Thoroughbred , Arabian and other blood added in , especially during the creation of the Dole Trotter in the 19th century . The first studbook was created in 1941 , and the current breed association formed in 1947 . Although originally used mainly as a pack horse , today the heavier Dole type is used mainly for agricultural purposes . The Dole Gudbrandsdal been crossed with other breeds to develop horses for harness racing and riding .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The Dole horses generally stand 14 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 3 hands ( 57 to 63 inches , 145 to 160 cm ) hands high , weigh 1 @,@ 190 to 1 @,@ 390 pounds ( 540 to 630 kg ) , and are usually bay , brown or black , with gray , palomino , chestnut and dun occurring less frequently . White markings may occur on the head and legs , especially on the trotter type . The head is heavy with a straight profile , the neck rather short and muscular , the withers moderately pronounced and broad , the chest wide and deep , and the shoulder strong , muscular and sloping . The back is long and the croup broad , muscular and slightly sloping . The legs are short but sturdy and well @-@ muscled , with broad , solid joints and tough hooves . At one point in the breed 's history it was prone to weak legs and low fertility , but these problems have since been corrected . Dole horses closely resemble the British Fell and Dales ponies , which developed from the same ancestral stock .
When presented for grading and studbook inspection , the heavy @-@ type Dole Gudbrandsdals are tested for pulling power and trotting . In the lighter type , x @-@ rays showing the knee and lower legs to be free of defects must be presented , and stallions must have satisfactory results on the track before they may be used for breeding . However , three @-@ year @-@ old stallions may be issued temporary licenses before they begin their racing career if their conformation , breeding , and trotting ability are considered acceptable . Trotting @-@ type mares with proper conformation that are not fast enough during grading may be registered as draft @-@ type Doles . These strict and organized standards have improved the quality of the Dole breed over the past few decades . Although the Dole horse is one of the smallest draft breeds , it shows great pulling power , and is also hardy and agile . They are especially known for their excellent trots , as is shown by the lighter sub @-@ type of the breed . During the late 20th century , interbreeding between the two types became quite common ; due to this , the breed became much more uniform in type , with fewer differences between the trotter and draft sections .
= = Breed history = =
The Dole is thought to have originated in the Gudbrandsdal , an inland valley in the county of Oppland . It is likely that the Dole is in part a descendant of the Friesian , as the two breeds are similar in conformation , and the Frisian people were known traders in the area between 400 and 800 AD . There was also equine movement between western Norway and northern England during the 9th century through the mid @-@ 11th century ; this extended period of trade between these areas likely influenced the strong resemblance between the Dole , Friesian , Fell Pony and Dale Pony breeds .
Two stallions , named Odin and Mazarin , had a large influence on the development of the Dole breed . Odin ( son of Partisan ) , was a stallion of Thoroughbred ( some sources say Norfolk Trotter ) breeding , imported to Norway in 1834 . Odin was said to cost ₤ 257 at the time and to have been bred to over 100 mares in his first four years in Norway . All Dole Trotter horses today contain Odin bloodlines . Mazarin was an Arabian imported to Norway in 1934 . In 1849 , another influential stallion was foaled , named Veikle Balder 4 ; he was a grandson of Odin and is considered the foundation stallion of the heavier Dole type . A stallion named Brimen 825 was used by breeders to maintain and improve some horses of the heavier Dole type for draft uses .
In the 19th century , harness racing began to rise in popularity in Norway and breeders looked to create a horse suitable for that sport . The Dole Trotter , a smaller , lighter , faster variation of the draft @-@ type Dole Gudbrandsdal , was then developed . Infusions of Thoroughbred blood , as well as that of various trotting and heavy draft breeds , was used to create this new type . The Dole Trotter was especially influenced between 1840 and 1860 by two other stallions , Toftebrun and Dovre ( an Arabian ) ; the latter is the foundation stallion of the Dole Trotter type . The two types are commonly interbred , especially since 1960 .
In 1872 , the Dole Gudbrandsdal was split into two types - a class for heavier agriculture and driving horses and a class for lighter racing and riding horses . In 1875 , the Norwegian Trotting Association was formed by enthusiasts of the second type . In 1902 , the first Dole Gudbrandsdal stud book was published , containing stallions from both types born between 1846 and 1892 . In 1903 , the Norwegian Trotting Association split their registration between purebred Norwegian trotters and trotting crosses . At the same time , standards for entry were tightened and the first inspection committee was created . In 1965 , the Norwegian or Dole Trotter studbook was taken over by the Norwegian Trotting Association , as part of the new Coldblood trotter program approved by the Norwegian Ministry for Agriculture . The Dole Trotter studbook is still coordinated with the original Dole Gudbrandsdal registry , and horses have to meet many of the same standards . The Dole Trotter is alternately considered a subtype of the Dole Gudbrandsdal and a separate breed .
Interest in the Dole Gudbrandsdal continued through World War II , and the horses were used heavily during Norway 's occupation by Germany . Breed numbers and interest diminished after the war as increasing mechanization reduced demand for draft animals ; however , a breeding center was established in 1962 to help maintain population numbers . In 1947 , the National Dølehorse Association was formed to promote and preserve the breed . As of 2002 , there are approximately 4 @,@ 000 registered Dole Gudbrandsdals , with around 175 new foals registered annually .
= = Uses = =
When originally developed , Dole Gudbrandsdals were used as pack horses on overland trade routes across Norway , the main one of which connected Oslo with the North Sea and ran through the Gudbrandsdal Valley . The Dole Gudbrandsdal is used mainly for heavy draft and agricultural work , as well as timber hauling , while the lighter Dole Trotter is used mainly for harness racing . The Dole Gudbrandsdal was an influential breed in the formation of the North Swedish Horse , and the two breeds are very similar in conformation . When the Dole and North Swedish breeds are crossed , they produce a lighter @-@ weight horse with more forward gaits that is often used for harness racing . The Dole Gudbrandsdal has also been crossed with Swedish Warmbloods to produce riding @-@ type horses , and it has been theorized that Dole / Thoroughbred crosses may produce nice hunter horses .
= What Is and What Should Never Be ( Supernatural ) =
" What Is and What Should Never Be " is the twentieth episode of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural 's second season . It was first broadcast on May 3 , 2007 on The CW . The narrative follows series protagonist Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) who finds himself in an alternate reality after a confrontation with a djinn [ sic ] . The creature appears to have fulfilled Dean 's greatest wish : that his mother had not been killed when he was a child . Dean is happy in the new world until it becomes apparent that his previous work as a hunter of supernatural creatures has been undone . At this point , he rejects the alternate reality , and attempts to find a method to bring himself back .
The episode was written by Raelle Tucker , and marked the directorial debut of series creator Eric Kripke . It featured the return of deceased characters Mary Winchester ( Samantha Smith ) and Jessica Moore ( Adrianne Palicki ) . Kripke enjoyed expanding upon the character of Mary , who was only briefly depicted in earlier episodes . The production schedule had to be altered to accommodate Palicki , who was simultaneously working on the TV series Friday Night Lights .
Despite obtaining low ratings , the episode acquired positive critical reviews that both praised Ackles ' performance and welcomed the return of Smith and Palicki to the series . Tucker also received a Constellation Award for her work on the episode .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins in an abandoned warehouse , where Dean ( Ackles ) is attacked by the djinn that he is hunting . He suddenly finds himself in a world in which his mother ( Smith ) was not killed by the demon Azazel . He and his brother Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) were not raised to be hunters of supernatural creatures , but are no longer close , as Dean is irresponsible , disloyal , and drinks too much in this alternate reality ; when a confused Dean calls him for help , Sam thinks that he is drunk . In the new reality , Dean is dating the beautiful Carmen ( Michelle Borth ) , and Sam is at law school and engaged to Jessica ( Palicki ) — another victim of Azazel . Although Dean enjoys his new life , a ghostly young woman seems to be haunting him and he is confronted by an image of corpses in his closet . He realizes that all the people that he and Sam had saved as hunters are now dead , that he and Sam have a distant and somewhat adversarial relationship . After visiting the grave of his father John , who died the previous year of a stroke , Dean decides that he must give up his new @-@ found happiness to save them .
In need of something silver — a weakness of the djinn — Dean breaks into his mother 's house to steal a sterling silver knife . However , he is caught by Sam , who thinks he 's stealing from their mother . While Dean at first pretends that he needs the knife to repay a gambling debt , he eventually reveals the truth . Although Sam does not believe him , he accompanies his brother to the djinn 's warehouse lair . There Dean discovers that the young woman he has been having visions of is a victim of the djinn . It 's clear that she is alive but in an hallucinatory state — a way for the djinn to keep its victims unresisting while it feeds — Dean realizes that he , too , is within an illusory world . Knowing that a person wakes up if he or she dies in a dream , he decides to kill himself . Carmen , Jessica , and his mother appear and try to talk him out of it . Dean resists the urge to stay , and awakens in the real world after stabbing himself . Sam , who is already in the warehouse trying to rescue him , is attacked by the djinn , but Dean kills the creature .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Series creator Eric Kripke 's first experience as director was slated for the twentieth episode of the season , and Raelle Tucker was scheduled to pen it . Kripke wanted a script that was as " director @-@ proof as possible " , but that would " play with structure and really do something different " . He shot down every idea the writers pitched to him until Tucker suggested an alternate reality episode . Drawing inspiration from the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode " Normal Again " , Kripke was excited by the concept . He felt Dean 's definitive moment was the death of his mother Mary , so the " diversion path " of the new reality would be based on the question , " What if mom never died ? " This change allows Sam and Dean to live normal lives , though at the cost of their relationship . The point of the false reality , in Kripke 's opinion , was to show that the brothers would not be close if they had not become hunters . The staff tried to persuade him to remove this aspect , but he thought it would be " lame " for Sam and Dean to have a " 7th Heaven relationship " . Once the story was fully developed , Tucker was given free rein over the script ; this surprised her because she expected Kripke to " be more of a backseat driver than he was " .
The opportunity to bring back the character of Mary Winchester excited Kripke . Though she is a driving force behind the brothers ' quest to kill the demon Azazel and is referenced numerous times throughout the first two seasons , her two appearances in the series were very brief . The episode allowed the character to be expanded upon , depicting her as a " really perfect and idyllic mother " . However , Kripke felt that Dean would realize something was amiss if he was granted a " perfect dream world " , so John Winchester , who died in the second season premiere , remained dead .
The final version of the episode differed from the original concept . It was initially intended for Dean to be a " huge loser " in his new life ; being a hunter is what gives him structure and purpose . Without hunting , he would be a jobless barfly . Kripke compared the new reality to a Charles Bukowski novel , but noted that the selfless Dean still preferred the new universe , with Sam happy and living a good life . However , executive producer Robert Singer and others convinced him to change this , because they did not think Dean would be happy suddenly waking up in such a reality . Another variation stemmed from Dean 's lack of someone to confide in — normally Sam is his confidant . Because the writers found it difficult to communicate Dean 's feelings , early drafts of the script included a number of internal monologues . These were ultimately replaced by a scene in which he discusses the djinn with a professor . The studio wanted the scene of Dean and his girlfriend Carmen kissing on the sofa to include sex . However , Kripke could not work it into the script , because he found it unrealistic that she would deliberately be late for her job as a hospital nurse .
= = = Djinn = = =
The writers wanted to use a wish to create the new reality , and chose a genie to facilitate it . The Islamic djinn — the origins of genie folklore — became the episode 's monster , but featured the " bastardized western conception " of wish @-@ granting to fit the episode . To avoid the typical portrayal of genies in popular culture — such as those from Aladdin and I Dream of Jeannie — they chose to create a " logical twist on the lore " by making the creature vampiric . Tucker originally intended for the creature 's feeding method to be mystical — it would inhale its victim 's life essence from his or her mouth . However , Kripke preferred to style it more like a horror movie , and had the djinn feed from a shunt in its victim 's neck .
The creature 's appearance was inspired by an image of a woman with a henna @-@ tattooed back that Kripke found on the internet . He thought it would be intriguing to have the villain 's entire body tattooed . The actor who portrayed the djinn — Mackenzie Gray — had a shaved head , so special effects makeup artist Toby Lindala only used a minor prosthetic to cover Gray 's eyebrows . Lindala found the tattoos to be a " particular challenge " because they were " intricate designs " . The production schedule could not accommodate the six hours needed to apply the makeup each day , so the actor was booked with the condition that the make @-@ up not be removed for four days . Gray 's personal life was affected by this , as people on the street were scared by his appearance . Lindala was surprised that Gray was able to keep the tattoos undamaged outside of filming .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the episode took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . Kripke wanted Adrianne Palicki to reprise her role of Jessica Moore — Sam 's deceased girlfriend — but she was busy filming for the Texas @-@ based television series Friday Night Lights . Because Jessica was an integral aspect of the storyline , the production schedule was adjusted to accommodate the actress . The first five days of filming commenced for " What Is and What Should Never Be " , and production then shifted to " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " until Palicki became available for the final three days of filming . However , she was not present for filming of the episode 's climax . Instead , the actress filmed her part in front of a blue screen , and was later digitally added into the scene .
Because the series usually has a dark atmosphere , often consisting of " sets with grime and a sense of danger " , Kripke wanted there to be a contrast between the two worlds . Therefore , he requested that production designer Jerry Wanek build the " most beautiful , warm , affectionate sets you ’ ve ever seen " . Cinematographer Serge Ladouceur also made the usual shadows and " moody lighting " more colorful and warm . Though it rained almost constantly through filming , perfect weather arose for filming of one of the main contrasting scenes — Dean mowing the lawn . Kripke wanted it to appear " too perfect to be real " , and was able to film the " sunny , beautiful scene " . The " creepy " warehouse used as a lair by the djinn was a redesigned warehouse set from the television series Kyle XY .
One of the first directors Kripke had become acquainted with and learned from was David Nutter . Kripke thus wanted to include homages to Nutter 's work on the pilot ; some scenes of the new reality were meant to be recreations from the first episode . The crew attempted to match the camera angles , lighting , and music as much as possible . While Sam and Jessica sleeping together in bed was supposed to be an exact replica of a similar scene , the fight between the brothers differed . Because the new Sam is " pretty much a wussy " , Dean is able to take him down instantly . Tucker noted that it was also a " sneaky way " of hinting that the new reality was merely an illusion , as he is " re @-@ experiencing that moment from the pilot because his fantasy world is being generated by what he already knows and has lived " .
Many of the photos present throughout the Winchester home were photoshopped by graphic artist Mary @-@ Ann Liu . Each one was discussed and refined , as Kripke felt they were important to show the new Winchester family history . Some pictures , such as Dean at the prom and Sam at graduation , were edited versions of photos from Ackles ' and Padalecki 's childhood .
= = = Music = = =
The episode 's synthesized orchestral score was written by Christopher Lennertz . As of production of the fourth season , the episode has been his favorite one to score . Lennertz used a solo bassoon for the emotional scenes in the alternate reality rather than the cello he normally uses for Sam and Dean 's relationship . He noted that it " set a very interesting lead tone for the episode " . Following the series ' tradition , the episode also featured rock songs .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " What Is and What Should Never Be " was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 11 million viewers , one of the lowest ratings for the season . Conversely , writer Raelle Tucker won the Constellation Award for " Best Overall 2007 Science Fiction Film or Television Script " for her work on the episode , and the episode garnered positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide " adored " the episode , and considered it to be Jensen Ackles ' best performance of the series . She experienced an " emotional roller coaster the entire hour " , finding Dean 's monologue at his father 's grave to be " crushing " but the lawnmower scene to be " hilarious " . Likewise , Diana Steenbergen of IGN gave the episode a rating of 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 , praising the quick pace , " heavy " character development , and " ton and a half of angst " . She , too , felt that Ackles " hits the ball out of the park " , and noted that the episode 's humor stemmed from Ackles ' willingness to be a " big goofball " . Actresses Samantha Smith and Adrianne Palicki were " a treat " , although Steenbergen would have liked Jeffrey Dean Morgan to return .
Tom Burns of UGO deemed the episode as " one of the strongest hours of Supernatural all season " , feeling that " the actors really stepped up their game ... and sold every moment " . He also noted the " unapologetically emotional " Ackles , who " [ wore ] his joy , sadness , and anxiety all over this face , but always [ kept ] things real and in character " . Though Burns believed that " wish @-@ world " stories have been overused in fiction , he felt that Ackles ' " hardcore acting chops " allowed the episode to " escape from mediocrity " . The " outstanding " and " well crafted " episode was given a 7 out of 7 by TV Squad 's Brett Love . He considered the djinn as " one of the better representations " of genies in popular culture , and noted that the creature had the " perfect creepy look to it " . He was pleased to see Smith and Palicki return , and found the character of Carmen to be " a nice addition to the family " . Don Williams of BuddyTV agreed , and ranked the episode third in his list of the best episodes of the first three seasons . Deeming it the best standalone episode , he noted that it " can be embraced by anyone who enjoys clever writing , great acting , or a shirtless Jensen Ackles " .
= Laurence Fox =
Laurence Paul Fox ( born 26 May 1978 ) is an English actor , singer @-@ songwriter and guitarist , best known for his leading role as DS James Hathaway in the British TV drama series Lewis from 2006 to 2015 . His debut album , Holding Patterns , was released in February 2016 .
= = Early years and education = =
The third of five children of actor James Fox and his wife Mary Elizabeth Piper , His father James was the son of Major Robin Fox , theatrical agent , who married Angela Muriel Darita Worthington , a natural daughter of Frederick Lonsdale . Laurence Fox was born in 1978 in Yorkshire . At the age of thirteen he entered Harrow School where , according to him , he was " shy around women , sensitive and a bit naïve " . Although he made friends and liked the drama teacher , he hated the school 's strict regimen and felt despised and out of place among pupils with titles and wealth . Constantly in trouble for smoking , fighting , going into town and seeing girls , he was eventually expelled a few weeks before his A @-@ levels . According to him , " It was something to do with a girl at a dance . I went back to take the exams , but I wasn 't allowed to speak to anyone . " With hindsight , Fox has said that his experience at Harrow enabled him to portray " toffs " – the upper @-@ class boys looking down on him and whom he disliked – with much insight and cynicism .
Despite doing well in his A @-@ level examinations , because of his report from Harrow he was unable to obtain a place at any university . After working as a gardener for two years , and a stint as an office worker which he loathed , he discovered that he enjoyed acting and enrolled at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) . During his time there he appeared in numerous theatre productions , including the lead roles of Gregers Werle in Ibsen 's The Wild Duck , Marcus Andronicus in Titus Andronicus , and Stephen Daedalus in an adaptation of James Joyce 's novel Ulysses . However , he was disappointed to find that he was treated " like a nonce " for being an Old Harrovian . He also made himself more unpopular by being outspoken and taking on roles in his second and third years despite the practice being forbidden by school policy . One of these was his first break into film – the 2001 horror @-@ thriller The Hole . Fox feels that in landing the role his name " probably helped – it 's a combination of timing , luck and contacts " . Nonetheless , " [ t ] he name opens some doors , but then you have to show you can do the job " .
= = Career = =
Fox , who graduated from RADA on 1 July 2001 , followed up The Hole by appearing in Robert Altman 's 2001 Academy Award @-@ winning film Gosford Park . He then donned uniforms in a slew of film and television features , including roles as a German airman in Island at War ( 2004 ) , an SS officer in The Last Drop ( 2005 ) , and as British soldiers in the 2002 films Deathwatch and Ultimate Force , and in Colditz ( 2005 ) . In the last made @-@ for @-@ television film , Fox played Capt. Tom Willis who , after an unsuccessful attempt to break out of a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , is brought to Oflag IV @-@ C in Colditz Castle , one of the most infamous German POW camps for officers in World War II . Actor Kevin Whately caught Fox 's performance in the last ten minutes of the film , which he characterised as " this young English boy going bonkers and wandering out to be shot " , and thought " He 's interesting . " The next day , at a lunch meeting with " all the powers that be " regarding a new project , Whately mentioned that Fox " would be worth taking a look at " .
As a result , Fox was cast in the ITV detective drama Lewis as Detective Sergeant James Hathaway , a Cambridge @-@ educated former trainee priest who becomes the partner of Detective Inspector Robert Lewis , played by Whately . The pilot of this spin @-@ off from Inspector Morse ( 1987 – 2000 ) , was ITV 's highest rated drama of 2006 .
Real people that Fox has portrayed include Prince Charles , in Whatever Love Means ( 2005 ) ; Wisley , one of Jane Austen 's suitors , in Becoming Jane ( 2007 ) ; and Sir Christopher Hatton , the Lord Chancellor of England in Elizabeth : The Golden Age , also released in 2007 . In addition , in that year Fox was seen on ITV as Cecil Vyse in Andrew Davies ' adaptation of A Room with a View based on E.M. Forster 's 1908 novel . He has expressed a desire to appear in a western , and to star as James Bond – the closest he got to the latter was losing the role of villain Gustav Graves in Die Another Day ( 2002 ) to Toby Stephens .
On stage , Fox appeared in Mrs. Warren 's Profession by George Bernard Shaw at the Strand Theatre ( now the Novello Theatre ) in London in 2002 , and John Ford 's 17th @-@ century play ' Tis Pity She 's a Whore in 2005 . Between 2006 and 2007 he starred in Treats by Christopher Hampton with his future wife , Billie Piper . In April 2007 , Fox lost his temper with a paparazzi photographer outside the Garrick Theatre in London where he was performing in Treats and was arrested for assault . He was later released after receiving a police caution . Newspaper reports stated that the caution would remain on his record for three years and might prevent his obtaining a visa to perform in the US . In 2013 , Fox played Guy Haines in Strangers on a Train at London 's Gielgud Theatre . On 9 May 2015 he portrayed a wartime soldier composing a letter at VE Day 70 : A Party to Remember in Horse Guards Parade , London that was broadcast live on BBC1 .
When filming , Fox often plays the jester to amuse the cast and crew . He has said , " I 'd just rather have a good time than I would be Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . There ain 't no method to my acting . "
In March 2016 Laurence Fox apologised for swearing at a member of the audience who had been muttering audibly in the front row during a performance of The Patriotic Traitor at London 's Park Theatre on 8 March . The audience saw Fox step out of character - that of French statesman Charles de Gaulle - and chastise the heckler with robust language . " If someone is hell @-@ bent on heckling , they are ruining it for everybody , " he explained to Sarah Montague on the Today programme on 10 March 2016 . " It becomes an un @-@ performable play , the play stops at that moment . "
= = Personal life = =
Fox dated British actress Billie Piper in 2006 while they performed together in the stage play Treats . On 31 December 2007 Fox married Piper in the 12th century parish church of St. Mary 's in Easebourne , West Sussex . During a 21 February 2008 interview on ITV breakfast show GMTV , Fox revealed that after a " drunken lunch " during their honeymoon in Mexico he and Piper got matching tattoos to celebrate their marriage . His tattoo , on his forearm , reads " Mrs Fox 31 December 2007 , " while hers states " Mr Fox . " As of 2007 Fox and Piper lived in a country cottage in the market town of Midhurst in West Sussex . In March 2008 it was reported that Piper had expressed to family and friends a desire to adopt children as well as to have children of her own with Fox . On 27 April 2008 The Sun , quoting an unnamed source , announced that Piper was three months ' pregnant and that she and Fox were " absolutely over the moon " . On 21 October 2008 , Piper gave birth to a son , Winston James Fox , by emergency Caesarean section . Piper gave birth to their second son , Eugene Pip , on 5 April 2012 . On 24th March 2016 , Fox announced on his Facebook page that the pair had split after eight years of marriage . He stated that no third party was involved in the separation . On 12 May 2016 , it was announced that Fox and Piper had divorced after more than eight years of marriage .
Fox 's siblings are Tom ( born 1975 ) , Robin ( 1976 ) , Lydia ( 1979 ) , and Jack ( 1985 ) ; Lydia Fox is herself an actress . His uncles are the actor Edward Fox and the theatrical and film producer Robert Fox . The actors Emilia Fox and Freddie Fox are his first cousins , being the children of Edward Fox . Fox is also Richard Ayoade 's brother @-@ in @-@ law .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
Some information in this table was obtained from Laurence Fox : Filmography , Internet Movie Database ( IMDb ) , retrieved 16 March 2008 .
= = = Television = = =
Some information in this table was obtained from Laurence Fox : Filmography , Internet Movie Database ( IMDb ) , retrieved 16 March 2008 .
= = = Theatre = = =
Some information in this table was obtained from the following websites : Laurence Fox , Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , archived from the original on 3 February 2008 , retrieved 18 March 2008 ; Laurence Fox : Other works , Internet Movie Database ( IMDb ) , retrieved 16 March 2008 .
= = Discography = =
Albums
Sorry for My Words ( 2013 ) .
Holding Patterns ( 2016 )
Singles
" Gunfight " ( 2012 )
" So Be Damned " ( 2013 ) .
" Headlong " ( 2015 )
" Rise Again " ( 2016 )
= Lavaca Bay =
Lavaca Bay ( / ləvˈɑːkə / ) is a northwestern extension of the Matagorda Bay system found mostly in Calhoun County , Texas , United States . The ports of Port Lavaca and Point Comfort have been established on the bay , and are the main areas of human habitation . Linnville was located on the bay until its abandonment after the Great Raid of 1840 , and the major port of Indianola was found near the confluence with the main Matagorda Bay , until the town 's final destruction following the massive hurricane of 1886 . Smaller communities include Olivia , Alamo Beach and Magnolia Beach . Lavaca Bay is approximately 82 miles ( 130 km ) northeast of Corpus Christi , about 121 miles ( 190 km ) southwest of Houston , and 145 miles ( 230 km ) southeast of San Antonio .
The bay is noted for its superfund site , caused by mercury pollution from the heavy industry in Point Comfort ( specifically Alcoa ) , across the bay from the largest settlement of Port Lavaca . Although fishing has declined in recent years due to fears of contamination , the bay supports a large finfish population , and the efforts of environmental organizations and the federal government have pressured Alcoa to reduce the polluted areas .
= = History = =
Lavaca Bay was formed when the sea level rose following the last ice age , flooding the Lavaca River @-@ Garcitas Creek basin . The name comes from the Spanish adaptation of the French vache or cow , given to the area by French explorer René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle for the sightings of Plains Bison , which were once common near the bay and the creeks that feed it . It is believed La Salle established his Fort St. Louis colony near the bay on Garcitas Creek . The first sizable human settlement on the bay shore was at the town of New Port , established in 1831 by Irish merchant John J. Linn as part of De León 's colony . The site was later renamed Linnville , and grew to a population of 200 by 1839 . It was described as " a place of considerable business " in Sketches of Texas in 1840 , and was used extensively during the early years of the Republic of Texas . Future San Antonio Mayor Samuel Maverick owned a warehouse in the town , along with many other prominent Texans . The town was destroyed during the Great Raid of 1840 , orchestrated by the Comanche Indians , and was later abandoned .
Port Lavaca or Labaca , developed after the abandonment of Linnville . It grew substantially following the destruction of Indianola , and became a prominent shipping location and national leader in shrimp production . Across the bay and currently connected by Texas State Highway 35 , the town of Point Comfort is found . It was incorporated in 1953 at a citywide vote and is known for its large aluminium and petrochemical plants built in the 1960s . The small town of Olivia , which was founded in 1892 as a Swedish Lutheran community , is located on the shores of Keller Bay . The unincorporated towns of Alamo Beach , established around 1900 , and Magnolia Beach , founded sometime thereafter , and named for the Magnolia figs produced in the area , are found north of the remains of the ghost town of Indianola .
= = Features = =
Lavaca Bay is the largest extension of the Matagorda Bay system , and includes its own extensions of Chocolate Bay to the southwest , Cox Bay to the east , and Keller Bay to the southeast . The Lavaca River as well as Garcitas Creek and Venado Creek supply the bay with freshwater from the north . Channels have been dredged to connect the bay to the Intracoastal Waterway , which runs to the south . On average , the bay is about 4 feet ( 1 m ) in depth .
Unlike most of the Matagorda Bay system , Lavaca Bay has a mostly muddy bottom with large amounts of oyster reefs and spoils islands formed by the dredging of several canals . The shores are lined with grassy bluffs and a thick cover of trees . The Lavaca River enters near the Port Lavaca Causeway as it traverses Lavaca Bay from Port Lavaca to Point Comfort at the center of the bay , which is also its narrowest width . The river flows 115 miles ( 190 km ) southeast from its source in northeast Gonzales County , draining approximately 2 @,@ 280 square miles ( 5 @,@ 900 km2 ) into Lavaca Bay . South of the Port Lavaca Causeway in Point Comfort , on the bay 's eastern shore , a heavy industrial sector is located , which lines the coast to Cox Bay , which extends to the east . South of Cox Bay is the larger Keller Bay extension , which extends the bay to its easternmost point near Olivia . Below the extension , is a narrow peninsula , bounded by Matagorda Bay to the south , which extends west to mouth of Lavaca Bay . Across the mouth on the western shore , past the Matagorda Ship Channel , which runs through the middle of the bay to Point Comfort , the town of Magnolia Beach is found . To the northwest is the town of Alamo Beach , located on Gailinipper Point , from which a major oyster reef begins across the bay to Point Comfort . The point is located on the northeastern extreme of a headland that juts to the north , forming Chocolate Bay to the west . Port Lavaca is found north of Chocolate Bay , back at the Port Lavaca Causeway . North of the causeway is a large circular extension , forming the northern boundary of the Lavaca Bay . The northwestern extreme is formed by Garcitas Cove , fed by Garcitas Creek , which flows 48 miles ( 77 km ) from its source in DeWitt County . To the east is Venado Creek , which converges with the bay , northwest of the mouth of the Lavaca River .
= = Ecosystem = =
Lavaca Bay hosts a wide range of finfish including Black drum , Flounder , Redfish , Sheepshead and Speckled trout , however it suffers from mercury pollution . An Alcoa plant in Point Comfort dumped an estimated 67 pounds ( 30 kg ) of mercury into the bay per day in the 1960s , affecting 64 square miles ( 170 km2 ) . A mercury superfund was established at the site , and the processing of oysters and blue crab in certain locations was prohibited . A study revealed that the bay 's detritus is more than ten times as contaminated as nearby Keller Bay .
The pollution issue is a main concern of citizens of Calhoun County , and has attracted demonstrations against industry in Point Comfort . However , Alcoa has worked with state and federal officials , spending $ 110 million to reduce the size of the superfund site , as part of a 2005 settlement . Cooperation aims to create 70 additional acres of salt marsh and 11 acres of oyster reef habitat .
Locals have estimated that the only area still affected by contamination is just offshore from the Alcoa plant . Signs warning boaters of the water 's toxicity are found at the site . The stigma attached to the bay due to reports of pollution has discouraged fishing , enabling a healthy population to develop .
= = Industry = =
Industry is heavy along the bay , with an abundance of natural gas and oil wells at all corners . Natural gas was discovered at the site in 1934 , and oil was discovered the next year . Point Comfort is home to several industrial plants along the shore , including Alcoa , Union Carbide , Du Pont , and Formosa , which contribute to the local economies . Despite the restrictions on the bay that prevent the production of fish and shellfish along the superfund site , seafood harvesting is a major industry . However , it is not as prominent as it was in the 1920s , when Port Lavaca led the nation in shrimp production , leading to the construction of a quick @-@ freezing plant . Today , shrimping is only allowed south of the Port Lavaca Causeway , due to the north 's classification as a nursery location . Shellfish production is allowed in Keller Bay and Lavaca Bay south of Point Comfort , but is restricted along the eastern and northern coast and Chocolate Bay , and is conditionally approved in the remaining locations , including along the shore of Port Lavaca . A small tourism industry also fuels economic growth , spurred by the Port Lavaca State Fishing Pier found alongside the Port Lavaca Causeway . The pier once served as the causeway across the bay but was replaced in the 1960s and converted into a fishing pier of 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 980 m ) , billed as the longest in the world .
= Aruba at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Aruba competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . Their participation marked their sixth Olympic appearance , and included the smallest number of athletes that had ever represented Aruba in its history . Two Arubans competed in the Olympic games : Jan Roodzant participated as a swimmer , and Fiderd Vis participated in judo . The Aruban delegation arrived in Beijing between August 1 and August 4 , including the athletes , coaches , and various officials from both the IOC and the Aruban Olympic Committee ( Comité Olimpico Arubano , COA ) , Aruba 's local Olympic committee . Fiderd Vis came to Beijing on special invitation from the IOC , which had observed his progress while he trained in Brazil . Vis was the flagbearer in the opening ceremony , while Roodzant was so in the closing ceremony . Both athletes were eliminated in the preliminary rounds on August 12 , 2008 ; consequently , Aruba did not earn any medals .
= = Background = =
Aruba had competed in five consecutive Olympic Games by 2008 ; its entrance into the Beijing Olympics marked its sixth consecutive appearance since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea . In the summer of 2008 , the fewest athletes in Aruba 's history thus far participated in the Olympics , with two men participating in two events . This compares with Aruba 's participation in the previous 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , where Aruba was represented by four athletes of three sports . Aruba 's 2008 Olympic representatives included no female athletes , which had occurred only once previously in Atlanta 's 1996 Summer Olympics ( three male athletes participating in three distinct sports ) .
On August 1 , 2008 , the Aruban athletes left for Beijing aboard KLM Flight 765 . Vis and Roodzant were accompanied by their trainers and COA officials Edmundo Josiah and Chu Halabi . COA president Leo Maduro and COA officials Mary Hsing and Ling Wong left for Beijing three days later . Alongside IOC member Nicole Hoevertsz , this group formed the Aruban delegation to the 2008 Summer Olympic Games .
The Aruban delegation arrived at the Olympic Village on August 6 , 2008 , alongside the delegations of Paraguay , Cuba , and Tuvalu . As part of the welcoming ceremony , the Chinese military hoisted the Aruban flag , and the Aruban national anthem " Aruba Dushi Tera " was performed . The Aruban delegation and the governing body of the Olympic Village exchanged gifts .
Aruba 's athletes were 109th to enter the Beijing National Stadium during the march of nations of the opening ceremony . Fiderd Vis , the only judoka representing Aruba , was the flagbearer . During the closing ceremony , the swimmer Jan Roodzant was the flagbearer .
= = Judo = =
Fiderd Vis was the only Aruban participating as a judoka in the Beijing Olympics . He was trained by Alberto Thiel .
To train for the Olympics , Fiderd Vis left Aruba to train in Brazil , taking advantage of an agreement between the COA and the Brazilian Olympic Committee and another between the COA and the Brazilian Judo Confederation fostered after Aruba 's participation in the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro . Vis left for Brasília on Wednesday , June 4 , 2008 to participate in Campeonato Suramericano . He later traveled to São Paulo to train with Brazilian judokas . Having seen Vis 's progress , the International Olympic Committee extended to him a special invitation that guaranteed his participation in the Beijing Olympics . The COA accepted the invitation , and Fiderd Vis became Aruba 's second and final athlete for the year 's Olympic Games .
Vis faced Guo Lei of China on August 12 in the fourteenth match of the preliminary round of 32 . He was defeated , and did not advance .
= = Swimming = =
Netherlands @-@ born Jan Roodzant was the only Aruban swimmer to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics .
Roodzant spent the year prior to the Olympics with trainer Ismael Santiesteban , preparing in Gainesville , Florida , receiving specialist training alongside the University of Florida 's swim team . He returned to Aruba for a few days , starting February 26 , 2008 , but soon returned to the United States to resume his training . Roodzant sook to qualify for FINA by doing well at the CARIFTA Swimming Championships ; in qualifying for FINA , Roodzant secured a spot in the Beijing Olympics .
Roodzant completed his last practice in Beijing on August 11 , 2008 , the day before his competition . Roodzant was assigned to heat 2 for his race . He was the fastest swimmer in his heat during the preliminaries of August 12 , with a time of 51.69s in the men 's 100 metre freestyle event . Overall , however , he was 53rd out of 64 in the event , and as a result , he did not advance .
= Change Your Life ( Little Mix song ) =
" Change Your Life " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their debut studio album , DNA ( 2012 ) . It was written by Richard " Biff " Stannard , Tim Powell , Ash Howes and Little Mix , while its production was handled by Stannard and Powell . " Change Your Life " was written while the group were on The X Factor Tour and it was the first song composed for the album . It was written based on the group 's experience on The X Factor and their fans . Syco serviced the song , the third single from DNA , to radio stations in the United Kingdom on 5 January 2013 . It was released for digital download on 15 February 2013 . The song has themes of girl power , perseverance and self @-@ empowerment .
A mid @-@ tempo pop power ballad , " Change Your Life " exhibits the influence of soul and urban contemporary music . Instrumentation includes tumbling R & B piano lines and a pulsating , driving backbeat . The contemporary sound provided by its instrumentation has similarities to several songs produced by Coldplay and Ryan Tedder . " Change Your Life " attracted mixed to positive reviews from critics , most of whom considered it a highlight on DNA , commending the group 's harmonies and the song 's inspirational lyrics . Some reviewers , however , felt that it was weak and poor alternative to the album 's lead single , " Wings " ( 2012 ) .
" Change Your Life " reached number 12 in Ireland and the United Kingdom , becoming Little Mix 's fourth consecutive top 20 hit in both countries . It also became their second top ten hit in Australia , peaking at number 8 . " Change Your Life " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The accompanying music video was released on 31 January 2013 . Filmed backstage at the group 's DNA Tour and on their tour bus , it shows the group bonding with each other . Met with mixed reviews , critics likened it to Spice Girls ' 1997 music video , " Mama " . Little Mix have performed " Change Your Life " on television shows Dancing on Ice , The Graham Norton Show and This Morning and during their DNA Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background = =
After winning the eighth series of The X Factor , Little Mix worked with Richard " Biff " Stannard , Tim Powell and Ash Howes on their debut single , " Cannonball " , which went on to reach number one on the UK Singles Chart in December 2011 . The group then embarked on The X Factor Tour in January 2012 , while on tour the group met up with Stannard , Powell and Howes to develop songs for their debut album , DNA . The first song they developed was " Change Your Life " based on the group 's experience on The X Factor and their fans . It was recorded at the Biffco Studios in Brighton , England . In a January 2012 interview with the Daily Mirror , Perrie Edwards was quoted as saying , " We 're going a bit urban , old school with a bit of pop . We wanna bring back old school harmonies . And Jesy beat @-@ boxes and Leigh @-@ Anne raps , so we 're trying out different things " . It was written as a song with an uplifting message . Jade Thirlwall told Robert Copsey of Digital Spy that the group loved the message of the song and that they were looking forward to releasing it . Serban Ghenea mixed the track at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia , and Tom Coyne was responsible for the song 's mastering .
Little Mix premiered " Change Your Life " before the release of DNA , performing it live for the first time on Children in Need 2012 on 17 November 2012 . The group were set to appear on Google + on 12 December 2012 , but due to technical problems , they had to cancel it . To keep their fans happy , the artwork and release of " Change Your Life " as the third single from DNA was revealed instead . Little Mix 's management posted the information on the group 's Facebook , writing , " Sad news Mixers ! The girls can 't do the Hangout today because of technical problems ... BUT they have a little surprise for you instead ... the new ' Change Your Life ' cover AND they 'll be doing a Twitter Q & A at 6pm ! Not such sad news after all ! Mixers HQ x " . Syco solicited the single to radio stations in the United Kingdom on 5 January 2013 . A digital EP was then released in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 15 February 2013 . The EP features remixed versions of " Change Your Life " by Bimbo Jones and Sonny J , as well as an edited single mix of the song .
= = Composition = =
" Change Your Life " is a mid @-@ tempo pop power ballad with a length of three minutes and 21 seconds . Having elements of soul and urban contemporary music , its Instrumentation includes tumbling R & B piano lines and a pulsating , driving backbeat . The song begins with an emotionally frayed spoken @-@ word introduction by Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock , " She captures her reflection then she throws the mirror to the floor / Her image is distorted , screaming ' Is it worth it anymore ? " 4Music said that the spoken @-@ word introduction is reminiscent of All Saints ' 1997 single , " Never Ever " . The chorus , " Change , change your life , take it all / We gonna stick together , know we get through it all " , is pledged by the group in harmony over a spiralling piano lines , cascading keyboard lines and rousing , chugging strings . According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , Little Mix 's vocal range in the song span from the note of A3 to E5 . Written in the key of A major , the track is set in common time at a moderate tempo of 80 beats per minute .
Lyrically , the song is motivational , inspirational and a reaffirmation of sisterhood . It has themes of girl power , perseverance and self @-@ empowerment . Similar to the lead single of DNA , " Wings " ( 2012 ) , its lyrical content regards standing up to criticism and remaining strong in the face of adversity . However , unlike " Wings , " it shows a greater vulnerability and sympathy for those dealing with self @-@ confidence issues . According to Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner , " Change Your Life " reinvigorates the girl power boom of the late 90 's . Dann Stubbs of NME likened the song 's piano instrumental to those of British band Coldplay . PopDust 's Andrew Unterberger opined that the production on " Change Your Life " is reminiscent to that of Ryan Tedder 's work .
= = Critical reception = =
Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner awarded " Change Your Life " four out of five stars , commending Little Mix 's " pitch @-@ perfect " harmonies and Richard Stannard 's ability to create a pop anthem . Dan Stubbs of NME complimented the song 's lyrics and deemed the chorus " monumental " . Christopher Hooton of Metro called the track " catchy and anthemic " . Jon Hornbuckle from So So Gay felt that " Change Your Life " was an obvious single choice and that its anthemic chorus is the definition of girl power in 2013 . Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail positively reviewed the song , " The vocals are unexpectedly potent , with the harmony singing of Perrie , Jesy , Leigh @-@ Anne and Jade blending impressively on the big ballad ' Change Your Life ' " . Entertainment Wise 's Amy Gravelle said that the track succeeds in surpassing generic pop ballads , adding , " Which is surprising , for a band that have gone through the same mental trials and tribulations of other X Factor contestants who have failed at the first album hurdle " .
Vicky Newman from Shields Gazette called " Change Your Life " a brilliant song , reasoning : " Leigh @-@ Anne 's urban roots match perfectly with Jesy 's soulful voice , and the harmonies from Jade and Perrie transform it into a hit " . Nicky Diaz from The Miami Hurricane said that the song lets the group 's vocals and harmonies shine , calling it a stand @-@ out track on DNA . A reporter from 4Music described the song as " very dramatic , very serious , lovely stuff " . The reporter concluded , " The power @-@ ballad song and empowering message don 't disappoint " . " Change Your Life " was listed as one of two highlights from DNA by John Meagher of the Irish Independent . A writer from Redbrick deemed the song " inspiring " , opining that the song is one of the album 's " truly amazing moments " . PopDust 's Andrew Unterbeger awarded " Change Your Life " three out of five stars , describing the group 's vocal performance as the song 's best attribute . Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman gave the song a negative review , " ' Change Your Life ' reprises the message of ' Wings ' to lesser returns " . Kate Lucey from Sugar deemed the song one of the album 's weaker tracks . Lucey wrote , " ' Change Your Life ' and ' Always Be Together ' would most likely feature on the end credits of a film by the Olsen Twins that went straight to DVD , why these two have been put so early on in the album we 'll never know .
= = Chart performance = =
" Change Your Life " debuted at number 116 on the UK Singles Chart on 1 December 2012 , due to strong digital downloads following the release of DNA . It re @-@ entered the chart on 2 February 2013 at number 36 , selling a total of 9 @,@ 019 digital copies that week . The song climbed to number 31 the following week before receiving a 140 % sales increase following Little Mix 's performance of it on BBC One 's The Graham Norton Show , climbing 19 places to its peak of number 12 the week after . " Change Your Life " marks Little Mix 's fourth consecutive top 20 hit in the United Kingdom . " Change Your Life " debuted at number 13 on the Irish Singles Chart on 7 February 2013 , marking the chart 's highest debut for that week . It climbed to its peak of number 12 the following week , before dropping to number 17 the week after . The song spent a total of ten weeks on the chart . In Scotland , " Change Your Life " debuted at number 28 on the Scottish Singles Chart of 2 February 2013 . On 23 February 2013 , the song peaked at number eight , becoming Little Mix 's fourth consecutive top ten single in the country .
In Slovakia , " Change Your Life " debuted and peaked at number 60 on the Slovakian Airplay Chart issued in the eighth week of 2013 . It remained on the chart for four non @-@ consecutive weeks . " Change Your Life " debuted at number 43 on the Australian Singles Chart of 24 March 2013 . After weeks of gaining new peaks , the song peaked at number eight on 21 April 2013 , becoming Little Mix 's second top ten hit in the country . It has since spent a total of 12 weeks on the chart and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " Change Your Life " debuted and peaked at number 35 on the New Zealand Singles Chart dated 8 April 2013 , marking the group 's second most successful single there to @-@ date . The song debuted and peaked at number 21 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart on 27 April 2013 , selling 5 @,@ 094 copies that week . It is Little Mix 's highest @-@ charting single in South Korea to @-@ date and has since spent four weeks on the chart and sold a total of 14 @,@ 586 copies in the country . " Change Your Life " debuted and peaked on the French Singles Chart at number 132 on 4 May 2013 , marking the group 's second most successful single there to @-@ date .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
On 13 December 2012 , the group posted a lyric video of " Change Your Life " on their Vevo account . It was originally speculated that the music video would have visuals reflecting the theme of self @-@ belief and overcoming self @-@ doubt . On 15 January 2013 , Jade Thirlwall told Robert Copsey of Digital Spy that the music video will showcase Little Mix 's individual personalities , " We always want our videos to be the best we can do , " Thirlwall explained . She also revealed that the video will be more mellow and real than the group 's previous music videos . " We 're just chilling and portraying the song and performing it how it should be ; there are no fireworks or backflips , it 's just us delivering a great song , " Thirlwall added . Little Mix wanted to showcase who they are with the video by centering it more around themselves than in previous music videos . The official music video for " Change Your Life " was set to be released on 18 January 2013 , but it premiered on Vevo on 31 January instead . It was filmed in two days . Scenes from the video were filmed at the Rhyl Pavilion Theatre in Rhyl when the group were performing a show there as part of their DNA Tour at the end of January in 2013 . A spokesman for the theatre said , " We are very proud to be featured as part of Little Mix 's ' Change Your Life ' video and feel it 's a huge achievement for the Rhyl Pavilion " . The video features cameos from Jade Thirlwall 's mother , Norma Thirlwall , and Perrie Edwards ' mother , Debbie Dufty . Norma Thirlwall said , " After a while , everyone forgot the cameras were there , so it looks really natural " . Following a product placement deal brokered by Starcom MediaVest 's content division , Liquid Thread , the video also sees the Samsung Galaxy features exclusivity in its technology category . Andrew Wynd , head of media , corporate marketing for Samsung Electronics , opined , " It has been fantastic to be able to seamlessly showcase some of [ the Samsung Galaxy 's ] functionality in the Little Mix video . " Rupert Britton , content strategy director for Liquid Thread also commented on the deal :
We are thrilled with the brand integration in the new Little Mix video ' Change Your Life ' . It 's about aspiring to change your life for the better , and Samsung and the Galaxy camera fit very naturally with this ethos .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video for " Change Your Life " shows the backstage environment of the group 's first solo tour , the DNA Tour . A reporter from the Daily Mail wrote that the video sees Little Mix " embracing their usually casual but edgy style " . Jade Thirlwall is pictured wearing a banana @-@ print top and Perrie Edwards matches her purple hair with a soft blue dress . Other looks include Jesy Nelson sporting a camouflage jacket and Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock wearing an oversized football shirt . Christopher Hooton of Metro described the group 's look in the video as " new seapunk @-@ meets @-@ 90s @-@ star " . Hooton also mentioned that the music video features the band " goofing around " . The group is first pictured sitting around backstage while waiting to have their hair and make @-@ up done . In another scene , Little Mix are filmed on their tour bus . This scene features Jade Thirlwall scribbling in a notebook as the other group members play around , laugh and take pictures of each other sleeping using the Samsung Galaxy . The group then look at the pictures they took together . In a different scene , Perrie Edwards is seen cuddling a puppy . Little Mix are also pictured singing " Change Your Life " to each other in a studio and preparing to go on stage at their Rhyl Pavilion tour date . Other scenes features the group in a dance rehearsal , using funny facial expressions and bonding with their mothers backstage . During the dance rehearsal , the group is seen practising dance moves to their DNA Tour setlist with their tour choreographer and backing dancers . In other scenes , the group is seen playing with their own Little Mix dolls and Thirlwall , sporting blue hair , is wheeled away in a cardboard box . Before going onstage , Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock is seen smiling as a make @-@ up artist applies her final touches while Thirlwall is pictured applying her own make @-@ up . The group then centre themselves as they show each other support by hugging one another before heading to the stage . After the show , the foursome is seen showing their solidarity by embracing one another again .
= = = Reception = = =
Alicia Adejobi from Entertainment Wise wrote that the music video proves that " girl power is well and truly back " . Adejobi went on to highlight the scene where the group bonds with their mothers , deeming it the video 's most touching segment and particularly reminiscent of the Spice Girls ' music video for " Mama " ( 1997 ) . Kate Lucey of Sugar gave the video a mixed review , " It 's a little bit of a let down after the amazingness that was the ' DNA ' video , but we 'll let it slide , they 've been busy . " However , Lucey , complimented Jesy Nelson 's sass and Perrie Edwards ' style in the music video . 4Music opined , " We are slightly frustrated by the simple backstage tour @-@ style video . " A reporter from the Daily Mail positively reviewed the music video , " Even though [ Little Mix ] have had personal setbacks , the band seems as solid as ever [ in the video ] " . The reporter deemed the video as their most personal yet , and praised the group 's softer and fun @-@ loving sides in it . The Daily Mail reporter went on to say that the video proves how close the group are and that it manifests that Little Mix are stronger than ever .
= = Live performances = =
Little Mix performed " Change Your Life " for the first time on the BBC 's Children in Need telethon on 17 November 2012 . Lizzie Cox of Sugar wrote that the performance was mind @-@ blowing . Following Perrie Edwards having her tonsils removed in December 2012 and Jade Thirlwall losing her voice , the group managed to perform the song live on Dancing on Ice on 20 January 2013 . Despite their throat problems , Little Mix " whacked out a belter of a performance " , according to Kate Lucey of Sugar who labelled the performance " flawless " . 4Music positively reviewed the performance , " The girls looked and sounded amazing " . The performance also received praise from the group 's fans on Twitter . On 31 January 2013 , Little Mix appeared on The Graham Norton Show for an interview and a performance of " Change Your Life " . Carl Smith from Sugar praised the group 's cute look during the performance and Jade Thirlwall 's Minnie Mouse @-@ inspired head @-@ piece . On 14 February 2013 , Little Mix did an interview and performed the single on ITV 's This Morning .
" Change Your Life " is performed as part of the encore during Little Mix 's setlist for their 2013 DNA Tour . Before the performance , the group change into their final costume for the setlist . After the performance , Little Mix then thank the crowd for coming , make shoutouts to the audience and thank their band . Shields Gazette who were at the tour 's date at the Newcastle City Hall , wrote that the crowd chanted the group 's name until they re @-@ appeared for the performance of the song . A writer for newspaper praised the performance , " It was an all @-@ round stunning performance from a band , who are destined to be huge [ all over the world ] . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy who was at the tour 's date at the Hammersmith Apollo , opined , " The girls seemed genuinely humbled by the [ crowd 's ] rapturous response . " Corner added , " It 's lucky Little Mix seem to enjoy touring so much , because they '
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, St. Gatien , now undefeated in eleven races , started 2 / 1 favourite in a field of twenty @-@ seven . He was prominent throughout the race but could never get on level terms with the filly Plaisanterie who won impressively by two lengths carrying 124 pounds . St. Gatien was involved in a close race for the minor places and finished fifth , just behind Bendigo , Eastern Emperor and Caltha . He had no chance with the winner , but may have been unlucky not to finish second . Two days after losing his unbeaten record , St. Gatien returned to his favoured staying distance in the Jockey Club Cup . He started at odds of 1 / 8 and won the race very easily , beating Lavaret by fifteen lengths .
After St. Gatien 's defeat in the Cambridgeshire , Hammond responded to the earlier challenge of Lord Hastings by suggesting a level @-@ weight match race between St. Gatien and Melton at some point in the following season for a stake of between £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 20 @,@ 000 .
= = = 1886 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Much of the interest in the 1886 season concerned the newly inaugurated Eclipse Stakes at Sandown in July , which offered a then record prize of £ 10 @,@ 000 . From the start of the year , St. Gatien was seen as one of the leading contenders for the new race together with Bendigo and Minting . For the second year in succession , St. Gatien 's spring preparation was disrupted , this time by injury , although he was able to resume his training in time for Royal Ascot . It was reported that St. Gatien had been defeated by Melton in a private trial race in early 1886 , but there are few details and it is unclear whether or not this was a serious contest .
At Ascot , St. Gatien bypassed the staying events and ran instead in a Rous Memorial Stakes over one mile . He raced in third before taking the lead in the straight and in a well @-@ contested finish , he held off the three @-@ year @-@ old St. Michael , to whom he was conceding twenty @-@ four pounds , to win by a head . The Eclipse Stakes took place on July 23 over ten furlongs , at weight @-@ for @-@ age , with the winners of major races carrying extra weight " penalties " . St. Gatien started at 9 / 4 in a field of twelve , with Bendigo , receiving three pounds , going off the 6 / 4 favourite . St. Gatien started well and was settled by Wood to race just behind the leaders . In the straight he made his challenge but could never reach the lead and finished third , beaten three lengths and half a length by Bendigo and Candlemas .
St. Gatien returned to Newmarket on October 12 to attempt to win a second Cesarewitch . On this occasion , he was assigned a weight of 131 pounds , twenty @-@ three pounds more than any of the seventeen other runners . He made little show in the race and finished unplaced behind Stone Clink . Two days later , St. Gatien was given a chance to redeem his reputation when he met Stone Clink again in Her Majesty 's Plate over two miles . This race was at level weights and St. Gatien had no difficulty justifying his position as 4 / 9 favourite , taking the lead a furlong from the finish and winning very easily by three lengths .
St. Gatien 's last race came on October 29 when he finally met Melton in an official race . The race was effectively a match , with the only other runner starting at 100 / 1 . St. Gatien , who started a slight favourite , gave Melton three pounds and was never in danger of defeat . After taking the lead just after half way he " polished off " Melton in the easiest fashion and won unchallenged by eight lengths to record his third successive victory in the race .
= = Assessment = =
In May 1886 The Sporting Times carried out a poll of one hundred experts to create a ranking of the best British racehorses of the 19th century . St. Gatien was ranked seventh , having been placed in the top ten by thirty @-@ six of the contributors . Lists published later in the year by Baily 's Magazine and others also placed St. Gatien among the best of " modern times " . At least one English writer considered him the " Horse of the Century " and believed that on the day he won his third Jockey Club Cup , he would have beaten Ormonde . In 1884 , St. Gatien earned £ 7 @,@ 342 , the highest for any horse in Britain .
Mathew Dawson , who trained the winners of twenty @-@ eight Classics said of St. Gatien and St. Simon that " two better animals never trod the turf . " The " vexed question " of which of the two was the better , was never resolved on the racecourse .
= = Stud career = =
St. Gatien retired to the Heath Stud at Newmarket where he stood at an initial fee of 50 guineas . He remained in England until the summer of 1890 when he was sold to the German government for £ 14 @,@ 000 and exported to stand at Graditz . He returned to England to stand at the Cobham stud until 1898 when he was exported to the United States and sold privately to James Ben Ali Haggin . He stood at Rancho del Paso , California until its closure in 1905 . St. Gatien was repurchased by Haggin for $ 500 at the Rancho del Paso dispersal sale in December 1905 , and he was relocated to Haggin 's Elmendorf Farm . He was sold to George J. Long in January 1906 and was moved to Louisville , Kentucky . The best of St. Gatien 's progeny was probably Meddler ( out of Busybody ) , who was a leading two @-@ year @-@ old in Britain where his wins included the Dewhurst Stakes . He was exported to the United States where he was twice Leading sire in North America .
= = Pedigree = =
The following pedigree assumes that St. Gatien was sired by The Rover
= No. 8 Service Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 8 Service Flying Training School ( No. 8 SFTS ) was a flying training school of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) that operated during World War II . It was formed in December 1941 , and graduated its first course in March 1942 . Responsible for intermediate and advanced instruction of pilots under the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , the school was based at RAAF Station Bundaberg , Queensland , and operated Avro Anson aircraft . It spawned two maritime patrol squadrons in early 1943 , raised in response to increased Japanese submarine activity off Australia 's east coast . Some of the school 's aircraft were also attached to the Australian Army in 1944 – 45 . No. 8 SFTS completed its final training course in December 1944 , and was disbanded in July 1945 .
= = History = =
RAAF aircrew training expanded dramatically following the outbreak of World War II , in response to Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war flight training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve Elementary Flying Training Schools ( EFTS ) , eight Service Flying Training Schools ( SFTS ) , and Central Flying School ( CFS ) . While CFS turned out new flight instructors , the EFTS provided basic training to prospective pilots who , if successful , would go on to an SFTS for further instruction that focussed on operational ( or " service " ) flying . The course at SFTS typically consisted of two streams , intermediate and advanced , and included such techniques as instrument flying , night flying , advanced aerobatics , formation flying , dive bombing , and aerial gunnery . The total duration of training varied during the war as demand for aircrew rose and fell . Initially running for 16 weeks , the course was cut to 10 weeks ( which included 75 hours flying time ) in October 1940 . A year later it was raised to 12 weeks ( including 100 hours flying time ) , and again to 16 weeks two months later . It continued to increase after this , peaking at 28 weeks in June 1944 .
No. 8 Service Flying Training School ( No. 8 SFTS ) was formed at RAAF Station Bundaberg , Queensland , on 14 December 1941 , under the control of No. 2 Training Group . Its inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander I.C.C. Thomson . The new school was reported to have cost £ 300 @,@ 000 to establish , and joined No. 12 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 12 EFTS ) , which was already based — temporarily — at Bundaberg . No. 8 SFTS received its first aircraft in January 1942 : 27 Avro Ansons released by other units . The same month , No. 12 EFTS transferred to its permanent home at RAAF Station Lowood . The standard intake of pilots at No. 8 SFTS each month was 50 , and the initial course of students graduated in March 1942 . By July that year , the total number of aircraft operated by the school had increased to 87 .
Flying accidents were commonplace at training establishments and No. 8 SFTS was no exception ; taxiing collisions , crash landings in the surrounding cane fields , and runway overshoots were regular occurrences . At least two aircraft were damaged each month in the early part of 1942 . The school 's first fatality , however , was from drowning , when staff were called out to assist victims of local flooding in February , and an aircraftman died during an attempted rescue . On 1 June 1942 , an Anson crashed into the sea off Bargara , near Bundaberg ; the pilot and two crew were reported as missing , believed killed . Three more aircrew were lost when an Anson apparently went down in the sea on 5 October . On 25 February 1943 , an Anson crashed during a night @-@ flying exercise , killing both pilots . The school suffered a ground fatality on 25 April 1944 , when a mechanic walked into the spinning propeller of an Anson he was servicing . Two more pilots were killed when an Anson dived into the ground on 8 December , following an apparent structural failure .
The outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 had led to aircraft at many SFTSs being classified as Second Line ( Reserve ) aircraft in the defence of Australia . Following directions issued in May 1942 , No. 71 Reserve Squadron was raised at Bundaberg , using resources allocated from No. 8 SFTS . One of the Ansons assigned to the squadron crashed on 5 June 1942 after running out of fuel in bad weather at night , killing the pilot and two crew members . In response to Japanese submarine activity off Australia 's east coast , the Federal government formally established two RAAF maritime patrol units in the first half of 1943 with personnel and aircraft from No. 8 SFTS . No. 71 Squadron was formed as a separate entity to the flying school on 26 January at Lowood , maintaining detachments at RAAF Stations Bundaberg and Amberley in Queensland , as well as at Richmond and , later , Coffs Harbour in New South Wales . No. 66 Squadron was formed at Bundaberg on 20 May . The squadrons undertook anti @-@ submarine , convoy escort , search @-@ and @-@ rescue , and army / naval cooperation duties . With the lessening of Japanese submarine activity towards the end of 1943 , the staff and aircraft of No. 66 Squadron were judged to be more urgently needed for training purposes ; the unit was disbanded on 6 January 1944 and its assets divided between No. 8 SFTS and No. 1 Operational Training Unit at RAAF Station East Sale , Victoria , as well as No. 71 Squadron . No. 71 Squadron was itself disbanded on 28 August 1944 at Coffs Harbour .
One of the flying school 's graduates in August 1944 was David Evans , who went on to become Chief of the Air Staff . His passing @-@ out parade was delayed by a month because , as Evans later discovered , the British government had peremptorily decided in April that it no longer required graduates from Australia , leaving the RAAF with a surplus of some 7 @,@ 000 aircrew . With training at No. 8 SFTS winding down , in October 1944 a civil operator , Aircraft Pty Ltd , began using Bundaberg for its flights between Brisbane and Rockhampton . The following month , six of the school 's Ansons were detached to the Australian Army , carrying out exercises with I Corps at Mareeba until March 1945 . The last course to graduate at No. 8 SFTS did so on 13 December 1944 ; all pilots still under instruction were transferred to No. 6 Service Flying Training School at RAAF Station Mallala , South Australia , to finish their course . The school spent the next few months preparing the base to be handed over to elements of the Netherlands East Indies Air Force before disbanding on 25 July 1945 .
= St. Johns River =
The St. Johns River ( Spanish : Río de San Juan ) is the longest river in the U.S. state of Florida and its most significant for commercial and recreational use . At 310 miles ( 500 km ) long , it winds through or borders twelve counties , three of which are the state 's largest . The drop in elevation from headwaters to mouth is less than 30 feet ( 9 m ) ; like most Florida waterways , the St. Johns has a very low flow rate 0 @.@ 3 mph ( 0 @.@ 13 m / s ) and is often described as " lazy " . It is believed to be one of the few rivers that flow north , although there are hundreds of the kind worldwide . Numerous lakes are formed by the river or flow into it , but as a river its widest point is nearly 3 miles ( 5 km ) across . The narrowest point is in the headwaters , an unnavigable marsh in Indian River County . The St. Johns drainage basin of 8 @,@ 840 square miles ( 22 @,@ 900 km2 ) includes some of Florida 's major wetlands . It is separated into three major basins and two associated watersheds for Lake George and the Ocklawaha River , all managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District .
A variety of people have lived on or near the St. Johns , including Paleo @-@ indians , Archaic people , Timucua , Mocama , French and Spanish settlers , Seminoles , slaves and freemen , Florida crackers , land developers , tourists and retirees . It has been the subject of William Bartram 's journals , Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings ' books , and Harriet Beecher Stowe 's letters home . Although Florida was the location of the first permanent European colony in what would become the United States , it was the last U.S. territory on the east coast to be developed ; it remained an undeveloped frontier into the 20th century . When attention was turned to the state , however , much of the land was rapidly overdeveloped in a national zeal for progress . The St. Johns , like many Florida rivers , was altered to make way for agricultural and residential centers . It suffered severe pollution and human interference that has diminished the natural order of life in and around the river . In all , 3 @.@ 5 million people live within the various watersheds that feed into the St. Johns River . The St. Johns , named one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998 , was included on a list of America 's Ten Most Endangered Rivers in 2008 . Restoration efforts are under way for the basins around the St. Johns as Florida continues to deal with population increases in the river 's vicinity .
= = Geography and ecology = =
Starting in Indian River County and meeting the Atlantic Ocean at Duval County , the St. Johns is Florida 's primary commercial and recreational waterway . It flows north from its headwaters , originating in the direction of the Lake Wales Ridge , which is only slightly elevated at 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above sea level . Because of this low elevation drop , the river has a long backwater . It ebbs and flows with tides that pass through the barrier islands and up the channel . Uniquely , it shares the same regional terrain as the parallel Kissimmee River , although the Kissimmee flows south .
= = = Upper basin = = =
The St. Johns River is separated into three basins and two associated watersheds managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District . Because the river flows in a northerly direction , the upper basin is located in the headwaters of the river at its southernmost point . Indian River County is where the river begins as a network of marshes , at a point west of Vero Beach aptly named the St. Johns Marsh in central Florida . The St. Johns River is a blackwater stream , meaning that it is fed primarily by swamps and marshes lying beneath it ; water seeps through the sandy soil and collects in a slight valley . The upper basin measures approximately 2 @,@ 000 square miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km2 ) ; the St. Johns transforms into a navigable waterway in Brevard County . The river touches on the borders of Osceola and Orange Counties , and flows through the southeast tip of Seminole County , transitioning into its middle basin a dozen miles ( 19 km ) or so north of Titusville .
The upper basin of the St. Johns was significantly lowered in the 1920s with the establishment of the Melbourne Tillman drainage project . This drained the St. Johns ' headwaters eastward to the Indian River through canals dug across the Ten @-@ Mile Ridge near Palm Bay . As of 2015 , these past diversions are being partially reversed through the first phase of the Canal 1 Rediversion project .
The river is at its narrowest and most unpredictable in this basin . Channel flows are not apparent and are usually unmarked . The most efficient way to travel on this part of the river is by airboat . Approximately 3 @,@ 500 lakes lie within the overall St. Johns watershed ; all are shallow , with maximum depths between 3 and 10 feet ( 1 and 3 m ) . The river flows into many of the lakes , which further confuses navigation . Eight larger lakes and five smaller ones lie in the upper basin ; one of the first is named Lake Hell ' n Blazes ( sometimes polished to read as Lake Helen or Hellen Blazes ) , referencing oaths yelled by boatmen and fishermen in the early 19th century , frustrated when trying to navigate through floating islands of macrophytes , or muck and weeds , as the islands changed location with the creeping flow . Lakes Washington , Winder , and Poinsett — named for Joel Roberts Poinsett , a diplomat who brought the poinsettia to the United States — are located further along this stretch of the river . The northernmost points of the upper basin contain the Tosohatchee Wildlife Management Area , created in 1977 to assist with filtration of waters flowing into the larger St. Johns .
Wetlands in the upper and middle basin are fed by rainwater , trapped by the structure of the surrounding land . It is an oxygen- and nutrient @-@ poor environment ; what grows usually does so in peat which is created by centuries of decaying plant material . Water levels fluctuate with the subtropical wet and dry seasons . Rain in central and north Florida occurs seasonally during summer and winter , but farther south rain in winter is rare . All plants in these basins must tolerate water fluctuation , both flooding and drought . Sweetbay ( Magnolia virginiana ) , cypress ( Taxodium ) , and swamp tupelo ( Nyssa biflora ) trees often find great success in this region on raised land called hammocks . Trees that live in water for long periods usually have buttressed trunks , tangled , braided roots , or protrusions like cypress knees to obtain oxygen when under water , but the majority of plant life is aquatic . Wetland staples include the American white waterlily ( Nymphaea odorata ) , pitcher plants , and Virginia iris ( Iris virginica ) . In the southernmost points of the river , Cladium , or sawgrass , grows in vast swaths of wet prairie that at one time extended into the Everglades . These wetland flora are remarkably successful in filtering pollutants that otherwise find their way into the river .
= = = Middle basin = = =
For 37 miles ( 60 km ) the river passes through a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 100 km2 ) basin fed primarily by springs and stormwater runoff . This basin , spreading throughout Orange , Lake , Volusia , and Seminole Counties , is home to the greater Orlando metropolitan area , where two million people live and major tourist attractions are located . The topography of the middle basin varies between clearly distinguishable banks along the river and broad , shallow lakes . Two of the largest lakes in the middle basin are created by the river : Lake Harney and Lake Monroe . The shallow 9 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 23 km2 ) Lake Harney is fed by the long narrow Puzzle Lake ; immediately north is the Econlockhatchee River , which joins to increase the volume of the St. Johns to where navigation becomes easier for larger boats . The river veers west , touching on Lake Jesup before it empties into Lake Monroe , passing the city of Sanford . It is at this point that the St. Johns ' navigable waterway dredged and maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers with channel markers maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard begins . Lake Monroe , a large lake at 15 square miles ( 39 km2 ) with an average depth of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , drains a surrounding watershed of 2 @,@ 420 square miles ( 6 @,@ 300 km2 ) . Sanford has adapted to the lake by building some of its downtown area on the waterfront ; citizens use boat transportation and Sanford 's public dock to commute into town .
Optimally an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep channel about 100 yards ( 91 m ) wide after leaving Lake Monroe , the St. Johns meets its most significant tributary in the middle basin , the spring @-@ fed Wekiva River , discharging approximately 42 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 160 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) a day into the St. Johns . Near this confluence are the towns of DeBary and Deltona . Forests surrounding the Wekiva River are home to the largest black bear ( Ursus americanus floridanus ) population in Florida ; several troops of Rhesus monkeys ( Macaca mulatta ) have adapted to live near the river as well . The monkeys ' introduction to Florida is unclear ; they were reportedly brought either to serve in backdrop scenes of Tarzan movies filmed around the Silver River in the 1930s , or to lend an air of authenticity to " jungle cruises " provided by an enterprising boat operator around the same time .
Of most vital importance to marshes are invertebrate animals , the foundation of food webs . Amphibious invertebrates such as apple snails ( Pomacea paludosa ) , crayfish , and grass shrimp consume plant material , hastening its decomposition and acting as a food source for fish and birds . Insect larvae use water for breeding , feeding upon smaller copepods and amphipods that live in microscopic algae and periphyton formations . Mosquitos , born in water , are in turn the favorite food of 112 species of dragonflies and 44 species of damselflies in Florida . These animals are water hardy and adaptable to dry conditions when water levels fluctuate from one season to the next or through drought and flood cycles .
Of vertebrates , numerous species of frog , salamander , snake , turtle , and alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ) proliferate in marsh waters . Most of these animals are active at night . Frog choruses are overwhelming ; during alligator mating season the grunts of bulls join in . The marshes around the St. Johns River upper basin teem with birds . A recent study counted 60 @,@ 000 birds in one month , nesting or feeding in the upper basin . Wading and water birds like the white ibis ( Eudocimus albus ) , wood stork ( Mycteria americana ) , and purple gallinule ( Porphyrio martinica ) depend on the water for raising their young : they prey upon small fish and tadpoles in shallow water and puddles in the dry season . In successful seasons , their colonies can number in the thousands , creating a cacophony of calls and fertilizing trees with their droppings .
= = = Lake George = = =
The river turns north again as it rolls through a 46 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 190 km2 ) basin spreading across Putnam , Lake , and Marion Counties , and the western part of Volusia County . Slightly north of the Wekiva River is Blue Spring , the largest spring on the St. Johns , producing over 64 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 240 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) a day . Florida springs stay at an even temperature of 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) throughout the year . Because of this , Blue Spring is the winter home for West Indian manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) , and they are protected within Blue Spring State Park . Manatees are large , slow @-@ moving herbivorous aquatic mammals whose primary threats are human development and collisions with swiftly moving watercraft . Many parts of the St. Johns and its tributaries are no @-@ wake zones to protect manatees from being critically or fatally injured by boat propellers . Human interaction with manatees in Blue Spring State Park is forbidden .
Bordering to the north of Blue Spring State Park is Hontoon Island State Park , accessible only by boat . In 1955 an extremely rare Timucua totem representing an owl was found buried and preserved in the St. Johns muck off of Hontoon Island . The figure may signify that its creators were part of the owl clan . Representing different clans of the Timucua , two more totems — in all , the only totems in North America to have been found outside of the Pacific Northwest — shaped like a pelican and otter were found in 1978 after being snagged by a barge at the bottom of the river . River otters ( Lutra canadensis ) can be found through the length of the St. Johns and its tributaries , living in burrows or in the roots of trees bordering waterways . They eat crayfish , turtles , and small fish , and are active usually at night , playful but shy of human contact .
The St. Johns creeps into the southern tip of Lake George , the second largest lake in Florida at 72 square miles ( 190 km2 ) , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) wide and 12 miles ( 19 km ) long . The watershed surrounding Lake George expands through 3 @,@ 590 square miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km2 ) , lying within Ocala National Forest and Lake George State Forest , that protect an ecosystem dominated by pine and scrub more than 380 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 km2 ) and 21 @,@ 000 acres ( 85 km2 ) in size , respectively . Flatwoods forests dominate the Lake George watershed , with slash pines ( Pinus elliottii ) , saw palmetto ( Serenoa repens ) , and over 100 species of groundcover or herbal plants that grow in poor , sandy soil . Flatwoods pine forests stay relatively dry , but can withstand short periods of flooding . Larger land animals such as wild turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ) , sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ) , and the largest population of southern bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus ) in the contiguous U.S , find it easier to live in the flatwoods . Typical mammals that live in these ecosystems , such as raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) , opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ) , bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) , and white tailed @-@ deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) , are ones that prefer dry , flat areas with good ground cover and available nesting sites .
= = = Ocklawaha River = = =
The Ocklawaha River flows north and joins the St. Johns as the largest tributary , and one of significant historical importance . The Ocklawaha ( also printed as Oklawaha ) drainage basin expands through Orange , Lake , Marion , and Alachua Counties , comprising a total of 2 @,@ 769 square miles ( 7 @,@ 170 km2 ) . Ocala , Gainesville , and the northern suburbs of the Orlando metropolitan area are included in this basin . There are two headwaters for the Ocklawaha : a chain of lakes , the largest of which is Lake Apopka in Lake County , and the Green Swamp near Haines City in Polk County , drained by the Palatlakaha River . The Silver River , fed by one of Florida 's most productive springs expelling 54 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) daily , is located about midway along the 96 @-@ mile ( 154 km ) Ocklawaha .
Confederate Captain John William Pearson named his milita after the Ocklawaha River called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the American Civil War . Prior to the civil war , Pearson ran a successful health resort in Orange Springs . After the civil war , Pearson 's Orange Springs resort declined in popularity due to the increasing attention to nearby Silver Springs — the source of the Silver River — at the turn of the 20th century , popularizing the Ocklawaha . Georgia @-@ born poet Sidney Lanier called it " the sweetest waterlane in the world " in a travel guide he published in 1876 . The river gave Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings access to the St. Johns from her homestead at Orange Lake . The region served as a major fishing attraction until a decline in water quality occurred in the 1940s , and since then further degradation of the river and its sources have occurred . In particular , Lake Apopka earned the designation of Florida 's most polluted lake following a chemical spill in 1980 that dumped DDE in it . It has experienced chronic algal blooms caused by citrus farm fertilizer and wastewater runoff from nearby farms .
The proliferation of largemouth bass ( Micropterus salmoides ) , black crappie ( Pomoxis nigromaculatus ) , and bluegill ( Lepomis macrochirus ) in central Florida is a major attraction for fishermen from all over the country . The St. Johns is home to 183 species of fish , 55 of which appear in the main stem of the river . One , the southern tessellated darter ( Etheostoma olmstedi ) is found only in the Ocklawaha . Some are marine species that either migrate upriver to spawn or have found spring @-@ fed habitats that are high in salinity , such as a colony of Atlantic stingrays ( Dasyatis sabina ) that live in Lake Washington in the upper basin . Ocean worms , snails , and white @-@ fingered mud crabs ( Rhithropanopeus harrisii ) have also been found far upriver where tidal influences are rare . In contrast , American eels ( Anguilla rostrata ) live in the St. Johns and Ocklawaha and spawn in the Sargasso Sea in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean . After a year living in the ocean , many of them find their way back to the St. Johns to live , then , prompted by the phases of the moon , make the return journey to spawn and die .
= = = Lower basin = = =
From the intersection of the Ocklawaha River , 101 miles ( 163 km ) to the Atlantic Ocean , the St. Johns lies within the lower basin , draining a total area of 2 @,@ 600 square miles ( 6 @,@ 700 km2 ) in Putnam , St. Johns , Clay , and Duval Counties . Twelve tributaries empty into the river in the lower basin . The St. Johns River widens considerably on the north end of Lake George ; between Lake George and Palatka the river ranges between 600 and 2 @,@ 640 feet ( 180 and 800 m ) wide . Between Palatka and Jacksonville , that widens further to between 1 and 3 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 and 4 @.@ 8 km ) . This portion of the river is the most navigable and shipping is its primary use . The Army Corps of Engineers maintains shipping channels at least 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep and 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide . North of Palatka , the channels are expanded to 40 feet ( 12 m ) deep and between 400 and 900 feet ( 120 and 270 m ) wide .
The towns and cities along the lower basin of the river are some of the oldest in Florida , and their histories have centered on the river . Both Palatka and Green Cove Springs have been popular tourist destinations in the past . Several smaller locations along the river sprang up around ferry landings , but when rail lines and then Interstate highways were constructed closer to the Atlantic Coast , many of the towns experienced significant economic decline , and ferry landings were forgotten .
The final 35 miles ( 56 km ) of the river 's course runs through Jacksonville , the largest city by area in the contiguous United States , with a population of more than a million . Much of the economic base of Jacksonville depends on the river : 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 short tons ( 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 t ) of goods are shipped in and out of Jacksonville annually . Exports include paper , phosphate , fertilizers , and citrus , while major imports include oil , coffee , limestone , cars , and lumber . The Port of Jacksonville produces $ 1 @.@ 38 billion in the local economy and supports 10 @,@ 000 jobs . The U.S. Navy has two bases in the Jacksonville area : Naval Station Mayport , at the mouth of the river , serves as the second largest Atlantic Fleet operation and home port in the country . Naval Air Station Jacksonville is one of the service 's largest air installations , home to two air wings and over 150 fixed @-@ wing and rotary @-@ wing aircraft , and the host for one of only two full @-@ fledged Naval Hospitals remaining in Florida .
Using an unofficial nickname of " The River City " , Jacksonville has a culture centered on the St. Johns . An annual footrace named the Gate River Run accepts 18 @,@ 000 participants who travel a course along and over the river twice . The largest kingfishing tournament in the U.S. is held on a St. Johns tributary , where sport fishers concentrate on king mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla ) , cobia ( Rachycentron canadum ) , dolphin ( Coryphaena hippurus ) and Wahoo ( Acanthocybium solandri ) . The home stadium for the Jacksonville Jaguars faces the river , as does most of the commercial center of downtown . Eight bridges span the St. Johns at Jacksonville ; all of them allow tall ships to pass , although some restrict passing times when train or automobile traffic is heavy .
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Tides cause seawater to enter the mouth of the St. Johns River and can affect the river 's level into the middle basin . As a result , much of the river in Jacksonville is part seawater , making it an estuarine ecosystem . The animals and plants in these systems can tolerate both fresh and salt water , and the fluctuations in saline content and temperatures associated with tidal surges and heavy rainfall discharge . Marine animals such as dolphins and sharks can be spotted at times in the St. Johns at Jacksonville as can manatees . Fish such as mullet ( Mullidae ) , flounder ( Paralichthys lethostigma ) , shad ( Alosa sapidissima ) , and blue crabs ( Callinectes sapidus ) migrate from the ocean to freshwater springs upriver to spawn .
Although freshwater invertebrates inhabiting and comprising algae and periphyton make the foundation of food webs in the middle and lower basin , zooplankton and phytoplankton take that role in the estuarine habitat . Mollusks gather at the St. Johns estuary in large numbers , feeding on the bottom of the river and ocean floors . The abundance and importance of oysters ( Crassostrea virginica ) is apparent in the many middens left by the Timucua in mounds many feet high . Oysters and other mollusks serve as the primary food source of shorebirds . The large trees that line the river from its source to south of Jacksonville begin to transition into salt marshes east of the city . Mayport is home to approximately 20 shrimping vessels that use the mouth of the St. Johns to access the Atlantic Ocean .
= = Formation and hydrology = =
= = = Geologic history = = =
Lying within a coastal plain , the St. Johns River passes through an area that was at one time barrier islands , coastal dunes , and estuary marshes . The Florida Peninsula was created primarily by forces and minerals from the ocean . It lies so low that minor fluctuations in sea levels can have a dramatic effect on its geomorphology . Florida was once part of the supercontinent Gondwana . Lying underneath the visible rock formations is a basement of igneous granite and volcanic composition under a sedimentary layer formed during the Paleozoic era 542 to 251 million years ago . During the Cretaceous period ( 145 to 66 million years ago ) , the basement and its sedimentary overlay were further covered by calcium carbonate and formations left by the evaporation of water called evaporites . What covers the peninsula is the result of simultaneous processes of deposits of sands , shells , and coral , and erosion from water and weather . As ocean water has retreated and progressed , the peninsula has been covered with sea water at least seven times . Waves compressed sands , calcium carbonate , and shells into limestone ; at the ocean 's edge , beach ridges were created by this depositional forming . North @-@ south axis rivers , such as the St. Johns , were created by past beach ridges which were often divided by swales . As ocean water retreated , lagoons formed in the swales , which were further eroded by acidic water . Barrier islands , furthermore , formed along the Atlantic Coast , surrounding the lagoon with land and forming a freshwater river .
From its origins to approximately the area of Sanford , the St. Johns flows north . It takes a sharp turn west near Sanford for a few miles — which is referred to as the St. Johns River offset , but shortly changes direction to flow north again . Geologists hypothesize that the west @-@ flowing offset may have formed earlier than the north flowing portions , possibly during the late Tertiary or early Pleistocene era 66 to 12 million years ago . Some fracturing and faulting may also be responsible for the offset . Although seismic activity in Florida is mostly insignificant , several minor earthquakes have occurred near the St. Johns River , caused by the trough created by Pangaean rifting .
= = = Springs and aquifers = = =
All of Florida 's abundant fresh water is the result of precipitation that returns to the atmosphere in a process called evapotranspiration that involves evaporation and transpiration of moisture from plants . As rains fall , most of the water is directed to lakes , streams , and rivers . However , a significant amount of fresh water is held underground but close to the surface in aquifers . A surficial aquifer consisting mostly of clay , shells , and sand is over a confining layer of denser materials . Wells are drilled in the surficial aquifer , which supplies better quality water in areas where the deepest aquifer has a high mineral content . Occasionally the confining layer is fractured to allow breaches of water to percolate down to recharge the layer below . The Floridan Aquifer , underneath the confining layer , underlies the entire state and portions of Georgia , Alabama , and South Carolina . It is particularly accessible in the northern part of Florida , serving as the fresh water source of metropolitan areas from St. Petersburg north to Jacksonville and Tallahassee .
Acidic rainwater erodes the limestone and can form underground caverns . When the overlay of these caverns is particularly thin — less than 100 feet ( 30 m ) — sinkholes can form . Where the limestone or sand / clay overlay dissolves over the aquifer and the pressure of the water pushes out , springs form . The upper and middle basins of the St. Johns River are located in a portion of the peninsula where the aquifer system is thinly confined , meaning springs and sinkholes are abundant . Springs are measured in magnitude of how much water is discharged , which is dependent upon season and rainfall . The greatest discharge is from first magnitude springs that emit at least 100 cubic feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m3 ) of water per second . There are four first magnitude springs that feed the St. Johns River : Silver Springs in Marion County , emitting between 250 and 1 @,@ 290 cubic feet ( 7 @.@ 1 and 36 @.@ 5 m3 ) / second ; Silver Glen Spring straddling Marion and Lake Counties , emitting between 38 and 245 cubic feet ( 1 @.@ 1 and 6 @.@ 9 m3 ) / second ; Alexander Springs in Lake County , emitting between 56 and 202 cubic feet ( 1 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 7 m3 ) / second ; and Blue Spring in Volusia County , emitting between 87 and 218 cubic feet ( 2 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 2 m3 ) / second .
= = = Rainfall and climate = = =
The St. Johns River lies within a humid subtropical zone . In summer months , the temperature ranges from 74 and 92 ° F ( 23 and 33 ° C ) , and between 50 and 72 ° F ( 10 and 22 ° C ) in the winter , although drops may occur in winter months to below freezing approximately a dozen times . Water temperatures in the river correlate to the air temperatures . The average range of water temperatures is between 50 and 95 ° F ( 10 and 35 ° C ) , rising in the summer months . Where the river widens between Palatka and Jacksonville , wind becomes a significant factor in navigation , and both whitecap waves and calm surface waters are common .
Rain occurs more frequently in late summer and early fall . Tropical storms and nor 'easters are common occurrences along the Atlantic coast of Florida ; the St. Johns River lies between 10 and 30 miles ( 16 and 48 km ) inland , so any storm striking the counties of Indian River north to Duval produces rain that is drained by the St. Johns River . Tropical Storm Fay in 2008 deposited 16 inches ( 410 mm ) of rain in a 5 @-@ day period , most of it located near Melbourne . The St. Johns near Geneva in Seminole County rose 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in four days , setting a record . The river near Sanford rose 3 feet ( 1 m ) in 36 hours . Fay caused severe flooding in the middle basin due not only to the deluge but the flat slopes of the river . Typically , however , the St. Johns basin receives between 50 and 54 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 and 1 @,@ 400 mm ) of rain annually , half of it in summer months . The rate of evapotranspiration corresponds to rainfall , ranging between 27 and 57 inches ( 690 and 1 @,@ 450 mm ) a year , most of it occurring in the summer .
= = = Flow rates and water quality = = =
The entire river lies within the nearly flat Pamlico terrace , giving it an overall gradient of 0 @.@ 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 0 cm ) per mile ( km ) ; it is one of the flattest major rivers on the continent . Its proximity to the ocean in the lower basin affects its rise and fall with tides and salinity . Tides regularly affect water levels as far south as Lake George ; when combined with extreme winds , the river 's tidal effects can extend to Lake Monroe 161 miles ( 259 km ) away and have on occasion reached Lake Harney . Tides typically raise the river level about 1 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 37 m ) at Jacksonville , decreasing some to 0 @.@ 7 feet ( 0 @.@ 21 m ) at Orange Park where the river widens , and increasing back to 1 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 37 m ) at Palatka as it narrows . As a result of tidal effects , discharge measurements in the lower basin are often inaccurate . However , the estimated rate of discharge between the Ocklawaha River and the center of Jacksonville ranges from 4 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 300 cubic feet ( 110 to 240 m3 ) per second . The nontidal discharge at the mouth at Mayport averages 15 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 420 m3 ) per second , but with tides it exceeds 50 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m3 ) per second , and following heavy rains combined with tides can top 150 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 4 @,@ 200 m3 ) per second . Farther upriver , the discharge rate ranges from 1 @,@ 030 cubic feet ( 29 m3 ) per second near Lake Poinsett to 2 @,@ 850 cubic feet ( 81 m3 ) per second near DeLand . The confluence of numerous springs , the Econlockhatchee River , and the Wekiva River causes the average discharge to increase by 940 cubic feet ( 27 m3 ) per second between Lake Harney and DeLand , representing the greatest annual average increase of streamflow along the St. Johns .
As distance between the mouth of the St. Johns and the middle and upper basins increases , the salinity in the river gradually decreases . Marine water measures at 35 parts per thousand ( ppt ) or more while fresh water measures below 2 ppt . What ranges in between is characterized as brackish water . Near the center of Jacksonville , average measures have been collected at 11 @.@ 40 ppt . Farther south at the Buckman Bridge , joining the south side of Jacksonville to Orange Park , it decreases to 2 @.@ 9 ppt and falls again to 0 @.@ 81 ppt at the Shands Bridge near Green Cove Springs .
Dissolved oxygen in fresh water is measured to indicate the health of plant and animal life . It enters water through the atmosphere and from aquatic plant photosynthesis , and is affected by water pressure and temperature . Rapid decomposition of organic materials will decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen in the river , as will nutrients added to the water artificially by wastewater treatment runoff or drainage from fertilized agricultural fields . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the State of Florida recommend no less than 5 mg of oxygen per liter . Several locations on the St. Johns or its tributaries reported at or below these minimums in the 1990s , including the mouth of the Wekiva River , the St. Johns at the town of Christmas , and in the early 2000s at Blue Spring and Blackwater Creek . Sustained low levels of dissolved oxygen may create algal blooms , which may also cause a further decrease in dissolved oxygen .
Like all blackwater streams in Florida , the color of most of the St. Johns is black , owing to the tannins in leaf litter and decaying aquatic plants . Spring fed streams , on the other hand , are remarkably clear and visibility is very high , even when the river bottom is dozens of feet below .
= = Human history = =
= = = Pre @-@ Columbian people = = =
Humans arrived on the Florida Peninsula about 12 @,@ 000 years ago when the ocean was about 350 feet ( 110 m ) lower than today , and the peninsula was double its current size . These earliest people are called Paleo @-@ Indians . They were primarily hunter – gatherers who followed large game , such as mastodons , horses , camels , and bison . Much of the land was far from water — most fresh water was contained in glaciers and polar ice caps . As a result , Florida was an arid landscape with few trees , dominated by grasslands and scrub vegetation .
Around 9 @,@ 000 years ago , the climate warmed , melting much of the polar ice caps and many glaciers , creating a wetter environment and submerging half the peninsular shelf . As Paleo @-@ Indians now did not have to travel as far to find water , their camps became more permanent , turning into villages . With evidence of a wide variety of tools constructed around this time , archeologists note the transition into Archaic people . The Archaic people made tools from bone , animal teeth , and antlers . They wove fibers from plants such as cabbage palms and saw palmettos . A few burial sites have been excavated — including the Windover Archaeological Site in Brevard County near Titusville — that provide evidence of burial rituals . Archaic peoples interred their dead in shallow peat marshes , which preserved much of the human tissue . Further climate change between 5 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 years ago led to the Middle Archaic period ; evidence suggests that human habitation near the St. Johns River first occurred during this era . Populations of indigenous people increased significantly at this time , and numerous settlements near the St. Johns have been recorded from this era ; the banks of the St. Johns and its arteries are dotted with middens filled with thousands of shells , primarily those of Viviparus georgianus — a freshwater snail — and oysters .
The advent of regional types of pottery and stone tools made of flint or limestone marked further advancements around 500 BCE . The Archaic people transitioned into settled groups around Florida . From the central part of the state north , along the Atlantic Coast lived people in the St. Johns culture , named for the most significant nearby natural formation . Around 750 CE , the St. Johns culture learned to cultivate corn , adding to their diet of fish , game , and gourds . Archeologists and anthropologists date this agricultural advancement to coincide with a spread of archeological sites , suggesting that a population increase followed . When European explorers arrived in north Florida , they met the Timucua , numbering about 14 @,@ 000 , the largest group of indigenous people in the region . The later Seminole people called the river Welaka or Ylacco . These forms may derive from the Creek wi @-@ láko , " big water " , a compound usually applied to large rivers that run through lakes ; the St. Johns forms and borders numerous lakes . Alternately , the Seminole name may derive from walaka ( from wi @-@ alaka , " water " and " coming " ) , perhaps a reference to the river 's slow discharge and the tidal effects on it . The name is sometimes rendered as " Chain of Lakes " in English .
= = = Colonial era = = =
The first known European reference to Florida is in a 1502 map by Cantino , which maps Florida and aptly describes the unique vegetation rafts in the St. Johns Rivers by originally naming the river the Rio de las Almadias ( River of Rafts ) . Later , in 1513 Juan Ponce de León arrived near Cape Canaveral , and not until 1562 did Europeans settle the north Atlantic coast of the peninsula . Early Spanish explorers named the river Rio de Corientes ( River of Currents ) . The St. Johns River became the first place colonized in the region and its first battleground : when French explorer Jean Ribault erected a monument south of the river 's mouth to make the French presence known , it alarmed the Spanish who had been exploring the southern and western coast of the peninsula for decades . Ribault was detained after he returned to Europe .
In 1564 , René Goulaine de Laudonnière arrived to build Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River ; they called the river Rivière de Mai because they settled it on May 1 . An artist named Jacques LeMoyne documented what he saw among the Timucuan people in 1564 , portraying them as physically powerful and not lacking for provisions . Fort Caroline did not last long , though relations with the local Timucua and Mocamas were friendly . The colony was unable to support itself ; some of the French deserted . Those who remained were killed in 1565 by the Spanish , led by Pedro Menéndez , when they marched north from St. Augustine and captured Fort Caroline . The river was renamed San Mateo by the Spanish in honor of the Apostle Matthew , whose feast was the following day . Capturing Fort Caroline allowed the Spanish to maintain control of the river .
The French and Spanish continued to spar over who would control the natural resources and native peoples of the colony , foreshadowing a history during which eight different countries would control the river . The Timucua , who had initially befriended the French , were not encouraged to make the Spanish allies because of colonial governor Pedro Menéndez de Avilés ' abhorrence of French Protestantism and his view that the Timucuan beliefs were " Satanic " . By 1573 , the Timucua were in outright rebellion , testing the governor 's patience and forcing Spanish settlers to abandon farms and garrisons in more interior parts of Florida ; the Spanish could not persuade the Timucua to keep from attacking them .
Over a hundred years later , missionaries had more success , setting up posts along the river . Spanish Franciscan missionaries gave the river its current name based on San Juan del Puerto ( St. John of the Harbor ) , the mission established at the river 's mouth following the demise of the French fort . The name first appeared on a Spanish map created between 1680 and 1700 .
The Timucua , as other groups of indigenous people in Florida , began to lose cohesion and numbers by the 18th century . A tribe located in modern @-@ day Georgia and Alabama called the Creeks assisted with this ; in 1702 , they joined with the Yamasee and attacked some of the Timucua , forcing them to seek protection from the Spanish who forced them into slavery . The Creeks began assimilating other people and spread farther south until they were known by 1765 as Seminoles by the British , a term adapted from cimarrones that meant " runaways " or " wild ones " . The Seminoles employed a variety of languages from the peoples the Creeks had assimilated : Hitchiti , Muskogee , as well as Timucua . Between 1716 and 1767 , the Seminoles gradually moved into Florida and began to break ties with the Creeks to become a cohesive tribe of their own . The St. Johns provided a natural boundary to separate European colonies on the east bank and indigenous lands west of the river .
After Florida came under the Kingdom of Great Britain 's jurisdiction in 1763 , Quaker father and son naturalists John and William Bartram explored the length of the river while visiting the southeastern United States from 1765 to 1766 . They published journals describing their experiences and the plants and animals they observed . They were charged by King George III to find the source of the river they called the Picolata or San Juan , and measured its widths and depths , taking soil samples as they traveled southward . William returned to Florida from 1773 to 1777 and wrote another journal about his travels , while he collected plants and befriended the Seminoles who called him " Puc Puggy " ( flower hunter ) . William 's visit took him as far south as Blue Spring , where he remarked on the crystal clear views offered by the spring water : " The water is perfectly diaphanous , and here are continually a prodigious number and variety of fish ; they appear as plain as though lying on a table before your eyes , although many feet deep in the water . " Bartram 's journals attracted the attention of such prominent Americans as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton . The success of these journals inspired other naturalists such as André Michaux to further explore the St. Johns , as he did in 1788 , sailing from Palatka south to Lake Monroe , and gave names to some of the plants described by the Bartrams ' journals . Michaux was followed by William Baldwin between 1811 and 1817 . Subsequent explorers , including John James Audubon , have carried William 's Travels Through North & South Carolina , Georgia , East & West Florida with them as a guide .
In 1795 , Florida was transferred back to Spain which lured Americans with cheap land . A former loyalist to Britain who left South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War , a planter and slave trader named Zephaniah Kingsley seized the opportunity and built a plantation named Laurel Grove near what is now Doctors Lake , close to the west bank of the St. Johns River , south of where Orange Park is today . Three years later , Kingsley took a trip to Cuba and purchased a 13 @-@ year @-@ old Wolof girl named Anna Madgigine Jai . She became his common @-@ law wife , and managed Laurel Grove while Kingsley traveled and conducted business . The plantation grew citrus and sea island cotton ( Gossypium barbadense ) . In 1814 , they moved to a larger plantation on Fort George Island , where they lived for 25 years , and owned several other plantations and homesteads in what is today Jacksonville and another on Drayton Island at the north end of Lake George . Kingsley later married three other freed women in a polygamous relationship ; Spanish @-@ controlled Florida allowed interracial marriages , and white landowners such as James Erwin , George Clarke , Francisco Sánchez , John Fraser , and Francis Richard , Jr . — early settlers along the river — all were married to or in extramarital relationships with African women .
= = = Territorial Florida and statehood = = =
The first years following Florida 's annexation to the United States in 1821 were marked with violent conflicts between white settlers and Seminoles , whose bands often included runaway African slaves . The clashes between American and Seminole forces during the establishment of the Florida territory are reflected in the towns and landmarks along the St. Johns named for those who were directly involved . Even before Florida was under U.S. jurisdiction , Major General Andrew Jackson was responsible for removing the Alachua Seminoles west of the Suwannee River , either killing them or forcing them farther south towards Lake County , in 1818 . Jackson 's efforts became the First Seminole War , and were rewarded by the naming of a cattle crossing across a wide portion of the St. Johns near the Georgia border — previously named Cowford — to Jacksonville . The result of Jackson 's offensive was the transfer of Florida to the U.S. Following the Seminole Wars , a gradual increase in commerce and population occurred on the St. Johns , made possible by steamship travel . Steamboats heralded a heyday for the river , and before the advent of local railroads , they were the only way to reach interior portions of the state . They also afforded the citizens of Jacksonville a pastime to watch competing races . By the 1860s , weekly trips between Jacksonville , Charleston , and Savannah were made to transport tourists , lumber , cotton , and citrus . The soil along the St. Johns was considered especially successful for producing sweeter oranges .
Florida 's involvement in the U.S. Civil War was limited compared to other Confederate states because it had a fraction of the populations of states that had been developed . Florida provided materials to the Confederacy by way of steamboats on the St. Johns , although the river and the Atlantic coasts were blockaded by the U.S. Navy . One action in Florida 's role in the Civil War was the sinking of the USS Columbine , a Union paddle steamer used for patrolling the St. Johns to keep materials from reaching the Confederate Army . In 1864 , near Palatka , Confederate forces under the command of Capt. John Jackson Dickison captured , burned , and sank the USS Columbine , making her perhaps the only ship commandeered by the Confederacy . The same year and farther downriver , Confederates again sank a Union boat , the Maple Leaf , which struck a floating keg filled with explosives and settled into the muck near Julington Creek , south of Jacksonville . Part of the shipwreck was recovered in 1994 , when it was discovered that many Civil War @-@ era artifacts , including daguerreotypes and wooden matches , had been preserved in the river muck .
Although the Spanish had colonized Florida for two centuries , the state remained the last part of the east coast of the United States to be developed and explored . Following the Civil War , the State of Florida was too far in debt to build roads and rail lines to further its progress . Florida Governor William Bloxham in 1881 appealed directly to a Pennsylvania @-@ based industrialist named Hamilton Disston , initially to build canals to improve steamboat passage through the Caloosahatchee River , and later to drain lands in the central part of the state for agriculture . Disston was furthermore persuaded to purchase 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land in central Florida for $ 1 million , which at the time was reported to be the largest purchase of land in human history . Disston was ultimately unsuccessful in his drainage attempts , but his investment sparked the tourist industry and made possible the efforts of railroad magnates Henry Morrison Flagler and Henry Bradley Plant to construct rail lines down the east coast of Florida , including a rail link between Sanford and Tampa . Disston was responsible for creating the towns of Kissimmee , St. Cloud , and several others on the west coast of Florida .
A New York Times story reporting on Disston 's progress in 1883 stated that before Disston 's purchase and the subsequent development , the only places worth seeing in Florida were Jacksonville and St. Augustine , with perhaps an overnight trip on the St. Johns River to Palatka ; by 1883 tourist attractions had extended 250 miles ( 400 km ) south . More attention was paid to the St. Johns with the increasing population . Florida was portrayed as an exotic wonderland able to cure failing health with its water and citrus , and the region began to be highlighted in travel writings . To relieve his bronchitis , Ralph Waldo Emerson stayed briefly in St. Augustine , calling north Florida " a grotesque region " that was being swarmed by land speculators . Emerson poignantly disliked the public sale of slaves , adding to his overall distaste . Following the Civil War , however , famed author Harriet Beecher Stowe lived near Jacksonville and traveled up the St. Johns , writing about it with affection : " The entrance of the St. Johns from the ocean is one of the most singular and impressive passages of scenery that we ever passed through : in fine weather the sight is magnificent . " Her memoir Palmetto Leaves , published in 1873 as a series of her letters home , was very influential in luring northern residents to the state .
One unforeseen aspect of more people coming to Florida proved to be an overwhelming problem . A woman living in a winter home near Palatka introduced water hyacinths ( Eichhornia crassipes ) to the St. Johns in an attempt to beautify her backyard . Ten years later , the purple @-@ flowered hyacinths had grown to reside in 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the river and its arteries , becoming a serious invasive species . Hyacinths grow so densely that they prevent the navigation of watercraft , fishing , and sunlight from reaching the depths of the river , affecting both plant and animal life . The government of Florida found the plants to be so vexing that it spent almost $ 600 @,@ 000 between 1890 and 1930 in an unsuccessful bid to rid the creeks and rivers of north Florida of them .
= = = Land boom = = =
An Englishman named Nelson Fell , persuaded by Disston 's advertisements to make his fortunes in Florida , arrived in the 1880s . An engineer by trade , Fell purchased 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 49 km2 ) near Lake Tohopekaliga to create a town named Narcoossee , which had a population of more than 200 English immigrants by 1888 . A spate of poor luck and tense British @-@ American relations followed , prompting Fell to spend some years investing in infrastructure in Siberia , but he returned in 1909 with ideas of developing wetlands in central Florida . He was further encouraged by the political promises of Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward to drain the Everglades during his 1904 campaign . In 1910 Fell purchased 118 @,@ 000 acres ( 480 km2 ) of land for $ 1 @.@ 35 an acre and started the Fellsmere Farms Company to drain the St. Johns Marsh in 1911 and send water into the Indian River Lagoon , promoting the engineered canals and other structures as wondrously efficient in providing land to build a massive metropolis . Some progress was made initially , including the establishment of the town of Fellsmere in which land was sold for $ 100 an acre , but sales lagged because of a scandal regarding land sale fraud and faulty draining reports from the Everglades . The company then found itself short of funds due to mismanagement . Torrential rains ruptured the newly constructed levees and dikes and forced the company by 1916 to go into receivership . Fell left Florida for Virginia in 1917 .
Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings used the St. Johns as a backdrop in her books South Moon Under and The Yearling , and several short stories . In 1933 she took a boat trip along the St. Johns with a friend . In the upper basin , she remarked on the difficulty of determining direction due to the river 's ambiguous flow , and wrote in a chapter titled " Hyacinth Drift " in her memoir Cross Creek that she had the best luck in watching the way the hyacinths floated . Rawlings wrote , " If I could have , to hold forever , one brief place and time of beauty , I think I might choose the night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River . "
Florida in the 20th century experienced a massive migration into the state . Undeveloped land sold well and draining to reclaim wetlands has often gone unchecked , and often encouraged by government . The St. Johns headwaters decreased in size from 30 square miles ( 78 km2 ) to one between 1900 and 1972 . Much of the land was reclaimed for urban use , but agricultural needs took their toll as fertilizers and runoff from cattle ranching washed into the St. Johns . Without wetlands to filter the pollutants , the chemicals stayed in the river and flushed into the Atlantic Ocean . Boaters destroyed the floating islands of muck and weeds in the upper basin with dynamite , causing the lakes to drain completely .
What could have been the most serious human impact on nature in central Florida was the Cross Florida Barge Canal , an attempt to connect the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of the state by channeling the Ocklawaha River , first authorized in 1933 . The canal was intended to be 171 miles ( 275 km ) long , 250 feet ( 76 m ) wide , and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep . Canal construction was top among the engineering priorities in the state , and by 1964 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction on the Cross Florida Barge Canal . Flood control was the primary impetus behind its construction , though the broader reasoning and feasibility of the project remained unclear . The Army Corps of Engineers was also constructing hundreds of miles of canals in the Everglades at the same time and by the 1960s was being accused of wasting tax money through its unnecessary construction projects . In 1969 the Environmental Defense Fund filed suit in federal court to stop construction on the canal , citing irreparable harm that would be done to Florida waterways and the Floridan Aquifer , central and north Florida 's fresh water source .
A separate canal , the St. Johns @-@ Indian River Barge Canal , was planned to link the river with the Intracoastal Waterway ; the project never broke ground , and was canceled soon after the Cross Florida Barge Canal was suspended .
= = = Restoration = = =
When steamboats were superseded by the railroad , the river lost much of its significance to the state . The influx of immigrants to Florida settled primarily south of Orlando , adversely affecting the natural order of wetlands there . Within the past 50 years , however , urban areas in the northern and central parts of the state have grown considerably . In the upper basin , population increased by 700 percent between 1950 and 2000 , and is expected to rise another 1 @.@ 5 million by 2020 .
Nitrates and phosphorus used as lawn and crop fertilizers wash into the St. Johns . Broken septic systems and seepage from cattle grazing lands create pollution that also finds its way into the river . Storm water washes from street drains directly to the river and its tributaries : in the 1970s , the Econlockhatchee River received 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of treated wastewater every day . Wetlands were drained and paved , unable to filter pollutants from the water , made worse by the river 's own slow discharge . Algal blooms , fish kills , and deformations and lesions on fish occur regularly in the river from Palatka to Jacksonville . Although most of the pollutants in the river are washed from the southern parts of the river , the Jacksonville area produces approximately 36 percent of them found in the lower basin .
The State of Florida implemented a program named Surface Water Improvement and Management ( SWIM ) in 1987 to assist with river cleanups , particularly with nonpoint source pollution , or chemicals that enter the river by soaking into the ground , as opposed to direct piped dumping . SWIM assists local jurisdictions with purchasing land for wetlands restoration . The St. Johns River Water Management District ( SJRWMD ) is charged by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) with restoring the river . The first step in restoration , particularly in the upper basin , is the purchase of public lands bordering the river ; ten different reserves and conservation areas have been implemented for such use around the St. Johns headwaters . Around Lake Griffin in the Ocklawaha Chain of Lakes , the SJRWMD has purchased 6 @,@ 500 acres ( 26 km2 ) of land that was previously used for muck farming . More than 19 @,@ 000 acres ( 77 km2 ) have been purchased along Lake Apopka to restore its wetlands , and the SJRWMD has removed nearly 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 kg ) of gizzard shad ( Dorosoma cepedianum ) , a fish species that stores phosphorus and adds to algae problems . The SJRWMD has also set minimum levels for the lakes and tributaries in the St. Johns watersheds to monitor permitted water withdrawals and declare water shortages when necessary .
To assist with river cleanup and the associated funds for improving water quality in the St. Johns , Mayor John Delaney of Jacksonville waged a campaign to get it named as an American Heritage River , beginning in 1997 . The designation by the Environmental Protection Agency is intended to coordinate efforts among federal agencies to improve natural resource and environmental protection , economic revitalization , and historic and cultural preservation . The campaign was controversial as the Republican mayor defended asking for federal government assistance , writing " Other rivers have relied heavily on federal help for massive environmental clean @-@ ups . It 's the St. Johns ' turn now . " Twenty @-@ two towns along the St. Johns and environmental , sporting , recreation , boating , and educational organizations also supported its designation , but several prominent Republican politicians expressed concerns over increased federal regulations and restrictions on private property ownership along the river ; the Florida House of Representatives passed a resolution asking President Bill Clinton not to include the St. Johns . Despite this , Clinton designated the St. Johns as one of only 14 American Heritage Rivers out of 126 nominated in 1998 for its ecological , historic , economic and cultural significance .
The continuing increase of population in Florida has caused urban planners to forecast that the Floridan Aquifer will no longer be able to sustain the people living in north Florida . By 2020 , 7 million people are predicted to live in the St. Johns basins , double the number living there in 2008 . Proposals to use 155 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 590 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) a day from the St. Johns , and another 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 380 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) from the Ocklawaha River , for fresh water are controversial , prompting a private organization named St. Johns Riverkeeper to nominate it to the list of the Ten Most Endangered Rivers by an environmental watchdog group named American Rivers . In 2008 , it was listed as # 6 , which was met with approval from Jacksonville 's newspaper , The Florida Times @-@ Union , and skepticism from the SJRWMD .
The St. Johns River is under consideration as an additional water source to meet growing public water needs . In 2008 , the river 's Water Management District undertook a Water Supply Impact Study of the proposed water withdrawals and asked the National Research Council to review science aspects of the study as it progressed . This resulted in a series of four reports that assessed the impact of water withdrawal on river level and flow , reviewed potential impacts on wetland ecosystems , and presented overall perspectives on the Water Management District study . The National Research Council found that , overall , the District performed a competent job in relating predicted environmental responses , including their magnitude and general degree of uncertainty , to the proposed range of water withdrawals . However , the report noted that the District 's final report should acknowledge such critical issues as include future sea @-@ level rises , population growth , and urban development . Although the District predicted that changes in water management would increase water levels and flows that exceed the proposed surface water withdrawals , these predictions have high uncertainties .
The report also noted concerns about the District 's conclusion that the water withdrawals will have few deleterious ecological effects . This conclusion was based on the model findings that increased flows from upper basin projects and from changes in land use ( increases in impervious areas ) largely compensated for the impacts of water withdrawals on water flows and levels . Although the upper basin projects are positive insofar as they will return land to the basin ( and water to the river ) , the same cannot be said about increased urban runoff , the poor quality of which is well known .
= Arsène Wenger =
Arsène Wenger , OBE ( French pronunciation : [ aʁsɛn vɛŋ ( ɡ ) ɛʁ ] ; born 22 October 1949 ) , is a French football manager and former player . He has been the manager of Arsenal since 1996 , where he has since become the club 's longest @-@ serving manager and most successful in terms of major titles won . Football pundits give Wenger credit for his contribution to the revolutionising of football in England in the late 1990s through the introduction of changes in the training and diet of players .
Wenger was born in Strasbourg and raised in Duttlenheim . He was introduced to football by his father , the manager of the local village team . After a modest playing career , in which he made appearances for several amateur clubs , Wenger obtained a manager 's diploma in 1981 . Following an unsuccessful period at Nancy which culminated in his dismissal in 1987 , Wenger joined AS Monaco ; the club won the league championship in 1988 . In 1991 , Wenger guided Monaco to victory in the Coupe de France , but their failure to regain the league title in later seasons led to his departure from the club by mutual consent in 1994 . He briefly coached Japanese J.League side Nagoya Grampus Eight , which won the Emperor 's Cup and Japanese Super Cup during his stint .
In 1996 , Wenger was named manager of Arsenal and two years later the club completed a league and FA Cup double . The club won another league and cup double in 2002 and retained the FA Cup a year later . In 2004 , Wenger managed Arsenal to an undefeated league season , a feat last accomplished by Preston North End , 115 years previously . Arsenal later eclipsed Nottingham Forest 's record of 42 league matches unbeaten and went seven more matches before losing in October 2004 . The club made their first appearance in a Champions League final in 2006 , though they lost to Barcelona . After a period of nine years without a trophy , which coincided with the club relocating to the Emirates Stadium , Wenger guided Arsenal to further FA Cup success in 2014 and 2015 . Alongside George Ramsay , he is the most successful manager in the competition 's history with six .
The nickname " Le Professeur " is used by fans and the British media to reflect Wenger 's studious demeanour . His approach to the game emphasises an attacking mentality , with the aim that football ought to be entertaining on the pitch . Wenger 's Arsenal teams have been criticised for their indiscipline ; his players received 100 red cards between September 1996 and February 2014 , though the team has won awards for sporting fair play . At Monaco , Wenger earned a reputation for spotting young talent , and he has remained focused on developing a youth system .
= = Early life = =
Wenger was born on 22 October 1949 in Strasbourg , Alsace , France , to Alphonse and Louise Wenger . Arsène was the third of their three children . He lived in Duppigheim during the 1950s , but spent most of his time in the neighbouring village of Duttlenheim , ten miles south @-@ west of Strasbourg . Alphonse , like many Alsatians , was conscripted into the German army by force ( incorporé de force ) following the earlier annexation of the French region of Alsace @-@ Lorraine by Germany . He was sent to fight on the Eastern Front in October 1944 , at the age of 24 .
The Wengers owned an automobile spare parts business and a bistro titled La croix d 'or . It meant that they had difficulty looking after their children , but Duttlenheim was a village where everyone took care of the young ; Wenger compared it in later years to a kibbutz . Before Wenger started school at the age of six , he expressed himself in the local Alsatian dialect of Low Alemannic German . The primary school which Wenger attended was run by the Catholic Church . As one of its brightest students he later was accepted into a secondary school in Obernai .
According to his father , who also managed the village team , Wenger was introduced to football " at about the age of six " . He was taken to games in Germany , where he held an affection for Borussia Mönchengladbach . Alsace was an area steeped in religion ; Wenger and the village boys often needed to seek permission from the Catholic priest to miss vespers ( evening prayers ) in order to play football .
= = Playing career = =
Because the population of Duttlenheim was short in numbers , it proved difficult to field a team of 11 players of equal ages ; Wenger did not play for FC Duttlenheim until the age of 12 . Claude Wenger , a team @-@ mate of Arsène noted his lack of pace as a player . Marcel Brandner , president of FC Duttlenheim said Wenger had " an ability to guard the ball ... he seemed to have a complete vision of the pitch and he certainly had an influence among his team @-@ mates . " As a young teenager he was called Petit ; the nickname ceased when he had a growth spurt and broke into FC Duttlenheim 's first team , aged 16 . The team did not have a coach to prepare the players tactically , rather a person who supervised training sessions . Wenger took it upon himself to manage the side – Claude recalled : " Arsène wasn 't the captain and yet he was . It was ' You do this , you do that , you do this you do that . ' He was the leader . "
In 1969 Wenger was recruited to nearby third division club Mutzig . The club was famed for playing the " best amateur football " in Alsace and managed by Max Hild , who would later go on to become Wenger 's mentor . Wenger 's emergence at Mutzig aged 20 was considered too late for him to build a reputable playing career . Football was not seen as his future ; the plan was for him to run the family 's spare parts business . He was however of the age to start increasing his tactical knowledge of the sport . He frequently read France Football and alongside Hild made trips to Germany to watch Bundesliga matches and observe the different managerial styles . During Wenger 's three years at Mutzig , the club beat FC Strasbourg 06 3 – 0 to win the Coupe d 'Alsace . He also represented Alsace in a competition held annually between the regional leagues .
Wenger took his studies further and in 1971 enrolled at the Faculté des sciences économiques et de gestion ( Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences ) at the University of Strasbourg to read politics and economics after a brief stint in medicine . In 1973 he joined semi @-@ professional club Mulhouse and balanced his football career with his education . Wenger completed an economics degree a year later . He was selected to represent the national French students squad and visited Nigeria , Lebanon , and Uruguay – where the World Students Championship was held in 1976 . Wenger did not participate in the event as he was injured ; Jean @-@ Luc Arribart , captain of the team recalled : " By the end of that trip , Arsène had almost taken on the role of assistant coach and team joker rolled into one . "
At Mulhouse , Wenger was managed by Paul Frantz who like Hild had a profound impact on his career . It was he who formalised Wenger 's beliefs on the importance of nutrition , isometrics and working on a player 's strong points . Wenger played in midfield for Mulhouse , often positioned on the right . In their final game of the 1974 – 75 season , the club beat AS Nancy to avoid relegation , but shortly afterwards Frantz resigned . Wenger also made the decision to leave , as the regular commutes to Mulhouse from Strasbourg overwhelmed him . In 1975 he rekindled his friendship with Hild and signed for amateur club ASPV Strasbourg ( Vauban ) . Hild needed a midfielder " who could organise play and also have a sort of hold over the team " and decided to recruit Wenger . Vauban was formed in 1971 and made steady progress up the French football league system thereafter ; Wenger 's three seasons at the club culminated with promotion to the third division .
In 1978 Hild joined RC Strasbourg as coach of the reserve team . The role required him to scout , so Hild wanted an experienced player to work with the youth while he was away . Both Hild and Frantz recommended Wenger , which convinced manager Gilbert Gress to appoint him . Wenger 's playing career at the age of 28 began to wane , but he never anticipated a role in the first @-@ team . Working for RC Strasbourg however presented him his first full @-@ time job at the club he supported as a young boy . Hild moved Wenger from midfield to central defence , where he was positioned as a sweeper in reserve games . In November 1978 he made his debut for the first team against MSV Duisburg in the UEFA Cup ( a match Strasbourg lost 4 – 0 ) and a month later played against champions AS Monaco in the First Division . At the end of the 1978 – 79 season RC Strasbourg won the league ; Wenger did not join in the celebrations as he was preoccupied with the youth team . He made his final appearance for the senior side in 1979 .
Wenger spent the last two years of his playing career predominantly running RC Strasbourg ’ s reserve and youth team . He became conscious of the importance of speaking English and during his holidays enrolled on a three @-@ week language course at Cambridge . Wenger also studied for his coaching badge at the Centre de ressources , d 'expertise et de performance sportives ( CREPS ) in Strasbourg – this consisted of a course to coach children , followed by an intensive six @-@ day course which led up to the national coaching badge . The latter programme took place in Vichy and was spread over three weeks . Wenger was able to put Frantz ’ s teachings , particularly isometrics into practise . In 1981 he received his manager ’ s diploma in Paris .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = 1984 – 1994 : Nancy and Monaco = = =
Wenger ’ s management skills at Strasbourg impressed many French coaches , and in 1983 he moved to Ligue 2 club Cannes , where he became Jean @-@ Marc Guillou ’ s assistant . Earning a steady wage of £ 300 per week , he was responsible for collecting information about opposition teams , and instilled discipline in the players through training sessions . Wenger ’ s commitment to football was well documented ; when asked what the young coach did during his spare time , general manager Richard Conte replied : " Videos , videos , videos . He was always watching videos of his opponents , of his own team . It didn 't matter what time of night . " Cannes failed to win promotion to Ligue 1 , but they reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Coupe de France . Wenger 's work in raising the standard of the squad did not go unnoticed , and in 1984 he accepted Aldo Platini 's offer to become manager of Nancy .
The challenge of sustaining Nancy as a Ligue 1 club was difficult as Wenger inherited a squad of sub @-@ standard quality and he was given limited money to spend . He nevertheless relished the prospect of conducting business in the transfer market , and enjoyed freedom to trial theories he read about . In his first season at Nancy , Wenger hired a dietician to explain the benefits of healthy eating and made it imperative that players did not snack before games . He took the squad away from their usual summer training camp to Val Thorens , so that the players could acclimatise to the high @-@ altitude . Platini attested the move to their strong league starts . From a managerial perspective , Wenger struggled to keep his emotions in check ; losing made him " physically sick " , to the point where he once stopped the team bus to vomit after a game . Wenger guided the club to a respectable 12th @-@ place finish , all the more surprising given he constantly tinkered his team . Players were moved out of their favoured positions , which for some maximised their potential . Éric Bertrand , a striker signed from the lower divisions , was converted into a fullback , and by the end of Wenger 's time at Nancy , Éric Di Meco switched from a left winger to wing back .
Nancy 's bottom @-@ half finish proved a false down as the club finished 18th in the 1985 – 86 season , which meant they had to win a play @-@ off match to avoid relegation . They retained their league status with a 3 – 2 aggregate win against Mulhouse . The club however sold several of their best players to avoid financial predicament and provided Wenger with little funds to work from which irritated him . In Wenger 's final season in charge , Nancy finished 19th and were relegated to Ligue 2 . Despite the setback , he was contacted by AS Monaco over their vacant managerial job . Talks had begun during the summer of 1986 , but Nancy chairman Gérard Rousselot refused to release Wenger from his contract , and Monaco were not prepared to offer compensation . Once Nancy 's relegation was confirmed , Wenger was permitted to leave the club by mutual consent and in 1987 was confirmed as Monaco manager .
Before joining Monaco , Wenger had identified several players to build his desired team . Tottenham Hotspur midfielder Glenn Hoddle , granted a free transfer , and Patrick Battiston , out of contract at Bordeaux were signed . Striker Mark Hateley left Milan to join Monaco and was " encouraged to learn " that his fellow Englishman Hoddle would play in the same side as him . Monaco won the league in Wenger 's debut season , six points ahead of runners @-@ up Bordeaux . Although the team scored more goals in 1988 – 89 due to the purchase of Liberian striker George Weah , Monaco failed to retain the league and finished third behind Olympique de Marseille and Paris Saint @-@ Germain . The club reached the final of the Coupe de France , the national knockout cup competition in the same season , but lost 4 – 3 to Marseille .
Monaco again finished third in 1989 – 90 ; striker Ramón Díaz scored 15 goals in his first season at the club . The club beat league winners Marseille in the Coupe de France final through a last minute goal from substitute Gérald Passi . In 1991 – 92 , Monaco finished in second place and lost the 1992 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final 2 – 0 to Werder Bremen . Although Monaco acquired the services of German striker Jürgen Klinsmann , the club could not regain the championship and concluded the subsequent seasons in third and ninth positions . Monaco did reach the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League in April 1994 , but lost to eventual winners Milan . As a result of his work at Monaco , Wenger was sought after by German club Bayern Munich , who wanted him to be their next manager . Monaco refused to let him leave and Wenger chose to stay , but a poor start to the 1994 – 95 season meant he was dismissed on 17 September 1994 , with the team in 17th spot in the table . In 2001 , Wenger said that the impact of bribery and corruption had influenced his decision to leave France , as Marseille were found guilty of match fixing in 1994 .
= = = 1994 – 1996 : Nagoya Grampus Eight = = =
Shortly after his dismissal , Wenger travelled to the United Arab Emirates to attend a series of conferences held by FIFA . Wenger was a member of the football governing body 's technical committee , responsible for analysing the 1994 World Cup , and made a presentation to coaches of emerging football nations . His speech was closely followed by Japanese delegates , whose country had invested millions into the restructuring of its football league system . Representatives of Toyota , the majority owner of Nagoya Grampus Eight soon met with Wenger and offered him the chance to become the club 's manager . Wenger deliberated , even though the idea of working abroad appealed to him ; negotiations between the two parties lasted for two months . In that time he sought the advice of his closest friends and family , and flew to Japan to watch Nagoya Grampus ' striker Gary Lineker make his final appearance before his professional retirement . In December 1994 , Wenger agreed to become manager of Nagoya Grampus , on a two @-@ year contract worth ¥ 75000000 annually .
With the new season of the J.League commencing in March 1995 , Wenger set about assembling his squad and backroom staff . He hired former Valenciennes manager Boro Primorac , whom he had befriended during the match @-@ fixing scandal , as his assistant . Alexandre Torres joined Nagoya after Wenger identified the defender by watching Brazilian football on the television , and the manager brought in Franck Durix and his former player Passi . Nagoya finished bottom of the J.League the season before Wenger 's arrival , and continued their poor form into the following campaign , losing several matches in a row . In response to the situation , Wenger altered his managerial style , becoming less amicable with his players and openly questioning their desire . To boost morale , he took his squad to Versailles for their mid @-@ season break , where they went through a rigorous , but creative training regime . Players were expected to make decisions for themselves on the pitch , instead of relying on the manager ; Wenger was reported to have shouted to his players " Don 't look at me to ask me what to do with the ball ! " and " Decide for yourself ! Why don 't you think it out ? " One player who greatly benefited from Wenger 's guidance was Dragan Stojković , a midfielder whose disciplinary record improved .
Wenger 's methods had the desired effect – Nagoya won 17 games and lost nine in the second stage of the competition to finish runners @-@ up . He shortly received the J. League Manager of the Year award for 1995 , while Stojković claimed the player 's honour . In January 1996 , Wenger guided the club to their first piece of silverware as Nagoya defeated Sanfrecce Hiroshima to win the Emperor 's Cup . Two months later they triumphed in the Super Cup , beating Yokohama Marinos 2 – 0 . The success bolstered Nagoya 's status in Japanese football , as well as Wenger 's reputation ; he was somewhat startled by the praise and idolisation that came his way . Midway through the 1996 league season , Wenger 's former club Strasbourg enquired about the possibility of him returning to manage them . He turned down the offer as was earlier approached by Arsenal . Dein had remained in contact with Wenger after their first meeting , and frequently sent him video tapes of matches to garner his opinions ; " He was my personal pundit , " the vice @-@ chairman recalled . The Arsenal board rebuffed Dein 's suggestion to appoint Wenger as early as 1995 , but concerns over George Graham 's successor Bruce Rioch meant they were more open @-@ minded about hiring him since his stint in Japan .
Wenger managed Nagoya for the final time on 28 August 1996 and delivered a farewell speech , thanking the fans in Japanese . Assessing his time in Japan , biographer Jasper Rees felt Wenger had left a mixed legacy at the club , as the immediate success was followed by fluctuating league finishes ; it was not until 2010 that Nagoya ( under Stojković ) won their first title . Wenger continues to speak fondly of his career in Japan and once likened the country to his ancestral home : " It has beautiful things that we have lost in Europe , beautiful things that make life good . " He also credited the culture for improving his temperament and rediscovering his passion for the game . Wenger returned to Japan as a television pundit for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup , and a decade later took Arsenal to face Nagoya in a pre @-@ season friendly .
= = = Arsenal = = =
= = = = 1996 – 97 : Appointment and first season = = = =
In August 1996 , Arsenal dismissed Rioch as club manager . Rioch 's position had become untenable after a dispute with the board over transfers , and his working relationship with Dein worsened during the course of his tenure . Arsenal appointed Stewart Houston and later Pat Rice in temporary charge of the first team , while they searched for a full @-@ time successor . Although Barcelona player and manager Johan Cruyff was favourite to take over , the board looked elsewhere , eventually backing De
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augmented his national recognition and appeal . The two Democratic factions agreed to compromise , nominating John W. Davis , who Libbey called a " competent nonentity " ; Davis lost in the general election to Calvin Coolidge . Barkley won another term in the House by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin over his Republican opponent in 1924 , but Democratic divisions cost Stanley his Senate seat , and Barkley became even more convinced of the value of party loyalty .
= = U.S. Senator = =
Because of Barkley 's role in crafting the Railway Labor Act , the Associated Railway Labor Organizations endorsed him to unseat Ernst even before he formally announced his candidacy on April 26 , 1926 . Since the 1923 gubernatorial contest , he had distanced himself from Haly and promised the conservatives that he would not push a ban on parimutuel betting if elected . Consequently , he had no opposition in the primary . Congressman ( and later Chief Justice ) Fred M. Vinson managed his general election campaign .
Coolidge supported Ernst , and Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover campaigned in the state on his behalf . Ernst had opposed a bonus for veterans of World War I , an unpopular position in Kentucky , and at 68 years old , his age worked against him . Barkley contrasted his impoverished upbringing with Ernst 's affluent lifestyle as a corporate lawyer , and also attacked him for supporting Michigan Senator Truman Handy Newberry , who resigned due to allegations of election fraud . Republican voters were angered that Ernst did not support Republican Kentucky Congressman John W. Langley when Langley was charged with illegally aiding a large bootlegging operation in Louisville . Ernst tried to resurrect the issues of Barkley 's support for the coal tax and opposition to parimutuel betting , but in the general election , Barkley won by a vote of 287 @,@ 997 to 266 @,@ 657 .
In the Senate , Barkley was assigned to the Committee on the Library , and the committees on Finance and Banking and Currency ; later , he was added to the Commerce Committee . In early 1928 , Vice President Charles G. Dawes assigned him to a special committee to investigate the campaign expenditures of the leading candidates in the upcoming presidential election .
Democrats considered nominating him for vice president that year , calculating that his party loyalty and appeal to rural , agricultural and prohibitionist constituents , could balance a ticket headed by likely presidential nominee Al Smith , an urban anti @-@ prohibitionist . When the Kentucky delegation arrived at the 1928 Democratic National Convention , they approached Smith supporters with a view to pairing Barkley to their candidate . They were received cordially , but Smith 's advisors thought placing candidates with such differing views on the ticket would seem contrived to the electorate . They did not tell Barkley of their decision until after he seconded Smith 's nomination for president . Smith then announced Arkansas Senator Joseph T. Robinson as his preferred running mate . The Kentuckians nominated Barkley in spite of Smith 's preference , but the overwhelming majority of delegates voted for Robinson , and Barkley announced that Kentucky was changing its support in order to make the nomination unanimous .
Barkley and his wife Dorothy took a vacation after the convention , returning to Kentucky in August 1928 to find that , in his absence , Barkley had been chosen state chairman of Smith 's campaign . He campaigned for Smith , but Herbert Hoover won a landslide victory . After the election , Barkley led a coalition of liberal Democrats and Republicans that opposed Hoover 's use of protective tariffs , a debate that took particular urgency following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . Barkley opposed the Smoot – Hawley Tariff Act , claiming it would cost Americans both jobs and exports , but Congress approved it , and Hoover signed it on June 17 , 1930 . When Congress adjourned , Barkley accompanied Sherwood Eddy and fellow senators Burton K. Wheeler and Bronson M. Cutting to the Soviet Union in August 1930 . He was impressed by the industrial development brought about by Joseph Stalin 's First Five @-@ Year Plan but did not advocate closer diplomatic ties with the Communist nation , as some of his colleagues did .
Barkley maintained that Hoover 's response to the continuing depression and the severe drought in 1930 were inadequate and pointed out that the $ 45 million in loans to farmers that he approved amounted to less than half the losses sustained by Kentucky 's farmers alone . He was angered that Hoover refused to call a special legislative session to adopt relief measures after the regular congressional adjourned in early March 1931 . He planned a series of speeches condemning Hoover beginning in June but was injured in an automobile accident on June 22 , limiting his political activities for the remainder of the year .
= = = Second term and ascension to floor leader = = =
Barkley supported Franklin D. Roosevelt for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1932 , but facing a re @-@ election bid himself , he did not announce his support , fearing that his message might not resonate with Kentucky voters . Roosevelt supporters offered Barkley the keynote address and temporary chairmanship of the 1932 Democratic National Convention if he would endorse their candidate . Both opportunities would help Barkley 's re @-@ election chances , so he announced his support for Roosevelt on March 22 , 1932 . In his keynote , Barkley warmly recalled the Wilson administration and denounced more than a decade of Republican dominance . Applause frequently punctuated the speech , with the longest interruption – a 45 @-@ minute near @-@ riot – erupting after Barkley called for a platform plank directing Congress to repeal prohibition . According to Libbey , the remark was not a repudiation of his prohibitionist position but a desire for the people to express their will on repeal . Prohibitionist constituents still supported Barkley because , for most of them , the depression trumped all other concerns .
George B. Martin , who had served six months in the Senate in 1918 after being appointed to fill a vacancy , opposed Barkley in the 1932 primary , but Barkley defeated him by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . In the general election , he defeated Republican Congressman Maurice H. Thatcher by a vote of 575 @,@ 077 to 393 @,@ 865 , marking the first time in the 20th century that a Kentucky senator won a second consecutive term . Democrats gained control of the Senate during the 1932 elections ; Joseph Robinson was chosen majority leader , and he appointed Barkley as his assistant . Together , they secured passage of New Deal legislation , including the Agricultural Adjustment Act , the National Industrial Recovery Act , and the Federal Emergency Relief Act . In July 1934 , the Democratic National Committee chose Barkley to respond to Republican National Committee chairman Henry P. Fletcher 's radio attacks on the New Deal . Later that year , he embarked on a tour of twenty states , defending the New Deal and stumping for Democratic candidates in the 1934 midterm elections .
Barkley was again the keynote speaker at the 1936 Democratic National Convention . During his address , he alluded to the Supreme Court 's decision in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States – which struck down the National Industrial Recovery Act as unconstitutional – asking " Is the court beyond criticism ? May it be regarded as too sacred to be disagreed with ? " These remarks help set an anti @-@ Supreme Court tone for Roosevelt 's second term . On February 5 , 1937 , Roosevelt proposed legislation authorizing the president to appoint an additional justice for each one over the age of 70 . Many saw this proposal as an attempt to avoid further nullification of New Deal provisions as unconstitutional by appointing more sympathetic justices , and they dubbed the measure Roosevelt 's " court @-@ packing plan " .
Barkley and Mississippi Senator Pat Harrison were the leading candidates to succeed Robinson as Democratic floor leader when he died on July 14 , 1937 . Harrison 's tenure in the Senate was eight years longer than Barkley 's , and he was supported by conservative Southern Democratic senators opposed to Roosevelt 's court @-@ packing plan . Harrison had helped secure Roosevelt 's nomination at the 1932 Democratic National Convention by convincing Mississippi Governor Martin Sennet Conner to keep his state 's delegation loyal to Roosevelt , but Roosevelt preferred Barkley because of his support of the New Deal . A letter from Roosevelt praising Barkley 's legislative accomplishments and addressed to " My Dear Alben " was seen as an endorsement . Although Roosevelt remained publicly neutral , he pressured Illinois ' William H. Dieterich and Missouri 's Harry S. Truman to support Barkley instead of Harrison ; Dieterich acquiesced , but Truman remained loyal to Harrison . Many senators resented Roosevelt 's interference in a traditionally legislative prerogative . Ultimately , Barkley was elected by a single vote .
= = = Challenge by Happy Chandler = = =
Barkley faced a primary challenge in his 1938 re @-@ election bid from A. B. " Happy " Chandler , Kentucky 's popular governor who had a strong political organization throughout the state . According to historian James C. Klotter , Chandler was confident of his ascension to the presidency and saw the Senate as a stepping stone . Chandler twice asked Roosevelt to appoint Kentucky 's junior Senator , M. M. Logan , to a federal judgeship so he could arrange his own appointment to Logan 's Senate seat . On one of these occasions – the retirement of Supreme Court Justice George Sutherland – Barkley advised Roosevelt to appoint Solicitor General Stanley Reed instead . Chandler 's mentor , Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd , and the bloc of Democrats who opposed Roosevelt 's New Deal , then encouraged Chandler to announce his candidacy for Barkley 's seat .
The New York Times saw the primary as " the Gettysburg of the party 's internecine strife " over control of the Democratic National Convention in 1940 . Early on , Chandler portrayed himself as a supporter of Roosevelt – since Roosevelt was popular in Kentucky – but opposed to the New Deal . He pointed to his fiscal conservatism as governor , including reorganizing and downsizing the executive branch and reducing the state 's debt . Polls showing Barkley with a comfortable lead and an overwhelming victory by New Deal supporter Claude Pepper in Florida 's May Senate primary convinced Chandler to shift his focus from the New Deal . He criticized Barkley as " a stranger to the state " and obliquely referred to " fat , sleek senators who go to Europe and have forgotten the people of Kentucky except when they run for election " . Forty years old – 20 years Barkley 's junior – he referred to Barkley as " Old Alben " .
Early in the contest , congressional business restricted Barkley 's campaign to weekends , so he enlisted allies like Fred Vinson to speak on his behalf . Chandler 's political enemies such as former governor Ruby Laffoon , whom Chandler had crossed as lieutenant governor , and John Y. Brown , Sr. , who felt that Chandler had broken a promise to support him for a seat in the Senate , also supported Barkley . Although labor leaders had backed Chandler 's gubernatorial bid , they endorsed Barkley because of Roosevelt 's support for labor unions . After the congressional session , Barkley resumed his " Iron Man " campaign style , making between 8 and 15 speeches each day and traveling , on average , 4 @,@ 500 miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ) per week . This countered Chandler 's implication that Barkley 's age was a disadvantage , a charge that was further blunted when the younger Chandler fell ill in July , temporarily halting his campaigning . Chandler indirectly charged that a Barkley supporter had poisoned his ice water , causing the illness . Barkley ridiculed the suggestion , promising to appoint " an ice water guard " for his campaign . During speeches , he would lift a glass of water to his lips , then mockingly inspect it and refuse to drink it . Louisville police dismissed Chandler 's claim as " a political bedtime story " .
Recognizing that the defeat of his hand @-@ picked floor leader would be a repudiation of his agenda , Roosevelt began a tour of the state in Covington on July 8 , 1938 . Chandler , the state 's chief executive , was invited to welcome the president . Although clearly campaigning for Barkley , Roosevelt made courteous remarks about Chandler in the spirit of party unity , but in Bowling Green , he chastised Chandler for " dragging federal judgeships into a political campaign " .
As nearly every 20th century Kentucky governor had done , Chandler printed campaign materials with state funds , solicited campaign funds from state employees , and promised new government jobs in exchange for votes . A later investigation determined that Chandler had raised at least $ 10 @,@ 000 from state employees . Federal New Deal employees countered by working on Barkley 's behalf . Barkley and George H. Goodman , director of the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) in Kentucky , denied that WPA employees played a role in the campaign , but journalist Thomas Lunsford Stokes concluded that " the WPA ... was deep in politics " in Kentucky , winning the 1939 Pulitzer Prize for Reporting for his investigation . A Senate committee investigated Stokes ' findings , and WPA administrator Harry Hopkins claimed the committee 's report refuted all but two of Stokes ' twenty @-@ two charges . Nevertheless , Congress passed the Hatch Act of 1939 which restricted federal employees ' participation in political activities .
Barkley won the August 6 election by a vote of 294 @,@ 391 to 223 @,@ 149 , carrying 74 of Kentucky 's 120 counties , with large majorities in western Kentucky , the city of Louisville , and rural areas . It was the first loss of Chandler 's political career , and the worst suffered by a primary candidate in Kentucky 's history to that time . Barkley defeated his Republican opponent , Louisville Judge John P. Haswell , securing 62 % of the general election vote . Encouraged by Barkley 's success , Roosevelt campaigned against conservative Democratic incumbents in southern states , but all of these candidates won , which damaged Roosevelt 's image .
= = = Floor leadership = = =
With his caucus divided between conservatives and liberals , Barkley failed to secure passage for Roosevelt 's court @-@ packing plan . After the successive failures of several administration @-@ backed domestic bills , the press dubbed the Senate Majority Leader " bumbling Barkley " . He was able to salvage an appropriations bill to cover overspending by the WPA , although it allocated much less funding than Roosevelt had wanted . He helped secure the Hatch Act and The Washington Daily News called a 1940 amendment that prohibited campaigning by federally funded state employees a " monument to Alben Barkley 's persistence and parliamentary skill " . Despite this mixed record , Roosevelt believed some Democratic partisans hoped to nominate Barkley for president at the 1940 Democratic National Convention , but the German invasion of Poland on September 1 , 1939 , deepened his resolve to seek a third term .
Barkley disagreed with Roosevelt 's selection of Agriculture Secretary Henry A. Wallace as his running mate ; Libbey felt that " there is enough evidence from Barkley 's tortuous private and public statements about the qualifications of Wallace to infer that Barkley wanted the vice presidency for himself " , although he did not promote this idea to Roosevelt . Barkley was chosen permanent chairman of the convention ; chants of " We want Roosevelt " interrupted his July 16 speech for 20 minutes , indicating that he had created a popular mandate for Roosevelt 's renomination , which occurred the next day . Roosevelt went on to win an unprecedented third term in a landslide .
Supporting Roosevelt 's provision of aid to Allied Powers during World War II , Barkley sponsored the Lend @-@ Lease Act in the Senate . In November 1943 , he helped draft the Connally – Fulbright Resolution for the creation of an international peace @-@ keeping body at the end of the war , an idea he had favored since Woodrow Wilson 's support of the League of Nations . Supreme Court Justice and fellow Kentuckian Louis Brandeis influenced Barkley to adopt Zionism ; during and after the war , Barkley advocated creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine and introduced a 1943 resolution demanding that the Nazis to be punished for persecuting Jews . U.S. entry into the war diverted Roosevelt 's attention away from domestic affairs . Vice President Wallace , House Speaker Sam Rayburn , Democratic House Floor Leader John William McCormack , and Barkley – the president 's " Big Four " – helped develop and pass the administration 's legislative agenda . Barkley regularly met with the chairmen of the Senate 's standing committees , forming a sort of legislative cabinet . With their support , he secured passage of the War Powers Act and the Emergency Price Control Act . He also advocated passage of a measure to outlaw poll taxes , but the bill was defeated .
= = = Split with Roosevelt = = =
In April 1943 a confidential analysis by Isaiah Berlin of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee for the British Foreign Office described Barkley as " a Democratic party " wheelhorse " who will pull the Administration waggon through thick and thin . Although he is the Majority Leader in the Senate , he is not an adroit negotiator , but a loyal supporter of the President come hell or high water . "
Tension developed between Roosevelt and Barkley during the war , however . In 1943 , Roosevelt refused to appoint Barkley to a vacancy on the Supreme Court , and Barkley criticized the War Production Board for awarding contracts for the production of war @-@ related materials to large companies rather than small businesses . Their most notable clash occurred in February 1944 when Roosevelt requested that Congress approve tax increases to generate over $ 10 billion in revenue for the war . Barkley and the Senate Finance Committee negotiated a bill containing only $ 2 @.@ 3 billion in tax increases . Feeling the measure was insufficient , Roosevelt convened the " Big Four " on February 21 and told them he would veto it . They urged him not to do so , assuring him that the bill they had drafted was the best one that they could pass . Roosevelt vetoed the bill the next day , marking the first time a U.S. president vetoed a revenue bill .
When Barkley entered the Senate chamber on February 23 , word had spread that Roosevelt 's veto had angered him . He announced that he would resign as floor leader and encouraged his legislative colleagues to override the veto . He stated that Roosevelt 's characterization of the bill as " providing relief not for the needy , but for the greedy " was " a calculated and deliberate assault upon the legislative integrity of every member of the Congress of the United States " . Roosevelt sent a letter to Barkley insisting he had not intended to impugn Congress ' integrity and urging him not to resign . The next morning , Barkley resigned and left the Democratic Conference Room ; minutes later , the caucus unanimously re @-@ elected him . Many members who had seen Barkley as Roosevelt 's advocate in Congress now looked upon him as Congress ' advocate with Roosevelt . Subsequently , Congress overwhelmingly overrode the veto .
Delegates to the 1944 Democratic National Convention favored dropping vice president Henry Wallace from their ticket in favor of Barkley , but Roosevelt refused to consider him , telling a July 11 meeting of Democratic leaders that he was too old . Instead , he took the recommendation of Democratic National Committee chairman Robert E. Hannegan and choose Harry S. Truman . Despite his differences with Roosevelt , Barkley faced no serious challengers in the 1944 Democratic primary and defeated his Republican challenger , Fayette County Commonwealth 's Attorney James Park , by a vote of 464 @,@ 053 to 380 @,@ 425 .
= = = Truman succeeds Roosevelt = = =
Truman ascended to the presidency when Roosevelt died in April 1945 , just before the end of World War II . In the war 's aftermath , Americans wanted to know why the U.S. seemed ill @-@ prepared for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . Barkley sponsored a resolution to create the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack and was chosen as chairman of the ten @-@ person committee . The committee 's report , delivered on July 20 , 1946 , exonerated Roosevelt of any blame for the attack and highlighted weaknesses in communications between branches of the U.S. armed forces , leading to the creation of the United States Department of Defense . Barkley also helped ensure U.S. participation in the United Nations and advocated approval of billions of dollars in loans to rebuild Europe . Look magazine named him the second most fascinating person in the country behind Dwight D. Eisenhower .
In the 1946 elections , Republicans wrested control of both houses of Congress from the Democrats for the first time since the Great Depression and gained control of the majority of state governments . The power of labor unions had expanded under Roosevelt and the Democrats , and when a 1946 railroad worker strike exacerbated a post @-@ war recession the Republican majorities – over Barkley 's objection – curbed union power via the Taft – Hartley Act . They also passed the Twenty @-@ second Amendment , limiting the president to two terms , a posthumous slap at Roosevelt .
Barkley 's wife became an invalid due to heart disease . Barkley had closed his law practice when he was elected to the Senate , so to pay for his wife 's care , he supplemented his $ 10 @,@ 000 annual salary with speaking engagements . He was the Democratic Speakers Bureau 's most requested orator , surpassing Truman . A Pageant magazine poll of legislators chose Barkley and Republican Robert A. Taft as the hardest @-@ working members of their respective parties . The Barkleys sold their Washington , D.C. home and moved into an apartment to reduce expenses . Marny Clifford , wife of Truman 's Naval Advisor Clark Clifford , nicknamed Barkley " Sparkle Barkle " for his care of his wife , who died March 10 , 1947 . When Barkley won the Collier Award in May 1948 , he donated the $ 10 @,@ 000 prize to the University of Louisville School of Medicine in his wife 's honor .
Civil rights bills , unpopular with Southern Democrats , were central to Truman 's Fair Deal . Because Barkley could still appeal to Southern Democrats , Truman asked him to be the keynote speaker at the 1948 Democratic National Convention for an unprecedented third time . Because of the Republican resurgence and Truman 's difficulty appealing to some Democrats , Republican presidential nominee Thomas E. Dewey was expected to win the upcoming presidential election . Democrats were energized by Barkley 's keynote address , which promoted New Deal accomplishments and called the Republican @-@ controlled Eightieth Congress a " do nothing " Congress . He mentioned Truman only once , leading Truman to suspect that Barkley sought to supplant him as the party 's presidential nominee , but no such attempt occurred . Despite these suspicions and his contention that a ticket consisting of a Missourian and a Kentuckian lacked regional geographic balance , convention delegates persuaded Truman to take Barkley as his running mate . Truman had wanted Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas , but Douglas declined .
Barkley was disappointed that he was not Truman 's first choice as running mate , but over the next six weeks , he crisscrossed the country by plane , making over 250 campaign speeches in 36 states . Playing off Barkley 's keynote speech , Truman called a special congressional session on July 26 , 1948 , challenging Republicans to enact their agenda . They were unable to pass any significant legislation , seeming to confirm Barkley 's characterization of them as a " do @-@ nothing Congress " .
= = Vice Presidency = =
In an upset victory , Truman and Barkley were elected over the Republican ticket by over 2 million votes , and Democrats regained majorities in both houses of Congress . Seventy @-@ one years old at the time of his inauguration , he was the oldest man ever elected Vice President , breaking Charles Curtis ' record at 69 . His grandson , Stephen M. Truitt , suggested the nickname " Veep " as an alternative to " Mr. Vice President " . The nickname was used by the press , but Barkley 's successor , Richard Nixon , discontinued using it , saying it belonged to Barkley .
Despite their personal differences , Truman and Barkley agreed on most issues . Because of Barkley 's legislative experience , Truman insisted his vice @-@ president attend cabinet meetings . Barkley chaired the Senate Democratic Policy Committee and attended Truman 's weekly legislative conferences . When Congress created the National Security Council , it included the vice president as a member . Barkley acted as the administration 's primary spokesperson , making 40 major speeches in his first eight months in office . Truman commissioned the United States Army Institute of Heraldry to create a seal and flag for the vice president , advocated raising his salary , and increased his expense budget . Mark O. Hatfield 's biographical sketch of Barkley noted that he was " the last [ vice president ] to preside regularly over the Senate , the last not to have an office in or near the White House , [ and ] the last to identify more with the legislative than the executive branch " .
Despite the Democrats ' advantage in the Senate , conservative Democrats united with the Republican minority to oppose much of Truman 's agenda , most notably , civil rights legislation . In March 1949 , Democratic floor leader Scott W. Lucas introduced an amendment to Senate Rule XXII to make cloture easier to achieve ; hoping to end a ten @-@ day filibuster against a civil rights bill . Conservative Republicans and Southern Democrats opposed the rule change and tried to obstruct it . Lucas asked for a cloture vote on the rule change , but opponents contended that the motion was out of order . Barkley studied the original debate on Rule XXII , which governed both cloture motions , before ruling in Lucas ' favor . Georgia Senator Richard Russell , Jr. appealed Barkley 's decision , and the chamber voted 46 – 41 to overrule . Sixteen Republicans , mostly from Northeast and West Coast states , voted to sustain the ruling ; most Southern Democrats voted with the remaining Republicans to overrule it .
On July 8 , 1949 , Barkley met Jane ( Rucker ) Hadley , a St. Louis widow approximately half his age , at a party thrown by Clark Clifford . After Haldey 's return to St. Louis , Barkley kept contact with her via letters and plane trips . Their courtship received national attention , and on November 18 , 1949 , they married in the Singleton Memorial Chapel of St. John 's Methodist Church in St. Louis . Barkley is the only U.S. vice president to marry while in office .
Barkley 's most notable tie @-@ breaking vote as vice president was cast on October 4 , 1949 , to save the Young – Russell Amendment which set a 90 % parity on the price of cotton , wheat , corn , rice , and peanuts . His friends , Scott Lucas and Clint Anderson , opposed the amendment , but Barkley had promised support during the 1948 campaign .
In 1949 , Emory University chose Barkley to deliver its commencement address and awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws . The following year , the university 's debating society renamed itself the Barkley Forum . The university also created the Alben W. Barkley Distinguished Chair in its Department of Political Science .
Barkley tried to mentor Scott Lucas and Ernest McFarland , his immediate successors as floor leader , by teaching them to work with the vice president as he had during Truman 's vice presidency , but Truman 's unpopularity made cooperation between the executive branch and the legislature difficult . After the U.S. entered the Korean War , Truman focused on foreign affairs , leaving Barkley to campaign for Democratic candidates in the 1950 midterm elections . He traveled over 19 @,@ 000 miles ( 31 @,@ 000 km ) and spoke in almost half of the states during the campaign . He felt ill when he arrived in Paducah on election day , and a doctor diagnosed him with a " tired heart " . Returning to Washington , D.C. , he spent several days in Naval Hospital , but was able to preside when the Senate opened its session on November 28 , 1950 . Democrats lost seats in both houses but maintained majorities in each .
On March 1 , 1951 – exactly 38 years from his first day in Congress – Barkley 's fellow congressmen presented him with the Congressional Gold Medal in honor of his legislative service . Truman surprised Barkley , appearing on the Senate floor to present the medallion and a gavel made of timbers used to renovate the White House after the burning of Washington in 1814 .
In November 1951 , Barkley and his wife ate Thanksgiving dinner with U.S. troops at Kimpo Air Base in Seoul . On his seventy @-@ fourth birthday , Barkley traveled to the front lines on a fact @-@ finding mission for the president . On June 4 , 1952 , he cast another notable tie @-@ breaking vote to save the Wage Stabilization Board .
= = = Campaign for president = = =
At the March 29 , 1952 , Jefferson – Jackson Day fundraiser , Truman announced that he would not seek re @-@ election , although he was exempt from the Twenty @-@ second Amendment 's term limits . After the announcement , the District of Columbia Democratic Club formed a Barkley for President Club with Iowa Senator Guy Gillette as chairman . Prominent Kentuckians – including Senator Earle C. Clements , Governor Lawrence Wetherby , and Lieutenant Governor Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp – supported the candidacy . Exactly two months after Truman 's announcement , Barkley declared his availability to run for president while maintaining he was not actively seeking the office .
Barkley 's distant cousin , Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson ( grandson of the former vice president ) , was considered his primary competition for the nomination , but had not committed before the convention . Richard Russell , Jr. and Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver were also interested in the nomination . Kentucky 's delegation to the 1952 Democratic National Convention announced that they would support Barkley , and Truman encouraged Missouri 's delegates to do so . Democratic National Committee chairman Frank E. McKinney , former chairman James Farley , and Senate Secretary Leslie Biffle also supported him . Two weeks before the convention , Stevenson advisor Jacob Arvey told Barkley that Stevenson was not going to be nominated and favored nominating Barkley . Barkley 's advisors believed that Kefauver and Russell would knock each other out of the early balloting , allowing Barkley to capture the nomination .
To dispel concerns about his age ( 74 ) , failing eyesight , and heart problems , Barkley arrived in Chicago for the 1952 Democratic National Convention and briskly walked seven blocks from the bus station to his campaign headquarters . The attempt was rendered moot on July 20 when a group of labor leaders , including United Automobile Workers President Walter Reuther , issued a statement calling Barkley too old and requesting that Democrats nominate someone younger like Stevenson . At a meeting with labor leaders the next morning , Barkley failed to persuade them to retract the statement , which caused delegations from large industrial states like Illinois , Indiana , and Pennsylvania to waver on their commitments to Barkley . On July 21 , he announced his withdrawal from the race . Invited to make a farewell address on July 22 , he received a 35 @-@ minute ovation when he took the podium and 45 @-@ minute one at the speech 's end . In a show of respect , a Missouri delegate nominated Barkley for president and House Majority Leader McCormack seconded it , but Stevenson was easily nominated . A month after the convention , Barkley hosted a Stevenson picnic and campaign rally at his home in Paducah and later introduced him at a rally in Louisville . Despite Barkley 's predictions of a Democratic victory , Stevenson lost in overwhelming fashion to Republican Dwight Eisenhower .
= = Later life and death = =
Barkley 's term as vice president ended on January 20 , 1953 . After the election , he had surgery to remove his cataracts . He contracted with NBC to create 26 fifteen @-@ minute commentary broadcasts called " Meet the Veep " . Low ratings prompted NBC 's decision not to renew the series in September 1953 . In retirement , Barkley remained a popular speaker and began working on his memoirs with journalist Sidney Shallett . He re @-@ entered politics in 1954 , challenging incumbent Republican Senator John Sherman Cooper . In a 1971 study of Barkley 's Senate career , historian Glenn Finch argued that Barkley was the only person who could beat Cooper . Few issues differentiated the candidates , and the campaign hinged on party politics ; visits to Kentucky by President Eisenhower , Vice President Richard Nixon , and Senator Everett Dirksen on Cooper 's behalf reinforced this notion . Barkley resumed his Iron Man campaign style , campaigning for up to sixteen hours a day , countering the " too old " charge that cost him the presidential nomination . He won the general election by a vote of 434 @,@ 109 to 362 @,@ 948 , giving Democrats a one @-@ vote advantage in the Senate .
Veteran West Virginia Senator Harley M. Kilgore offered to exchange seats with Barkley , putting Barkley on the front row with the chamber 's senior members and himself on the back row with the freshman legislators , but Barkley declined the offer . In honor of his previous service , he was assigned to the prestigious Committee on Foreign Relations . In this position , he endorsed Eisenhower 's appointment of Cooper as U.S. Ambassador to India and Nepal . His relative lack of seniority did not afford him much influence .
In an April 30 , 1956 , keynote address at the Washington and Lee Mock Convention , Barkley spoke of his willingness to sit with the other freshman senators in Congress , he ended with an allusion to Psalm 84 : 10 , saying " I 'm glad to sit on the back row , for I would rather be a servant in the House of the Lord than to sit in the seats of the mighty . " He then collapsed onstage and died of a heart attack . He was buried in Mount Kenton Cemetery near Paducah .
= = Memory = =
A dam constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on the Cumberland River in 1966 , and the lake it forms , were named Barkley Dam and Lake Barkley in Barkley 's honor . Barkley Regional Airport in Paducah is also named for him . In 1984 , the federal government declined to purchase The Angles , his Paducah home , and it was sold at auction . In February 2008 , Paducah 's American Justice School of Law changed owners after failing to secure accreditation from the American Bar Association . It was renamed the Alben W. Barkley School of Law , but remained unaccredited , and closed in December 2008 .
= 1968 Illinois earthquake =
The 1968 Illinois earthquake ( a " New Madrid event " ) was the largest recorded earthquake in the U.S. Midwestern state of Illinois . Striking at 11 : 02 a.m. on November 9 , it measured 5 @.@ 4 on the Richter scale . Although there were no fatalities , the event caused considerable structural damage to buildings , including the toppling of chimneys and shaking in Chicago , the region 's largest city . The earthquake was one of the most widely felt in U.S. history , affecting 23 states over an area of 580 @,@ 000 square miles ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 km2 ) . In studying its cause , scientists discovered the Cottage Grove Fault in the Southern Illinois Basin .
Within the region , millions felt the rupture . Reactions to the earthquake varied : some people near the epicenter did not react to the shaking , while others panicked . A future earthquake in the region is extremely likely ; in 2005 , seismologists and geologists estimated a 90 % chance of a magnitude 6 – 7 tremor before 2055 , likely originating in the Wabash Valley seismic zone on the Illinois – Indiana border or the New Madrid fault zone .
= = Background = =
The first recorded Illinois earthquake is from 1795 , when a small earthquake shook the frontier settlement of Kaskaskia . Data from large earthquakes — in May and July 1909 , and November 1968 — suggest that earthquakes in the area are of moderate magnitude but can be felt over a large geographical area , largely because of the lack of fault lines . The May 1909 Aurora earthquake affected people in an area of 500 @,@ 000 square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) ; the 1968 Illinois earthquake was felt by those living in an area of about 580 @,@ 000 square miles ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Contradicting the idea that the region 's earthquakes are felt over a wide area , a 1965 shock was only noticed near Tamms , even though it had the same intensity level ( VII ) as those of 1909 and 1968 . Before 1968 , earthquakes had been recorded in 1838 , 1857 , 1876 , [ a ] 1881 , 1882 , 1883 , 1887 , 1891 , 1903 , 1905 , 1912 , 1917 , 1922 , [ b ] 1934 , 1939 , 1947 , 1953 , 1955 , and 1958 . Since 1968 , other earthquakes have occurred in the same region in 1972 , 1974 , 1984 , and 2008 .
= = Geology = =
The quake struck on Saturday , November 9 , 1968 at 11 : 02 a.m. The quake 's epicenter was slightly northwest of Broughton in Hamilton County , and close to the Illinois – Indiana border , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) east of St. Louis , Missouri . Surrounding the epicenter were several small towns built on flat glacial lake plains and low hills . Scientists described the rupture as " strong " . During the quake , surface wave and body wave magnitudes were measured at 5 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 54 respectively . The magnitude of the quake reached 5 @.@ 4 on the Richter scale . The earthquake occurred at a depth of 25 km ( 16 mi ) . [ c ]
A fault plane solution for the earthquake confirmed two nodal planes ( one is always a fault plane , the other an auxiliary plane ) striking north – south and dipping approximately 45 degrees to the east and to the west . This faulting suggests dip slip reverse motion and a horizontal east – west axis of confining stress . At the time of the earthquake , no faults were known in the immediate epicentral region ( see below ) , but the motion corresponded to movement along the Wabash Valley Fault System roughly 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of the region . The rupture also partly occurred on the New Madrid Fault , responsible for the great New Madrid earthquakes in 1812 . The New Madrid tremors were the most powerful earthquakes to hit the contiguous United States .
Various theories were put forward for the cause of the rupture . Donald Roll , director of seismology at Loyola University Chicago , proposed that the quake was caused by massive amounts of silt being deposited by rivers , generating a " seesaw " effect on the plates beneath . " The weight of the silt depressed one end of the block and tipped up the other , " he said . However , scientists eventually realized the cause was a then @-@ unknown fault , the Cottage Grove Fault , a small tear in the Earth 's rock in the Southern Illinois Basin near the city of Harrisburg , Illinois .
The fault , which is aligned east – west , is connected to the north – south trending Wabash Valley Fault System at its eastern end . Seismographic mapping completed by geologists revealed monoclines , anticlines , and synclines , all of which suggest deformation during the Paleozoic era , when strike @-@ slip faulting took place nearby . The fault runs along an ancient Precambrian terrane boundary . It was active mainly in the Late Pennsylvanian and Early Permian epochs around 300 million years ago .
= = Damage = =
The earthquake was felt in 23 states and affected a zone of 580 @,@ 000 square miles ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The shaking extended east to Pennsylvania and West Virginia , south to Mississippi and Alabama , north to Toronto , Canada , and west to Oklahoma . Isolated reports were received from Boston , Mobile , Alabama , Pensacola , Florida , southern Ontario , Arkansas , Minnesota , Tennessee , Georgia , Kansas , Ohio , Mississippi , Kentucky , North Carolina , South Carolina , Missouri , West Virginia , Alabama , Nebraska , Iowa , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Pennsylvania , Michigan , and Wisconsin , presumably because of shaking . The worst affected areas were in the general area of Evansville , Indiana , St. Louis , and Chicago , but there was no major damage . There were no deaths ; the worst injury was a child knocked unconscious by falling debris outside his home .
Damage was confined to Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Tennessee , and south @-@ central Iowa , and largely consisted of fallen chimneys , foundation cracks , collapsed parapets , and overturned tombstones . In one home in Dale , Illinois , near Tuckers Corners and southwest of McLeansboro , the quake cracked interior walls , plaster , and chimneys . Using a type of victim study , the local post office surveyed residents and implemented a field inspection which indicated the strongest shaking ( MM VII ) took place in the Wabash Valley , Ohio Valley , and other nearby south @-@ central Illinois lowlands . Outside this four @-@ state zone , oscillating objects including cars , chimneys , and the Gateway Arch were reported to authorities .
McLeansboro in particular experienced minor damage over an extensive area . Its local high school reported 19 broken windows in the girls ' gymnasium , along with cracked plaster walls . Most of the high school 's classrooms sustained fractured walls . The facade of the town 's First United Methodist Church was damaged , and a brick and concrete block fell off the top . Hamilton County Courthouse withstood several structural cracks , including one on the ceiling above the judge 's seat . The town 's residents also reported collapsing chimneys ; three chimneys toppled at one home , leading to further damage .
Most of the buildings that experienced chimney damage were 30 to 50 years old . The City Building in Henderson , Kentucky , 50 miles ( 80 km ) east @-@ southeast of the epicenter , sustained considerable structural damage . Moderate damage — including broken chimneys and fractured walls — occurred in towns in south @-@ central Illinois , southwest Indiana , and northwest Kentucky . For instance , a concrete @-@ brick cistern caved in 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) west of Dale .
In Lineville , Iowa , about 80 miles ( 130 km ) south of Des Moines on the Missouri border , the quake was felt as a long shaking . The quake damaged the town 's water tower which began to leak 300 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 100 L ) of water an hour .
Donald Roll correctly predicted the earthquake would have no aftershocks . He later said , " That was kind of a safety valve . The pressure which has been built up has been released . " He also described the earthquake as " a very rare occurrence " .
= = Response = =
Millions in the area experienced the earthquake , the first major seismic event in decades . Following the tremor , businesses in the area emptied . Many residents did not believe that the earthquake was over magnitude 5 . Others did not realize an earthquake was taking place , for example , some residents thought their furnaces had exploded , and one man thought that the shaking was caused by his son " jumping up and down " . At the Suntone Factory in McLeansboro , 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the epicenter , workers rushed out of the building , thinking a 1 @,@ 100 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 4 @,@ 200 l ) water tank inside had fallen .
People 's reactions varied : some described themselves as " shocked " ; others admitted to being " shaky " or nervous for the rest of the day . Harold Kittinger , a worker at the Suntone Factory , said , " I do not care to tell anyone I was frightened . But I was not shaking in my shoes . My shoes were moving . " One woman hypothesized that the shaking was a " bomb " . Grace Standerfer suggested the earthquake was sudden , saying , " I was just scared to death . My husband and I were in the house . The Venetian shades began to shake one way , then another . When that awful blast came , he grabbed me and we ran outside . Things were falling and breaking in the house . I said to him , ' This is it . ' I thought the world had come to an end . Outside , wires were moving . There was no wind . The ground was quivering under our feet . I was so scared . I did not know I was scared . " People in the community of Mount Vernon , Illinois were frightened by the shaking . However , some did not notice the earthquake ; Jane Bessen said her party was " in a car ... to Evansville and didn 't know about it until we got there " .
= = Future threats = =
In 2005 , scientists determined there was a 90 % probability of a magnitude 6 – 7 earthquake in the New Madrid area during the next 50 years . This could cause potentially high damage in the Chicago metropolitan area which has a population near ten million people . Pressure on the fault where the 1811 – 1812 Madrid earthquakes occurred was believed to be increasing , but a later study by Eric Calais of Purdue University and other experts concluded the land adjacent to the New Madrid fault was moving less than 0 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 0079 in ) a year , increasing the span between expected earthquakes on the fault to 500 – 1 @,@ 000 years . Scientists anticipating a future earthquake suggest the Wabash Valley Fault as a possible source , calling it " dangerous " .
Douglas Wiens , a professor of earth and planetary sciences , reported : " The strongest earthquakes in the last few years have come from the Wabash Valley Fault " , and said the fault needs more scientific observation . Steven Obermeir of the United States Geological Survey is one of several scientists who have found sediments suggesting Wabash Valley Fault earthquakes around magnitude 7 on the Richter scale . Michael Wyssession , an associate professor of earth and planetary sciences , denigrated the Madrid fault zone and said , " in 20 years there have been three magnitude 5 or better earthquakes on the Wabash Valley Fault . There is evidence that sometime in the past the Wabash Valley Fault has produced as strong as magnitude 7 earthquakes . On the other hand , the New Madrid Fault has been very quiet for a long time now . Clearly , the Wabash Valley Fault has gotten our deserved attention . "
= Christian Ehrhoff =
Christian Ehrhoff ( born 6 July 1982 ) is a German professional ice hockey defenceman , currently a member of the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is known primarily as an offensive defenceman with strong skating and shooting abilities .
Prior to playing in the NHL , Ehrhoff spent several years playing professionally in Germany , starting with EV Duisburg of the third @-@ tier Oberliga and the Krefeld Penguins of the premiere Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) . He spent three years with Krefeld , winning the German championship in 2003 .
Selected 106th overall by the San Jose Sharks in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft , Ehrhoff moved to North America for the 2003 – 04 season . He spent one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons with the Cleveland Barons , the Sharks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , before joining San Jose on a full @-@ time basis beginning in 2005 – 06 . After playing six seasons within the Sharks organization , he was traded to the Vancouver Canucks in August 2009 . During his two seasons with the club , he won back @-@ to @-@ back Babe Pratt Trophies as the team 's top defenceman and helped them to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the Boston Bruins .
Internationally , Ehrhoff has played for the German national team in numerous tournaments , including three Winter Olympics , four World Championships and a World Cup .
= = Early life = =
Ehrhoff was born and raised in Moers , a city on the left bank of the Rhine . His father , Achim , is a drummer in a band , and he has a sister named Katrin . Ehrhoff first played hockey at the age of six , deciding to play the sport after watching an NHL game on television . As his hometown did not have a hockey program , he played minor hockey 20 kilometres away in the Krefeld Penguins ' system . He won a national championship with the club around the age of 12 ; Ehrhoff has recalled scoring in the final on a penalty shot . Following the NHL growing up , Ehrhoff has singled out Wayne Gretzky , Pavel Bure and Uwe Krupp as his childhood heroes . He was inspired to play in the style of an offensive defenceman after watching a video of Bobby Orr as a 10 @-@ year @-@ old .
At the age of 16 , he considered moving to North America to further his hockey career in the major junior Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) , but his father had developed Hodgkin 's lymphoma at the time . Ehrhoff consequently decided to stay in Germany and continued in Krefeld 's system at the junior level ; his father eventually overcame the cancer .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Germany ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
After playing in the junior system of the Krefeld Penguins , Ehrhoff signed a professional contract with the team in 1999 , at the age of 17 . He debuted in nine games with Krefeld in Germany 's premiere Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) , while primarily playing with EV Duisburg of the third @-@ tier Oberliga on loan . Over the course of the season , he practiced mornings with Krefeld and evenings with Duisburg . He finished his first professional season with 15 points in 41 games with Duisburg and a goal in nine games for Krefeld . The following season , he joined Krefeld full @-@ time and had 14 points in 58 games for the team in addition to three points in six games with Duisburg . After the conclusion of the season , Ehrhoff was selected 106th overall in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft by the San Jose Sharks . One of three Germans selected by the Sharks in the draft , Ehrhoff was happy to be taken by the team , as they also had another German , Marco Sturm , on their roster at the time .
Ehrhoff attended the Sharks ' subsequent training camp following the draft , but was returned to Germany as an early cut on 11 September 2001 . Continuing to play for Krefeld , he notched 24 points in 46 games . Despite impressing with his skating and offensive skills at the Sharks ' 2002 training camp , he was returned to Krefeld for the second straight year . After notching a German career @-@ high 27 points in 48 games in 2002 – 03 , Ehrhoff helped Krefeld win a German championship in his final season with the club . He recorded nine points in the post @-@ season .
= = = San Jose Sharks ( 2003 – 09 ) = = =
With the expectation from Sharks management that Ehrhoff would join their organization either with the NHL club or in the AHL , he was signed to a contract on 22 June 2003 . Ehrhoff made his NHL debut on 9 October 2003 , against the Edmonton Oilers . He recorded his first point , an assist , on 15 November against the Toronto Maple Leafs . Later that month , he scored his first NHL goal , a game winner against Michael Leighton in a 3 – 2 win against the Chicago Blackhawks on 26 November . Ehrhoff was selected to play in the 2004 NHL YoungStars Game , along with teammate Jonathan Cheechoo . Aftering helping the Western Conference YoungStars to a 7 – 3 win over the East , Ehrhoff also did colour commentary during the All @-@ Star Game for a German telecast .
Ehrhoff was often a healthy scratch with the Sharks during his rookie season and spent time with their AHL affiliate , the Cleveland Barons . In 41 games with the Sharks during the 2003 – 04 season , Ehrhoff recorded 12 points in 41 games , while in the 27 games he played for the Barons , he notched 14 points . He began asserting himself early in his NHL career as an excellent skater with offensive capabilities . Ehrhoff then played a full season with the Barons in 2004 – 05 due to the NHL lockout , tallying 35 points in 79 games . He was chosen to represent PlanetUSA in the 2005 AHL All @-@ Star Game in Manchester , New Hampshire .
Returning to the Sharks in 2005 – 06 , Ehrhoff recorded a 23 @-@ point campaign . He began earning more ice time near the end of the season as he improved his defensive play . On 13 April 2006 , he scored the game @-@ winning overtime goal against the Vancouver Canucks for the Sharks to clinch a playoff berth , despite San Jose having previously been eight points out of a playoff spot with a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half remaining in the season . Ehrhoff added eight points over 11 post @-@ season games — first among team defencemen — in his first Stanley Cup playoffs as the Sharks were eliminated in the second round by the Edmonton Oilers . He then signed a two @-@ year contract worth US $ 1 @.@ 7 million in the off @-@ season .
Ehrhoff responded with a career @-@ high 33 points in 2006 – 07 . He notched a personal @-@ best three assists in one game late in the season in a 3 – 2 win against the Los Angeles Kings on 27 March 2007 . San Jose were once again losers in the second round of the playoffs , being eliminated by the Detroit Red Wings in six games . Ehrhoff had two assists in 11 post @-@ season games . His regular season production decreased to 22 points in the 2007 – 08 season . On 28 December 2007 , Ehrhoff was awarded a penalty shot during a game against the St. Louis Blues ; he missed against Manny Legace , though the Sharks nonetheless still won , 1 – 0 . Later in the season , Ehrhoff missed four games due to a lower body injury , suffered on 6 April 2008 . After finishing as the second seed in the West , San Jose were defeated in the second round against the Dallas Stars . Ehrhoff notched five assists in ten playoff games .
Ehrhoff became a restricted free agent once more in July 2008 and re @-@ signed with the Sharks to a three @-@ year contract worth $ 9 @.@ 3 million . The following season , 2008 – 09 , he reached the 40 @-@ point mark for the first time in his career with 42 points in 77 games . He had missed three games in March 2009 due to a lower body injury . Ehrhoff 's personal success coincided with a franchise year for the Sharks , who earned their first Presidents ' Trophy as regular season champions in team history with 117 points . In the ensuing playoffs , however , they suffered a first @-@ round defeat to the eighth @-@ seeded Anaheim Ducks . Ehrhoff was held pointless in six games .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2009 – 11 ) = = =
In the summer of 2009 , Ehrhoff was traded to the Vancouver Canucks on 28 August 2009 , along with defenceman Brad Lukowich , in exchange for prospects Patrick White and Daniel Rahimi . The deal was done primarily to clear salary cap space in anticipation of the Sharks ' acquisition of star forward Dany Heatley from the Ottawa Senators . For the Canucks , Ehrhoff 's acquisition addressed the need for a puck @-@ moving defenceman to rush the puck up the ice .
Ehrhoff scored his first goal in a Canucks uniform on 5 October 2009 , in a 5 – 3 loss to the Columbus Blue Jackets . The following month , he notched his first two @-@ goal game in the NHL , adding an assist , in a 5 – 2 win over the Colorado Avalanche on 20 November . Late in the season , he missed two games in April 2010 due to a sprained left knee . Prior to the last game of the regular season against the Calgary Flames , Ehrhoff was awarded the Babe Pratt Trophy as the Canucks ' fan @-@ voted best defenceman . He finished his first season in Vancouver leading all team defencemen with career @-@ highs of 14 goals , 44 points , a + 36 rating and an average ice time of 22 : 47 minutes per game . His 44 points tied Uwe Krupp for the most points by a German @-@ born defenceman in an NHL season , while his + 36 rating broke the single @-@ season team record shared by Pavel Bure and Marek Malík by one point ( Daniel Sedin tied with Ehrhoff for the record in 2009 – 10 , as well ) . In the subsequent 2010 playoffs , he added seven points in 12 games as Vancouver was eliminated by the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round .
In December 2010 , Ehrhoff was struck in the ear by a puck during a game against Anaheim . He left the contest with what was initially considered a concussion ; however , he was later diagnosed with vertigo instead and missed three games . Recording new career @-@ highs in assists ( 36 ) and points ( 50 ) , he led all Canucks defencemen in scoring , while ranking seventh among League defencemen . Ehrhoff was awarded his second consecutive Babe Pratt Trophy for his regular season efforts . Having won the Presidents ' Trophy for the first time in team history , the Canucks entered the 2011 playoffs with the first seed in the West . They eliminated the Chicago Blackhawks , Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks in the first three rounds to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years . Facing the Boston Bruins , the Canucks lost the series in seven games . While Ehrhoff led Canucks defencemen and ranked second in the League overall with 12 points ( two goals and ten assists ) over 23 games , he had a team @-@ worst – 13 rating . It was revealed following the Canucks ' Game 7 defeat to Boston that he had been playing with an injured shoulder .
= = = Buffalo Sabres ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = =
Set to become an unrestricted free agent on 1 July 2011 , Ehrhoff and the Canucks failed to come to terms on a new contract . Three days ahead of his free agency , 28 June 2011 , his negotiating rights were traded to the New York Islanders in exchange for a fourth @-@ round pick in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft . It was reported that Ehrhoff had turned down the same deal that former defensive teammate Kevin Bieksa had signed the previous day — a five @-@ year , $ 23 million contract — to remain with the Canucks . Although the Islanders had three days of exclusive negotiating rights with Ehrhoff , General Manager Garth Snow self @-@ imposed a one @-@ day deadline to sign him . Unable to agree on a contract ( Snow commented that the proposed deal was " well north " of the Canucks ' offer ) , Ehrhoff was traded to the Buffalo Sabres on 29 June in exchange for a fourth @-@ round pick in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft . Two days later , Ehrhoff signed a ten @-@ year , $ 40 million deal with the Sabres . The contract pays him $ 18 million in the first two years , then $ 4 million annually from the third to sixth years , $ 3 million in the seventh and $ 1 million in the remaining three . Ehrhoff admitted having a desire for the freedom of unrestricted free agency , but was ultimately won over by the Sabres ' contract offer and quality as an organization able to compete for the Stanley Cup .
Ehrhoff made his debut with the Sabres in Helsinki as the NHL opened the 2011 – 12 season abroad , on 7 October 2011 , against the Anaheim Ducks . He recorded an assist on a Thomas Vanek goal in a 4 – 1 win . Ehrhoff recorded his first goal as a Sabre 11 days later , an empty @-@ netter to secure a 3 – 1 win over the Montreal Canadiens . He finished the year with five goals and 32 points in 66 games as the Sabres finished ninth in the Eastern Conference , failing to make the 2012 playoffs .
The Sabres began the process of buying @-@ out the remainder of Ehrhoff 's contract on 29 June 2014 . They will be paying Ehrhoff $ 12 million over 14 years ( around $ 850 @,@ 000 per year ) .
= = = Later years = = =
On 1 July 2014 , it was announced that the Pittsburgh Penguins signed Ehrhoff to a one @-@ year , $ 4 million deal . Ehrhoff made his debut with the Penguins on 9 October 2014 , against Anaheim . An injury shortened season saw Ehrhoff appear in only 49 games , scoring three goals to go with 11 assists .
On 23 August 2015 , it was confirmed by General Manager Dean Lombardi that the Los Angeles Kings signed Ehrhoff to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 5 million deal . In the 2015 @-@ 16 season , Ehrhoff began the season as a regular on the blueline for the Kings . Ehrhoff struggled to perform to past expectations , and after scoring just 2 goals in 40 games was waived by the Kings and assigned to AHL affiliate , the Ontario Reign on February 11 , 2016 .
After 5 games with the Reign , Ehrhoff 's tenure within the Kings organization came to a close when he was traded to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for former teammate and Kings defenceman Rob Scuderi on February 26 , 2016 .
= = International career = =
As a junior , Ehrhoff competed for Germany 's under @-@ 18 team at the inaugural 1999 IIHF World U18 Championships , hosted in Füssen and Kaufbeuren , Germany . He returned the following year for the 2000 IIHF World U18 Championships in Switzerland , where Germany finished in seventh place . Ehrhoff then debuted at the under @-@ 20 level in Division I of the 2001 World Junior Championships . Hosting the tournament in the cities of Füssen and Landsberg , Germany missed a promotion to the main tournament the following year by finishing in second place behind France . Ehrhoff made his second appearance at the Division I level for the 2002 World Junior Championships in Austria , leading all tournament defencemen with three goals and 10 points in five games . He helped Germany earn a promotion to the main tournament for the following year , defeating Austria 7 – 1 in the gold medal game . In both years competing in the tournament , Ehrhoff earned Top Defenceman honours .
Two months after his final international junior appearance , Ehrhoff debuted with Germany 's senior team for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City . He played in seven games as the second youngest player in the tournament . Germany was eliminated by the United States in the quarterfinal with a 5 – 0 shutout loss . Later that year , he competed in the 2002 World Championships , scoring five points in seven games . Germany was defeated in the quarterfinal by Sweden 6 – 2 . Ehrhoff made his second World Championships appearance in 2003 , but failed to register a point as Germany were once again losers in the quarterfinal round . After his rookie season in the NHL , Ehrhoff competed for Germany in the 2004 World Cup . They lost 2 – 1 to Finland in the quarterfinal . The following year , he registered an assist in six games at the 2005 World Championships . Germany finished second @-@ to @-@ last in the tournament . After failing to qualify for the quarterfinal , they won one of three games in the relegation round .
On 21 December 2005 , Ehrhoff was named to the German Olympic team , along with Sharks teammate Marcel Goc , for the 2006 Winter Games in Turin . His lone goal of the tournament came against Canada , a 5 – 1 loss . He added an assist in the tournament for two points in five games as Germany failed to win a preliminary game , missing out on the playoff rounds . Four years later , he was named to Germany 's Olympic team for the 2010 Winter Games in his NHL hometown of Vancouver . He went pointless in four games , while leading his team in ice time . Germany was eliminated by Canada in an 8 – 2 qualifier for the quarterfinal .
Shortly after the Vancouver Canucks were eliminated from the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs several months later , Ehrhoff joined Germany for the 2010 World Championships . Germany played as tournament host in the cities of Cologne and Mannheim . Joining his team midway through the tournament , he missed the first three games before scoring a goal and an assist in six contests . Germany made it to the semifinal , where they were defeated by Russia 2 – 1 . Ehrhoff assisted on Germany 's lone goal and was named his team 's player of the game . They went on to lose the bronze medal game 3 – 1 to Sweden . Their fourth @-@ place finish marked their best placing at the World Championships since 1953 when they won silver . Leading Germany in average ice time with 23 : 34 minutes per game , Ehrhoff was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team , along with German goaltender Dennis Endras .
= = Playing style = =
Ehrhoff is known as an offensive defenceman . He has strong skating ability , which allows him to quickly carry the puck up the ice , starting plays from his team 's defensive zone , as well as join offensive plays deep in the opposing team 's zone . He also possesses a hard shot , which earns him significant time on the power play . Upon joining the NHL with San Jose , he had to adjust his game to be more defensive . He gradually became counted upon more in defensive situations and has been used on the penalty kill , as well .
= = Personal life = =
Ehrhoff and his wife , Farina , have 3 daughters , Leni born in mid @-@ 2009 , Milla born mid @-@ 2011 , and Olivia born late 2014 . During his time with the Canucks , they lived in the Vancouver neighbourhood of Yaletown . During the off @-@ seasons , they return to Germany , where they have a condo in Krefeld .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = Records = =
Vancouver Canucks record ; highest plus @-@ minus rating , single @-@ season : + 36 in 2009 – 10 ( surpassed Pavel Bure and Marek Malik ; tied with Daniel Sedin )
= Howmet TX =
The Howmet TX ( Turbine eXperimental ) was an American sports prototype racing car designed in 1968 to test the competitive use of a gas turbine engine in sports car racing . Planned by racing driver Ray Heppenstall , the TX combined a chassis built by McKee Engineering , turbine engines leased from Continental Aviation & Engineering , and financial backing and materials from the Howmet Corporation .
Although not the first attempt at using a turbine powerplant in auto racing , the Howmet TX was the first and is still the only turbine to win a race , earning two Sports Car Club of America ( SCCA ) race victories and two qualifying sprint victories during its only year of competition . The TX later set six Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) land speed records for turbines after being retired from racing .
= = Development = =
Interest in the use of gas turbines as an alternative to the piston engine had been gaining support in the automobile industry during the 1960s . Chrysler had begun testing in the 1950s and began leasing their Turbine Car to the public in 1963 , while British manufacturer Rover and racing team BRM combined to build a racing car for the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1963 and 1965 . Both cars showed reliability but were unable to win over the public or to win at Le Mans respectively . By 1967 , team owner and car developer Andy Granatelli had created the STP @-@ Paxton Turbocar for the Indianapolis 500 . The car nearly won the race driven by Parnelli Jones , but suffered a mechanical failure after leading over two @-@ thirds of the event . A similar attempt with a Lotus 56 in 1968 also led to retirement after showing winning potential .
At the same time as Granatelli 's turbine debut at Indy , racer Ray Heppenstall began to conceive a design for his own sports car to make use of a gas turbine , improving in some areas where the Rover @-@ BRM had failed several years before . Heppenstall felt that a more simplified design for the chassis could make a turbine @-@ powered car more competitive . Heppenstall originally proposed the car to Allison Engine Company and later to Williams Research . He eventually turned to fellow racer Tom Fleming for aid . Fleming was at the time vice @-@ president of Howmet Corporation , which provided castings for turbines in the aerospace industry . Heppenstall and Fleming were able to convince Howmet that their backing of a competitive and unique sports car could promote public awareness of the company . Howmet agreed to fund the project , lending their name to the car .
= = = Chassis = = =
Heppenstall began the project by purchasing a Cooper Monaco sports car , but later decided it was not the best choice for a turbine and the car was sold off . Bob McKee , owner of McKee Engineering , was then contracted by Heppenstall to build two cars brand new . The first space frame chassis was actually built from an older McKee car initially built for the Can Am series in 1966 , but adapted to house the turbine engine . The second car # GTP2 was built from scratch , allowing it to be purposely designed around the use of a turbine engine , including a chassis 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) longer . The chassis were known as the Mk.9 to McKee , but only ever raced as turbines under the Howmet TX guise .
The Mk.9 was designed around the FIA 's Group 6 regulations for sports prototypes , allowing for a completely custom mid @-@ engine layout that was only limited in terms of engine sizes available to competitors . Closed cockpit bodywork with gullwing doors was designed by Bob McKee to shroud the mid @-@ engine layout . Standard double wishbone suspension with coil springs were used with disc brakes on each wheel . A 32 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 120 L ) fuel tank was placed between the cockpit and turbine , housing Jet A fuel .
= = = Turbine = = =
The turbines to power the two Howmet TXs were leased from Continental Aviation & Engineering . The TS325 @-@ 1 gas turbines were prototypes from an aborted bid for a military helicopter contract which Continental was not putting to use at the time . The loaned turbines weighed 170 pounds ( 77 kg ) and were able to provide 350 bhp ( 260 kW ) and 650 lbf · ft ( 880 N · m ) of torque . A maximum of 57 @,@ 000 rpm was able to be reached .
A two @-@ stage setup used an internal power turbine to drive the rear wheels through the use of reduction gearing . Due to the wide variable output of the turbine and the high level of torque , a standard gearbox was not necessary , leaving the Howmet TX with only a single gearing speed . However , the gearing ratios were able to be quickly changed in the differential , allowing the car to be adapted to various circuits . Due to the use of a single @-@ speed transmission , there was no gearing for reverse . Although Heppenstall initially wished to do without reverse , the FIA mandated its use and a small electric motor powered by the turbine was installed , allowing the car to move in reverse .
The turbine itself used two large exhaust pipes . However , a third pipe was situated off @-@ center for use with a wastegate . The wastegate was designed to eliminate the lag between the driver pressing the accelerator and the turbine increasing its revolutions . Once the turbine was at its maximum revolutions , the wastegate helped regulate the amount of fuel actually entering the turbine , thus increasing or decreasing the power output .
Although turbines cannot have their displacement measured in the same way as a piston engine , the FIA used an equivalence formula to determine the Continental TS325 @-@ 1 's displacement of 2 @,@ 960 cubic centimetres ( 181 cu in ) , although Heppenstall has since admitted that the engine was actually above the three litre limit . This allowed the Howmet to compete in the Prototype Under 3000 cc category of the Group 6 formula .
= = Racing history = =
Following completion of the two Howmet TXs , the cars were brought to the 24 Hours of Daytona , the opening round of the 1968 International Championship for Makes . Before even entering competition the TX earned attention , and was featured prominently on the cover of the race program . Although both cars were in attendance , only the newer ( # GTP2 ) of the two was entered in the race ; the other car ( # GTP1 ) was kept as a spare . The driving team of Heppenstall , Dick Thompson , and Ed Lowther qualified with a lap time seventh fastest overall . Several competitors made early refueling stops allowing the Howmet to improve to third place but on lap 34 the turbine wastegate failed to reopen , giving the driver too much power for the corner he was in . The car spun and hit a barrier , forcing the team to retire .
By the 12 Hours of Sebring a few months later , the TX was able to improve its pace , this time qualifying third , only a second behind a Porsche 907 and a Ford GT40 . The turbine ran reliably at first but , as the race continued , debris damaged the turbine and caused it to shake loose from its mounts . The TX was eventually retired after six hours . Following Sebring , the International Championship returned to Europe , and the Howmet team followed . They entered the BOAC 500 at Brands Hatch . Wastegate problems once again caused the car to wreck , this time after only seven laps . Staying in Britain , the Howmet team entered a national sprint race at Oulton Park for British driver Hugh Dibley . The failure of a starter motor during a pit stop , however , once again denied the TX the possibility of finishing the hour @-@ long event .
The TX returned to the United States to contest the SCCA National Championship rather than stay in Europe for the remainder of the International Championship . Closer to home , the problems with the experimental TX were able to be overcome as the car finished its first race , the Vandergraft Trophy in New Cumberland , West Virginia . Heppenstall drove the car to a second @-@ place finish , setting a new lap record for the circuit . Following a retirement in Michigan , the TX next arrived at the Heart of Dixie event in Huntsville , Alabama . A short sprint race was held on the day prior to the main race in order to determine the starting order of the field . The Howmet TX was able to earn victory in the sprint , allowing it to start on pole position for the main event . From there the TX dominated the event and earned another win . These two victories marked the first @-@ ever wins by a turbine @-@ powered car in a racing event .
With the first victory earned by the Howmet TX , Heppenstall was once again joined by Dick Thompson for the Marlboro 300 . Once again the car won the short qualifying race to earn pole position and went on to lead every lap of the main event , winning by an eleven @-@ lap margin . Feeling that the TX was now capable of taking on European entries , both TXs were entered in the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen , another round of the International Championship . Hugh Dibley and newcomer Bob Tullius were entered in the first car , while Heppenstall and Thompson shared the second . The cars qualified eighth and ninth fastest . Following early accidents by the factory Porsches the TX cars were running third and fourth overall . The Dibley and Tullius car suffered a transmission problem in the closing hour requiring the car to crawl around the circuit until the end of the race . The other entry remained on pace until the end , finishing on the podium overall and was the highest finisher in its class . The podium earned Howmet four points towards the International Championship .
After the Watkins Glen success , the two cars were prepared for an attempt at the 24 Hours of Le Mans , which had been postponed until September . French aluminium company Pechiney sponsored the team 's bid at the 24 hours . The same drivers were assigned to the cars , but their qualifying performance at the Circuit de la Sarthe was hampered by the long straights . Twentieth fastest was the best performance from the two cars .
For the race itself , mechanical problems appeared early as Thompson 's car suffered after only three laps . The fuel system was not providing enough Jet A to the turbine to allow it to produce its full power output , meaning the car had to limp down the circuit 's long straights . While that car continued at a slowed pace , the other suffered a wheel bearing failure two hours later , requiring a lengthy three @-@ hour repair . By the sixth hour of the event the car was disqualified by race officials , having covered an insufficient distance of only 60 laps . The remaining fuel @-@ starved TX did not last much longer as Thompson crashed in the Indianapolis corner .
With the 1968 season over , Heppenstall planned for the following year , including the development of a new multi @-@ gear transmission to replace the single speed unit . However , Howmet felt that the program was not providing adequate promotion for the company and decided to discontinue it .
= = = Land speed records = = =
Howmet decided in 1969 that although the racing program was too expensive to continue , the two cars it owned could still be put to promotional use . Heppenstall decided that he would attempt to repair the second TX chassis ( # GTP2 ) to adapt new open @-@ cockpit bodywork , earning it the name Howmet TX Mk.II. The new vehicle attempted to break world land speed records for turbine @-@ powered cars . With the TX Mk.II weighing approximately 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , the car was able to make attempts at two classes of records thanks to the addition or subtraction of ballast .
On a road next to Talladega Superspeedway in August 1970 , Heppenstall drove the TX Mk.II to six records recognized by the FIA , with the timing recorded by the new International Motor Sports Association ( IMSA ) .
= = = Later use = = =
In 1971 , Howmet ended their promotional use of the two TX cars . The two chassis were sold to Rey Heppenstall for one dollar . However , because the two Continental turbines had been leased to Howmet , they had to be returned once the cars were no longer under Howmet 's control . Heppenstall eventually sold the two chassis .
Chassis # GTP1 was bought by Jim Brucker and stored in his personal collection in California . On display , it featured a mock @-@ up of the Continental turbine in the engine bay . The car was bought in 2006 by Bruce Linsmeyer of Avon Aero and has been restored with an original Continental turbine . Following restoration , # GTP1 won the Sebring Trophy at the 2007 Amelia Island Concours d 'Elegance .
The second car , chassis # GTP2 , was converted from its open @-@ cockpit bodywork back into its original closed @-@ cockpit design in a restoration carried out in by McKee Engineering at the behest of new owner Chuck Haines . The restoration of Chassis # GTP2 was completed in July 1996 . Original Continental turbines could not be obtained , so an Allison 250C18 turbine was installed . Chuck Haines participated three times to Goodwood Festival of Speed . In 2006 , It was later sold to Xavier Micheron who adapted the wastegates system to the Allison turbine . # GTP2 has since participated in the Le Mans Classic event in 2008 , 2010 and 2012 , as well as in the Classic Endurance Racing series from 2009 to 2012 . It also came back to Goodwood Festival of Speed in 2009 . It is now in the ROFGO collection .
During Haines ' ownership of chassis # GTP2 , Bob McKee completed a spare frame , known as # GTP3 , to original specification for Haines . Again , due to the lack of a Continental turbine , the Allison unit was used instead . The different powerplant required some redesign , as the exhaust was now vented out of the top of the engine cover instead of out the rear of the car . # GTP3 do not have the wastegates system . Haines has entered the car in historic motorsport events , including the 2007 Goodwood Festival of Speed .
= Huma Qureshi ( actress ) =
Huma Saleem Qureshi ( pronounced [ ɦuːmaː saˈlemː qureʃiː ] ; born 28 July 1986 ) is an Indian
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film actress and model , who has received three Filmfare Award nominations .
Qureshi obtained a bachelor 's degree in History Honours from the University of Delhi , She worked as a theatre actor and model . After working in several theatrical productions , she moved to Mumbai and signed a two @-@ year contract with Hindustan Unilever to appear in television commercials . During the shoot for a Samsung mobile commercial , Anurag Kashyap noticed her acting ability and signed her for a three @-@ film deal with his company .
Qureshi made her film debut with a supporting role in the two @-@ part crime drama Gangs of Wasseypur ( 2012 ) . Her performance in the film earned her several nominations , including the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut and the Best Supporting Actress . That same year , she played the lead female role in the romance Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana , and followed it with a role in Ek Thi Daayan . She portrayed protagonists in the anthological Shorts ( 2013 ) , the black comedy Dedh Ishqiya ( 2014 ) , the revenge drama Badlapur ( 2015 ) , and the Marathi road drama Highway ( 2015 ) , and featured briefly in the collaborative film X : Past Is Present ( 2015 ) .
= = Early life and modelling career = =
Qureshi was born on 28 July 1986 into a Muslim family in New Delhi , India . Her father , Saleem Qureshi , is a restaurateur who runs a chain of restaurants ( Saleem 's ) ; her mother , Ameena Qureshi ( a Kashmiri ) , is a housewife . She has three brothers that includes actor Saqib Saleem . The family relocated to Kalkaji , South Delhi , when Qureshi was a child . She completed her bachelor 's in History Honours from the Gargi College — University of Delhi . Later , she joined Act 1 theatre group and performed in few theatre productions . Qureshi has worked with several NGOs and assisted a documentary filmmaker .
In 2008 , she moved to Mumbai to audition for film roles , auditioning for a film Junction which was never made : " I never thought of coming to Mumbai or being an actress . But when my friend called me for an audition for a movie called Junction , it set me thinking . Sadly , the film never got made " . Qureshi signed a two @-@ year contract with Hindustan Unilever to appear in their television commercials . She promoted a range of products , including Samsung Mobile ( with Aamir Khan ) , Nerolac ( with Shah Rukh Khan ) , Vita Marie , Saffola Oil , Mederma Cream and Pears Soap . During a shoot for a Samsung Mobile commercial , director Anurag Kashyap was impressed with her acting ability and promised to use her in a film . Qureshi recalled , " I didn 't believe him then . You hear lots of such stories in this industry so I wasn 't waiting with bated breath " . Kashyap kept his promise , though , signing her for a three @-@ film deal with his company Anurag Kashyap Films .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Debut and breakthrough = = =
Qureshi was initially scheduled to make her film debut with the Billa II , a Tamil gangster @-@ thriller , directed and produced by Chakri Toleti , after surviving an audition out of 700 candidates . Although cast as the female lead , when the film was delayed , Qureshi left the project to honour other work commitments . When asked about if she have any regressions , she said : " I have no regrets . I wish it had worked out but it didn 't . I am not someone who sits and laments over things . I was approached for several other south films too but the roles weren 't what I was looking for " .
Qureshi made her feature film debut with a supporting role in the Anurag Kashyap 's critically acclaimed two @-@ part crime drama Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 1 ( 2012 ) , where Qureshi was cast as the supportive wife of a criminal ( played by Nawazuddin Siddiqui ) . She described her character as a small @-@ town airhead who thinks she is the prettiest girl in the village : " Mohsina tries to copy everything she sees on the big screen in her own little ways . She is heavily influenced by Bollywood " . The film premiered at the 65th Cannes Film Festival , and both the film and Qureshi received positive reviews from critics Govind Nihalani noted her screen presence , comparing the actress to Smita Patil : " an earthiness , sincerity , intensity and warmth of personality , qualities that distinguished Smita , apart from the fact that she was a very fine and instinctive actress . Huma is a good enough actress on her own , someone who can stand apart from the crowd and hold her own " . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama noted , " Huma Qureshi , who 's introduced much later in the film ... is wonderful " . The Express Tribune added , " When it comes to looks , [ Huma ] is different from the typical Bollywood actors " . In 2012 Qureshi was ranked third , the highest female position , on Rediff.com 's annual list of " Bollywood 's Top Ten Debutants " ( male and female ) . Following the success of the first part , she reprised her role of Mohsina in the second instalment of the Gangs of Wasseypur series , Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 2 . The film premiered in the Cannes Directors ' Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival with its prequel . It opened to wide critical acclaim , and her portrayal again received positive reviews . Madhureeta Mukherjee of The Times of India said " Huma Qureshi , with her gaudy clothes , designer sun @-@ glasses and unusual attractiveness is the hottest cheez in Wasseypur . She beautifully lends support as a powerful man 's ' prouder ' better @-@ half , even in his worst crimes " , and Taran Adarsh found her " simply fantastic " . Both films earned her Best Female Debut and Best Supporting Actress nominations at several award ceremonies ( including the Filmfare Award ) . Qureshi described Gangs of Wasseypur as a " life @-@ changing film " .
That same year , Qureshi completed her three @-@ film contract with Anurag Kashyap Films by starring in Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana , a romantic comedy , which describes a quest for an ancient family dish chicken Khurana . Directed by Sameer Sharma , she played the role of a feisty Punjabi girl , Harman ( star Kunal Kapoor 's love interest ) . The film was a financial success , and Rediff.com noted that " Huma Qureshi looks right for the role and she delivers a wonderful performance " . Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis said , " [ Qureshi ] , on the other hand , is charming as the fiery Punjaban , Harman . Her refreshingly natural acting style impresses again in a role that has shades of her character in the Gangs of Wasseypur " . However , Anupama Chopra found her performance to be a " little bland " .
= = = Further works ( 2013 – 15 ) = = =
For her next feature , Qureshi was cast as a witch in the supernatural thriller Ek Thi Daayan ( 2013 ) , alongside Emraan Hashmi , Konkona Sen Sharma and Kalki Koechlin . Dealing with the themes of witchcraft , the film was based on ' Mobius Trips ' , a short story written by Konkona Sen Sharma 's father . It received mixed reviews from critics , but proved to be a profitable venture at the box @-@ office . Qureshi 's performance was also well received . The Indian Express said : " Qureshi has just a few good moments , but makes the most of them " while , Koimoi noted that " Qureshi has a remarkably pleasant and confident screen presence " . Raja Sen particularly praised the female cast and wrote " The three leading ladies are smashing in their roles ... Each plays their given role with frighteningly good flair , and each deserves a big hand . " After appearing in Ek Thi Daayan , Qureshi along with R. Madhavan hosted the 60th ceremony of the National Film Awards , an event presented by the Directorate of Film Festivals to honor the Best Films of the year ( then 2012 ) in the Indian cinema by the President of India . The ceremony was held on May 3 , 2013 at the Vigyan Bhavan during the presidency of Pranab Mukherjee .
Shortly afterwards , Qureshi played the titular character in the short movie Sujata — released as one of the segments of Shorts , an anthology film by Anurag Kashyap . She played the eponymous lead as a young girl who is struggling to come out of the clutches of her tormenting cousin brother ( played by Satya Anand ) . The film was screened at Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles before its release and received generally positive reviews , and Qureshi 's performance was critically acclaimed and earned her a Special Mention Award at the ceremony . Her subsequent release that year included the underworld drama D @-@ Day , in which she was featured as Zoya Rehman , an explosice R.A.W agent with an ensemble cast including Irfan Khan , Arjun Rampal , Rishi Kapoor and Shruti Hassan . During the script narration , the director Nikhil Advani offered Qureshi the choice of which women to play , either Suraiya ( later played by Hassan ) or Zoya ; she decided on Zoya to expand her horizons as an actress . The film was a flop at the box office and received mixed feedback from critics , while Qureshi 's performance received favourable reviews ; Subhash K. Jha mentioned that Qureshi 's acting is " effortlessly appealing and effective . "
In 2014 , Qureshi featured in Abhishek Chaubey 's black comedy Dedh Ishqiya ( 2014 ) , a sequel to the 2010 film Ishqiya , co @-@ starring Madhuri Dixit , Arshad Warsi and Naseeruddin Shah . Dedh Ishqiya was a commercial success with earning ₹ 270 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) in India and abroad and Qureshi received praise for her portrayal of the promiscuous companion of a con woman ( played by Dixit ) . In a 5 @-@ star review , Raja Sen commented that " Qureshi uses her fiercely intelligent eyes to great effect " , whilst Mohar Basu agreed , saying that " Huma Qureshi is brilliant and confident . The actress has in her the vivacious energy that proves her talent . " Qureshi 's last appearance of 2014 was Rochak Kohli 's music video " Mitti Di Khusboo " with Ayushmann Khurrana . India Today noted ; " The chemistry the two Ayushmann and Huma share onscreen has the raw flavor of the countryside romance " .
The following year , Qureshi appeared as a prostitute in Sriram Raghavan 's crime thriller Badlapur , alongside Varun Dhawan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui . Raja Sen praised her acting and wrote that she " is hauntingly good as a call @-@ girl " . The film was a commercial success , and Qureshi received the Filmfare Best Supporting Actress nomination . Umesh Kulkarni 's Marathi film Highway , marked her debut in the marathi cinema . It received mixed reviews from critics , and proved to be a moderate box @-@ office success . The same year she acted in the collaborative film X : Past Is Present . It was directed by a team of eleven filmmakers with Qureshi appearing in " Knot " , a segment directed by film critic Raja Sen , where she appeared alongside Anshuman Jha .
= = = Upcoming projects = = =
As of January 2016 , Qureshi has various projects at different stage of productions . She has finished filming for Zahhak , a remake of the Hollywood film Oculus , which will be directed by Prawaal Raman , and she will play the leading role along with her brother Saqib Saleem .
She will make her Malayalam debut with Uday Ananthan 's White opposite Mammootty , and English debut with Gurinder Chadha 's Viceroy 's House , which will be based on Lord Mountbatten 's few last days of stay in India before the country got its independence , and she will portray the role of Fatima Jinnah .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Landing at Nadzab =
The Landing at Nadzab was an airborne landing on 5 September 1943 during the New Guinea campaign of World War II in conjunction with the landing at Lae . The Nadzab action began with a parachute drop at Lae Nadzab Airport , combined with an overland force .
The parachute drop was carried out by the US Army 's 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment and elements of the Australian Army 's 2 / 4th Field Regiment into Nadzab , New Guinea in the Markham Valley , observed by General Douglas MacArthur , circling overhead in a B @-@ 17 . The Australian 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion , 2 / 6th Field Company , and B Company , Papuan Infantry Battalion reached Nadzab after an overland and river trek that same day and began preparing the airfield . The first transport aircraft landed the next morning , but bad weather delayed the Allied build up . Over the next days , the 25th Infantry Brigade of the Australian 7th Division gradually arrived . An air crash at Jackson 's Field ultimately caused half the Allied casualties of the battle .
Once assembled at Nadzab , the 25th Infantry Brigade commenced its advance on Lae . On 11 September , it engaged the Japanese soldiers at Jensen 's Plantation . After defeating them , it engaged and defeated a larger Japanese force at Heath 's Plantation . During this skirmish , Private Richard Kelliher won the Victoria Cross , Australia 's highest award for gallantry . The Japanese Army elected not to fight for Lae , preferring instead to withdraw over the Saruwaged Range . This proved to be a gruelling test of endurance for the Japanese soldiers who had to struggle over the rugged mountains ; in the end , the Japanese Army managed to withdraw its forces from Salamaua and Lae , though with extensive losses from exposure and starving during the retreat . Troops of the 25th Infantry Brigade reached Lae shortly before those of the 9th Division that had been advancing on Lae from the opposite direction .
The development of Nadzab was delayed by the need to upgrade the Markham Valley Road . After strenuous efforts in the face of wet weather , the road was opened on 15 December . Nadzab then became the major Allied air base in New Guinea .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategy = = =
= = = = Allied = = = =
In July 1942 , the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff approved a series of operations against the Japanese bastion at Rabaul , which blocked any Allied advance along the northern coast of New Guinea toward the Philippines or north toward the main Japanese naval base at Truk . In keeping with the overall Allied grand strategy of defeating Nazi Germany first , the immediate aim of these operations was not the defeat of Japan but merely the reduction of the threat posed by Japanese aircraft and warships based at Rabaul to air and sea communications between the United States and Australia .
By agreement among the Allied nations , in March 1942 the Pacific theatre was divided into two separate commands , each with its own commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The South West Pacific Area , which included Australia , Indonesia , and the Philippines came under General Douglas MacArthur as supreme commander . Most of the remainder , known as the Pacific Ocean Areas , came under Admiral Chester W. Nimitz . There was no overall commander , and no authority capable of resolving competing claims for resources , setting priorities , or shifting resources from one command to the other . Such decisions had to be made on the basis of compromise , cooperation and consensus .
Rabaul fell within MacArthur 's area , but the initial operations in the southern Solomon Islands came under Nimitz . The Japanese reaction to Task One , the seizure of the southern part of the Solomon Islands , was more violent than anticipated and some months passed before the Guadalcanal Campaign was brought to a successful conclusion . Meanwhile , General MacArthur 's forces fought off a series of Japanese offensives in Papua in the Kokoda Track campaign , Battle of Milne Bay , Battle of Buna – Gona , the Battle of Wau and the Battle of the Bismarck Sea .
Following these victories , the initiative in the South West Pacific passed to the Allies and General Douglas MacArthur pressed ahead with his plans for Task Two . At the Pacific Military Conference in Washington , D.C. in March 1943 , the plans were reviewed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff . The chiefs were unable to supply all the requested resources , so the plans had to be scaled back , with the capture of Rabaul postponed to 1944 . On 6 May 1943 , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane issued Warning Instruction No. 2 , officially informing subordinate commands of the plan , which divided the Task Two operations on the New Guinea axis into three parts :
Occupy Kiriwina and Woodlark Islands and establish air forces thereon .
Seize the Lae @-@ Salamaua @-@ Finschhafen @-@ Madang area and establish air forces therein .
Occupy western New Britain , establishing air forces at Cape Gloucester , Arawe and Gasmata . Occupy or neutralise Talasea .
The second part was assigned to General Sir Thomas Blamey 's New Guinea Force . As a result , " It became obvious that any military offensive in 1943 would have to be carried out mainly by the Australian Army , just as during the bitter campaigns of 1942 . "
= = = = Japanese = = = =
The Japanese maintained separate army and navy headquarters at Rabaul which cooperated with each other but were responsible to different higher authorities . Naval forces came under the Southeast Area Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Jinichi Kusaka . Army forces came under General Hitoshi Imamura 's Eighth Area Army , consisting of the Seventeenth Army in the Solomon Islands , Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi 's Eighteenth Army in New Guinea , and the 6th Air Division , based at Rabaul . As a result of the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , the Japanese decided not send any more convoys to Lae , but to land troops at Hansa Bay and Wewak and move them forward to Lae by barge or submarine . In the long run they hoped to complete a road over the Finisterre Range and thence to Lae through the Ramu and Markham Valleys .
Imamura ordered Adachi to capture the Allied bases at Wau , Bena Bena and Mount Hagen . To support these operations , Imperial General Headquarters transferred the 7th Air Division to New Guinea . On 27 July 1943 , Lieutenant General Kumaichi Teramoto 's Fourth Air Army was assigned to Imamura 's command to control the 6th and 7th Air Divisions , the 14th Air Brigade and some miscellaneous squadrons . By June , Adachi had three divisions in New Guinea ; the 41st Division at Wewak and the 20th Division around Madang , both recently arrived from Palau , and the 51st Division in the Salamaua area , a total of about 80 @,@ 000 men . Of these only the 51st Division was in contact with the enemy . Like Blamey , Adachi faced formidable difficulties of transportation and supply just to bring his troops into battle .
= = = Geography = = =
The Markham River originates in the Finisterre Range and flows for 110 miles ( 180 km ) , emptying into the Huon Gulf near Lae . The Markham Valley , which rises to an elevation of 1 @,@ 210 feet ( 370 m ) , runs between the Finisterre Range to the north and the Bismarck Range to the south and varies from 6 to 12 miles ( 10 to 19 km ) wide . The valley floor is largely composed of gravel and is generally infertile . Half of its area was covered by dense kangaroo grass 4 – 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , but in parts where there had been a build @-@ up of silt , Kunai grass grew from 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 m ) high . Rainfall was around 39 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) per annum . The Markham Valley was traversable by motor vehicles in the dry season , which ran from December to April , and therefore formed part of a natural highway between the Japanese bases at Lae and Madang .
= = = Planning and preparation = = =
At Blamey 's Advanced Allied Land Forces Headquarters ( Adv LHQ ) in St Lucia , Queensland , the Deputy Chief of the General Staff , Major General Frank Berryman , headed the planning process . A model of the Lae @-@ Salamaua area was constructed in a secure room at St Lucia , the windows were boarded up and two guards were posted on the door round the clock . On 16 May , Blamey held a conference with Berryman and Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring , the commander of I Corps , around the model at which the details of the operation were discussed . Blamey 's operational concept was for a double envelopment of Lae , using " two of the finest divisions on the Allied side " . Major General George Wootten 's 9th Division would land east of Lae in a shore @-@ to @-@ shore operation and advance on Lae . Meanwhile , Major General George Alan Vasey 's 7th Division , in a reprise of the Battle of Buna – Gona in 1942 , would advance on Lae from the west by an overland route . Its primary role was to prevent reinforcement of the Japanese garrison at Lae by establishing itself in a blocking position across the Markham Valley . Its secondary task was to assist the 9th Division in the capture of Lae . The plan was generally known as Operation POSTERN , although this was actually the GHQ code name for Lae itself .
Meanwhile , Major General Stanley Savige 's 3rd Division in the Wau area and Major General Horace Fuller 's US 41st Infantry Division around Morobe were ordered to advance on Salamaua so as to threaten it and draw Japanese forces away from Lae . The result was the arduous Salamaua Campaign , which was fought between June and September , and which at times looked like succeeding all too well , capturing Salamaua and forcing the Japanese back to Lae , thereby throwing Blamey 's whole strategy into disarray .
The POSTERN plan called for the 7th Division to move in transports to Port Moresby and in coastal shipping to the mouth of the Lakekamu River . It would travel up the river in barges to Bulldog , and in trucks over the Bulldog Road to Wau and Bulolo . From there it would march overland via the Watut and Wampit Valleys to the Markham River , cross the Markham River with the aid of paratroops , and secure an airfield site . There were a number of suitable airfield sites in the Markham Valley ; Blamey selected Nadzab as the most promising .
Vasey pronounced the plan " a dog 's breakfast " . There were a number of serious problems . It relied on the Bulldog Road being completed , which it was not , due to the rugged nature of the country to be traversed and shortages of equipment . Even if it was , the 7th Division would have been unlikely to make the operation target date . It had taken heavy casualties in the Battle of Buna – Gona and was seriously under @-@ strength , with many men on leave or suffering from malaria . It would take time to concentrate it at its camp at Ravenshoe , Queensland on the Atherton Tableland . To bring it up to strength , the 1st Motor Brigade was disbanded in July to provide reinforcements . Reinforcements passed through the Jungle Warfare Training Centre at Canungra , Queensland , where they spent a month training under conditions closely resembling those in New Guinea .
The delays in getting the overland supply route organised and the 7th Division itself ready meant that , in the initial stages of the operation at least , the 7th Division would have to be maintained by air . Vasey further proposed that the bulk of his forces avoid a tiring overland march by moving directly to Nadzab by air , which increased the importance of capturing Nadzab early . MacArthur agreed to make the 2nd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment based at nearby Gordonvale , Queensland , available to New Guinea Force to capture Nadzab . He further authorised the regiment to conduct training with the 7th Division and a number of exercises were conducted . Colonel Kenneth H. Kinsler , the commander of the 503rd , eager to discuss the Battle of Crete with the 21st Infantry Brigade 's Brigadier Ivan Dougherty , took the unusual step of parachuting into Ravenshoe . On 31 July , Vasey raised the prospect of utilising the entire regiment with Kinsler . Blamey took up the matter with MacArthur , who authorised it on 8 August . Blamey made the Australian Army transport MV Duntroon available to ship the regiment from Cairns to Port Moresby , except for the 2nd Battalion and advance party , which moved by air as originally planned .
The 7th Division was treated to a training film , " Loading the Douglas C @-@ 47 " , and the commander of the Advanced Echelon of Lieutenant General George Kenney 's Fifth Air Force , Major General Ennis Whitehead , made five C @-@ 47 Dakota transports available to the 7th Division each day so they could practise loading and unloading . Whitehead also made a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress available so Vasey could fly low over the target area on 7 August . Meanwhile , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion and 2 / 6th Field Company practiced crossing the Laloki River with folding boats . They flew to Tsili Tsili Airfield on 23 and 24 August .
To give the paratroops some artillery support , Lieutenant Colonel Alan Blyth of the 2 / 4th Field Regiment proposed dropping some of its eight short 25 @-@ pounders by parachute . A call went out for volunteers and four officers and 30 other ranks were selected . On 30 August , Vasey watched them carry out a practice jump at Rogers Airfield . This turned out to be the easy part . Brand new guns were received from the 10th Advanced Ordnance Depot at Port Moresby on 23 August . Two were handed over for training while , as a precaution , the remaining six were sent the 2 / 117th Field Workshops for inspection and checking . All six were condemned , owing to a number of serious defects in assembly and manufacture . On 30 August , the gunners received orders to move out the next day , so the 2 / 51st Light Aid Detachment cannibalised six guns to produce two working guns , which were proofed by firing 20 rounds per gun . Only one was ready in time to leave with the gunners so the other followed on a special flight . Eight of the 2 / 4th Field Regiment ’ s Mark II 25 @-@ pounders were also condemned owing to the presence of filings in the buffer system . Vasey was less than impressed .
Vasey was concerned about the Japanese strength in the Lae area , which his staff estimated at 6 @,@ 400 , in addition to the 7 @,@ 000 that Herring 's I Corps staff estimated were in the Salamaua area . However , a more immediate danger was posed by the Japanese Fourth Air Army at Wewak . Photographs taken by Allied reconnaissance planes showed 199 Japanese aircraft on the four fields there on 13 August . On 17 August , Whitehead 's heavy and medium bombers and fighters , escorted by fighters , bombed Wewak . Taking the Japanese by surprise , they destroyed around 100 Japanese aircraft on the ground . In September , the Japanese Army air forces had at their disposal only 60 or 70 operational aircraft to oppose the Allied air forces in New Guinea , although both the 6th and 7th Air Divisions were in the area .
On the south bank of the Markham River lay Markham Point , where the Japanese maintained a force of about 200 men on commanding ground . Part of the 24th Infantry Battalion was ordered to capture the position . The attack on the morning of 4 September went wrong from the start , with two scouts being wounded by a land mine . The force fought its way into the Japanese position but took heavy casualties and was forced to withdraw . Twelve Australians were killed and six were wounded in the attack . It was then decided to merely contain the Japanese force at Markham Point , which was subjected to mortar fire and an airstrike .
= = Battle = =
= = = Assault = = =
Transport aircraft were controlled by the 54th Troop Carrier Wing , which was commanded by Colonel Paul H. Prentiss , with his headquarters at Port Moresby . He had two groups under his command : the 374th Troop Carrier Group at Ward 's Field and the 375th Troop Carrier Group at Dobodura , plus the 65th and 66th Troop Carrier Squadrons of the 403rd Troop Carrier Group at Jackson 's Field . In addition , Prentiss could draw on the 317th Troop Carrier Group at Archerfield Airport and RAAF Base Townsville , although it was not under his command . Postponing the operation from August to September 1943 allowed for the arrival of the 433rd Troop Carrier Group from the United States . Each squadron was equipped with 13 C @-@ 47 aircraft , and each group consisted of four squadrons , for a total of 52 aircraft per group .
The actual date was chosen by General Kenney based on the advice of his two weather @-@ forecasting teams , one Australian and one American . Ideally , Z @-@ Day would be clear from Port Moresby to Nadzab but foggy over New Britain , thereby preventing the Japanese air forces at Rabaul from intervening . Forecasting the weather days in advance with such precision was difficult enough in peacetime , but more so in wartime , when many of the areas from which the weather patterns developed were occupied by the enemy and data from them was consequently denied to the forecasters . When the two teams differed over the best possible date , Kenney " split the difference between the two forecasts and told General MacArthur we would be ready to go on the morning of the 4th for the amphibious movement of the 9th Division to Hopoi Beach and about nine o ’ clock on the morning of the 5th we would be ready to fly the 503rd Parachute Regiment to Nadzab . "
Z @-@ Day , 5 September 1943 , dawned with inauspiciously bad weather . Fog and rain shrouded both the departure airfields , Jackson 's and Ward 's but , as the forecasters had predicted , by 0730 the fog began to dissipate . The first C @-@ 47 took off at 0820 . The formation of 79 C @-@ 47s , each carrying 19 or 20 paratroops , was divided into three flights . The first , consisting of 24 C @-@ 47s from the 403rd Troop Carrier Group from Jackson 's , carried 1st Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment . The second , of 31 C @-@ 47s from the 375th Troop Carrier Group from Ward 's , carried the 2nd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment . The third , consisting of 24 C @-@ 47s of 317th Troop Carrier Group , from Jackson 's , carried the 3rd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment . Each battalion had its own drop zone . The transports were escorted by 48 P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters from the 35th and 475th Fighter Groups , 12 P @-@ 39 Airacobras from the 36th Fighter Squadron , 8th Fighter Group and 48 P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts from the 348th Fighter Group .
When Kenney informed MacArthur that he planned to observe the operation from a B @-@ 17 , MacArthur reminded Kenney of his orders to keep out of combat , orders that Brigadier General Kenneth Walker had disobeyed at the cost of his life . Kenney went over the reasons why he thought he should go , ending with " They were my kids and I was going to see them do their stuff . " MacArthur replied " You ’ re right , George , we ’ ll both go . They ’ re my kids , too . "
Three hundred and two aircraft from eight different airfields in the Moresby and Dobodura areas , made a rendezvous over Tsili Tsili at 10 : 07 , flying through clouds , passes in the mountains , and over the top . " Not a single squadron , " wrote General Kenney , " did any circling or stalling around but all slid into place like clockwork and proceeded on the final flight down the Watut Valley , turned to the right down the Markham , and went directly to the target . " Leading the formation were 48 B @-@ 25s from the 38th and 345th Bombardment Groups whose job was to " sanitise " the drop zones by dropping their loads of sixty 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) fragmentation bombs and strafing with the eight .50 @-@ calibre machine guns mounted in their noses . They were followed by seven A @-@ 20s of the 3rd Bombardment Group ( Light ) . Each carried four M10 smoke tanks mounted under the wings . The smoke tanks were each filled with 19 US gallons ( 72 l ) of the smoke agent FS . In two groups of two and one of three flying at 250 feet ( 76 m ) at 225 mph ( 362 km / h ) , they laid three smoke curtains adjacent to the three drop zones . The lead aircraft discharged two tanks , waited four seconds , then discharged the other two . The following aircraft went through the same procedure , creating a slight overlap to insure a continuous screen . Conditions were favourable , while the 85 % humidity kept the screens effective for five minutes and stopped their dispersal for ten .
Next came the C @-@ 47s , flying at 400 to 500 feet ( 122 to 152 m ) at 100 to 105 mph ( 161 to 169 km / h ) . Dropping commenced at 10 : 22 . Each aircraft dropped all its men in ten seconds and the whole regiment was unloaded in four and a half minutes . Following the transports came five B @-@ 17s with their racks loaded with 300 lb ( 140 kg ) packages with parachutes , to be dropped to the paratroopers on call by panel signals as they needed them . This mobile supply unit stayed for much of the day , eventually dropping 15 tons of supplies . A group of 24 B @-@ 24s and four B @-@ 17s , which left the column just before the junction of the Watut and the Markham attacked the Japanese defensive position at Heath 's Plantation , about halfway between Nadzab and Lae . Five B @-@ 25 weather aircraft were used along the route and over the passes , to keep the units informed on weather to be encountered during their flights to the rendezvous . Generals MacArthur , Kenney , and Vasey observed the operation , from separate B @-@ 17s . Later , MacArthur received the Air Medal for having " personally led the American paratroopers " and " skillfully directed this historic operation " . During the operation , including the bombing of Heath ’ s , a total of 92 long tons ( 93 t ) of high @-@ explosive bombs was dropped , 32 long tons ( 33 t ) of fragmentation bombs were dropped and 42 @,@ 580 rounds of .50 calibre and 5 @,@ 180 rounds of .30 calibre ammunition were expended .
No air opposition was encountered , and only one C @-@ 47 failed to make the drop . Its cargo door blew off during the flight , damaging its elevator . It safely returned to base . Three paratroopers were killed in the drop ; two fell to their deaths when their parachutes malfunctioned while another landed in a tree and then fell some 66 feet ( 20 m ) to the ground . There were 33 minor injuries caused by rough landings . The three battalions met no opposition on the ground and formed up in their assembly areas . This took some time due to the tropical heat and the high grass .
Five C @-@ 47s of the 375th Troop Carrier Group carrying the gunners of the 2 / 4th Field Regiment took off from Ward 's Airfield after the main force and landed at Tsili Tsili . After an hour on the ground , they set out for Nadzab . Most jumped from the first two aircraft . The next three aircraft dropped equipment , including the dismantled guns . The " pushers out " followed when the aircraft made a second pass over the drop . One Australian injured his shoulder in the drop . The gunners then had to locate and assemble their guns in the tall grass . Enough parts were found to assemble one gun and have it ready for firing within two and a half hours of dropping , although to maintain surprise they did not carry out registration fire until morning . It took three days to find the missing parts and assemble the other gun . At 1515 , two B @-@ 17s dropped 192 boxes of ammunition . Their dropping was accurate , but some boxes of ammunition tore away from their parachutes .
= = = Follow @-@ up = = =
Meanwhile , a force under Lieutenant Colonel J. T. Lang , consisting of the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion , 2 / 6th Field Company , and detachments from the 7th Division Signals , 2 / 5th Field Ambulance and ANGAU , with 760 native carriers , set out from Tsili Tsili on 2 September . Most of the force moved overland , reaching Kirkland 's Crossing on 4 September , where it rendezvoused with B Company , Papuan Infantry Battalion . That night , a party of engineers and pioneers set out from Tsili Tsili in 20 small craft , sailed and paddled down the Watut and Markham Rivers to join Lang 's force at Kirkland 's Crossing . The small river @-@ borne task force included 10 British 5 @-@ ton folding assault boats and Hoehn military folboats. which met up with 2 / 6 Independent Commandos who had reconnoitered the proposed crossing area with 8 of these folboats the day before . While neither river was deep , both were fast flowing , with shoals and hidden snags . Three boats were lost with their equipment and one man drowned . On the morning of 5 September , Lang 's force was treated to the sight of the air force passing overhead . At this point , the Markham River formed three arms , separated by broad sand bars . Two were fordable but the other was deep and flowing at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . Using the folding boats and local timber , they constructed a pontoon bridge , allowing the whole force to cross the river safely with all their equipment . That evening , they reached the Americans ' position .
The next day they went to work on the airstrip with hand tools . Trees were felled , potholes filled in and a windsock erected . Fourteen gliders were supposed to fly in three light tractors , three mowers , a wheeled rake and other engineering equipment from Dobodura . Because the lack of opposition made immediate resupply non @-@ urgent , and because he had doubts about the proficiency of the glider pilots , whom he knew had undergone only minimal training , General Blamey decided that the glider operation was not worth the risk to the glider pilots or their passengers and cancelled it , substituting instead the afternoon supply run by specially modified B @-@ 17s . Lacking mowers , the Kunai grass was cut by hand by the pioneers , sappers , paratroops and native civilians and burned , causing the destruction of some stores and equipment that had been lost in the long grass and " a swirl of black dust " . By 11 : 00 on 6 September , the 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) strip — which had not been used for over a year — had been extended to 3 @,@ 300 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) .
The first plane to land was an L @-@ 4 Piper Cub at 0940 6 September , bringing with it Colonel Murray C. Woodbury , the commander of the U.S. Army 's 871st Airborne Engineer Aviation Battalion . Three transports followed , nearly running down some of the throng working on the strip . Another 40 aircraft followed in the afternoon , many containing American and Australian engineers . The 871st followed the next day with its small air @-@ portable bulldozers and graders . They located a site for a new airstrip , which became known as No. 1 , the existing one becoming No. 2 . The site proved to be an excellent one ; an old , dry riverbed with soil largely composed of gravel . A gravel base and steel plank was laid to accommodate the fighters based at Tsili Tsili that were in danger of bogging down when the weather deteriorated . By the end of October there were four airstrips at Nadzab , one of which was 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) long and sealed with bitumen .
While engineers and anti @-@ aircraft gunners arrived from Tsili Tsili , no infantry arrived from Port Moresby on 6 September because of bad flying weather over the Owen Stanley Range , although the 2 / 25th Infantry Battalion was flown to Tsili Tsili . On 7 September , reveille was sounded for the 2 / 33rd Infantry Battalion at 03 : 30 and the unit boarded trucks of the 158th General Transport Company that took it to marshalling areas near the airfields in preparation for the movement to Nadzab . At 04 : 20 , B @-@ 24 Liberator 42 @-@ 40682 " Pride of the Cornhuskers " of the 43rd Bombardment Group piloted by 2nd Lieutenant Howard Wood set out from Jackson 's Airfield on a reconnaissance sortie to Rabaul , with a full load of 2 @,@ 800 imperial gallons ( 13 @,@ 000 l ) of fuel and four 500 lb ( 230 kg ) bombs . It clipped a tree at the end of the runway , crashed into two other trees and exploded , killing all eleven crewmen on board instantly and spraying burning fuel over a large area . Five of the 158th General Transport Company 's trucks containing men of the 2 / 33rd Infantry Battalion were hit and burst into flames . Every man in those trucks was killed or injured ; 15 were killed outright , 44 died of their wounds and 92 were injured but survived . Despite the disaster , the 2 / 33rd Infantry Battalion flew out to Tsili Tsili as scheduled .
Due to the unpredictable weather , aircraft continued to arrive at Nadzab sporadically . Only the 2 / 25th Infantry Battalion and part of the 2 / 33rd had reached Nadzab by the morning of 8 September when Vasey ordered the commander of the 25th Infantry Brigade , Brigadier Ken Eather , to initiate the advance on Lae . That day there were 112 landings at Nadzab . On 9 September , as the advance began , the rest of the 2 / 33rd Infantry Battalion reached Nadzab from Tsili Tsili , but while there were 116 landings at Nadzab , bad weather prevented the 2 / 31st Infantry Battalion from leaving Port Moresby . Finally , on 12 September , after three non @-@ flying days , the 2 / 31st Infantry Battalion reached Nadzab on some of the 130 landings on the two strips at Nadzab that day .
On 13 September , a platoon of the 2 / 25th Infantry Battalion came under very heavy fire from a concealed Japanese machine gun near Heath 's Plantation that wounded a number of Australians , including Corporal W. H. ( Billy ) Richards , and halted the platoon 's advance . Private Richard Kelliher suddenly , on his own initiative , dashed toward the post and hurled two grenades at it , which killed some of the Japanese defenders but not all . He returned to his section , seized a Bren gun , dashed back to the enemy post and silenced it . He then asked permission to go out again to rescue the wounded Richards , which he accomplished successfully under heavy fire from another enemy position . Kelliher was awarded the Victoria Cross .
North of the main advance , a patrol from Lieutenant Colonel John J. Tolson 's 3rd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment , encountered a force of 200 Japanese crossing the Bumbu River on 15 September . The Americans engaged the Japanese force and reported inflicting heavy losses . The arrival of that day of the first units of Brigadier Ivan Dougherty 's 21st Infantry Brigade at Nadzab at last allowed the paratroopers to be relieved .
By this time , the 9th Division was about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) East of Lae , while the 7th Division was 7 miles ( 11 km ) away and " it appeared an odds @-@ on bet that the 9th would reach Lae first " . The 7th Division resumed its advance at dawn on 16 September . The last ten Japanese troops facing the 2 / 33rd Infantry Battalion were killed and the 2 / 25th Infantry Battalion passed through its position and headed for Lae . As they moved down the Markham Valley Road , they occasionally encountered sick Japanese soldiers who held the column momentarily . Brigadier Eather came up in his jeep and started urging the diggers to hurry up . They were unimpressed . Eather , armed with a pistol , then acted as leading scout , with his troops following in a column of route behind him . The column entered Lae unopposed by the Japanese but aircraft of the Fifth Air Force strafed the 2 / 33rd Infantry Battalion and dropped parachute fragmentation bombs , wounding two men . Whitehead soon received a message sent in the clear from Vasey that read : " Only the Fifth Air Force bombers are preventing me from entering Lae . " By early afternoon , the 2 / 31st Infantry Battalion reached the Lae airfield where it killed 15 Japanese soldiers and captured one . The 25th Infantry Brigade then came under fire from the 9th Division 's 25 @-@ pounders , wounding one soldier . Vasey and Eather tried every available means to inform Wootten of the situation . A message eventually reached him through RAAF channels at 14 : 25 and the artillery was silenced .
= = = Japanese withdrawal = = =
On 8 September , Adachi ordered Nakano to abandon Salamaua and fall back on Lae . Nakano had already evacuated his hospital patients and artillery to Lae . On 11 September , his main body began to withdraw . By this time , it was clear that Blamey intended to cut off and destroy the 51st Division . After discussing the matter with Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo , Imamura and Adachi called off their plans to capture Bena Bena and Mount Hagen and instructed Nakano and Shoge to move overland to the north coast of the Huon Peninsula while the 20th Division moved from Madang to Finschhafen , sending one regiment down the Ramu valley to assist the 51st Division . The Salamaua garrison assembled at Lae on 14 September , and the Japanese evacuated the town over the next few days . It was a retreating band that contacted the 3rd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment . The Japanese hurriedly altered their route before the Australians could intercept them .
Crossing the Saruwaged Range proved to be a gruelling test of endurance for the Japanese soldiers . They started out with ten days ' rations but this was exhausted by the time they reached Mount Salawaket . The 51st Division had already abandoned most of its heavy equipment ; now , many soldiers threw away their rifles . " The Sarawaged crossing " , wrote Lieutenant General Kane Yoshihara , " took far longer than had been expected , and its difficulties were beyond discussion . Near the mountain summits the cold was intense and sleep was quite impossible all the cold night ; they could only doze beside the fire . Squalls came , the ice spread and they advanced through snow under this tropical sky . Gradually the road they were climbing became a descending slope , but the inclination was so steep that if they missed their footing they would fall thousands and thousands of feet — and how many men lost their lives like that ! "
In the end , the Japanese Army could take pride in conducting a creditable defence in the face of an impossible tactical situation . " Fortune and Nature , however , favoured a valiant defender despite the equally valiant striving of the attackers . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The 503rd Parachute Infantry lost three men killed and 33 injured in the jump . Another eight were killed and 12 wounded in action against the Japanese , and 26 were evacuated sick . The 2 / 5th Field Ambulance treated 55 jump casualties on 7 September . Between 5 and 19 September , the 7th Division reported 38 killed and 104 wounded , while another 138 were evacuated sick . To this must be added the 11 Americans and 59 Australians killed and 92 Australians injured in the air crash at Jackson 's Airfield . Thus , 119 Allied servicemen were killed , 241 wounded or injured , and 166 evacuated sick . Japanese casualties were estimated at 2 @,@ 200 , but it is impossible to apportion them between the 7th and 9th Divisions .
= = = Base development = = =
The development of Nadzab depended on heavy construction equipment which had to be landed at Lae and moved over the Markham Valley Road . The job of improving the road was assigned to the 842nd Engineer Aviation Battalion , which arrived at Lae on 20 September but after a few days ' work it was ordered to relieve the 871st Airborne Aviation Battalion at Nadzab . The 842nd reached Nadzab on 4 October but a combination of unseasonable rainfall and heavy military traffic destroyed the road surface and closed the road , forcing Nadzab to be supplied from Lae by air . The 842nd then had to resume work on the road , this time from the Nadzab end . Heavy rain was experienced on 46 of the next 60 days . The road was reopened on 15 December , allowing the 836th , 839th , 868th and 1881st Engineer Aviation Battalions and No. 62 Works Wing RAAF to move to Nadzab to work on the development of the airbase .
The airbase would eventually consist of four all @-@ weather airfields . No 1 had a 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) runway surfaced with Marsden Matting and a 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) runway surfaced with bitumen . No. 2 had a 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) runway partially surfaced with bitumen . No. 3 had a 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) runway surfaced with bitumen in the centre with 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of Marsden mat at either end . No. 4 , an RAAF airfield named Newton after Flight Lieutenant William Ellis Newton , had two parallel 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) runways surfaced with bitumen . Nadzab became the Allied Air Forces ' main base in New Guinea .
= = = Outcome = = =
General Blamey declared the capture of Lae and Salamaua to be " a signal step on the road to Victory " . Lieutenant General John J. Tolson described the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment 's operation at Nadzab as " probably the classic text @-@ book airborne operation of World War II " . Coming after the impressive but flawed performance of the airborne arm in the Allied invasion of Sicily , Nadzab influenced thinking about the value of airborne operations .
However , the impact was far greater than anyone on the Allied side realised , and the ramifications went far beyond New Guinea . Imperial General Headquarters had regarded the defeats in the Guadalcanal Campaign and Battle of Buna – Gona as setbacks only , and had continued to plan offensives in the South West Pacific . Now it concluded that the Japanese position was over @-@ extended . A new defensive line was drawn running through Western New Guinea , the Caroline Islands and the Mariana Islands . Henceforth , positions beyond that line would be held as an outpost line . General Imamura was now charged not with winning a decisive victory , but only with holding on as long as possible so as to delay the Allied advance .
= SMS Königsberg ( 1905 ) =
SMS Königsberg ( " His Majesty 's Ship Königsberg " ) was the lead ship of her class of light cruisers built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Named after Königsberg , the capital of East Prussia , she was laid down in January 1905 , launched in December of that year , and completed by June 1906 . Her class included three other ships : Stettin , Stuttgart , and Nürnberg . Königsberg was armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and had a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) .
After her commissioning , Königsberg served with the High Seas Fleet 's reconnaissance force . During this period , she frequently escorted Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht on visits to foreign countries . In April 1914 , the ship was sent on what was to have been a two @-@ year deployment to German East Africa , but this was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in August of that year . Königsberg initially attempted to raid British and French commercial traffic in the region , but only destroyed one merchant ship in the course of her career . Coal shortages hampered her ability to attack shipping . On 20 September 1914 , she surprised and sank the British protected cruiser HMS Pegasus in the Battle of Zanzibar .
Königsberg then retreated into the Rufiji River to repair her engines . Before the repairs could be completed , British cruisers located Königsberg , and , unable to steam into the river to destroy her , set up a blockade . After several attempts to sink the ship during the Battle of Rufiji Delta , the British sent two monitors , Mersey and Severn , to destroy the German cruiser . On 11 July 1915 , the two monitors got close enough to severely damage Königsberg , forcing her crew to scuttle the ship . The surviving crew salvaged all ten of her main guns and joined Lieutenant Colonel Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's guerrilla campaign in East Africa . Königsberg was partially broken up in 1963 – 65 for scrap , and the remains sank into the riverbed .
= = Design = =
Königsberg and her sisters were designed to serve both as fleet scouts in home waters and in Germany 's colonial empire . This was a result of budgetary constraints that prevented the Kaiserliche Marine from building more specialized cruisers suitable for both roles .
Königsberg was 115 @.@ 3 meters ( 378 ft 3 in ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 29 m ( 17 ft 4 in ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 814 t ( 3 @,@ 754 long tons ; 4 @,@ 204 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by eleven coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers rated at 13 @,@ 020 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 709 kW ) . These provided a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 650 km ; 6 @,@ 620 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Königsberg had a crew of 14 officers and 308 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . There were two side by side forward on the forecastle , six amidships , three on either side , and two side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Königsberg also carried ten 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK guns in single mounts . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower sides were 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Königsberg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Meteor " and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel on 12 January 1905 . She was launched on 12 December 1905 , when the Oberbürgermeister of Königsberg , Siegfried Körte , christened the ship , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet for sea trials on 6 April 1907 . Her trials were interrupted at the beginning of June when she was tasked with escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern during three sailing regattas including Kiel Week . The two ships then cruised the North Sea and stopped at Nordkapp , where from 3 to 6 August , Wilhelm II met Czar Nicholas II of Russia . After returning to Germany , Königsberg resumed her sea trials , which lasted from 9 August to 9 September . She visited her namesake city from 21 to 23 September and was later assigned to the fleet scouting forces to replace the cruiser Medusa on 5 November . At this time , Königsberg was again used to escort Wilhelm II 's yacht , this time in company with the new armored cruiser Scharnhorst and the dispatch boat Sleipner on a visit to Britain . The ships stopped in Portsmouth and the Thames , and were visited by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands .
On 17 December , Königsberg was tasked with another goodwill visit , this time escorting the Kaiser 's brother , Prince Heinrich , and a delegation of naval officers to Malmö , Sweden to meet King Oscar II . The visit lasted until 20 December . Königsberg participated in the normal peacetime routine of individual and squadron training for 1908 without incident . The year ended with a major training cruise , first in the Baltic and North Sea and later into the Atlantic , that ended in early December . The ship then went into drydock over the winter of 1908 – 09 for periodic maintenance , emerging for service again in early February 1909 . A typical training routine followed for the next two years , interrupted only by a collision with the new cruiser Dresden on 16 February 1910 in the Kiel Bay , and two trips escorting the Kaiser in 1910 ; the first to Helgoland on 9 – 13 March and the second to Britain from 8 to 27 May . The collision with Dresden caused significant damage to both ships , though no one on either vessel was injured . Both ships were repaired in Kiel . Dresden also won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery in the reconnaissance force during this period . From December 1909 to September 1910 , Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Adolf von Trotha served as the ship 's commander .
From 8 March to 22 May 1911 , Königsberg cruised in the Mediterranean Sea with Wilhelm II aboard Hohenzollern . On 10 June , Königsberg was replaced in the reconnaissance force by the new cruiser Kolberg ; Königsberg was transferred to Danzig , where she was placed out of service on 14 June for modernization work . On 22 January 1913 , the ship was recommissioned for service with the fleet , to replace the cruiser Mainz which was also being modernized . This service lasted until 19 June , when Königsberg was again placed in reserve in Kiel . During this period of active service , she was assigned to the training squadron from 1 to 18 April . In early 1914 , the high command decided to send Königsberg to German East Africa , where she would replace the current station ship , the old unprotected cruiser Geier .
On 1 April 1914 , Fregattenkapitän Max Looff took command of the ship . Königsberg left Kiel on 25 April , stopped in Wilhelmshaven , and then left three days later for a two @-@ year deployment to German East Africa . She steamed into the Mediterranean Sea and stopped in Spanish and Italian ports before entering the Suez Canal . After passing through the canal , she stopped briefly in Aden before arriving in Dar es Salaam , the capital of German East Africa , on 5 June . Two days later , the Schutztruppe ( Protection Force ) celebrated their 25th anniversary in the colony ; the deputy commander of the Schutztruppe presented Looff with a model of the cruiser Schwalbe , which had been the longest serving warship with the unit . Königsberg surveyed the harbor at Bagamoyo later in the year . The African colonial subjects considered the ship to be quite impressive , particularly her three funnels , which were assumed to signify a warship more powerful than one with only two funnels . The ship acquired the nickname Manowari na bomba tatu , or " the man of war with three pipes " .
As tensions in Europe rose in the aftermath of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , Looff decided to abandon the normal peacetime training schedule and returned to Dar es Salaam on 24 July to replenish his coal and other stores . He also made efforts to organize a coast watcher network to report enemy ships and to protect German shipping in the area . On 27 July , Looff received a message from the Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) informing him of the worsening political situation in Europe . Concurrently , the cruisers of the British Cape Squadron , HMS Astraea , Hyacinth , and Pegasus , arrived with the intention of bottling up Königsberg at the colony 's capital Dar es Salaam . Looff got his ship ready to sail and left port on the afternoon of 31 July 1914 , with the three slower British ships shadowing him . Looff used a rain squall and his ship 's superior speed to break contact with his British pursuers the following day . Königsberg steamed off Aden until 5 August , when word of the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and Germany belatedly reached the ship .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Königsberg was ordered to attack British commerce around the entrance to the Red Sea . A lack of coal hampered Looff 's efforts ; the British prevented his collier Koenig from leaving Dar es Salaam and purchased all the coal in Portuguese East Africa to deny it to Königsberg . Looff then radioed the German steamer Zieten to warn her against using the Suez Canal , where she would have been confiscated . Königsberg chased after the German freighter Goldenfels , whose officers mistook the ship for a British cruiser and refused to stop . Königsberg was forced to fire a warning shot across the bow of Goldenfels to force the ship to stop so that Looff could warn her captain of the state of war .
On 6 August , Königsberg found a British ship off the coast of Oman , the freighter City of Winchester . A prize crew took the ship along with Königsberg , and the two vessels met Zieten four days later in the Khuriya Muriya Islands , where coal from City of Winchester was transferred to Königsberg . The freighter was thereafter sunk . The British crew was taken aboard Zieten , which departed the following day and stopped in Mozambique . Meanwhile , the steamer Somali , under the command of Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) Zimmer , had left Dar es Salaam with a cargo of 1 @,@ 200 t ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ; 1 @,@ 300 short tons ) of coal on the night of 3 – 4 August to resupply Königsberg ; the two ships met ten days later . By the time Looff rendezvoused with Somali , his ship was down to a mere 14 t ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) of coal . Somali transferred some 850 t ( 840 long tons ; 940 short tons ) of coal to the cruiser , which permitted a sweep to Madagascar . No British or French ships were found , however , and so Königsberg met Somali again on 23 August and took on coal for four days of cruising .
In the meantime , British warships bombarded Dar es Salaam and destroyed the German wireless station there . By this time , Königsberg 's engines required a thorough overhaul , and Looff needed to find a secluded area where the work could be completed . He settled on the Rufiji Delta , which had recently been surveyed by the survey ship Möwe . On 3 September 1914 at high tide , Königsberg passed over the bar at the mouth of the Rufiji and slowly made her way up the river . Coast watchers were stationed at the mouth of the river and telegraph lines were run to ensure the Germans would not be surprised by British ships searching for them . Zimmer , who was sending small coastal steamers to resupply Königsberg , observed a British cruiser — Pegasus — patrolling the coast for two weeks . He deduced that the ship would likely have to coal at Zanzibar on Sundays , and so Looff decided to attack the ship in port before he began his overhaul . He considered the action justified , since Britain had rejected a German proposal to keep central Africa neutral according to the Congo Act of 1885 .
On 19 September , Königsberg left the Rufiji and arrived off Zanzibar the following morning . She opened fire at a range of about 7 @,@ 000 meters ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) at 05 : 10 , starting the Battle of Zanzibar ; within 45 minutes , Pegasus caught fire , rolled over to port , and sank . Crewmen aboard Pegasus had raised a white flag , but it could not be seen aboard Königsberg due to the heavy smoke . Pegasus 's crew suffered 38 dead and 55 wounded , while Königsberg was undamaged and had no casualties . After sinking Pegasus , Königsberg bombarded the wireless station and dumped barrels filled with sand into the harbor entrance to simulate mines . While leaving the harbor , Königsberg spotted the picket ship Helmut and sank her with three shells .
The cruiser then returned to the Rufiji River so work could begin on overhauling her engines ; the parts would need to be transported overland to the shipyard in Dar es Salaam where they could be rebuilt . While moored in the town of Salale , the ship was heavily camouflaged and defensive arrangements were erected . These included positioning soldiers and field guns to defend the approaches to the cruiser and establishing a network of coast watchers and telegraph lines to watch for hostile ships . An improvised minefield was also laid in the delta to keep the British ships from entering the river .
Concerned with the threat Königsberg posed to troop transports from India , the British reinforced the flotilla tasked with tracking down the elusive German raider , and placed the ships under the command of Captain Sidney R. Drury @-@ Lowe . The sinking of Pegasus convinced the British that Königsberg must still be in German East Africa . On 19 October , the cruiser Chatham found the German East Africa Line ship Präsident at Lindi . A boarding party searched the ship and discovered documents indicating she had supplied Königsberg with coal in the Rufiji the previous month . On 30 October , the cruiser Dartmouth located Königsberg and Somali in the delta . The cruisers Chatham , Dartmouth , and Weymouth blockaded the Rufiji Delta to ensure Königsberg could not escape .
= = = = Battle of Rufiji Delta = = = =
On 3 November , the British began a bombardment in an attempt to destroy or neutralize Königsberg and Somali . Königsberg was protected by the thick mangrove swamps , which concealed the ship and offered a degree of cover from British shellfire , especially while the British ships remained outside the river . A collier , Newbridge , was converted into a blockship to be sunk in the main channel of the delta to prevent Königsberg 's escape . Despite heavy German fire from both sides of the river , the British successfully sank Newbridge across one of the delta mouths on 10 November , though the German raider could still put to sea via other channels . Looff decided to move his ship further upriver , to make it more difficult for the British to destroy her . In doing so , his ship would occupy a disproportionate number of British vessels that could otherwise have been employed elsewhere . In the course of the campaign , the British reinforced the squadron blockading the Rufiji with additional cruisers , including Pyramus and the Australian HMAS Pioneer .
A civilian pilot , Denis Cutler of Durban , South Africa , was commissioned into the Royal Marines and persuaded to make his private Curtiss seaplane available for the British Empire . The Royal Navy requisitioned the passenger ship Kinfauns Castle to serve as a makeshift tender for Cutler 's aircraft . On his first attempt to locate the cruiser , Cutler , who did not have a compass , got lost and was forced to land on a desert island . On his second flight , he successfully located Königsberg , and a third flight with a Royal Navy observer confirmed his observations . His aircraft 's radiator was damaged on the flight and he was grounded until replacement parts could be brought from Mombasa . A pair of Royal Naval Air Service Sopwiths were brought up with the intention of scouting and even bombing the ship . They soon fell apart in the tropical conditions . A trio of Short seaplanes fared a little better , though they too were quickly disabled by the conditions .
Also in November , the British sought to use the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns of the old battleship Goliath to sink the cruiser . The attempt was unsuccessful , once again because the shallow waters prevented the battleship from getting within range . In December , Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck requested as many crew members from the ship as possible for the East Africa Campaign against the British ; a total of 220 men were left aboard to keep the ship in fighting condition . This was not enough , however , to permit the ship to go to sea . Königsberg moved further up the river on 18 December . On 23 December , the British used a pair of shallow @-@ draft ships to sail up the delta . They hit Somali once before German defensive fire forced them to retreat .
In the meantime , conditions were deteriorating on Königsberg . There were shortages of coal , ammunition , food , and medical supplies . Although safe from the British , the crew was ravaged by malaria and other tropical ailments . Generally cut off from the outside world , the morale of the sailors fell . However , the situation was marginally improved with a scheme to resupply the ship and give her a fighting chance to return home . A captured British merchant ship , Rubens , was renamed Kronborg . It was given a Danish flag , papers , and a crew of German sailors selected for their ability to speak Danish . It was then packed with coal , field guns , ammunition , small arms , and various supplies . As the freighter approached East Africa , Königsberg prepared to sortie to meet the ship and attempt to break out and return to Germany . Instead , Königsberg was trapped in the river by two cruisers and several smaller vessels . Hyacinth intercepted Kronborg as she approached , and chased her to Manza Bay . The trapped ship was forced aground and set on fire , but the Germans salvaged much of her cargo and put it to use later in the East Africa Campaign .
Finally , in April 1915 , the British Admiralty agreed to a plan submitted by Drury @-@ Lowe the previous November , which envisioned attacking the German cruiser with shallow @-@ draft monitors , capable of navigating the Rufiji River . Two of the warships , Mersey and Severn , armed with a pair of 6 in ( 152 mm ) guns each , were brought from Britain . Königsberg had in the meantime been moved a third time , even further upriver . On 6 July 1915 , the two monitors crossed the outer sandbar and steamed up the river , despite heavy fire from German positions on the river banks . They stopped at a point they thought to be 10 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) from Königsberg , which would be in range of their own guns but farther than the smaller German guns could reply . Aircraft were used to spot the fall of shot . The monitors ' navigation was faulty , however , and after opening fire , they found themselves to be within range of Königsberg 's guns . She hit Mersey twice in the engagement ; one shell disabled the forward 6 @-@ inch gun , and another holed the ship below the waterline . Königsberg was hit four times in return , one shell striking beneath the waterline and causing some flooding . In the span of three hours , Königsberg forced both British ships to withdraw .
They returned again on 11 July , after having repaired the damage sustained in the first attempt . The two monitors conducted a five @-@ hour bombardment . Königsberg opened fire at 12 : 12 , initially with four guns , but only three guns remained in action after 12 : 42 , two guns after 12 : 44 , and one gun after 12 : 53 . The two monitors did not respond until 12 : 31 , once they had been anchored into their firing positions , and scored several serious hits that caused a major fire at the ship 's stern and inflicted heavy casualties . By 13 : 40 , Königsberg had run low on ammunition and her gun crews had suffered very heavy casualties , and so Looff ordered the crew to abandon ship and to drop the breech blocks for the guns overboard to disable them . Two torpedo warheads were detonated in the ship 's bow to scuttle her ; the ship rolled over slightly to starboard and sank up to the upper deck with her flags still flying . Nineteen men had been killed in the battle , with another forty @-@ five wounded , including Looff .
Later that day , the crew returned to haul down the ship 's flag and gave three cheers for the Kaiser . The guns and other usable equipment were salvaged from the wreck starting the following day . The guns were converted into field artillery pieces and coastal guns ; together with the ship 's crew , they went on to see service in the East African land campaign under Lettow @-@ Vorbeck . All ten guns were repaired in Dar es Salaam over the next two months ; one was mounted on the converted ferry Götzen of the inland Lake Tanganyika fleet . The surviving sailors , organized as the Königsberg @-@ Abteilung ( Königsberg @-@ Detachment ) , eventually surrendered on 26 November 1917 and were interned in British Egypt . In 1919 , after the war , the men took part in a parade through the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin to celebrate their service and that of their ship .
In 1924 , John Ingle , the former captain of Pegasus , was tasked with clearing wrecks from the harbor in Dar es Salaam . At that time , he bought the salvage rights to Königsberg for the price of £ 200 ; he sent divers to extract non @-@ ferrous scrap metal from the wreck and in turn sold the rights . Salvage work continued into the 1930s , and by the 1940s the hull had rolled over to her starboard side . As late as 1965 , salvage work continued , but in 1966 the wreck collapsed and finally sank into the riverbed . Three of the ship 's 10 @.@ 5 cm guns are preserved , one in Pretoria , South Africa , one in Jinja , Uganda , and one in Mombasa , along with a gun from Pegasus .
= Sex Pistols =
The Sex Pistols were an English punk rock band formed in London in 1975 . Although they initially lasted just two and a half years and produced only four singles and one studio album , Never Mind the Bollocks , Here 's the Sex Pistols , they are considered one of the most influential acts in the history of popular music , having initiated a punk movement in the United Kingdom , and inspired many later punk rock , thrash metal and alternative rock musicians .
The first incarnation of the Sex Pistols included singer Johnny Rotten ( John Lydon ) , lead guitarist Steve Jones , drummer Paul Cook and bassist Glen Matlock . Matlock was replaced by Sid Vicious ( John Ritchie ) early in 1977 . Under the management of Malcolm McLaren , a visual artist , performer , clothes designer and boutique owner , the band provoked controversies that garnered a significant amount of publicity . Their concerts repeatedly faced difficulties with organisers and local authorities , and public appearances often ended in mayhem . Their 1977 single " God Save the Queen " , attacking social conformity and deference to the Crown , precipitated the " last and greatest outbreak of pop @-@ based moral pandemonium " . Subjects addressed in their frequently obscene lyrics included the music industry , consumerism , abortion , violence , apathy , anarchy , fascism , the British Royal Family and the Holocaust .
In January 1978 , at the end of a turbulent tour of the United States , Rotten left the Sex Pistols and announced its break @-@ up . Over the next several months , the three other band members recorded songs for McLaren 's film version of the Sex Pistols ' story , The Great Rock ' n ' Roll Swindle . Vicious died of a heroin overdose in February 1979 , following his arrest for the alleged murder of his girlfriend . In 1996 , Rotten , Jones , Cook and Matlock reunited for the Filthy Lucre Tour ; since 2002 , they have staged further reunion shows and tours . On 24 February 2006 , the Sex Pistols — the four original , surviving members and Sid Vicious — were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , but they refused to attend the ceremony , calling the museum " a piss stain " .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and early days = = =
The Sex Pistols evolved from the Strand , a London band formed in 1972 with working @-@ class teenagers Steve Jones on vocals , Paul Cook on drums , and Wally Nightingale on guitar . According to a later account by Jones , both he and Cook played instruments they had stolen . They would go to music performances , and when the concert was over they would go up on stage and steal as much musical equipment as they could carry .
Early line @-@ ups of the Strand — sometimes known as the Swankers — also included Jim Mackin on organ and Stephen Hayes ( and later , briefly , Del Noones ) on bass . The band members hung out regularly at two clothing shops on Kings Road in London 's Chelsea neighbourhood : John Krivine , and Steph Raynor 's Acme Attractions ( where Don Letts worked as manager ) and Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood 's Too Fast to Live , Too Young to Die .
The McLaren – Westwood shop had opened in 1971 as Let It Rock , with a 1950s revival Teddy Boy theme . It had been renamed in 1972 to focus on another revival trend , the rocker look associated with Marlon Brando . As John Lydon later observed , " Malcolm and Vivienne were really a pair of shysters : they would sell anything to any trend that they could grab onto . " The shop would become a focal point of the punk rock scene , bringing together participants such as the future Sid Vicious , Marco Pirroni ( who became a guitarist , songwriter and record producer ) , Gene October ( who became the singer for the punk band Chelsea ) , and Mark Stewart , among many others . Jordan , the English model and actress noted for her work with Vivienne Westwood and the SEX boutique , was a wildly styled shop assistant who is credited with " pretty well single @-@ handedly paving the punk look " .
In early 1974 , Jones convinced McLaren to help out the Strand . Effectively becoming the group 's manager , McLaren paid for their first formal rehearsal space . Glen Matlock , an art student who occasionally worked at Too Fast to Live , Too Young to Die , was recruited as the band 's regular bassist . In November , McLaren temporarily relocated to New York City . Before his departure , McLaren and Westwood had conceived a new identity for their shop : renamed SEX , it changed its focus from retro couture to S & M @-@ inspired " anti @-@ fashion " , with a billing as " Specialists in rubberwear , glamourwear & stagewear " .
After informally managing and promoting the New York Dolls for a few months , McLaren returned to London in May 1975 . Inspired by the punk scene that was emerging in Lower Manhattan — in particular by the radical visual style and attitude of Richard Hell , then with Television — McLaren began taking a greater interest in the Strand .
The group had been rehearsing regularly , overseen by McLaren 's friend Bernard Rhodes , and had performed publicly for the first time . Soon after McLaren 's return , Nightingale was kicked out of the band and Jones , uncomfortable as frontman , took over guitar duties . According to journalist and former McLaren employee Phil Strongman , around this time the band adopted the name QT Jones and the Sex Pistols ( or QT Jones & His Sex Pistols , as one Rhodes @-@ designed T @-@ shirt put it ) . McLaren had been talking with the New York Dolls ' Sylvain Sylvain about coming over to England to front the group .
When those plans fell through , McLaren , Rhodes and the band began looking locally for a new member to assume the lead vocal duties . As described by Matlock , " Everyone had long hair then , even the milkman , so what we used to do was if someone had short hair we would stop them in the street and ask them if they fancied themselves as a singer . " Among those they approached was Midge Ure , who was involved with his own band , Slik . Kevin Rowland — who would co @-@ found Dexys Midnight Runners three years later — auditioned , but apart from Matlock , no one was impressed . With the search going nowhere , McLaren made several calls to Richard Hell , who turned down the invitation .
= = = John Lydon joins the band = = =
In August 1975 , Rhodes spotted nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Kings Road habitué John Lydon wearing a Pink Floyd T @-@ shirt with the words I Hate handwritten above the band 's name and holes scratched through the eyes . Reports vary at this point : the same day , or soon after , either Rhodes or McLaren asked Lydon to come to a nearby pub in the evening to meet Jones and Cook . According to Jones , " He came in with green hair . I thought he had a really interesting face . I liked his look . He had his ' I Hate Pink Floyd ' T @-@ shirt on , and it was held together with safety pins . John had something special , but when he started talking he was a real arsehole — but smart . " When the pub closed , the group moved on to SEX , where Lydon , who had given little thought to singing , was convinced to improvise along to Alice Cooper 's " I 'm Eighteen " on the shop jukebox . Though the performance drove the band members to laughter , McLaren convinced them to start rehearsing with Lydon . Lydon later described the social context in which the band came together :
Early Seventies Britain was a very depressing place . It was completely run @-@ down with trash on the streets , and total unemployment — just about everybody was on strike . Everybody was brought up with an education system that told you point blank that if you came from the wrong side of the tracks ... then you had no hope in hell and no career prospects at all . Out of that came pretentious moi and the Sex Pistols and then a whole bunch of copycat wankers after us .
New Musical Express journalist Nick Kent jammed occasionally with the band , but left upon Lydon 's recruitment . " When I came along , I took one look at him and said , ' No . That has to go , ' " Lydon later explained . " He 's never written a good word about me ever since . " In September , McLaren again helped hire private rehearsal space for the group , which had been practising in pubs . Cook , who had a full @-@ time job he was loath to give up , was making noises about quitting . According to Matlock 's later description , Cook " created a smokescreen " by claiming Jones was not skilled enough to be the band 's sole guitarist . An advertisement was placed in Melody Maker for a " Whizz Kid Guitarist . Not older than 20 . Not worse looking than Johnny Thunders " ( referring to a leading member of the New York punk scene ) . Most of the guitar players who auditioned were incompetent , but in McLaren 's view , the process created a new sense of solidarity among the four band members . Steve New was considered the only talented guitarist who tried out and the band invited him to join . Jones was improving rapidly , and the band 's developing sound had no room for the technical lead work at which New was adept . He departed after a month .
Lydon had been renamed " Johnny Rotten " by Jones , apparently because of his bad dental hygiene . The band also settled on a name . After considering options such as Le Bomb , Subterraneans , the Damned , Beyond , Teenage Novel , Kid Gladlove , and Crème de la Crème , they decided on Sex Pistols — a shortened form of the name they had apparently been working under informally .
McLaren said the name derived " from the idea of a pistol , a pin @-@ up , a young thing , a better @-@ looking assassin " . Not given to modesty , false or otherwise , he added : " [ I ] launched the idea in the form of a band of kids who could be perceived as being bad . " The group began writing original material : Rotten was the lyricist and Matlock the primary melody writer ( though their first collaboration , " Pretty Vacant " , had a complete lyric by Matlock , which Rotten tweaked a bit ) ; official credit was shared equally among the four .
Their first gig was arranged by Matlock , who was studying at Saint Martins College . The band played at the school on 6 November 1975 , in support of a pub rock group called Bazooka Joe , arranging to use their amps and drums . The Sex Pistols performed several cover songs , including the Who 's " Substitute " , the Small Faces ' " Whatcha Gonna Do About It " , " ( Don 't you Give Me ) No Lip " by Dave Berry , and " ( I 'm Not Your ) Steppin ' Stone " , made famous by the Monkees ; according to observers , they were unexceptional musically aside from being extremely loud . Before the Pistols could play the few original songs they had written to date , Bazooka Joe pulled the plugs as they saw their gear being trashed . A brief physical altercation between members of the two bands took place on stage .
= = = Building a following = = =
The Saint Martins gig was followed by other performances at colleges and art schools around London . One of these on 9 December 1975 was at Ravensbourne College , Chislehurst , near Bromley in Southeast London , where they supported the Newcastle @-@ based rock band Fogg . The band played for free as according to McLaren they were ' turning professional ' the following year , although as McLaren 's letter confirming the booking stated : ' free beer for the band would be appreciated ' . Despite the band 's punk posturing , their PA equipment ( including EV Eliminator bass bins ) was so much better than that of the established touring band Fogg that their equipment was used for the gig . The result of them staying later was a bar bill of over £ 50 during the headliner 's performance . Simon Barker , a friend of Steve Severin , saw the gig and enthused about the band . This resulted in them seeing the band at the Marquee on 12 February 1976 . The Sex Pistols ' core group of followers — including Siouxsie Sioux , Steven Severin , Soo Catwoman , and Billy Idol — came to be known as the Bromley Contingent , after the large suburban town several were from . Their cutting @-@ edge fashion , much of it supplied by SEX , ignited a trend that was adopted by the new fans the band attracted . McLaren and Westwood saw the incipient London punk movement as a vehicle for more than just couture . They were both captivated by the May 1968 radical uprising in Paris , particularly by the ideology and agitations of the Situationists , as well as the anarchist thought of Buenaventura Durruti and others .
These interests were shared with Jamie Reid , an old friend of McLaren 's who began producing publicity material for the Sex Pistols in spring 1976 . ( The cut @-@ up lettering employed to create the classic Sex Pistols logo and many subsequent designs for the band was actually introduced by McLaren 's friend Helen Wellington @-@ Lloyd . ) " We used to talk to John [ Lydon ] a lot about the Situationists , " Reid later said . " The Sex Pistols seemed the perfect vehicle to communicate ideas directly to people who weren 't getting the message from left @-@ wing politics . " McLaren was also arranging for the band 's first photo sessions . As described by music historian Jon Savage , " With his green hair , hunched stance and ragged look , [ Lydon ] looked like a cross between Uriah Heep and Richard Hell . "
The first Sex Pistols gig to attract broader attention was as a supporting act for Eddie and the Hot Rods , a leading pub rock group , at the Marquee on 12 February 1976 . Rotten " was now really pushing the barriers of performance , walking off stage , sitting with the audience , throwing Jordan across the dance floor and chucking chairs around , before smashing some of Eddie and the Hot Rods ' gear . " The band 's first review appeared in the NME , accompanied by a brief interview in which Steve Jones declared , " Actually we 're not into music . We 're into chaos . " Among those who read the article were two students at the Bolton Institute of Technology , Howard Devoto and Pete Shelley , who headed down to London in search of the Sex Pistols . After chatting with McLaren at SEX , they saw the band at a couple of late February gigs . The two friends immediately began organising their own Pistols @-@ style group , the Buzzcocks . As Devoto later put it , " My life changed the moment that I saw the Sex Pistols . "
The Pistols were soon playing other important venues , debuting at Oxford Street 's 100 Club on 30 March . On 3 April , they played for the first time at the Nashville , supporting the 101ers . The pub rock group 's lead singer , Joe Strummer , saw the Pistols for the first time that night — and recognised punk rock as the future . A return gig at the Nashville on 23 April demonstrated the band 's growing musical competence , but by all accounts lacked a spark . Westwood provided that by instigating a fight with another audience member ; McLaren and Rotten were soon involved in the melee . Cook later said , " That fight at the Nashville : that 's when all the publicity got hold of it and the violence started creeping in .... I think everybody was ready to go and we were the catalyst . " The Pistols were soon banned from both the Nashville and the Marquee .
23 April also saw the release of the debut album by the leading punk rock band in the New York scene , the Ramones . Though it is regarded as seminal to the growth of punk rock in England and elsewhere , Lydon has repeatedly rejected any suggestion that it influenced the Sex Pistols : " [ the Ramones ] were all long @-@ haired and of no interest to me . I didn 't like their image , what they stood for , or anything about them " ; " They were hilarious but you can only go so far with ' duh @-@ dur @-@ dur @-@ duh ' . I 've heard it . Next . Move on . " On 11 May , the Pistols began a four @-@ week @-@ long Tuesday night residency at the 100 Club . They devoted the rest of the month to touring small cities and towns in the north of England and recording demos in London with producer and recording artist Chris Spedding . The following month they played their first gig in Manchester , arranged by Devoto and Shelley . The Sex Pistols ' performance of 4 June at the Lesser Free Trade Hall set off a punk rock boom in the city . On 4 and 6 July , respectively , two newly formed London punk rock acts , the Clash — with Strummer as lead vocalist — and the Damned , made their live debuts opening for the Sex Pistols . On their off night in between , the Pistols ( despite Lydon 's later professed disdain ) showed up for a Ramones gig at Dingwalls , like virtually everyone else at the heart of the London punk scene . During a return Manchester engagement , 20 July , the Pistols premiered a new song , " Anarchy in the U.K. " , reflecting elements of the radical ideologies to which Rotten was being exposed .
According to Jon Savage , " there seems little doubt that Lydon was fed material by Vivienne Westwood and Jamie Reid , which he then converted into his own lyric . " " Anarchy in the U.K. " was among the seven originals recorded in another demo session that month , this one overseen by the band 's sound engineer , Dave Goodman . McLaren organised a major event for 29 August at the Screen on the Green in London 's Islington district : the Buzzcocks and the Clash opened for the Sex Pistols in punk 's " first metropolitan test of strength " . Three days later , the band were in Manchester to tape what would be their first television appearance , for Tony Wilson 's So It Goes . Scheduled to perform just one song , " Anarchy in the U.K. " , the band ran straight through another two numbers as pandemonium broke out in the control room .
The Sex Pistols played their first concert outside Britain on 3 September , at the opening of the Chalet du Lac disco in Paris . The Bromley Contingent accompanied them , with Siouxsie Sioux 's swastika armband causing a stir . The following day , the So It Goes performance aired ; the audience heard " Anarchy in the U.K. " introduced with a shout of " Get off your arse ! " On 13 September , the Pistols began a tour of Britain . A week later , back in London , they headlined the opening night of the 100 Club Punk Special . Organised by McLaren ( for whom the word " festival " had too much of a hippie connotation ) , the event was " considered the moment that was the catalyst for the years to come . " Belying the common perception that punk bands couldn 't play their instruments , contemporary music press reviews , later critical assessments of concert recordings , and testimonials by fellow musicians indicate that the Pistols had developed into a tight , ferocious live band . As Rotten tested out wild vocalisation styles , the instrumentalists experimented " with overload , feedback and distortion ... pushing their equipment to the limit " .
= = = EMI and the Grundy incident = = =
On 8 October 1976 , the major record label EMI signed the Sex Pistols to a two @-@ year contract . In short order , the band was in the studio recording a full @-@ dress session with Dave Goodman . As later described by Matlock , " The idea was to get the spirit of the live performance . We were pressurised to make it faster and faster . " The riotous results were rejected . Chris Thomas , who had produced Roxy Music and mixed Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon , was brought to see them live for the first time by Chrissie Hynde . Then Thomas was brought in by Virgin Records to produce The band 's first single , " Anarchy in the U.K. " , was released on 26 November 1976 . John Robb — a music journalist — described the record 's impact : " From Steve Jones ' opening salvo of descending chords , to Johnny Rotten 's fantastic sneering vocals , this song is the perfect statement ... a stunningly powerful piece of punk politics ... a lifestyle choice , a manifesto that heralds a new era " . Colin Newman , who had just cofounded the band Wire , heard it as " the clarion call of a generation . "
" Anarchy in the U.K. " was not the first British punk single , pipped by the Damned 's " New Rose " . " We Vibrate " had also appeared from the Vibrators , a pub rock band formed early in 1976 that had become associated with punk — though , according to Jon Savage " with their long hair and mildly risque name , the Vibrators were passers @-@ by as far as punk taste @-@ makers were concerned . " Unlike those songs , whose lyrical content was comfortably within rock ' n ' roll traditions , " Anarchy in the U.K. " linked punk to a newly politicised attitude — the Pistols ' stance was aggrieved , euphoric and nihilistic , all at the same time . Rotten 's howls of " I am an anti @-@ Christ " and " Destroy ! " repurposed rock as an ideological weapon . The single 's packaging and visual promotion also broke new ground . Reid and McLaren came up with the notion of selling the record in a completely wordless , featureless black sleeve . The primary image associated with the single was Reid 's " anarchy flag " poster : a Union Flag ripped up and partly safety @-@ pinned back together , with the song and band names clipped along the edges of a gaping hole in the middle . This and other images created by Reid for the Sex Pistols quickly became punk icons .
The Sex Pistols ' behaviour , as much as their music , brought them national attention . On 1 December 1976 , the band and members of the Bromley Contingent created a storm of publicity by swearing during an early evening live broadcast of Thames Television 's Today programme . Appearing as last @-@ minute replacements for fellow EMI artists Queen , the band and their entourage were offered drinks as they waited to go on air . During the interview , Steve Jones said the band had " fucking spent " its label advance and Rotten twice used the word " shit " . Host Bill Grundy , who claimed to be as drunk as his interviewees , engaged in repartee with Siouxsie Sioux , who declared that she had " always wanted to meet " him . Grundy responded , " Did you really ? We 'll meet afterwards , shall we ? " This prompted the following exchange between Jones and the host :
Jones : You dirty sod . You dirty old man .
Grundy : Well keep going , chief , keep going . Go on . You 've got another five seconds . Say something outrageous .
Jones : You dirty bastard .
Grundy : Go on , again .
Jones : You dirty fucker .
Grundy : What a clever boy .
Jones : What a fucking rotter .
Although the programme was broadcast only in the London region , the ensuing furore occupied the tabloid newspapers for days . The Daily Mirror famously ran the headline " The Filth and the Fury ! " ; other papers such as the Daily Express ( " Fury at Filthy TV Chat " ) and the Daily Telegraph ( " 4 @-@ Letter Words Rock TV " ) followed suit . Thames Television suspended Grundy , and though he was later reinstated , the interview effectively ended his career .
The episode made the band household names throughout the country and brought punk into mainstream awareness . The Pistols set out on the Anarchy Tour of the UK , supported by the Clash and Johnny Thunders ' band the Heartbreakers , over from New York . The Damned were briefly part of the tour , before McLaren kicked them off . Media coverage was intense , and many of the concerts were cancelled by organisers or local authorities ; of approximately twenty scheduled gigs , only about seven actually took place . Following a campaign waged in the south Wales press , a crowd including carol singers and a Pentecostal preacher protested against the group outside a show in Caerphilly . Packers at the EMI plant refused to handle the band 's single .
Bernard Brook @-@ Partridge , a Conservative member of the Greater London Council and chairman of the Arts committee from 1977 , declared , " Most of these groups would be vastly improved by sudden death . The worst of the punk rock groups I suppose currently are the Sex Pistols . They are unbelievably nauseating . They are the antithesis of humankind . I would like to see somebody dig a very , very large , exceedingly deep hole and drop the whole bloody lot down it . "
Following the end of the tour in late December , three concerts were arranged in the Netherlands for January 1977 . The band , hungover , boarded a plane at London Heathrow Airport early on 4 January ; a few hours later , the Evening News was reporting that the band had " vomited and spat their way " to the flight . Despite categorical denials by the EMI representative who accompanied the group , the label , which was under political pressure , released the band from their contract . As McLaren fielded offers from other labels , the band went into the studio for a round of recordings with Goodman , their last with either him or Matlock .
= = = Sid Vicious joins the band = = =
In February 1977 , word leaked out that Matlock was leaving the Sex Pistols . On 28 February , McLaren sent a telegram to the NME confirming the split . He claimed that Matlock had been " thrown out ... because he went on too long about Paul McCartney .... the Beatles was too much . " In an interview a few months afterwards , Steve Jones echoed the charge that Matlock had been sacked because he " liked the Beatles . " Jones expanded on the matter of the band 's issues with Matlock : " He was a good writer but he didn 't look like a Sex Pistol and he was always washing his feet . His mum didn 't like the songs . " Matlock told the NME that he had voluntarily left the band by " mutual agreement " .
Later , in his autobiography , Matlock would describe the primary impetus for his departure as his increasingly acrimonious relationship with Rotten , which he described as being exacerbated by the rampant inflation of Rotten 's ego " once he 'd had his name in the papers " and instigated by McLaren . Lydon would later claim that " God Save the Queen , " the belligerently sardonic song planned as the band 's second single , had been the final straw : " [ Matlock ] couldn 't handle those kinds of lyrics . He said it declared us fascists . " Though the singer could hardly see how anti @-@ royal @-@ ism equated with fascism , he claimed , " Just to get rid of him , I didn 't deny it . " ( The claim was denied by Matlock . ) Jon Savage suggests that Rotten pushed Matlock out in an effort to demonstrate his power and autonomy from McLaren . Matlock almost immediately formed his own band , Rich Kids , with Midge Ure , Steve New , and Rusty Egan .
Matlock was replaced on bass by Rotten 's friend and self @-@ appointed " ultimate Sex Pistols fan " Sid Vicious , despite not being able to play bass . Born John Simon Ritchie , later known as John Beverley , Vicious was previously drummer of two inner circle punk bands , Siouxsie and the Banshees and the Flowers of Romance . He was also credited with introducing the pogo dance to the scene at the 100 Club . John Robb claims it was at the first Sex Pistols residency gig , 11 May 1976 ; Matlock is convinced it happened during the second night of the 100 Club Punk Special in September , when the Pistols were off playing in Wales . In Matlock 's description , Rotten wanted Vicious in the band because " [ i ] nstead of him against Steve and Paul , it would become him and Sid against Steve and Paul . He always thought of it in terms of opposing camps " .
Julien Temple , then a film student whom McLaren had put on the Sex Pistols payroll to create a comprehensive audiovisual record of the band , concurs : " Sid was John 's protégé in the group , really . The other two just thought he was crazy . " McLaren later stated that , much earlier in the band 's career , Vivienne Westwood had told him he should " get the guy called John who came to the store a couple of times " to be the singer . When Johnny Rotten was recruited for the band , Westwood said McLaren had got it wrong : " he had got the wrong John . " It was John Beverley , the future Vicious , she had been recommending . McLaren approved the belated inclusion of Vicious , who had virtually no experience on his new instrument , on account of his look and reputation in the punk scene .
Pogoing aside , Vicious had been involved in a notorious incident during that memorable second night of the 100 Club Punk Special . Arrested for hurling a glass at the Damned that shattered and blinded a girl in one eye , he had served time in a remand centre — and contributed to the 100 Club banning all punk bands . At a previous 100 Club gig , he had assaulted Nick Kent with a bicycle chain . Indeed , McLaren 's NME telegram said that Vicious 's " best credential was he gave Nick Kent what he deserved many months ago at the Hundred Club " . According to a later description by McLaren , " When Sid joined he couldn 't play guitar but his craziness fit into the structure of the band . He was the knight in shining armour with a giant fist . "
" Everyone agreed he had the look , " Lydon later recalled , but musical skill was another matter . " The first rehearsals ... in March of 1977 with Sid were hellish .... Sid really tried hard and rehearsed a lot " . Marco Pirroni , who had performed with Vicious in Siouxsie and the Banshees , has said , " After that , it was nothing to do with music anymore . It would just be for the sensationalism and scandal of it all . Then it became the Malcolm McLaren story " .
Membership in the Sex Pistols had a progressively destructive effect on Vicious . As Lydon later observed , " Up to that time , Sid was absolutely childlike . Everything was fun and giggly . Suddenly he was a big pop star . Pop star status meant press , a good chance to be spotted in all the right places , adoration . That 's what it all meant to Sid . " Westwood had already been feeding him material , like a tome on Charles Manson , likely to encourage his worst instincts . Early in 1977 , he met Nancy Spungen , an emotionally disturbed drug addict and sometime prostitute from New York . Spungen is commonly thought to be responsible for introducing Vicious to heroin , and the emotional codependency between the couple alienated Vicious from the other members of the band . Lydon later wrote , " We did everything to get rid of Nancy .... She was killing him . I was absolutely convinced this girl was on a slow suicide mission .... Only she didn 't want to go alone . She wanted to take Sid with her .... She was so utterly fucked up and evil . " Lydon also admits to regretting introducing the two in The Filth and the Fury .
= = = " God Save the Queen " = = =
On 10 March 1977 , at a press ceremony held outside Buckingham Palace , the Sex Pistols publicly signed to A & M Records ( the real signing had taken place the day before ) . Afterwards , intoxicated , they made their way to the A & M offices . Vicious smashed in a toilet bowl and cut his foot ( there is some disagreement about which happened first ) . As Vicious trailed blood around the offices , Rotten verbally abused the staff and Jones got frisky in the ladies ' room . A couple of days later , the Pistols got into a rumble with another band at a club ; one of Rotten 's pals threatened the life of a good friend of A & M 's English director . On 16 March , A & M broke contract with the Pistols . Twenty @-@ five thousand copies of the planned " God Save the Queen " single , produced by Chris Thomas , had already been pressed ; virtually all were destroyed .
Vicious debuted with the band at London 's Notre Dame Hall on 28 March . In May , the band signed with Virgin Records , their third new label in little more than half a year . Virgin was more than ready to release " God Save the Queen " , but new obstacles arose . Workers at the pressing plant laid down their tools in protest at the song 's content . Jamie Reid 's now famous cover , showing Queen Elizabeth II with her features obscured by the song and band names in cutout letters , offended the sleeve 's plate makers . After much talk , production resumed and the record was finally released on 27 May .
The scabrous lyrics — " God save the Queen / She ain 't no human being / There is no future / In England 's dreaming " — prompted widespread outcry . Several major chains refused to stock the single . It was banned not only by the BBC but also by every independent radio station , making it the " most heavily censored record in British history " . That week , there * was * no number 1 hit in Britain - according to Lydon , et al. in The Filth and The Fury , the top spot was empty , because so many radio stations , the BBC , and individuals protested the song 's content . Rotten boasted , " We 're the only honest band that 's hit this planet in about two thousand million years . " Jones shrugged off everything the song stated and implied — or took nihilism to a logical endpoint : " I don 't see how anyone could describe us as a political band . I don 't even know the name of the Prime Minister . " The song , and its public impact , are now recognised as " punk 's crowning glory " .
The Virgin release had been timed to coincide with the height of Queen Elizabeth 's Silver Jubilee celebrations . By Jubilee weekend , a week and a half after the record 's release , it had sold more than 150 @,@ 000 copies — a massive success . On 7 June , McLaren and the record label arranged to charter a private boat and have the Sex Pistols perform while sailing down the River Thames , passing Westminster Pier and the Houses of Parliament . The event , a mockery of the Queen 's river procession planned for two days later , ended in chaos . Police launches forced the boat to dock , and constabulary surrounded the gangplanks at the pier . While the band members and their equipment were hustled down a side stairwell , McLaren , Westwood , and many of the band 's entourage were arrested .
With the official UK record chart for Jubilee week about to be released , the Daily Mirror predicted that " God Save the Queen " would be number one . As it turned out , the record placed second , behind a Rod Stewart single in its fourth week at the top . Many believed that the record had actually qualified for the top spot , but that the chart had been rigged to prevent a spectacle . McLaren later claimed that CBS Records , which was distributing both singles , told him that the Sex Pistols were actually outselling Stewart two to one . There is evidence that an exceptional directive was issued by the British Phonographic Institute , which oversaw the chart @-@ compiling bureau , to exclude sales from record @-@ company operated shops such as Virgin 's for that week only .
Violent attacks on punk fans were on the rise . In mid @-@ June Rotten himself was assaulted by a knife @-@ wielding gang outside Islington 's Pegasus pub , causing tendon damage to his left arm . Jamie Reid and Paul Cook were beaten up in other incidents ; three days after the Pegasus assault , Rotten was attacked again . A tour of Scandinavia , planned to start at the end of the month , was consequently delayed until mid @-@ July . During the tour , a Swedish interviewer observed to Jones that " a lot of people " regarded the band as McLaren 's " creation " . Jones replied , " He 's our manager , that 's all . He 's got nothing to do with the music or the image ... he 's just a good manager . " In another interview , Rotten professed bafflement at the furore surrounding the group : " I don 't understand it . All we 're trying to do is destroy everything . " At the end of August came SPOTS — Sex Pistols On Tour Secretly , a surreptitious UK tour with the band playing under pseudonyms to avoid cancellation .
McLaren had wanted for some time to make a movie featuring the Sex Pistols . Julien Temple 's first major task had been to assemble Sex Pistols Number 1 , a twenty @-@ five @-@ minute mosaic of footage from various sources , much of it refilmed by Temple from television screens . Number 1 was often screened at concert venues before the band took the stage . Using media footage from the Thames incident , Temple created another propagandistic short , Jubilee Riverboat ( aka Sex Pistols Number 2 ) . During summer 1977 , McLaren had been making arrangements for the feature film of his dreams , Who Killed Bambi ? , to be directed by Russ Meyer from a script by Roger Ebert . After a single day of shooting , 11 September , production ceased when it became clear that McLaren had failed to arrange financing . In The Filth and The Fury , it is revealed that Sting 's first acting gig was in the film .
= = = Never Mind the Bollocks = = =
Since the spring of 1977 , the three senior Sex Pistols had been returning to the studio periodically with Chris Thomas to lay down the tracks for the band 's debut album . Initially to be called God Save Sex Pistols , it became known during the summer as Never Mind the Bollocks . According to Jones , " Sid wanted to come down and play on the album , and we tried as hard as possible not to let him anywhere near the studio . Luckily he had hepatitis at the time . " Cook later described how many of the instrumental tracks were built up from drum and guitar parts , rather than the usual drum and bass .
Given Vicious 's incompetence , Matlock had been invited to record as a session musician . In his autobiography , Matlock says although he agreed to " help out " , that he cut all ties after McLaren issued 28 February NME telegram announcing Matlock had been fired for liking the Beatles , and that he only appeared on the songs previously recorded as singles and b @-@ sides . According to Jon Savage , Matlock did play as a hired hand on 3 March , for what Savage describes as an " audition session " . In his autobiography , Lydon claims that Matlock 's work @-@ for @-@ hire for his ex @-@ band was extensive — much more so than any other source reports — seemingly to amplify a putdown : " I think I 'd rather die than do something like that . " Music historian David Howard states unambiguously that Matlock did not perform on any of the Never Mind the Bollocks recording sessions .
It was Jones who ultimately played most of the bass parts during the Bollocks recordings ; Howard calls his rudimentary , rumbling approach the " explosive missing ingredient " of the Sex Pistols ' sound . Vicious 's bass is reportedly present on one track that appeared on the original album release , " Bodies " . Jones recalls , " He played his farty old bass part and we just let him do it . When he left I dubbed another part on , leaving Sid 's down low . I think it might be barely audible on the track . " Following " God Save the Queen " , two more singles were released : " Pretty Vacant " ( largely written by Matlock ) on 1 July and from the Bollocks sessions , " Holidays in the Sun " on 14 October . Each was a Top Ten hit .
Never Mind the Bollocks , Here 's the Sex Pistols ( which includes " Anarchy in the U.K. " and another earlier recording , " No Feelings " ) was released on 28 October 1977 . Rolling Stone praised the album as " just about the most exciting rock & roll record of the Seventies " , applauding the band for playing " with an energy and conviction that is positively transcendent in its madness and fever " . Some critics , disappointed that the album contained all four previously released singles , dismissed it as little more than a " greatest hits " record .
Containing both " Bodies " in which Rotten utters " fuck " six times ( primarily at the start of the second verse - " fuck this and fuck that , fuck it all and fuck her fucking brat ! " , quoted notoriously in Sid and Nancy , Love Kills ) and the previously censored " God Save the Queen " , and also the word bollocks ( popular slang for testicles ) in its title , the album was banned by Boots , W. H. Smith and Woolworth 's . The Conservative Shadow Minister for Education condemned it as " a symptom of the way society is declining " and both the Independent Television Companies ' Association and the Association of Independent Radio Contractors banned its advertisements . Nonetheless , advance sales were sufficient to make it an undeniable number one on the album chart .
The album title led to a legal case that attracted considerable attention : a Virgin Records store in Nottingham that put the album in its window was threatened with prosecution for displaying " indecent printed matter " . The case was thrown out when defending QC John Mortimer produced an expert witness who established that bollocks was an Old English term for a small ball , that it appeared " in place names without stirring any sensual desires in the local communities " , and that in the nineteenth century it had been used as a nickname for clergymen : " Clergymen are known to talk a good deal of rubbish and so the word later developed the meaning of nonsense . " In the context of the Pistols ' album title , the term does in fact primarily signify " nonsense " . Steve Jones off @-@ handedly came up with the title as the band debated what to call the album . An exasperated Jones said , " Oh , fuck it , never mind the bollocks of it all . "
After playing a few dates in the Netherlands — the beginning of a planned multinational tour — the band set out on a Never Mind the Bans tour of Britain in December 1977 . Of eight scheduled dates , four were cancelled due to illness or political pressure . The band played at Cromer Links Pavilion in Norfolk on Christmas Eve 1977 after assurances that the performance would finish strictly on time and no obscenities would be heard . The tickets went on sale at the local Regal cinema priced at £ 1 @.@ 75 . On Christmas Day , the Sex Pistols played two shows at Ivanhoe 's in Huddersfield . Before a regular evening concert , the band performed a benefit matinee for the children of " striking firemen , laid @-@ off workers and one @-@ parent families . " These would turn out to be the band 's final UK performances .
= = = US tour and the end of the band = = =
In January 1978 , the Sex Pistols embarked on a US tour , consisting mainly of dates in America 's Deep South . Originally scheduled to begin a few days before New Year 's , it was delayed due to American authorities ' reluctance to issue visas to band members with criminal records . Several dates in the North had to be cancelled as a result . Though highly anticipated by fans and media , the tour was plagued by in @-@ fighting , poor planning and physically belligerent audiences . McLaren later admitted that he purposely booked redneck bars to provoke hostile situations . Over the course of the two weeks , Vicious , by now heavily addicted to heroin , began to live up to his stage name . " He finally had an audience of people who would behave with shock and horror " , Lydon later wrote . " Sid was easily led by the nose . "
Early in the tour , Vicious wandered off from his Holiday Inn in Memphis , Tennessee , looking for drugs . He was found in a hospital with the words " Gimme a fix " on his chest ; he had written them with a marker pen . During a concert in San Antonio , Texas , Vicious called the crowd " a bunch of faggots " , before striking an audience member across the head with his bass guitar . In Baton Rouge , Louisiana , he received simulated oral sex on stage , later declaring " that 's the kind of girl I like " . Suffering from heroin withdrawal during a show in Dallas , Texas , he spat blood at a woman who had climbed onstage and punched him in the face . He was admitted to hospital later that night to treat various injuries . Offstage he is said to have kicked a female photographer , attacked a security guard , and eventually challenged one of his own bodyguards to a fight — beaten up , he is reported to have exclaimed , " I like you . Now we can be friends . "
Rotten , meanwhile , suffering from flu and coughing up blood , felt increasingly isolated from Cook and Jones , and disgusted by Vicious . On 14 January 1978 , during the tour 's final date at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco , a disillusioned Rotten introduced the band 's encore saying , " You 'll get one number and one number only ' cause I 'm a lazy bastard . " That one number was a Stooges cover , " No Fun " . At the end of the song , Rotten , kneeling on the stage , chanted an unambiguous declaration , " This is no fun . No fun . This is no fun — at all . No fun . " As the final cymbal crash died away , Rotten addressed the audience directly — " Ah @-@ ha @-@ ha . Ever get the feeling you 've been cheated ? Good night " — before throwing down his microphone and walking offstage . He later observed , " I felt cheated , and I wasn 't going on with it any longer ; it was a ridiculous farce . Sid was completely out of his brains — just a waste of space . The whole thing was a joke at that point .... [ Malcolm ] wouldn 't speak to me .... He would not discuss anything with me . But then he would turn around and tell Paul and Steve that the tension was all my fault because I wouldn 't agree to anything . "
On 17 January , the band split , making their ways separately to Los Angeles . McLaren , Cook and Jones prepared to fly to Rio de Janeiro for a working vacation . Vicious , in increasingly bad shape , was taken to Los Angeles by a friend , who then brought him to New York , where he was immediately hospitalised . Rotten later described his own situation : " The Sex Pistols left me , stranded in Los Angeles with no ticket , no hotel room , and a message to Warner Bros saying that if anyone phones up claiming to be Johnny Rotten , then they were lying . That 's how I finished with Malcolm — but not with the rest of the band ; I 'll always like them . " Rotten flew to New York , where he announced the band 's break @-@ up in a newspaper interview on 18 January . Virtually broke , he telephoned the head of Virgin Records , Richard Branson , who agreed to pay for his flight back to London , via Jamaica . In Jamaica , Branson met with members of the band Devo , and tried to install Rotten as their lead singer . Devo declined the offer .
Cook , Jones and Vicious never performed together again live after Rotten 's departure . Over the next several months , McLaren arranged for recordings in Brazil ( with Jones and Cook ) , Paris ( with Vicious ) and London ; each of the three and others stepped in as lead vocalists on tracks that in some cases were far from what punk was expected to sound like . These recordings were to make up the musical soundtrack for the reconceived Pistols feature film project , directed by Julian Temple , to which McLaren was now devoting himself . On 30 June , a single credited to the Sex Pistols was released : on one side , notorious criminal Ronnie Biggs sang " No One Is Innocent " accompanied by Jones and Cook ; on the other , Vicious sang the classic " My Way " , over both a Jones – Cook backing track and a string orchestra . The single reached number seven on the charts , eventually outselling all the singles with which Rotten was involved . McLaren was seeking to reconstitute the band with a permanent new frontman , but Vicious — McLaren 's first choice — had sickened of him . In return for agreeing to record " My Way " , Vicious had demanded that McLaren sign a sheet of paper declaring that he was no longer Vicious 's manager . In August , Vicious , back in London , delivered his final performances as a nominal Sex Pistol : recording and filming cover versions of Eddie Cochran 's " Something Else " and Sinatra 's " My Way . " The bassist 's return to New York in September put an end to McLaren 's reunion dream .
= = = USA 1977 – 1978 tour dates = = =
= = = After the break @-@ up = = =
After leaving the Pistols , Johnny Rotten reverted to his birth name of Lydon , and formed Public Image Ltd . ( PiL ) with former Clash member Keith Levene and school friend Jah Wobble . The band went on to score a UK Top Ten hit with their debut single , 1978 's " Public Image " . Lydon initiated legal proceedings against McLaren and the Sex Pistols ' management company , Glitterbest , which McLaren controlled . Among the claims were non @-@ payment of royalties , improper usage of the title " Johnny Rotten " , unfair contractual obligations , and damages for " all the criminal activities that took place " . In 1979 , PiL recorded the classic post @-@ punk album Metal Box . Lydon performed with the band until 1992 , as well as participating in other projects such as Time Zone with Afrika Bambaataa and Bill Laswell .
Vicious relocated to New York and began performing as a solo artist , with Nancy Spungen acting as his manager . He recorded a live album , backed by " The Idols " featuring Arthur Kane and Jerry Nolan of the New York Dolls — Sid Sings was released posthumously in 1979 . On 12 October 1978 , Spungen was found dead in the Hotel Chelsea room she was sharing with Vicious , with a single stab wound to her stomach and dressed only in her underwear . Police recovered drug paraphernalia from the scene and Vicious was arrested and charged with her murder . In an interview at the time , McLaren said , " I can 't believe he was involved in such a thing . Sid was set to marry Nancy in New York . He was very close to her and had quite a passionate affair with her . " ( Apart from Vicious , heroin dealer and sometime actor Rockets Redglare has also been posited as Spungen 's killer . )
While free on bail , Vicious smashed a beer mug in the face of Todd Smith , Patti Smith 's brother , and was arrested again on an assault charge . On 9 December 1978 he was sent to Rikers Island jail , where he spent 55 days and underwent enforced cold @-@ turkey detox . He was released on 1 February 1979 ; sometime after midnight , following a small party to celebrate his release , Vicious died of a heroin overdose , aged 21 . Reflecting on the event , Lydon said , " Poor Sid . The only way he could live up to what he wanted everyone to believe about him was to die . That was tragic , but more for Sid than anyone else . He really bought his public image . "
On 7 February 1979 , just five days after Vicious 's death , hearings began in London on Lydon 's lawsuit . Cook and Jones were allied with McLaren , but as evidence mounted that their manager had poured virtually all of the band 's revenue into his beloved film project , they switched sides . On 14 February , the court put the film and its soundtrack into receivership — no longer under McLaren 's control , they were now to be administered as exploitable assets for addressing the band members ' financial claims . McLaren , with substantial personal debts and legal fees , took off for Paris to sign a record deal for an LP of standards , including " Non , je ne
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2012 television series The Paradise . In 2011 , she played the female lead in the musical Betty Blue Eyes , for which she received an Olivier Award nomination . For her role as Caroline in the contemporary drama series Last Tango in Halifax ( 2012 – ) , Lancashire won the British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2014 . In 2014 , Lancashire earned further accolades for her leading role as sergeant Catherine Cawood in the crime thriller series Happy Valley .
= = Life and Career = =
= = = Early life , training , career beginnings and motherhood ( 1964 – 1990 ) = = =
Lancashire was born on 10 October 1964 in Oldham , Lancashire . Her father Geoffrey Lancashire ( 1933 – 2004 ) was a television scriptwriter noted for his work on the soap opera Coronation Street and situation comedies such as The Cuckoo Waltz . Her mother Hilda worked as Geoffrey 's personal assistant . She has three brothers , one her elder , one younger and a twin . Lancashire was educated at Oldham Hulme Grammar School between 1976 and 1981 . At the age of 17 , she started to suffer from clinical depression .
Lancashire states that she was never driven by the ideas of fame and status . Her background had inspired an initial interest in working behind the scenes in television . She did not give serious thought to the performing until the age of 18 . After winning a place at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama — where her contemporaries included Shirley Henderson , Maggie O 'Neill and Niamh Cusack — Lancashire realised that she enjoyed acting . She graduated in 1986 , describing her time as a student there as " tremendous " but " seriously hard work and quite intimidating " . After rejection from several repertory theatre companies , Lancashire was given her first acting role by Howard Lloyd @-@ Lewis , artistic director of the Manchester Library Theatre Company , which provided her with an Equity Card . Lancashire performed two plays with the company , Pacific Overtures and The Beauty Game , which she states formed " the start of my career as an actor " . She found her first professional acting experience " terrifying " as a result of the live audiences , recalling that , " because I wore a bathing costume in some of the scenes , I got heckled ! " She also realised that taking risks or underperforming could have had consequences for her acting career .
At the age of 22 , Lancashire married her first serious boyfriend , Gary Hargreaves , a music lecturer 11 years her senior , whom she had met four years earlier . Recalling the circumstances of her marriage in 2001 , Lancashire stated that she only married because she fell pregnant and possessed both a traditional mindset and a fear of the stigma of having a child out of wedlock . Thomas , her first child with Hargreaves , was born in 1987 ; a second son , Matthew , was born in 1989 . During her early career , Lancashire found herself with large breaks between theatre appearances . To support herself financially , she worked as a drama teacher for five years at Salford University alongside her acting work . In 1987 , she made a brief appearance in Coronation Street as Wendy Farmer , a prospective lodger of series regular Jack Duckworth ( Bill Tarmey ) . In the late 1980s , she also appeared in an episode of the children 's anthology series Dramarama , and a single episode of the ITV sitcom Watching . In 1990 , Lancashire received her " big break " — the role of Linda in a production of Willy Russell 's Blood Brothers at the Albery Theatre in London 's West End . Though she thoroughly enjoyed the experience , she found it difficult to reconcile performing in London with raising two young children in Manchester .
= = = Coronation Street and personal struggles ( 1991 – 1996 ) = = =
Two weeks after finishing her run in Blood Brothers , Lancashire auditioned for the role of new Coronation Street character Raquel Wolstenhulme , a colleague of supermarket employee Curly Watts ( Kevin Kennedy ) . Lancashire joined on a three @-@ month contract , continuing to teach at Salford University for another year . Raquel first appeared on 25 January 1991 and departed on 10 May ; having moved to London to try to launch a modelling career . Lancashire had initially been reserved about Raquel 's characterisation , noting that her " acidic side " could have rendered her the " street bitch " had it been embellished . She took care to highlight Raquel 's potential , playing against what had been written to make her more comic , evoking audience sympathy . Between 26 September and 19 October 1991 , Lancashire played the title role in an adaption of Educating Rita at the Queen 's Theatre , Hornchurch . Following Raquel 's reintroduction on 30 December 1991 , Lancashire committed herself to Coronation Street full @-@ time . She would remain in the series until 1996 , earning a reported annual salary of £ 90 @,@ 000 .
Two years into the role , she experienced a 14 @-@ month nervous breakdown but did not confide in anyone besides her close family or take any time off work , which in retrospect she deemed " the worst thing [ she ] could have done . During the worst part of her experience Lancashire described herself as " hysterical at the thought of getting out of bed " . Her mother Hilda forced her to seek medical assistance for her condition , which Lancashire states " gave me my life back " , her twenties having been " a write @-@ off " . Lancashire felt her first marriage had also contributed to her unhappiness ; in 2001 , she stated that though her marriage lasted ten years , it " was 10 years longer than it should have done " . In 1995 she separated from Hargeaves ; the pair would ultimately later divorce . She described leaving her marriage as a " cleansing experience " and a " renaissance " ; one that enabled her to rediscover her sense of identity . Other steps that Lancashire took to combat her depression included remaining single for five years , attending therapy sessions , and taking prescriptions of the anti @-@ depressant drug , Paroxetine .
In December 1995 Lancashire starred in the spin @-@ off straight @-@ to @-@ video film Coronation Street – The Cruise , a 75 minute special detailing Raquel and Curly 's honeymoon . The special was advertised as being exclusive to video , and 750 @,@ 000 copies were sold , to the value of £ 10 million . Lancashire departed Coronation Street in 1996 due to her heavy work schedule and desire to pursue other projects . She had also tired of the fame the role brought her , shying away from personal appearances and interviews with television magazines . Her final scenes attracted 20 million viewers . Lancashire 's performance in the role saw her nominated in the Most Popular Actress category at the 2nd National Television Awards in October 1996 .
= = = Popular success in other roles ( 1997 – 2000 ) = = =
Lancashire 's next role was district nurse Ruth Goddard in the ITV drama series Where the Heart Is , which began airing in 1997 . Also in 1997 she filmed a situation comedy for the BBC , Bloomin ' Marvellous , in which she played Liz , one half of an argumentative married couple trying for a baby . However , due to poor viewing figures and a damning critical response the sitcom was not renewed . Regarding the negative reception to the series , her co @-@ star Clive Mantle saracastically remarked " I 've seen murderers and rapists get a better press than we did " . Lancashire continued to star as Ruth Goddard in Where the Heart Is for its second and third series in 1998 and 1999 . In 1998 she was nominated for her second National Television Award for Most Popular Actress . In February 1999 she made a guest appearance in the British dark comedy anthology series Murder Most Horrid alongside comedian Dawn French . The pair played two yachtswoman whose journey ends with fatal repercussions . In April it was announced that Lancashire would be quitting Where the Heart Is , despite an offered pay rise . At the time , Where the Heart is was the third most popular drama on British Television , regularly attracting 12 million viewers . Lancashire 's decision was reportedly influenced by the series filming away from home , and a fear that remaining in the series long term would harm her career . In January 2000 she expanded on her decision , stating that Ruth " was too chocolate @-@ boxy , no longer a challenge " .
On 2 January 2000 , Lancashire returned to Coronation Street for a single episode in which Raquel asks Curly for a divorce . Lancashire felt it was an apt time to return , as she was now a more confident actress and wanted to portray Raquel again before she aged significantly . The series ' producer at the time , Jane Macnaught , deemed Raquel one of Coronation Street 's most popular ever characters and her return an opportunity for her " millions of fans " to learn what had become of her . Lancashire and Kennedy were the sole actors in the episode , the first to feature just two characters . From late January , Lancashire appeared as factory employee Yvonne Kolakowski , a widow with a dysfunctional personal life , in the BBC One drama series Clocking Off . Lancashire used her own experiences as a single mother in her characterisation . In March , she played actress Coral Atkins in the television film Seeing Red . Lancashire found shooting the drama , which detailed Atkins ' decision to quit her acting career in order to set up a care home for abused children , " mentally draining " . Lancashire then spent eight weeks filming the BBC One legal sitcom Chambers in which she played " ambitious " and " bigoted " barrister Ruth Quirke . The series was aired from June 2000 . Lancashire 's final role in 2000 was in the two part drama thriller My Fragile Heart . Lancashire 's output in 2000 earned her several awards . She was voted best actress at the TV Quick Awards in September 2000 for her roles in Clocking Off and Seeing Red , and in October was voted Most Popular Actress at the 6th National Television Awards for Seeing Red . In March 2001 she was named Drama Performer of the Year by the Television and Radio Industries Club , with mention of her work in Clocking Off and Seeing Red .
= = = " Golden Handcuffs " contract with ITV ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
Following Lancashire 's success in connecting with a television audience , ITV sought to secure her exclusively to their network in a two @-@ year golden handcuffs deal , which was finalised in July 2000 . Lancashire became the first actress to be given such a contract with ITV . The deal , worth £ 1 @.@ 3 million , made Lancashire the highest paid actress in British Television . Discussing the exclusive signing ITV controller of drama Nick Elliott identified Lancashire as being someone with " a great range [ who ] creates a tremendous empathy with an audience " . He also admitted that heavy interest in Lancashire from the BBC had been a factor in giving her the contract , and blocking her from working with other networks . Her last role on BBC One during this period was comedy drama Gentleman 's Relish , an adaptation of the Miles Gibson novel Kingdom Swann . The television film , which aired on New Year 's Day 2001 , was Lancashire 's first in the costume drama genre ; she played a housekeeper harbouring romantic feelings for her employer ( Billy Connolly ) .
Her first role under her new contract with ITV was the six part drama The Glass opposite John Thaw . The series , which aired between May and June 2001 saw Lancashire star as a saleswoman for a double @-@ glazing company who ends up caught in a love triangle with her boss and his nephew . Retrospectively , the series was judged not to be a success ; it averaged 5 @.@ 8 million viewers , less than rival show on BBC One , Messiah . In August 2001 , Lancashire married television executive Peter Salmon , in a low @-@ key ceremony held at Langar Hall , Nottinghamshire . Salmon had proposed to Lancashire in New York during a holiday at Easter time 2001 . The two began a romantic relationship in the summer of 2000 , though they had first met several years earlier whilst she was portraying Raquel on Coronation Street and he was employed by Granada Studios , which produces the soap opera . In October Lancashire starred in an adaptation of the Michelle Magorian novel Back Home as Peggy Dickinson , a woman adjusting to life in post @-@ war Britain after having been separated from her family during the war .
In April 2002 Lancashire starred in the two part psychological thriller The Cry , which she described as her " most naked role yet " . She played a social worker grieving her second still @-@ born child who is determined to protect a baby she perceives to be at risk of abuse . Lancashire drew on her own experiences of clinical depression in her depiction of her character 's mentality . Her performance saw her awarded with a Golden Nymph award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini @-@ Series at the Monte @-@ Carlo Television Festival . In April it was reported that Lancashire had been lined up play the lead role in comedy drama Life Begins , which creator Mike Bullen had written with Lancashire in mind . However , by June , Lancashire had exited the drama , unwilling to commit to a potentially long running series . Later that month BBC News and newspaper The Guardian reported that Lancashire had exited her exclusive deal with ITV , which would not be renewed after it expired in the Autumn . The decision was reportedly influenced by Lancashire 's desire to reduce her workload and to have the freedom to take on other roles . In September 2002 she appeared in a two @-@ part crime drama pilot , Rose and Maloney , as legal investigator Rose Linden . On 22 December she appeared in the television movie Birthday Girl as Rachel Jones , who plans a party to celebrate being in remission from a serious illness , only to discover that the disease has returned . Lancashire 's final role to air under her ITV contract was Gertrude Morel in an adaptation of D.H. Lawrence 's 1913 novel Sons and Lovers , airing in January 2003 . Lancashire felt a strong connection with the project , stating : " whatever the reason I do what I do , I felt I had come to a point where I could stop searching after this " . Paul Hoggart , reviewer for The Times wrote that Lancashire " steals the show " with a " performance of immense subtlety and quiet strength , proof , if we still needed it , that she has matured into a terrific actress . "
= = = Directorial debut , career variety ( 2004 – 2010 ) = = =
While pregnant with her third child , Lancashire began an 18 @-@ month career break , the longest of her working life . In April 2003 , Lancashire gave birth to her third son , Joseph . Lancashire 's first job after returning to work was her directorial debut on an episode of the BBC One anthology series The Afternoon Play . For " Viva Las Blackpool " she was given the Best Newcomer Award ( sponsored by BBC Birmingham ) at the Birmingham Screen Festival and the Best New Talent Award at the Royal Television Society ( Midlands ) awards in 2004 . The venture also earned her first British Academy Television Awards nomination in 2005 for Best new Director of Fiction . Lancashire next filmed three two @-@ part stories for Rose and Maloney , following on from the pilot episode in 2002 . The delay between shooting for the pilot and its follow @-@ up was a result of Lancashire 's career break and problems reconciling her availability with that of co @-@ star Phil Davis .
In 2005 Lancashire starred in The Rotters ' Club as a housewife in 1970s Birmingham . Also in 2005 she appeared in the BBC television film Cherished as Angela Cannings , a British woman who was wrongfully convicted of killing her two baby sons . Lancashire was proud to be involved with the project , having greatly admired Cannings strength of character during her ordeal , and being able to relate to her sense of anguish as a parent . In December 2005 , Lancashire returned to West End theatre , taking on the role of Miss Adelaide in the Donmar Warehouse production of Guys and Dolls at the Piccadilly Theatre . Lancashire was due to stay with the production until March 2006 , but due to a severe chest infection made her last appearance on 4 January . Lancashire 's only television acting role in 2006 was as house @-@ wife and cake @-@ maker Elaine in the BBC comedy drama Angel Cake . In November she presented an episode of the Five documentary series Disappearing Britain in which she interviewed people with memories of Wakes Week holidays in Blackpool during the early 20th century . In February 2007 she made an appearance in the E4 teen drama series Skins . This was followed by a leading role in the BBC Two television drama Sex , the City and Me as solicitor Ruth Gilbert . In October , Lancashire appeared in her first feature film , David Nicholls ' And When Did You Last See Your Father ? in which she played aunt Beaty . In December , she played the supporting role of Mrs Corney in the BBC 's 2007 adaption of Charles Dickens ' 1838 novel Oliver Twist . Whilst ambivalent about the serial as a whole , The Daily Mirror 's Jane Simon singled Lancashire out for praise stating that she " really sets the tone for the cold , unfeeling world into which orphaned Oliver is born . "
Between 2008 and 2011 Lancashire narrated the BBC One series Lark Rise to Candleford , a costume drama based on Flora Thompson 's memoir of her Oxfordshire childhood in the 1880s . In April , she appeared in the opening episode of the 2008 series of Doctor Who , as " an enigmatic and powerful businesswoman " who Lancashire described as a " warped Mary Poppins " . She was amongst a number of high @-@ profile actors the series ' executive producer Russell T Davies secured for the fourth series of the science @-@ fiction drama as part of his intention to make it " bigger and blowsier " . In 2009 , Lancashire starred in the BBC One musical drama series All the Small Things . She played Esther Caddick , a full @-@ time mother who starts a choir after her husband leaves her for a more glamorous woman . In July that year the actress was made a honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Huddersfield . Following this , she reunited with director Coky Giedroyc , who had directed her in Oliver Twist , for a 2009 television adaptation of Emily Brontë 's 1847 novel Wuthering Heights in which she played housekeeper Nelly Dean . In 2010 Lancashire portrayed Rosemary Nicholls , mother of a murder victim , in the three @-@ part BBC drama Five Daughters ; a depiction of the Ipswich serial murders from the perspective of the victims and their families . Also in 2010 she guest @-@ starred in the police drama series Inspector George Gently .
= = = Continued success : Last Tango in Halifax and Happy Valley = = =
In March 2011 Lancashire began starring in a new Cameron Mackintosh musical , Betty Blue Eyes , at the Novello Theatre . In the production , a loose adaptation of the 1984 film A Private Function , she starred as Joyce Chilvers , an aspirational housewife who Lancashire describes as " brittle " and " capricious " . Despite positive reviews the musical closed in London on 24 September 2011 , after a run of just six months . For her performance Lancashire was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical . In 2012 she appeared as lady 's maid Miss Whisset in the penultimate episode of the 2010 revival of Upstairs Downstairs . In September 2012 Lancashire began appearing as Head of Ladieswear Miss Audrey in the six @-@ part series The Paradise set in a department store in Northern England in the late 19th century . Lancashire described her character as " a true archetypal spinster " who has long denied herself a romantic life and who begins to feel undermined by a younger colleague .
Since November 2012 Lancashire has appeared opposite Anne Reid and Derek Jacobi in the BBC drama series Last Tango in Halifax . In the series she plays Caroline , an Oxford @-@ educated headmistress who feels that her mother 's second marriage gives her " permission " to be herself . Caroline 's same @-@ sex relationship with a fellow teacher resulted in Lancashire receiving more fan mail than for any other role , largely from women telling her that the series had helped them to come out . Due to the under @-@ representation of gay characters in television , Lancashire felt it particularly important that Caroline 's experience would not be depicted inaccurately . In her portrayal she opted to focus on the " humanity " of the character , rather than her sexuality . Filming of the second series clashed with filming of the second series of The Paradise , which necessitated Lancashire leaving The Paradise partway through its second series . For her role as Caroline she was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in both 2013 and 2014 , winning in 2014 . At the 2015 Hay Festival Lancashire stated that of all the roles she has taken on in her career Caroline is the one she is most proud of , citing the " extraordinary impact " of the character .
In 2014 , Lancashire collaborated again with Last Tango in Halifax writer Sally Wainwright in the crime drama series Happy Valley . Wainwright was keen to write another role for Lancashire after being " blown away " by her performances in Last Tango in Halifax . Lancashire portrays single @-@ grandparent Catherine Cawood , a police sergeant still dealing with the aftermath of her daughter 's rape , and subsequent suicide , eight years earlier . Mark Lawson of The Guardian identified the performance as a career best for Lancashire , stating that she perfectly conveyed " the script 's demandingly contradictory notes of tragedy , comedy , love , guilt , weakness and courage " . For this role she earned the TV Choice Award for Best Actress in 2014 , and the Royal Television Programme Award for Best Actress in 2015 . In September 2014 the Radio Times listed her as one of the thirty most powerful women in British television and radio . In April 2015 she received her fourth BAFTA television nomination , her first in the Best Actress category . In June 2015 she was named Best Actress in a Drama Series at the 2015 Monte Carlo Television Festival .
In March 2015 Lancashire began filming a television adaptation of Ronald Harwood 's 1980 play The Dresser . In the teleplay , which aired in October 2015 , Lancashire portrayed stage manager Madge , whose unrequited love for ' Sir ' ( Anthony Hopkins ) , the head of a repertory theatre company , pits her at odds with his dresser and confidant , Norman ( Ian McKellen ) . Lancashire appeared in the 2016 feature film Dad 's Army , based on the situation comedy series of the same name .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Film = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Substitute check in United States =
A substitute check ( also called an Image Replacement Document or IRD ) is a negotiable instrument used in the United States to represent the digital reproduction of an original paper check . As a negotiable payment instrument , a substitute check maintains the status of a " legal check " in lieu of the original paper check as authorized under the United States law Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act ( Check 21 Act ) . Instead of presenting the original paper checks , financial institutions and payment processing centers electronically transmit data from a substitute check by either the settlement process through the United States Federal Reserve System or by clearing the deposit based on a private agreement between member financial institutions of a clearinghouse that operates under the Uniform Commercial Code ( UCC ) .
Substitute checks are recognized as legal checks as long as the instruments meet specific requirements . These requirements include the faithful reproduction of the paper check and warranty of the instrument by the " reconverting bank " — the financial institution that created the substitute check or the first financial institution that transferred or presented it during the check clearing process . Substitute checks are also subject to the UCC , existing federal and state check laws , and regulations specific to consumer rights that affect the acceptance of these instruments . Although a substitute check is subject to the UCC and existing state and federal check laws , the Check 21 Act takes precedence over these other laws and regulations for this instrument .
= = Specifications and standards = =
The Accredited Standards Committee X9 ( ASC X9 ) , a standards development committee accredited by the American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) , maintains , promotes , and supports technical financial standards for procedures , delivery , and transactions for financial products and services that include Image Replacement Documents , and other financial instruments . American National Standard ( ANS ) X9.100 @-@ 140 covers specifications for the content , processing , and quality of Image Replacement Documents specifically .
Certain standards that exist for paper checks also apply to Image Replacement Documents . These standards include ANS X9.100 @-@ 160 @-@ 2 ( Magnetic Ink Printing ( MICR ) Part 2 External Processing Code ( EPC ) Field Use ) , ANS X9.100 @-@ 181 ( Specifications for TIFF Image Format for Image Exchange ) , ANS X9.100 @-@ 187 ( Specifications for Electronic Exchange of Check and Image Data - Domestic ) , and Draft Standard for Trial Use ( DSTU ) X9.37 ( Electronic Exchange of Check and Image Data ) .
= = Eligible payment items for truncation and reconversion = =
Under the Check 21 Act , all U.S. paper checks and check @-@ like instruments are eligible for truncation and reconversion to substitute checks , including consumer ( personal ) checks , commercial ( business ) checks , money orders , traveler 's checks , cash advance or convenience checks tied to credit and charge card accounts , controlled disbursement checks , and payable through drafts , in addition to government warrants and U.S. Treasury checks . The Check 21 Act permits any financial institution ( such as a commercial bank or credit union ) that participates in the check collection process to remove or truncate the original paper check from the forward collection or return process and reconvert the paper check to a substitute check without first requiring an existing agreement between the bank of first deposit ( BOFD ) and the " paying bank . "
The elimination of the paper checks from the clearing process saves the banking and treasury management industries handling , sorting , transporting , storing , safeguarding , and mailing costs . After the financial institution truncates the original paper check and reconverts it to a substitute check , the financial institution can store or archive the paper check , return the paper check to its own customer according to state law , or later destroy the paper check .
= = Legal requirements = =
A properly prepared substitute check is considered the legal equivalent of the original paper check that can be accepted for payment or proof of payment in the same manner as the original check . Every substitute check must adhere to the following requirements before it can be recognized as the legal equivalent of the original check :
The substitute check must accurately represent all information depicted on the front and back of the original paper check at the time the financial institution truncates that check , including the names of the payor and payee , courtesy and legal amounts , endorsements , and encoding information , among other details .
The substitute check must accurately represent the MICR line of the original check .
The substitute check must bear the legend " This is a LEGAL COPY of your check . You can use it the same way you would use the original check . "
The financial institution or processor must provide a warranty for the substitute check . This warranty must be provided by the financial institution when it removes or truncates the original paper check from the forward collection or return process and reconverts the paper check to a substitute check .
The financial institution or processor that truncated the original check must follow ASC X9.100 @-@ 140 standards in the capture of check images and MICR data when it produces the substitute check .
Image statements that include a series of pictures or images of original paper checks and / or substitute checks , photocopies of the original checks , and images of checks posted online are not recognized as the legal equivalents of substitute checks . Unlike a substitute check , a photocopy of a check cannot be presented through the check clearing process for settlement because the photocopy of the check does not adhere strictly to the requirements for substitute checks under the Check 21 Act .
Since substitute checks are considered legal checks , substitute checks are subject to existing check laws and regulations . Other laws and regulations that govern substitute checks in the United States include the Expedited Funds Availability Act , Article 3 ( Negotiable Instruments ) , and Article 4 ( Bank Deposits and Collections ) of the Uniform Commercial Code ( UCC ) , along with a variety of state and federal regulatory laws . U.S. federal laws that also affect substitute checks include Federal Reserve regulations that provide for recrediting the amount of the substitute check in the case of fraud and duplicate payments caused by settlement of both the substitute check and the original check used for creating the substitute check . If any state law , federal law , or provision of the UCC conflicts with the Check 21 Act , the Check 21 Act takes precedence to the extent of the inconsistencies among those laws and provisions .
= = Clearing process = =
= = = Forward collection process = = =
Each substitute check processed for forward collection is encoded with a " 4 " as the External Processing Code ( EPC ) in position 44 of the MICR line as required under ANS X9.90. An example of the forward collection process for substitute checks involves the following steps for financial institutions that process deposits through the Federal Reserve System :
The payee endorses the original paper check and presents it to the depository financial institution .
The depository financial institution ( Bank 1 – referred to as the bank of first deposit or BOFD ) stamps its endorsement on the rear of the original check .
Bank 1 captures an image of the front and back of the original check and the MICR line data from the front of the check . Bank 1 then removes or truncates the original check from the clearing process and uses the check image , MICR data , its own electronic endorsement , and the electronic endorsements to create a substitute check .
Bank 1 electronically transmits the check image and the MICR line data captured from the original check to the paying bank ( Bank 2 ) for settlement . If no agreement exists between Bank 1 and Bank 2 to exchange check images and data , Bank 1 must provide either the original check or the legal equivalent of the substitute check to Bank 2 .
As the paying bank , Bank 2 uses check image and MICR data or information from the substitute check received from Bank 1 to process the item during the normal course of settlement .
After the settlement process , Bank 2 provides a copy of the substitute check to the customer who wrote the original check or includes information about the substitute check in that customer 's monthly or periodic statement .
Any financial institution that participates in the forward collection ( or return ) process can become the reconverting financial institution if it creates the substitute check for transmittal and settlement .
= = = Return process for dishonored checks = = =
If a substitute check must be returned unpaid because of insufficient funds ( a dishonored or bounced check ) , the paying bank ( Bank 2 ) stamps the item NSF ( non @-@ sufficient funds ) as the reason for the return . In this case , Bank 2 encodes a " 5 " as the EPC on the MICR line to identify the substitute check according to ANS X9.90 , along with the routing number of the depository financial institution and the dollar amount of the substitute check . Bank 2 encodes this information on a return strip , perforated strip , or carrier document that the financial institution attaches to the unpaid substitute check . The paying bank then returns the unpaid substitute check through the routing process to the BOFD ( Bank 1 ) for further handling . Once Bank 1 receives the returned substitute check , the financial institution issues a charge back notice to its customer who deposited or offered the check for settlement .
= = External sources = =
Accredited Standards Committee ( ASC ) X9 Financial Industry Standards : Statement on Check 21 adoption ( October 23 , 2004 )
Anatomy of a substitute check . ( 2004 ) . Federal Reserve Financial Services .
Ways to Use Check 21 . ( March 2004 ) . Electronic Check Clearing House Organization ( ECCHO )
( diagram of the forward collection and return processes for a substitute check )
Substitute Checks : Development of Processing and Quality Standards . Electronic Check Clearing House Organization ( ECCHO )
( callouts to identify parts of a substitute check from the forward collection and return processes included at the end of the document )
= Vindolanda tablets =
The Vindolanda tablets are the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain . They are also probably the best source of information about life on the northern frontier of Roman Britain . Written on fragments of thin , post @-@ card sized wooden leaf @-@ tablets with carbon @-@ based ink , the tablets date to the 1st and 2nd centuries AD ( roughly contemporary with Hadrian 's Wall ) . Although similar records on papyrus were known from elsewhere in the Roman Empire , wooden tablets with ink text had not been recovered until 1973 , when archaeologist Robin Birley discovered these artefacts at the site of a Roman fort in Vindolanda , northern England .
The documents record official military matters as well as personal messages to and from members of the garrison of Vindolanda , their families , and their slaves . Highlights of the tablets include an invitation to a birthday party held in about 100 AD , which is perhaps the oldest surviving document written in Latin by a woman . Held at the British Museum , the texts of 752 tablets have been transcribed , translated and published as of 2010 . Tablets continue to be found at Vindolanda .
= = Description = =
The wood tablets found at Vindolanda were the first known surviving examples of the use of ink letters in the Roman period . The use of ink tablets was documented in contemporary records and Herodian in the third century AD wrote " a writing @-@ tablet of the kind that were made from lime @-@ wood , cut into thin sheets and folded face @-@ to @-@ face by being bent " .
The Vindolanda tablets are made from birch , alder and oak that grew locally , in contrast to stylus tablets , another type of writing tablet used in Roman Britain , which were imported and made from non @-@ native wood . The tablets are 0 @.@ 25 – 3 mm thick with a typical size being 20 cm × 8 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in × 3 @.@ 1 in ) ( the size of a modern postcard ) . They were scored down the middle and folded to form diptychs with ink writing on the inner faces , the ink being carbon , gum arabic and water . Nearly 500 tablets were excavated in the 1970s and 1980s .
First discovered in March 1973 , the tablets were initially thought to be wood shavings until one of the excavators found two stuck together and peeled them apart to discover writing on the inside . They were taken to the epigraphist Richard Wright , but rapid oxygenation of the wood meant that they were black and unreadable by the time he was able to view them . They were sent to Alison Rutherford at Newcastle University Medical School for multi @-@ spectrum photography , which led to infra @-@ red photographs showing the scripts for researchers for the first time . The results were initially disappointing as the scripts were undecipherable . However , Alan Bowman at Manchester University and David Thomas at Durham University analysed the previously unknown form of cursive script and were able to produce transcriptions .
= = = Chronology = = =
Vindolanda fort was garrisoned before the construction of Hadrian 's Wall and most of the tablets are slightly older than the Wall , which was begun in 122 AD . The original director of excavations Robin Birley identified five periods of occupation and expansion :
c . AD 85 – 92 , first fort constructed .
c . AD 92 – 97 , fort enlargement .
c . AD 97 – 103 , further fort enlargements .
c . AD 104 – 120 , hiatus and re @-@ occupation .
c . AD 120 – 130 , the period when Hadrian 's Wall was constructed
The tablets were produced in periods 2 and 3 ( c . AD 92 – 103 ) , with the majority written before AD 102 . They were used for official notes about the Vindolanda camp business and personal affairs of the officers and households . The largest group is correspondence of Flavius Cerialis , prefect of the ninth cohort of Batavians and that of his wife , Sulpicia Lepidina . Some correspondence may relate to civilian traders and contractors ; for example Octavian , the writer of Tablet 343 , is an entrepreneur dealing in wheat , hides and sinews , but this does not prove him to be a civilian .
= = = Selected highlights = = =
The best @-@ known document is perhaps Tablet 291 , written around AD 100 from Claudia Severa , the wife of the commander of a nearby fort , to Sulpicia Lepidina , inviting her to a birthday party . The invitation is one of the earliest known examples of writing in Latin by a woman . There are two handwriting styles in the tablet , with the majority of the text written in a professional hand ( thought to be the household scribe ) and with closing greetings personally added by Claudia Severa herself ( on the lower right hand side of the tablet ) .
The tablets are written in Roman cursive script and throw light on the extent of literacy in Roman Britain . One of the tablets confirms that Roman soldiers wore underpants ( subligaria ) , and also testifies to a high degree of literacy in the Roman army .
There are only scant references to the indigenous Britons . Until the discovery of the tablets , historians could only speculate on whether the Romans had a nickname for the Britons . Brittunculi ( diminutive of Britto ; hence ' little Britons ' ) , found on one of the Vindolanda tablets , is now known to be a derogatory , or patronising , term used by the Roman garrisons that were based in Northern Britain to describe the locals .
= = = Transcription = = =
The tablets are written in forms of Roman cursive script , considered to be the forerunner of joined @-@ up writing , which varies in style by author . With few exceptions , they have been classified as Old Roman Cursive .
The writing from Vindolanda appears as if it were written in a different alphabet to the Latin capitals used for inscriptions from other periods . The script is derived from the capital writing of the late first century BC and the first century AD . The text rarely shows the unusual or distorted letter @-@ forms or the extravagant ligatures to be found in Greek papyri of the same period . Additional challenges for transcription are the use of abbreviations such as " h " for homines ( men ) or " cos " for consularis ( consular ) , and the arbitrary division of words at the end of lines for space reasons such as epistulas ( letters ) being split between the " e " and the rest of the word .
The ink is often badly faded or survives as little more than a blur , so that in some instances transcription is not possible . In most cases the infra @-@ red photographs provide a far more legible version of what was written than the original tablets . However , the photographs contain marks which appear similar to writing , but which certainly are not letters ; additionally , they contain a great many lines , dots and other dark marks which may or may not be writing . Consequently , the published transcriptions have often had to be interpreted subjectively in deciding which marks should be regarded as writing .
= = Comparison to other sites = =
Wooden tablets have been found at twenty Roman settlements in Britain . However , most of these sites did not yield the type of tablet found at Vindolanda , but rather " stylus tablets " , marked with pointed metal styli . A significant number of ink tablets have been identified at Carlisle ( also on Hadrian 's Wall )
The fact that letters were sent to and from places on Hadrian 's Wall and further afield ( Catterick , York , and London ) raises the question of why more letters have been found at Vindolanda than other sites , but it is not possible to give a definitive answer . The anaerobic conditions found at Vindolanda are not unique and identical deposits have been found in parts of London . One possibility , given the fragile condition of the tablets found at Vindolanda , is that archaeologists excavating other Roman sites have overlooked evidence of writing in ink .
= = Imaging = =
The tablets were photographed using infra @-@ red sensitive cameras in 1973 by Susan M. Blackshaw in the British Museum and more comprehensively in 1990 at Vindolanda by Alison Rutherford . The tablets were scanned again using improved techniques in 2000 – 2001 with a Kodak Wratten 87C infra @-@ red filter . The photographs are taken in infra @-@ red to enhance the faded ink against the wood of the tablets , or between ink and dirt , to make the writing more visible .
In 2002 the tablet images were used as part of a research programme to extend the use of the GRAVA iterative computer vision system to aid the transcription of the Vindolanda tablets through a series of processes modelled on the best practice of papyrologists and to provide the images in an XML marked up format identifying the likely placement of characters and words with their transcription .
In 2010 there was a collaboration between Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents at University of Oxford , the British Museum and the Archaeological Computing Research Group at University of Southampton using Polynomial texture mapping for detailed recording and edge detection .
= = Online catalogue = =
The images , at a resolution suitable for web page display , and text of the tablets from Tab.Vindol. II were published on @-@ line . Tablets from both Tab.Vindol. II and Tab.Vindol. III were published in a new online catalogue in 2010 .
= = Exhibition and impact = =
The tablets are held at the British Museum , where a selection of them is on display in its Roman Britain gallery ( Room 49 ) . The tablets featured in the list of British archaeological finds selected by experts at the British Museum for the 2003 BBC Television documentary Our Top Ten Treasures . Viewers were invited to vote for their favourite , and the tablets came top of the poll .
The Vindolanda Museum , run by the Vindolanda Trust , has funding so that a selection of tablets on loan from the British Museum can be displayed at the site where they were found . The Vindolanda Museum put nine of the tablets on display in 2011 . This loan of items to a regional museum is in line with British Museum 's current policy of encouraging loans both internationally and nationally ( as part of its Partnership UK scheme ) .
= Damon Hill =
Damon Graham Devereux Hill , OBE ( born 17 September 1960 ) is a British former racing driver . He is the son of Graham Hill , and is the only son of a Formula One world champion to win the title . He started racing on motorbikes in 1981 , and after minor success moved on to single @-@ seater racing cars . But although he progressed steadily up the ranks to the International Formula 3000 championship by 1989 , and was often competitive , he never won a race at that level .
Hill became a test driver for the Formula One title @-@ winning Williams team in 1992 . He was promoted to the Williams race team the following year after Riccardo Patrese 's departure and took the first of his 22 victories at the 1993 Hungarian Grand Prix . During the mid @-@ 1990s , Hill was Michael Schumacher 's main rival for the Formula One Drivers ' Championship , which saw the two clash several times on and off the track . Their collision at the 1994 Australian Grand Prix gave Schumacher his first title by a single point . Hill became champion in 1996 with eight wins , but was dropped by Williams for the following season . He went on to drive for the less competitive Arrows and Jordan teams , and in 1998 gave Jordan their first win .
Hill retired from racing after the 1999 season . He has since launched several businesses and has made appearances playing the guitar with celebrity bands . In 2006 , he became president of the British Racing Drivers ' Club , succeeding Jackie Stewart . Hill stepped down from the position in 2011 and was succeeded by Derek Warwick . He presided over the securing of a 17 @-@ year contract for Silverstone to hold Formula One races , which enabled the circuit to see extensive renovation work . Hill currently works as part of the Sky Sports F1 broadcasting team .
= = Personal and early life = =
Hill was born in Hampstead , London , to Graham and Bette Hill . Graham Hill was a racing driver in the international Formula One series . He won the world drivers ' championship in 1962 and 1968 and became a well @-@ known personality in the United Kingdom . Graham Hill 's career provided a comfortable living . By 1975 the family lived in a " 25 @-@ room country mansion " in Hertfordshire and Damon attended the independent The Haberdashers ' Aske 's Boys ' School . The death of his father in an aeroplane crash in 1975 left the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Hill , his mother , and sisters Samantha and Brigitte in drastically reduced circumstances . Hill worked as a labourer and a motorcycle courier to support his further education .
Hill is married to Susan George ( ' Georgie ' – born 29 April 1961 ) and they have four children : Oliver ( born 4 March 1989 ) , Joshua ( born 9 January 1991 ) , Tabitha ( born 19 July 1995 ) and Rosie ( born 1 February 1998 ) . Oliver was born with Down 's syndrome and Hill and Georgie are both patrons of the Down 's Syndrome Association . In 2008 , Hill also became the first patron of St. Joseph 's Specialist School and College , a school for children with severe learning disabilities and autism in Cranleigh , Surrey . Joshua started racing in 2008 , competing in the British Formula Renault Championship in 2011 . On 9 July 2013 Joshua announced his retirement from motor racing .
= = Career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Formula One = = =
Hill started his motorsport career in motorcycle racing in 1981 . He used the same simple , easily identifiable helmet design as his father : eight white oar blades arranged vertically around the upper surface of a dark blue helmet . The device and colours represent the London Rowing Club for which Graham Hill rowed in the early 1950s . Although he won a 350 cc clubman 's championship at the Brands Hatch circuit , his racing budget came from working as a building labourer and he " didn 't really look destined for great things " according to Motorcycle News reporter Rob McDonnell . His mother , who was concerned about the dangers of racing motorcycles , persuaded him to take a racing car course at the Winfield Racing School in France in 1983 . Although he showed " above @-@ average aptitude " , Hill had only sporadic single @-@ seater races until the end of 1984 . He graduated through British Formula Ford , winning six races driving a Van Diemen for Manadient Racing in 1985 , his first full season in cars , and finishing third and fifth in the two UK national championships . He also took third place in the final of the 1985 Formula Ford Festival , helping the UK to win the team prize .
For 1986 , Hill planned to move up to the British Formula Three Championship with title @-@ winning team West Surrey Racing . The loss of sponsorship from Ricoh , and then the death of his proposed team @-@ mate Bertrand Fabi in a testing accident , ended Hill 's proposed drive . Hill says " When Bert was killed , I took the conscious decision that I wasn 't going to stop doing that sort of thing . It 's not just competing , it 's doing something more exciting . I 'm at my fullest skiing , racing or whatever . And I 'm more frightened of letting it all slip and reaching 60 and finding I 've done nothing . " Hill borrowed £ 100 @,@ 000 to finance his racing and had a steady first season for Murray Taylor Racing in 1986 before taking a brace of wins in each of the following years for Intersport . He finished third in the 1988 championship .
In Europe in the 1990s , a successful driver would usually progress from Formula Three either directly to Formula One , the pinnacle of the sport , or to the International Formula 3000 championship . However , Hill did not have enough sponsorship available to fund a drive in F3000 . He says " I ended up having to reappraise my career a bit . The first thing was to realise how lucky I was to be driving anything . I made the decision that whatever I drove I would do it to the best of my ability and see where it led . " He took a one @-@ off drive in the lower level British F3000 championship and shared a Porsche 962 at Le Mans for Richard Lloyd Racing , where the engine failed after 228 laps . He also competed in one race in the British Touring Car Championship at Donington Park , driving a Ford Sierra RS500 . Midway through the season , an opportunity arose at the uncompetitive Mooncraft F3000 team . The team tested Hill and Perry McCarthy . Their performances were comparable but according to the team manager , John Wickham , the team sponsors preferred the Hill name . Although his best result was a 15th place , Hill 's race performances for Mooncraft led to an offer to drive a Lola chassis for Middlebridge Racing in 1990 . He took three pole positions and led five races in 1990 , but did not win a race during his Formula 3000 career .
= = = Formula One = = =
= = = = Brabham ( 1992 ) = = = =
Hill started his Grand Prix career during the 1991 season as a test driver with the championship @-@ winning Williams team while still competing in the F3000 series . However , midway through 1992 Hill broke into Grand Prix racing as a driver with the dying Brabham team . The formerly competitive team was in serious financial difficulties . Hill started the season only after three races , replacing Giovanna Amati after her sponsorship had failed to materialise . Amati had been unable to get the car through qualifying but Hill matched his team @-@ mate , Eric van de Poele , by qualifying for two races , the mid @-@ season British and Hungarian Grands Prix . Hill continued to test for the Williams team that year and the British Grand Prix saw Nigel Mansell win the race for Williams , while he finished last in the Brabham . The Brabham team collapsed after the Hungarian Grand Prix and did not complete the season .
= = = = Williams ( 1993 – 96 ) = = = =
When Mansell 's team @-@ mate Riccardo Patrese left Williams to drive for Benetton in 1993 , Hill was unexpectedly promoted to the race team alongside triple world champion Alain Prost ahead of more experienced candidates such as Martin Brundle and Mika Häkkinen . Traditionally , the reigning driver 's world champion carries the number " 1 " on his car and his team @-@ mate takes the number " 2 " . Because Mansell , the 1992 champion , was not racing in Formula One in 1993 , his Williams team were given numbers " 0 " and " 2 " . As the junior partner to Prost , Hill took " 0 " , the second man in Formula One history to do so , after Jody Scheckter in 1973 .
1993
The season did not start well when Hill spun out of second place shortly after the start of the South African Grand Prix and failed to finish the race after colliding with Alex Zanardi on lap 16 . At the Brazilian Grand Prix , Hill qualified and spent the early stages of the race running second behind Prost , and then took the lead when Prost crashed out , but was relegated back to second by another triple world champion , Ayrton Senna . Nevertheless , the race still gave Hill his first podium finish .
In the next round in Europe , Hill again finished second behind Senna and ahead of a lapped Prost . In his first full season , Hill benefited from the experience of his veteran French team @-@ mate . He continued to impress as the season went on , and in San Marino Hill took the lead at the start , though he was passed by Prost and Senna and ultimately retired with brake failure . More bad luck struck him in Spain where he kept pace with Prost for most of the race only for his engine to fail .
After strong podiums in Monaco and Canada , Hill took his first career pole in France , finishing second to Prost after team orders prevented him from seriously challenging for the win . He looked set to win his home race in Britain before another engine failure put him out and led the German Grand Prix comfortably only to suffer a puncture with two laps left , handing the win to Prost .
At the Hungarian race , Hill did take his first career win after leading from start to finish . In doing so he became the first son of a Formula One Grand Prix winner to take victory himself , and he followed it with two more wins , first at Spa where he took the lead after pitstop problem for Prost , and then at the Italian Grand Prix where Prost 's engine failed towards the end . This third consecutive win clinched the constructors ' championship for Williams and moved him temporarily to second in the drivers ' standings .
At the Portuguese Grand Prix Hill charged from the back of the grid to third , having stalled on the warm up lap from pole . He finished off the season finishing fourth in Japan and third in Australia , but it was not enough to hold 2nd place in the championship as Ayrton Senna passed him by winning the last two races . Prost finished the season as champion . Hill ended the season in Australia by setting the lap record for the Adelaide Street Circuit . As of 2015 ( the full Grand Prix track has not been used since 2000 ) , Hill 's lap record of 1 : 15 @.@ 381 for the 3 @.@ 780 km ( 2 @.@ 349 mi ) long track still stands .
1994
In 1994 , Ayrton Senna joined Hill at Williams . As the reigning champion , this time Prost , was again no longer racing , Hill retained his number ' 0' . The pre @-@ season betting was that Senna would coast to the title , but with the banning of electronic driver aids , the Benetton team and Michael Schumacher initially proved more competitive and won the first three races . At the San Marino Grand Prix on 1 May , Senna died after his car went off the road . With the team undergoing investigation from the Italian authorities on manslaughter charges , Hill found himself team leader with only one season 's experience in the top flight . It was widely reported at the time that the Williams car 's steering column had failed , though Hill told BBC Sport in 2004 that he believed Senna simply took the corner too fast for the conditions , referring to the fact that the car had just restarted the race with cold tyres after being slowed down by a safety car .
Hill represented Williams alone at the next race , the Monaco Grand Prix . His race ended early in a collision involving several cars on the opening lap of the race . For the following race , the Spanish Grand Prix , Williams ' test driver David Coulthard was promoted to the race team alongside Hill , who won the race just four weeks after Senna 's death . Twenty @-@ six years earlier Graham Hill had won in Spain under similar circumstances for Lotus after the death of his team @-@ mate Jim Clark . Championship leader Schumacher finished second with a gearbox fault restricting him to fifth gear , having led the early laps .
Schumacher led by 66 points to 29 by the midpoint of the season . At the French Grand Prix , Frank Williams brought back Nigel Mansell , for the French , European , Japanese and Australian Grands Prix with Coulthard doing the majority of the 1994 season . Mansell earned approximately £ 900 @,@ 000 for each of his four races , while Hill was paid £ 300 @,@ 000 for the entire season , though Hill 's position as lead driver remained unquestioned . Hill came back into contention for the title after winning the British Grand Prix , a race his father had never won . Schumacher was disqualified from that race and banned for two further races for overtaking Hill during the formation lap and ignoring the subsequent black flag . Four more victories for Hill , three of which were in races where Schumacher was excluded or disqualified , took the title battle to the final event at Adelaide . At Schumacher 's first race since his ban , the European Grand Prix , he suggested that Hill ( who was eight years his senior ) was not a world @-@ class driver . However , during the penultimate race at the Japanese Grand Prix , Hill took victory ahead of Schumacher in a rain @-@ soaked event . This put Hill just one point behind the German before the last race of the season .
Neither Hill nor Schumacher finished the season @-@ closing Australian Grand Prix , after a controversial collision which gave the title to Schumacher . Schumacher ran off the track hitting the wall with the right @-@ hand side of his Benetton while leading . Coming into the sixth corner Hill moved to pass the Benetton and the two collided , breaking the Williams ' front left suspension wishbone , and forcing both drivers ' retirement from the race . BBC Formula One commentator Murray Walker , a great fan and friend of Hill , has often maintained that Schumacher did not cause the crash intentionally , but WilliamsF1 co @-@ owner Patrick Head feels differently . In 2006 he said that at the time of the incident " Williams were already 100 % certain that Michael was guilty of foul play " but did not protest Schumacher 's title because the team was still dealing with the death of Ayrton Senna . In 2007 , Hill explicitly accused Schumacher of causing the collision deliberately .
Hill 's season earned him the 1994 BBC Sports Personality of the Year .
1995
Coming into the 1995 season , Hill was one of the title favourites . The Williams team were reigning constructors ' champions , having beaten Benetton in 1994 , and with young David Coulthard , who was embarking on his first full season in Formula One , as team @-@ mate , Hill was the clear number one driver . The year started badly when he spun off in Brazil due to a mechanical problem , but wins in the next two races put him in the championship lead . However , Schumacher won seven of the next twelve races , and took his second title with two races to spare , while Benetton took the constructors ' championship . Schumacher and Hill had several on @-@ track incidents during the season , two of which led to suspended one @-@ race bans . Schumacher 's penalty was for blocking and forcing Hill off the road at the Belgian Grand Prix ; Hill 's was for colliding with Schumacher under braking at the Italian Grand Prix . Hill 's season finished positively when he won the Australian Grand Prix by finishing two laps ahead of the runner @-@ up , Olivier Panis in a Ligier .
1995 was a disappointing season for Hill : some of the Williams team had been frustrated with his performances and Frank Williams began to consider bringing in Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen to replace him . With Hill already under contract for 1996 , his place at the team was secure for one more season , but it proved to be his last at Williams .
1996
In 1996 the Williams car was clearly the quickest in Formula One and Hill went on to win the title ahead of his rookie teammate Jacques Villeneuve , becoming the only son of a Formula One champion to win the championship himself . Taking eight wins and never qualifying off the front row , Hill enjoyed by far his most successful season . At Monaco , where his father had won five times in the 1960s , he led until his engine failed , curtailing his race and allowing Olivier Panis to take his only Formula One win . Near the end of the season , Villeneuve began to mount a title challenge and took pole in the Japanese Grand Prix , the final race of the year . However , Hill took the lead at the start and won both the race and the championship after the Canadian retired .
Hill equalled the record for starting all 16 races of the season from the front row , matching Ayrton Senna in 1989 and Alain Prost in 1993 . Sebastian Vettel holds the record for the highest number of front row starts in a season , with 18 in 2011 .
Despite winning the title , Hill learned before the season 's close that he was to be dropped by Williams in favour of Frentzen for the following season . Hill left Williams as the team 's second most successful driver in terms of race victories , with 21 , second only to Mansell . Hill 's 1996 world championship earned him his second BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award , making him one of only three people to receive the award twice – the others being boxer Henry Cooper and Mansell . Hill was also awarded the Segrave Trophy by the Royal Automobile Club . The trophy is awarded to the British national who accomplishes the most outstanding demonstration of the possibilities of transport by land , sea , air , or water .
= = = = Arrows ( 1997 ) = = = =
Hill became the fourth driver in nine years to win the World Drivers ' Championship for Williams and not drive for the team the following season , as occurred with Nelson Piquet ( 1987 champion – 1988 driver for Lotus ) , Nigel Mansell ( 1992 champion – 1993 driver in the US @-@ based Indy Car World Series instead of F1 ) and Alain Prost ( 1993 champion – retired in 1994 ) . As world champion , Hill was in high demand and had offers for a race seat from McLaren , Benetton and Ferrari but not adequately financially valued despite his status . As a consequence , he opted to sign for Arrows , a team which had never won a race in its 20 @-@ year history and had scored only a single point the previous year . Hill 's title defence in 1997 proved unsuccessful , getting off to a poor start when he only narrowly qualified for the Australian Grand Prix and then retired on the parade lap . The Arrows car , which used tyres from series debutant Bridgestone and previously unproven Yamaha engines , was generally uncompetitive , and Hill did not score his first point for the team until the British Grand Prix at Silverstone in July . His best result for the year then came at the Hungarian Grand Prix . On a day when the Bridgestone tyres had a competitive edge over their Goodyear rivals , Hill qualified third in a car that had not previously placed higher than 9th on the grid . During the race , he passed his rival and new championship contender , Michael Schumacher , on the track and was leading late in the race , 35 seconds ahead of the eventual 1997 World Champion , Villeneuve , until a hydraulic problem drastically slowed the Arrows . Villeneuve thus passed Hill , who finished second and achieved the team 's first podium since the 1995 Australian Grand Prix . This new podium ultimately turned out to be Arrows ' last ever podium finish .
= = = = Jordan ( 1998 – 99 ) = = = =
Only after one year with Arrows , Hill came close to signing a deal with Alain Prost 's team , before deciding to instead signup with the Jordan team for the 1998 season . His new teammate was Ralf Schumacher , younger brother of Michael . In the first half of the season , the Jordan 198 car was off the pace and unreliable until improvements in performance from the Canadian Grand Prix . During that race , Hill moved up to second place as others retired or pitted for fuel . On lap 38 , Michael Schumacher , who was delayed by a stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty after forcing Frentzen 's Williams off the track , caught Hill on the home straight ; Hill moved across the track three times to block Schumacher , who took the place after missing his braking point and running over kerbs at the last chicane . Hill then ran fourth after his only pit stop before retiring due to an electrical failure . After the race , Schumacher accused Hill of dangerous driving . Hill responded by stating that Schumacher " cannot claim anyone drives badly when you look at the things he 's been up to in his career . He took Frentzen out completely . " At the German Grand Prix , Hill scored his first point of the year and at the Belgian Grand Prix , in very wet conditions , he took the Jordan team 's first ever win . At that race , Hill was leading late in the race , with teammate Schumacher closing rapidly , when he suggested that team principal Eddie Jordan order Ralf Schumacher to hold position instead of risking losing a 1 – 2 finish . Jordan followed the suggestion , ordering Schumacher not to overtake . In all , only eight drivers finished the race . The victory was his first since being dropped by the Williams team , which won no races that season . Hill finished the year with a last lap move on Frentzen at the Japanese Grand Prix , which earned him fourth place in the race and Jordan fourth position in that year 's constructors ' championship .
Hopes were high for 1999 , but Hill did not enjoy a good season . Struggling with the newly introduced four @-@ grooved tyres , he was outpaced by his new teammate , Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen , who was Hill 's replacement at Williams two years prior . After a crash at the Canadian Grand Prix , Hill announced plans to retire from the sport at the end of the year , but after failing to finish the French Grand Prix that Frentzen won , he considered quitting the sport immediately .
Jordan persuaded Hill to at least stay for the British Grand Prix . Going into that race weekend , Hill announced he would retire after the Grand Prix , leading Jordan to test Jos Verstappen in case Hill had to be quickly replaced . Following a strong fifth place at his home event , however , Hill changed his mind and decided to see out the year . His best result for the remainder of the season was sixth place , which he achieved in both Hungary and Belgium . With three races of 1999 to go , there were rumours that the Prost Grand Prix team would release Jarno Trulli early after he signed for Jordan 's 2000 campaign as Hill 's replacement . At the same time , his teammate , Frentzen , became a title contender going into the final few races of the season and , eventually , finished third in the championship . In so doing , both Hill and Frentzen helped Jordan to achieve its best @-@ ever finish with a third position in the constructor 's championship . Hill 's last race was the Japanese Grand Prix where he spun off the track and pulled into the pits to retire a healthy car .
= = After racing = =
In retirement Hill has continued to be involved with cars and motorsport . He founded the Prestige and Super Car Private Members Club P1 International with Michael Breen in 2000 ; Breen bought Hill out in October 2006 . Hill also became involved in a BMW dealership , just outside Royal Leamington Spa , that bore his name and an Audi dealership in Exeter . In April 2006 , Hill succeeded Jackie Stewart as President of the British Racing Drivers ' Club ( BRDC ) .
In 2009 he received an Honorary Fellowship from the University of Northampton recognising his successful career and his connection with Northampton through Silverstone and the BRDC .
Hill also made a UK television advert with F1 commentator Murray Walker for Pizza Hut , in which Walker commentated on Hill 's meal as if it were a race . Hill has also appeared on many British television programmes , including Top Gear , This is Your Life , TFI Friday , Shooting Stars and Bang Bang , It 's Reeves and Mortimer .
Hill has raced both cars and motorcycles at the Goodwood Festival of Speed and in 2005 he tested the new GP2 Series car . Hill was back behind the wheel of a single @-@ seater race car in the summer of 2006 , when he took a 600 bhp ( 450 kW ) Grand Prix Masters machine for a test run around the Silverstone circuit . Hill said that he enjoyed the experience and " I wouldn 't rule [ a return to racing ] out , but I can 't honestly say that right now I need to race . That is the bit that is missing . I love driving , I love pushing the limit and all the rest of it but racing for me ... I don 't have an ambition to do it and I think that 's an important part of the equation . "
Hill served as the driver representative on the stewards panel at the 2010 Monaco Grand Prix where he and the rest of the panel decided to relegate former rival Michael Schumacher for overtaking under yellow flag conditions . The decision led to Hill receiving hate mail .
Between 18 and 19 May 2012 , Hill along with Mark Blundell , Perry McCarthy , Martin Donnelly and Julian Bailey participated in the first round of the VW Scirocco R @-@ Cup at Brands Hatch to raise funds for the Halow Charity . Hill only managed to complete seven laps of the circuit .
On 7 October 2012 , Hill drove his father Graham Hill 's BRM in celebration of winning the 1962 F1 World Championship , where Graham became the first British driver to win the Drivers ' World Championship with a British team .
= = = Broadcaster = = =
Hill has also regularly appeared in the British media . He has contributed many articles to F1 Racing magazine and has twice appeared in ITV F1 's commentary box , covering for Martin Brundle at the 2007 and 2008 Hungarian Grands Prix . In January 2012 , British Sky Broadcasting announced that they had signed Hill to join their F1 presentation team on Sky Sports F1 as a pundit for the 2012 Formula One season .
= = = Music career = = =
Hill was interested in music from an early age and formed the punk band " Sex Hitler and the Hormones " with some friends while at school . After achieving success in Formula One , he was able to play guitar with several famous musicians , including his friend George Harrison , and appeared on " Demolition Man " , the opening track of Def Leppard 's album Euphoria . Hill also made a regular appearance at the British Grand Prix alongside other Formula One musicians such as Eddie Jordan . After his retirement at the end of the 1999 season , Hill devoted more time to music and played with celebrity bands including Spike Edney 's SAS band , and Pat Cash 's Wild Colonial Boys . Hill also formed his own band , The Conrods , which was active between 1999 and 2003 and played cover versions of well @-@ known songs from The Rolling Stones , The Beatles and The Kinks . Since becoming president of the BRDC in 2006 , Hill says he has abandoned the guitar , being " too busy doing school runs and looking after pets . "
= = Racing record = =
= = = Complete International Formula 3000 results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results = = =
= = = Complete Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= Internal Security Act ( Singapore ) =
The Internal Security Act ( ISA ) of Singapore ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) is a statute that grants the executive power to enforce preventive detention , prevent subversion , suppress organized violence against persons and property , and do other things incidental to the internal security of Singapore . The present Act was originally enacted by the Parliament of Malaysia as the Internal Security Act 1960 ( No. 18 of 1960 ) , and extended to Singapore on 16 September 1963 when Singapore was a state of the Federation of Malaysia .
Before a person can be detained under the ISA by the Minister for Home Affairs , the President must be satisfied that such detention is necessary for the purposes of national security or public order . In the landmark case of Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the Court of Appeal sought to impose legal limits on the power of preventive detention by requiring the Government to adduce objective facts which justified the President 's satisfaction . Two months after the decision , a series of legislative and constitutional amendments was enacted that effectively reversed the Chng Suan Tze decision . These amendments were subsequently confirmed to be valid by the High Court and Court of Appeal in Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1989 – 1990 ) , which held it is sufficient for the President to be subjectively satisfied that a detainee is a threat to national security in order for a detention order to be issued under the ISA . Notable ISA cases include Operation Coldstore in 1963 which led to the arrest of some 100 left @-@ wing politicians and trade unionists , including members of the socialist opposition party , the Barisan Sosialis . Chia Thye Poh , an alleged Communist , was detained and subject to other restrictions on his liberty under the ISA from 1966 to 1998 . The Chng Suan Tze and Teo Soh Lung cases resulted from a 1987 security operation called Operation Spectrum in which 22 Roman Catholic church and social activists and professionals accused of being members of a Marxist conspiracy were detained under the ISA .
The ISA also empowers the authorities to prohibit political and quasi @-@ military organizations , ban subversive documents and publications , shut down entertainments and exhibitions that are or are likely to be detrimental to the national interest , and to suppress organized violence by declaring parts of Singapore to be security areas .
= = History and developments = =
British colonial Malaya introduced the Emergency Regulations Ordinance 1948 on 7 July 1948 during the Malayan Emergency in response to a Communist uprising and guerrilla war . The regulations allowed the police to arrest anybody suspected of having acted or being likely to act in a way that would threaten security without evidence or a warrant , hold them incommunicado for investigation , and detain them indefinitely without the detainee ever being charged with a crime or tried in a court of law .
The successor to the Emergency Regulations Ordinance , the Preservation of Public Security Ordinance 1955 ( " PPSO " ) , was introduced a result of the 1955 Hock Lee bus riots by the Labour Party government in Singapore . There was strong opposition to the PPSO by the party then in opposition , the People 's Action Party ( " PAP " ) . In 1958 , Lee Kuan Yew of the PAP accused the Lim Yew Hock government of using the PPSO to stifle political dissent .
In 1960 , three years after Malaya 's independence , the Emergency was declared over . However , the Malayan Internal Security Act 1960 ( " ISA " ) was passed in place of the PPSO with much of the same powers . During parliamentary debates on the Act , Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman stated that the ISA would only be applied against only the remaining Communist insurgents . The Malayan Communist Party and its insurgents eventually surrendered in 1989 . Nonetheless , the ISA was retained in Malaysia .
The drafter of the Malayan ISA was Hugh Hickling , a British lawyer , author and professor . In 1989 , he commented that he " could not imagine then that the time would come when the power of detention , carefully and deliberately interlocked with Article 149 of the Constitution , would be used against political opponents , welfare workers and others dedicated to nonviolent , peaceful activities " . Nonetheless , he commented that he supported review of the ISA but it was not for him to say if the law should be scrapped , as " you 've got a multi @-@ racial society [ in Malaysia ] in which emotions can run high very quickly " .
When Singapore joined the Federation of Malaya in 1963 , the Malayan ISA was extended to Singapore . The Act was retained in Singapore even after its separation from Malaysia in 1965 . The current version of the Act is known as Chapter 143 of the 1985 Revised Edition . In September 2011 , the debate over whether the ISA should be retained was re @-@ opened after Malaysia announced that it was considering repealing the ISA . Prime Minister Najib Razak stated that the Act would be abolished and replaced by new laws to safeguard peace and order .
The legitimacy and relevance of the ISA were subsequently debated by former ISA detainees , the Singapore Government , and others . Member of Parliament for Pasir Ris – Punggol Group Representation Constituency , Dr. Janil Puthucheary , commented in Parliament on 18 August 2011 that " while he felt it inappropriate to detain a citizen without trial , he is convinced by the hard logic that the safety and security of Singapore must be paramount " . However , he agreed that there needed to be more safeguards to prevent abuse of the ISA and that " the ISA needs to be discussed in a more transparent manner , even as the facts associated with a given detainee need to be kept secret " .
The following day , 19 October 2011 , Deputy Prime Minister , Coordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Home Affairs Teo Chee Hean explained the relevance of the ISA and its powers of preventive detention . He noted that in the 1960s preventive detention was primarily used to counter the subversive Communist threat posed by the Malayan Communist Party which was hiding within legal organizations . For the past two decades , though , preventive detention has helped safeguard Singapore 's national security by countering threats posed by espionage and terrorism . Preventive detention allows for a comprehensive assessment of a threat , as opposed to a criminal case tried before a court which requires the court to consider only the specific acts that relate to the charge . Detaining those who have not yet committed overt deeds that warrant prosecution also allows pre @-@ emptive action to be taken to neutralize threats before they materialize into actual harm . In addition , the Minister said that detention without trial is preferable in situations where open prosecutions in court are not practicable due to the confidentiality of certain intelligence . Such intelligence might have been obtained through foreign security agencies on the understanding that the source and details would not be disclosed to an open court . What is more , disclosure of confidential intelligence could compromise ongoing or future operations through the revelation of existing sources and methods of intelligence gathering . However , if confidential information were withheld from the court , a criminal case could be weakened due to evidential requirements , which may result in the acquittal of an otherwise guilty accused . Finally , court proceedings may stall investigations as part of a broader network , and could exacerbate situations where communal sensitivities are involved .
Opposition political parties in Singapore have called for the ISA to be abolished . In its manifesto for the 2011 general election , the Workers ' Party said that specific anti @-@ terrorism and anti @-@ espionage laws , which allow arrests and detention without trial only under strict conditions , should be enacted to replace the ISA . The National Solidarity Party took a similar stance in February 2013 .
= = Legislative authority for enactment = =
The legislative authority for the enactment of the ISA is Article 149 of the Constitution of Singapore , which appears in Part XII ( " Special Powers against Subversion and Emergency Powers " ) . Entitled " Legislation against subversion " , Article 149 states :
( 1 ) If an Act recites that action has been taken or threatened by any substantial body of persons , whether inside or outside Singapore —
( a ) to cause , or to cause a substantial number of citizens to fear , organised violence against persons or property ;
( b ) to excite disaffection against the President or the Government ;
( c ) to promote feelings of ill @-@ will and hostility between different races or other classes of the population likely to cause violence ;
( d ) to procure the alteration , otherwise than by lawful means , of anything by law established ; or
( e ) which is prejudicial to the security of Singapore ,
any provision of that law designed to stop or prevent that action or any amendment to that law or any provision in any law enacted under clause ( 3 ) is valid notwithstanding that it is inconsistent with Article 9 , 11 , 12 , 13 or 14 , or would , apart from this Article , be outside the legislative power of Parliament .
( 2 ) A law containing such a recital as is mentioned in clause ( 1 ) shall , if not sooner repealed , cease to have effect if a resolution is passed by Parliament annulling such law , but without prejudice to anything previously done by virtue thereof or to the power of Parliament to make a new law under this Article .
( 3 ) If , in respect of any proceedings whether instituted before or after 27th January 1989 , any question arises in any court as to the validity of any decision made or act done in pursuance of any power conferred upon the President or the Minister by any law referred to in this Article , such question shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of any law as may be enacted by Parliament for this purpose ; and nothing in Article 93 shall invalidate any law enacted pursuant to this clause .
To satisfy the requirements of Article 149 ( 1 ) , the preamble to the Malaysian ISA , which has been retained in Singapore 's ISA , contains the following recital :
Whereas action has been taken by a substantial body of persons to cause a substantial number of citizens to fear organised violence against persons and property :
And Whereas action has been taken and threatened by a substantial body of persons which is prejudicial to the security of Malaya :
And Whereas Parliament considers if necessary to stop or prevent that action :
Now therefore pursuant to Article 149 of the Constitution be it enacted by the Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong with the advice and consent of the Dewan Negara and Dewan Ra 'ayat in Parliament assembled , and by the authority of the same , as follows ...
= = Provisions relating to internal security = =
Part II of the ISA , the first substantive part of the Act , contains provisions relating to internal security . It is divided into six chapters :
I. Prohibition of organisations and associations of a political or quasi @-@ military character and uniforms , etc .
II . Powers of preventive detention .
III . Special powers relating to subversive publications , etc .
IV . Control of entertainments and exhibitions .
V. Other powers for the prevention of subversion .
VI . Miscellaneous .
= = = Prohibition of political or quasi @-@ military organizations = = =
Chapter I of Part II of the ISA empowers the Minister for Home Affairs to take action against political or quasi @-@ military organizations and associations . It is a criminal offence to be a member or adherent of any association of persons who are organized , trained or equipped to enable them to be employed " in usurping the functions of the police or of the Singapore Armed Forces " or " for the purpose of enabling them to be employed for the use or display of physical force in promoting any political or other object , or in such a manner as to arouse reasonable apprehension that they are organised or trained or equipped for that purpose " . It is a more serious crime to promote or conspire with someone else to promote , or to participate in the control or management of , the association , or to organize or train any member or adherent of the association .
The Minister is empowered to prohibit any uniform or dress to be worn in public by members or adherents of a political or quasi @-@ military association involved in the activities mentioned in the previous paragraph , or any uniform or dress indicating an association with a political organization or with the promotion of a political object . Wearing such a uniform or dress in contravention of the Minister 's order is an offence . In addition , if the Minister considers it to be in the national interest to do , he may prohibit the " manufacture , sale , use , wearing , display or possession of any flag , banner , badge , emblem , device , uniform or distinctive dress or any part thereof " . Currently , the only emblem or device that is prohibited is one " in the form of a 5 @-@ pointed red star or a hammer and sickle in circumstances which raise a reasonable presumption that the emblem or device was intended or was likely to be used in a manner prejudicial to the interests of Singapore or to promote or foster a purpose prejudicial to or incompatible with peace , welfare or good order in Singapore " .
It is a crime for a person to be present at or to attend any meeting or assembly organized for the participants to train or drill themselves or to be trained or drilled " in the use of arms ... or for the purpose of practising military exercises , movements or evolutions " . It is also a crime to train or drill other people in these manners or to take part in the control or management of an association whose members are so trained . The prohibition does not apply to members of the Singapore Armed Forces , the police , a legally constituted volunteer or local force , a visiting force lawfully present in the country , or any organization or association exempted by the Minister .
= = = Preventive detention = = =
Chapter II of Part II of the ISA , which allows for preventive detention ( also known as detention without trial ) , is the most conspicuous feature of the Act . It confers on the executive a discretionary power to arrest and detain without trial , when necessary , a person with a view to prevent " that person from acting in any manner prejudicial to the security of Singapore or any part thereof or to the maintenance of public order or essential services therein " . For the purposes of this provision , essential services means services relating to water , electricity , public health , fire , prisons , post , telephony , telegraphy , radiocommunication ( including broadcasting and television ) , ports , docks , harbours , public transport , and the bulk distribution of fuel and lubricants .
Instead of detaining a person for the purposes mentioned above , the executive may impose other restrictions upon the person 's liberty such as curfews , requiring the reporting of his or her movements , prohibiting the person from speaking at public meetings or taking part in political activities , and travelling beyond Singapore or any part of the country .
= = = = Procedure = = = =
= = = = = Before detention = = = = =
Before a person can be detained under the ISA , the President must be satisfied that such detention is necessary for the purposes of national security or public order . This is a precondition for the valid exercise by the Minister for Home Affairs of the power to order the detention . The detention order is supplemented by section 74 of the ISA which empowers the police to arrest and detain any person pending enquiries without a warrant under section 8 .
= = = = = Initial detention = = = = =
Once an individual has been detained , there are administrative processes which the executive is required to follow under sections 9 , 11 and 12 of the Act . The detainee is to be informed of the grounds of detention as soon as possible , unless their disclosure is against the national interest . He or she is to be served with a copy of the detention order as well as the grounds and allegations of fact on which the detention order was made .
The detainee is also to be informed within 14 days of his or her right to make representations against the order to an advisory board , which is required to hear and consider the detainee 's representations . Each advisory board is chaired by a Supreme Court judge appointed by the President , and has two other members appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice . The board has the powers of a court to summon and examine witnesses , and to order that documents be produced . It evaluates the evidence and must make recommendations to the President concerning the matter within three months of the date of detention . When the advisory board recommends the release of the detainee against the Minister 's decision , the President exercises personal discretion whether the detainee should be released . Before exercising his discretion , the President is required to consult the Council of Presidential Advisers .
Non @-@ citizens detained under the ISA do not have a right to make representations to an advisory board . They may , within two months from the date of the detention order , make written representations to the Minister . The Minister may , but is not bound to , refer the representations to an advisory board . Any decision on such representations by the Minister is final and cannot be called into question in any court . The burden of proving that a person is a citizen lies on the person claiming to be one , and again the Minister 's decision on the matter is final .
= = = = = Extension and suspension of detention = = = = =
The initial order of the Minister for Home Affairs may direct that an individual be detained for up to two years . This may be further extended by directions issued by the President for further periods of up to two years at a time . The Minister is empowered with discretion to suspend a detention order , but also has the authority to revoke the suspension at any time , which reactivates the detention order . Detention orders must be reviewed at least once every 12 months by an advisory board which thereafter makes its recommendation to the Minister . If an advisory board recommends the release of a detainee and the Minister disagrees , the President may exercise personal discretion to order the release . The requirement for regular reviews of detention orders does not apply to detainees who are not citizens . When a detention order is extended , the Minister is not required to provide the detainee with the grounds justifying the extension order or give the detainee an opportunity to appeal against the extension .
= = = = Scope of judicial review of ISA orders = = = =
Under administrative law , judicial review is an exercise in which the High Court scrutinizes the executive 's decisions and orders to ensure that they conform with the law . If the decisions and orders are not authorized by statute or if they have been made in contravention of administrative law principles , the Court can invalidate them . Similarly , if any exercise of power by an executive body contravenes the Constitution , the Court has a duty to declare it invalid . With regards to the ISA and the powers to detain without trial , the scope of judicial review was subject to a succession of changes between 1988 and 1990 . These changes revolved around the issue of whether the discretion of the President and the Home Affairs Minister should be assessed objectively or subjectively . During that period , the scope of judicial review was expanded by common law developments but was subsequently curtailed by legislative and constitutional amendments .
= = = = = Before 1988 : Lee Mau Seng v. Minister for Home Affairs = = = = =
Prior to 1988 , the Singapore case of Lee Mau Seng v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1971 ) was authority for the application of the subjective discretion test for judicial review of executive power exercised under the ISA . The subjective test precludes the court from inquiring into the facts and grounds that are relied upon by the executive body in exercising its discretion . It is based on the literal interpretation of the words " [ i ] f the President is satisfied " that appear in section 8 of the ISA , such that no more is required than the subjective satisfaction of the President . This reasoning applies similarly to section 10 of the ISA , which requires the Minister 's satisfaction for the suspension of detention orders .
= = = = = 1988 – 1989 : Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs = = = = =
In the case of Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the Court of Appeal expanded the scope of judicial review by adopting an objective test when reviewing the exercise of executive discretion . In contrast to the subjective test , the objective test permits the court to examine whether the decision @-@ maker 's satisfaction was based on objective facts which fell within the scope of the purposes specified by the ISA . The subjective satisfaction or mere ipse dixit of the executive body is insufficient . However , the adoption of this objective test was only part of the obiter dicta of the case . The ratio decidendi of the case was based on narrower technical grounds .
The subjective test was rejected for several reasons by the Court of Appeal . It held that applying the subjective test to sections 8 and 10 of the ISA would render the provisions unconstitutional . The word law in Article 12 ( 1 ) of the Constitution was held in Ong Ah Chuan v. Public Prosecutor ( 1980 ) to encompass fundamental rules of natural justice . Hence , Parliament cannot pass legislation which authorizes the executive to exercise power in breach of these fundamental rules or to exercise power in an arbitrary manner . If the subjective test were to be adopted , it would in effect allow the executive to exercise arbitrary powers of detention , therefore rendering sections 8 and 10 of the ISA inconsistent with Article 12 ( 1 ) . When the case was decided , Article 149 ( 1 ) of the Constitution , which protects the validity of anti @-@ subversion laws notwithstanding inconsistencies with specified fundamental liberties , did not cover inconsistencies with Article 12 . Also , the Court noted that adopting the objective test would be consistent with Article 93 of the Constitution , which vests judicial power in the courts . It did not , however , directly address the argument by counsel that the subjective test , in conferring arbitrary powers of detention , would be inconsistent with Article 93 .
Further , the Court rejected the subjective test on the basis that " the notion of a subjective or unfettered discretion is contrary to the rule of law " . The rule of law requires the courts to examine the exercise of discretionary power and ensure that executive power is exercised within its legal limits .
The Court of Appeal also held that legal precedents from other Commonwealth jurisdictions supported a rejection of the subjective test in favour of the objective test . The subjective test was applied in Liversidge v. Anderson ( 1941 ) and subsequently affirmed in Greene v. Secretary of State for Home Affairs ( 1941 ) . However , these decisions had been departed from in subsequent decisions by the Privy Council and House of Lords . These courts had rejected the subjective test applied by the majority in Liversidge , preferring the objective test applied by Lord Atkin in his dissenting judgment . In the light of these developments , the Malaysian case of Karam Singh v. Menteri Hal Ehwal Dalam Negeri ( Minister for Home Affairs ) , Malaysia ( 1969 ) , which had applied the test in Liversidge and which the respondents ' counsel had relied on in support of the subjective test , could no longer be considered good law . Additionally , Teh Cheng Poh v. Public Prosecutor ( 1978 ) decided by the Privy Council on appeal from Malaysia , was referred to by the Court in support of the objective test . The case concerned the exercise of discretionary power under the Malaysian Internal Security Act , which the ISA of Singapore is derived from .
Although sections 8 and 10 of the ISA concern matters of national security , the Court held that this concern does not preclude the objective review of executive discretion . Following the case of Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service ( 1983 ) , the Court of Appeal decided that it is up to the courts to determine whether a decision is in fact based on grounds of national security . Similarly , it should also be within the court 's purview to determine whether the matters relied upon in exercising powers under the ISA fall within the scope of purposes specified by sections 8 and 10 .
= = = = = 1989 amendments and Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs = = = = =
Parliament subsequently passed the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment ) Act 1989 and the Internal Security ( Amendment ) Act 1989 . They took effect on 27 and 30 January 1989 respectively . Section 8B ( 1 ) of the amended ISA provides that the law pertaining to the judicial review of decisions made by the President or the Minister was restored to the legal position applicable in Singapore on 13 July 1971 , the date when Lee Mau Seng was decided . In Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1990 ) , the Court of Appeal held that these amendments reinstated the legal position set out in Lee Mau Seng as the applicable law governing judicial review in Singapore , thus prompting a return to the subjective test in reviewing the exercise of executive discretion under the ISA .
The possible inconsistencies the subjective test had with respect to Articles 12 and 93 of the Constitution were sought to be resolved with the passing of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment ) Act 1989 . Article 149 ( 1 ) was amended to shield any anti @-@ subversion laws enacted pursuant to this provision from inconsistency with Articles 11 and 12 . This was in addition to Articles 9 , 13 and 14 which had already been present in Article 149 ( 1 ) before the amendment . Furthermore , a new Article 149 ( 3 ) provided that nothing in Article 93 would invalidate any provisions that were enacted pursuant to Article 149 . Hence , the ruling in Chng Suan Tze that the subjective test was inconsistent with the Constitution was legislatively reversed , and the subjective test was restored as the valid and relevant law in Singapore .
The Internal Security ( Amendment ) Act 1989 also introduced section 8B ( 2 ) , which is an ouster clause providing that no judicial review of orders made under the ISA shall be available save in relation to questions relating to the procedural requirements of the ISA . In Teo Soh Lung , the Court of Appeal held that it was not necessary for it to decide if the subjective test in Lee Mau Seng precluded judicial review in the case . Hence , the position remains to be confirmed by the courts . In addition , the Court decided that it was unnecessary to consider the effect of section 8B ( 2 ) on issues not related to national security and the constitutionality of the 1989 amendments to the ISA .
Parliament also introduced into the ISA section 8D , which dictates that the Internal Security ( Amendment ) Act 1989 is to be applied retrospectively to proceedings instituted " before or after " 30 January 1989 . Article 11 ( 1 ) of the Constitution states : " No person shall be punished for an act or omission which was not punishable by law when it was done or made , and no person shall suffer greater punishment for an offence than was prescribed by law at the time it was committed . " Though the 1989 amendments to the ISA did not retrospectively introduce any criminal offences , the legislature saw fit to amend Article 149 ( 1 ) by inserting a reference to Article 11 to forestall any possible arguments on section 8D 's inconsistency with the Article . As the Minister for Law S. Jayakumar said in Parliament : " The reference to Article 11 is necessary to ensure the retrospective application of the Internal Security ( Amendment ) Bill is not challenged . "
The test for judicial review on matters not relating to the ISA remains the objective test . In Kamal Jit Singh v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1992 ) , the High Court held that validity of detention under the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act is not dependent on the Minister 's subjective satisfaction . Rather , the Minister must be objectively satisfied that the person was associated with criminal activities .
= = = = Academic views = = = =
= = = = = Mala fides situations = = = = =
While the current law in Singapore holds that the Home Affairs Minister 's decision is subjective and not judicially reviewable , there is uncertainty whether there are exceptional situations in which the courts may still step in to practice judicial review even though the ISA deals with national security matters . A possible exception is when the Minister 's decision was made mala fides , that is , in bad faith . Such decisions would involve the clear abuse of power , such as being " detained solely for having red hair or for failing a professional examination or for having acted as a lawyer against the Government " .
However , the law on this issue is presently unclear . In Lee Mau Seng , the High Court said that mala fides was not a justiciable issue in relation to the ISA . A similar stance was taken in Malaysia in Karam Singh . However , in Teo Soh Lung the Court of Appeal said that it did not need to decide whether Lee Mau Seng has precluded judicial review in mala fides situations until a case with a mala fides factual situation arises . Furthermore , there is an increasing number of Malaysian cases reflecting " a gradual recognition that ... indicate a retreat from the purely subjective approach " .
In response to the harshness of the rule in Lee Mau Seng , academics have offered several suggestions for circumventing it . One is that the definition of mala fides used by the courts in Lee Mau Seng is actually unreasonableness and not mala fides in the narrow sense of dishonesty or bad faith . In Cannock Chase District Council v. Kelly ( 1977 ) , Lord Justice Megaw asserted that bad faith is " dishonesty " and " always involves a grave charge " . This contrasts with the meaning of mala fides in Lee Mau Seng which includes situations of carelessness or vagueness . Thus , an allegation of bad faith in the narrow sense could permit review by the courts .
= = = = = Freezing of the common law = = = = =
After the 1989 amendments to the Constitution and the ISA , there was academic discourse on the effect of section 8B ( 1 ) on the future development of the common law . The amendments merely caused a time warp in the common law , taking it back to 1971 . As they did not amount to a codifying or declaratory Act seeking to replace the common law of judicial review , there is uncertainty whether the courts may continue to develop the common law and move away from the legal position laid down in Lee Mau Seng . Michael Rutter has asserted that the common law can indeed continue to change . While the Parliament has the power to turn the clock back , " the Parliament is powerless to stop the clock from running " and " as soon as the clock is placed back in the hands of the judiciary , the hands might race forward again " .
Such a stance has wide implications : the High Court and Court of Appeal would not be bound by Lee Mau Seng . They could rule that situations involving mala fides are judicially reviewable , or completely re @-@ adopt the legal position stated in Chng Suan Tze . The justification is that " if Parliament intended to render judiciary law impossible , it has only to issue its laws in a more detailed shape , so that in the vast complexity of human affairs there may always be at hand a rule sufficiently precise and definite to meet each particular case " .
= = = = = Validity of ouster clause = = = = =
Another issue that has undergone academic scrutiny is the nature of section 8B ( 2 ) as an ouster clause . An ouster clause is an objectively worded provision which is drafted to exclude the jurisdiction of the courts .
In Teo Soh Lung , the Court of Appeal declined to address the constitutionality of section 8B and , in particular , how section 8B ( 2 ) should be interpreted . Michael Hor has described the judiciary 's reluctance to address these points as " an elegant piece of judicial ' kung fu ' " in which it chose to evade the problem . In a lecture to law students in 2010 , Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong commented that , in general , " ouster clauses may be inconsistent with Article 93 of the Constitution , which vests the judicial power of Singapore in the Supreme Court " , though he expressed no concluded opinion on the matter . However , it seems unlikely that Article 93 can be relied on to invalidate section 8B ( 2 ) since Parliament specifically enacted Article 149 ( 3 ) to protect the 1989 amendments to the ISA from inconsistency with Article 93 .
Tham Chee Ho has opined that where a jurisdictional error of law is involved , judicial review will be available despite the presence of an ouster clause . However , an ouster clause still precludes judicial review of non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . If this distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law exists , section 8B ( 2 ) will preclude judicial review of non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law but not jurisdictional errors . Notably , there is a difference between English and Singapore law as regards this issue . In R. v. Lord President of the Privy Council , ex parte Page ( 1992 ) , Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson commented that the case of Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission ( 1968 ) had the effect of rendering the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law obsolete . This has limited the effect of ouster clauses in the United Kingdom since all errors of law are considered as jurisdictional . However , the Singapore courts have not yet adopted this legal position , and there are cases indicating that the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law still exists .
= = = = = Basic features doctrine = = = = =
The basic features doctrine developed in Kesavananda Bharati v. The State of Kerala ( 1973 ) and Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India ( 1980 ) by the Supreme Court of India rests on the notion that there are certain elements of the nation 's constitutional structure which cannot be amended by Parliament .
In the High Court case of Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1989 ) , the plaintiff argued that the 1989 amendments to the Constitution had violated the basic features of the Constitution by breaching the principle of separation of powers by usurping judicial power , and contravening the rule of law . The Court rejected the application of the basic features doctrine owing to the differences in the making of the Singapore Constitution and the Indian Constitution , and the fact that the framers of the Singapore Constitution had not expressly provided for limitations to be placed on Parliament 's power of amendment . The Court also held that , in any case , there had been no violation of the Constitution 's basic features on the facts of the case . On appeal , the Court of Appeal determined the case on other grounds , and thus found it unnecessary to decide conclusively if the basic features doctrine applies in Singapore .
= = = = = Role of the judiciary in national security matters = = = = =
There are competing views over the appropriate role of the judiciary in matters concerning preventive detention under the ISA . A related concern is whether the judicial process is suitable for such matters . The legislative and constitutional amendments relating to judicial review under the ISA were intended to limit the role of the courts in national security matters . In 1989 , Law Minister S. Jayakumar argued in Parliament that the amendments were needed because the courts would effectively be responsible for national security matters if judicial review was permitted . The subjective test was deemed necessary to reserve to the executive the responsibility for national security matters , and to enable the Government to deal effectively with security threats .
Tham Chee Ho contends that , based on the objective test set out in Chng Suan Tze , the fear that the courts will take over responsibility for national security matters is misplaced . This is because the courts do not review the actions taken by the executive for national security purposes , but merely determine whether the situation in fact involves national security issues . The Court of Appeal in Chng Suan Tze reflected this by holding that what was required to preserve national security was a matter solely for executive judgment .
Another reason that was put forward by Jayakumar to justify a limited role by the judiciary was that the judicial process is unsuitable for deciding preventive detention issues . Persons who are potential threats to national security may act covertly , hindering the collection of evidence to secure a conviction in a court trial . By its nature , however , preventive detention is a precautionary measure and involves making decisions on limited information to prevent threats to national security from materializing . Jayakumar said that the court is ill @-@ equipped to determine whether there are suspicious circumstances which justify pre @-@ emptive action . Tham agrees with this view , but argues that it applies only where the courts review the exercise of executive power . He distinguishes the objective test applied in Chng Suan Tze from the situation mentioned by Jayakumar , since the court is only interested in whether there is a national security issue involved .
Thio Li @-@ ann has opined that the 1989 measures taken to limit judicial checks on executive power demonstrate a preference for non @-@ legal institutional checks . One example of a non @-@ legal institutional check is the requirement under the Constitution and the ISA for an advisory board to hear detainees ' representations and recommend to the President whether a detention order should be terminated . Thio argues that such checks are weak and cannot replace judicial review . She contends that since Article 149 of the Constitution permits the enactment of repressive laws which contravene constitutional liberties , meaningful restraints should be placed on the wide discretionary powers under the ISA . Similarly , in Chng Suan Tze , the Court of Appeal rejected the view that the executive 's accountability to Parliament is a sufficient safeguard against the arbitrary exercise of power .
Eunice Chua argues against adopting the subjective test and limiting judicial review to breaches of the procedures stated in the ISA . Her argument is based on the premise that courts should consider notions of substantive democracy in performing their judicial role . Chua argues that in Teo Soh Lung the Court of Appeal should have considered whether there were sufficient safeguards for the protection of detainees after the curtailment of judicial review through constitutional and legislative amendments . She suggests that Article 151 , which provides for restrictions on preventive detention , should be read liberally in favour of detainees , bearing in mind the exclusion of fundamental liberties by Article 149 . In her view , the curtailment of judicial review should therefore be rejected , as it does not accord with the " spirit " of Article 151 of the Constitution which ensures safeguards for detainees .
Conversely , Jayakumar argued in 1989 that judicial review is an inappropriate safeguard in preventing abuse of the detention powers under the ISA in the situation where a dishonest government is in power . He argued that judicial safeguards are illusory because such a dishonest government would " pack the courts " and appoint judges which would rule in their favour . He regarded the best safeguard to be for voters to elect honest and incorruptible men into the Government .
= = = = Criticisms of preventive detention = = = =
In 2006 , the United States Department of State noted that although the ISA had not been used against the Singapore Government 's political opponents for some years , " political opposition and criticism remained restricted by the government 's authority to define these powers broadly . In the past , occasional government references to speech that it considered ' out @-@ of @-@ bounds ' were understood to be implicit threats to invoke the ISA . " The Singapore Government itself has regularly raised the need to prevent national security threats from materializing as a justification for preventive detention . However , there have been suggestions that the criminal law is apt for dealing with this matter as well . Crimes of accessory liability such as abetment , conspiracy and unlawful assembly in the Penal Code may apply even if harm has not actualized . Furthermore , restrictions imposed by the Societies Act , as well as the offences in the Sedition Act , may be viable alternatives to preventive detention .
Preventive detention has been preferred over open court trials , as it has been suggested that the criminal trial could be used as a platform for radicals to publicize their views , and that it might confer the honour of martyrdom on accused persons . However , it has been suggested that an open trial which details the evils of terrorism and the indiscriminate destruction that it causes could educate the public and potentially unite the various communities in the country .
Under the framework of the ISA , detainees are theoretically accorded due process . For instance , detainees have a right to make representations against their detention to an advisory board . However , Article 151 ( 3 ) of the Constitution prevents any government authority from disclosing any information which would , " in its own opinion , be against national interest " . Therefore , there is no means to compel the authorities to disclose information which may be pertinent for the detainee to make a proper representation to an advisory board , thus compromising due process . Moreover , the secrecy of advisory board hearings has been criticized as it may lead to the public questioning the legitimacy of the hearings , and to an impression that justice has not manifestly been done .
Due to the limited form of judicial review available under the ISA , whether a person remains under detention depends largely on the Ministry of Home Affairs . This raises the question quis custodiet ipsos custodes ? – who guards the guardians ? If preventive detention is applied illegitimately in a manner that cripples lawful democratic opposition , the absence of judicial review would preclude the exposure of such abuse . It has been submitted that the voice of public opinion is most suited for this purpose .
= = = = Instances of the application of the PPSO and ISA = = = =
According to The Sunday Times of 28 October 1956 , 234 people , including trade union leaders Lim Chin Siong , James Puthucheary and C. V. Devan Nair , were detained under the PPSO as suspected Communist subversives . On 2 February 1963 Operation Coldstore , a joint Malaysian – Singaporean anti @-@ Communist operation , led to the arrest of 133 people . As of 5 April 1963 , 17 were being detained in the Federation of Malaya and 107 in Singapore , while the remaining nine had been released . On 30 October 1966 , Chia Thye Poh , leader of the leftist Barisan Sosialis political party , was detained . He was subsequently held for 32 years pursuant to the ISA , the last nine of which under forms of house arrest and civil rights restrictions , including confinement on the island of Sentosa . All such restrictions were finally lifted on 27 November 1998 . As of that date , the South China Morning Post referred to him as " the world 's second longest serving prisoner @-@ of @-@ conscience after South Africa 's Nelson Mandela " .
The Straits Times of 28 May 1976 reported that 50 people allegedly involved in a Communist plot had been arrested . Among them were the playwright and theatre director Kuo Pao Kun , then a secretary for the Chinese Chamber of Commerce , and his wife Goh Lay Kuan . Kuo was detained under the ISA for four years and seven months , and his citizenship was revoked . Following his release he was placed under residence and travel restrictions until 1983 . His citizenship was reinstated in 1992 .
In 1987 , in a security operation known as Operation Spectrum , 22 Roman Catholic church and social activists and professionals were detained under the ISA . They were accused of being members of a dangerous Marxist conspiracy bent on subverting the government by force and replacing it with a Marxist state . The detentions led to , among others , the Chng Suan Tze and Teo Soh Lung cases .
Two people were arrested in 1997 and four in 1998 for espionage activities . Of those arrested in 1997 , one was a male permanent resident who was a deep @-@ cover operative of a foreign intelligence service who had used the other person , a female Singaporean , as a collaborator . Three of the people arrested in 1998 were agents for a foreign intelligence agency . One of them had recruited the fourth person to collect intelligence on and to subvert a local community organization . All the detainees were subsequently released .
From 2001 , the ISA was mainly used against al @-@ Qaeda @-@ inspired terrorists in Singapore . In December that year , 15 members of the Jemaah Islamiyah ( JI ) militant group were arrested for involvement in the Singapore embassies attack plot . JI member Mohamed Khalim bin Jaffar was detained in January 2002 ( and later released in September 2011 ) , and another 21 members were arrested and detained in August 2002 .
In February 2006 , alleged JI head Mas Selamat bin Kastari was extradited from Indonesia and detained under the ISA . He escaped from custody on 27 February 2008 and was only rearrested by the Malaysian authorities on 1 April 2009 . He was transferred back to Singapore for detention under the ISA on 24 September 2010 .
Between November 2006 and April 2007 , four Singaporean JI members were detained under the ISA while one had a restriction order issued against him . In addition , lawyer and lecturer Abdul Basheer s / o Abdul Kader , who radicalized himself by reading extremist propaganda on the Internet , was detained in February 2007 for preparing to engage in militant activities in Afghanistan . He was released on 21 February 2010 , but rearrested in September 2012 and detained under the ISA the following month for planning to resume jihadist terrorism against foreign military operations abroad , including leaving Singapore – illegally , if necessary – to do so .
Full @-@ time National Serviceman Muhammad Fadil Abdul Hamid was detained on 4 April 2010 . He was described by the media as self @-@ radicalized , having been deeply influenced by the lectures of Feiz Mohammad and Anwar al @-@ Aulaqi which he had accessed online . Around this time , two other people influenced by al @-@ Aulaqi were placed under restriction orders . Between January and July 2011 , three Muslim radicals were deported to Singapore from other countries and detained . JI members Jumari bin Kamdi and Samad bin Subari were arrested in Malaysia and Indonesia respectively ; while Abdul Majid s / o Kunji Mohammad , a member of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front ( MILF ) , was arrested in Malaysia . As of 13 September 2011 , there were 17 people on orders of detention , one whose detention had been suspended , and 49 people on restriction orders . On 7 March 2013 , it was mentioned in Parliament that 64 people had been detained under the ISA for activities related to terrorism since 2002 .
In September 2013 , the Singapore media reported that Asyrani Hussaini had been detained in March that year and was the fifth Singaporean to have been influenced by radical ideology he had read online . Asyrani had entered Thailand illegally to take part in the armed insurgency in Southern Thailand , but was arrested and deported to Singapore . Another Singaporean , Mustafa Kamal Mohammad , was placed on a two @-@ year restriction order from September 2013 for being a member of the MILF in the Philippines . Three Singaporean former JI members had their restriction orders lifted ; they were Jahpar Osman and Samad Subari , and Abdul Majid Kunji Mohamad who had trained with the MILF .
= = = Subversive documents = = =
Under Chapter III of Part II of the ISA , the minister responsible for printing presses and publications – currently the Minister for Communications and Information – is authorized to ban documents and publications that are subversive or otherwise undesirable . For instance , the Minister may prohibit ( absolutely or conditionally ) the printing , publication , sale , issue , circulation or possession of a document or publication that :
( a ) contains any incitement to violence ;
( b ) counsels disobedience to the law or to any lawful order ;
( c ) is calculated or likely to lead to a breach of the peace , or to promote feelings of hostility between different races or classes of the population ; or
( d ) is prejudicial to the national interest , public order or security of Singapore ...
Such a prohibition order can extend to any past or future issue of a periodical publication , and to other publications which have been issued or appear to have been issued by the publishing house , agency or other source which issued the prohibited publication . The proprietor of a prohibited publication can lodge an objection to a prohibition order within a month of the date when the order is published in the Government Gazette to the President , whose decision on the matter is " final and shall not be called in question in any court " . When exercising this discretion , the President is required to follow the advice of the Cabinet . It is a criminal offence to print , publish , sell , issue , circulate , reproduce or possess a prohibited publication or an extract from it ; and to import , abet the importation of , or have in one 's possession any imported prohibited publication . There is a rebuttable presumption a person knows the contents of a publication and their nature immediately after the publication comes into his or her possession . However , it is a defence for a person to demonstrate that the publication was " printed , published , sold , issued , circulated or reproduced , as the case may be , without his authority , consent and knowledge , and without any want of due care or caution on his part , and that he did not know and had no reason to suspect the nature of the document or publication " .
Among the publications that have been interdicted under the Act are works by Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong , and the Russian political newspaper Pravda .
A crime is committed if any person posts or distributes a placard , circular or other document which contains an incitement to violence , counsels disobedience to the law or a lawful order , or is likely to lead to a breach of the peace . Spreading false reports or making false statements likely to cause public alarm orally , in writing , or in any newspaper , periodical , book , circular or other printed publication is also an offence .
Finally , it is an offence to carry or have in one 's possession or under one 's control a subversive document . A document is deemed to be subversive if , in whole or in part , it has a tendency :
( a ) to excite organised violence against persons or property in Singapore ;
( b ) to support , propagate or advocate any act prejudicial to the security of Singapore or the maintenance or restoration of public order therein or inciting to violence therein or counselling disobedience to the law thereof or to any lawful order therein ; or
( c ) to invite , request or demand support for or on account of any collection , subscription , contribution or donation , whether in money or in kind , for the direct or indirect benefit or use of persons who intend to act or are about to act , or have acted , in a manner prejudicial to the security of Singapore or to the maintenance of public order therein , or who incite to violence therein or counsel disobedience to the law thereof or any lawful order therein .
A document that purports to be a subversive document is presumed to be one until the contrary has been proved , and if it is proved that a person was carrying or had in his or her possession or under his or her control a subversive document , he or she is deemed to have known the contents of the document and their nature . Nevertheless , a person may defend himself or herself by proving that he or she was unaware of the contents and the nature of the contents of the document , and that he or she did not have reasonable cause to believe or suspect that the document was subversive . The ISA places a duty on any person , any office @-@ bearer of an association , or any responsible member or agent of an organization who receives a subversive document to deliver it to a police officer without delay . Failure to do so without police authorization , or communicating the contents of such a document to others or publishing them is an offence .
= = = Control of entertainments and exhibitions = = =
The Home Affairs Minister may , under Chapter IV of Part II of the ISA , order that any entertainment or exhibition be closed if satisfied if it " is or is likely to be in any way detrimental to the national interest " . Entertainment is defined by the Act as " any game , sport , diversion , concert or amusement of any kind to which the public has or is intended to have access and in which members of the public may or may not take part , whether on payment or otherwise " , while exhibition " includes every display of goods , books , pictures , films or articles to which the public has or is intended to have access , whether on payment or otherwise " . It is an offence to be the promoter of or a person concerned in the promotion of an entertainment or exhibition held or continued in contravention of an order requiring it to be closed , or the proprietor of the premises on which such an event is held . However , it is a defence to show that the event was " promoted or continued without his authority , consent and knowledge and without any want of due care or caution on his part " .
Alternatively , to ensure that an entertainment or exhibition is not detrimental to the public interest , the Minister can impose conditions relating to the holding of the event on its promoter , every person involved in its promotion , and the proprietor of the premises on which the event is to be held . Failure to comply with any of such conditions is an offence , unless the person involved is able to show he or she was not responsible for the breach and exercised due care and caution . The authorities are empowered to close an entertainment or exhibition operated in breach of any condition , or kept open in contravention of an order by the Minister .
To enable the Minister to determine whether an entertainment or exhibition should be banned or allowed to be held subject to conditions , the Minister can require that its promoter , any person involved in its promotion , or the proprietor of the premises on which it is to be held to provide information on the following matters :
( a ) particulars of persons concerned in the promotion of the entertainment or exhibition and the interests represented by those persons ;
( b ) particulars of the persons who have agreed to participate or participated in the entertainment or exhibition or have been invited to do so and the interests represented by those persons ;
( c ) the purposes to which any profits from the entertainment or exhibition are intended to be or have been applied ; and
( d ) such other matters as the Minister may direct .
Furnishing false or incomplete information is an offence , and also entitles the Minister to prohibit an event from being held or direct it to be closed . The person providing the information also commits a crime if the event is held in a manner contrary to the information provided .
= = = Other powers = = =
Chapter VI of Part II of the ISA confers additional powers on the Minister for Home Affairs to prevent subversion . If a written law confers power on a person , body or authority to appoint people to positions , the Minister can order that he or she be provided with a list of the people from which the appointment will be made , and other information . The Minister can then direct that people whose appointment would be prejudicial to the interests of Singapore shall not be appointed or recruited . Furthermore , no person is permitted to disclose any communication received from the Minister except in the course of official duty .
The Minister , if satisfied that a school or educational institution is being used for a purpose detrimental to the interests of Singapore or the public , for instruction that is detrimental to the interests of the public or pupils , or as a meeting @-@ place of an unlawful society , can order that it be closed for a period not exceeding six months at a time . The board of managers or governors of an affected school or educational institution can lodge an objection against an order with the President , whose decision on the matter is final and may not be questioned in any court . The Minister 's power does not extend to places where the teaching " is of a purely religious character , or for a purely religious purpose " .
A person who requires a certificate of suitability for admission to an institution of higher education must apply to the Director of Education , who must not issue a certificate if " there appear to him to be reasonable grounds for believing that the applicant , if admitted to the institution in question , would be likely to promote , or otherwise participate in , action prejudicial to the interests or security of Singapore or any part thereof " . A person who does not hold a certificate of suitability may not be admitted to an institution of higher learning as a student . A person who has been refused a certificate may appeal to the Home Affairs Minister , whose decision on the matter is final and cannot be called into question in any court .
The Minister can forbid pupils , students , teachers or members ; any class of pupils , students , teachers or members ; or any named pupil , student , teacher or member of any school , college , educational institution or students ' union or association situated or established outside Singapore to enter into or travel within Singapore as a group unless they first obtain permission from the police to do so . An individual pupil , student , teacher or member can also be barred from Singapore if he or she intends to carry out within the country some common object of the group to which he or she belongs . The police can grant permission for such travel subject to conditions . If there is a reason for the Commissioner of Police to believe that any person :
( i ) is a pupil , student , teacher or member affected by an order made under subsection ( 1 ) [ that is , an order by the Minister that the person must obtain police permission to travel to Singapore ] ;
( ii ) has entered Singapore from a place outside and has not since the date of such entry continuously remained in Singapore for a period exceeding 3 months ;
( iii ) is not the holder of a valid identity card issued to him in Singapore in accordance with the provisions of any written law for the time being in force relating to identity cards and which bears an address within Singapore ; and
( iv ) has contravened or intends to contravene the provisions of any such order ; ...
or any person has breached any conditions imposed , the Commissioner can require that the person leave Singapore within a certain time and remain abroad for six months or a lesser period ; or take the person into custody and remove him or her from Singapore , whereupon the person must remain out of Singapore for six months . Failure to comply with any order by the Minister or a breach of the conditions of any permission to travel to Singapore is an offence . The above provisions do not authorize the removal from Singapore of any citizen of Singapore ordinarily resident in the country .
= = Provisions relating to security areas = =
Part III of the ISA deals with security areas . Section 48 , which is the only provision in Chapter I of Part III , empowers the President , acting on the Cabinet 's advice , to proclaim any area in Singapore a security area if in his opinion public security in the area " is seriously disturbed or threatened by reason of any action taken or threatened by any substantial body of persons , whether inside or outside Singapore , to cause or to cause a substantial number of citizens to fear organised violence against persons or property " and " he considers it to be necessary for the purpose of suppressing such organised violence " . A proclamation of a security area must be published by the Home Affairs Minister in any way that the Minister thinks necessary for bringing it to the notice of all persons who , in the Minister 's view , should have notice of it . It comes into effect once notice has been given , even if it has not yet been published in the Government Gazette . A proclamation remains in force until the President revokes it or Parliament annuls it by passing a resolution .
= = = Preservation of public security = = =
Chapter II of Part III of the ISA empowers the Minister to take various steps to preserve public security . Within a security area , the Minister may declare areas to be danger areas , controlled areas or protected places . No person is allowed to enter or remain in a danger area unless escorted by a member of a security force , and to enforce this prohibition security forces can take all necessary measures , including those that are " dangerous or fatal to human life " . A person who is injured while in a danger area unlawfully cannot make any legal claim for it , though compensation may be awarded if a compensation board thinks it is equitable to do so . The declaration of an area as a controlled area enables the Minister to order that people within the area may only reside within that portion of the area declared to be the " residential part " , and that they may not venture beyond the residential part during certain hours . Failure to comply with such orders is a criminal offence .
If the Commissioner of Police is of the view that it is " necessary or expedient in the interests of public security or order , for the maintenance of supplies or services essential to the life of the community , that special precautions should be taken to prevent the entry of unauthorised persons " , he may declare a place or premises within a security area to be a protected place . While such a declaration is in force , no person is permitted to enter or remain in the place without the permission of the authority or person stated in the declaration . Persons wishing to enter a protected place must submit to being searched by police officers and other authorized persons , and must comply with directions concerning their conduct . A failure to do so can result in their removal from the protected place . It is an offence to be present in a protected place without permission , and to wilfully fail to stop after being challenged by a police officer or unlawfully refuse to submit to a search . The Commissioner of Police can take steps that he considers necessary to secure a protected place , including those that endanger the life of anyone entering the place . If the Commissioner employs such steps , he must take precautions ( including displaying prominent warning notices ) that he considers reasonably necessary to prevent accidental entry into the place . Once such precautions have been put in place , if any person enters the protected place without permission and is injured or killed , he or she is not entitled to receive any compensation or damages .
The Minister can declare any fence or barrier surrounding a part of a security area to be a perimeter fence . The Commissioner of Police is permitted to take steps to prevent people from crossing the fence or passing articles over , through or under the fence , including defensive measures that involve or may involve danger to life . If the measures are taken in a place other than on , under or within the perimeter fence , the Commissioner must take precautions – including displaying prominent warning signs – to ensure that people do not accidentally enter the area . If anyone is injured or dies as a result of a defensive measure , no compensation is payable unless the Minister certifies that it is just and equitable for such compensation to be paid . It is an offence to cross or attempt to cross , or pass or attempt to pass any article over , though or under a perimeter fence except at an authorized entry point ; and to damage , attempt to damage or tamper with any fence or any gate or movable barrier at an entry point .
In the interests of public safety , the Minister can make a " clearance order " concerning land that is within 46 metres ( 151 ft ) of any railway , public road or perimeter fence within a security area , or land in a security area that is " used for or in connection with the cultivation of rubber , oil palm , gutta @-@ percha , coconut , bananas or any other fruit growing on trees , or any other agricultural or food crops " . Such an order directs the owner or occupier of the land , their agent , or any person living in the area surrounded by a perimeter fence to clear away " all herbage , bush and undergrowth and any other object mentioned in the order , other than permanent buildings " , prevent the undergrowth from growing higher than 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) , and maintain the cleanliness of the land . Failure to comply with a clearance order is a criminal offence .
The officer in charge of a police division that forms part of a security area can do the following :
Exclusion of persons . Give a written order excluding any person or persons from the police division .
Curfew . Impose a curfew on specified persons , designating that they stay indoors or within a particular area between certain hours , unless they obtain a permit to the contrary issued by a police officer of or above the rank of sergeant .
Control of roads . Regulate , restrict , control or prohibit the use of a road or waterway by any person or class of persons ; or any vehicle or vessel , or type or description of vehicle or vessel . In addition , can issue permits to regulate , restrict , control or prohibit persons or classes of persons from travelling in any bus , car , train or other vehicle , or in a vessel .
A police officer or member of the security forces who is of or above the rating of leading rate or rank of non @-@ commissioned officer and on duty , or a person authorized by the officer in charge of a police division , is empowered to seize any rice or other food if , because of its quantity or situation , it " is likely to or may become available to any persons who intend or are about to act or have recently acted in a manner prejudicial to public security or to the maintenance of public order " . In support of this power , people , premises , vehicles and vessels can be searched without a warrant .
If it appears to the Minister to be " necessary or expedient ... in the interests of public security , or for the accommodation of any security forces " , he or she may take possession of any land or building ( or part of a building ) in a security area . Police officers are permitted to use reasonable force when effecting the taking of possession , and the Minister can require the owner or occupier of the land or building to provide information relating to it . Once the land or building is in the Minister 's possession , he or she has wide power to determine how to use it . The Minister is entitled to disregard any legal restrictions on how it may be utilized , authorize other persons to do with the property anything which the owner or occupier is entitled to do , and ban or limit anyone from exercising rights of way over , and other rights relating to , the land or building . Anyone who feels aggrieved by the Minister taking possession of land or a building can lodge an objection with an advisory committee . The committee is required to consider the objections and any grounds against the objections put forward by the person given possession of the property , and make recommendations to the Minister . The Minister can give " such directions [ on the recommendations ] as he may think fit " , and award compensation .
If a building or structure in a security area is left unoccupied due to an order relating to the security area , and the officer in charge of the police division in which the building or structure is situated takes the view that it may be used by " any person or persons who intend , or are about , to act or have recently acted in a manner prejudicial to public security or by any other person who is likely to harbour any such persons " , and it is not practical to prevent such use , the officer can authorize the destruction of the building or structure . Compensation is payable for such destruction to a person if he or she can demonstrate to the Minister that the building or structure was constructed with the consent of the person lawfully entitled to the land on which it stood , and it was not liable to be forfeited . Even if the building or structure was subject to forfeiture , the Minister can still pay compensation to the owner or occupier if the latter person can prove that it was used by
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5 oil and Magna on canvas painting by Roy Lichtenstein . Measuring 235 cm × 330 cm ( 92 @.@ 5 in × 129 in ) , it is part of the Brushstrokes series of artworks that includes several paintings and sculptures whose subject is the actions made with a house @-@ painter 's brush . It set a record auction price for a painting by a living American artist when it sold for $ 60 @,@ 000 in 1970 . The painting is in the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein @-@ Westfalen collection .
As with all of his Brushstrokes works , it is in part a satirical response to the gestural painting of Abstract Expressionism . Like most of Lichtenstein 's Ben @-@ Day dots works it is a depiction of mechanical reproduction via painterly technique . In this case , the satire comes from the depiction of the graphical depiction of the spontaneous painting motion in painstaking painterly detail .
= = History = =
In early 1970 , Andy Warhol established the record auction price for a painting by a living American artist with a $ 60 @,@ 000 ( US $ 365 @,@ 604 in 2016 dollars ) sale of Big Campbell 's Soup Can with Torn Label ( Vegetable Beef ) ( 1962 ) , which is part of the Campbell 's Soup Cans series , in a sale at Parke @-@ Bernet , the preeminent American auction house of the day ( later acquired by Sotheby 's ) . This record was broken in November 1970 by Lichtenstein 's Big Painting No. 6 with an auction sale for $ 75 @,@ 000 ( US $ 457 @,@ 005 in 2016 dollars ) to German art dealer Rudolf Zwirner .
The source for the entire Brushstrokes series was Charlton Comics ' Strange Suspense Stories 72 ( October 1964 ) by Dick Giordano . Big Painting No. 6 is in the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein @-@ Westfalen collection in Düsseldorf .
= = Description = =
This painting has a Ben @-@ Day dots background with four layered vigorous brushstrokes atop them in white , yellow , green , and red . The focal point is the topmost central red brushstroke that depicts dripping paint . The black contours contribute a dynamic effect to the two @-@ dimensional work . The subject of the painting is the process of Abstract Expressionist painting via sweeping brushstrokes and drips , but the result of Lichtenstein 's simplification that uses a Ben @-@ Day dots background is a representation of the mechanical / industrial color printing reproduction . Big Painting No. 6 is depicts imitations of what could be typical Abstract Expressionist brushstrokes on an extremely large scale . Since it is depicted as a reproduction of an imitation the painting is two steps removed from an original . While each Abstract Expressionist brushstroke is an instantaneous effort , the satire includes the fact that Lichtenstein took a great deal of time to achieve the complicated reproduction .
= = Reception = =
Big Painting No. 6 @.@ is a prime example of his works that both turned a mundane household task into a planned artistic operation and made a time @-@ consuming task appear as if it was produced mechanically in an instant . The painting is regarded as an example of his subtle humor expressed as " gestural swathes rendered in commercial harshness as a parody of action painting . "
According to Robert Rosenblum , by confronting the state of the art world , Lichtenstein reinforces its vitality : " ... the vocabulary of Abstract Expressionism , attacked implicitly in Lichtenstein 's earlier work , now becomes the explicit subject . With disarming paradox , the impulsive , athletic smears and spatterings of the 1950s are here impersonally hardened and industrialized by being seen through Lichtenstein 's lens of commercial imagery . The results are not only witty in their use of art to comment about art , but even revive , most ironically , the pictorial energy and boldness of the style being parodied . "
He uses overlapping forms rather than a single form or distinct adjacent forms , which seems to create a more dynamic feel to the shallow space . However , since Lichtenstein does not uses shading or contrast , the monochromatic strokes with just bold black outlines are void of certain elements of depth . Big Painting No. 6 and Yellow and Green Brushstrokes go one step further in terms of canvas size and dynamic activity that was presented earlier in Little Big Painting .
Big Painting No. 6 is the result of producing " ... whiplash , abstract expressionis works with his quasi @-@ mechanical means ... " Lichtenstein 's form of Abstract Expressionism uses a " quasi @-@ mechanical " method to conform " the spontaneous , loaded brushstroke to his own comic @-@ strip and Ben Day formula " . One critic considers that Lichtenstein has converted the wide dripping brush strokes into a tidy work representing mass production .
= Currencies of Puerto Rico =
The currencies of Puerto Rico closely follow the historic development of Puerto Rico . As a colony of Spain and the United States , Puerto Rico was granted the use of both foreign and provincial currencies . Following the Spanish colonization in 1502 , Puerto Rico became an important port , with its own supply of gold . However , as the mineral reserves ran empty within the century , the archipelago 's economy suffered . The Spanish Crown issued the Situado Mexicano , which meant that a semi @-@ regular shipment of gold from the Viceroyalty of New Spain would be sent to the island , as a way to provide economic support . Between 1636 and 1637 , Philip IV of Spain imposed a tax which had to be paid using a revenue stamp . Inspired by this , Puerto Rico began producing banknotes in 1766 , becoming the first colony to print 8 @-@ real banknotes in the Spanish Empire and which in the Spanish government 's approval of subsequent issues .
The situado was discontinued during the 19th century , creating an economic crisis , as a result of Mexico gaining its independence from Spain . Salvador Meléndez Bruna , the colonial governor in office , ordered the issue of provincial banknotes , creating the Puerto Rican peso . However , printing of these banknotes ceased after 1815 . During the following decades , foreign coins became the widespread currency . In the 1860s and 1870s , banknotes reemerged . On February 1 , 1890 , the Banco Español de Puerto Rico was inaugurated and began issuing banknotes . The bank designed four series and placed three in circulation under Spanish rule . In 1895 , a Royal Decree ordered the production of provincial peso coins .
On August 13 , 1898 , the Spanish – American War ended with Spain ceding Puerto Rico to the United States . The Banco Español de Puerto Rico was renamed Bank of Porto Rico and issued bills equivalent to the United States dollar , creating the Puerto Rican dollar . In 1902 , the First National Bank of Porto Rico issued banknotes in a parallel manner . Two more series were issued until 1913 . After Puerto Rico 's economy and monetary system was fully integrated into the United States ' economic and monetary system , the Puerto Rican dollars were redeemed for those issued by the United States Treasury . The peso and dollar have been followed by other contemporary issues , including commemorative banknotes , private currency , and a quarter coin designed with Fort San Felipe del Morro in the face .
= = Early licenses issued by the Spanish Crown = =
After Juan Ponce de León began the colonization process of Puerto Rico , the archipelago became a strategic military location , used by Spain to protect its colonies and possessions in America . Vessels used it as a main point for resupplying before attempting long voyages and trading became a key part of economy . However , when the mines and rivers in the main island of Puerto Rico , then known as San Juan Bautista , were depleted Puerto Rico began suffering from shortage of gold and its income was reduced drastically , precipitating a recession . Beginning in the 16th century , the Spanish Crown was forced to issue a monetary support decree to the archipelago known as situado , which was supplied by the Royal banks in Central America , particularly Mexico . However , this aid failed to arrive often , contributing to the economical instability . This was exacerbated by other factors , including the costs of running an efficient military and a lack of commercial prosperity . Natural conditions and disasters also contributed , multiplying the costs of maintaining fortresses while hurricanes damaged haciendas , destroying crops and shortening the amount of laborers .
Municipalities suffered most , being forced to implement taxes , including the alcaba del viento ( lit . " wind tax " ) , which was imposed on foreign suppliers . However , these taxes barely helped , this was because each one had to receive a Royal certification , a bureaucratic procedure which usually lasted several years . Once they reached an established deadline , the process would have to be repeated , taking an extended amount of time . From January 1 , 1636 , to December 15 , 1637 , Philip IV of Spain imposed an obligatory payment to the treasuries in Puerto Rico . The debt was to be paid with currency symbolized by legalized papers bearing a Royal seal . Researchers believe that the use of these documents had an impact in the production of banknotes in Puerto Rico . In due time , these documents would be short in supply upon their arrival , in such cases the government officials would stamp the current date into old papers . Pedro Tomás de Cordova and Humberto Burzio claim in their research that Puerto Rico was the first place in America to print 8 @-@ real , establishing 1766 as the date for this achievement . Thus , putting Puerto Rico ahead by two decades before Cuba ( 1781 ) , Hispaniola ( 1782 ) and even Spain ( 1783 ) . Both researchers divided the first two types of banknotes issued , the two varieties were classified as " issued " and " printed " . Although both were manufactured using the same method , those referred to as " printed " bore stamps listing numbers and letters . In 1767 , the Spanish Crown approved subsequent issues , conditioning that they should be collected once situado shipped . When this was lacking , paper money was used in a widespread manner throughout the main island . These requirements were met when possible , an example of this was in 1769 , when 88 @,@ 000 banknotes were reclaimed by the authorities .
= = Birth of the Puerto Rican peso = =
In the 19th century , the issuing of situado concluded , with two last deliveries of 500 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 between 1809 and 1810 . This brought forth a critical economical crisis to Puerto Rico . At the moment , Salvador Meléndez Bruna , the colonial governor in office , ordered the production of provincial paper money . The decree was officially enacted on August 31 , 1812 . These banknotes used the peso being used as equivalent to Spanish reales . Produced by hand , these banknotes featured quantities in the thousands , with 1 peso being worth 8 reales . Mechanical printing had arrived to Puerto Rico years earlier , but up until 1813 , part of the issued notes were being produced by hand and stamped . Between 1812 and 1813 , the tradition of collecting paper money continued , which reduced the amount of surviving banknotes drastically . The other notes printed between 1813 and 1814 , featured a combination of printed types and stamps , the printing was done by Puerto Rico 's National Printing Office and featured patterns to prevent the production of counterfeits . Those featuring denominations in reales , were adorned by Spain 's Royal Seal , with the color varying depending on the date of issue , the 1813 8 @-@ real banknotes featured a lamb on the obverse . However , these security measures were ineffective against counterfeiting , eventually copies of several denominations were circulating in a widespread manner , forcing cities outside of San Juan , Arecibo and Loiza to discontinue their use . Meléndez Bruna decided that the only way to prevent forgery was by asking Spain to produce sealed paper for the printing of the banknotes . The first issue bore the signatures of treasurers or accountants , but this was dropped the subsequent year .
= = = End of the Cádiz Constitution = = =
On February 11 , 1813 , Alejandro Ramírez arrived to Puerto Rico and almost immediately was named to the office of Intendant , eventually establishing a Consulate of Commerce to control trade in Puerto Rico . Originally from Guatemala , where he had served in various political positions , Ramírez was also a member of the Philadelphia Philosophical Society . The Diario Económico de Puerto Rico , a newspaper specialized in the archipelago 's economy , noted that during the time banknotes of all denominations were still being forged in large quantities . The publication claimed that the counterfeits were most likely produced in other locations of the Caribbean , this was based on the fact that only one royal press existed in Puerto Rico . However , modern researchers maintain that the copies could have been produced locally in a clandestine manner . This is based on a report that emphasizes that the designs of false 8 @-@ real notes were crude and that the ink used spread when touched , something that wouldn 't be possible if produced elsewhere , particularly because the ink would dry in the voyage between countries . During this time , paper notes began disappearing and the stated recurred to renewing old pieces .
In 1814 , Ferdinand VII refused to renew the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , returning the Empire to an absolutist method of government . Consequently , Ramírez contacted some of his allies in Philadelphia and commissioned the production of banknotes in denominations of 3 and 5 reales . The issues were printed by Murray , Draper , Fairham & Company and featured the signatures of treasurer José Bacener and Ramírez . The designs featured the Spanish Crown and Ferdinand VII 's profile in the two varieties and were numbered manually . No official documentation , letter or decree from the Spanish Crown related to the creation of these notes have surfaced . These issues were collected and destroyed with extreme efficacy in 1866 , leaving only a few dozen intact .
= = Reemergence of paper money = =
The negative perception created by the issue of paper money between 1813 and 1815 , brought the production of banknotes to a halt , while only coins circulated in the archipelago . In 1865 , the Spanish Civil Code was imposed in Puerto Rico . Meanwhile , the Caja de Ahorros was founded in San Juan , a small bank , which provided an annual interest of up to 6 % to its subscribers . The institution was bankrupted in 1879 , but its business model was followed by other banks founded in the southern region of Puerto Rico . The Caja de Ahorros de Ponce ( lit . " Ponce Savings Bank " ) was founded in 1873 and continued in business until 1879 . The institution issued notes in denominations of 1 , 3 , 5 and 50 pesos which were printed by the P.W. Derhan firm . These bills were only printed in one side and were signed by members of the bank 's board of directors , which was composed by eminent Puerto Rican citizens . These were redeemed mostly in Ponce and co @-@ existed along tokens issued by local business entities .
In 1868 , the Central Republican Board of Cuba and Puerto Rico was founded . The group organized expeditions to Cuba , offering supplies to movements that supported the independence of Puerto Rico and Cuba . Founded by José Francisco Basora , a Puerto Rican revolutionary and friend of Ramón Emeterio Betances , the group had connections within the wealthy sugar industry in the larger antille . Bonds for quantities of 100 , 500 and 1 @,@ 000 pesos were printed between June 1 and November 1 , 1869 , in order to cover the expenses of the two planned revolutions . On August 17 , 1869 , the board issued notes in denominations of 1 , 5 , 10 and 20 pesos , these were produced to establish an affordable alternative to the bonds . All of these issues circulated throughout North and South America as well as the Caribbean . Although they were widespread in the Spanish processions , their use was kept clandestine to avoid imprisonment by the royal authorities . However , none of them was redeemed due to the failure of the Ten Years ' War and Little War in Cuba . On December 17 , 1866 , Maria Christina of Austria signed a decree which authorized the auctioning of a railroad in Puerto Rico . In 1888 , Ivo Bosch y Puig , an engineer from Catalonia , received the concession to put the project in march . In Madrid , Bosch y Puig established the Compañía de los Ferrocarriles de Puerto Rico ( lit . " Puerto Rico Railroad Company " ) . During this decade , Charles Skipper and East produced 5 @-@ peso banknotes in England , which were circulated after receiving the signatures of Bosch y Puig and an unidentified associate .
= = = The provincial coin = = =
Due to its strategic location , currencies from several countries began circulating in Puerto Rico and used as trade . The government often ordered the collection of these coins in exchange for exchange notes . The first of these took place in 1857 , when a royal decree ordered the gathering of macuquina coins . These arrived to Puerto Rico in 1813 , originally produced by Spain in Venezuela . Due to Spanish manufacture , the exchange notes issued for the macuquina featured a 12 @.@ 5 % discount , which left a significant deficit in the government 's budget . A decade later , coins were brought from the Dominican Republic to Puerto Rico . Consequently , the distribution of foreign coins received authorization . In 1879 , the circulation of Mexican silver was approved in government and official entities , eventually allowing public distribution in 1881 . However , some saw an opportunity for profit in this and bought Mexican pesos outside of Puerto Rico before importing them , in the process gaining a profit of up to 40 centavos per peso . In 1884 , a number of different coins were countermarked with a fleur @-@ de @-@ lis for circulation on Puerto Rico . Spanish 2 , 4 and 8 reales , and 5 and 10 centimos , United States ' 20 cents , quarters , halves and dollars were all countermarked and used until they were redeemed in 1894 . By 1895 , the coins circulating in Puerto Rico were mostly Mexican silver , creating a shortage of currency . To resolve this , Spain issued a Royal Decree stating that the Mexican coins were to be replaced by ones minted in Madrid , with special coins created exclusively for Puerto Rico . To execute this move , exchange notes in one @-@ peso denomination were created . Once the exchange concluded in 1896 , the provincial coin was already in circulation . Silver 20 centavos and 1 peso coins were introduced in 1895 , followed in 1896 by silver 5 , 10 and 40 centavos . The 1 peso coins bore the denomination as " 1 PESO = 5 P.TAS " . These exchanges heavily affected the government 's economy . Some years later , Ceredo Millán a commercial firm in San Juan obtained some of the now @-@ obsolete Exchange Notes , which were converted into souvenirs and offered as gifts to their clients .
= = Banco Español de Puerto Rico = =
On May 23 , 1887 , Maria Christina of Austria and Victor Balaguer , Spain 's Overseas Minister , signed a royal decree proposing the creation of a royal bank in Puerto Rico . A waiting period of three months was imposed to those interested in pursuing the project , who had to present a business proposal as dictated by the order . Two proposals were formally presented and taken under consideration . One of these , was presented by the Sociedad Anónima de Crédito Mercantil de Puerto Rico ( lit . " Puerto Rico Mercantile Credit Company " ) , which was represented by Manuel Vicente Rodríguez , Enrique Vijande , Guillermo Mullenhoff , Pablo Ubarri Capetillo and José Caldas , with all of them serving as the group 's directors . The other one was presented by a coalition of French and Spanish bankers . The proposal which bore the signature of Francisco Lastres and Eulogio Despujols , who acted as their representatives , was ultimately accepted .
On May 5 , 1888 , a second royal decree was issue , officializing the creation of the Banco Español de Puerto Rico , which received a charter validity of 25 years . This grant of authority was awarded to Enrique Vijande y Loredo , José Caldas y Caldas and Pablo Ubarri , the members composing this partnership . The bank wasn 't established immediately , this was because the currency being used in Puerto Rico was Mexican silver , which created problems and delayed the establishment date until early 1890 . Until this point , the Sociedad Anónima de Crédito Mercantil de Puerto Rico continued in service , before disappearing in April .
During this timeframe , they produced 100 @-@ peso banknotes featuring the lamb , Puerto Rico 's official emblem . The bank was inaugurated on February 1 , 1890 , with Juan Róspide y Navarro and José Manuel López Sainz as governor and vice governor respectively . The Royal Decree permitted the issuing of paper money in denominations of 5 , 10 , 20 , 50 , 100 and 200 pesos . These banknotes were manufactured by the American Bank Note Company . The original bank was located in San Juan , with a second one being established in Mayagüez in 1894 . Until 1898 , the institution issued four series A , B , C and D , though apparently C was put into production after D and didn 't circulate under Spanish control . Series D began distribution on December 1 , 1894 ; this became the first time that the lamb , which had continued being used since the days of the Sociedad Anónima de Crédito Mercantil de Puerto Rico , was replaced by the profile of Maria Christina of Austria . The Ministerio de Ultramar issued 1 peso notes in 1895 .
= = = American invasion and decline = = =
On August 13 , 1898 , Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris , bringing the Puerto Rican Campaign to an end . The Banco Español de Puerto Rico was then transferred to invading investors . However , the terms signed in the armistice , stated that the United States would have to respect all the charters that were previously granted by Spain to its former colonies . This was certified by the United States Congress on June 6 , 1900 . Thus , the bank continued issuing provincial currency in Puerto Rico , but was renamed El Banco de Puerto Rico or Bank of Puerto Rico . The capital used by the currency was changed from peso to dollars , giving birth to the Puerto Rican dollar . A proposal to print 1 @-@ dollar banknotes was suggested , but refused citing that it could " bring dangerous results " . Series C bills were issued with a release date of " May 1 , 1900 " and were overstamped with " Moneda Americana " in bold red letters . They bore the signatures of the new bank governor Carlos María Soler and cashier Manuel Vicente . This marked the first and only time that currency valorized in dollars was issued outside the United States .
Series E was introduced subsequently . The banknotes for this issue were bilingual , featuring the bank 's name both in Spanish and English . Early specimens for Series F were produced in 1907 , but they never reached circulation . The bills for this issue featured the profiles of Christopher Columbus and Juan Ponce de León . The colonial government intended to eliminate all Spanish captions from these notes , intending to accelerate a failed " Americanization " process in Puerto Rico . Series F ultimately entered circulation on July 1 , 1909 , still featuring bilingual captions and exhibiting a higher degree of technical quality . In 1913 , the charter granted by Spain expired and the bank was closed and its assets were liquidated . After this date , Puerto Rico 's economy was fully integrated into the United States ' currency system , while Puerto Rican dollars were redeemed for United States dollars . Banknotes valorized in millions continued in circulation , thus a collect was ordered and held between January 16 – 24 , 1916 . The remaining bills , with an estimated value of $ 14 @,@ 872 were taken out of circulation nine years later by the Puerto Rico Commercial Bank .
Parallel to the Bank of Puerto Rico , American investors saw an opportunity to establish banks in Puerto Rico . The first of these was the American Colonial Bank , which opened in 1899 . The establishment of national banks was proposed to the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency , with charters being eventually established in June 1900 . The requirements for establishing a bank under this grant of authority , demanded that at least three @-@ fourths of the board of directors lived in Puerto Rico at least for a year . It took the group two years to meet these regulations , but in 1902 the First National Bank of Porto Rico was inaugurated , with Andrés Crosas from San Juan serving as its president . The bank began issuing notes in denominations of 10 , 20 , 50 and 100 dollars which were manufactured by October 27 , 1902 , even before all of the requirements were met .
= = Collection value and numismatic study = =
The remaining exemplars of Puerto Rican currency have gathered significant value with the years , particularly in the United States . The value of them within the collectors of that country is due to the special nature of the post @-@ 1898 issues . Since they were issued under the same Spanish provincial charter , the Bureau of Engraving and Printing classifies them as " territorial " currency , this being the only unit of exchange of this kind that is recognized by the United States Department of the Treasury .
Objects from Puerto Rico are constantly featured in specialized magazines , in both national and international distribution . The Puerto Rican dollars that were collected by the government , were burned between January 16 – 24 , 1925 , drastically reducing the amount of surviving notes from the Bank of Puerto Rico . The Great Depression reduced their numbers further , since necessity prevented the collection of pesos in large denominations . Thus less than five exemplars are known to exist of the 100 and 200 peso banknotes issued by El Banco Español de Puerto Rico and the 5 and 10 dollars Series F bills published by the Bank of Puerto Rico .
Similarly , the other notes issued by this banks range from scarce to rare . The banknotes from the First National Bank of Porto Rico are particularly scarce , this is because the institution 's issues didn 't even reach quantities of 20 . Only two bills from the $ 100 denomination have been known to survive , similarly two from the $ 20 issue are left , with one of them being acquired by Amon G. Carter before his death . Carter was known to exhibit the piece , but didn 't make it available for sale . More than a dozen $ 10 banknotes survived , seldom appearing at auctions . Other extremely rare banknotes include the 2 and 4 real notes of 1813 and all of the denominations issued by the Caja de Ahorros de Ponce . In contrast , the paper money used by the Puerto Rico Railroad Company is still known to appear occasionally in the market . Outside of these , the clandestine bills issued by the Central Republican Board of Cuba and Puerto Rico , range from scarce ( 5 @-@ peso bill ) to extremely rare ( 20 @-@ peso notes ) .
In Puerto Rico , the Sociedad Numismática de Puerto Rico ( lit . " Numismatic Society of Puerto Rico " ) was founded in 1949 . The society is usually composed of 25 to 50 members and it focuses in collecting and distributing both coins and banknotes from Puerto Rico to interested collectors . An annual exhibition along the Sociedad Filatelica de Puerto Rico ( lit . " Philatelic Society of Puerto Rico " ) has been held in Plaza Las Américas since the commercial center 's inauguration . Outside of this activity , Puerto Rican currency can be found locally in philatelic and numismatic as well as flea markets . At auctions , banknotes have been known to surpass bid that are up to 70 @,@ 000 dollars . The collection of cardboard samples given by banks to numismatic merchants , has also been noted among enthusiasts .
= = Other issued currency = =
In 2005 , the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party issued a limited amount of banknotes commemorating the Jayuya Uprising . The series included pesos of six denominations , including $ 1 , $ 5 , $ 10 , $ 20 , $ 50 and $ 100 bills . The designs of all banknotes feature Pedro Albizu Campos in the front side while the reverses are adorned with the flags of Puerto Rico , Jayuya and the Nationalist Party . Microprint with the names of Pedro Albizu Campos and Filiberto Ojeda Ríos are found throughout the pesos . On July 10 , 2005 , Liberty Dollar of Puerto Rico was created by Alfredo Pacheco Martínez . Silver ounces began circulating on October 8 , 2005 , marking the first time that a silver coin was distributed in more than a century . After an intervention with parent company Liberty Services concluded with its assets being confiscated , leading to a process that resulted in the indictment and conviction of founder Bernard von NotHaus , Pacheco Martínez continued to circulate the coins under the name of Dólar Boricua . In August 2010 , he was also indicted on the same charges faced by Von NotHaus . Pacheco Martínez was found guilty on June 29 , 2012 , being subsequently sentenced to 19 years in prison .
In December 2007 , the United States Congress approved a measure that included the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , Washington D.C. and several non @-@ autonomous territories including American Samoa , Guam and the United States Virgin Islands in the 50 State Quarters program . Both commonwealths and territories were excluded from the original program approved in 1998 , which was followed by almost ten years of lobbying before they were included . The design on these coins was expected to feature the same George Washington image found in the obverse of the original issues , while the reverse would depict illustrations of something characteristic to that location . The Secretary of Treasury approved the design on July 31 , 2008 . The coins were issued , as well as " proof coins " and 90 % silver special issues . The Puerto Rico coin was the second release in 2009 . In 2012 , as part of the National Park Quarters Program initiative , the United States Mint will release a quarter commemorating the inclusion of El Yunque National Forest as part of the National Forest System in 1903 .
= Anne Dallas Dudley =
Anne Dallas Dudley ( née Annie Willis Dallas ; November 13 , 1876 – September 13 , 1955 ) was a prominent activist in the women 's suffrage movement in the United States . After founding the Nashville Equal Suffrage League and serving as its president , she moved up through the ranks of the movement , serving as President of the Tennessee Equal Suffrage Association and then as Third Vice President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association , where she helped lead efforts to get the Nineteenth Amendment to the US Constitution ratified . She is especially noted for her successful efforts to get the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in her home state of Tennessee , the final state necessary to bring the amendment into force .
= = Early life and family = =
Anne Dallas Dudley was born Annie Willis Dallas in Nashville , Tennessee , in 1876 to a distinguished upper @-@ class family . Her father , Trevanion B. Dallas , had moved to Nashville in 1869 and established himself as an entrepreneur in the textile industry . Her grandfather , Alexander J. Dallas , had been a commodore in the U.S. Navy , while his brother , George M. Dallas , served as Vice President of the United States under James K. Polk .
Annie Dallas was educated at Ward 's Seminary and Price 's College for Young Ladies , both in Nashville . In 1902 , she married Guilford Dudley ( 1854 – 1945 ) , a banker and insurance broker . Together they had three children , Ida Dallas Dudley ( 1903 – 1904 ) , who died in infancy , Trevania Dallas Dudley ( 1905 – 1924 ) , and Guilford Dudley , Jr . ( 1907 – 2002 ) .
= = Women 's suffrage movement = =
A few years after being married , Anne Dallas Dudley became involved in the temperance movement as a supporter of alcohol prohibition . Through her work in the temperance movement and her association with friends such as Maria Daviess and Ida Clyde Clark , Dudley became convinced that women 's place in society could only be improved if women were allowed to vote . At the time , however , almost all men and a majority of women opposed the idea of women participating in the political process .
In September 1911 , Dudley , Daviess , Clark , and several other women met in the back parlor of the Tulane Hotel and founded the Nashville Equal Suffrage League , an organization dedicated to building local support for women 's suffrage while " quietly and earnestly avoiding militant methods " . Dudley was selected as the organization 's first president . During her presidency , the league organized giant May Day suffrage parades , usually led by Dudley and her children . Dudley also helped bring the National Suffrage Convention to Nashville in 1914 . At the time , it was one of the largest conventions ever held in the city .
After serving as president of the local league for four years , Dudley was elected to head the Tennessee Equal Suffrage Association in 1915 . During this time she helped to introduce and lobby for a suffrage amendment to the state constitution . Although the amendment was defeated , a later measure to give women the right to vote in presidential and municipal elections was eventually passed by the state legislature in 1919 .
In 1917 , Dudley became the Third Vice President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association , where she contributed significantly to advancing legislation on the issue of women 's suffrage . In 1920 , Dudley , along with Catherine Talty Kenny and Abby Crawford Milton , led the campaign in Tennessee to approve ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the US Constitution . On August 18 , Tennessee became the 36th and deciding state to ratify the amendment , thereby giving women the right to vote throughout the country .
= = Later life = =
Following the success of the suffrage campaign , Dudley became the first woman associate chairman of the Tennessee Democratic Committee . She was also selected as the first female delegate @-@ at @-@ large to the Democratic National Convention in 1920 . Dudley 's involvement in politics declined significantly in subsequent years , with her efforts being focused on civic and charitable causes during the remainder of her life . She was an active worker for the American Red Cross during World War II and later served as board chairman of the Association for the Preservation of Tennessee Antiquities .
Dudley died unexpectedly on September 13 , 1955 , of a coronary occlusion at her home in Belle Meade , Tennessee . She was 78 years old . She is buried with her family at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Nashville .
= = Legacy = =
Dudley 's legacy has been honored in numerous ways . She is one of three women featured in the Tennessee Woman Suffrage Memorial in Knoxville , Tennessee , along with Lizzie Crozier French of Knoxville and Elizabeth Avery Meriwether of Memphis . She is featured along with ten other prominent Tennesseans in The Pride of Tennessee , the official Tennessee State Bicentennial Portrait which hangs in the Tennessee State Capitol . There is also a historical marker in Nashville 's Centennial Park dedicated to her . Dudley was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 1995 .
An apartment building completed in 2015 on Elliston Place in Nashville is named " The Dallas " in honor of her .
= The Masked Avengers ' prank on Sarah Palin =
On November 1 , 2008 , American vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin fell victim to a prank call by the Masked Avengers , a Quebecer radio comedy duo , who tricked Palin into believing she was talking to French President Nicolas Sarkozy . During the conversation , the fake Sarkozy , speaking in English ( the real Sarkozy does not speak English ) , talked to Palin about foreign policy , hunting , and the 2008 U.S. presidential election . After it was revealed to Palin that the call was a prank , she handed the phone to one of her assistants who told the comedy duo " I have to let you go " and hung up .
Both the McCain and Obama campaigns released light @-@ hearted statements about the prank . However , a McCain campaign advisor said that behind the scenes , aides and advisors to the campaign were not happy that the pranksters were able to lie their way up to Palin , or with the publicity Palin received because of the call .
= = Background = =
The Masked Avengers , a Canadian radio duo from Montreal , Quebec radio station CKOI @-@ FM , had become notorious for making prank calls to celebrities . Disc jockeys and comedians Sébastien Trudel and Marc @-@ Antoine Audette had previously pranked celebrities like business mogul Bill Gates , golfer Tiger Woods , singer Britney Spears , and French president Nicolas Sarkozy .
Sarah Palin was the Republican governor of Alaska . On August 29 , 2008 , John McCain announced that she would be his running mate in the 2008 presidential election against Democrats Barack Obama and Joe Biden . Critics of Palin voiced their concern what they saw as her lack of foreign policy experience , especially after an interview with Katie Couric of the CBS Evening News where Palin was criticized by many for her answer to a question about her " foreign policy credentials " .
= = Preparation = =
Marc @-@ Antoine Audette said that it took the duo about four or five days of calls to Palin 's staff to finally be able to talk to her . They claimed that they started by talking to low @-@ level people in Alaska and made their way up through Palin 's campaign staff . Audette said that at first they didn 't think their prank would work , calling it a " mission impossible " . He claimed that " after about a dozen calls " , the duo " started to realize it [ the prank call ] might work , because her [ Sarah Palin 's ] staff didn 't know the name of the French President . They asked us to spell it . " Audette and Trudel credited their ability to make their way up through Palin 's staff to sounding convincing during the first few calls , always arranging to place the call at a set time , and not leaving a contact number . The four days of calls needed to talk to Palin was quicker compared to some of their other pranks . Audette and Trudel said that it took them two months to talk to Paul McCartney and one to talk to Bill Gates , but only two days to prank Britney Spears .
= = Conversation = =
Finally , on November 1 , the Masked Avengers were able to talk to Palin . The call began with Trudel , who claimed to be an aide to Sarkozy named " Frank l ’ ouvrier " , talking to an assistant to Palin who identifies herself as " Lexi " . Lexi puts Palin on the line , who says " hello " only to realize that Trudel is still on the other line . Trudel tells Palin to hold on for a moment while he gives the phone to Sarkozy , who is really Audette . Palin can be heard talking to someone in the room about when to hand Palin the phone . Audette then begins to speak and a somewhat extended conversation ensues .
After Audette reveals that the call was a prank by CKOI in Montreal , Palin leaves the phone and can be heard in the background telling her aides that the call was " just a radio station prank " . Audette is still on the line and jokes that " if one voice can change the world for Obama , one Viagra can change the world for McCain . " One of Palin 's assistants picks up the phone and says " I ’ m sorry , I have to let you go . Thank you . "
= = Reaction = =
In an e @-@ mail , Palin spokeswoman Tracey Schmitt wrote that " Governor Palin was mildly amused to learn that she had joined the ranks of heads of state , including President Sarkozy , and other celebrities in being targeted by these pranksters . C 'est la vie . " When asked by reporters about the conversation , Palin said that she would " keep a sense of humor through all of this , just as we [ the McCain campaign ] did with SNL [ parodies of her ] , too . " She added that " you 've got to have some levity in all this . "
Barack Obama senior advisor Robert Gibbs jokingly said in an interview that " I 'm glad we [ the Obama campaign ] check out our calls before we hand the phone to Barack Obama . "
The Masked Avengers received a sudden burst of fame from the prank . They gave more than 300 interviews about the conversation , and were even flown to New York City by CBS to appear on The Early Show . In an interview , Marc @-@ Antoine Audette and Sébastien Trudel said that they found it " pretty disturbing to see that idiots like us can go through to a vice @-@ presidential candidate " , and claimed that they were just " two stupid comedians with a bad French accent . " The Masked Avengers also admitted that the call was " probably the biggest [ prank ] we 've ever done . "
When recalling the experience , Audette said that " once we [ Audette and Trudel ] started making jokes , she didn 't seem to mind , and she didn 't seem to be aware of the fact we were making jokes " , which according to Audette was when " we were like ' Oh my God this [ call ] is gonna be long ' " . The duo also said that they weren 't trying to make any political statements with the call , they just like to take high @-@ profile people to task .
= = Impact = =
After McCain and Palin were defeated in the general election , a Republican campaign advisor told The New York Times that the McCain Campaign was not happy about the prank , which caused friction between McCain and Palin . McCain and his advisors were allegedly upset that Palin did not tell them beforehand that she planned to speak with who she thought was Nicolas Sarkozy . McCain strategist Steve Schmidt called a meeting and demanded to know who let Palin talk to the fake Sarkozy without checking with senior advisors first . Steve Biegun , one of Palin 's aides admitting to vetting the call without speaking to campaign advisors or the U.S. State Department , told the Los Angeles Times that " No one 's going to beat me up more than I beat myself up for setting up the governor like that . "
= Shikasta =
For Persian calligraphical style see Shikasta Nastaʿlīq .
Re : Colonised Planet 5 , Shikasta ( often shortened to Shikasta ) is a 1979 science fiction novel by Doris Lessing , and is the first book in her five @-@ book Canopus in Argos series . It was first published in the United States in October 1979 by Alfred A. Knopf , and in the United Kingdom in November 1979 by Jonathan Cape . Shikasta is also the name of the fictional planet featured in the novel .
Subtitled " Personal , psychological , historical documents relating to visit by Johor ( George Sherban ) Emissary ( Grade 9 ) 87th of the Period of the Last Days " , Shikasta is the history of the planet Shikasta ( Earth ) under the influence of three galactic empires , Canopus , Sirius , and their mutual enemy , Puttiora . The book is presented in the form of a series of reports by Canopean emissaries to Shikasta who document the planet 's prehistory , its degeneration leading to the " Century of Destruction " ( the 20th century ) , and the Apocalypse ( World War III ) .
Shikasta draws on the Old Testament and is influenced by spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism , an Islamic belief system in which Lessing had taken an interest in the mid @-@ 1960s . The book represented a major shift of focus in Lessing 's writing , from realism to science fiction , and this disappointed many of her readers . It received mixed reviews from critics . Some were impressed by the scope and vision of the book , with one reviewer calling it " an audacious and disturbing work from one of the world 's great living writers " . Others were critical of the novel 's bleakness , that humanity has no free will and that their fate lies in the hands of galactic empires .
The story of Shikasta is retold in the third book of the Canopus series , The Sirian Experiments ( 1980 ) , this time from the point of view of Sirius . Shikasta reappears in the fourth book in the series , The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 ( 1982 ) , and the Zones , briefly mentioned in Shikasta , are the subject of the second book in the series , The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five ( 1980 ) .
= = Plot = =
Canopus , a benevolent galactic empire centred at Canopus in the constellation Argo Navis , colonises a young and promising planet they name Rohanda ( the fruitful ) . They nurture its bourgeoning humanoids and accelerate their evolution . When the Natives are ready , Canopus imposes a " Lock " on Rohanda that links it via " astral currents " to the harmony and strength of the Canopean Empire . In addition to Canopus , two other empires also establish a presence on the planet : their ally , Sirius from the star of the same name , and their mutual enemy , Puttiora . The Sirians confine their activities largely to genetic experiments on the southern continents during Rohanda 's prehistory ( described in Lessing 's third book in the Canopus series , The Sirian Experiments ) , while the Shammat of Puttiora remain dormant , waiting for opportunities to strike .
For many millennia the Natives of Rohanda prosper in a Canopean induced climate of peaceful coexistence and accelerated development . Then an unforeseen " cosmic re @-@ alignment " puts Rohanda out of phase with Canopus which causes the Lock to break . Deprived of Canopus 's resources and a steady stream of a substance called SOWF ( substance @-@ of @-@ we @-@ feeling ) , the Natives develop a " Degenerative Disease " that puts the goals of the individual ahead of those of the community . The Shammat exploit this disturbance and begin undermining Canopus 's influence by infecting the Natives with their evil ways . As Rohanda degenerates into greed and conflict , the Canopeans reluctantly change its name to Shikasta ( the stricken ) . Later in the book , Shikasta is identified as Earth , or an allegorical Earth .
In an attempt to salvage Canopus 's plans for Shikasta and correct the Natives ' decline , Canopean emissaries are sent to the planet . Johor is one such emissary , who takes on the form of a Native and begins identifying those individuals who have not degenerated too far and are amenable to his corrective instructions . Johor then sends those he has successfully " converted " to spread the word among other Natives , and soon isolated communities begin to return to the pre @-@ Shikastan days . But without the SOWF and Shammat 's influence over the Natives , Canopus is fighting a losing battle and the planet declines further . By the Shikastan 's 20th century , the planet has degenerated into war and self @-@ destruction . Johor returns , but this time through Zone 6 from which he is born on the planet ( incarnated ) as a Shikastan , George Sherban . As Sherban grows up , he establishes contact with other Canopeans in disguise and then resumes his work trying to help the Shikastans . But famine and unemployment grow , and anarchy spreads .
On the eve of World War III , Sherban and other emissaries relocate a small number of promising Shikastans to remote locations to escape the coming nuclear holocaust . The war reduces Shikasta 's population by 99 % and sweeps the planet clean of the " barbarians " . The Shammat , who set the Shikastans on a course of self @-@ destruction , self @-@ destruct themselves and withdraw from the planet . The Canopeans help the survivors rebuild their lives and re @-@ align themselves with Canopus . With a strengthened Lock and the SOWF flowing freely again , harmony and prosperity return to Shikasta .
= = Background and genre = =
Doris Lessing was born to British parents in Persia ( now Iran ) in 1919 . Her family moved to Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) in 1925 where she later dropped out of school at the age of 14 . Over the next decade she pursued various careers , including journalism , and published several short stories . In the early 1940s Lessing was attracted to a group of " quasi @-@ Communist [ s ] " and joined their Left Book Club in Salisbury ( now Harare ) . Her interest in " the race issue " , prominent in Rhodesia at the time , prompted her to join the Southern Rhodesian Labour Party . Lessing moved to London in 1949 where she began her writing career . She also joined the British Communist Party and became an active campaigner against the use of nuclear weapons .
In 1950 Lessing 's first novel , The Grass Is Singing , was published , a story of racial conflict based on her experiences in Rhodesia . It was followed by several others , including her semi @-@ autobiographical Children of Violence series , and her 1962 " breakthrough " novel , The Golden Notebook in which she broached the subject of feminism . In 1964 , disillusioned with Communism , Lessing turned her attention to Sufism , an Islamic belief system , after reading The Sufis by Idries Shah . She described The Sufis as " the most surprising book [ she ] had read " , and said it " changed [ her ] life " . Lessing later met Shah , who became " a good friend [ and ] teacher " . In the early 1970s Lessing began writing " inner space " fiction , which included the novels Briefing for a Descent into Hell ( 1971 ) and Memoirs of a Survivor ( 1974 ) . In the late 1970s she wrote Shikasta in which she used many Sufi concepts .
Shikasta was intended to be a " single self @-@ contained book " , but as Lessing 's fictional universe developed , she found she had ideas for more than just one book , and ended up writing a series of five . Shikasta , and the Canopus in Argos series as a whole , fall into the category of soft science fiction ( " space fiction " in Lessing 's own words ) due to their focus on characterization and social and cultural issues , and the de @-@ emphasis of science and technology . Robert Alter of The New York Times suggested that this kind of writing belongs to a genre literary critic Northrop Frye called the " anatomy " , which is " a combination of fantasy and morality " . Gore Vidal placed Lessing 's " science fiction " " somewhere between John Milton and L. Ron Hubbard " .
Shikasta represented a major shift of focus for Lessing , influenced by spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism . This switch to " science fiction " was not well received by all . By the late 1970s , Lessing was considered " one of the most honest , intelligent and engaged writers of the day " , and Western readers unfamiliar with Sufism were dismayed that Lessing had abandoned her " rational worldview " . George Stade of The New York Times complained that " our Grand Mistress of lumpen realism has gone religious on us " . The reaction of reviewers and readers to the first two books in the series , Shikasta and The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five ( 1980 ) , prompted Lessing to write in the Preface to the third book in the series , The Sirian Experiments ( 1980 ) :
I would so like it if reviewers and readers could see this series , Canopus in Argos : Archive , as a framework that enables me to tell ( I hope ) a beguiling tale or two ; to put questions , both to myself and to others ; to explore ideas and sociological possibilities .
Further criticism of the Canopus series followed , which included this comment by New York Times critic John Leonard : " One of the many sins for which the 20th century will be held accountable is that it has discouraged Mrs. Lessing . [ ... ] She now propagandizes on behalf of our insignificance in the cosmic razzmatazz . " Lessing replied by saying : " What they didn 't realize was that in science fiction is some of the best social fiction of our time . I also admire the classic sort of science fiction , like Blood Music , by Greg Bear . He 's a great writer . " Lessing said in 1983 that she would like to write stories about red and white dwarves , space rockets powered by anti @-@ gravity , and charmed and coloured quarks , " [ b ] ut we can 't all be physicists " .
Lessing later wrote several essays on Sufism which were published in her essay collection , Time Bites ( 2004 ) . She was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature , and was described by the Swedish Academy as " that epicist of the female experience , who with scepticism , fire and visionary power has subjected a divided civilisation to scrutiny " .
Lessing dedicated Shikasta to her father . While she was still a child in Southern Rhodesia he often used to gaze up at the night sky and say , " Makes you think – there are so many worlds up there , wouldn 't really matter if we did blow ourselves up – plenty more where we came from . " Shikasta gave rise to a religious cult in America . Lessing said in an interview that its followers had written to her and asked , " When are we going to be visited by the gods ? " , and she told them that the book is " not a cosmology . It 's an invention " , and they replied , " Ah , you 're just testing us " .
= = Analysis = =
The name " Shikasta " comes from the Persian word شکسته ( shekasteh ) meaning " broken " , and is often seen used as the name of the Iranian national style of Persian calligraphy , Shekasteh Nastaʿlīq . In the book , Lessing does not state explicitly that the planet Shikasta is Earth , but many critics believe that its similarities to Earth 's history make it clear that Shikasta is Earth as seen by the Canopeans . Some of the documents in the book written by Shikastans refer to geographical locations and countries on Earth . Other critics , however , interpret Shikasta as an allegorical Earth with parallel histories that deviate from time to time .
Shikasta has been called an " anti @-@ novel " , and an " architectonic novel " . It is the story of the planet Shikasta from the perspective of Canopus and is presented as a case study for " first @-@ year students of Canopean Colonial Rule " . It contains a series of reports by Canopean emissaries to the planet , extracts from the Canopean reference , History of Shikasta , and copies of letters and journals written by selected Shikastans . The history of Shikasta is monitored by the virtually immortal Canopeans , from Rohanda 's prehistory , through to Shikasta 's " Century of Destruction " ( Earth 's 20th century ) , and into Earth 's future when the Chinese occupy Europe and World War III breaks out . The book purports to be the " true " history of our planet .
Shikasta alludes to the Old Testament , Gnosticism and Sufism , and draws on several Judeo @-@ Christian themes . Lessing wrote in the book 's preface that it has its roots in the Old Testament . Her SOWF ( Substance @-@ Of @-@ We @-@ Feeling ) , the " spiritual nourishment " that flows from Canopus to Shikasta , is also a word she invented with a pronunciation similar to " Sufi " . A reviewer of the book in the Los Angeles Times said that Shikasta is a " reworking of the Bible " , and the Infinity Plus website draws parallels between the Canopeans and their emissaries , and God and his angels from the Old Testament . A New York Times reviewer wrote that the " outer space " where the Canopeans come from is a metaphor for " religious or inner space " . Thelma J. Shinn , in her book Worlds Within Women : Myth and Mythmaking in Fantastic Literature by Women , described the struggle between Canopus and Shammat , played out on Shikasta , as the " eternal struggle between good and evil " , and the " Degenerative Disease " that strikes Shikasta as a metaphor for the original sin . Lessing said in an interview that the final war ( World War III ) at the end of the novel is the Apocalypse . Phyllis Sternberg Perrakis wrote in The Journal of Bahá ’ í Studies that Shikasta is the " symbolic rendering of the coming of a new prophet to an earthlike planet " , and relates it to Bahá ’ í principles .
= = Reception = =
Paul Gray wrote in a review in Time that the documents that make up Shikasta allow Lessing to stretch the novel out over vast periods of time and shift perspective " dramatically from the near infinite to the minute " . He said that the book 's cohesiveness is its variety , and noted how Lessing interspaces her " grand designs " and " configurations of enormous powers " with " passages of aching poignancy " . Gray said that Shikasta is closer to Gulliver 's Travels and the Old Testament than it is to Buck Rogers , and may disappoint readers interpreting her " space fiction " as " science fiction " . He found Lessing 's bleak vision of Earth 's history in which she suggests that humans " could not [ ... ] help making the messes they have , that their blunders were all ordained by a small tic in the cosmos " , a little " unsatisfying " , but added that even if you do not subscribe to her theories , the book can still be enjoyable , " even furiously engaging on every page " . Gray called Shikasta " an audacious and disturbing work from one of the world 's great living writers " .
Author Gore Vidal wrote in The New York Review of Books that Shikasta is a " work of a formidable imagination " . He said that Lessing is " a master " of eschatological writing , but added that while her depictions of a terminal London are " very real " , as a whole the book is " never quite real enough " . Vidal also felt that Zone 6 , Lessing 's alternate plane for the dead , is not as convincing as The Dry Lands in Ursula K. Le Guin ’ s Earthsea trilogy . He compared the Canopeans and Shammat to Milton 's God and Satan in Paradise Lost , but said that while Lucifer 's " overthrow [ ... ] of his writerly creator is an awesome thing " , in Shikasta Lessing 's human race with no free will is too passive and of no interest . Vidal attributed this to Lessing 's " surrender " to the Sufis and the SOWF ( Substance @-@ Of @-@ We @-@ Feeling ) , and not her inability to create good characters .
New York Times reviewer George Stade said that Shikasta " forces us to think about [ ... ] what we are , how we got that way and where we are going " , but complained that the book is filled with " false hopes " , and that the fate of humankind relies on " theosophical emanations , cosmic influences , occult powers , spiritual visitations and stellar vibrations " . When the SOWF is cut off and the Shikastans degenerate , Lessing " both indicts and exculpates " them , implying that humanity is bad , but it is not their fault . While Stade complemented Lessing on the book 's satire , and her depictions of Zone 6 , which he said " have the eerie beauty of ancient Gnostic texts " , he " disapprove [ d ] " of the novel as a whole , but added , " that doesn 't mean I didn 't enjoy reading it " .
The Los Angeles Times called Shikasta an " epic " and suspected that it may have influenced the Nobel committee when they referred to Lessing as an " epicist of the female experience " . Thelma J. Shinn wrote in her book , Worlds Within Women : Myth and Mythmaking in Fantastic Literature by Women , that Lessing 's history of humanity in Shikasta is " pessimistic " but " convincing " . Infinity Plus described Shikasta as a " mainstream novel that uses SF ideas " , and said that while Lessing was not able to predict the fall of the Soviet Union and the impact of computers , the novel " barely seems dated " because of her " cunningly non @-@ specific " approach .
James Schellenberg writing in Challenging Destiny , a Canadian science fiction and fantasy magazine , was impressed by Shikasta 's " grand sense of perspective " and the context of humanity set in a " vaster scale of civilization and right @-@ thinking " . He liked the concept of SOWF as a " metaphor of community connectedness " , but felt it was an unusual way to build a utopia . The book 's fractured storytelling leads to Lessing breaking the " famous dictum of writing – show , don 't tell " , and while that may work in certain circumstances , Schellenberg felt that that approach does not work very well in Shikasta . The online magazine Journey to the Sea found Lessing 's inclusion of stories from the Hebrew Bible " entertaining and intriguing " , and said she challenges the logical thinker 's rejection of these sacred texts , suggesting that it is " imaginatively possible " that they could be true .
Following Lessing 's death in 2013 , The Guardian put Shikasta in their list of the top five Lessing books .
= Indian Camp =
" Indian Camp " is a short story written by Ernest Hemingway . The story was first published in 1924 in Ford Madox Ford 's literary magazine Transatlantic Review in Paris and republished by Boni & Liveright in Hemingway 's first American volume of short stories In Our Time in 1925 . Hemingway 's semi @-@ autobiographical character Nick Adams — a child in this story — makes his first appearance in Indian Camp , told from his point of view .
In the story Nick Adams ' father , a country doctor , has been summoned to a Native American or " Indian " camp to deliver a pregnant woman of her baby . At the camp , the father is forced to perform an emergency caesarean section using a jack @-@ knife , with Nick as his assistant . Afterward , the woman 's husband is discovered dead , having slit his throat during the operation . The story shows the emergence of Hemingway 's understated style and his use of counterpoint . An initiation story , " Indian Camp " includes themes such as childbirth and fear of death which permeate much of Hemingway 's subsequent work . When the story was published , the quality of writing was noted and praised , and scholars consider " Indian Camp " an important story in the Hemingway canon .
= = Plot summary = =
The story begins in the pre @-@ dawn hours as the young Nick Adams , his father , his uncle and their Indian guides row across a lake to a nearby Indian camp . Nick 's father , a doctor , has been called out to deliver a baby for a woman who has been in labor for days . At the camp , they find the woman in a cabin lying on a bottom bunkbed ; her husband lies above her with an injured foot . Nick 's father is forced to perform a caesarian operation on the woman with a jack @-@ knife because the baby is in the breech position ; he asks Nick to assist by holding a basin . The woman screams throughout the operation , and when Nick 's uncle tries to hold her down , she bites him . After the baby is delivered , Nick 's father turns to the woman 's husband on the top bunk and finds that he fatally slit his throat with a straight razor during the operation . Nick is sent out of the cabin , and his uncle leaves with two Natives , not to return . The story ends with only Nick and his father on the lake , rowing away from the camp . Nick asks a series of questions about birth and death . Nick thinks to himself that he will never die while we silently watches his father row .
= = Background and publication history = =
In the early 1920s , Hemingway and his wife Hadley lived in Paris where he was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star . When Hadley became pregnant they returned to Toronto . Hemingway biographer Kenneth Lynn suggests that Hadley 's childbirth became the inspiration for the story . She went into labor while Hemingway was on a train , returning from New York . Lynn believes Hemingway likely was terrified Hadley would not survive the birth , and he became " beside himself with fear ... about the extent of her suffering and swamped by a sense of helplessness at the realization that he would probably arrive too late to be of assistance to her " . Hemingway wrote " Indian Camp " a few months after John Hemingway was born in Toronto on October 10 , 1923 .
While they were in Toronto , Hemingway 's first book , Three Stories and Ten Poems , was published in Paris , followed months later by a second volume , in our time ( without capitals ) , which included 18 short vignettes presented as untitled chapters . Hemingway , Hadley , and their son ( nicknamed Bumby ) returned to Paris in January 1924 , moving into a new apartment on the Rue Notre Dame des Champs . With Ezra Pound , Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit his newly launched literary magazine , Transatlantic Review , which published pieces by modernists such as Pound , John Dos Passos , James Joyce , Gertrude Stein , as well as Hemingway .
" Indian Camp " began as a 29 @-@ page untitled manuscript that Hemingway cut to seven pages ; at first he called the story " One Night Last Summer " . In 1924 , the seven @-@ page story titled " Indian Camp " was published by the Transatlantic Review in the " Works in Progress " section , along with a piece from James Joyce 's manuscript Finnegans Wake . A year later on October 5 , 1925 , " Indian Camp " was republished by Boni & Liveright in New York , in an expanded American edition of Hemingway 's first collection of short stories titled In Our Time , ( with capitals ) with a print @-@ run of 1335 copies .
" Indian Camp " was later included in Hemingway 's collection The Fifth Column and the First Forty @-@ Nine Stories published in October 1938 . Two collections of short stories published after Hemingway 's death included " Indian Camp " : The Nick Adams Stories ( 1972 ) and The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway : The Finca Vigía Edition ( 1987 ) . The Nick Adams Stories ( 1972 ) , edited by Philip Young , included the story fragment titled " Three Shots " that Hemingway originally cut from " Indian Camp " .
= = Themes and genre = =
= = = Initiation and fear of death = = =
" Indian Camp " is an initiation story . Nick 's father ( Dr. Adams ) exposes his young son to childbirth and , unintentionally , to violent death — an experience that causes Nick to equate childbirth with death . Hemingway critic Wendolyn Tetlow maintains that in " Indian Camp " , sexuality culminates in " butchery @-@ style " birth and bloody death , and that Nick 's anxiety is obvious when he turns away from the butchery . The story reaches a climax when Nick 's " heightened awareness " of evil causes him to turn away from the experience . Although Nick may not want to watch the caesarian , his father insists he watch - he does not want his son to be initiated into an adult world without toughness , writes Thomas Strychacz .
Hemingway biographer Philip Young writes that Hemingway 's emphasis in " Indian Camp " was not primarily on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide , but on young Nick Adams , who witnesses these events and becomes a " badly scarred and nervous young man " . In " Indian Camp " , Hemingway begins the events that shape the Adams persona . Young considers this single Hemingway story to hold the " master key " to " what its author was up to for some thirty @-@ five years of his writing career " . Critic Howard Hannum agrees . He believes the trauma of birth and suicide Hemingway paints in " Indian Camp " rendered a leitmotif that gave Hemingway a unified framework for the Nick Adams stories .
" Indian Camp " is also about the fear of death . The section cut from the story highlights Nick 's fear ; the published version underscores it in a less obvious manner . In the cut section , later published as " Three Shots " , the night before being taken to the Indian camp Nick is left alone in the forest , where he is " overwhelmed by thoughts of death " . Critic Paul Strong speculates that Hemingway may have intended the narrative to be structured so that Nick 's father chose to take his fearful son to the Indian camp where Nick faced the grisly reality of death , which can have done " little to assuage Nick 's fears . " Hannum believes Hemingway is intentionally vague about the details of the birth but not the death ; he speculates that Nick would have likely " blocked out much of the caesarian but he had clearly seen the father 's head tilted back " .
Critics have questioned why the woman 's husband kills himself . Strong finds the arguments that the husband is driven to suicide by the wife 's screaming to be problematic because the suicide occurs at the moment the screams are silenced . He points to Hemingway 's statement in Death in the Afternoon , " if two people love each other there can be no happy end to it " , as evidence that the husband may have killed himself because he is " driven frantic by his wife 's pain , and perhaps his own " .
The story also shows the innocence of childhood ; Nick Adams believes he will live forever and be a child forever ; he is a character who sees his life " stretching ahead . " At the end of the story , in the boat with his father , Nick denies death when he says he will never die . " Indian Camp " shows Hemingway 's early fascination with suicide and with the conflict between fathers and sons . Young thinks there is an unavoidable focus on the fact that the two people the principal characters are based on — the father , Clarence Hemingway , and the boy , Ernest Hemingway — end up committing suicide . Kenneth Lynn writes that the irony to modern readers is that both characters in " that boat on the lake would one day do away with themselves " . Hemingway shot himself on July 2 , 1961 ; his father shot himself on December 6 , 1928 .
= = = Primitivism , race , and autobiography = = =
In his essay " Hemingway 's Primitivism and ' Indian camp ' " Jeffrey Meyers writes that Hemingway was very clear about the husband 's role , because in this story he was writing about a familiar subject — the experiences of his boyhood in Michigan . The young father 's role is to " deflate the doctor " , who finds victory in slicing open the woman 's belly to deliver the infant , and to provide a counterpoint to the mother 's strength and resilience . The father 's suicide serves as a symbolic rejection of the white doctor whose skill is necessary , but who brings with him destruction . In her paper " Screaming Through Silence : The Violence of Race in ' Indian Camp ' " , Amy Strong writes " Indian Camp " is about domination ; the husband kills himself at the moment his wife is cut open by a white doctor . She thinks the theme of domination exists on more than one level : Nick is dominated by his father ; the white outsiders dominate in the Indian camp ; and the white doctor " has cut into the woman , like the early settlers leaving a gash in the tree . "
According to Hemingway scholar Thomas Strychacz , in the story Hemingway presents a re @-@ enactment of the arrival of Europeans in the New World and the subsequent doctrine of manifest destiny . The white men in the story arrive on the water and are met at a beach by natives . The native husband and father of the baby loses everything , causing him to kill himself : his home is overtaken , and his wife ripped apart . The white doctor tells his son to ignore the woman 's screams : " her screams are not important . I don 't hear them because they are not important . " The doctor 's victory is to control nature by delivering a baby , diminished by the father 's suicide who through his death symbolically takes back control from the white doctor .
Meyers claims the story is not autobiographical though it is an early example of Hemingway 's ability to tell stories " true to life . " In the story , Nick Adams ' father , who is portrayed as " professionally cool " , is based on Hemingway 's own father , Clarence Hemingway . Hemingway 's paternal uncle , George , appears in the story , and is treated unsympathetically . Hannum suggests George may have been the child 's father , writing that in the story remains the " never @-@ resolved implication of the paternity of the Indian child " . During the surgery the mother bites Uncle George , the Indians laugh at him , and he leaves when the father is found dead .
Jackson Benson writes in " Ernest Hemingway : The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life " that critics should refrain from finding connections between Hemingway 's life and fiction and instead focus on how he uses biographical events to transform life into art . He believes the events in a writer 's life have only a vague relationship to the fiction , like a dream from which a drama emerges . Of Hemingway 's earliest stories , Benson claims " his early fiction , his best , has often been compared to a compulsive nightmare " . In his essay " On Writing " , Hemingway wrote that " Indian Camp " was a story in which imaginary events were made to seem real : " Everything good he 'd ever written he 'd made up .... Of course he 'd never seen an Indian woman having a baby . That was what made it good . "
= = Writing style = =
Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that Hemingway learned from his short stories how to " get the most from the least , how to prune language , how to multiply intensities , and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth " . The style has become known as the iceberg theory , because , as Baker describes it , in Hemingway 's writing the hard facts float above water while the supporting structure , including the symbolism , operates out of sight . Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices to write about life in general — not only his life . The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the " theory of omission " . Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface .
Hemingway learned from Ezra Pound how to achieve a stripped @-@ down style and how to incorporate the concepts of imagism in his prose . He said Pound " had taught him more ' about how to write and how not to write ' than any son of a bitch alive " ; and his friend James Joyce told him " to pare down his work to the essentials " . The prose is spare and lacks a clear symbolism . Instead of more conventional literary allusions , Hemingway relied on repetitive metaphors or metonymy to build images . The caesarian is repeatedly associated with words such as " the blanket " and " the bunk " in a series of objective correlatives , a technique Hemingway learned from T.S. Eliot . Tetlow believes in this early story Hemingway ignored character development ; he simply places a character in a setting , and adds descriptive detail such as a screaming woman , men smoking tobacco , and an infected wound , which give a sense of truth .
" Indian Camp " is constructed in three parts : the first places Nick and his father on a dark lake ; the second takes place in the squalid and cramped cabin amid terrifying action ; and the third shows Nick and his father back on the lake — bathed in sunlight . Hemingway 's use of counterpoint is evident when , for example , at the end , Nick trails his hand in lake water that " felt warm in the sharp chill of the morning " . Paul Strong believes the deleted section may have provided context and additional counterpoint to the plot , with Nick 's aloneness in the " stillness of the night " juxtaposed against the middle scene , crowded with people . Paul Smith writes that by cutting the piece , Hemingway focuses on the story 's central point : the life and death initiation rituals , familiar to the residents of the Indian camp but alien to young Nick . Unable to express his feelings fully , in the end , Nick trails his hand in the water and " felt quite sure that he would never die " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Hemingway 's writing style attracted attention when in our time ( without capitals ) was published in Paris in 1924 — in a small @-@ print run from Ezra Pound 's modernist series through Three Mountains Press . Edmund Wilson described the writing as " of the first distinction " , enough to bring attention to Hemingway . When " Indian Camp " was published , it received considerable praise . Ford Madox Ford regarded " Indian Camp " as an important early story by a young writer . Critics in the United States claimed Hemingway reinvigorated the short story by his use of declarative sentences and his crisp style . Hemingway admits In Our Time is a collection of stories with " pretty good unity " and generally critics agree .
In the 1970s Carlos Baker wrote of the stories from In Our Time , and specifically " Indian Camp " , that they were a remarkable achievement . Hemingway scholars , such as Benson , rank " Indian Camp " as one of Hemingway 's " greatest short stories , " a story that is described as " best known " , " violent " and " dramatic " . In 1992 , Frederick Busch wrote in The New York Times that Hemingway had gone out of fashion . While his antisemitism , racism , violence , and attitudes toward women and homosexuals made him a politically incorrect writer , he turned violence into art unlike any other American writer of his time by showing that " the making of art is a matter of life or death , no less " . Busch believes Hemingway 's characters either faced life or chose death , a choice shown most starkly in " Indian Camp " . The saving of a life in " Indian Camp " is at the center of much of Hemingway 's fiction , Busch writes , and adds power to his fiction .
= Winghead shark =
The winghead shark ( Eusphyra blochii ) is a species of hammerhead shark , and part of the family Sphyrnidae . Reaching a length of 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) , this small brown to gray shark has a slender body with a tall , sickle @-@ shaped first dorsal fin . Its name comes from its exceptionally large " hammer " , or cephalofoil , which can be as wide as half of the shark 's total length . The function of this structure is unclear but may relate to the shark 's senses . The wide spacing of its eyes grants superb binocular vision , while the extremely long nostrils on the leading margin of the cephalofoil may allow for better detection and tracking of odor trails in the water . The cephalofoil also provides a large surface area for its ampullae of Lorenzini and lateral line , with potential benefits for electroreception and mechanoreception respectively .
Inhabiting the shallow coastal waters of the western Indo @-@ Pacific , the winghead shark feeds on small bony fishes , crustaceans , and cephalopods . It gives birth to live young , with the developing embryos receiving nourishment through a placental connection . Females produce annual litters of 6 – 25 pups ; depending on region , birthing may occur from February to June after a gestation period of 8 – 11 months . This harmless species is widely fished for meat , fins , liver oil , and fishmeal . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Endangered in 2016 , as it is thought to have declined in some parts of its range due to over @-@ exploitation .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1785 , German naturalist Marcus Elieser Bloch described a shark that he referred to Squalus zygaena ( a synonym of Sphyrna zygaena , the smooth hammerhead ) . French zoologist Georges Cuvier , as a brief footnote to the account of S. zygaena in his 1817 Le Règne animal distribué d 'après son organisation , pour servir de base à l 'histoire naturelle des animaux et d 'introduction à l 'anatomie comparée , observed that Bloch 's specimen ( which he labeled " z. nob . Blochii " ) was not a smooth hammerhead but rather a different species . Although Cuvier did not propose a proper binomial name , his colleague Achille Valenciennes interpreted it as such in 1822 when he described another specimen of the same species in detail , calling it Zygaena Blochii nobis and attributing the name to Cuvier .
In 1862 , Theodore Gill placed the winghead shark in its own genus Eusphyra , derived from the Greek eu ( " good " ) and sphyra ( " hammer " ) . However , subsequent authors did not accept Eusphyra and preferred to keep this species with the other hammerheads in the genus Sphyrna . Eusphyra was resurrected by Henry Bigelow and William Schroeder in 1948 , and came into wider usage after additional taxonomic research was published by Leonard Compagno in 1979 and 1988 . Nevertheless , some sources still refer to this species as Sphyrna blochii . Other common names for the winghead shark include arrowhead , arrow headed hammerhead shark , and slender hammerhead .
= = Phylogeny = =
The traditional view of hammerhead shark evolution is that species with smaller cephalofoils evolved first from a requiem shark ancestor , and later gave rise to species with larger cephalofoils . Under this interpretation , the winghead shark is the most derived hammerhead as it has the most extreme cephalofoil morphology . However , molecular phylogenetic research based on isozymes , mitochondrial DNA , and nuclear DNA have found the opposite pattern , with the winghead shark as the most basal member of the hammerhead family . This result supports the counterintuitive idea that the first hammerhead shark to evolve had a large cephalofoil . It also supports the separation of Eusphyra from Sphyrna by keeping the latter monophyletic ( including all descendants of a single ancestor ) . The winghead shark lineage is estimated to have diverged from the rest of the hammerheads some 15 – 20 million years ago during the Miocene .
= = Description = =
True to its name , the winghead shark 's cephalofoil consists of a pair of long , narrow , and gently swept @-@ back blades . The width of the cephalofoil is equal to 40 – 50 % of the shark 's total length . The front of the cephalofoil has a slight indentation in the middle and a gentle bump on each side in front of the nostrils . Each nostril is roughly twice as long as the width of the mouth and extends along almost the entire leading margin of each blade . The circular eyes , located at the forward outer corners of the cephalofoil , are equipped with protective nictitating membranes . The relatively small , arched mouth contains 15 – 16 upper and 14 lower tooth rows on each side , and sometimes also a single row of tiny teeth at the upper and / or lower symphyses ( jaw midpoints ) . The teeth are small and smooth @-@ edged , with angled triangular cusps . There are five pairs of gill slits , with the fifth pair over the pectoral fin origins .
The body is slim and streamlined , with a very tall , narrow , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) first dorsal fin that originates over the bases of the rather small pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is much smaller and originates over the aft third of the anal fin base . The anal fin is about half again as long as the second dorsal fin . There is a lengthwise groove on the caudal peduncle at the dorsal origin of the caudal fin . The upper caudal fin lobe is longer than the lower lobe , and bears a notch in the trailing margin near the tip . The skin is covered by overlapping dermal denticles , each with three horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is brownish gray to gray above and off @-@ white below , and lacks fin markings . It grows up to 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The winghead shark is found in the tropical western Indo @-@ Pacific , from the Persian Gulf eastward across South and Southeast Asia to New Guinea and northern Queensland . Its range extends as far north as Taiwan and as far south as the Montebello Islands off Western Australia . This species inhabits shallow waters close to shore and has been known to enter estuaries .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Several non @-@ exclusive hypotheses have been proposed to explain the extreme size of the winghead shark 's cephalofoil . The placement of the eyes at the ends of the cephalofoil provides a binocular field of view of 48 ° , the most of any hammerhead and four times that of a requiem shark ; this species thus has excellent depth perception , which may aid in hunting . This species also has proportionately the longest nostrils among the hammerheads ; longer nostrils contain more chemosensory receptors and can sample more water at a time , increasing the chances of detecting an odor molecule . A winghead shark 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long is theoretically capable of sampling over 2 @,@ 300 cm3 ( 140 in3 ) of water per second . Another potential olfactory benefit of the cephalofoil is increased separation between the midpoints of the left and right nostrils , which enhances the shark 's ability to resolve the direction of a scent trail . Finally , the cephalofoil may increase the shark 's ability to detect the electric fields and movements of its prey , by providing a larger surface area for its electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini and mechanoreceptive lateral line . The lateral blades seem too large to function in maneuvering , which has been suggested for other hammerheads .
The winghead shark usually hunts close to the sea floor . Its diet consists mainly of small bony fishes , followed by crustaceans and cephalopods . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Callitetrarhynchus blochii , Heteronybelinia heteromorphi , Otobothrium carcharidis , O. mugilis , Phoreiobothrium puriensis , and Phyllobothrium blochii , the nematodes Hysterothylacium ganeshi , Pseudanisakis sp . , Raphidascaroides blochii , and Terranova sp . , the copepod Caligus furcisetifer , and the protozoan Eimeria zygaenae .
= = = Life history = = =
The winghead shark is viviparous like the rest of its family , with the developing young sustained to term by a placental connection to the mother . Adult females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . Compartments form inside the uteruses during pregnancy , one for each embryo . In the waters around Mumbai , the mating season is in July and August during the monsoon . The males bite at the sides of the females as a prelude to copulation . Females can reproduce every year ; the litter size ranges from 6 to 25 pups , and increases with the size of the female . The gestation period lasts 8 – 9 months off western India , and 10 – 11 months off northern Australia . Pregnant females have been reported to quarrel with each other .
Initially , the embryo is nourished by yolk and develops in a similar fashion to other sharks . At a length of 4 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) , the cephalofoil and the fins begin to form . When the embryo is 12 – 16 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) long , the yolk supply begins to run low and folds appear on the yolk sac and uterine wall , which will later interlock to form the placenta . At this stage , the embryo has most of the features of an adult , albeit rudimentary and colorless . The blades of the cephalofoil are folded back along the body , and there are long external gill filaments protruding from the gill slits . At a length of 20 – 29 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 11 @.@ 4 in ) , the placenta has formed ; the first teeth , dermal denticles , and skin pigmentation appear on the embryo , and the external gills are much reduced in size . By the time the embryo is 30 cm ( 12 in ) long , it resembles a miniature version of the adult .
Birthing takes place in May and June off Mumbai and Parangipettai , in March and April in the Gulf of Mannar , and in February and March off northern Australia . The pups emerge tail @-@ first , and their cephalofoils remain folded until after birth to facilitate passage through the cloaca . The newborns measure 32 – 47 cm ( 13 – 19 in ) in length . Sexual maturity is reached at around 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 ft ) long for males and 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long for females . The maximum lifespan is at least 21 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the winghead shark is caught throughout its range using gillnets , seines , stake nets , longlines , and hook @-@ and @-@ line . The meat is sold fresh , the fins are exported to Asia for shark fin soup , the liver is a source of vitamin oil , and the offal is processed into fishmeal . This species is taken in large numbers in some areas , such as in the Gulf of Thailand and off India and Indonesia , and there is anecdotal evidence that its population has suffered as a result . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the winghead shark as Endangered . This species is only infrequently caught in Australian waters , where it has been assessed regionally as Least Concern by the IUCN .
= All Saints ' Church , Southampton =
All Saints ' Church was a church building in Southampton City Centre , located on the corner of the High Street and East Street , a short distance south of the Bargate .
The original church on the site was named All Hallows , and was constructed in medieval times on land granted by the monarch at the time , Henry II , to the monks of St. Denys Priory . This building fell into disrepair and in the 1790s a new church building was constructed and the church renamed to All Saints . The old church was demolished in 1791 and the new building was completed in 1795 , following two acts of Parliament allowing trustees of the church to raise funds from rates on property and rents in the parish . The All Hallows catacombs were incorporated into the All Saints building , and a separate graveyard was established . The church was regularly attended by author Jane Austen while she lived in Southampton and painter Sir John Everett Millais was baptised there . A new organ was installed in the church in 1861 and a substantial refurbishment programme took place in 1872 . All Saints was heavily damaged in the Southampton Blitz and was subsequently demolished .
The All Saints building was designed by architect Willey Reveley and featured an arched ceiling that spanned the whole sanctuary , some 90 feet ( 27 m ) long and 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , without the use of any supporting pillars . The neoclassical frontage of the church was dominated by four columns supporting Grecian pilasters and a triangular pediment .
The catacombs were the resting place of a chancellor of the Exchequer and two notable Royal Navy officers among others . In August 1944 the remains of all 403 people buried in the catacombs were transferred to a communal grave elsewhere in Southampton .
= = History = =
= = = 12th to 17th century = = =
Henry II , king of England from 1154 to 1189 , granted land for the construction of All Hallows ' Church to the monks of St. Denys Priory during his reign . The original church , located on the corner of the High Street and East Street , a short distance south of the Bargatehad a chancel and nave with north aisle , and a tower in three stages at its western end . The parish registers date from 1653 . The Great Ejection of 1662 led to a number of people being ejected from All Hallows , and these went on to form what would become Above Bar Church and Avenue St Andrew 's United Reformed Church . Among their number was the rector of the church at the time , Nathaniel Robinson . The church had five bells , but three of them were stolen one night in September 1682 and never found , despite an award being offered by the Mayor of Southampton , John Speed , in the London Gazette .
= = = 18th century = = =
By 1791 the medieval church of All Hallows had fallen into disrepair , and an act of Parliament ( the All Saints Church , Southampton Act of 1791 ) was passed with provision to demolish the existing structure and rebuild the parish church , and to purchase land for a church yard . The old building , which the Act described as " very ancient , and in a very decayed and ruinous condition " , was demolished that year . Work begun on the replacement church , All Saints , in the spring of 1792 , with the foundation stone being laid on 3 August that year . In addition to replacing the previous building , a number of neighbouring houses were demolished to make way for the new church .
The building was designed by John Reveley , better known as Willey Reveley , an architect who had been a pupil of Sir William Chambers . Reveley complained in 1795 regarding the late payment of his bills , stating that the committee overseeing the construction of the church owed him £ 1000 . Writing about Reveley 's design for All Saints ' , Dr Frank Salmon of Cambridge University said " the church in Southampton was probably his most important building " and John Nichols , who authored Reveley 's obituary in The Gentleman 's Magazine , described it as " his principal work " . However , in a 1861 history of Hampshire , the building is described as " wholly without interest " . Nichols related that the finished building was substantially different to Reveley 's original intentions , stating :
The foundation stone was laid by the Provincial Grand Master of the Freemasons , Thomas Dunckerley , and the ceremony was also attended by the poet laureate , Henry Pye , who wrote an ode for the ceremony . The Mayor of Southampton and other dignitaries were also in attendance . The powers awarded to the church 's trustees in the 1791 act for fundraising proved insufficient and another act ( the All Saints Church , Southampton Act of 1793 ) was passed two years later to remedy this . The 1793 legislation 's introduction reported that the demolition had been completed and construction of the new building was under way . The 1791 act allowed the trustees to borrow up to £ 5000 , and to collect rates on property and rents in the parish of up to one shilling in each pound . The 1793 act allowed them to raise an additional £ 4000 among other provisions . The building was completed in 1795 . The catacombs of the original church remained intact and were incorporated into the new building . This underground cemetery reached slightly beyond the footprint of the actual building , extending under a portion of the High Street itself . In addition to the catacombs , a separate graveyard was established , located south of East Street on Back of the Walls ( another Southampton street ) . This location was technically outside of the All Saints ' parish boundary .
The first rector of the new church was Richard Mant , who preached a sermon when the building was consecrated in that year . In the sermon , Mant made comments which were seen as an abusive attack on the " dissenters " – that is , those Christians who did not exclusively use the Church of England 's prescribed forms of prayer – and this prompted a detailed written response from William Kingsbury , the minister of an independent church in Southampton . Kingsbury 's letter sparked a response from Brian Monckhouse of Oxford , which in turn led to much further debate and publications on the matter including a " pastoral charge " by the Bishop of Salisbury . Mant 's son , also called Richard , had been born in Southampton in 1776 and went on to become a bishop . A further act of Parliament was passed in 1797 , after the new building had been constructed and furnished , allowing the trustees to raise up to £ 4000 more and increasing the percentage they could collect from properties in the parish to one shilling and sixpence in the pound .
= = = 19th century = = =
In the early 19th century , novelist Jane Austen lived in the parish and regularly attended the church , mentioning it occasionally in her correspondence . In her letters she noted in January 1809 that she and her family had been unable to attend for two consecutive Sundays but despite the third Sunday being " very blowing " they did manage to attend that week . Painter Sir John Everett Millais , born in 1829 , was baptised in the church . The Law Commission estimate that the last debt relating to the construction of the building would have been paid by 1840 . By 1843 the graveyard was full , and it was closed around 1885 .
The church 's single bell dated from 1828 and was manufactured by Warner of London . The rectory , which had been located in East Street since the fifteenth century , was sold in 1858 and a new one purchased , in Anglesea Place . A new organ was installed in the church three years later . The organ was manufactured by Bevington and Son and consisted of three tiers : a great with 11 stops , a swell with ten stops , and a choir organ with five stops . July 1872 saw a substantial refurbishment programme take place , with the original ceiling of the main sanctuary being completely replaced . The original plaster ceiling was removed with the new one constructed from wood , resulting in a weight reduction of 25 tons . The scheme cost £ 1 @,@ 900 .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
In 1914 the graveyard was formally deconsecrated and the headstones were removed from the site , which became a children 's playground in the 1930s and subsequently a multi @-@ storey car park .
The church was damaged beyond repair in a German bombing raid in December 1940 . In August 1944 , the human remains housed in the catacombs were transferred to Hollybrook Cemetery in Southampton where they were reburied in a single communal grave . In all , the remains of 403 people were transferred , some fairly well preserved in their oak coffins with leaden shells , but others had disintegrated completely . The ruins of the church building were subsequently demolished – sources do not indicate exactly when – and replaced by shops and a multi @-@ storey car park . The parish registers were successfully retrieved from the ruin and , despite being charred and damaged by candle wax and molten tar ( the results of a fire that followed the bombing ) , they have been restored .
Despite the debts related to the costs for the construction of the building having been settled in the early @-@ mid 19th century , and the church ceasing to exist 100 years later , the three acts of Parliament allowing trustees of the church to levy rates on properties in the parish for the purpose of settling those debts remained in force and untouched until the Law Commission proposed their repeal in July 2014 , with a view to presenting recommendations to Parliament in 2015 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The frontage measured 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) wide and had four columns which measured 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in diameter by 36 feet ( 11 m ) high . The columns were topped with Grecian pilasters and supported a pediment . The lower part of the three spaces between the four pillars were filled with wide arches , with the entrance doors topped with fanlights below them . The building had staircases on each side , lit by semi @-@ circular headed windows between the outer columns and the pilaster .
There was an entablature around the building supported by similar pilasters to those atop the columns . The south side of the
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building , which faced East Street , had two rows of eight windows ; each window was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide , with the upper windows 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) high and the bottom row 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) high . The north side had no windows because it adjoined the neighbouring buildings .
On the east end of the roof , the church had a cupola which was topped with a large concrete pineapple . Pineapples were a feature of several buildings in Southampton as a symbol of welcome , an idea that originated in the Caribbean and which possibly reached the city as a result of the slave trade in the 16th century . The pineapple survived the bombing and has been used as an exhibited on special occasions , such as Black History Month .
= = = Interior = = =
Inside the church , the arched ceiling of the main sanctuary was unsupported by internal pillars and spanned the whole length and width of the church , measuring 90 feet ( 27 m ) by 60 feet ( 18 m ) .
= = Notable burials = =
The local newspaper , the Southern Daily Echo , claims one of the Chancellors of the Exchequer that served under Charles II was buried in the catacombs , but does not specify which chancellor this was . Rear @-@ Admiral Philip De Carteret , a renowned Royal Navy officer and explorer who participated in two circumnavigation expeditions in 1764 – 66 and 1766 – 69 was also buried in the catacombs . Another naval officer , Captain Sir Thomas Carew , was interred in the catacombs on 2 May 1840 .
= Meråker Line =
The Meråker Line ( Norwegian : Meråkerbanen ) is a 72 kilometers ( 45 mi ) railway line which runs through the district and valley of Stjørdalen in Nord @-@ Trøndelag , Norway . The line branches off from the Nordland Line at Hell Station and runs eastwards to the Norway – Sweden border , with Storlien Station acting as the border station . There the line continues as the Central Line . Traditionally the Meråker Line was regarded as the whole line from Trondheim Central Station to the border , a distance of 102 kilometers ( 63 mi ) . There are two daily passenger train services operated by the Norwegian State Railways and a limited number of freight trains hauling lumber and wood chippings .
Proposals for a railway were first made in 1870 . Routes via Verdal and Røros were soon discarded and the Meråker Line was approved on 5 June 1873 . The first revenue services ran in 1879 and the line was officially opened on 22 July 1882 . The line gave a boom to the local economy , allowing for same @-@ day transport of produce to Trondheim . The line has been upgraded several times to increase the axle load . During World War II , the line was the scene of both the Hommelvik train disaster and the Meråker train disaster . Steam trains were in use until 1971 , following the introduction of diesel locomotives in 1961 . From 1900 to 2005 Meraker Smelteverk was a major customer , using the line to haul carbide , and later microsilica , from their mill at Kopperå to the port at Muruvik . The Norwegian National Rail Administration plans to have electrified and installed centralized traffic control by 2023 .
= = Route = =
The Meråker Line is currently defined as the section between Hell and the Norway – Sweden border at Storlien . Until 2008 it was regarded as the entire section from Trondheim Central Station to Storlien . The line was initially 102 @.@ 23 kilometers ( 63 @.@ 52 mi ) to the border , or 105 @.@ 97 kilometers ( 65 @.@ 85 mi ) to Storlien Station . With the new definition , the line is 70 @.@ 69 kilometers ( 43 @.@ 92 mi ) . The national border is 655 @.@ 10 kilometers ( 407 @.@ 06 mi ) from Oslo Central Station and 751 @.@ 67 kilometers ( 467 @.@ 07 mi ) from Stockholm Central Station . At Leangen Station the Stavne – Leangen Line branches off and provides a bypass through Trondheim . At Hell the Nordland Line continues northwards . From Storlien the line continues as the Centre Line via Östersund to Sundsvall .
The line largely follows the coast of the Trondheimsfjord from Trondheim until reaching Hell . From there the line heads inland through the valley of Stjørdalen . Initially it follows the river of Stjørdalselva . The line runs predominantly due east from Trondheim , passing through the current municipalities of Trondheim , Malvik , Stjørdal and Meråker . With the new definition , it only passes through the latter two , and is entirely located within Nord @-@ Trøndelag . From Trondheim to Hell the line runs just above sea level , except past Leangen Station where the line hits 34 @-@ meter ( 112 ft ) abovea mean sea level . From Hegra Station there is again a slight rise . The 72 kilometers ( 45 mi ) from Trondheim to Gudå Station remain fairly flat . From there the line enters a steep climb , passing Meråker Station at an elevation of 220 meters ( 720 ft ) AMSL and Kopperå Station at 329 meters ( 1 @,@ 079 ft ) . Storlien is located at 593 meters ( 1 @,@ 946 ft ) AMSL . The Meråker Line is not electrified and lacks centralized traffic control , but as GSM @-@ R. The standard gauge railway is owned and operated by the Norwegian National Rail Administration .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Since the Middle Ages , both the Stjørdalen and Verdal valleys were important trade routes connecting Trøndelag and Jämtland . In particular , Levanger grew into an important trading town for Jämtland farmers , who would travel across the Verdal Mountains . The first public discussion of a railway was launched in Levanger in 1858 ; the initiative was pushed by Jämtland 's governor Thome , who proposed a line via Verdal to Levanger . At the time , the Trondhjem – Støren Line was about to be built , and the commercial interests in Trondheim were more concerned with a southward connection along what would become the Røros Line to Oslo . A 1869 meeting in Sundsvall , Sweden , had proposed three routes for the line : via Verdal , via Meråker or as a branch from Røros .
A road up Stjørdalen was built during the 1850s , connecting at Stjørdalshalsen to a steam ship service to Trondheim . A concern in Sweden was that Bottenviken could freeze up and that the Trondheimsfjord offered an ice @-@ free alternative for export of timber . Trade from Norway to Sweden was limited , mostly due to the limited infrastructure . Norwegian trades argued that a railway would allow for the export of Norwegian fish to Sweden .
A committee was appointed in 1870 to consider the railway , and was followed by on @-@ site investigations to determine the railway 's route . Similar investigations were carried out in Sweden . For the Norwegian side , costs were estimated to be at 4 @.@ 7 million Norwegian kroner. for the Meråker route . Surveys along the Verdal route deemed the route unsuitable . This presumed a narrow gauge ( 1 @,@ 067 millimetres or 42 @.@ 0 inches ) railway , common in Norway at the time . Operating profits were estimated to give a 4 @.@ 5 percent return on capital . Shares in the railway company were offered for sale in 1871 ; the largest purchaser was Trondheim Municipality , who bought shares for 1 @.@ 2 million kroner . In Trondheim alone , private investors bought an additional 3 @.@ 6 million kroner in shares .
In the spring of 1871 , the line was considered by the Standing Committee for Railways in the Parliament of Norway . The proposition was voted down at 64 votes to 42 . After a local railway committee was established , Parliament passed legislation to build the line on 2 May 1872 . The state would receive shares in the company equal to their monetary contribution . A suggestion from Johan Sverdrup that required the company to also borrow 1 @.@ 4 million kroner was voted down 58 votes to 52 . In Sweden , the work was meeting resistance , and many Trondheim businessmen chose to purchase shares in the Swedish part of the line to secure the financing of the Swedish part . In 1873 , the Parliament of Sweden voted to build a narrow gauge railway from Torpshammar to the Norwegian border ; there was already a railway line from Torpshammar to Sundsvall , the Sundsvall – Torpshammars Railway .
The Norwegian Parliament gave 400 @,@ 000 kroner in support in 1873 , and doubled it the following year . By then , the Swedish authorities had decided that all railways should be built in standard gauge , and the Norwegian Parliament chose to change their configuration to the same gauge in 1874 , increasing estimated costs from 4 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 9 million kroner . This was a similar arrangement to what would happen with the two international lines in Eastern Norway , where the Kongsvinger and Østfold Lines were also built with standard gauge . Despite intense lobbying from representatives from Innherred , the Verdal alternative was finally discarded when parliament gave 3 million kroner to the Meråker Line .
= = = Construction = = =
The choice of route through Stjørdal remained a controversy . The river Stjørdalselva created a barrier just north of Hell , making it cheaper to build the line on the south shore of the river until Hegra . This would make the line bypass Stjørdalshalsen on the north shore , the largest town between Trondheim and Östersund . Despite massive local protests , Parliament ultimately chose the southern alternative . The added distance reduced Stjørdalshalsen 's trade role while reducing railway revenue as the steam ships continued to run on the route , thus reducing the profitability of the line . Stjørdalselva Bridge was opened in 1902 when the Hell – Sunnan Line opened to Stjørdal .
Blasting commenced during a ceremony in 1875 , although regular construction work on the line did not commence until the following year . The immediate line into Trondheim was the last to start , in 1878 , following disagreements about the plans . By then 54 kilometers ( 34 mi ) of track were laid from Leangen Station to the border between Nedre Stjørdal and Øvre Stjørdal . The first train ran from Rotvoll Station , just outside Trondheim , to the international border on 27 August 1879 . From 11 February 1880 a weekly train service was operated and regular revenue services began on 17 October 1881 , although the line was not yet completed to Östersund .
In Trondheim , the existing railway station for the Trondhjem – Støren Line was built as a cul @-@ de @-@ sac station at Kalvskinnet . This could not serve the Meråker Line and the station was thus moved to Brattøra , an artificial peninsula immediately north of the city center . Thus the station became located next to the new port facility . With the construction of the Røros Line , it was decided to connect both lines to the same station . The cost of the new station was 1 @.@ 4 million kroner . Trondheim Station did not open until 1882 .
The work paid well , and attracted many navvies to the area . Initial wages were 3 @.@ 20 kroner per day , though this later was reduced . Two and a half thousand men were employed , with fewer jobs being offered than there were applicants . Land owners were compensated 50 – 200 kroner per hectare ( NOK 20 – 80 per acre ) for cultivated land , and 10 kroner per hectare ( NOK 4 per acre ) for forest . Many local farmers made good money offering transport of cargo for the construction , as well as renting out annexes for navvies ; others made money as traders . As with all such construction areas , many legal and illegal pubs and brothels were established . After construction was completed , some moved on , while others settled in the area ; many of these received jobs with the railway company .
The official opening took place on 22 July 1882 by King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway . This was at the height of the debate on parliamentarianism and the king 's right to veto the Parliament of Norway , and the king used the opening ceremonies and speeches at each station to encourage people to support the union between Sweden and Norway , and pointed out how the railway would better connect the " brother nations " . In contrast , in Hegra no @-@ one from the municipal council chose to attend the opening ceremony , and no @-@ one from Nedre Stjørdal attended the opening at Hell either .
= = = The first years = = =
By 1880 the railway had six locomotives at its disposal . No. 1 – 2 were Class 14 that were intended as helping power to get trains up the steep climb from Gudå to Storlien . No. 3 – 6 were Class 9 locomotives that would do the main haulage from Gudå into Trondheim . In 1883 , NSB 's other two Class 14 locomotives were transferred from the Smaalenene Line . The initial fleet consisted of 24 passenger and nine breaking cars , all from Skabo . The line featured the first bogie cars in the country , with a single entrance at the end of each car , instead of individual doors for each compartment . There were also 37 closed freight cars , 40 lumber cars , 20 boxcars , 100 flatcars and three milk cars . At first all trains were mixed freight and passenger .
In addition to the trains heading for Sweden , there was also a commuter train that ran , first from Hommelvik Station , then from Hegra Station , into Trondheim in the morning , and returning after work in the evening . Since there was no depot at Hegra , the locomotive had to return without cars to Hommelvik for the nightly overhaul . The 854 kilometers ( 531 mi ) route from Trondheim to Stockholm initially took 57 hours . By 1904 , this was reduced to 26 hours , mostly due to reducing the layover between trains .
The Røros Line was connected to the station at Brattøra at 24 June 1884 , allowing Marienborg to be us as a common maintenance depot for both lines . The Meråker Line 's locomotives were then renumbered , starting at 51 , to keep them distinguished from the Røros Line 's . From the same year , the Meråker Line was assigned two Class 8 locomotives . From 1896 , Class 15 locomotives were used , and two years later supplemented by the Class 17 .
The revenue of the line was at 533 @,@ 306 kroner per year in 1900 , most of which was from the freight traffic . This gave a return of capital of 1 – 2 % . Freight traffic increased about twice as fast as passenger traffic , and in 1904 a new daily train was put into service to Storlien . The first Hell – Sunnan Line opened in stages between 1902 and 1905 . At first the trains along the Hell – Sunnan Line were decoupled at Hell Station , but from 1909 on direct trains to Trondheim started operating .
= = = Impact = = =
The Meråker Line was of great economic and social importance for the villages it passed through . It allowed much quicker transport into Trondheim , and the station buildings became centers of community life . For the first time these places had telegraph stations and daily post deliveries . The expedient transport meant that many more people chose to travel into Trondheim , which gained an advantage over other towns , such as Levanger and Stjørdalshalsen , in becoming the regional center for trade . Especially Stjørdalshalsen lost much of its importance for the villages up the valley Stjørdalen . For farmers , the railway made it possible to sell fresh dairy products to Trondheim , and even to Sundsvall . New markets , combined with good income during construction that allowed for investments in machinery , increased the revenue and profits for agriculture along the line . By 1900 , 68 people were employed by the railway in Meråker alone .
Storlien , just on the Swedish side of the national border , grew up as a resort , with the first hotel established just after the railway arrived . Trade between the two countries increased , as Jämtland had easy access to the Trøndelag market . However , the freight rates were so high that it was cheaper to send some products to Trøndelag from the Swedish east coast by ship around Scania .
Meråker saw in industrial boom due to the railway . There was already a copper mine and smelters at Kopperå , and they saw the railway as a possibility to change from locally produced charcoal to imported coke . A pulp mill opened in 1887 , but burned down in 1912 . The most important industry was the carbide factory that opened in Kopperå in 1900 — Meraker Smelteverk . Though located close to the hydroelectricity sources in Meråker , the import and export of raw and finished materials would not have been possible without the railway . A port for the plant was built at Muruvik in 1918 .
Lumber export was one of the main driving forces for building railways at the time , and the Meråker Line was no exception . In both Stjørdalen and the vast areas of Jämtland and Northern Sweden are huge amounts of woodlands . The Meråker Line ran straight through this area , and was seen as a new possibility to export lumber to the continent , where there was high demand for it . Before the railway was built , there was a small sawmill in Hommelvik . In 1881 , the Scotsman Lewis Miller bought huge areas of woods in Jämtland , as well as nine sawmills in Sweden . All the produce from these were then sent to Hommelvik for processing and shipment . At the most he employed 100 men , and exported up to 183 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 6 @.@ 5 × 109 cu ft ) of lumber each year . Also located at Hommelvik were two wharfs owned by NSB , and one of the major imports was coal for the Swedish State Railways .
= = = World War I and beyond = = =
World War I proved to be a boom for the Meråker Line . The line suddenly became a transit corridor for shipments from Russia , as well as from Sweden , to the ports in Trondheim and Hommelvik . To cope with the increased traffic , NSB had to both rent equipment from Sweden and acquire ten new Class 21 and Class 35 locomotives between 1913 and 1918 . Four of these were transferred from other lines , while six were new . With the new locomotives , the dimensioned axle weight needed to be upgraded to 14 t ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) , which mostly involved improving the bridges . The bridge at Funna was dismounted and sold to be used on the Gråkallen Line of the Trondheim Tramway . Class 35 was used on the Gudå – Storlien section , and replaced the aging Class 14 . They remained in service until 1929 , when they were transferred to the Ofoten Line .
From 1927 , the first pure through @-@ passenger trains started operating in the summer , towards Sweden in the morning and back during the evening . From 1933 it operated all year . Through the 1920s and 1930s , many shorter distances received extra trains , and passenger and freight trains were gradually separated into separate trains . The traffic through Trondheim – Hell increased ; commuter trains terminated at several different stations . From 1930 , multiple units were also put into use on the line .
= = = World War II = = =
During the German occupation of Norway from 9 April 1940 , traffic continued in ordinary fashion until 14 April , when a telephone message was misunderstood , and Norwegian military forces shot at a train they thought had Germans on board . After this , traffic on the line was halted . On the Swedish side of the border , 1 to 2 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 62 to 1 @.@ 24 mi ) of track was broken to hinder the Germans from using the line to access Sweden . Local traffic to Kopperå started again on 25 April . On 17 May , a multiple unit ran to Storlien with a general to discuss reopening the line . The answer was negative , but on 24 May , an agreement was struck . At the same time , military trains were put into use , from Snåsa and Steinkjer to Storlien , and onward to Narvik . After transport on the Ofoten Line to Narvik ( via Sweden ) was officially reopened on 2 August , there were regular trains from Trondheim via the Meråker Line to Narvik , with up to three trains a day .
On 19 November 1940 , a train with workers from Trondheim to the airport collided with the local train from Kopperå just east of Hommelvik Station . The Hommelvik train disaster killed 22 people . The trains were supposed to have passed at Homnmelvik Station , but the engineer thought he had seen the other train , and had left the station . The accident occurred at 08 : 03 , and was caused by there being virtually no light to see with , since all outdoor sources of light were covered . On 23 January 1941 , a coke and coal train from Sweden lost its braking between the border and Kopperå . The six back cars plus the caboose derailed just west of Kopperå Station , while the locomotive and 17 other trains continued their wild flight . The train derailed at Meråker Station , and the Meråker train disaster killed both the engineer and the stoker .
The railway and its personnel were an active part of the Norwegian resistance movement during the war . In particular , Swedish newspapers and literature were smuggled into the country , primarily by stokers , who hid the material in the coal . Also , people who were not able to flee to Sweden via the mountains , or needed to get out in a hurry , were sometimes smuggled on board the trains , primarily on German trains . Illegal documents and microfilms were also smuggled out . For German transport trains , track @-@ side employees tried to create " delays " .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After the war there was limited resources for new rolling stocks and upgrades to the line . Multiple units gradually took over passenger trains , and by 1957 , no passenger trains to Storlien were hauled by locomotives . That year Stavne – Leangen Line opened , allowing trains to bypass Trondheim Central Station . The new Di 3 diesel locomotives were put into service in 1961 . The last steam engine was taken out of service in 1971 . The introduction of the Di 3 forced an upgrade to the line to allow for an axle load of 18 tonnes . The opening of European Road E14 in the 1950s caused a reduction in shorter @-@ haul passenger and freight . NSB subsequently cut passenger services to a single daily train , with a Di 3 hauling Swedish carriages through Meråker . Trains continuing along the Nordland Line continued to increase .
Maintenance remained mostly manual until the 1960s , after which a major rationalization plan shifted this work to machines . This allowed the line 's standard to increase , allowing for heavier and faster trains . Hegra , Sona and Flornes Stations were made unmanned in 1970 .
Freight volumes remained high throughout the following decades . In the late 1950s , the Swedish Air Force built a 32 million kroner storage area for aviation fuel at Muruvik . The terminal would be a reserve in case of an attack on Sweden , and the Meråker Line was to be used to transport the fuel into Sweden . The depot was sold in 1988 to Petrofina , following the Royal Norwegian Air Force 's quest to build a pipeline to the NATO @-@ base at Trondheim Airport , Værnes .
from the 1960s through the 1990s . ] ]
As previous , the Swedish authorities continued to subsidize freight operations on their side , making it profitable for Swedish exports to go via the Baltic Sea . Hopes in Trondheim to act as a major transit port for Swedish cargo never materialized . The 1966 opening of Norske Skog Skogn paper mill saw an increase in transport of lumber from Sweden . The petroleum transport lasted until the 1980s , when the Muruvik terminal was sold to Norwegian interests . A major customer was still Meråker Smelteverk , who used designated trains to haul ore from Muruvik to Kopperå and microsilica in return . By 1980 , cargo volumes were up to the level seen during World War I.
The line had 400 @,@ 000 tonnes of cargo in 2005 . Half of this was for Norske Skog , and 130 @,@ 000 tonnes for Eklem Meråker , the smelter . The latter was shut down the following year , with the subsequent drop in traffic.That year the line received a 60 @-@ million @-@ kroner upgrade , increasing maximum axle load to 22 @.@ 5 tonnes , the same as on the Central Line . Speeds increased from 50 to 80 km / h ( 31 to 50 mph ) for freight trains and from 100 to 130 km / h ( 62 to 81 mph ) for passenger trains . The Norwegian National Rail Administration , who took the line in 1996 , opened the Gevingåsen Tunnel between Hell and Hommelvik 15 August 2011 , making the section from Hell to Muruvik a branch . The Rail Administration reclassified the lines in 2008 , so that the section from Trondheim to Hell is now part of the Nordland Line and only the section from Hell to Storlien is regarded as part of the Meråker Line .
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail was established in 1993 , increasing the frequency on the western part of the line . With the retirement of the Di 3 in 2000 , the Class 92 multiple units were introduced also on the Meråker Line . The concept , originally named Mittnabotåget , saw two daily services , originally running all the way to Östersund Central Station . From 2007 a train change was introduced at Storlien . Through traffic was closed from November 2013 to March 2015 with a bridge closed on the Swedish side .
= = Operations = =
The Norwegian State Railways operate two daily round trips between Heimdal Station via Trondheim Central Station to Storlien Station . There passengers change to a regional train operated on the Central Line by Norrtåg . This served was marketed as Nabotoget ( " the neighbor train " ) in Norway and Mittnabotåget in Sweden until 2012 . Travel time from Trondheim to Storlien is 1 hour and 44 minutes . Most freight trains are lumber trains , hauling timber from Jämtland to the Norske Skog Skogn paper mill . There is also a train hauling limestone from Verdal to Örnsköldsvik .
= = Architecture = =
Peter Andreas Blix was chosen to be the line 's main architect . Hell was the largest station along the line , at 148 square meters ( 1 @,@ 590 sq ft ) . Slightly smaller 110 square meters ( 1 @,@ 200 sq ft ) buildings were built at Ranheim , Malvik , Hommelvik and Gudå . Smaller 90 square meters ( 970 sq ft ) station buildings were erected at Leangen , Hegra , Flornes and Meråker . These were all built in wood . Stylistically Blix drew inspiration from the freer composition of British railway stations of the 1870s , often resulting in non @-@ symmetrical stations . Styliistically they drew Gothic inspiration . Blix designed the stations along the Røros Line and the Jæren Line in similar styles .
Balthazar Lange designed Trondheim Central Station . The originally two @-@ story station was designed in Renaissance Revival architecture . With the opening of the Hell – Sunnan Line in 1902 , there was a need for a larger station at Hell . The Blix ' station building was therefore moved to Sunnan Station , while a new and larger building , designed by Paul Due , was built at Hell . It received an intermediate style between Dragestil and Jugendstil .
= = Future = =
Lack of electrification has been described as the " missing green link " in using the Meråker Line for intermodal transport for shipping out of Trondheim . The line could also act redundantly for fish exports from Northern Norway to the continent . The steep gradient between Gudå and Storlien is prohibitive for a single diesel locomotive , but would be more economical for electric traction . These issues limit cargo hauling on the line to lumber trains .
Proposals for electrification of the Meråker Line have been made since the 1940s . By then the Swedish side had been electrified . This was initially desired also by NSB in an effort to cut the high operating costs of steam trains . However , lines with higher traffic received priority . By 1971 the last steam trains were retired and issue of electrification for marginal lines were shelved . The issue was pressed by regional bodies from 1978 and 1992 , and then again from the 2000s . This time the issue was successful and in 2013 the Parliament of Norway approved the electrification of the Meråker Line and the section from Trondheim to Steinkjer . The plan is to start the physical construction in 2017 and finish by 2022 .
Installation of centralized traffic control is scheduled to take place as part of nationwide implementation of European Train Control System , which is scheduled to be completed within 2023 . Capacity and efficiency on the line require more passing capacity , especially for longer freight trains . Thus the passing loop at Gudå Station has been proposed lengthened . To allow trains to run from the Meråker Line directly northward on the Nordland Line , a triangular line has been proposed at Hell Station . All regular freight trains on the line come from the north .
= Devil 's Halo =
Devil 's Halo is the eighth studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter and bassist Me 'Shell Ndegéocello . After writing songs for over a year , Ndegéocello recorded the album in seven days with audio engineer S. Husky Höskulds . She was accompanied by a band featuring drummer Deantoni Parks , guitarist Chris Bruce , and keyboardist Keefus Ciancia ; Bruce and Ciancia produced the record with Ndegéocello .
The songs on Devil 's Halo featured an eclectic fusion of styles , including alternative rock , soul , and jazz @-@ rock . Ndegéocello 's spiritually complex and ambiguous lyrics spoke of romantic love and loneliness , among other themes . Released by Downtown Records on October 6 , 2009 , Devil 's Halo charted modestly but was well received by most critics .
= = Background = =
Ndegéocello spent over a year writing the songs from Devil 's Halo , being inspired in part by her trip to Ireland . " I went to a couple of pubs and there were much older gentlemen playing the guitar and just singing these amazing , simple songs " , Ndegéocello recalled . " I really admired that . I wanted to get to that kind of place where the song could just exist with a guitar and a vocal . " With Icelandic audio engineer S. Husky Höskulds , Ndegéocello proceeded to record the album in seven days , backed by a band that featured guitarist Chris Bruce , keyboardist Keefus Ciancia , and drummer Deantoni Parks . She later credited them with providing her inspiration and critique while keeping her " clear about what is the real focus — in life and in music " . Their instruments were recorded live without digital post @-@ production , which New York Times critic Ben Ratliff said contributed to the music 's raw and organic sound .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to The Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman , Devil 's Halo featured a " catholicity of sounds " . Ndegéocello performed in what Nick Coleman of The Independent described as " the alt @-@ rock idiom " , while Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole called Devil 's Halo an R & B record that utilized textures from experimental rock and electronica . Jacqueline Smith from The New Zealand Herald said its fusion of styles was based in soul music : " Though it channelled everyone from Sade to Santana , it 's an album of mostly soul - of the soul @-@ baring kind " . AllMusic 's Thom Jurek found the record 's " soulish , near @-@ pop , rock tunes " starker than her previous three albums .
For the song " Slaughter " , Ndegéocello tried to weave together sonic influences from the producers Trevor Horn and RZA , as well as the bands Yes , Sade , and The Human League : " That 's what I tried to achieve in this particular recording : some sonic tapestries that people , even if they 're not listening to the lyrics , could just feel or hear , or just have a deep , inner dialogue with . " She covered Ready for the World 's 1986 song " Love You Down " , deconstructing it into what Village Voice critic Eugene Holley Jr. described as " a stripper 's classic " . Songs such as " Mass Transit " and " White Girl " featured Ndegéocello 's characteristic ska and reggae influenced basslines ; Holley argued that Caribbean riddims and country @-@ rock guitar grooves underpinned the music , serving as a backdrop for Ndegéocello 's contralto singing throughout Devil 's Halo . In the opinion of Ed Potton from The Times , her voice " resided somewhere between Sade and PJ Harvey " .
The main theme of Devil 's Halo , City Pages critic Rick Mason said , was the treachery of love and its bitter effects , with songs Holley described as brimming with " spiritual complexity and ambiguity " . In Jurek 's opinion , " romance , substance abuse , and one woman speaking candidly to another are themes in this musical meditation on bliss , lust , loneliness , and emotional wreckage " . musicOMH journalist Andrew Burgess described the record 's content as " achingly sensual and brutally violent " , while Seattle Weekly 's Saby Reyes @-@ Kulkami wrote " isolation — even more than the sexual charge the songs exude — serves as the linchpin that pushes her narrators to strive for connection in the first place . " According to The Huffington Post 's Mike Ragogna , while the music covered styles ranging from pop and quiet storm to " light " avant @-@ garde , the subject matter had a " low key / high concept " quality expressed through terse lyrics , sonic experiments , and character studies such as " Lola " and " White Girl " .
" Lola " was written as a critique of mainstream societal treatment of romantic love and heartbreak society . " A wife ’ s just a whore with a diamond ring " , Ndegéocello 's sang . She drew inspiration from matchmaking reality television shows that presented love as a " really clear exchange " . " I hear young women going ' well if he can buy me something ' " , Ndegéocello explained . " That song — ' Put It in the Bag ' — which is based on ' can you buy me some things ? ' And then the male counterpart , all he can really talk about is sex and if the woman can cook . And it ’ s funny to me . That you 're no more than a whore , you just have a wedding ring . " " Bright Shiny Morning " was titled after the book of the same name by James Frey . Ndegéocello wrote the song after reflecting on her past lies and misrepresentations , particularly those she made in an attempt to be accepted in the music industry . " People change themselves " , she said . " Almost in the sense of creating mental anguish in order to make other people happy and to obtain celebrity and fame . That 's why the lyric is ' you do anything . ' Some people do anything for their big dreams of sunshine . "
= = Release and reception = =
Devil 's Halo was released by Downtown Records on October 6 , 2009 , to generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 78 , based on seven reviews . In Billboard , Gary Graff wrote that the record " neatly straddles a line between challenging and accessible " , featuring some of Ndegéocello 's strongest compositions yet . Jurek claimed she " hasn 't been so nakedly vulnerable and brazenly honest on record as she is here " . Tyler Lewis of PopMatters hailed it as her most consistent and " emotionally potent work " since 1999 's Bitter while adding that Devil 's Halo featured " a greater sense of perspective of life 's realities " . According to Q , the songs expressing frantic feelings were balanced by " unpredictable but always apposite moments of beauty " . Salon journalist Heather Havrilesky said " like a world @-@ weary muse , Ndegéocello taps into something rich and melancholy at the sludgy bottom of our hearts " while possessing a " mellow depth " in her singing . Washington Post critic Mark Jenkins believed the music 's " stripped @-@ down approach accentuated her musical brawn " . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club found the album " bracingly unpredictable and persistently enjoyable ; it 's an art @-@ soul record for those who like to be challenged while they ’ re tapping their toes . Or vice versa " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Andy Gill of The Independent believed the eclectic style on Devil 's Halo sounded muddled : " The songs seem to bleed into one another , with too much pointlessly flashy playing leading to polite jazz @-@ rock hell . One 's left yearning for a hummable melody that might imprint one of these songs upon one 's memory " . Mojo wrote that while the lyrics to " her songs are as politically charged as ever , musically they 're laboured experiments in style " . Robert Christgau from MSN Music was even less receptive , rating the album a " dud " , which indicated " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Oren Bloedow – vocal arrangements and vocals on " Slaughter "
Chris Bruce – banjo , bass , guitar , production
Keith Ciancia – keyboards , production , programming
Eric Elterman – recording engineer
Lisa Germano – cello on " Hair of the Dog " and " Bright Shiny Morning " ( also violin )
S. Husky Höskulds – recording engineer
Me 'Shell Ndegéocello – bass , keyboards , production , vocals on all tracks
Deantoni Parks – drums
Bob Power – mastering
= = Charts = =
= Renewable energy commercialization =
Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years . First @-@ generation technologies , which are already mature and economically competitive , include biomass , hydroelectricity , geothermal power and heat . Second @-@ generation technologies are market @-@ ready and are being deployed at the present time ; they include solar heating , photovoltaics , wind power , solar thermal power stations , and modern forms of bioenergy . Third @-@ generation technologies require continued R & D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification , hot @-@ dry @-@ rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . As of 2012 , renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall .
Public policy and political leadership helps to " level the playing field " and drive the wider acceptance of renewable energy technologies . Countries such as Germany , Denmark , and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade . As of 2014 , Germany has a commitment to the " Energiewende " transition to a sustainable energy economy , and Denmark has a commitment to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets .
Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015 , providing multiple benefits . There was a new record set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity ( 64GW and 57GW ) and a new high of US $ 329 Billion for global renewables investment . A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Sinovel , Trina Solar , Vestas , and Yingli .
Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries . According to a 2011 projection by the ( IEA ) International Energy Agency , solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years , reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions .
= = Overview = =
= = = Rationale for renewables = = =
Climate change , pollution , and energy insecurity are significant problems , and addressing them requires major changes to energy infrastructures . Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio , as they contribute to world energy security , reduce dependency on fossil fuels , and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . Climate @-@ disrupting fossil fuels are being replaced by clean , climate @-@ stabilizing , non @-@ depletable sources of energy :
... the transition from coal , oil , and gas to wind , solar , and geothermal energy is well under way . In the old economy , energy was produced by burning something — oil , coal , or natural gas — leading to the carbon emissions that have come to define our economy . The new energy economy harnesses the energy in wind , the energy coming from the sun , and heat from within the earth itself .
In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for a variety of methods for addressing the problem of energy supply . These methods include promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power , requiring utilities to use more renewable energy , and providing tax incentives to encourage the development and use of such technologies . It is expected that renewable energy investments will pay off economically in the long term .
EU member countries have shown support for ambitious renewable energy goals . In 2010 , Eurobarometer polled the twenty @-@ seven EU member states about the target " to increase the share of renewable energy in the EU by 20 percent by 2020 " . Most people in all twenty @-@ seven countries either approved of the target or called for it to go further . Across the EU , 57 percent thought the proposed goal was " about right " and 16 percent thought it was " too modest . " In comparison , 19 percent said it was " too ambitious " .
As of 2011 , new evidence has emerged that there are considerable risks associated with traditional energy sources , and that major changes to the mix of energy technologies is needed :
Several mining tragedies globally have underscored the human toll of the coal supply chain . New EPA initiatives targeting air toxics , coal ash , and effluent releases highlight the environmental impacts of coal and the cost of addressing them with control technologies . The use of fracking in natural gas exploration is coming under scrutiny , with evidence of groundwater contamination and greenhouse gas emissions . Concerns are increasing about the vast amounts of water used at coal @-@ fired and nuclear power plants , particularly in regions of the country facing water shortages . Events at the Fukushima nuclear plant have renewed doubts about the ability to operate large numbers of nuclear plants safely over the long term . Further , cost estimates for " next generation " nuclear units continue to climb , and lenders are unwilling to finance these plants without taxpayer guarantees .
The 2014 REN21 Global Status Report says that renewable energies are no longer just energy sources , but ways to address pressing social , political , economic and environmental problems :
Today , renewables are seen not only as sources of energy , but also as tools to address many other pressing needs , including : improving energy security ; reducing the health and environmental impacts associated with fossil and nuclear energy ; mitigating greenhouse gas emissions ; improving educational opportunities ; creating jobs ; reducing poverty ; and increasing gender equality ... Renewables have entered the mainstream .
= = = Growth of renewables = = =
In 2008 for the first time , more renewable energy than conventional power capacity was added in both the European Union and United States , demonstrating a " fundamental transition " of the world 's energy markets towards renewables , according to a report released by REN21 , a global renewable energy policy network based in Paris . In 2010 , renewable power consisted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities .
By the end of 2011 , total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeded 1 @,@ 360 GW , up 8 % . Renewables producing electricity accounted for almost half of the 208 GW of capacity added globally during 2011 . Wind and solar photovoltaics ( PV ) accounted for almost 40 % and 30 % . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4 @.@ 2 % as heat energy ( non @-@ biomass ) , 3 @.@ 8 % hydro electricity and 2 % electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass .
During the five @-@ years from the end of 2004 through 2009 , worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10 – 60 percent annually for many technologies . In 2011 , UN under @-@ secretary general Achim Steiner said : " The continuing growth in this core segment of the green economy is not happening by chance . The combination of government target @-@ setting , policy support and stimulus funds is underpinning the renewable industry 's rise and bringing the much needed transformation of our global energy system within reach . " He added : " Renewable energies are expanding both in terms of investment , projects and geographical spread . In doing so , they are making an increasing contribution to combating climate change , countering energy poverty and energy insecurity " .
According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency , solar power plants may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years , significantly reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment . The IEA has said : " Photovoltaic and solar @-@ thermal plants may meet most of the world 's demand for electricity by 2060 – and half of all energy needs – with wind , hydropower and biomass plants supplying much of the remaining generation " . " Photovoltaic and concentrated solar power together can become the major source of electricity " .
In 2013 , China led the world in renewable energy production , with a total capacity of 378 GW , mainly from hydroelectric and wind power . As of 2014 , China leads the world in the production and use of wind power , solar photovoltaic power and smart grid technologies , generating almost as much water , wind and solar energy as all of France and Germany 's power plants combined . China 's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity . Since 2005 , production of solar cells in China has expanded 100 @-@ fold . As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown , the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped . Innovation has helped , but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion .
See also renewable energy in the United States for US @-@ figures .
= = = Economic trends = = =
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper , through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition . A 2011 IEA report said : " A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost @-@ competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances , in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support , " and added that " cost reductions in critical technologies , such as wind and solar , are set to continue . " As of 2011 , there have been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies :
The price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60 percent since the summer of 2008 , according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates , putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries . Wind turbine prices have also fallen – by 18 percent per MW in the last two years – reflecting , as with solar , fierce competition in the supply chain . Further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar , wind and other technologies lie ahead , posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years .
Hydro @-@ electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity . Renewable energy costs continue to drop , and the levelised cost of electricity ( LCOE ) is declining for wind power , solar photovoltaic ( PV ) , concentrated solar power ( CSP ) and some biomass technologies .
Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid @-@ connected capacity in areas with good resources . As the cost of renewable power falls , the scope of economically viable applications increases . Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity . Where " oil @-@ fired generation is the predominant power generation source ( e.g. on islands , off @-@ grid and in some countries ) a lower @-@ cost renewable solution almost always exists today " . As of 2012 , renewable power generation technologies accounted for around half of all new power generation capacity additions globally . In 2011 , additions included 41 gigawatt ( GW ) of new wind power capacity , 30 GW of PV , 25 GW of hydro @-@ electricity , 6 GW of biomass , 0 @.@ 5 GW of CSP , and 0 @.@ 1 GW of geothermal power .
= = = Three generations of technologies = = =
Renewable energy includes a number of sources and technologies at different stages of commercialization . The International Energy Agency ( IEA ) has defined three generations of renewable energy technologies , reaching back over 100 years :
" First @-@ generation technologies emerged from the industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century and include hydropower , biomass combustion , geothermal power and heat . These technologies are quite widely used .
Second @-@ generation technologies include solar heating and cooling , wind power , modern forms of bioenergy , and solar photovoltaics . These are now entering markets as a result of research , development and demonstration ( RD & D ) investments since the 1980s . Initial investment was prompted by energy security concerns linked to the oil crises of the 1970s but the enduring appeal of these technologies is due , at least in part , to environmental benefits . Many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials .
Third @-@ generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification , biorefinery technologies , concentrating solar thermal power , hot @-@ dry @-@ rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . Advances in nanotechnology may also play a major role " . First @-@ generation technologies are well established , second @-@ generation technologies are entering markets , and third @-@ generation technologies heavily depend on long @-@ term research and development commitments , where the public sector has a role to play .
= = First @-@ generation technologies = =
First @-@ generation technologies are widely used in locations with abundant resources . Their future use depends on the exploration of the remaining resource potential , particularly in developing countries , and on overcoming challenges related to the environment and social acceptance .
= = = Biomass = = =
Biomass for heat and power is a fully mature technology which offers a ready disposal mechanism for municipal , agricultural , and industrial organic wastes . However , the industry has remained relatively stagnant over the decade to 2007 , even though demand for biomass ( mostly wood ) continues to grow in many developing countries . One of the problems of biomass is that material directly combusted in cook stoves produces pollutants , leading to severe health and environmental consequences , although improved cook stove programmes are alleviating some of these effects . First @-@ generation biomass technologies can be economically competitive , but may still require deployment support to overcome public acceptance and small @-@ scale issues .
= = = Hydroelectricity = = =
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower ; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water . In 2015 hydropower generated 16 @.@ 6 % of the worlds total electricity and 70 % of all renewable electricity and is expected to increase about 3 @.@ 1 % each year for the next 25 years . Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of being long @-@ lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years .
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries , with the Asia @-@ Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010 . China is the largest hydroelectricity producer , with 721 terawatt @-@ hours of production in 2010 , representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use . There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW : the Three Gorges Dam in China , Itaipu Dam across the Brazil / Paraguay border , and Guri Dam in Venezuela . The cost of hydroelectricity is low , making it a competitive source of renewable electricity . The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt @-@ hour .
= = = Geothermal power and heat = = =
Geothermal power plants can operate 24 hours per day , providing baseload capacity . Estimates for the world potential capacity for geothermal power generation vary widely , ranging from 40 GW by 2020 to as much as 6 @,@ 000 GW .
Geothermal power capacity grew from around 1 GW in 1975 to almost 10 GW in 2008 . The United States is the world leader in terms of installed capacity , representing 3 @.@ 1 GW . Other countries with significant installed capacity include the Philippines ( 1 @.@ 9 GW ) , Indonesia ( 1 @.@ 2 GW ) , Mexico ( 1 @.@ 0 GW ) , Italy ( 0 @.@ 8 GW ) , Iceland ( 0 @.@ 6 GW ) , Japan ( 0 @.@ 5 GW ) , and New Zealand ( 0 @.@ 5 GW ) . In some countries , geothermal power accounts for a significant share of the total electricity supply , such as in the Philippines , where geothermal represented 17 percent of the total power mix at the end of 2008 .
Geothermal ( ground source ) heat pumps represented an estimated 30 GWth of installed capacity at the end of 2008 , with other direct uses of geothermal heat ( i.e. , for space heating , agricultural drying and other uses ) reaching an estimated 15 GWth . As of 2008 , at least 76 countries use direct geothermal energy in some form .
= = Second @-@ generation technologies = =
Markets for second @-@ generation technologies have been strong and growing over the past decade , and these technologies have gone from being a passion for the dedicated few to a major economic sector in countries such as Germany , Spain , the United States , and Japan . Many large industrial companies and financial institutions are involved and the challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide .
= = = Solar Heating = = =
Solar heating systems are a well known second @-@ generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors , a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage , and a reservoir or tank for heat storage . The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water , swimming pools , or homes and businesses . The heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment .
In many warmer climates , a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage ( 50 to 75 % ) of domestic hot water energy . As of 2009 , China has 27 million rooftop solar water heaters .
= = = Photovoltaics = = =
Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells , also called solar cells , convert light into electricity . In the 1980s and early 1990s , most photovoltaic modules were used to provide remote @-@ area power supply , but from around 1995 , industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing building integrated photovoltaics and photovoltaic power stations for grid connected applications .
Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built , mainly in Europe . As of July 2012 , the largest photovoltaic ( PV ) power plants in the world are the Agua Caliente Solar Project ( USA , 247 MW ) , Charanka Solar Park ( India , 214 MW ) , Golmud Solar Park ( China , 200 MW ) , Perovo Solar Park ( Russia 100 MW ) , Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant ( Canada , 97 MW ) , Brandenburg @-@ Briest Solarpark ( Germany 91 MW ) , Solarpark Finow Tower ( Germany 84 @.@ 7 MW ) , Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station ( Italy , 84 @.@ 2 MW ) , Eggebek Solar Park ( Germany 83 @.@ 6 MW ) , Senftenberg Solarpark ( Germany 82 MW ) , Finsterwalde Solar Park ( Germany , 80 @.@ 7 MW ) , Okhotnykovo Solar Park ( Russia , 80 MW ) , Lopburi Solar Farm ( Thailand 73 @.@ 16 MW ) , Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant ( Italy , 72 MW ) , and the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park ( Germany , 71 @.@ 8 MW ) .
There are also many large plants under construction . The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm under construction in Riverside County , California and Topaz Solar Farm being built in San Luis Obispo County , California are both 550 MW solar parks that will use thin @-@ film solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar . The Blythe Solar Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County , California . The California Valley Solar Ranch ( CVSR ) is a 250 megawatt ( MW ) solar photovoltaic power plant , which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain , northeast of California Valley . The 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert , and due to be completed in 2013 . The Mesquite Solar project is a photovoltaic solar power plant being built in Arlington , Maricopa County , Arizona , owned by Sempra Generation . Phase 1 will have a nameplate capacity of 150 megawatts .
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun 's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed @-@ mounted systems . There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations .
= = = Wind power = = =
Some of the second @-@ generation renewables , such as wind power , have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs . Global wind power installations increased by 35 @,@ 800 MW in 2010 , bringing total installed capacity up to 194 @,@ 400 MW , a 22 @.@ 5 % increase on the 158 @,@ 700 MW installed at the end of 2009 . The increase for 2010 represents investments totalling € 47 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 65 billion ) and for the first time more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets of Europe and North America , mainly driven , by the continuing boom in China which accounted for nearly half of all of the installations at 16 @,@ 500 MW . China now has 42 @,@ 300 MW of wind power installed . Wind power accounts for approximately 19 % of electricity generated in Denmark , 9 % in Spain and Portugal , and 6 % in Germany and the Republic of Ireland . In Australian state of South Australia wind power , championed by Premier Mike Rann ( 2002 – 2011 ) , now comprises 26 % of the state 's electricity generation , edging out coal fired power . At the end of 2011 South Australia , with 7 @.@ 2 % of Australia 's population , had 54 % of the nation 's installed wind power capacity . Wind power 's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3 @.@ 1 % . These are some of the largest wind farms in the world :
As of 2014 , the wind industry in the USA is able to produce more power at lower cost by using taller wind turbines with longer blades , capturing the faster winds at higher elevations . This has opened up new opportunities and in Indiana , Michigan , and Ohio , the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground can now compete with conventional fossil fuels like coal . Prices have fallen to about 4 cents per kilowatt @-@ hour in some cases and utilities have been increasing the amount of wind energy in their portfolio , saying it is their cheapest option .
= = = Solar thermal power stations = = =
Solar thermal power stations include the 354 megawatt ( MW ) Solar Energy Generating Systems power plant in the USA , Solnova Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) , Andasol solar power station ( Spain , 100 MW ) , Nevada Solar One ( USA , 64 MW ) , PS20 solar power tower ( Spain , 20 MW ) , and the PS10 solar power tower ( Spain , 11 MW ) . The 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility , located in California 's Mojave Desert , is the world 's largest solar @-@ thermal power plant project currently under construction . Many other plants are under construction or planned , mainly in Spain and the USA . In developing countries , three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal / combined @-@ cycle gas @-@ turbine power plants in Egypt , Mexico , and Morocco have been approved .
= = = Modern forms of Bioenergy = = =
Global ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres , while biodiesel expanded more than tenfold from less than 1 billion to almost 11 billion litres . Biofuels provide 1 @.@ 8 % of the world 's transport fuel and recent estimates indicate a continued high growth . The main producing countries for transport biofuels are the USA , Brazil , and the EU .
Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world , involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane , and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country 's automotive fuel . As a result of this and the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources , Brazil , which for years had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption , recently reached complete self @-@ sufficiency in liquid fuels .
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10 percent ethanol , a mix known as E10 , and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends . Ford , DaimlerChrysler , and GM are among the automobile companies that sell flexible @-@ fuel cars , trucks , and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85 % ethanol ( E85 ) . The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date . The Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which calls for 7 @.@ 5 billion US gallons ( 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of biofuels to be used annually by 2012 , will also help to expand the market .
The growing ethanol and biodiesel industries are providing jobs in plant construction , operations , and maintenance , mostly in rural communities . According to the Renewable Fuels Association , " the ethanol industry created almost 154 @,@ 000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone , boosting household income by $ 5 @.@ 7 billion . It also contributed about $ 3 @.@ 5 billion in tax revenues at the local , state , and federal levels " .
= = Third @-@ generation technologies = =
Third @-@ generation renewable energy technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification , biorefinery technologies , hot @-@ dry @-@ rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . Third @-@ generation technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization . Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies , but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research and development funding .
= = = New bioenergy technologies = = =
According to the International Energy Agency , cellulosic ethanol biorefineries could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than organizations such as the IEA previously thought . Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants . Crop residues ( such as corn stalks , wheat straw and rice straw ) , wood waste , and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass . Dedicated energy crops , such as switchgrass , are also promising cellulose sources that can be sustainably produced in many regions .
= = = Ocean energy = = =
Ocean energy is all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea including wave energy , tidal energy , river current , ocean current energy , offshore wind , salinity gradient energy and ocean thermal gradient energy .
The Rance Tidal Power Station ( 240 MW ) is the world 's first tidal power station . The facility is located on the estuary of the Rance River , in Brittany , France . Opened on 26 November 1966 , it is currently operated by Électricité de France , and is the largest tidal power station in the world , in terms of installed capacity .
First proposed more than thirty years ago , systems to harvest utility @-@ scale electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining momentum as a viable technology . The potential for this technology is considered promising , especially on west @-@ facing coasts with latitudes between 40 and 60 degrees :
In the United Kingdom , for example , the Carbon Trust recently estimated the extent of the economically viable offshore resource at 55 TWh per year , about 14 % of current national demand . Across Europe , the technologically achievable resource has been estimated to be at least 280 TWh per year . In 2003 , the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute ( EPRI ) estimated the viable resource in the United States at 255 TWh per year ( 6 % of demand ) .
There are currently nine projects , completed or in @-@ development , off the coasts of the United Kingdom , United States , Spain and Australia to harness the rise and fall of waves by Ocean Power Technologies . The current maximum power output is 1 @.@ 5 MW ( Reedsport , Oregon ) , with development underway for 100 MW ( Coos Bay , Oregon ) .
= = = Enhanced geothermal systems = = =
As of 2008 , geothermal power development was under way in more than 40 countries , partially attributable to the development of new technologies , such as Enhanced Geothermal Systems . The development of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology may enable enhanced geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range than " traditional " Geothermal systems . Demonstration EGS projects are operational in the USA , Australia , Germany , France , and The United Kingdom .
= = Renewable energy industry = =
Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 211 billion in 2010 , up from $ 160 billion in 2009 . The top countries for investment in 2010 were China , Germany , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Continued growth for the renewable energy sector is expected and promotional policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .
= = = Wind power companies = = =
As of 2010 , Vestas ( from Denmark ) is the world 's top wind turbine manufacturer in terms of percentage of market volume , and Sinovel ( from China ) is in second place . Together Vestas and Sinovel delivered 10 @,@ 228 MW of new wind power capacity in 2010 , and their market share was 25 @.@ 9 percent . GE Energy ( USA ) was in third place , closely followed by Goldwind , another Chinese supplier . German Enercon ranks fifth in the world , and is followed in sixth place by Indian @-@ based Suzlon .
= = = Photovoltaic market trends = = =
The solar PV market has been growing for the past few years . According to solar PV research company , PVinsights , worldwide shipment of solar modules in 2011 was around 25 GW , and the shipment year over year growth was around 40 % . The top 5 solar module players in 2011 in turns are Suntech , First Solar , Yingli , Trina , and Sungen . The top 5 solar module companies possessed 51 @.@ 3 % market share of solar modules , according to PVinsights ' market intelligence report .
The PV industry has seen drops in module prices since 2008 . In late 2011 , factory @-@ gate prices for crystalline @-@ silicon photovoltaic modules dropped below the $ 1 @.@ 00 / W mark . The $ 1 @.@ 00 / W installed cost , is often regarded in the PV industry as marking the achievement of grid parity for PV . These reductions have taken many stakeholders , including industry analysts , by surprise , and perceptions of current solar power economics often lags behind reality . Some stakeholders still have the perspective that solar PV remains too costly on an unsubsidized basis to compete with conventional generation options . Yet technological advancements , manufacturing process improvements , and industry re @-@ structuring , mean that further price reductions are likely in coming years .
= = Non @-@ technical barriers to acceptance = =
Many energy markets , institutions , and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels . Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits , but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of big , conventional power plants . Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given accurate price signals about electricity consumption . Intentional market distortions ( such as subsidies ) , and unintentional market distortions ( such as split incentives ) may work against renewables . Benjamin K. Sovacool has argued that " some of the most surreptitious , yet powerful , impediments facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about culture and institutions than engineering and science " .
The obstacles to the widespread commercialization of renewable energy technologies are primarily political , not technical , and there have been many studies which have identified a range of " non @-@ technical barriers " to renewable energy use . These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing , institutional , or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy . Key barriers include :
Difficulty overcoming established energy systems , which includes difficulty introducing innovative energy systems , particularly for distributed generation such as photovoltaics , because of technological lock @-@ in , electricity markets designed for centralized power plants , and market control by established operators . As the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change points out :
National grids are usually tailored towards the operation of centralised power plants and thus favour their performance . Technologies that do not easily fit into these networks may struggle to enter the market , even if the technology itself is commercially viable . This applies to distributed generation as most grids are not suited to receive electricity from many small sources . Large @-@ scale renewables may also encounter problems if they are sited in areas far from existing grids .
Lack of government policy support , which includes the lack of policies and regulations supporting deployment of renewable energy technologies and the presence of policies and regulations hindering renewable energy development and supporting conventional energy development . Examples include subsidies for fossil @-@ fuels , insufficient consumer @-@ based renewable energy incentives , government underwriting for nuclear plant accidents , and complex zoning and permitting processes for renewable energy .
Lack of information dissemination and consumer awareness .
Higher capital cost of renewable energy technologies compared with conventional energy technologies .
Inadequate financing options for renewable energy projects , including insufficient access to affordable financing for project developers , entrepreneurs and consumers .
Imperfect capital markets , which includes failure to internalize all costs of conventional energy ( e.g. , effects of air pollution , risk of supply disruption ) and failure to internalize all benefits of renewable energy ( e.g. , cleaner air , energy security ) .
Inadequate workforce skills and training , which includes lack of adequate scientific , technical , and manufacturing skills required for renewable energy production ; lack of reliable installation , maintenance , and inspection services ; and failure of the educational system to provide adequate training in new technologies .
Lack of adequate codes , standards , utility interconnection , and net @-@ metering guidelines .
Poor public perception of renewable energy system aesthetics .
Lack of stakeholder / community participation and co @-@ operation in energy choices and renewable energy projects .
With such a wide range of non @-@ technical barriers , there is no " silver bullet " solution to drive the transition to renewable energy . So ideally there is a need for several different types of policy instruments to complement each other and overcome different types of barriers .
A policy framework must be created that will level the playing field and redress the imbalance of traditional approaches associated with fossil fuels . The policy landscape must keep pace with broad trends within the energy sector , as well as reflecting specific social , economic and environmental priorities .
= = Public policy landscape = =
Public policy has a role to play in renewable energy commercialization because the free market system has some fundamental limitations . As the Stern Review points out :
In a liberalised energy market , investors , operators and consumers should face the full cost of their decisions . But this is not the case in many economies or energy sectors . Many policies distort the market in favour of existing fossil fuel technologies .
The International Solar Energy Society has stated that " historical incentives for the conventional energy resources continue even today to bias markets by burying many of the real societal costs of their use " .
Fossil @-@ fuel energy systems have different production , transmission , and end @-@ use costs and characteristics than do renewable energy systems , and new promotional policies are needed to ensure that renewable systems develop as quickly and broadly as is socially desirable .
Lester Brown states that the market " does not incorporate the indirect costs of providing goods or services into prices , it does not value nature 's services adequately , and it does not respect the sustainable @-@ yield thresholds of natural systems " . It also favors the near term over the long term , thereby showing limited concern for future generations . Tax and subsidy shifting can help overcome these problems , though is also problematic to combine different international normative regimes regulating this issue .
= = = Shifting taxes = = =
Tax shifting has been widely discussed and endorsed by economists . It involves lowering income taxes while raising levies on environmentally destructive activities , in order to create a more responsive market . For example , a tax on coal that included the increased health care costs associated with breathing polluted air , the costs of acid rain damage , and the costs of climate disruption would encourage investment in renewable technologies . Several Western European countries are already shifting taxes in a process known there as environmental tax reform .
In 2001 , Sweden launched a new 10 @-@ year environmental tax shift designed to convert 30 billion kroner ( $ 3 @.@ 9 billion ) of income taxes to taxes on environmentally destructive activities . Other European countries with significant tax reform efforts are France , Italy , Norway , Spain , and the United Kingdom . Asia 's two leading economies , Japan and China , are considering carbon taxes .
= = = Shifting subsidies = = =
Just as there is a need for tax shifting , there is also a need for subsidy shifting . Subsidies are not an inherently bad thing as many technologies and industries emerged through government subsidy schemes . The Stern Review explains that of 20 key innovations from the past 30 years , only one of the 14 was funded entirely by the private sector and nine were totally publicly funded . In terms of specific examples , the Internet was the result of publicly funded links among computers in government laboratories and research institutes . And the combination of the federal tax deduction and a robust state tax deduction in California helped to create the modern wind power industry .
Lester Brown has argued that " a world facing the prospect of economically disruptive climate change can no longer justify subsidies to expand the burning of coal and oil . Shifting these subsidies to the development of climate @-@ benign energy sources such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal power is the key to stabilizing the earth 's climate . " The International Solar Energy Society advocates " leveling the playing field " by redressing the continuing inequities in public subsidies of energy technologies and R & D , in which the fossil fuel and nuclear power receive the largest share of financial support .
Some countries are eliminating or reducing climate disrupting subsidies and Belgium , France , and Japan have phased out all subsidies for coal . Germany is reducing its coal subsidy . The subsidy dropped from $ 5 @.@ 4 billion in 1989 to $ 2 @.@ 8 billion in 2002 , and in the process Germany lowered its coal use by 46 percent . China cut its coal subsidy from $ 750 million in 1993 to $ 240 million in 1995 and more recently has imposed a high @-@ sulfur coal tax . However , the United States has been increasing its support for the fossil fuel and nuclear industries .
In November 2011 , an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said " subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits " . The IEA 's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand .
A fair and efficient imposition of subsidies for renewable energies and aiming at sustainable development , however , require coordination and regulation at a global level , as subsidies granted in one country can easily disrupt industries and policies of others , thus underlining the relevance of this issue at the World Trade Organization .
= = = Renewable energy targets = = =
Setting national renewable energy targets can be an important part of a renewable energy policy and these targets are usually defined as a percentage of the primary energy and / or electricity generation mix . For example , the European Union has prescribed an indicative renewable energy target of 12 per cent of the total EU energy mix and 22 per cent of electricity consumption by 2010 . National targets for individual EU Member States have also been set to meet the overall target . Other developed countries with defined national or regional targets include Australia , Canada , Israel , Japan , Korea , New Zealand , Norway , Singapore , Switzerland , and some US States .
National targets are also an important component of renewable energy strategies in some developing countries . Developing countries with renewable energy targets include China , India , Indonesia , Malaysia , the Philippines , Thailand , Brazil , Egypt , Mali , and South Africa . The targets set by many developing countries are quite modest when compared with those in some industrialized countries .
Renewable energy targets in most countries are indicative and nonbinding but they have assisted government actions and regulatory frameworks . The United Nations Environment Program has suggested that making renewable energy targets legally binding could be an important policy tool to achieve higher renewable energy market penetration .
= = = Levelling the playing field = = =
The IEA has identified three actions which will allow renewable energy and other clean energy technologies to " more effectively compete for private sector capital " .
" First , energy prices must appropriately reflect the " true cost " of energy ( e.g. through carbon pricing ) so that the positive and negative impacts of energy production and consumption are fully taken into account " . Example : New UK nuclear plants cost £ 92 @.@ 50 / MWh , whereas offshore wind farms in the UK are supported with € 74 @.@ 2 / MWh at a price of £ 150 in 2011 falling to £ 130 per MWh in 2022 . In Denmark , the price can be € 84 / MWh .
" Second , inefficient fossil fuel subsidies must be removed , while ensuring that all citizens have access to affordable energy " .
" Third , governments must develop policy frameworks that encourage private sector investment in lower @-@ carbon energy options " .
= = = Green stimulus programs = = =
In response to the global financial crisis in the late 2000s , the world 's major governments made " green stimulus " programs one of their main policy instruments for supporting economic recovery . Some US $ 188 billion in green stimulus funding had been allocated to renewable energy and energy efficiency , to be spent mainly in 2010 and in 2011 .
= = = Energy Sector Regulation = = =
Public policy determines the extent to which renewable energy ( RE ) is to be incorporated into a developed or developing country 's generation mix . Energy sector regulators implement that policy — thus affecting the pace and pattern of RE investments and connections to the grid . Energy regulators often have authority to carry out a number of functions that have implications for the financial feasibility of renewable energy projects . Such functions include issuing licenses , setting performance standards , monitoring the performance of regulated firms , determining the price level and structure of tariffs , establishing uniform systems of accounts , arbitrating stakeholder disputes ( like interconnection cost allocations ) , performing management audits , developing agency human resources ( expertise ) , reporting sector and commission activities to government authorities , and coordinating decisions with other government agencies . Thus , regulators make a wide range of decisions that affect the financial outcomes associated with RE investments . In addition , the sector regulator is in a position to give advice to the government regarding the full implications of focusing on climate change or energy security . The energy sector regulator is the natural advocate for efficiency and cost @-@ containment throughout the process of designing and implementing RE policies . Since policies are not self @-@ implementing , energy sector regulators become a key facilitator ( or blocker ) of renewable energy investments .
= = = Energy transition in Germany = = =
The Energiewende ( German for energy transition ) is the transition by Germany to a low carbon , environmentally sound , reliable , and affordable energy supply . The new system will rely heavily on renewable energy ( particularly wind , photovoltaics , and biomass ) energy efficiency , and energy demand management . Most if not all existing coal @-@ fired generation will need to be retired . The phase @-@ out of Germany 's fleet of nuclear reactors , to be complete by 2022 , is a key part of the program .
Legislative support for the Energiewende was passed in late 2010 and includes greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reductions of 80 – 95 % by 2050 ( relative to 1990 ) and a renewable energy target of 60 % by 2050 . These targets are ambitious . One Berlin policy institute noted that " while the German approach is not unique worldwide , the speed and scope of the Energiewende are exceptional " . The Energiewende also seeks a greater transparency in relation to national energy policy formation .
Germany has made significant progress on its GHG emissions reduction target , achieving a 27 % decrease between 1990 and 2014 . However Germany will need to maintain an average GHG emissions abatement rate of 3 @.@ 5 % per annum to reach its Energiewende goal , equal to the maximum historical value thus far .
Germany spends € 1 @.@ 5 billion per annum on energy research ( 2013 figure ) in an effort to solve the technical and social issues raised by the transition . This includes a number of computer studies that have confirmed the feasibility and a similar cost ( relative to business @-@ as @-@ usual and given that carbon is adequately priced ) of the Energiewende .
These initiatives go well beyond European Union legislation and the national policies of other European states . The policy objectives have been embraced by the German federal government and has resulted in a huge expansion of renewables , particularly wind power . Germany 's share of renewables has increased from around 5 % in 1999 to 22 @.@ 9 % in 2012 , surpassing the OECD average of 18 % usage of renewables . Producers have been guaranteed a fixed feed @-@ in tariff for 20 years , guaranteeing a fixed income . Energy co @-@ operatives have been created , and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits . The large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewables market . However , in some cases poor investment designs have caused bankruptcies and low returns , and unrealistic promises have been shown to be far from reality . Nuclear power plants were closed , and the existing nine plants will close earlier than planned , in 2022 .
One factor that has inhibited efficient employment of new renewable energy has been the lack of an accompanying investment in power infrastructure to bring the power to market . It is believed 8 @,@ 300 km of power lines must be built or upgraded . The different German States have varying attitudes to the construction of new power lines . Industry has had their rates frozen and so the increased costs of the Energiewende have been passed on to consumers , who have had rising electricity bills .
= = Voluntary market mechanisms for renewable electricity = =
Voluntary markets , also referred to as green power markets , are driven by consumer preference . Voluntary markets allow a consumer to choose to do more than policy decisions require and reduce the environmental impact of their electricity use . Voluntary green power products must offer a significant benefit and value to buyers to be successful . Benefits may include zero or reduced greenhouse gas emissions , other pollution reductions or other environmental improvements on power stations .
The driving force behind voluntary green electricity within the EU are the liberalized electricity markets and the RES Directive . According to the directive the EU Member States must ensure that the origin of electricity produced from renewables can be guaranteed and therefore a " guarantee of origin " must be issued ( article 15 ) . Environmental organisations are using the voluntary market to create new renewables and improving sustainability of the existing power production . In the US the main tool to track and stimulate voluntary actions is Green @-@ e program managed by Center for Resource Solutions . In Europe the main voluntary tool used by the NGOs to promote sustainable electricity production is EKOenergy label .
= = Recent developments = =
A number of events in 2006 pushed renewable energy up the political agenda , including the US mid @-@ term elections in November , which confirmed clean energy as a mainstream issue . Also in 2006 , the Stern Review made a strong economic case for investing in low carbon technologies now , and argued that economic growth need not be incompatible with cutting energy consumption . According to a trend analysis from the United Nations Environment Programme , climate change concerns coupled with recent high oil prices and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the renewable energy and energy efficiency industries .
Investment capital flowing into renewable energy reached a record US $ 77 billion in 2007 , with the upward trend continuing in 2008 . The OECD still dominates , but there is now increasing activity from companies in China , India and Brazil . Chinese companies were the second largest recipient of venture capital in 2006 after the United States . In the same year , India was the largest net buyer of companies abroad , mainly in the more established European markets .
New government spending , regulation , and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors . Most notably , U.S. President Barack Obama 's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 included more than $ 70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs . This policy @-@ stimulus combination represents the largest federal commitment in U.S. history for renewables , advanced transportation , and energy conservation initiatives . Based on these new rules , many more utilities strengthened their clean @-@ energy programs . Clean Edge suggests that the commercialization of clean energy will help countries around the world deal with the current economic malaise . Once @-@ promising solar energy company , Solyndra , became involved in a political controversy involving U.S. President Barack Obama 's administration 's authorization of a $ 535 million loan guarantee to the Corporation in 2009 as part of a program to promote alternative energy growth . The company ceased all business activity , filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy , and laid @-@ off nearly all of its employees in early September 2011 .
In his 24 January 2012 , State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy . Obama said that he " will not walk away from the promise of clean energy . " Obama called for a commitment by the Defense Department to purchase 1 @,@ 000 MW of renewable energy . He also mentioned the long @-@ standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10 @,@ 000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .
As of 2012 , renewable energy plays a major role in the energy mix of many countries globally . Renewables are becoming increasingly economic in both developing and developed countries . Prices for renewable energy technologies , primarily wind power and solar power , continued to drop , making renewables competitive with conventional energy sources . Without a level playing field , however , high market penetration of renewables is still dependent on a robust promotional policies . Fossil fuel subsidies , which are far higher than those for renewable energy , remain in place and quickly need to be phased out .
United Nations ' Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon has said that " renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity " . In October 2011 , he " announced the creation of a high @-@ level group to drum up support for energy access , energy efficiency and greater use of renewable energy . The group is to be co @-@ chaired by Kandeh Yumkella , the chair of UN Energy and director general of the UN Industrial Development Organisation , and Charles Holliday , chairman of Bank of America " .
Worldwide use of solar power and wind power continued to grow significantly in 2012 . Solar electricity consumption increased by 58 percent , to 93 terawatt @-@ hours ( TWh ) . Use of wind power in 2012 increased by 18 @.@ 1 percent , to 521 @.@ 3 TWh . Global solar and wind energy installed capacities continued to expand even though new investments in these technologies declined during 2012 . Worldwide investment in solar power in 2012 was $ 140 @.@ 4 billion , an 11 percent decline from 2011 , and wind power investment was down 10 @.@ 1 percent , to $ 80 @.@ 3 billion . But due to lower production costs for both technologies , total installed capacities grew sharply . This investment decline , but growth in installed capacity , may again occur in 2013 . Analysts expect the market to triple by 2030 . In 2015 , investment in renewables exceeded fossils .
= = 100 % renewable energy = =
The incentive to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , transport , or even total primary energy supply globally , has been motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . In reviewing 164 recent scenarios of future renewable energy growth , the report noted that the majority expected renewable sources to supply more than 17 % of total energy by 2030 , and 27 % by 2050 ; the highest forecast projected 43 % supplied by renewables by 2030 and 77 % by 2050 . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of energy supply . Also , Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of " stabilization wedges " that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and " renewable energy sources , " in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their " wedges . "
Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be " primarily social and political , not technological or economic " . Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind , solar , water system should be similar to today 's energy costs .
Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that " sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . " .
The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large @-@ scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are primarily political and not technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .
= = Energy efficiency = =
Moving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied , but in the way it is used , and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential . Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side , and often offer significant economic benefits .
A sustainable energy economy requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency . Renewable energy and energy efficiency are said to be the " twin pillars " of sustainable energy policy . The American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy has explained that both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions :
Efficiency is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use . If energy use grows too fast , renewable energy development will chase a receding target . Likewise , unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly , slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions ; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed .
The IEA has stated that renewable energy and energy efficiency policies are complementary tools for the development of a sustainable energy future , and should be developed together instead of being developed in isolation .
= = = Lists = = =
= = = Topics = = =
= = = People = = =
= Matt Hughes ( fighter ) =
Matthew Allen Hughes ( born October 13 , 1973 ) is an American retired mixed martial artist , two @-@ time UFC Welterweight Champion , UFC Hall of Fame inductee , and NJCAA Hall of Fame inductee . During his tenures in the Ultimate Fighting Championship , Hughes put together two separate six @-@ fight winning streaks , defeated all the available opposition in the welterweight division , and defended the belt a then @-@ record seven times . Hughes was inducted into the UFC Hall of Fame in May 2010 during the UFC Fan Expo in conjunction with UFC 114 .
During his reign , Hughes was widely considered the # 1 pound @-@ for @-@ pound mixed martial artist in the world . Hughes was also regarded by many analysts and several media outlets as one of the greatest welterweight fighters of all time , as well as one of the greatest pound @-@ for @-@ pound fighters in the sport 's history .
A long @-@ time member of Miletich Fighting Systems , Hughes left the Miletich camp in late 2007 to start Team Hughes . In 2008 , Hughes published his autobiography , Made in America , which made the New York Times bestseller list . In 2011 , Hughes became host of Outdoor Channel 's Trophy Hunters TV . Hughes has no nickname ; although because of his success against Gracie jiu @-@ jitsu practitioners such as Royce Gracie , Renzo Gracie , Ricardo Almeida , and Matt Serra , people often refer to him as " the Gracie Killer " ( same as Sakuraba 's nickname ) . His mastery of Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu , and having trained with 18 black belt holders in BJJ are also the reasons why Joe Rogan thinks he deserved to get a black belt for BJJ , even when he probably won 't wear it .
= = Early life = =
Hughes was born in Hillsboro , Illinois . Hughes has two siblings , a sister and his twin brother Mark . During high school they both played football and wrestling . Hughes went to Southwestern Illinois College in Belleville , Illinois , before transferring to Lincoln College , in Lincoln , Illinois and then on to Eastern Illinois University in Charleston , Illinois .
= = = Wrestling = = =
Hughes was a two @-@ time 145 lb IHSA ( Illinois High School Association ) Class A state wrestling champion . He won in 1991 and 1992 while attending Hillsboro High School ( Illinois ) . During his junior and senior years , Matt went undefeated and won back @-@ to @-@ back state championships in the 145 lb class . Over the final three years of high school , he totaled 131 wins against only 2 losses , both during his sophomore year ( sophomore 43 @-@ 2 ; junior 43 @-@ 0 ; senior 45 @-@ 0 ) .
His college career started at Southwestern Illinois College . Hughes placed fifth in the nation at 158 lb . After Southwestern dropped their wrestling program , Hughes transferred to Lincoln College , where he placed third in the nation , notching a 33 @-@ 3 record for the Lynx .
After graduation Matt continued wrestling at Eastern Illinois University , where he was a two @-@ time NCAA Division I All @-@ American placing eighth in 1996 and fifth in 1997 at 158 lb . He finished with an 80 @-@ 15 record for Eastern Illinois .
Hughes competed in the prestigious ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship , in which he held a record of 2 – 2 , beating Ricardo Almeida and Jeremy Horn , and losing to Jeff Monson and Tito Ortiz .
= = Early career = =
Hughes made his mixed martial arts debut on January 1 , 1998 . He slammed his opponent to the ground in just fifteen seconds , winning via KO . The slam became his signature move . He won his next fight via submission due to strikes . Hughes fought three times at Extreme Challenge 21 , on October 17 , 1998 defeating Victor Hunsaker via TKO and future UFC Midleweight Champion Dave Menne via unanimous decision . In the third fight of that night he lost to then @-@ undefeated Dennis Hallman by technical submission ( guillotine choke ) at 0 : 17 of the first round . The result was announced as a KO . In the process , Hallman handed Hughes his first professional defeat .
= = Ultimate Fighting Championship = =
Matt Hughes made his promotional debut at UFC 22 : There Can Be Only One Champion , on September 24 , 1999 , defeating Bulgarian Valeri Ignatov via unanimous decision after three rounds .
He returned to the promotion at UFC 26 : Ultimate Field of Dreams , where he defeated Marcelo Aguiar via TKO , throwing some elbows which cut Aguiar and forced the doctor to end the match . The stoppage came at 4 : 34 of the first round .
Hughes faced Dennis Hallman in a rematch at UFC 29 : Defense of the Belts . At this point in their careers , Hallman was the only man to have defeated Hughes in MMA competition . Hughes lost the fight via armbar in only twenty seconds . When the bout started , Hughes lifted and brutally slammed Hallman to the mat , but was caught in the submission after landing in side @-@ control .
= = = Welterweight championship = = =
Hughes won his first UFC World Welterweight title at UFC 34 : High Voltage on November 2 , 2001 . In a come @-@ from @-@ behind fight , Hughes was caught in a triangle choke by then @-@ champion Carlos Newton , but he lifted Newton in the air and slammed him to the mat , causing Newton to hit his head and lose consciousness just as Hughes was himself on the verge of blacking out from the choke . After the match Carlos stated that he felt the reason Hughes fell to the mat was because he was rendered unconscious from the triangle choke . This was confirmed by Hughes himself upon reviewing the tape of the match Hughes can be heard telling his corner after the fight " I was out " . The result was officially announced as a KO at 1 : 27 of the second round . The slam is considered to be one of the greatest in MMA history .
He successfully defended his championship belt at UFC 36 : Worlds Collide , defeating former Shooto Middleweight Champion Hayato Sakurai via TKO due to strikes at 3 : 01 of the fourth round . In the first round of the fight , Hughes spent all the time either clinching Sakurai up against the fence , or ripping his feet out from under him . In round 2 , Sakurai landed a right hand that sent Hughes to the mat ; despite this , Matt won the round by spending three minutes hitting Sakurai with elbows from the top position . At the start of the third round , Hughes quickly slammed Sakurai to the ground , again staying three minutes on top . He looked too strong for Sakurai . Hughes finished the bout in the 4th round , by taking down Sakurai and transitioning to full mount . After one minute of ground @-@ and @-@ pound onslaught , the contest was over as Sakurai had no answer for the champion .
Hughes faced Carlos Newton in their subsequent rematch at the main event of UFC 38 : Brawl at the Hall , in the promotion 's debut in the United Kingdom . He won the fight by technical knockout when he successfully trapped Newton in a modified crucifix position , which allowed him to rain unanswered blows on Newton 's face until the referee stopped the contest at 3 : 27 of round 4 .
In his next title defense , Hughes fought Gil Castillo at UFC 40 : Vendetta , defeating the former Middleweight contender via TKO . Hughes started the match with a big slam and then began to attack from Castillo 's guard with elbows and punches . Hughes easily avoided any submission attempts and looked far stronger than Castillo . As he passed to half guard , Castillo was bleeding above his left eye . The challenger 's only offense was a weak triangle choke that went nowhere . The round ended with Hughes on top , ground @-@ and @-@ pounding his opponent . Between rounds doctors ruled that the resulting cut was too severe to continue , and Hughes was declared the winner due to stoppage .
At UFC 42 : Sudden Impact , Hughes faced future UFC Lightweight Champion Sean Sherk , winning via unanimous decision . Hughes started the action by taking Sherk down immediately , passing to half guard . Sherk was able to stand for a few seconds before Hughes took him down again . In round two , they started to trade punches , but eventually Hughes took Sherk down . Like the first round , they stood up for a moment . At the beginning of the third round , Sherk took Hughes down , while Hughes attempted a kimura from the bottom . A late stand up led to a second takedown by Sherk . Round 4 saw Hughes using his strength to control the challenger on the ground . Sherk took Hughes down again in the fifth round , but the champion controlled the rest of the time sprawl @-@ and @-@ brawling as he finished on top . With the victory , he became the first man to ever defeat Sherk .
Hughes faced former WFA Welterweight Champion Frank Trigg at the main event of UFC 45 : Revolution . This event marked UFC 's 10th anniversary . After a tactical grappling match @-@ up early on , Trigg fell victim to a standing rear naked choke at 3 : 45 of the first round . The choke earned Hughes the Tapout of the Night Submission Award .
= = = Loss to Penn and regaining the title = = =
He kept the title until UFC 46 : Supernatural , when he was submitted by Hawaiian Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu specialist B.J. Penn via rear naked choke at 4 : 39 of the first round , in a fight he was heavily favored to win . The title was vacated upon a contract dispute between Penn and UFC who promptly stripped him of the welterweight title , claiming Penn had breached his contract and that the signing constituted him refusing to defend his title . Penn filed suit against UFC and publicized his side of the conflict , claiming his contract had expired . Penn filed a motion to stop UFC from awarding a new welterweight title , but that motion was denied .
Hughes faced Penn 's training partner Renato Verissimo at UFC 48 : Payback , winning via unanimous decision ( 30 @-@ 27 ; 30 @-@ 27 ; 29 @-@ 28 ) . He was caught in a very tight triangle choke in the first round , but after winning the second and third rounds , was awarded with the victory .
Hughes regained the vacant welterweight title by submitting Canadian contender Georges St @-@ Pierre via armbar in the final second of the first round at UFC 50 : The War of ' 04 . The fight was competitive . Hughes took GSP down twice and landed a huge slam . Hughes was in trouble at the beginning of the bout as St @-@ Pierre unloaded a spinning back kick into his ribs . The submission earned Hughes his second Tapout of the Night . Obviously disappointed at the time , St. Pierre admitted afterward that he had lost before he ever stepped into the Octagon . He had regarded Hughes as his idol , not as someone he could beat .
Hughes successfully retained his title against Trigg in their historical rematch at UFC 52 : Couture vs. Liddell 2 . Accidentally hit in the groin early in the first round , Hughes looked to the referee for assistance ; however , the referee had not seen the strike and Trigg capitalized on Hughes ' distraction by staggering him with a barrage of punches . The fight quickly went to the ground , with Trigg ground @-@ and @-@ pounding Hughes , then attempting a rear naked choke . After nearly two minutes of struggling , Hughes broke free , picked Trigg up , carried him across the Octagon and slammed him to the ground . Hughes then ground @-@ and @-@ pounded Trigg before securing the victory with a rear naked choke of his own , in what is considered one of the greatest fights and comebacks in MMA history . This fight is UFC President Dana White 's favorite match in combat sport history . He was awarded the Tapout of the Night for the third time in his career .
Hughes ' next fight took place at UFC 56 : Full Force , where he was scheduled to fight Judo practitioner Karo Parisyan . After Parysian suffered a hamstring injury and could not fight , Joe Riggs took his place . The match was originally scheduled as a title bout , but since Riggs could not meet the 170 @-@ pound weight limit , it became a non @-@ title fight . It marked the first time for the UFC that a title fight had to be called off for this reason .
Hughes defeated Riggs in the first round by submission via kimura from the half @-@ guard at 3 : 28 . The armlock earned Hughes his last Tapout of the Night award .
At UFC 60 : Hughes vs. Gracie , on May 27 , 2006 , Hughes defeated Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu legend and UFC Hall of Famer Royce Gracie in a non @-@ title , catch @-@ weight bout by TKO ( strikes ) at 4 : 39 of the first round . Before the stoppage , Gracie was caught in an armlock from the side mount position ; although Hughes appeared to have the submission in place , Gracie would not tap out . Hughes stated that he felt his arm pop and realized he would never tap , so instead of breaking his arm , opted to seek a different position . The event drew 620 @,@ 000 buys , becoming the best @-@ selling pay @-@ per @-@ view in UFC history , and was the first to break the $ 20 million mark in gross PPV sales .
Hughes was scheduled to fight Georges St @-@ Pierre in a rematch at UFC 63 , but after St @-@ Pierre sustained a severe groin injury , the UFC announced that B.J. Penn would replace him in the title fight . At this point in their careers , Penn was the only mixed martial artist to beat Hughes after March 2001 . In fact , it was Hughes ' only loss in his last 19 fights . In the bout , Penn controlled the first two rounds , but sustained a rib injury during the scramble to take Hughes ' back in round two . He was visibly different in the third round , appearing exhausted and missing punches he was landing earlier . Hughes was able to take Penn to the mat , and in side @-@ control crucifix position rained punches on Penn 's head until referee " Big " John McCarthy stopped the fight at 3 : 53 of the third round . In the process , Hughes became the first man to ever stop Penn in a fight . Both fighters were awarded the Fight of the Night bonus . In an interview on Penn 's personal website , Penn stated that by round three he could hardly breathe and had no " mobility in his core " . Despite the injury , Penn congratulated Hughes , calling him a great fighter and saying he deserved the victory .
St @-@ Pierre stepped into the ring to promote his upcoming title fight against Hughes , stating that he was glad that Hughes won his fight , but that he was " not impressed " by Hughes ' performance . According to both commentator Joe Rogan and Hughes ' own autobiography , Hughes was unhappy with St @-@ Pierre 's statement . Hughes said that they " had words " off @-@ camera shortly thereafter . St @-@ Pierre apologized , saying he had misunderstood something Hughes had said on the microphone and did not mean to offend him .
= = = Loss to St @-@ Pierre = = =
On November 18 , 2006 , at UFC 65 : Bad Intentions , Georges St @-@ Pierre defeated Hughes by TKO via strikes at 1 : 25 of round two , ending Hughes ' title reign . In the first round , Hughes sustained two unintentional kicks near the groin ; after Hughes went down from the second kick , St @-@ Pierre was given a warning by referee " Big " John McCarthy . However , Hughes stated in the post @-@ fight interview that the second kick mainly affected his legs , rather than his groin . Nearing the end of the first round , St @-@ Pierre landed a Superman punch , which floored Hughes . St @-@ Pierre then followed up with strikes on his stunned opponent . When it appeared that the fight would be stopped , the bell rang signaling the end of the first round . In the second round St @-@ Pierre ended the fight with a head kick which stunned Hughes and knocked him to the mat . He followed up with a flurry of punches and elbows that forced McCarthy to stop the contest with 3 : 35 left in the round .
= = = Return = = =
On March 3 , 2007 , Hughes returned to the Octagon for UFC 68 : Uprising , defeating Chris Lytle by unanimous decision , winning 30 – 27 on all three judges ' scorecards . Hughes secured an armbar at the end of round one , but Lytle was saved by the bell . Hughes opened the second round with a quick takedown , moving up to side @-@ control and then landed an elbow that cut Lytle . Finally , Hughes mounted his opponent , but Lytle swept and was able to reverse that position . In the third round , Hughes unsuccessfully tried an armbar again before the horn sounded .
In late mid @-@ 2007 , Hughes left the Miletich camp with Miletich stablemate Robbie Lawler , longtime boxing coach Matt Pena , and wrestling / conditioning teacher Marc Fiore to form The H.I.T. ( Hughes Intensive Training ) Squad in Granite City , Illinois .
= = = The Ultimate Fighter = = =
In 2005 , Hughes participated as a coach opposite Rich Franklin in the second season of the Spike TV reality television series , The Ultimate Fighter . This was the first season where the coaches did not fight each other after the conclusion of the show , because Franklin and Hughes were champions in different weight divisions . In 2007 , Hughes participated as a guest coach for long @-@ time friend and training partner , Jens Pulver during The Ultimate Fighter 5 season .
Hughes agreed to head coach again for The Ultimate Fighter 6 , alongside then @-@ UFC Welterweight Champion , Matt Serra . Despite the fact that after the preliminary round , Team Hughes ' record was 2 – 6 , both Mac Danzig and Tommy Speer of Team Hughes made it to the finals . In 2011 , Hughes appeared as guest coach during The Ultimate Fighter 13 season for friend and former UFC Heavyweight Champion Brock Lesnar .
= = = Interim Welterweight Championship bout = = =
Following a championship win by Matt Serra over Georges St @-@ Pierre at UFC 69 , UFC President Dana White announced that Hughes would fight for the World Welterweight title in November 2007 against Serra . This fight was later changed to December 29 , 2007 , in Las Vegas , at UFC 79 : Nemesis . On November 23 , however , Serra sustained a herniated disc in his lower back and informed UFC that he would not be able to compete for an indeterminate time . As a replacement for the title match , the UFC quickly signed a rubber match between Hughes and St @-@ Pierre that would also be for the Interim UFC Welterweight Championship . Despite his best efforts , Hughes was unable to mount a serious offense on St @-@ Pierre , who easily avoided Hughes ' takedown attempts , while taking Hughes down at will and using Hughes ' own ground @-@ and @-@ pound style against him . Near the end of the second round , St @-@ Pierre attempted a kimura on Hughes ' right arm that he escaped , but in a reversal of their first fight , St @-@ Pierre was able to twist it into a straight armbar with fifteen seconds remaining in the round . Hughes fought the extension , but with his left hand trapped between the mat and St @-@ Pierre 's legs , was forced to verbally submit at 4 : 54 of the second round . In the post @-@ fight interview , Hughes praised St @-@ Pierre as the better fighter :
= = = Hughes vs. Alves = = =
Hughes fought Thiago Alves at UFC 85 : BEDLAM on June 7 , 2008 . Hughes lost to Alves by TKO at 1 : 02 of the second round . After receiving a powerful flying knee , he dropped to the ground with his own left knee pinned behind his hips , ultimately leaving him with a torn MCL and partially torn PCL . Hughes took the fight on short notice as a favor to UFC . Alves failed to make weight for the match , but Hughes elected to fight him at a catch weight anyway . He stated in his blog :
= = = Hughes vs. Serra and future = = =
Immediately after the Alves fight , Hughes stated that he had " one more fight " left in him , and that he wanted to fight Matt Serra . Their rivalry stemmed from the time when Serra was a contestant on The Ultimate Fighter and Hughes was guest coach . Serra did not like the way Hughes criticized other contestants on the show and was disgusted when Hughes constantly picked on Georges St @-@ Pierre during a lunch break and bragged about his submission victory . On January 9 , 2009 , Hughes confirmed on his blog that UFC 98 would likely be the day he and Serra met in the Octagon . UFC confirmed the fight .
Hughes won the grudge match against Serra at UFC 98 : Evans vs. Machida via unanimous decision . In the first round , both fighters collided heads , and Hughes got the worst of it . Despite this , Serra could not finish the fight and Hughes recovered rapidly . In the second stanza , Hughes controlled his opponent on the ground with his wrestling skills . The final round saw the former champions taking each other down and exchanging punches . The back and forth action rewarded both competitors with Fight of the Night honors . After the fight Hughes and Serra embraced each other and ended their feud . Hughes posted on his blog : " When the fight was over , I was pretty confident I was going to get my hand raised . Some people have asked why I raised his hand at the end . Actually I didn 't , he raised mine . He also told me that , no matter what the decision was , he was done with the rivalry " . After the fight Hughes said , " I think I have a few more fights left in me . "
= = = Hughes vs. Gracie = = =
Hughes then signed a multi @-@ fight deal with the UFC . Hughes defeated Renzo Gracie , the 1st cousin once removed of his opponent at UFC 60 , via third round TKO at UFC 112 : Invincible , setting the record for most UFC wins with 17 . Both of them seemed very comfortable fighting on their feet in the early going , with Gracie landing the cleaner and more effective punches and also landing a couple of kicks . Hughes started the second round with powerful leg kicks , but after that Gracie returned to his in @-@ and @-@ out punching style . Hughes got double underhooks and managed to take Gracie down briefly . In the final round Hughes connected with a right hook to Gracie 's chin , then connected with a leg kick and another punch . With two minutes to go he knocked Gracie down with a leg kick . Gracie took all the time he could before Hughes helped him up and then dropped him with a second leg kick . Gracie stalled again , but when he finally stood up Hughes floored him with a punch , let him get up and then attacked again . Hughes knocked Gracie down again with a fourth punch , when referee Herb Dean ended it .
= = = Hall of Fame and Hughes vs. Almeida = = =
On May 28 , 2010 , Hughes was inducted into the UFC Hall of Fame .
Fighting Renzo Gracie student and 3rd degree Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu black belt Ricardo Almeida , Hughes rendered him unconscious with a Dave Schultz front headlock at 3 : 15 of round 1 , on August 7 , 2010 at UFC 117 : Silva vs. Sonnen . Hughes landed a huge left hook that knocked Almeida down , sinking in the very deep choke which earned him the Submission of the Night honors . Almeida requested the fight after watching his mentor lose to Hughes at UFC 112 back in April . Hughes now had four wins over mixed martial artists with ties to the Gracies , including UFC pioneer Royce Gracie , the prior mentioned Renzo Gracie and former champ Serra .
= = = Hughes vs. Penn III = = =
Hughes faced BJ Penn on November 20 , 2010 , in a rubber match at UFC 123 : Rampage vs. Machida , after their previous two fights at UFC 46 and UFC 63 . Penn came out strong in the first few seconds of the opening round , catching one of Hughes ' kicks and knocking him off balance with a counter hook . Penn then connected with an overhand right that dropped Hughes , following up with three clean shots to the jaw . The bout was ended at 21 seconds into the first round , with Hughes trilogy against Penn ending at 1 @-@ 2 . The fight marked the first time Hughes had been knocked out ( he had previously lost via technical knockout ) . Post @-@ fight Hughes hinted that the loss moved him one step closer to retirement .
= = = Hughes vs. Koscheck = = =
Hughes was expected to face Diego Sanchez on September 24 , 2011 at UFC 135 : Jones vs. Rampage . However , Sanchez missed the bout with an injury and was replaced by Josh Koscheck . Hughes suffered a KO loss to Koscheck at 4 : 59 of the first round . Hughes showed improved striking , but ultimately succumbed to Koscheck 's power punches .
= = = Retirement = = =
The UFC announced on January 24 , 2013 that Matt Hughes retired from fighting and was named a Vice President of Athlete Development and Government Relations .
= = = Theme music = = =
In the UFC , Hughes frequently used the song " A Country Boy Can Survive " by Hank Williams , Jr. as he made his entrance towards the Octagon . At the UFC 56 live broadcast , Joe Rogan said : " My favorite walk @-@ out song in all the UFC , ′ A country boy can survive . ′ "
= = Autobiography = =
Hughes released his autobiography , Made in America : The Most Dominant Champion in UFC History , co @-@ written with Michael Malice , on January 1 , 2008 . The book debuted at # 21 on the New York Times bestseller list .
= = Television Series = =
= = = Trophy Hunters TV = = =
Since January 2011 , Matt Hughes is the host of hunting program Trophy Hunters TV , which airs in Outdoor Channel three times a week . The show is closely related to the Texas Trophy Hunters Association .
= = = Uncaged with Matt Hughes = = =
On July 4 , 2014 , Matt Hughes became the host of Uncaged with Matt Hughes , which airs Saturdays on the Sportsman Channel .
= = Criticisms = =
Matt Hughes has been criticized by animal advocates , including UFC fighter Dan Hardy , for his trophy hunting . In response to outrage over trophy hunting pictures posted on his Twitter account in 2012 , Hughes called some of the commenters " PETA idiots " and told them to stop following his page .
= = Personal life = =
Matt Hughes is a born again Christian and regularly posts Bible verses on his website . Hughes and his wife Audra have two daughters together and they each have a son from a previous relationship . The couple 's second daughter was born on January 2 , 2010 . Matt and his twin brother were born on their father 's birthday . Hughes is a close friend of professional wrestler Mark Calaway , best known by his ring name The Undertaker .
= = Championships and achievements = =
= = = Mixed martial arts = = =
= = Mixed martial arts record = =
= = Filmography = =
= = = Video games = = =
= Matthew McCauley ( politician ) =
Matthew McCauley ( July 11 , 1850 – October 25 , 1930 ) was the first mayor of the city of Edmonton , and a member of the legislative assemblies of both the Northwest Territories and Alberta .
McCauley was born into a farming family in what would become the province of Ontario to an Irish father and Canadian mother . His restless nature and desire for adventure led him to travel west to Manitoba . In Manitoba , he established a livery business , which he ran until he set off for Edmonton in 1879 . He farmed for two years in Fort Saskatchewan before finally moving to Edmonton , where he established the settlement 's first livery and cartage business .
Along with a couple prominent Edmonton citizens , he formed an association aimed to restore order in the area , settling many disputes , including during the 1885 Riel Rebellion as its captain . He soon established a school board , recognizing the need for a school , which he served as president and trustee for 18 years . Shortly before Edmonton was incorporated as a town in 1892 , he formed the Board of Trade . Upon the incorporation , he was acclaimed the town 's first mayor in 1892 , and the next two following years . He did not run for re @-@ election at the end of his third term , opting to run for the seat representing Edmonton on the Territorial Legislature , which he served for six years . Following his defeat moved to Tofield , Alberta farm until 1905 , when he returned to Edmonton and was elected to the new Legislative Assembly of Alberta . The following year , he resigned his seat to serve as the first warden of the province 's first penitentiary . After five years as warden , he moved to British Columbia to fruit farm , but he moved back to Sexsmith , Alberta 13 years later to farm , where he died in 1930 .
= = Early life = =
Matthew McCauley was born July 11 , 1850 in Owen Sound , Ontario to Alexander and Eleanor ( née Latimer ) McCauley . His father Alexander was an Irish immigrant who was born in Antrim . He moved to Canada at the age of five , and went on to become a successful farmer . Though his early years were described as him being a " typical farm boy " of the time , he received schooling from the Owen Sound Public School . McCauley desired to follow in the footsteps of this father as a farmer after his completing his education , but his restless nature and passion for adventure set him off to the west , where he first set off to Fort Garry in Manitoba .
McCauley established a livery business , the first of the kind in Fort Garry ( later Winnipeg ) . He married Matilda Benson of Sarnia , Ontario in 1875 , and resided in Fort Garry with her for the next four years , where he continued to operate his livery business . After growing restless in Winnipeg in 1879 , McCauley sold his business and traveled west , this time to Edmonton . McCauley arrived in Edmonton in the fall of 1879 after 21 days of travelling by ox cart . He purchased a farm in Fort Saskatchewan the following spring , and farmed for two years before moving to Edmonton in 1882 . In Edmonton , he opened the town 's first livery and cartage business , the Edmonton Cartage Company , and a butcher shop in 1883 .
= = Early activities in Edmonton = =
= = = Protective Association = = =
McCauley arrived in Edmonton at the time of what has been described " one of the biggest conflicts ever . " The Hudson 's Bay Company has recently surveyed lots of land that were intended to be sold as property , however word broke out that the particular are of land was the only land surveyed in the entire district . People attracted to the area were unable to afford land , and therefore built shacks . As more claim @-@ jumpers moved in , it was requested that they move three or four miles outwards , but they refused . McCauley sent many urgent messages to Ottawa to settle the dispute in a civil manner , but to no avail . As a result of the government not being able to do anything , and the lack of a law enforcement agency in the town , a group of prominent citizens formed a " Protective Association " as an attempt to restore law and order , to which McCauley was elected its captain .
As captain , McCauley tried hard to settle the dispute and reach a compromise with the claim @-@ jumpers who " had no desire for a peaceful settlement . " He was involved in a brief altercation with a claim jumper whom he approached and ordered to move . The man was armed with two revolvers and refused to move , therefore McCauley and his crew jacked the shack off its foundation and sent it down the riverbank . The Protective Association , however was involved in a legal problems brought up by the claim jumpers , for " willful damage to property . " The brief trial resulted in McCauley , as the captain being fined 40 dollars , and six other members of the committee found guilty , but being let off with court costs and an order to replace the damaged property . The Protective Association eventually managed to restore peace and order in Edmonton , and claim jumpers eventually decided that the area was not the place to build on once the land for the townsite was surveyed by the Hudson 's Bay Company .
= = = Edmonton School Board = = =
After realizing Edmonton as a suitable place for raising his children , McCauley soon recognized the community 's need for a school . McCauley led a group of prominent men and arranged for a school to be built on land donated by the Hudson 's Bay Company . The school opened in on January 2 , 1882 . Three years after the opening of the school , McCauley found himself and a small group of people paying off bills for the school . Initially , McCauley suggested that land owners be taxed with the funds going to the school , but protest followed . McCauley then decided to propose that Edmonton be designated as an official school district by the government in Ottawa , which was voted in favor of following a close vote . The school district was successfully negotiated with Ottawa , and it became the first of its kind in the North @-@ West Territories . Edmonton became known as having the " finest school system in the west of Portage la Prairie " that set an example for many other following cities . McCauley served as chairman of the newly formed School Board from 1885 to 1888 , when he stepped down , although he served as a trustee for 18 years following . He was nicknamed " Edmonton 's Father of Education " in honour of his efforts to bring an education system to the community .
= = = Rebellion of 1885 = = =
During the Riel Rebellion in 1885 , news of the Frog Lake Massacre spread to Edmonton , invoking fear to many residents . McCauley , concerned for citizens of the town , quickly responded by organizing a group of men into what was known as the " Home Guard , " which formed a sentry that ensured security from possible attacks , until the arrival of additional military protection .
= = Political career = =
= = = Mayor of Edmonton = = =
In 1889 , McCauley co @-@ founded ( with Frank Oliver and John Alexander McDougall ) the Edmonton Board of Trade , forerunner to the Chamber of Commerce .
When Edmonton was incorporated as a town on January 9 , 1892 , it held its first election in 1892 with McCauley acclaimed as mayor as no other candidates had put their names forth . Among his concerns during his first term were to " establish order " among the scattered shacks near the trading post , and widening various streets around the town , in preparation for what he envisioned in the future of Edmonton becoming a " busy metropolitan " . He was re @-@ acclaimed in 1893 and 1894 before stepping aside voluntarily after his third term , never having been contested in an election . During his term as mayor , the Canadian government decided to move the Dominion Land Office from Edmonton to Strathcona , which was then a separate community , on the south side of the North Saskatchewan River . Upon the arrival of government agents to carry out the move , citizens quickly set up a resistance . Headed by McCauley and a group of prominent citizens including councillor John Cameron , Angry Edmontonians descended on the office , cut horses loose and tore to pieces the wagon that the officer was packing with records for transportation . The situation escalated quickly , becoming heated , from which McCauley called on the people to relent as they would request reconsideration from Ottawa . Later that same day , the decision was reversed . In 1893 , he went to Ottawa to enter negotiations with the federal government for a street railway system . McCauley was successful , and the system became the first in the west . He also advocated for federal government assistance in building a railway bridge over the North Saskatchewan River for the existing Edmonton @-@ Calgary rail connection , which was completed in 1900 . McCauley also saw Edmonton 's need for a hospital , and consequently established what later became Grey Nuns Hospital , arranging for the Grey Nuns to establish at the town , along with a nurse .
In 1896 , McCauley re @-@ sought election to Town Council , this time as alderman . He was easily elected , finishing first of eight candidates in an election in which the top six were elected . He served a single term , and did not seek re @-@ election the following election .
= = = Territorial and provincial = = =
Following his decision not to run for re @-@ election as mayor in 1893 , three years later , McCauley sought to be Edmonton 's representative in the North @-@ West Territories Legislature . During his term as representative , he worked to upgrade Edmonton 's school system , along with upgrading the town 's trade industry . He served in this capacity until 1902 , when he was defeated . During his time , McCauley kept his focus on his development of the school system , introducing a single tax bill intended to give schools boards power to adopt the tax .
In 1901 , McCauley sold Edmonton Cartage Company and used the proceeds to buy one thousand acres ( 4 km ² ) of farmland at Beaver Lake , near Tofield , Alberta , where he farmed until returning to Edmonton in 1905 . While in Tofield , he married Annie Cookson - his first wife , Matilda , had died in 1896 - with whom he had four children , bringing his total to twelve .
Upon Alberta becoming a province in 1905 , McCauley returned to Edmonton and was elected as a Liberal member to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the riding of Vermilion in the province 's first general election . During his tenure , he had introduced many bills to the house , and advocated for a university to be founded .
McCauley played a vital role in Edmonton being chosen as the provincial capital city . In a speech , he pointed out the ongoing development at the northern town of Peace River , Alberta , and how Edmonton would be the " logical centre of the province " .
= = Later career = =
McCauley resigned his seat in the Legislature the following year after he was elected , after his appointment to be warden of the Edmonton Penitentiary , the first of its kind in Alberta . It was said that his reputation of " honesty , fairness and ability to keep law and order " was a contributing factor in his appointment . In the years he served in the capacity , McCauley instituted a number of new practices , including creating labour jobs for prisoners , like producing bricks , concrete , clothing and tools . Prisoners were also to garden to produce their own food , and by the end of his tenure as warden , a coal mine was formed . He was greatly respected amongst his colleagues , and it was said that " he never once had a complaint against him from either staff nor inmates . "
McCauley resigned as warden in 1912 to become a fruit farmer in Penticton in the Okanagan valley . After thirteen years farming in Penticton , he moved to Sexsmith , Alberta to farm on a recently bought 1000 @-@ acre farm .
= = Personal life = =
McCauley married Matilda Benson of Sarnia , Ontario in 1875 , in which he would remain married to until her sudden death in 1896 . He married once again in 1902 , to Annie Cookson , originally from Manchester , England . He had seven children with his first wife Matilda – Alexander , Lilly Bell , Margaret Alberta , Mabel , Maud , Frank and May . With Annie Cookson he had four children , Georgina , John , Raymond and Ada .
McCauley was an active member of the Edmonton community . He served as a director of the Edmonton Agricultural Association for 16 years . The association brought the Edmonton Exhibition to Edmonton , one of the prominent fairs of the west at the time . As telephone service was brought to Edmonton , McCauley was one of the first to receive one installed . His telephone number was # 1 . When John Hamilton @-@ Gordon , 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair would visit Edmonton for business , McCauley and his wife would usually be the ones to entertain him . Also an avid curler , McCauley was a founder of the Royal Curling Club in Edmonton and led his curling team where he served as a skip . He also enjoyed other sports , including horse carriage racing .
McCauley School was named his honour in 1912 , for his work in pioneering the public school board .
= = Death and legacy = =
McCauley died in Sexsmith on October 25 , 1930 following a long illness . He was survived by his second wife , Annie Cookson , and 11 children and step @-@ children . Upon learning of his death , all school flags in Edmonton were ordered to fly at half @-@ staff . Almost 600 students from McCauley School , which was named in his honour , stood in " solemn salute " . McCauley 's body was brought back to Edmonton , when he laid in state on October 30 at the First Presbyterian Church , where his funeral services were later conducted . He was interred at the Edmonton Cemetery .
McCauley was often called " Honest Matt McCauley " . It was said that he " has a strong personality , high ideals and indomitable will and was generous to a fault . " Edmonton 's McCauley neighbourhood is named for him . What was known as McCauley Plaza was also built on the site of his home , overlooking the North Saskatchewan River . It has since however been renamed Telus Plaza .
= Operation Rösselsprung ( 1944 ) =
Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's move ) was a combined airborne and ground assault by the German XV Mountain Corps and their allies on the Supreme Headquarters of the Yugoslav Partisans located in the Bosnian town of Drvar in the Independent State of Croatia during World War II . The operation was launched on 25 May 1944 , and was aimed at capturing or killing Marshal Josip Broz Tito and destroying the headquarters , support facilities and co @-@ located Allied military missions . It is associated with the Seventh Enemy Offensive ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Sedma neprijateljska ofenziva ) in Yugoslav history . The airborne assault itself is also known as the Raid on Drvar ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Desant na Drvar ) .
Operation Rösselsprung was a coup de main operation , involving direct action by a combined parachute and glider @-@ borne assault by the 500th SS Parachute Battalion and a planned subsequent link @-@ up with ground forces of the XV Mountain Corps converging on Drvar . The airborne assault was preceded by heavy bombing of the town by the Luftwaffe . The ground forces included Home Guard forces of the Independent State of Croatia .
Tito , his principal headquarters staff and the Allied military personnel escaped , despite their presence in Drvar at the time of the airborne assault . The operation failed due to a number of factors , including Partisan resistance in the town itself and along the approaches to Drvar . The failure of the various German intelligence agencies to share the limited intelligence available on Tito 's exact location and the lack of contingency planning by the commander of the German airborne force also contributed to the unsuccessful outcome for the Germans .
= = Background = =
The Axis Case White and Case Black offensives of the first six months of 1943 caused significant setbacks for the Partisans ; however , in September Tito took advantage of the capitulation of Italy and managed to increase the territory under his control and double his forces in size to around 200 @,@ 000 men , arming them with captured Italian weapons . In late November , he held a National Congress at Jajce in the liberated area of northwestern Yugoslavia and designated himself Marshal and Prime Minister . He established his headquarters nearby at Drvar in the Dinaric Alps and temporarily suspended his successful tactic of being constantly on the move . Generalfeldmarschall Maximilian von Weichs , the Wehrmacht Commander @-@ in @-@ chief Southeast Europe , admitted a few weeks later that " Tito is our most dangerous enemy . "
Drvar was located within the territory of the German puppet state , the Independent State of Croatia ( which included Bosnia and Herzegovina ) . Tito 's personal headquarters was initially located in a cave about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) north of the centre of Drvar . The Unac River ran along the base of the ridge line above the cave , creating an obstacle to movement between the town and the cave , and a rail line ran along the ridge line behind the cave . In addition to Partisan headquarters , various Partisan and Communist Party of Yugoslavia support , training and youth organisations were also based in and around Drvar at the time , along with the Tito Escort Battalion which was responsible for his personal safety . The British and Soviet military missions to the Partisans were also stationed in villages close to Drvar , as were some United States military officers on various missions . The British mission was headed by Brigadier Fitzroy Maclean , who was in London at the time of the raid , and included Major Randolph Churchill , son of Winston Churchill . At the time of Operation Rösselsprung ( German : Unternehmen Rösselsprung ) , the British mission was led by its second @-@ in @-@ command , Lieutenant Colonel Vivian Street .
= = Partisan dispositions around Drvar = =
Apart from Partisan headquarters and related organisations close in and around Drvar , there were between 12 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 Partisans in the area of operations that would be subject to the ground assault by XV Mountain Corps . In the immediate vicinity of Drvar was the 1st Proletarian Corps commanded by Koča Popović , which consisted of the elite 1st Proletarian and 6th Lika Proletarian Divisions , with the Corps headquarters located in the village of Mokronoge , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Drvar . The 6th Lika Proletarian Division was west of Drvar , and the 1st Proletarian Division was deployed in the area around Jajce and Mrkonjić Grad , some 50 km east of Drvar . The nearest large Partisan formation to Drvar was the 3rd Lika Proletarian Brigade of the 6th Lika Proletarian Division based in the Resanovci and Trubar villages some 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south and southwest of Drvar .
In the wider area of operations were the Partisan 5th Corps commanded by Slavko Rodić and 8th Corps commanded by Vlado Ćetković . The 5th Corps was deployed to the northeast and northwest of Drvar with its headquarters south of the Mrkonjić Grad – Ključ road , and the 8th Corps was positioned to the southeast with its headquarters in the mountains between the Glamoč and Livno valleys . Importantly for the coming battle , the 4th Krajina Division of the 5th Corps was deployed between Bihać and Bosanski Petrovac . Two brigades of the 4th Krajina Division and one brigade from the 39th Krajina Division formed a defensive arc north of Drvar , running from Bihać
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the company 's Super NES ( 1995 ) and Game Boy ( 1995 ) . The games industry expected a sequel after the Super NES version 's wide success , with over three million copies sold . Following market demand , Rare began development on a sequel for the arcade . They had a Super NES version in development , but transitioned to Nintendo 's new Nintendo 64 after the console 's announcement . The Killer Instinct development team split itself between the arcade version and the Nintendo 64 release that would become Killer Instinct Gold . The latter began work as soon as Rare received its Nintendo 64 development kit .
The seven @-@ person development team started work on the sequel with the ideas that did not fit into the original . They also incorporated feedback from Killer Instinct players . Killer Instinct 2 's art , design , and programming changed continuously throughout development up until its release . Kevin Bayliss designed the characters and Chris Tilston developed the game engine with feedback from Nintendo 's Ken Lobb . Rare used compression technology to fit the arcade version onto the smaller Nintendo 64 cartridge . While Killer Instinct was planned to showcase the Nintendo 64 's power , the console was more limited than Rare 's arcade setup , and Rare had to optimize the arcade version to run on the console . The arcade version used an animation to give the illusion of the camera panning horizontally , but the console version used static image files with less detail .
The game was originally scheduled to be among the first two launch titles for the Nintendo 64 , but missed the release window . Gold released in North America on November 25 , 1996 , and in other countries the following year , on May 9 , 1997 . Its soundtrack received a compact disc release , which was rare for Western video games in the 1990s . Rare , under contract , ultimately finished its Super NES port of Killer Instinct 2 , but Nintendo chose not to release it .
= = Reception = =
In 1996 , reviewers compared Gold favorably to Killer Instinct 2 , but thought that its graphics were not sufficiently upgraded . Doug Perry ( IGN ) felt that the Killer Instinct 2 graphics in Gold appeared dated and gave it a " cheesy 80s feel " . He and Ed Lomas ( CVG ) noticed fewer animation frames when compared with the arcade release . IGN preferred Gold 's crisp music but would have liked more characters and distinctions from the arcade version . GameSpot named Gold the best entry in the series at the time , but other reviewers only recommended Gold for fans of the series and genre and those most desperate for a Nintendo 64 fighting game . Colin Williamson ( AllGame ) said that Killer Instinct Gold was best for players who want " Mortal Kombat on speed " with a " hyperactive Barry White " announcer .
Within the fighting game genre , GameSpot considered Gold to be better than the other Nintendo 64 fighting game , Mortal Kombat Trilogy . GamePro readers chose Gold as the second best fighting game of 1996 after Tekken 2 . Next Generation and Marcus Hawkins ( N64 Magazine ) agreed that Tekken 2 and Virtua Fighter 2 had outclassed Killer Instinct Gold . N64 concluded that even in the Nintendo 64 's then @-@ meager catalog of titles , Killer Instinct Gold did not distinguish itself , and thus had a lifespan of " weeks rather than months " . Killer Instinct Gold waned from a celebrated announcement to a quiet European release .
Reviewers highly praised the game 's sound and environment backdrops , but noted blurriness in the character animations . IGN appreciated its stereo sound , special effects , and camera work . Scary Larry ( GamePro ) liked Gold 's sound except for the explosion and " death screech " sound effects . GameSpot considered the graphics " near perfect " apart from the character animations . ( CVG wrote that characters appeared blurry because of " fuzzy anti @-@ aliasing " when the camera zoomed in . ) Game Informer was similarly impressed by the graphics , but one reviewer commented that Gold had few other positive features . As an exception , GamePro praised the " lively " character animations over the " flawed " backgrounds .
While GamePro gave the game perfect ratings in controls and fun , Next Generation considered the controls as awkward as they were on the Super NES and ultimately wrote that the game was " not much fun " . Many reviewers criticized how Gold 's combo @-@ based gameplay diminished the importance of skill . IGN wrote that this shallow emphasis on " archaic " combo sequence memorization prevented creative improvisation . CVG wrote that Gold had little " flow " : every match was focused on huge combos rather than small , strategic moves . Thus , players were forced to train before they could effectively produce combos long enough to win matches . Daily Radar and CVG praised the training mode , which the latter also liked in the game 's Super NES predecessor .
= = Legacy = =
After the 1996 Killer Instinct Gold did not sell as well as the Super NES version of the original , the series went dormant . IGN reported in 2010 that Killer Instinct Gold had upset series fans by changing the combo move sets and omitting " fan favorite " characters from the original . The website added that Rare knew that fans wanted a new entry for Killer Instinct over one for any other Rare franchise . Microsoft purchased Rare in 2002 , ending the acquisition 's prominent alliance with Nintendo . Microsoft and Rare revived the series for the Xbox One platform in 2013 . In 2014 , GamesRadar retrospectively ranked Gold the 35th best game on the Nintendo 64 console .
Killer Instinct Gold was later emulated in the August 2015 Xbox One compilation of 30 Rare titles , Rare Replay . Nintendo Life wrote that Gold 's graphics had not aged well . The New York Daily News reported that Killer Instinct Gold , while " underrated " in its time , had withered into an outdated frustration as the anthology 's biggest letdown . Destructoid singled out Gold as the collection 's worst title , namely because it was a " barebones " Killer Instinct 2 . Twenty years after the original release , Retro Gamer wrote that while Killer Instinct was popular in arcades , it had been outdone by Tekken 2 and Virtua Fighter 2 by 1996 , and ultimately proved mediocre in comparison .
= The Chinese Restaurant =
" The Chinese Restaurant " is the 11th episode of the sitcom Seinfeld 's second season on NBC , and is the show 's 16th episode overall . The episode revolves around protagonist Jerry ( Jerry Seinfeld ) and his friends Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) and George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) waiting for a table at a Chinese restaurant , on their way to see Plan 9 from Outer Space . Unable to get a table , they decide to wait and talk amongst each other , while George tries to use the phone that is constantly occupied and Jerry recognizes a woman , but he is unsure where he has seen her before .
Co @-@ written by the series ' creators Seinfeld and head writer Larry David , the episode is set in real time , without any scene @-@ breaks . It was the first episode in which Jerry 's neighbor Kramer ( Michael Richards ) did not appear , much to Richards ' disappointment , as it turned out to become a highlight among the show 's episodes . Considered a " bottle episode " , NBC executives objected to its production and broadcast due to its lack of an involved storyline , thinking that audiences would be uninterested . It was not until David threatened to quit if the network forced any major changes upon the script that NBC allowed the episode to be produced , though the network postponed broadcast to the near end of season two .
First broadcast in the United States on May 23 , 1991 , the episode gained a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 7 / 21 . Television critics reacted positively to " The Chinese Restaurant " , which is widely considered as one of the show 's " classic episodes " . In 1998 , a South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel critic wrote that the episode , along with season four 's " The Contest " , " broke new sitcom ground " .
= = Plot = =
Jerry , George , and Elaine decide to eat dinner without a reservation at a Chinese restaurant before seeing a one @-@ night showing of Plan 9 from Outer Space , which Jerry exultantly calls " the worst movie ever made ! " The maître d ' ( James Hong ) repeatedly tells the party they will receive a table in " 5 , 10 minutes " , but with no result . Besides having only a short time until the movie begins , the characters have other worries :
Jerry previously lied to his uncle , saying he could not join him for dinner ; he prefers to see the film , yet feels guilty .
George is anxious because , the night before , he left his girlfriend Tatiana during foreplay because he needed to use a bathroom and thought hers was too close to her bedroom to provide enough privacy . He wants to call Tatiana to invite her to join them , but is repeatedly prevented from using the restaurant 's payphone , as it is first occupied by a man ( Michael Mitz ) who ignores George , and then by a woman who is rude to him .
Jerry notices a woman ( Judy Kain ) he has seen before , but cannot remember her name .
Elaine is frustrated by being extremely hungry .
Jerry dares Elaine to take an egg roll from someone 's plate and eat it , offering her " fifty bucks " to do so . Elaine approaches a table with an elderly couple and tells them that her friend will give her $ 50 to eat one of their egg rolls , and she is willing to give them $ 25 of it . As she softly speaks the offer without moving her lips , they fail to comprehend her . She awkwardly walks away , then laughs off her attempt . George is finally able to call Tatiana , the answering machine answers his call , and George leaves a message . Tatiana calls the restaurant to reach George , but the maître d ' calls " Cartwright " instead of " Costanza " , and she " said curse words " when he told her that George is not there . When the mysterious woman encounters Jerry , he remembers belatedly that she is his uncle 's receptionist .
Plan after plan is thwarted : Elaine tries bribing the maître d ' , but is unsuccessful . They could get food to go , but they can 't eat Chinese food in a taxicab . Elaine is ravenous , but refuses to eat concession stand food at the movie theater .
George decides he 's no longer in the mood for the film ; Elaine wants to leave and get a hamburger ; Jerry decides that he might as well have dinner with his uncle . As soon as they leave , the maître d ' calls their party .
= = Production = =
" The Chinese Restaurant " was written by series co @-@ creators Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld and directed by Tom Cherones , who directed all of season two 's episodes . David came up with the idea of the real @-@ time episode while he and Seinfeld were waiting for a table at a Chinese restaurant in Los Angeles . When David presented the episode to NBC executives , he received a negative reaction . The network felt that there was no real story and viewers would not be interested . Executive Warren Littlefield commented that he thought there were pages missing from the script he had received . David argued that each character had a storyline : Jerry 's story was he recognized a woman but did not know from where ; Elaine 's story was that she was very hungry ; and George 's story was that he was unable to use the phone . NBC disagreed and objected to the broadcast of the episode . To satisfy the executives , staff writer Larry Charles suggested the group 's storyline to be on their way to a one @-@ night screening of Plan 9 from Outer Space , and thus introducing a " ticking clock " scenario to the story . When the NBC executives still objected , David threatened to quit the show if the network would force any major changes upon the script . Seinfeld supported David and NBC eventually allowed them to produce " The Chinese Restaurant " without any significant alterations , although they strongly advised them not go through with it , and postponed the broadcast until near the end of the season . In 2015 , Seinfeld writer Spike Feresten revealed that the host 's calling " Cartwright " instead of " Costanza " was a subtle allusion to the classic western show Bonanza . " Bonanza " rhymes with " Costanza " and the show 's main characters are the " Cartwright " family .
" The Chinese Restaurant " was first read by its cast on December 5 , 1990 , and it was filmed on December 11 . Filming took place at CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California , where all filming for the second season took place . As only one location was used , it took roughly half of the time it usually took for an episode to be filmed . Cast members have remarked that the filming was shorter than on any other episode . A few changes were made ; in the first draft of the script , George , Jerry , and Elaine entered the restaurant talking about their least favorite holiday . In the version that aired , they talk about combining the jobs of policemen and garbagemen into a single job . In the original draft , the three friends also discussed how to spend the long waiting period in the future , with George suggesting they bring a deck of cards and that Jerry bring a jigsaw puzzle with nothing but penguins . One scene was cut before broadcast , featuring George explaining to Jerry that he pulled his hamstring while trying to untuck the covers of a hotel bed during his recent stay in Boston . George can be seen grabbing his hamstring as he walks to the phone . The scene was later included on the Seinfeld seasons one and two DVD boxset .
At one point in the episode , Jerry mentions having a sister . She is never again mentioned in the series .
= = = Cast = = =
" The Chinese Restaurant " was the first episode that did not feature regular character Kramer ( Michael Richards ) , Jerry 's neighbor . David explained that the reason for Kramer 's absence was because — during Seinfeld 's early seasons — the character never left his apartment and did not go out with the other three . Richards was still displeased with the absence of his character , as he felt the episode was a breakthrough and — as such — essential for the series ' development . In an interview for the Seinfeld first and second season DVD box set , he commented , " The Chinese restaurant episode was so unique , and I just wanted to be a part of that because it was cutting edge . I knew that was a very important episode ; it was so odd . "
Michael Mitz — who portrayed one of the payphone occupants — would return in season five as a photographer in " The Puffy Shirt " . The maître d ' was portrayed by actor James Hong ; it is one of the actor 's most famous roles in the United States . ( In fact , he had a small part in a season one episode of The Bob Newhart Show in 1972 , portraying a man who is mistaken for a maître d ' . ) Judy Kain — known for a recurring role on Married ... with Children — guest @-@ starred as Lorraine Catalano , the receptionist of Jerry 's uncle . David Tress guest @-@ starred as Mr. Cohen , a guest who enters the restaurant and receives a table without reservation , as he is good friends with the maître d ' . Larry David 's voice can be heard among the group of elderly people Elaine offers money for one of their egg @-@ rolls . Norman Brenner — who worked as Richards ' stand @-@ in on the show for all its nine seasons — appears as an extra ; he is sitting by the door of the restaurant when George , Jerry , and Elaine enter , and is still at the same spot when they leave .
= = Themes = =
The episode is widely considered to encapsulate Seinfeld 's " show about nothing " concept , with The Tampa Tribune critic Walt Belcher calling it " the ultimate episode about nothing " , and Lavery and Dunne describing it as " existential " . Critics had a similar reaction to season three 's " The Parking Garage " , in which the four central characters spent the whole episode looking for their car . The structure of " The Chinese Restaurant " — described as " elongation " — drags a small event out over the course of an entire episode . Lavery and Dunne suggest that this structure critiques sitcoms with implied moral lessons ( such as those found in so @-@ called " very special episodes " ) . Vincent Brook — as part of his analysis regarding the influence of Jewish culture on Seinfeld — has said that the episode also conveys the theme of entrapment and confinement in a small space , a recurring theme on the show . The relationship between the characters and food is another recurring theme of the series . In Seinfeld , specific food items are associated with individual characters and food itself is a " signifier of social contracts " .
Linda S. Ghent , Professor in the Department of Economics at Eastern Illinois University , discusses some economic issues in this episode . Just before Jerry 's dare about the egg roll , Elaine says , " You know , it 's not fair people are seated first come first served . It should be based on who 's hungriest . I feel like just going over there and taking some food off somebody 's plate . " Ghent discusses the history and reasoning behind rationing mechanisms and economic efficiency , which are the bases behind how tables are seated at restaurants , rationales which are perhaps invisible to hungry or impatient customers . Elaine 's attempt at bribery is an example of opportunity cost : the trio are willing to pay more than usual to get a table , if at least they can get a table . Ghent also gives Jerry 's willingness to lie to his uncle as another example of opportunity cost : " Did I do a bad thing by lying to my uncle and saying I couldn 't go to dinner ? Plan Nine from Outer Space – one night only , the big screen ! My hands are tied ! "
= = Reception = =
When the episode initially aired in the United States on NBC on May 23 , 1991 , it received a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 7 and an audience share of 21 — this meant that 11 @.@ 7 % of American households watched the episode , and that 21 % of televisions in use at the time were tuned to it . Seinfeld was the eighteenth most @-@ watched show of the week , and the sixth most @-@ watched show on NBC . NBC executives held a meeting after the broadcast to determine the fate of the show , and decided it would receive a third season order if the writers would put more effort into episode storylines .
" The Chinese Restaurant " received very positive responses from critics and is considered one of Seinfeld 's first " classic episodes " . Kit Boss , a critic for the Ocala Star @-@ Banner , wrote that the episode was " like real life , but with better dialogue " . Various critics and news sources have praised how the episode defines the show 's " show about nothing " concept . Critics have also noted that aside from being a turning point for the show , the episode also became a turning point for television sitcoms ; one South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel critic commented that the episode , along with the season four episode " The Contest " , " [ ... ] broke new sitcom ground and expanded the lexicon of the ' 90s . " Vance Durgin of The Orange County Register praised how the show " wrung " so much comedy " out of a simple premise " . The episode was also included in a list compiled by The Star @-@ Ledger called " 50 events that shaped TV – and our lives " between 1900 and 1999 . The Charlotte Observer has called " The Chinese Restaurant " the best Seinfeld episode , referring to it " the very epitome of the classic Seinfeld format " .
Critics also praised Louis @-@ Dreyfus ' and Alexander 's performances ; The Age critic Kenneth Nguyen stated that they " characteristically , rock [ ed ] their line readings " . Michael Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling of Entertainment Weekly , who graded the episode with an A − , commented , " George is at his pressure @-@ cooker best , but it 's Elaine — famished and in high dudgeon — who is the centerpiece . " David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A + , saying " it 's a deftly @-@ plotted , extremely funny example of the ' show about nothing ' label that Seinfeld assigned itself " .
= A Momentary Lapse of Reason =
A Momentary Lapse of Reason is the thirteenth studio album by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd , released in the UK and US in September 1987 , on the labels EMI and Columbia . It followed guitarist David Gilmour 's decision to include material recorded for his third solo album on a new Pink Floyd album with drummer Nick Mason and keyboardist Richard Wright . Although for legal reasons Wright could not be re @-@ admitted to the band , Wright and Mason helped Gilmour craft what became the first Pink Floyd album since the December 1985 departure of bass guitarist , singer , and primary songwriter Roger Waters .
A Momentary Lapse of Reason was recorded primarily on Gilmour 's converted houseboat , Astoria . Its production was marked by an ongoing legal dispute with Waters as to who owned the rights to Pink Floyd 's name , an issue resolved several months after the album was released . Unlike many of Pink Floyd 's studio albums , A Momentary Lapse of Reason has no central theme and is instead a collection of songs written by Gilmour , sometimes with outside songwriters .
Though it received mixed reviews and was derided by Waters , A Momentary Lapse of Reason outsold Pink Floyd 's previous album The Final Cut ( 1983 ) , and was supported by a successful world tour . In the US , it has been certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA .
= = Background = =
After the release of Pink Floyd 's 1983 album The Final Cut , viewed by some to be a de facto Roger Waters solo record , the band 's members worked on individual solo projects . Guitarist David Gilmour expressed feelings about his strained relationship with Waters on his second solo album , About Face ( 1984 ) , and finished the accompanying tour as Waters began touring to promote his debut solo album , The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking . Although both had enlisted the aid of a range of successful performers , including in Waters ' case Eric Clapton , their solo acts attracted fewer fans than Pink Floyd ; poor ticket sales forced Gilmour to cancel several concerts , and critic David Fricke felt that Waters ' show was " a petulant echo , a transparent attempt to prove that Roger Waters was Pink Floyd " . Waters returned to the US in March 1985 with a second tour , this time without the support of CBS Records , which had expressed its preference for a new Pink Floyd album ; Waters criticised the corporation as " a machine " .
After drummer Nick Mason attended one of Waters ' London performances in 1985 , he admitted that he missed touring under the Pink Floyd name . His visit coincided with the release in August that year of his second solo album , Profiles , on which Gilmour sang . With a shared love of aviation , Mason and Gilmour were taking flying lessons and later together bought a de Havilland Dove aeroplane . Gilmour was working on other collaborations , including a performance for Bryan Ferry at 1985 's Live Aid concert , and co @-@ produced The Dream Academy 's self @-@ titled debut album .
In December 1985 , Waters announced that he had left Pink Floyd , which he believed was " a spent force creatively " . However , after the failure of his About Face tour , Gilmour hoped to continue with the Pink Floyd name . The threat of a lawsuit from Gilmour , Mason and CBS Records was meant to compel Waters to write and produce another Pink Floyd album with his bandmates , who had barely participated in making The Final Cut ; Gilmour had been especially critical of that 1983 release , labelling it as " cheap filler " and " meandering rubbish " . The lawsuit left Waters with only one other option : to formally resign from Pink Floyd in order to protect himself from a lawsuit that , he said , " would have wiped me out completely " .
According to Gilmour , " I told [ Waters ] before he left , ' If you go , man , we 're carrying on . Make no bones about it , we would carry on ' , and Roger replied : ' You 'll never fucking do it . ' " Waters had written to EMI and Columbia declaring his intention to leave the group and asking them to release him from his contractual obligations . He also dispensed with the services of Pink Floyd manager Steve O 'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs . This left Gilmour and Mason , in their view , free to continue with the Pink Floyd name .
In Waters ' absence , Gilmour had been recruiting musicians for a new project . Some months previously , keyboard player Jon Carin had jammed with Gilmour at his Hookend studio , where he composed the chord progression for what later became " Learning to Fly " , and so was invited onto the team . Gilmour invited Bob Ezrin ( co @-@ producer of 1979 's The Wall ) to help consolidate their material ; Ezrin had turned down Waters ' offer of a role on the development of his new solo album , Radio K.A.O.S. , saying it was " far easier for Dave and I to do our version of a Floyd record " . Ezrin arrived in England in mid @-@ 1986 for what Gilmour later described as " mucking about with a lot of demos " . At this stage , there was no firm commitment to a new Pink Floyd release , and Gilmour maintained that the new material might end up on a third solo album . CBS representative Stephen Ralbovsky hoped for a new Pink Floyd album , but in a meeting in November 1986 , told Gilmour and Ezrin that the music " doesn 't sound a fucking thing like Pink Floyd " . Gilmour later admitted that the new project was difficult without Waters . Gilmour had experimented with songwriters such as Eric Stewart and Roger McGough , but eventually settled on Anthony Moore , who would be credited as co @-@ writer of " Learning to Fly " and " On the Turning Away " . Instead of writing a concept album , Gilmour settled for the more conventional approach of a collection of songs without a thematic link . By the end of that year , he had decided to turn the new material into a Pink Floyd project .
= = Recording = =
A Momentary Lapse of Reason was recorded in several different studios , mainly Gilmour 's houseboat studio Astoria moored on the Thames ; according to Ezrin , " working there was just magical , so inspirational ; kids sculling down the river , geese flying by ... " Andy Jackson , a colleague of Floyd cohort James Guthrie , was brought in to engineer the recordings . During sessions held between November 1986 and February 1987 , Gilmour 's band worked on new material , which in a marked change from previous Floyd albums was recorded with a 24 @-@ track analogue machine , and overdubbed onto a 32 @-@ track Mitsubishi digital recorder . This trend of using new technologies was continued with the use of MIDI synchronisation , aided by an Apple Macintosh computer .
After agreeing to rework the material that Ralbovsky had found so objectionable , Gilmour employed session musicians such as Carmine Appice and Jim Keltner . Both drummers , they later replaced Mason on most of the album 's songs ; Mason was concerned that he was too out of practice to perform on the album , and instead busied himself with its sound effects . Some of the drum parts were also performed by drum machines . During the sessions , Gilmour was asked by the wife of Pink Floyd 's former keyboard player , Richard Wright , if he too could contribute to the project . A founding member of the band , Wright had left in 1979 , and there were certain legal obstacles to his return , but after a meeting in Hampstead he was brought back in . Gilmour later admitted in an interview with author Karl Dallas that Wright 's presence " would make us stronger legally and musically " . He was therefore employed as a paid musician , on a weekly wage of $ 11 @,@ 000 , but his contributions were minimal . Most of the keyboard parts had already been recorded , and so from February 1987 Wright played some background reinforcement on a Hammond organ , and a Rhodes piano , along with adding several vocal harmonies . The keyboardist also performed a solo in " On the Turning Away " , which was discarded , according to Wright , " not because they didn 't like it ... they just thought it didn 't fit . " Gilmour later said : " Both Nick and Rick were catatonic in terms of their playing ability at the beginning . Neither of them played on this at all really . In my view , they 'd been destroyed by Roger … " Gilmour 's comments angered Mason , who reflected : " I 'd deny that I was catatonic . I 'd expect that from the opposition , it 's less attractive from one 's allies . At some point , he made some sort of apology . " Mason did concede , however , that Gilmour was nervous about how the album would be perceived .
" Learning to Fly " , with its lyrics of " circling sky , Tongue @-@ tied and twisted , just an earthbound misfit , I " , was inspired by Gilmour 's flying lessons , which occasionally conflicted with his studio duties . The track also contains a recording of Mason 's voice , made during takeoff . The band experimented with audio samples , and Ezrin recorded the sound of Gilmour 's boatman ( Langley Iddens ) rowing across the Thames . Iddens ' presence at the sessions was made vital when on one occasion , Astoria began to lift in response to the rapidly rising river , which was pushing the boat against the pier on which it was moored . " The Dogs of War " is a song about " physical and political mercenaries " , according to Gilmour . Its creation came about through a mishap in the studio when a sampling machine began playing a sample of laughter , which the guitarist thought sounded like a dog 's bark . " Terminal Frost " was one of Gilmour 's older demos , which for some time he considered adding lyrics to , but eventually decided to leave as an instrumental . Conversely , the lyrics for " Sorrow " were written before the music . The song 's opening guitar solo was recorded in the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena . A 24 @-@ track mobile studio piped Gilmour 's Fender tracks through a public address system , and the resulting mix was then recorded in surround sound .
Despite the tranquil setting offered by Astoria , the sessions were often interrupted by the escalating row between Waters and Pink Floyd over who had the rights to the Pink Floyd name . O 'Rourke , believing that his contract with Waters had been terminated illegally , sued the bassist for £ 25 @,@ 000 of back @-@ commission . In a late @-@ 1986 board meeting of Pink Floyd Music Ltd ( since 1973 , Pink Floyd 's clearing house for all financial transactions ) , Waters learnt that a bank account had been opened to deal exclusively with all monies related to " the new Pink Floyd project " . He immediately applied to the High Court to prevent the Pink Floyd name from ever being used again , but his lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed . Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to gain a veto over further use of the band 's name . Gilmour 's team responded by issuing a non @-@ confrontational press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue to exist ; however , the guitarist later told a Sunday Times reporter : " Roger is a dog in the manger and I 'm going to fight him , no one else has claimed Pink Floyd was entirely them . Anybody who does is extremely arrogant . " Waters twice visited Astoria , and with his wife had a meeting in August 1986 with Ezrin ( the producer later suggested that he was being " checked out " ) . As Waters was still a shareholder and director of Pink Floyd music , he was able to block any decisions made by his former bandmates . Recording moved to Mayfair Studios in February 1987 , and from February to March – under the terms of an agreement with Ezrin to record close to his home – to A & M Studios in Los Angeles : " It was fantastic because ... the lawyers couldn 't call in the middle of recording unless they were calling in the middle of the night . " The bitterness of the row between Waters and Pink Floyd was covered in a November 1987 issue of Rolling Stone , which became the magazine 's best @-@ selling issue of that year . The legal disputes were resolved by the end of 1987 .
= = Packaging and title = =
Careful consideration was given to the album 's title . The initial three contenders were Signs of Life , Of Promises Broken and Delusions of Maturity . For the first time since 1977 's Animals , designer Storm Thorgerson was employed to work on a Pink Floyd studio album cover . His finished design was a long river of hospital beds arranged on a beach , inspired by a phrase from " Yet Another Movie " and Gilmour 's vague hint of a design that included a bed in a Mediterranean house , as well as " vestiges of relationships that have evaporated , leaving only echoes " . The cover shows hundreds of hospital beds , placed on Saunton Sands in Devon ( where some of the scenes for Pink Floyd – The Wall were filmed ) . The beds were arranged by Thorgerson 's colleague Colin Elgie . A hang glider can be seen in the sky , a clear reference to " Learning to Fly " . The photographer , Robert Dowling , won a gold award at the Association of Photographers Awards for the image , which took about two weeks to create . To drive home the message that Waters had left the band , the inner gatefold featured a group photograph – of just Gilmour and Mason – shot by David Bailey . Its inclusion marked the first time since 1971 's Meddle that a group photo had been used in the artwork of a Pink Floyd album . Richard Wright was represented only by name , on the credit list , although he also appears in photographs included in later reissues .
= = Release and reception = =
A Momentary Lapse of Reason was released in the UK and US on 7 September 1987 . It went straight to number three in both countries , held from the top spot by Michael Jackson 's Bad and Whitesnake 's self @-@ titled album .
In comparison with The Final Cut , Gilmour presented A Momentary Lapse as a return to the Floyd of older days , citing his belief that towards the end of Waters ' tenure , lyrics were more important than music . Gilmour said : " The Dark Side of the Moon and Wish You Were Here were so successful not just because of Roger 's contributions , but also because there was a better balance between the music and the lyrics [ than on later albums . ] " He added that with A Momentary Lapse , he had tried to restore this earlier , more successful balance . Waters was scathing in his assessment of the new work , a view with which Wright later partly agreed , saying : " Roger 's criticisms are fair . It 's not a band album at all . "
Writing in Q magazine , Phil Sutcliffe contended that it " does sound like a Pink Floyd album " and highlighted the two @-@ part " A New Machine " as , variously , " a chillingly beautiful vocal exploration , a chorale of multitrack , echo and distortion broken into aching fragments by long moments of silence " and " [ a ] brilliant stroke of imagination " . Sutcliffe concluded : " A Momentary Lapse is Gilmour 's album to much the same degree that the previous four under Floyd 's name were dominated by Waters … Clearly it wasn 't only business sense and repressed ego but repressed talent which drove the guitarist to insist on continuing under the band brand @-@ name . " Recognising the return to the more music @-@ oriented approach of Pink Floyd 's classic works , Sounds said the album was " back over the wall to where diamonds are crazy , moons have dark sides , and mothers have atom hearts " .
Conversely , Greg Quill of the Toronto Star wrote : " Something 's missing here . This is , for all its lumbering weight , not a record that challenges and provokes as Pink Floyd should . A Momentary Lapse of Reason , sorry to say , is mundane , predictable . " Village Voice critic Robert Christgau opined : " In short , you 'd hardly know the group 's conceptmaster was gone – except that they put out noticeably fewer ideas . " Writing more recently , for AllMusic , William Ruhlmann refers to it as a " Gilmour solo album in all but name " .
A Momentary Lapse of Reason was certified Silver and Gold in the UK on 1 October 1987 , and Gold and Platinum in the US on 9 November . It went 2 × Platinum on 18 January the following year , 3 × Platinum on 10 March 1992 , and 4 × Platinum on 16 August 2001 , easily outselling The Final Cut . The album was reissued in 1988 as a limited @-@ edition vinyl album , complete with posters , and a guaranteed ticket application for the band 's upcoming UK concerts . The album was digitally remastered and re @-@ released in 1994 , and a tenth anniversary edition was issued in the US three years later . In 2011 , A Momentary Lapse was again remastered for inclusion in the band 's Discovery box set ; this time Wright 's name had been restored as being a member of the band and the band photo ( of Gilmour and Mason ) has been removed in favour of additional artwork by StormStudios .
= = Tour = =
The decision to tour in support of the album was made before it was even complete . Early rehearsals were chaotic ; Mason and Wright were completely out of practice , and realising he had taken on too much work , Gilmour asked Bob Ezrin to take charge . Matters were complicated when Waters contacted several US promoters , and threatened to sue them if they used the Pink Floyd name . Gilmour and Mason funded the start @-@ up costs ( Mason , separated from his wife , used his Ferrari 250 GTO as collateral ) . Some promoters were offended by Waters ' threat , and several months later 60 @,@ 000 tickets went on sale in Toronto , selling out within hours .
As the new line @-@ up ( with Wright ) toured throughout North America , Waters ' Radio K.A.O.S. tour was , on occasion , close by . The bassist had forbidden any members of Pink Floyd from attending his concerts , which were generally in smaller venues than those housing his former band 's performances . Waters also issued a writ for copyright fees for the band 's use of the flying pig , and Pink Floyd responded by attaching a huge set of male genitalia to the balloon 's underside to distinguish it from Waters ' design . By November 1987 , Waters appeared to admit defeat , and on 23 December a legal settlement was finally reached at a meeting on Astoria . Mason and Gilmour were allowed use of the Pink Floyd name in perpetuity , and Waters would be granted , amongst other things , rights to The Wall . However , the bickering continued , with Waters issuing the occasional slight against his former friends , and Gilmour and Mason responding by making light of Waters ' claims that they would fail without him .
The Momentary Lapse tour was phenomenally successful . In every venue booked in the US it beat box office records , making it the most successful US tour by any band that year . Tours of Australia , Japan , and Europe soon followed , before the band returned twice to the US . Almost every venue was sold out . A live album , Delicate Sound of Thunder , was released on 22 November 1988 , followed in June 1989 by a concert video . A few days later , the live album was played in orbit , on board Soyuz TM @-@ 7 . The tour eventually came to an end by closing the Silver Clef Award Winners Concert , at Knebworth Park on 30 June 1990 , after 200 performances , a gross audience of 4 @.@ 25 million fans , and box office receipts of more than £ 60 million ( not including merchandising ) .
= = Track listing = =
All lead vocals performed by David Gilmour except where noted .
Since the 2011 remasters and the Discovery box set " Yet Another Movie " and " Round and Around " are indexed as individual tracks .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Turks in the Tang military =
The military of the Tang Dynasty was staffed with a large population of Turkic soldiers , referred to as Tujue in Chinese sources . Tang elites in northern China were familiar with Turkic culture , a factor that contributed to the Tang acceptance of Turkic recruits . The Tang emperor Taizong adopted the title of " Heavenly Kaghan " and promoted a cosmopolitan empire . Taizong regularly recruited and promoted military officers of Turkic ancestry , whose steppe experience contributed to the western and northern expansion of the Tang empire . The Turkic general Ashina She 'er participated in the Tang capture of the Karakhoja , Karasahr , and Kucha kingdoms in Xinjiang . The half @-@ Turkic general An Lushan started a revolt that led to the decline of Tang Dynasty .
The Orkhon inscriptions by the Gokturks were critical of the Turks that had served the Tang Dynasty , and condemned them for helping the Chinese emperor expand his burgeoning empire . The Turkic soldiers stationed by the Chinese in the Tang garrisons of Central Asia settled in the region , spreading Turkic languages in an area that had been predominantly Indo @-@ European .
= = Background = =
The empire of the Tang Dynasty was more cosmopolitan and diverse than the earlier Han Dynasty . The Tang Dynasty elites of northern China had an interest in Turkic culture and intermingled with the people of the steppes . The setting of one Tang poem describes a yurt , and the performance of a Turkic actress was hosted in the emperor 's palace Following the Tang Dynasty 's defeat of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate , the government authorized the settlement of Turks along the borders of the Tang empire . Turkic officers of the former khaganate were recruited as generals in the Tang military , and their experience with steppe warfare contributed to the Tang 's military successes as it expanded westward .
= = = Emperor Taizong and multiculturalism = = =
Emperor Taizong , also known by his personal name Li Shimin , was familiar with the culture of the steppe nomads and employed military strategies using steppe tactics as a prince . Taizong was a skilled horsemen , and during a celebration of his victory and ascension to the throne , sacrificed a horse in a ritual derived from a Turkic religious practice . He was able to outmaneuver the heavy cavalry of the Sui Dynasty with his light cavalry , a characteristic of steppe warfare . Taizong shared personal relationships with Turkic allies as a prince , reinforced through oaths sworn as blood brothers . His later successes as an emperor against the armies of Central Asia through diplomacy and divide and rule are the result of his early experiences with Turkic culture .
Taizong 's adoption of the Heavenly Kaghan title was used to legitimize his role as a steppe khan not solely as a Chinese emperor with the title of Son of Heaven . He valued the kaghan title and was sincere about his role as a leader of Central Asia . He sought to solidify his claim as a kaghan by organizing a gathering of Turkic leaders in the Lingzhou fortress during the last years of his reign to reconfirm his title .
While mostly symbolic , the title of Heavenly Kaghan shows Taizong 's open attitudes towards the existence of a multicultural and ethnically diverse Tang empire . Taizong was proud of his policies promoting ethnic equality , and was reported to have said that , " The emperors since ancient times have all appreciated the Chinese and depreciated the barbarians . Only I view them as equal . That is why they look upon me as their parent . "
He had a paternalistic attitude towards his subjects and believed that it was his duty to treat the Chinese and foreign ethnic groups as equals under one ruler . Taizong 's views grew into state policy as his government recruited Turkic and other non @-@ Han Chinese soldiers into the Tang military . Turkic soldiers were later promoted to higher ranks as commanders and generals . The surname of Li , belonging to the royal family of Li Shimin , was awarded to Han and non @-@ Han officers for their service .
Tang relationship with the Turks may have further deepened had the crown prince Li Chengqian , a Turkophile , been enthroned as Taizong 's successor . Li Chengqian enthusiastically embraced Turkic customs , and Chinese historian Sima Guang recorded that he :
" He [ Chengqian ] lved to emulate Turkish speech and their manner of dress . He chose from among his retinue those who had Turkish features and grouped them in bands of five ; he made them plait their hair , wear sheepskins , and herd sheep . He had made five wolf 's head banners and tents and set up yurts . The crown prince took up residence here ; he gathered sheep and cooked them , and then , drawing out his waist @-@ knife , he would carve the meat and let everyone eat . "
Chengqian was deposed as crown prince by Taizong after his plans to usurp the throne were revealed . He was exiled by Taizong and died as a commoner .
= = Turkic generals and Tang military campaigns = =
Turkic generals led many of the Tang Dynasty military campaigns that expanded the dynasty 's territorial reach into Central Asia . In total , ten Turks were able to reach the highest military position of general . Ashina She 'er , formerly the ruler of Beshbaliq and Kharakhoja between 630 and 635 and a member of the Ashina clan , was recruited as a Tang general in 635 . He fought as a commander in a successful campaign against Karakhoja in 640 . She 'er was chosen as the general for the military expedition against Karasahr . The Tang loyalist that had been installed as ruler after the first invasion of Karasahr in 644 by Chinese general Guo Xiaoke was deposed by his cousin in a revolt . The usurper was executed after the rebellion was suppressed , and Tang governance returned to the oasis state . She 'er continued onward to the nearby kingdom of Kucha , a state that had supported Karasahr during its war against the Tang .
Emperor Taizong himself tended to the injuries of the Turkic Generals Qibi Heli and Ashina Simo , who were both wounded during the campaign against Goguryeo .
Ashina Zhong , the brother of She 'er , also served as a Turkic general of the Tang Dynasty , and was a participant in a military performance hosted by Emperor Gaozong in 655 . Another Turkic member of the Ashina clan , Ashina Helu , briefly served as a commander of the Tang army in Gansu before his rise as a kaghan of the Western Turkic Khaganate . During his reign , the Turkic tribes were unified under a single leader . Emperor Gaozong , Taizong 's successor , dispatched a military expedition in 657 against Helu , who had been raiding Tang settlements . The campaign was led by the general Su Dingfang and the Turkic commanders Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen , who were opposed to Helu . Helu was defeated and captured by the Tang forces , and the territories annexed from the Western Turks were placed under Tang governance through the Anxi Protectorate .
Gaozong awarded the military service of the Turkic commanders Mishe and Buzhen by appointing them as proxy rulers of ten Western Turkic tribes . The ten tribes were split between the two cousins , and the western half was given to Buzhen while Mishe controlled the eastern tribes . In 685 , the sons of Mishe and Buzhen were sent from the Tang capital of Chang 'an , where they resided , to succeed their fathers in the west . Neither lasted long as Turkic rulers ; one was overthrown by his tribal subjects and the other was deposed by the Second Turkic Khaganate after an invasion in 690 .
An Lushan was a Tang general of mixed Turkic and Soghdian ancestry whose revolt between 755 and 763 , the An Shi Rebellion , devastated the Tang Dynasty . Unlike the majority of Turkic military officers , An Lushan served the Tang as an official closely involved with the politics of the imperial court , rather than as a general in a garrison on the Tang frontier . The dynasty might have collapsed had it not been for their alliance with the Uyghur Turks . The rebellion diminished the Tang enthusiasm for cosmopolitanism that was a characteristic of the dynasty 's earlier years .
The Orkhon inscriptions , a memorial erected by the Turks , lamented the Tang influence on the Turks and the Turkic adoption of Chinese titles :
" The Turkish people let their state .... go to ruin ... their sons worthy of becoming lords became slaves , and their daughters worthy of becoming ladies became servants to the Chinese people . The Turkish lords abandoned their Turkish titles . Those lords who were in China held the Chinese titles and obeyed the Chinese emperor and gave their service to him for fifty years . For the benefit of the Chinese , they went on campaigns up to [ the land of ] the Bukli qaghan in the east , where the sun rises , and as far as the Iron Gate in the West . For the benefit of the Chinese emperor they conquered countries . "
The inscriptions , made to commemorate the elites of the Second Turkic Empire , stress the importance of loyalty between a kaghan and the ruler 's subjects . The Turks that sided with the Tang are condemned , and the disunity of the Turkic tribes is blamed on a lack of respect for the authority of the kaghan .
= = Historical significance = =
The Turkic soldiers and generals that worked in the Chinese garrisons of Central Asia spurred Turkic migration into the area . The Turkic language and culture of the Tang soldiers there gradually displaced the indigenous Indo @-@ European languages . The native languages of Sogdian and Tokharian disappeared as the Turkic languages spread in the Tarim Basin .
The Tang Dynasty declined after the An Shi Rebellion , and the dynasty eventually fell in 907 . During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period , an era of upheaval following the dynasty 's collapse , many of the kingdoms in China were ruled by families of Turkic ancestry . The Shatuo Turks founded the Later Tang in 923 , the Later Jin in 936 , and the Later Han in 947 .
= Battle of the Gebora =
The Battle of the Gebora was a minor battle of the Peninsular War between Spanish and French armies . It occurred on 19 February 1811 , near Badajoz , Spain , where an outnumbered French force routed and nearly destroyed the Spanish Army of Extremadura .
In a bid to help extricate Marshal André Masséna 's army from its position in Portugal — mired in front of Lisbon 's defensive Lines of Torres Vedras — Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult led part of the French Armée du Midi ( Army of the South ) from Andalusia into the neighbouring Spanish region of Extremadura and laid siege to the important fortress town of Badajoz . Viscount Wellington and the Spanish Captain @-@ General Pedro Caro y Sureda , 3rd marqués de La Romana sent a large Spanish army to raise the siege . La Romana , however , died before the army could depart , and command fell to General Gabriel de Mendizábal Iraeta . Supported by a small force of Portuguese cavalry , the Spaniards reached the town and camped on the nearby heights of San Cristóbal in early February 1811 .
When Mendizabal ignored Wellington 's instructions and failed to entrench his army , Soult took advantage of the vulnerable Spanish position and sent a small force to attack the Spaniards . On the morning of 19 February , French forces under Marshal Édouard Mortier quickly defeated the Spanish army , inflicting 1 @,@ 000 casualties and taking 4 @,@ 000 prisoners while losing only 400 men . The victory allowed Soult to concentrate on his assault of Badajoz , which fell to the French on 11 March and remained in French hands until the following year .
= = Background = =
Despite his partial victory over Marshal Masséna in Portugal at the Battle of Bussaco in September 1810 , Viscount Wellington was forced by Masséna 's manoeuvres to retreat behind the extensive lines of Torres Vedras , a series of forts defending the Portuguese capital of Lisbon . By 10 October 1810 , only the British light division and a few cavalry patrols remained outside the defensive lines , while Masséna 's Army of Portugal concentrated around Sobral , seemingly in preparation to attack the lines . After a fierce skirmish on 14 October , the French dug themselves in rather than launch a full @-@ scale assault , remaining entrenched for a month before withdrawing to a position between Santarém and Rio Maior .
Napoleon had previously sent dispatches to Marshal Soult , commander of the Army of the South , urging him to send assistance to Masséna in Portugal . However , the Emperor 's orders , which called for only a small force , were based on outdated intelligence and the situation had changed considerably by the time Soult received them . Thirty thousand Allied troops and six major fortresses now stood between the French army and the Portuguese capital , making an attack against Lisbon virtually impossible . Nevertheless , compelled to act , Soult instead gathered an army of 20 @,@ 000 men , mainly from V Corps , and launched an expedition into Extremadura with the aim of capturing the Spanish fortress at Badajoz , thereby drawing some of the Allied forces away from Masséna and the Lines of Torres Vedras .
Soult divided his army into two contingents and advanced into Extremadura via the two main passes leading from Andalusia into the Guadiana valley , with the intention of rejoining at Almendralejo . One of the columns , commanded by Gen. Marie Victor Latour @-@ Maubourg , met little resistance on its march ; on 3 January 1811 the column was confronted by 2 @,@ 500 Spanish and Portuguese cavalry near Usagre , but that force was only a screen covering the retreat beyond the Guadiana of a Spanish infantry division commanded by Gen. Mendizabal . Latour @-@ Maubourg was therefore able to take position near Almendralejo and await the arrival of the second French column .
That second column , commanded by Soult and including Gen. Honoré Gazan 's V Corps division , was escorting the French siege @-@ train and therefore had to take a longer , more practicable route into Extremadura . Bad weather and the desertion of the Spanish drivers caused the artillery train to become separated from the escorting infantry , a problem that was further complicated when the column was threatened by 5 @,@ 000 Spanish troops under Gen. Francisco Ballesteros . When confronted by Marshal Mortier , Ballesteros retreated without suffering serious harm but remained a threat to the rear of the French column . For this reason Soult directed Gazan 's infantry to head off the Spanish force and protect the delayed siege @-@ train , while he himself continued onward to Almendralejo with his cavalry . As a result , Soult finally joined Latour @-@ Maubourg on 6 January with only a fraction of his original column and no heavy artillery .
= = Prelude = =
Soult could not besiege so strong a fortress as Badajoz with his reduced force and therefore changed his plans . Sending his light cavalry under Brig. Gen. André Briche to take Mérida and leaving four squadrons of dragoons at Albuera to watch the garrison at Badajoz , he marched with the remainder of his army to invest Olivenza . Wellington had previously advised Gen. Pedro Caro de La Romana , commander of the Spanish Army of Extremadura , either to destroy the fortification at Olivenza or to repair its defenses and fully garrison it ; La Romana in turn had instructed Mendizabal to slight the fortress , but Mendizabal ignored this order and instead reinforced the garrison with four infantry battalions . Soult , arriving on 11 January , was therefore confronted with a strongly garrisoned--but untenable--fortress . The heavy French artillery finally began to arrive on 19 January , and by 22 January a poorly repaired breach in the fortress ' walls had been reopened . The garrison surrendered on 23 January , with over 4 @,@ 000 Spanish troops from the Army of Extremadura taken captive .
Soult was now in a difficult position : although he had a large ( 4 @,@ 000 @-@ strong ) contingent of cavalry , deploying two battalions to escort the prisoners taken at Olivenza back to French @-@ held Seville left him only 5 @,@ 500 infantry with which to continue his campaign . Moreover , although his siege @-@ train had begun to arrive , the continued absence of Gazan 's infantry division left him with a weakened army . Despite these problems , Soult decided to besiege Badajoz in hopes that Wellington would send reinforcements to the Spanish fortress and thereby reduce the Allied forces facing Masséna at the Lines of Torres Vedras . On 26 January Soult marched for Badajoz , sending Latour @-@ Maubourg with six cavalry battalions across the Guadiana to blockade the fortress ' northern approach , and by 27 January the first siege of Badajoz had begun . Gazan 's division eventually rejoined Soult 's army on 3 February , further strengthening the besieging force by 6 @,@ 000 men .
Meanwhile , Mendizabal had retreated to the Portuguese border after sending two battalions to reinforce the garrison at Badajoz . Weakened by the defeat at Olivenza and by Ballesteros ' continued absence , he sent to La Romana for reinforcements , receiving on 14 January 1 @,@ 800 men sent from Abrantes under the command of Carlos de España . Additionally , about 6 @,@ 000 troops were sent forward from the Lines of Torres Vedras on 19 January , arriving at Elvas ten days later . When these forces joined with Mendizabal 's remaining 3 @,@ 000 men , a Spanish cavalry division and a brigade of Portuguese horse , the Allies had an army almost 15 @,@ 000 strong--intended to be under the command of La Romana--with which to hold Soult in check . La Romana , however , died of an aneurysm on 23 January , and command of the army then fell to Mendizabal .
Before his sudden death , La Romana had met with Wellington and agreed on a plan for the campaign--the army was to entrench on the heights of San Cristóbal , with its right flank protected by the fort of San Cristóbal , its front covered by the Gebora and Guadiana rivers , the left guarded by the fortress at Campo Maior , and Elvas protecting the rear . Although aware of this plan when he took command , Mendizabal chose to ignore the instructions upon arriving on the north bank of the Guadiana on 5 February . Instead , he stationed the bulk of his infantry in Badajoz , leaving only a small contingent of infantry and his cavalry below San Cristóbal . On 7 February Mendizabal launched a strong sally against the besieging French lines : the Portuguese cavalry , supported by a small group of infantrymen , feinted towards the French left wing while a strong force of 5 @,@ 000 men attacked the right . The Spaniards under de España drove through the first French parallel to engage one of Gen. Jean @-@ Baptiste Girard 's brigades and were only driven back when Mortier sent several battalions to his aid . De España pulled back to Badajoz , having lost 650 men and causing 400 French casualties .
On 9 February Mendizabal withdrew most of his men from Badajoz , leaving behind a 7 @,@ 000 @-@ strong garrison . The field army 's 9 @,@ 000 infantry settled on the heights of San Cristóbal while the 3 @,@ 000 horse encamped behind them on the plains of the Caya . The Spanish commander again ignored Wellington 's plan , failing to dig entrenchments on the heights , nor did he send out a cavalry screen to protect his front and monitor the French movements . Soult , however , largely ignored the Spanish army for the next few days , concentrating instead on building up his siege lines and battering Badajoz . Heavy rains also flooded both the Guadiana and Gebora rivers , rendering them impassable , so that between 11 – 18 February the French were only able to shell the southern end of the Spanish line , pushing the Spaniards further away from Badajoz and the protection of the San Cristóbal fort .
= = Battle = =
By the afternoon of 18 February , the rains had abated and lower water levels made the Gebora River fordable again . That evening Soult sent nine infantry battalions , three cavalry squadrons and two artillery batteries , under Mortier 's command , to the north bank across a flying bridge over the Guadiana River . Joined by six cavalry regiments under Latour @-@ Maubourg , the French now had 4 @,@ 500 infantrymen , 2 @,@ 500 cavalry and 12 cannon ready to attack the Spanish lines at dawn on 19 February . Due to heavy fog that morning , Mendizabal was unaware of the approaching French until his picket , only a mile from his front , was driven back by Mortier 's infantry fording the Gebora . At the same time the 2nd Hussars , sent by Latour @-@ Maubourg to turn the Spanish left flank , had managed to climb the heights to the north , also undetected , and fell upon one of de España 's unsuspecting regiments .
Mortier demonstrated his tactical prowess in the deployment of his small force : he sent all his cavalry to the north to attack the Spanish left ; three battalions were sent south between the fort at San Cristóbal and the Spanish right wing ; and his remaining six infantry battalions assaulted the Spanish front . As the fog rose , the French light cavalry under Briche gained the heights and fell upon the Spanish left flank , while Latour @-@ Maubourg took three dragoon regiments to attack the combined Spanish and Portuguese cavalry on the plains of the Caya . Despite outnumbering the French , the Allied horse ignored orders and immediately fled towards Elvas and Campo Maior . They escaped unscathed , largely because Latour @-@ Maubourg ignored them and instead launched his cavalry against the Spanish infantry line .
The engagement of the Spanish right flank was not as immediately decisive . Because the fog had lifted , the Spaniards could see the numerical weakness of the opposing force and formed up with little sign of falling . The musketry duel between the two sides had scarcely begun , however , when the French cavalry appeared ; the light horse approached along the top of the heights while Latour @-@ Maubourg 's dragoons advanced from the rear . In response , Mendizabal formed his troops into two huge divisional squares supported by artillery which , although initially successful in impeding the French cavalry , eventually became an easy target for the French infantry and artillery . As one Spanish infantryman recounted , " Their artillery played upon it in a most horrible fashion until it became first an oval and then an unformed mass that the cavalry were able to penetrate and take prisoner . " Briche 's light cavalry thus broke through the two Spanish squares without great difficulty , and the battle was effectively over . A few of the Spanish regiments dispersed ; many surrendered ; and others joined together to fight their way to Badajoz or the Portuguese border .
= = Consequences = =
The battle was a serious setback for the Anglo @-@ Spanish @-@ Portuguese allies ; Wellington had earlier warned the Spanish generals that the Army of Extremadura was " the last body of troops which their country possesses " , and later wrote that " [ t ] he defeat of Mendizabal is the greatest misfortune , which was not previously expected , that has yet occurred to us . " The army had been essentially destroyed ; although 2 @,@ 500 infantry had escaped into Badajoz — and a slightly smaller number to Portugal — about 1 @,@ 000 Spaniards had been killed or wounded , 4 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner and 17 cannon had been lost . The French , for their part , suffered only minor casualties . Soult initially reported his losses as 30 killed and 140 wounded , but those figures were eventually revised to around 400 casualties , mainly from the cavalry .
Soult was now free to continue his investment of Badajoz ; although the town 's garrison was now some 8 @,@ 000 strong due to the influx of soldiers from Mendizabal 's destroyed army , it eventually fell to the French on 11 March . Wellington then sent a large Anglo @-@ Portuguese corps , commanded by Sir William Beresford , to retake the important fortress town , and by 20 April the second siege of Badajoz had begun . A French attempt to lift this siege resulted , on 16 May , in the bloody Battle of Albuera , in which Beresford 's strong Allied corps maintained the siege but only barely managed to hold off an outnumbered French army , again commanded by Soult . However , when the French Army of Portugal , now under the command of Marshal Auguste Marmont , and the Army of the South converged , the combined French force of over 60 @,@ 000 men forced Wellington , on 20 June , to call off the siege and pull his 44 @,@ 000 @-@ man besieging army back to Elvas . Thus Badajoz would remain in French hands until the following year , when the Allies finally retook it following the Battle of Badajoz .
= Battle of Mughar Ridge =
The Battle of Mughar Ridge , officially known by the British as the Action of El Mughar , took place on 13 November 1917 during the Pursuit phase of the Southern Palestine Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War . Fighting between the advancing Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) and the retreating Yildirim Army Group , occurred after the Battle of Beersheba and the Third Battle of Gaza . Operations occurred over an extensive area north of the Gaza to Beersheba line and west of the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron .
Strong Ottoman Army positions from Gaza to the foothills of the Judean Hills had successfully held out against British Empire forces for a week after the Ottoman army was defeated at Beersheba . But the next day , 8 November , the main Ottoman base at Sheria was captured after two days ' fighting and a British Yeomanry cavalry charge at Huj captured guns ; Ottoman units along the whole line were in retreat .
The XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps attacked the Ottoman Eighth Army on an extended front from the Judean foothills across the Mediterranean coastal plain from 10 to 14 November . Beginning on 10 November at Summil , an Ottoman counterattack by the Seventh Army was eventually blocked by mounted units while on 13 November in the centre a cavalry charge assisted by infantry captured two fortified villages and on 14 November , to the north at Ayun Kara an Ottoman rearguard position was successfully attacked by mounted units . Junction Station ( also known as Wadi es Sara ) was captured and the Ottoman railway link with Jerusalem was cut . As a result of this victory the Ottoman Eighth Army withdrew behind the Nahr el Auja and their Seventh Army withdrew toward Jerusalem .
= = Background = =
After the capture of Beersheba on 31 October , from 1 to 7 November , strong Ottoman rearguard units at Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills , at Hareira and Sheria on the maritime plain , and at Gaza close to the Mediterranean coast , held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting . During this time the Ottoman Army was able to withdraw in good order ; the rearguard garrisons retiring under cover of darkness during the night of 8 / 9 November 1917 .
The delay caused by these rearguards may have seriously compromised the British Empire advance as there was not much time to conclude military engagements in southern Palestine . The winter rains were expected to start in the middle of the month and the black soil plain which was currently firm , facilitating the movements of large military units would with the rains become a giant boggy quagmire , impassable for wheeled vehicles and very heavy marching for infantry . With the rains the temperatures which were currently hot during the day and pleasant at night would drop rapidly to become piercingly cold . In 1917 the rains began on 19 November just as the infantry began their advance into the Judean Hills .
The strength of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies , before the attack at Beersheba on 31 October , was estimated to have been 45 @,@ 000 rifles , 1 @,@ 500 sabres and 300 guns . This force had been made up of the Seventh Army 's incomplete III Corps . The III Corps ' 24th Infantry Division was at Kauwukah ( near Hareira – Sheria ) and its 27th Infantry Division was at Beersheba . Its 3rd Cavalry Division , as well as the 16th , 19th , and 24th Infantry Divisions were also in the area to the east of the Gaza – Beersheba line . The Seventh Army was commanded by Fevzi Çakmak . The Eighth Army 's XXII Corps ( 3rd and 53rd Infantry Divisions ) was based at Gaza while its XX Corps ( 16th , 26th and 54th Infantry Divisions ) was based at Sheria in the centre of the Gaza – Beersheba line . Supporting these two corps had been two reserve divisions ; the 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions . The Eighth Army was commanded by Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein and at that time had an estimated 2 @,@ 894 officers ; 69 @,@ 709 men ; 29 @,@ 116 rifles ; 403 machine @-@ guns and 268 guns .
= = Prelude = =
During 7 – 8 November rearguards of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies delayed the advance of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel 's Desert Mounted Corps , Major General Edmund Hakewill @-@ Smith 's ( or Major General J. Hill 's ) 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , and Major General Philip C Palin 's 75th Division . The Desert Mounted Corps consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division ( Major General Edward Chaytor ) , the Australian Mounted Division ( Major General Henry W Hodgson ) and the Yeomanry Mounted Division ( Major General George Barrow ) . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and 75th Division formed part of Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin 's XXI Corps .
On the coast the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was fought a fierce action after crossing the Wadi el Hesi on the coast north of Gaza . By the morning of 8 November , two infantry brigades had crossed the Wadi el Hesi near its mouth and , despite some opposition established themselves on the sand dunes to the north towards Askelon . Sausage Ridge , on their right stretched from Burberah to Deir Sineid , was held in considerable strength , as the ridge covered the road and railway from Gaza to the north . During the afternoon the 155th Brigade moved to attack Sausage Ridge , but it was threatened by a counterattack on the left forcing , the brigade to halt and face north to meet this attack . When the 156th Brigade arrived from Sh . Ajlin on the Wadi el Hesi , the 157th Brigade attacked the southern portion of the ridge , and gained a footing as darkness fell . They lost this precarious position four times to fierce Ottoman counterattacks , before strongly attacking and throwing the defenders off the ridge by 21 : 00 . The two attacking brigades lost 700 men in this action .
The Ottoman rearguards were able to safely get away during the night of the 8 / 9 November , but during the following day the only infantry unit capable of advancing was the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division 's 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , commanded by Brigadier General Archibald Herbert Leggett . The division 's other brigades were regrouping after the fierce fighting at the Wadi Hesi . The brigade moved to Ashkelon , which was found to be deserted . By evening advance troops had pressed on to Al @-@ Majdal , 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Gaza , where they secured abandoned stores and water . By 9 November the Eighth Army had retreated 20 miles ( 32 km ) while the Seventh Army " had lost hardly any ground . "
Most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's infantry divisions were at the end of their lines of communication and were not able to follow up the Ottoman withdrawal . XXI Corps 's 54th ( East Anglian ) Division was forced to rest at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun . In the rear , Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode 's XX Corps had transferred its transport to XXI Corps . XX Corps 's 60th ( 2 / 2nd London ) Division ( Major General John Shea ) was resting at Huj and its 10th ( Irish ) ( Major General John Longley ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) ( Major General Eric Girdwood ) Divisions were at Karm . The only units in the field were the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division ( Major General S. F. Mott ) , corps cavalry , the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe in the foothills of the Judean Hills north of Beersheba .
Allenby wrote on 8 November : The battle is in full swing . We have driven the Turks N. and N.E. and my pursuing troops are ten miles beyond Gaza , and travelling fast . A lot of Turks are cut off – just N.E. of Gaza . I don 't know if they will be caught ; but there is no time to waste in catching them . They pooped off a huge explosion this morning – presumably ammunition . My army is all over the place , now on a front of 35 miles ... My flying men are having the time of their lives ; bombing and machine gunning the retreating columns ... I fancy that Kress von Kressenstein is nearing the Jaffa @-@ Jerusalem line , himself .
= = = Mounted troop movements on 9 November = = =
Chaytor 's Anzac Mounted Division moved off across the maritime plain towards the coast soon after daylight on 9 November , having watered their horses the previous evening . The advance was led by two brigades — on the left the 1st Light Horse Brigade and on the right the 2nd Light Horse Brigade rode in line , each responsible for their own front and outer flanks ; the attached 7th Mounted Brigade formed a reserve .
By about 08 : 30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade had entered Bureir and around an hour later the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was approaching Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein 's Eighth Army headquarters at Hulayqat . Here Ottoman soldiers were discovered to be occupying a strong position on high ground north @-@ west of the village ; the brigade made a dismounted attack capturing 600 prisoners along with large amounts of supplies , materiel and an abandoned German field hospital . At midday El Mejdel , 13 miles ( 21 km ) north @-@ east of Gaza , was occupied with little difficulty by the 1st Light Horse Brigade , who captured 170 prisoners and found a good well with a steam pump enabling the brigade to water all horses expeditiously . After passing the ancient town of Ashkelon a message was received from the Desert Mounted Corps notifying the Anzac Mounted Division that the British XXI Corps were marching towards El Mejdel and Julis . The main Ottoman road and railway leading north from Gaza were both cut and as a consequence , Chauvel ordered the division to advance towards Bayt Daras . The division duly turned north @-@ east with the 1st Light Horse Brigade entering Isdud close to the Mediterranean Sea . On the right , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured the villages of Suafir el Sharkiye and Arak Suweidan , a convoy and its escort ( some 350 prisoners ) . While the brigade was reorganising , Ottoman guns further north opened fire , shelling both captors and captives alike . Just before dark the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured a further 200 prisoners . The Anzac Mounted Division took up a night battle outpost line along high ground south of the Wadi Mejma , from near Isdud to Arak Suweidan .
During its journey across the maritime plain to Isdud , the Anzac Mounted Division captured many prisoners but met no large organised Ottoman force . As the day progressed , the captured Ottoman units were found to be increasingly disorganised with many soldiers suffering severely from thirst and exhaustion and some from dysentery .
Allenby wrote on 9 November : Things are going well . I have infantry already in Askalon , and am pushing N. , inland of that place . I know of 77 guns having been taken ; and 5 @,@ 000 prisoners at least . I went to Gaza , this afternoon ... [ it ] was taken by Bulfin , quite easily . The attack , on the 6th inst . , went with such a rush that Gaza became untenable . Tomorrow is likely to be a critical day , in our pursuit . If the Turks can 't stop us tomorrow , they are done .
Meanwhile , Hodgson 's Australian Mounted Division , spent most of 9 November searching for water , which was eventually found at Huj . After most of the horses had been watered , they advanced 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the Kastina – Isdud line capturing prisoners , guns , and transports on the way . This march during the night of 9 / 10 November was the only night march made through Ottoman territory of the campaign .
The Australian Mounted Division was led by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade as advanced guard , with an artillery battery attached . The 5th Mounted Brigade , two squadrons of which had made the charge at Huj the day before , followed , with the 4th Light Horse Brigade forming the rearguard . To ensure the division maintained its cohesion throughout the night , the advance guard placed pickets along the route every 440 yards ( 400 m ) . These were picked up by the following units which in turn dropped pickets to be gathered up by the rearguard . Corps headquarters in the rear was kept informed of the division 's movement by signal lamp . Signallers from the two leading brigades intermittently flashed the letters of the divisional call signal in a south @-@ westerly direction from every prominent hilltop along the route . These arrangements worked well and the division arrived intact in the vicinity of Arak el Menshiye and Al @-@ Faluja .
The Australian Mounted Division was followed by the 4th Light Horse Brigade Field Ambulance and the divisional train made up of brigade transport and supply sections carrying rations . The field ambulance set up a dressing station and treated about 40 wounded men before moving through Huj at 16 : 00 . After encountering rugged mountainous ravines and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of very rough terrain , at around midnight they set up camp in a wadi bed .
The Yeomanry Mounted Division , ( Barrow ) , had been in hills north of Beersheba fighting in the line at Tel el Khuweilfe with infantry from the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , the 1 / 2nd County of London Yeomanry Regiment ( XX Corps , Corps Troops ) and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade until Allenby ordered it to rejoin the Desert Mounted Corps , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away on the coast . Meanwhile , the infantry from the 60th ( 2 / 2nd London ) Division marched to Huj during the afternoon of 9 November , obtaining water there . Infantry in the 10th ( Irish ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions remained at Karm .
= = = Positions of armies on 10 November = = =
The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division had ended the possibility of an Ottoman stand on the Wadi Hesi and the next natural defensive line was 7 – 15 miles ( 11 – 24 km ) to the north , on the Nahr Sukereir . Allenby had issued orders on 9 November to advance to El Tineh – Beit Duras in an attempt to turn the Ottoman Nahr Sukereir line before it could be firmly established . Meanwhile , disorganised and demoralised Ottoman columns were harassed as they retreated by the Royal Flying Corps dropping bombs and firing machine @-@ guns . Aircraft also dropped bombs on El Tineh railway station and detonated the ammunition depot . By 10 November infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) and 75th Divisions had advanced to the line Beit Duras – Isdud with the leading brigade of the 52nd Division successfully attacking a strong Ottoman rearguard defending Isdud .
Despite these difficulties the Ottoman Army successfully carried out a difficult retreat to establish a new defensive position on an extensive and well chosen position . The new line stretched about 20 miles ( 32 km ) west to east from the mouth of the Nahr Sukereir on the Mediterranean Sea to Bayt Jibrin not far from Tel el Khuweilfe in the Judean Hills . The Ottoman Eighth Army on the coastal sector was still retreating when ordered to form the new line along the north side of the valley of the Nahr Sukereir , more than 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Gaza . Further inland the Ottoman Seventh Army was in relatively good condition having retired 10 miles ( 16 km ) or so without interference and was preparing to launch a counterattack .
Reinforcements , transport and supplies were not a problem for these two Ottoman armies as they were falling back on their lines of communication . Their defensive line ran more or less parallel to and 10 miles ( 16 km ) or so in front of both road links and the railway . The Jaffa to Jerusalem railway , with connections northwards to Damascus and Istanbul , had a line branching southwards to El Tineh which branched again to Gaza and Beersheba . These lines could still be used to transport supplies and reinforcements quickly and efficiently to the Ottoman Army 's front line . Indeed , a general strengthening of resistance along the Wadi Sukereir line was concentrated around Qastina , towards which the 2nd Light Horse Brigade advanced , capturing a refugee column between Suafir and Qastina .
= = = = Infantry capture Isdud and Nahr Sukereir = = = =
The series of engagements leading up to the Battle of Mughar Ridge began on 10 November near Isdud . The leading brigade of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , advanced 15 miles ( 24 km ) despite encountering stiff Ottoman resistance around Isdud and was subjected to artillery bombardment from across the Nahr Sukereir . Two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division followed the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade pushing across the Nahr Sukereir at Jisr Esdud , to Hamama . Here they successfully established a bridgehead on the Ottoman right flank . Ample water was found and the bridgehead was enlarged the following day .
= = = = Mounted advance towards Summil = = = =
The Australian Mounted Division , which had left Huj after dark on the night of 9 / 10 November bound for Tel el Hesi , arrived there at 04 : 30 . They halted until dawn on 10 November when several large pools of good water were found in the wadi . These allowed the horses to drink their fill — some that had missed out on watering before the trek , had been without water for three days and four nights . The division then came up into position on the right . The Anzac Mounted Division reported on the morning of 10 November that the division was " ridden out " and had to halt for water .
Meanwhile , the 12th Light Horse Regiment ( 4th Light Horse Brigade ) advanced north from Burieh to Al @-@ Faluja arriving at 24 : 00 on 9 / 10 November when engineering stores and five burnt out aircraft were captured . The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered at 10 : 40 on 10 November to threaten the Ottoman force opposing 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the Menshiye – Al Faluja line . Between 08 : 00 and 10 : 30 , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had occupied the Arak el Menshiye Station while the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Al @-@ Faluja 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the north @-@ west .
The Australian Mounted Division was joined a few hours later by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which had left Huj early in the morning . They came up on the right of the Australian Mounted Division and took over Arak el Menshiye extending the line a little further east . By the afternoon of 10 November the whole of the Desert Mounted Corps with the exception of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , ( still at Tel el Khuweilfe ) were in line from a point a little east of Arak el Menshiye to the sea . Both the Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions reconnoitred the left half of the Ottoman line running from Qastina , roughly through Balin and Barqusya , to the neighbourhood of Bayt Jibrin in the foot hills of the Judean Hills .
Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division to move westward to the coast leaving the Australian Mounted Division on the right flank . Neither he nor Hodgson commanding the Australian Mounted Division were aware at that time , that the division was threatened by three or four Ottoman Eighth Army infantry divisions . The 16th and 26th Divisions ( XX Corps ) and the 53rd Division ( XXII Corps ) were holding a 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) line between the railway line and Bayt Jibrin , all more or less reorganised and all within striking distance . However , Chauvel 's reliance on the steadiness of the Australian Mounted Division was fully justified . With its headquarters at Al @-@ Faluja on 10 and 11 November , the Australian Mounted Division became engaged ( during 10 November ) in stubborn fighting .
Ottoman trenches had been dug from Summil 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of Arak el Menshiye to Zeita , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the north @-@ east , and to the east of the railway line . The three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division ran into this Ottoman rearguard 's left flank near the village of Summil . Ottoman forces were advancing from Summil by 12 : 55 and the 4th Light Horse Brigade was deployed to attack them with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade assisting . At 14 : 55 patrols reported strong Ottoman positions along the Zeita – Summil – Barqusya line with trenches extending west of Summil village . Two Ottoman guns were seen being placed in a well @-@ sited position with no cover for 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) in front , which would require a long dismounted attack . By 15 : 30 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was approaching Summil when ordered to attack from the north with the 5th Mounted Brigade supported by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade threatening Summil from the west . By 16 : 30 3rd Light Horse Brigade headquarters were established 870 yards ( 800 m ) south @-@ east of Al @-@ Faluja on the railway line , but owing to darkness at 17 : 15 the attack was not developed and night battle outpost lines were established at 20 : 00 . By 18 : 00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was holding a line linking to the Anzac Mounted Division at Beit Affen , while the Ottomans were holding a ridge near Barqusya with three cavalry troops , three guns and about 1 @,@ 500 infantry . The mounted infantry and cavalry brigades were unable to advance further due to intense Ottoman artillery fire which continued throughout the day . However , Summil was occupied unopposed , during the morning of 11 November .
The 4th Light Horse Brigade casualties were one other rank killed , one officer and nine other ranks wounded . These wounded soldiers were probably treated by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance which was in the field a couple of miles past Al @-@ Faluja . The ambulance had itself suffered two casualties when subjected to artillery fire from the hills . But they halted and put up a tent and after dark took in eight more patients all hit by high @-@ explosive shells from the 4th Light Horse Regiment . They were busy until midnight ; two seriously wounded soldiers being evacuated to a Casualty Clearing Station and the rest were kept till morning .
My infantry have , on the coast , got 10 miles N. of Askalon ; and my Cavalry , further inland , are ahead of them . The mounted troops took some 15 guns and 700 prisoners yesterday ... This afternoon I went to Khan Yunis and told the head men that they could now go out of the town , to their farms and gardens ... The villagers – some 9000 – have been kept in , by wired enclosures , up to now as the Turks had agents there , and many warm sympathizers .
= = = Position on 11 November = = =
Allenby decided that an advance on Junction Station could most easily be made from the south @-@ west , by turning the Ottoman Army 's right flank on the coast . The 11 and 12 November were days of preparation for battle the following day . The Anzac Mounted Division were resting at Hamama when their supporting Australian Army Service Corps personnel caught up and distributed supplies for man and horse . This task was performed by " B " echelon wagons of brigades ' transport and supply sections forming an improvised Anzac Divisional Train . It was here also that the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade rejoined the division at 23 : 00 on 12 November .
Supplies for the advance were transported over land and by sea but it was only with great difficulty that two infantry divisions of XXI Corps and three mounted divisions of Desert Mounted Corps were maintained in the advance at such distances from base . The Navy transported stores to the mouths of the Wadi Hesi and the Nahr Sukherier as these lines were secured . The railhead was being pushed forward as rapidly as possible , but did not reach Deir Suneid until 28 November . So it was a considerable distance over which the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps worked to bring up supplies .
The Australian Mounted Division occupied Summil unopposed at dawn on 11 November but was unable to advance in the face of gathering opposition from the immediate north @-@ east . Summil had been found deserted at 06 : 00 by patrols of 3rd Light Horse Brigade ( Australian Mounted Division ) . But by 09 : 30 the 10th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) reported Ottoman units in strength , holding a high ridge 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ east of the town . At the same time Ottoman field guns began shelling Summil from a position on high ground about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of the town . Following instructions from Australian Mounted Division received at 14 : 00 , the 10th Light Horse Regiment carried out active patrolling . They made themselves as conspicuous as possible without becoming seriously engaged while the remainder of the division advanced north .
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was ordered to rejoin the Anzac Mounted Division . The brigade left Beersheba at 16 : 30 on 11 November and made a forced march of 52 miles ( 84 km ) . Their Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment , which had been in the front line with the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division about Tel el Khuweilfe in the southern Judean Hills not far from Hebron , made a forced march of 62 miles ( 100 km ) . These treks were estimated to have taken 181 ⁄ 2 hours , with a halt to rest and water at Kh . Jemmame early on 12 November . They arrived at Hamama that night at 23 : 00 some 30 and 1 / 2 hours later .
= = = Allenby prepares for battle as Kress counterattacks = = =
The 20 miles ( 32 km ) defensive line , chosen by the Ottoman commanders to rally their 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army and stop the invasion , was also designed to protect the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway and the threatened Junction Station . Their choice of position was partly dictated by pressure from the British , Australian , Indian and New Zealand advance , and partly by the terrain . The line north of the Nahr Rubin ran nearly north – south and parallel to , but about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the west of the railway line branching southwards . It ran along a high steep ridge connecting the hillside villages of Al @-@ Maghar and Zernukah ( surrounded by cactus hedges ) and extended north @-@ westwards to El Kubeibeh . The southern extremity of this ridge commanded the flat country to the west and south @-@ west , for a distance of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) or more . Prisoners from almost every unit of the Ottoman Army were being captured indicating that rearguards had been driven back in on the main body of the two Ottoman armies . All along their line Ottoman resistance grew noticeably stronger .
The Ottoman line was defended by the Eighth Army 's 3rd Division ( XXII Corps ) to the north , the 7th Division ( Eighth Army Reserve ) to the east , the 54th Division ( XX Corps ) near el Mesmiye and the 26th Division ( XX Corps ) holding Tel es Safi . Erich von Falkenhayn , the overall commander of the Ottoman Armies , had resolved to make a stand in front of Junction Station and succeeded in deploying his forces by the evening of 11 November . He ordered a counterattack against the British right flank which was covered by the Australian Mounted Division . His plan was to overwhelm them , cut their supply lines , outflank and capture all the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's forward units . Originally ordered for 11 November it was postponed until the next day .
Meanwhile , Allenby 's plan for 13 November was to turn the right flank of the Ottoman line on the coast despite aircraft and cavalry reconnaissances revealing a considerable Ottoman force further inland on the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's own right flank . He assigned the task of dealing with this immediate threat to the Australian Mounted Division , which was ordered to make as big a demonstration of their operations as possible . This would further focus Ottoman attention away from the coastal sector where the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions would advance northwards to attempt to turn the Ottoman right flank assisted by infantry attacks on the Ottoman right centre the following day .
Allenby 's force was deployed with infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the 75th Division in the centre , the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank with the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry 's left flank . He ordered the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Ottoman right flank . And , reinforced with two additional brigades , he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Ottoman counterattack .
= = = = Infantry attack Brown Hill , 12 November = = = =
The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was to make a preparatory attack near the coast to open the way for the attack on Junction Station the next day . They were to attack north of the Nahr Sukhereir between the villages of Burqa and Yazur with the Yeomanry Mounted Division acting as flank guard . Their objective was an important Ottoman rearguard position which ran from the village of Burqa to Brown Hill . While the village was easily taken it was necessary to make an extremely difficult attack on the steep sided Brown Hill . The hill was topped by a large cairn and commanded a long field of fire over the plain southwards across the Nahr Sukhereir . By the time a battalion of the 156th Brigade , covered by two batteries of the 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery and the South African Field Artillery Brigade of 75th Division , captured the crest it had been reduced to a handful of men . But just 20 minutes after taking Brown Hill the remnants of the Scots battalion ( now down to just one officer and about 100 men ) was unable to withstand an Ottoman counterattack and was driven off after a fierce struggle at close quarters .
The 2 / 3rd Gurkha Rifles were then ordered to renew the attack at dusk . Owing to poor light , the artillery was no longer able to give much assistance , but nevertheless the Gurkhas quickly retook the hill with a bayonet charge , suffering 50 casualties , and in the process recovering two Lewis guns . The attacking battalion suffered over 400 killed or wounded , while the defending Ottoman 7th Division must have also suffered heavy casualties ; 170 dead Ottoman soldiers were found on the battlefield . The fighting here has been described as equal to the 157th ( Highland Light Infantry ) Brigade 's encounter at Sausage Ridge on 8 November . The success of these operations north of the Nahr Sukhereir opened the way for the main attacks the following day , on the Ottoman armies ' front line positions .
= = = = Ottoman counterattack Australian Mounted Division , 12 November = = = =
Meanwhile , the Australian Mounted Division advanced in the direction of Tel es Safi to press the left flank of the Ottoman forces as strongly as possible . About 4 @,@ 000 Australian and British mounted troops of 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades moved northwards in a conspicuous demonstration of aggression . At first it appeared that the Ottoman formations had retired altogether ; the 9th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) rode through Barqusya , one troop pressing on to occupy Tel es Safi . The 5th Mounted Brigade also found Balin unoccupied , and rapidly advanced northwards towards Tel es Safi and Kustineh . By 12 : 00 the Australian Mounted Division was spread over at least 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) facing the north and east when four divisions of the Ottoman 7th Army ( about 5 @,@ 000 soldiers ) began their advance southwards from the railway .
The Ottoman infantry divisions began moving south from El Tineh 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Qastina from the Ottoman controlled branch line of the railway line running southwards in the direction of Huj . Here and further north along the railway trains were stopping to allow huge numbers of troops to take to the field . Soon after the 11th Light Horse Regiment ( 4th Light Horse Brigade ) was forced to retire from Qastina as Ottoman units occupied the place in strength . Then at 12 : 00 three separate columns ( of all arms ) were seen advancing towards Tel es Safi from the north and north @-@ east . Ten minutes later the British Honourable Artillery Company battery opened fire , but was hopelessly out shot , outnumbered , and out ranged by Ottoman guns of greater power and weight .
The approach of the Eighth Ottoman Army 's XX Corps ( 16th , 26th 53rd and 54th Divisions ) was at first unknown to the 5th Mounted Brigade in Balin . But at about 13 : 00 a force estimated at 5 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers suddenly attacked and almost surrounded the mounted brigade . The attack was made by two Ottoman columns , one coming down the track from Junction Station to Tel el Safi and the other by rail to El Tineh Station . It was by far the heaviest counterattack experienced since the break through by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force at Sharia on 7 November . The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and Warwickshire Yeomanry regiments of 5th Mounted Brigade , were pushed back out of Balin before being reinforced by the Worcestershire Yeomanry . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was sent up at a canter from Summil , followed by the remaining two batteries of the Australian Mounted Division . One light horse regiment occupied Berkusie but was forced to retire by an attack from a very strong Ottoman force supported by heavy artillery fire from several batteries . All available troops of the Australian Mounted Division were now engaged and the Ottoman attack continued to be pressed . The counterattack forced the mounted division to concede the territory gained during the day , before fighting the Ottoman Army to a standstill in front of Summil .
The 4th Light Horse Brigade could render no effective aid to the 3rd Light Horse or the 5th Mounted Yeomanry brigades . It was strung out to the west as far as the Dayr Sunayd railway line and was being heavily attacked . Ottoman units managed to advance to within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the 4th Light Horse Brigade 's position ; only at the end of the day was this strong Ottoman attack repulsed by machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Hodgson ( commander of the Australian Mounted Division ) ordered a slow withdrawal by 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades to high ground on the line Bir Summil – Khurbet Jeladiyeh . The order had only just been given when another Ottoman train was sighted moving to the south . It stopped west of Balin and disgorged a fresh force of Ottoman soldiers who deployed rapidly to advance against the left flank of the 5th Mounted Brigade . Two batteries of Australian Mounted Division were in action on the high ground north @-@ west of Summeil firing on this fresh Ottoman force moving over the open plain in full view of the gunners . The artillery fire was so effective the attacking Ottoman advance was halted , forcing them to fall back a little where they dug trenches . Fighting steadily and withdrawing skilfully , the 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades had reached the edge of Summil village where the Ottoman attack was finally held . The attack ended at 18 : 00 in darkness .
The Ottoman attackers dug themselves in on a line through Balin and Berkusie while the line taken up by the Australian Mounted Division began with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade facing east on a line running due north from about half way between Iraq el Menshiye and Summil . The line then turned westward so the 5th Mounted Brigade faced northwards in front of Summil with the 4th Light Horse Brigade to their left in front of Ipseir and connecting with the right of the infantry division ; the 75th Division at Suafir esh Sharqiye . A critical situation created by the strong Ottoman attacking forces had been controlled by the coolness and steadiness of the troops , especially the machine @-@ gun squadrons of the 5th Mounted and the 4th Light Horse Brigades . The Australian Mounted Division suffered about 50 casualties mainly from the 5th Mounted Brigade .
To the east von Falkenhayn , held his reserve force of 3rd Cavalry Division ( Seventh Army 's III Corps ) and 19th Division ( Eighth Army reserve ) in front of Beit Jibrin . They waited throughout the day for the main attack to make progress before beginning their own advance , but the opportunity never eventuated . This powerful Ottoman counterattack had been contained and had not forced any rearrangement of the invading forces , whose preparations and concentration on the plain were now complete . But von Falkenhayn was forced to halt his Seventh Army 's attack and then to take away from it the 16th Division plus one regiment .
= = Battle = =
In southern Palestine the wet season was approaching with another thunderstorm and heavy rain on the night of 11 November . The dark cotton soil over which the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was now advancing would not need much more rain to turn it into impassable mud . But 12 November had been fine and the roads had dried out . The rolling maritime plain was dotted with villages on low hill tops surrounded by groves and orchards . These were in turn surrounded by hedges of prickly pear or cactus , making them strong natural places of defence . In the distance to the right the spurs and valleys of the Judean Hills were visible even to the invading British Empire troops near the Mediterranean coast . On 13 November the weather was clear and fine with at first no sign of the Ottoman Army .
The 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Ottoman force was deployed to defend the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway along the Wadi al @-@ Sarar and Al @-@ Nabi Rubin . The battlefield was generally cultivated but with winter approaching it was bare and open . Its most prominent feature , the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) high ridge which continues north towards Zernukah and El Kubeibeh formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army 's 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) long defensive position . The naturally strong Ottoman line was defended by the Eighth Army 's 3rd Division ( XXII Corps ) to the north , the 7th Division ( Eighth Army Reserve ) to the east , the 54th Division ( XX Corps ) near el Mesmiye and the 26th Division ( XX Corps ) holding Tel es Safi . Benefiting from the terrain two strong defensive positions with commanding views of the countryside were located on the ridge . They were the villages of Qatra and Al @-@ Maghar . These villages were separated by the Wadi Jamus which links the Wadi al @-@ Sarar with the Nahr Rubin .
While the Ottoman counterattack had been in progress on 12 November , Allenby issued orders for the attack on 13 November to the commanders of XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps at the latter 's headquarters near Julis . The main attack was to be carried out by the XXI Corps ' 52nd ( Lowland ) and 75th Divisions westwards towards Junction Station between the Gaza road on the right , and El Mughar on the left . On the right flank of the XXI Corps the Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades , reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade ( Anzac Mounted Division ) , the 7th Mounted Brigade ( Yeomanry Mounted Division ) and two cars of the 12th LAM Battery , would attack in line advancing northwards towards Junction Station . The remainder of Desert Mounted Corps ; the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions would cover the left flank of XXI Corps , with Yibna as their first objective and Aqir the second . As soon as Junction Station was captured they were to swing north to occupy Ramla and Lod and reconnoitre towards Jaffa .
= = = In the centre = = =
During the first phase of the attack by infantry in the 75th Division ( XXI Corps ) were to capture the line Tel el Turmus – Qastina – Yazur and then seize Mesmiye . On their left infantry in the 52nd
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( Lowland ) Division were to secure the line Yazur – Beshshit and then seize Qatra . After a pause for the artillery to be brought forward , the second phase attacks on the final objectives of Junction Station for the 75th and al @-@ Mansura for the 52nd ( Lowland ) Divisions were to be made . The first phase was due to start at 08 : 00 hours on 13 November preceded by one hour 's bombardment .
By 10 : 00 the 2 / 4th Somerset Light Infantry , 1 / 5th Devonshire Regiment , 2 / 5th Hampshire Regiment , 1 / 4th Wiltshire Regiment , 2 / 3rd and 3 / 3rd Gurkha Rifles ( from the 232nd and the 233rd Brigades , 75th Division ) were advancing along the main road . They occupied the undefended villages of Tall al @-@ Turmus , Qastina and Yazur . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division had already occupied Bashshit . The 75th Division proceeded to attack Mesmiye on a lower and southward extension of the ridge on which Qatra and el Mughar were situated with the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division attacking directly towards these two villages . But these attacks were held up by very strong Ottoman defences .
At Mesmiye the Ottoman Army was strongly posted on high ground in and near the village , and well @-@ sited machine @-@ guns swept all approaches . Infantry in the 75th Division made steady slow progress ; the main body of the Ottoman rear guard eventually falling back to a slight ridge 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north @-@ east . The attack by 3 / 3rd Gurkhas and infantry in the 234th Brigade moved up to Mesmiye el Gharbiye and cleared the place of snipers . One company of 58th Vaughan 's Rifles suffered heavy casualties during an Ottoman attack on the flank of infantry in the 233rd Brigade . Towards dusk the final stage of the infantry assault was supported by two troops of 11th Light Horse Regiment ( 4th Light Horse Brigade ) , who galloped into action on the infantry 's right flank and gave valuable fire support . An infantry frontal attack covered by machine @-@ gun fire drove the Ottoman defenders off the ridge , enabling Mesmiye esh Sherqiye to be occupied soon after . With Ottoman resistance broken infantry in the 75th Division pushed on through Mesmiye where they took 300 prisoners , and although ordered to capture Junction Station they halted short of their objective in darkness .
= = = On the flanks = = =
The Australian Mounted Division covered the right flank of the infantry divisions . At 10 : 00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade moved forward but was held up by an Ottoman position covering El Tineh . The brigade was ordered at 11 : 50 to push forward to protect the right of the 233rd Brigade ( 75th Division ) as their attack had succeeded and they advanced to occupy Mesmiye . In order for the 4th Light Horse to move the 7th Mounted Brigade was ordered to relieve them in the line . At 12 : 00 troops of the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Qazaza 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ south @-@ east of Junction Station with the 7th Mounted Brigade on its left then only .5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the station . By 16 : 00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to push forward to El Tineh as the infantry advance on their left was progressing . It was occupied the following morning .
The Yeomanry Mounted Division , with the Anzac Mounted Division in reserve , covered the infantry 's left flank . Yibna was captured by the 8th Mounted Brigade which then advanced northwards against El Kubeibeh and Zernukah . The 22nd Mounted Brigade was held up by Ottoman units defending Aqir while the 6th Mounted Brigade ( with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade protecting their northern flank ) was directed against el Mughar .
= = = Charge at El Mughar = = =
At about 11 : 30 two leading battalions of 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade ( 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) were advancing under heavy shrapnel and machine @-@ gun fire to the shelter of the Wadi Jamus about 600 yards ( 550 m ) from their objective . But every attempt to leave the wadi was stopped by very heavy fire from well placed machine @-@ guns . The reserve battalion was brought up but an attempt to work up the wadi between Qatra and El Mughar was barred by heavy machine @-@ gun fire from the villages . At about 14 : 30 it was agreed between the GOC 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the GOC Yeomanry Mounted Division that the 6th Mounted Brigade should attack El Mughar ridge in combination with a renewed assault on Qatra and El Mughar by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . Half an hour later the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry and the Queen 's Own Dorset Yeomanry , already in the Wadi Jamus , advanced in column of squadrons extended to four paces across 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) at first trotting then galloping onto the crest of the ridge . They gained the ridge but the horses were completely exhausted and could not continue the pursuit of the escaping Ottoman units down the far side . The charge cost 16 killed , 114 wounded and 265 horses ; 16 per cent of personnel and 33 per cent of horses . However , the Ottoman defenders continued to hold El Mughar village until two squadrons of the Berkshire Yeomanry of the 6th Mounted Brigade fighting dismounted , with two battalions of the 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade ( 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) , renewed the attack . Fighting in the village continued until 17 : 00 when they succeeded in capturing the two crucial fortified villages of Qatra and El Mughar but at a cost of 500 casualties . Two field guns and 14 machine @-@ guns were captured . The prisoners and dead amounted to 18 officers and 1 @,@ 078 other ranks and more than 2 @,@ 000 dead Ottoman soldiers .
= = Aftermath = =
Junction Station was occupied during the morning and during the following days other villages in the area were found to have been abandoned .
Units of the 75th Division supported by several armoured cars occupied Junction Station during the morning of 14 November cutting the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway . Seventeen days of operations virtually without rest , had resulted in an advance of 60 miles ( 97 km ) from Beersheba ; major and minor engagements occurring on 13 of those days . Most of the mounted units had covered at least 170 miles ( 270 km ) since 29 October 1917 capturing 5 @,@ 270 prisoners and over 60 guns and about 50 machine @-@ guns . At Junction Station two train engines and 60 trucks in the station were captured along with an undamaged and fully functioning steam pumping plant which supplied unlimited , easily accessible water . Junction Station , with its branch line running south to El Tineh and extensions southwards towards Beersheba and Gaza was an important centre for both sides ' lines of communication .
On 14 November at 06 : 30 4th Light Horse Brigade entered El Tineh with the rest of the Australian Mounted Division following a couple of hours later . Here good wells containing plenty of water were found but without steam pumps and so watering was not complete until 16 : 00 . The horses had done all that had been asked of them , existing during this time on only 91 ⁄ 2 lbs of grain ration ( practically no bulk food ) and scarce water while all the time carrying about 21 stone ( 290 lb ) . That they were able to carry on into the Judean Hills after only a limited period of rest established a remarkable record . Meanwhile , the Australian Mounted Divisional Supply Train followed the fighting units as closely as they could , moving out from Beersheba via Hareira and Gaza on 11 November to Isdud on 14 November ; to Mesymie the day after and Junction Station on 16 November .
During 14 November infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) and 75th Divisions concentrated and reorganised their ranks . The advance was taken over by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which crossed the railway north of Junction Station and the Anzac Mounted Division which pressed the retreating Ottoman Army northwards near the coast .
On 14 November the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ( commanded by Brigadier General William Meldrum ) ran into a determined and well entrenched Ottoman rearguard near Ayun Kara , which they attacked . Fierce close quarter fighting against the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon . Although severely threatened , the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and went on to occupy Jaffa two days later .
The Anzac Mounted Division had been ordered to cut the road linking Jaffa to Jerusalem by capturing Ramleh and Ludd . This was the only main road from the coast through Ramleh up the Vale of Ajalon to Jerusalem . During the morning Meldrum 's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossed the river close to the sand dunes with 1st Light Horse Brigade on its right . By 09 : 00 El Kubeibeh had been occupied by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade before pushing on towards the Wadi Hunayn . Here Ottoman rearguards were encountered in the orange groves and on the hills between El Kubeibeh and the sand dunes . About noon the 1st Light Horse Brigade drove an Ottoman rearguard from a ridge facing Yibna where the Anzac Mounted Division had bivouaced the night before and occupied the village of Rehovot also called Deiran . At the same time the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade fought off a strongly entrenched rearguard at Ayun Kara . After conceding considerable ground the Ottoman soldiers made a vigorous counterattack but were finally defeated .
= = = 15 – 16 November 1917 = = =
At midnight on 14 November Falkenhayn ordered a general withdrawal and in the days following the Ottoman Seventh Army fell back into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem while the Eighth Army retreated north of Jaffa across the Nahr el Auja . The Ottoman armies suffered heavily and their subsequent withdrawal resulted in the loss of substantial territory ; between 40 – 60 miles ( 64 – 97 km ) was invaded by the British north of the old Gaza – Beersheba line . In its wake the two Ottoman armies left behind 10 @,@ 000 prisoners of war and 100 guns .
The day after the action at Ayun Kara , the 75th Division and the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Latron where the Jaffa to Jerusalem road enters the Judean Hills , while the Anzac Mounted Division occupied Ramleh and Ludd . An Ottoman rearguard above Abu Shusheh blocked the Vale of Ajalon on the right flank of the advance on Ramleh . This rearguard position was charged and overwhelmed by the 6th Mounted Brigade ( Yeomanry Mounted Division ) . On 16 November Latron itself was captured and the first British unit to enter Jaffa ; the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade ( Anzac Mounted Division ) occupied the city , without opposition . They administered Jaffa until representatives of the director of Occupied Enemy Territory arrived . And marking the end of the British Empire 's first advance into Palestine , the Ottoman Eighth Army retired to the northern bank of the Auja River some 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Jaffa and the Seventh Army retreated into the Judean Hills . Since the advance from Gaza and Beersheba began very heavy casualties and losses had been inflicted . The invasion had spread 50 miles ( 80 km ) northwards into Ottoman territory while over 10 @,@ 000 Ottoman prisoners of war and 100 guns had been captured by the victorious Egyptian Expeditionary Force .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps medical support = = =
The three divisional receiving stations of the Anzac , Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions operated in echelon . As soon as one had evacuated all wounded to the rear , they moved ahead of the other two divisional receiving stations to repeat the process . However , from the beginning there were problems evacuating casualties caused by the lack of linking infrastructure , one receiving station lost all its transport , and the light motor ambulances of another disappeared . The greatest difficulty were of communication and traveling including mechanical breakdowns on the rough roads and tracks which quickly became impassable for motor traffic .
= = = Advance into Judean Hills = = =
The advance towards Jerusalem began on 19 November and the city was captured during the Battle of Jerusalem on 9 December , three weeks later .
= Lord Henry Paulet =
Lord Henry " Harry " Paulet KCB ( 1767 – 28 January 1832 ) was an officer in the Royal Navy who saw service in the American War of Independence , the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . Born into the British nobility as a younger son of the Marquess of Winchester , he rose through the ranks and had gained his own command by the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars . He was involved in a number of famous engagements during his career , such as the capture of the French frigate Gloire in 1795 , though he narrowly missed out on seeing direct action at two of the most significant naval battles of the wars with the French . The first was the Battle of Cape St Vincent , where he had left Jervis 's fleet a few days previously , the second was the Battle of Copenhagen , where he remained with Sir Hyde Parker 's reserve squadron . He nevertheless rose through the ranks to reach vice @-@ admiral , despite an incident that saw him court @-@ martialled and dismissed , only to be reinstated by the intervention of the King ; and a tendency to eccentricity . He married towards the end of the wars with France , and had several children . Paulet served as one of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty from 1813 , and was installed as a Knight Commander of the Bath in 1815 , but ill @-@ health forced his retirement from active service shortly afterwards , and he eventually died of cancer in 1832 .
= = Family and early life = =
Henry Paulet was born in 1767 , the younger son of George Paulet , 12th Marquess of Winchester , and a brother to Charles Paulet , the future 13th Marquess of Winchester . Paulet joined the navy as a midshipman during the later years of the American War of Independence . He spent 11 years at this rank , during which time he was present at Admiral Sir George Rodney 's victory at the Battle of the Saintes . He was made junior lieutenant aboard HMS Crown at Spithead in early February 1789 . The Crown then became flagship of Commodore William Cornwallis , who sailed with a squadron to India . Paulet reached Tenerife with the ship , but on the squadron 's arrival there he was transferred to the frigate HMS Phoenix in exchange for one of the Phoenix 's lieutenants . Paulet completed the voyage to India with the Phoenix , but shortly after his arrival he learnt that he was not to be taken back aboard the Crown . He was invalided back to Britain aboard the East Indiaman Houghton .
= = Promotion and command = =
Paulet was promoted to full lieutenant in 1791 and appointed to HMS Vulcan , though he was moved to HMS Assistance in April 1792 . On 20 February 1793 Paulet received a promotion to master and commander , and command of the sloop HMS Nautilus . He commanded the Nautilus as part of John Laforey 's naval force that captured Tobago on 15 April 1793 . He was promoted again to post @-@ captain on 9 January 1794 and was given command of HMS Vengeance by Sir John Jervis . Paulet served as flag captain to Commodore Charles Thompson at the capture of Martinique .
= = = Command of HMS Astraea = = =
After this success , Paulet returned to Britain and was given command of the 32 @-@ gun fifth rate HMS Astraea , cruising in the English Channel under the orders of Sir John Colpoys . While sailing in thick fog on 10 April 1795 three sails were spotted through a break . Identifying them as enemy frigates Paulet gave chase to one of them . He closed the distance , and after foiling an attempt from the French ship to rake the Astraea , Paulet came alongside and the two ships exchanged broadsides for nearly an hour before the French ship struck . She was discovered to be the 42 @-@ gun Gloire , with 275 men aboard . She had suffered casualties of 40 killed and wounded , while Astraea , of 32 guns and 212 men , had only eight wounded . For this feat Paulet was awarded the Naval Gold Medal .
= = = Command of HMS Thalia = = =
Paulet 's next command was the 36 @-@ gun frigate HMS Thalia , attached to Lord Bridport 's fleet . He was present at the Battle of Groix , afterwards taking on board the fleet 's flag captain , William Domett , and one of the captured French captains . The Thalia almost ran onto rocks while rounding Ushant , but Paulet was able to get her off safely . While returning to the fleet two frigates were spotted in the distance , which Domett feared might be French . In reply Paulet pointed to the guns on the maindeck and said ' Never mind Domett , those are 18 @-@ pounders , and hit hard.'
Paulet and the Thalia continued to serve in the Channel until January 1797 , when they were sent with Rear @-@ Admiral William Parker to reinforce John Jervis 's fleet prior to the Battle of Cape St Vincent . Thalia was not present at the battle though , having been attached to the Mediterranean Fleet a few days earlier . While in the Mediterranean he captured the 16 @-@ gun corvette Espoir , and several French and Spanish privateers .
It was about this time that an incident occurred that temporarily clouded his career . In a moment of anger he struck one of the Thalia 's lieutenants , Robert Forbes . He was brought to court @-@ martial on 12 June 1798 aboard HMS Prince , and the offence being proved , the court had no choice but to dismiss him from the service . In view of the mitigating circumstances , the court recommended that Paulet be considered for clemency by King George III . The King was pleased to follow the recommendation and reinstated Paulet in the service .
Paulet then received command of the 74 @-@ gun HMS Defence . He went with Sir Hyde Parker to the Baltic in 1801 and while he and the Defence were present at the Battle of Copenhagen , they were kept with Parker 's reserve squadron and took no part in the fighting .
The Defence was paid off with the conclusion of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 , though the resumption of hostilities led to Paulet 's return to service as captain of HMS Terrible . He commanded her in the blockades of the French and Spanish ports , and by 1806 he was in the West Indies . In August that year the Terrible was caught in a hurricane , completely dismasted and almost wrecked .
= = Personal and later life = =
Paulet was something of an eccentric . On one occasion , while his ship was moored at Spithead , he asked his admiral for permission to take leave to visit London . This was refused , with the comment that Paulet could travel as far on land as he could get in his barge . Thus challenged , Paulet loaded his barge onto a cart and went off to London anyway .
He became a Colonel of Royal Marines on 1 August 1811 , and advanced to rear @-@ admiral on 12 August 1812 . He replaced William Johnstone Hope as one of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty in 1813 , holding the position until being forced to retire in 1816 due to ill health . On 2 January 1815 , Paulet was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath , and in 1819 was promoted to vice @-@ admiral . On 26 October 1813 , he married Anna @-@ Maria Ravenscroft , with whom he had two sons and three daughters .
Increasingly ill during his last years from cancer , that it was believed had been brought on by a fall against a slide of one of the carronades aboard the Terrible , Paulet died on 28 January 1832 at his seat of Westhill Lodge , Tichfield , Hampshire . He was buried in the family vault at Amport on 3 February . His eldest son Henry Charles Paulet was created a Baronet in his honour in 1836 ( see Paulet Baronets ) .
= WonderSwan =
The WonderSwan ( ワンダースワン , WandāSuwan ) is a handheld game console released in Japan by Bandai . It was developed by Gunpei Yokoi 's company Koto Laboratory and Bandai . Released in 1999 in the fifth generation of video game consoles , the WonderSwan and its two later models , the WonderSwan Color and SwanCrystal were officially supported until being discontinued by Bandai in 2003 . During its lifespan , no variation of the WonderSwan was released outside Japan .
Powered by a 16 @-@ bit central processing unit , the WonderSwan took advantage of a low price point and long battery life in comparison to its competition , Nintendo 's Game Boy Color and SNK 's Neo Geo Pocket Color . Later improvements took advantage of quality upgrades to the handheld 's screen and added color . The WonderSwan is playable both vertically and horizontally , and features a unique library of games , including numerous first @-@ party titles based on licensed anime properties , as well as significant third @-@ party support from Square , Namco , and Taito . Overall , the WonderSwan in all its variations combined to sell an estimated 3 @.@ 5 million units and managed to obtain as much as 8 % of the Japanese handheld video game console market before being marginalized by Nintendo 's Game Boy Advance . Retrospective feedback praises the potential of the WonderSwan despite its low sales and its brief time holding its own against Nintendo in the marketplace .
= = History = =
Founded in 1950 by Naoharu Yamashina , Bandai was originally a manufacturer of toy cars and plastic models , but became a major player in the toy industry through the licensing of popular anime characters beginning with Tetsuwan Atomu in 1963 . In the 1970s , Bandai manufactured both LCD games based on television programs and dedicated consoles . In 1982 , the company released the Intellivision in Japan , and in 1985 it became one of the first third @-@ party licensees on the Family Computer . The company 's greatest success in electronic games , however , was the Tamagotchi virtual pet first released in 1996 . Despite plans for Bandai to merge with Sega to form Sega Bandai Ltd. in 1997 , the merger was called off suddenly . Bandai 's board of directors decided to oppose the merger less than a week after approving it , and Sega in turn decided to accept Bandai 's actions at an emergency board meeting later that day . Bandai president Makoto Yamashina took responsibility for failing to gain the support of his company for the merger . As a result , Bandai entered the market without outside support .
Engineer Gunpei Yokoi was known for creating the Game Boy handheld system at Nintendo . After the failure of the Virtual Boy , however , he left the company in 1996 in order to create his own engineering firm , Koto Laboratory . It was then that Bandai approached Yokoi to create the WonderSwan to compete with the Game Boy . Yokoi was involved in development of the new handheld , but died in 1997 in a car accident before it was released .
The WonderSwan was officially unveiled in Tokyo on October 8 , 1998 . Bandai chose the name of the system to highlight its aesthetics and technical capabilities because the swan is recognized as an elegant bird with powerful legs to help it swim . The company promised a 30 @-@ hour battery life , a low retail price , and a launch lineup of roughly fifty games .
The WonderSwan launched on March 4 , 1999 and was available in nine casing colors : Pearl White , Skeleton Green , Silver Metallic , Skeleton Red , Blue Metallic , Skeleton Blue , Skeleton Black , Camouflage , and Gold . Three limited edition two @-@ tone models were also released in Frozen Mint , Sherbet Melon and Soda Blue . These colors were chosen through an online poll at Bandai ’ s website , with the metallic models and Pearl White discontinued on July 22 to make room for the special tone models . Despite Nintendo 's release of the Game Boy Color five months before , Bandai remained confident that the WonderSwan and its monochromatic screen would perform well because the original black @-@ and @-@ white Game Boy had previously been more successful than its color @-@ screen competitors , the Sega Game Gear and Atari Lynx , on the basis of its battery life and the quality of its game library . With a retail price JP ¥ 4 @,@ 800 , the WonderSwan was also cheaper than its competition . In 2000 , Bandai signed an agreement with Mattel to bring the handheld to North America , but ultimately decided against a Western release . The exact reason for this is unknown , but the crowded handheld video game console market has been suggested as a factor .
Later that year , Bandai announced the WonderSwan Color ( ワンダースワンカラー , WandāSuwan Karā ) which would incorporate a color screen while retaining backward compatibility with the original WonderSwan . It was released on December 9 , 2000 in Japan and was available in Pearl Blue , Pearl Pink , Crystal Black , Crystal Blue , and Crystal Orange . The launch was a moderate success , with the system selling 270 @,@ 632 units in under a month after its release . Before the WonderSwan Color could be released , however , Nintendo announced the Game Boy Advance , which featured superior hardware . The WonderSwan Color still retailed at a lower price point at ¥ 6 @,@ 800 compared to the Advance at ¥ 9 @,@ 800 , but despite peaking at 8 % of the handheld market share in Japan , the WonderSwan 's sales never recovered after the Game Boy Advance reached store shelves in March 2001 .
A redesign of the WonderSwan Color , titled SwanCrystal ( スワンクリスタル , SuwanKurisutaru ) , was released in Japan on July 12 , 2002 for ¥ 7 @,@ 800 , ¥ 1 @,@ 000 less than the Game Boy Advance . Once again , Bandai held a poll on its website to determine casing colors and released the system in Blue Violet , Wine Red , Crystal Blue , and Crystal Black . Despite its low price and an improved LCD screen , the SwanCrystal was unable to compete , so Bandai announced the discontinuation of the WonderSwan line in 2003 due to low demand and backed out of producing video game hardware altogether . In all , the handheld sold 3 @.@ 5 million units , of which 1 @.@ 55 million were of the original WonderSwan and at least 1 @.@ 1 million were of the WonderSwan Color .
= = Technical specifications = =
The main CPU of the WonderSwan is a 16 @-@ bit NEC V20 . The original model 's screen is capable of displaying up to eight shades of gray , in contrast to the four displayed by the WonderSwan 's main competitor , the Game Boy . Similar to the Atari Lynx , the handheld has an extra set of buttons allowing the console to be played at different angles ; for the WonderSwan , these buttons were used to allow gamers to play games in both portrait and landscape orientations . The WonderSwan series are all powered by a single AA battery , with the original monochrome version having a battery life of 40 hours . Also included in the handheld was built @-@ in memory allowing players to save games without using passwords . Its LCD screen is 2 @.@ 49 inches ( 6 @.@ 3 cm ) and displays at a resolution of 224 x 144 . Its sound capabilities consist of four PCM channels , each of which can play 32 @-@ sample , 4 @-@ bit sounds at selectable volume and pitch levels .
Several features and accessories were developed for the WonderSwan . The WonderWitch was an official software development kit aimed at amateur programmers that was released by Qute Corporation . It sold at a cost of ¥ 11 @,@ 800 and allows for games to be developed in the C programming language . An adapter was created to connect headphones to the handheld , as the WonderSwan lacks a headphone port . A remote @-@ controlled robot known as the WonderBorg can be operated through the unit . In addition , the handheld can be connected to a Sony PocketStation through a device known as the WonderWave , although this functionality was rarely exploited . The WonderWave can also be used as a wireless way to play two player game between WonderSwans . The WonderSwan and its later models were also capable of connecting to the Internet via a mobile phone network .
The physical measurements of the WonderSwan Color are 12 @.@ 8 by 7 @.@ 43 by 24 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 04 in × 2 @.@ 93 in × 9 @.@ 57 in ) , slightly larger than the original WonderSwan , and it weighs 3 @.@ 38 ounces ( 96 g ) . Its CPU is a 3 @.@ 072 MHz NEC V20 , and it includes 512 Kbit of RAM , which is shared between the video RAM and the work RAM . The screen on the WonderSwan Color can display up to 241 colors out of a palette of 4096 , and up to 28 sprites per line . It offers backward compatibility with all previous WonderSwan titles . Its LCD screen is also larger than that of the original WonderSwan , measuring 2 @.@ 9 inches ( 7 @.@ 4 cm ) . The SwanCrystal improves upon the design of the WonderSwan Color through the use of a TFT LCD monitor , which has a superior response time to the FSTN monitor used in the former system . This helped to reduce motion blur in the handheld 's graphics . The unit 's case was also redesigned to be more durable . Its approximate battery life is 15 hours .
= = Game library = =
Koto Laboratories claims that the WonderSwan sold 10 million game cartridges in all . In developing games for the WonderSwan , Bandai leveraged the assistance of several developers . Banpresto — part @-@ owned by Bandai at the time — added support by way of anime licenses and licensed titles , while Namco and Capcom also developed titles for the handheld . Squaresoft contributed remakes of Final Fantasy , Final Fantasy II , and Final Fantasy IV which later also came to the Game Boy Advance . Taito contributed well @-@ received ports such as Space Invaders and Densha de Go ! . Bandai augmented these releases with titles of its own , including exclusive titles in the Digimon and Gundam franchises . To compete with Tetris , Gunpei Yokoi developed a puzzle game for the system ultimately named Gunpey in his honor . A sequel known as Gunpey EX was a launch title for the WonderSwan Color . Certain games produced through the WonderWitch kit , such as Judgment Silversword , have also been noted as excellent titles .
Support for the WonderSwan has been considered underwhelming . Although some well known third @-@ party developers supported the console , most publishers continued to exclusively support Nintendo 's handhelds . The departure of Squaresoft as a developer and its return to Nintendo has been cited as a factor in the WonderSwan 's diminishing sales in later years . After the discontinuation of the WonderSwan in 2003 , several developers ported WonderSwan games to the Game Boy Advance .
= = Emulation = =
Two popular WonderSwan emulators are Cygne and the later Oswan . Multiple system emulator software such as Higan and Mednafen also include WonderSwan emulation .
= = Reception = =
Selling 3 @.@ 5 million units , the WonderSwan only picked up 8 % of the marketshare in Japan and was ultimately outperformed by Nintendo 's Game Boy Advance . Due to its brightly colored screen and deep game library , the Game Boy Advance ensured Nintendo would have a near @-@ monopoly on the handheld console market in Japan until the release of the PlayStation Portable by Sony in 2004 .
Retrospective feedback to the handheld praises its accomplishments , but defines it as a " niche " handheld that appeals to only certain gamers . Jeremy Parish considers the WonderSwan the ultimate expression of Gunpei Yokoi 's design philosophy and notes its modest impact on the market , but blames Bandai for its lack of success , stating , " While WonderSwan ultimately will be remembered as a highly localized blip in the history of handheld games , as a platform it genuinely held its own ... the system 's obscurity resulted more from poor timing and Bandai 's strangely meek strategy , not from any inherent flaws in the design of the machine itself . " Parish also goes on to hypothesize on the lack of a WonderSwan release in North America , stating , " given how hard it was to find Neo Geo Pocket systems and games at U.S. retail , it 's hard to imagine they were clamoring for yet another niche portable from Japan . " Retro Gamer 's Kim Wild criticizes some aspects of the handheld , including its lack of a headphone and AC port , as well as its poor control scheme for left @-@ handed individuals and inability to play multiplayer link games with the headphone adapter connected . Wild offers some praise for the handheld , however , stating " what [ Bandai ] managed with the WonderSwan was impressive given the competition . The low price even today makes it more than worthy of consideration . "
= 1993 Bishopsgate bombing =
The Bishopsgate bombing occurred on Saturday 24 April 1993 , when the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) detonated an ANFO truck bomb on Bishopsgate , a major thoroughfare in London 's financial district , the City of London . A news photographer was killed in the explosion and 44 people were injured ; the damage cost £ 350 million to repair . As a result of the bombing , which occurred just over a year after the bombing of the nearby Baltic Exchange , a " ring of steel " was implemented to protect the City , and many firms introduced disaster recovery plans in case of further attacks or similar disasters .
= = Background = =
In early 1993 the Northern Ireland peace process was at a delicate stage , with attempts to broker an IRA ceasefire ongoing . Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin and John Hume of the Social Democratic and Labour Party had been engaged in private dialogue since 1988 , with a view to establishing a broad Irish nationalist coalition . British Prime Minister John Major had refused to openly enter into talks with Sinn Féin until the IRA declared a ceasefire . The risk of an IRA attack on the City of London had increased due to the lack of progress with political talks , resulting in a warning being circulated to all police forces in Britain highlighting intelligence reports of a possible attack , as it was felt the IRA had sufficient personnel , equipment and funds to launch a sustained campaign in England . During the Troubles the IRA had bombed financial targets in London on a number of occasions , most notably on 10 April 1992 when a truck bomb exploded outside the Baltic Exchange on St. Mary Axe . The Baltic Exchange bombing caused £ 800 million worth of damage ( the equivalent of £ 1 @,@ 470 million in 2016 ) , £ 200 million more than the total damage caused by the 10 @,@ 000 explosions that had occurred during the Troubles in Northern Ireland up to that point .
= = Bombing = =
In March 1993 an Iveco tipper truck was stolen in Newcastle @-@ under @-@ Lyme , Staffordshire , and repainted from white to dark blue . A 1 tonne ANFO bomb made by the IRA 's South Armagh Brigade had been smuggled into England and was placed in the truck disguised underneath a layer of tarmac . At approximately 9 am on 24 April , two volunteers from an IRA active service unit drove the truck containing the bomb onto Bishopsgate . They parked the truck outside 99 Bishopsgate , which was then the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank , located by the junction with Wormwood Street and Camomile Street , and left the area in a car driven by an accomplice . A series of telephone warnings were then delivered from a phonebox in Forkhill , County Armagh , Northern Ireland , with the caller using a recognised IRA codeword and stating " [ there 's ] a massive bomb … clear a wide area " . Two police officers were already making inquiries into the truck when the warnings were received , and police began evacuating the area .
The bomb exploded at 10 : 27 am causing extensive damage to multiple buildings along a significant stretch of Bishopsgate ; the cost of repair was estimated at the time at £ 1 billion . Buildings up to 500 metres away were damaged , with 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 140 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space being affected and over 500 tonnes of glass broken . The NatWest Tower — at the time the City 's tallest skyscraper – was amongst the structures badly damaged , with many windows on the east side of the tower destroyed ; the Daily Mail said " black gaps punched its fifty @-@ two floors like a mouth full of bad teeth " . Damage extended as far north as Liverpool Street station and south beyond Threadneedle Street . St Ethelburga 's church , seven metres away from the bomb , collapsed as a result of the explosion . Civilian casualties were low as it was a Saturday morning and the City was typically occupied by only a small number of residents , office workers , security guards , builders , and maintenance staff . Forty @-@ four people were injured by the bomb and News of the World photographer Ed Henty was killed after ignoring police warnings and rushing to the scene . The truck @-@ bomb produced explosive power of 1 @,@ 200 kg of TNT .
= = Reaction = =
The business community and media called for increased security in the City , with one leading City figure calling for " a medieval @-@ style walled enclave to prevent terrorist attacks " . Prime Minister John Major received a telephone call from Francis McWilliams , the Lord Mayor of London , reminding him that " the City of London earned £ 17 billion last year for the nation as a whole . Its operating environment and future must be preserved " . Major , McWilliams and Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont made public statements that business would continue as normal in the City and that the Bishopsgate bombing would not achieve a lasting effect . Major later gave an account of the public stance taken by his government on the bombing :
Frankly , we thought it was likely to bring the whole process to an end . And we told them repeatedly that that was the case . They assumed that if they bombed and put pressure on the British at Bishopsgate or with some other outrage or other , it would affect our negotiating position to their advantage . In that judgment they were wholly wrong . Every time they did that , they made it harder not easier for any movement to be made towards a settlement . They hardened our attitude , whereas they believed that their actions would soften it . That is a fundamental mistake the IRA have made with successive British governments throughout the last quarter of a century .
John Hume and Gerry Adams issued their first joint statement on the same day as the bombing , stating , " We accept that the Irish people as a whole have a right to national self @-@ determination . This is a view shared by a majority of the people of this island , though not by all its people " , and that , " The exercise of self @-@ determination is a matter for agreement between the people of Ireland " .
The IRA 's reaction appeared in the 29 April edition of An Phoblacht , highlighting how the bombers exploited a security loophole after " having spotted a breach in the usually tight security around the City " . There was also a message from the IRA leadership , calling for " the British establishment to seize the opportunity and to take the steps needed for ending its futile and costly war in Ireland . We again emphasise that they should pursue the path of peace or resign themselves to the path of war " . The IRA also attempted to apply indirect pressure to the British government with a statement sent to non @-@ American foreign @-@ owned businesses in the City , warning that " no one should be misled into underestimating the IRA 's intention to mount future planned attacks into the political and financial heart of the British state ... In the context of present political realities , further attacks on the City of London and elsewhere are inevitable . This we feel we are bound to convey to you directly , to allow you to make fully informed decisions " .
The City of London Corporation 's chief planning officer called for the demolition of buildings damaged in the explosion , including the NatWest Tower , seeing an opportunity to rid the City of some of the 1970s architecture and build a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art structure as a " symbol of defiance to the IRA " . His comments were not endorsed by the Corporation themselves , who remarked that the NatWest Tower was an integral part of the City 's skyline .
= = Aftermath = =
In May 1993 the City of London Police confirmed a planned security cordon for the City , conceived by its commissioner Owen Kelly , and on 3 July 1993 the ' ring of steel ' was introduced . Most routes into the City were closed or made exit @-@ only , and the remaining eight routes into the City had checkpoints manned by armed police . CCTV cameras were also introduced to monitor vehicles entering the area , including two cameras at each entry point – one to read the vehicle registration plate and another to monitor the driver and passenger . Over 70 police @-@ controlled cameras monitored the City but to increase coverage of public areas " Camera Watch " was launched in September 1993 to encourage co @-@ operation on surveillance between the police , private companies and the Corporation of London . Nine months after the scheme was launched only 12 @.@ 5 % of buildings had camera systems , but by 1996 well over 1 @,@ 000 cameras in 376 separate systems were operational in the City .
The bombing resulted in a number of companies changing their working practices and drawing up plans to deal with any future incidents . Documents were blown out of windows of multi @-@ storey buildings by the force of the explosion , prompting the police to use a shredder to destroy all documents found . This resulted in risk managers subsequently demanding a " clear desk " policy at the end of each working day to improve information security . The attack also prompted British and American financial companies to prepare disaster recovery plans in case of future attacks . The World Trade Center bombing in New York City in February 1993 had caused bankruptcy in 40 % of the affected companies within two years of the attack , according to a report from analysts IDC . As a result of the Baltic Exchange and Bishopsgate bomb attacks , City @-@ based companies were well @-@ prepared to deal with the aftermath of the September 11 attacks in 2001 , with a spokesman for the Corporation of London stating : " After the IRA bombs , firms redoubled their disaster recovery plans and the City recovered remarkably quickly . It has left the City pretty well @-@ prepared for this sort of thing now . "
The initial estimate of £ 1 billion worth of damage was later downgraded , and the total cost of reconstruction was £ 350 million . The subsequent payouts by insurance companies resulted in them suffering heavy losses causing a crisis in the industry , including the near @-@ collapse of the Lloyd 's of London market . A government @-@ backed insurance scheme , Pool Re , was subsequently introduced in Britain , with the government acting as a " re @-@ insurer of last resort " for losses over £ 75 million .
The bombing , mounted at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 000 , was the last major bombing in England during that phase of the Northern Ireland conflict . The campaign of bombing of the UK 's financial centre , described by author and journalist Ed Moloney as " possibly the [ IRA 's ] most successful military tactic since the start of the Troubles " , was suspended by the IRA to allow the political progress made by Gerry Adams and John Hume to continue . The IRA carried out a number of smaller bomb and mortar attacks in England during the remainder of 1993 and in early 1994 , before declaring a " complete cessation of military operations " on 31 August 1994 . The ceasefire ended on 9 February 1996 when the IRA killed two people in the Docklands bombing which targeted London 's secondary financial district , Canary Wharf .
= = Subsequent events = =
In July 2000 it was announced that Punch magazine was to be prosecuted for contempt of court after publishing an article by former MI5 agent David Shayler . Shayler 's article claimed MI5 could have stopped the Bishopsgate bombing , which a spokesman for Attorney General Lord Williams claimed was a breach of a 1997 court injunction preventing Shayler disclosing information on security or intelligence matters . In November 2000 Punch and its editor were found guilty and fined £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 5 @,@ 000 respectively . In March 2001 the editor successfully appealed against his conviction and fine , with an appeal judge accusing the Attorney General of acting like a press censor and ruling that the 1997 injunction was in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights . In December 2002 this decision was overturned at the House of Lords , with five law lords ruling that editor James Steen 's publication of Shayler 's article was indeed in contempt .
On 24 April 2013 , a commemorative dinner was held by the Felix Fund , a charity for bomb disposal experts and their families , at the Merchant Taylors ' Hall on Threadneedle Street , to mark 20 years since the Bishopsgate bombing .
= SMS Helgoland ( 1912 ) =
SMS Helgoland was a Novara @-@ class scout cruiser built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy right before World War I. Helgoland participated in several raids on the ships defending the Strait of Otranto , including the Battle of the Strait of Otranto in May 1917 . She was transferred to Italy in 1920 in accordance with the peace treaties ending World War I and renamed Brindisi . After modifications , the ship was assigned to the squadron responsible for the Eastern Mediterranean until 1924 . She spent the next five years based in Libya and Italy before Brindisi was disarmed and turned into a depot ship in 1929 . The ship was stricken from the Navy List in 1937 and later disposed of .
= = Design and description = =
The ship measured 130 @.@ 64 meters ( 428 ft 7 in ) overall , with a beam of 12 @.@ 79 meters ( 42 ft 0 in ) . Helgoland had a mean draft of 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft 1 in ) and displaced 3 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ) at normal load . At deep load , she displaced 4 @,@ 017 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 954 long tons ) . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Curtis steam turbines driving two propeller shafts . They were designed to provide 25 @,@ 600 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 100 kW ) and were powered by 16 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . Helgoland carried about 710 metric tons ( 700 long tons ) of coal that gave her a range of approximately 1 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 800 mi ) at 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 340 officers and men .
Helgoland was armed with nine 50 @-@ caliber 10 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in single pedestal mounts . Three were placed forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were side by side on the quarterdeck . A 50 @-@ caliber 6 @.@ 6 @-@ centimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun and six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in twin mounts were added in 1917 . The navy planned to remove the guns on the forecastle and quarterdeck and replace them with a 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns fore and aft , but nothing was done before the end of the war .
The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 60 mm thick sides , and the deck was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Helgoland was laid down at the Danubius shipyard in Fiume on 28 October 1911 and was launched on 23 November 1912 . The ship was completed on 5 September 1914 , a month after the start of World War I.
One day after Italy declared war on Austria @-@ Hungary on 23 May 1915 , Helgoland and two destroyers engaged and sank the Italian destroyer Turbine . On 17 August 1915 , Helgoland , her sister ship Saida , and four destroyers bombarded Italian forces on the island of Pelagosa which had recently been occupied by the Italians .
In late 1915 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy began a series of raids against the merchant ships supplying Allied forces in Serbia and Montenegro . On the night of 22 / 23 November 1915 , Helgoland , Saida , and the 1st Torpedo Division raided the Albanian coast and sank a pair of Italian transports carrying flour . To facilitate these raids , Helgoland , her sister Novara , six modern Tátra @-@ class destroyers , six T @-@ 74 class torpedo boats and an oiler were transferred to Cattaro to facilitate further raids on 29 November . Helgoland , together with five destroyers , participated in another of these raids at the end of December . On the night of 28 / 29 December 1915 , while making her sortie , Helgoland rammed and sank the French submarine Monge between Brindisi and the Albanian port of Durazzo . Helgoland and the destroyers attacked shipping in Durazzo the following morning . Two of the destroyers struck mines while after sinking several ships in the port and had to be abandoned . The Austro @-@ Hungarians managed to evade the Allied pursuit only when darkness fell . On the night of 31 May / 1 June 1916 , the ship covered a raid by two destroyers and three torpedo boats on the drifters defending the Strait of Otranto against submarines trying to exit the Adriatic Sea , sinking one .
Erich Heyssler assumed command of Helgoland in April 1917 and Miklós Horthy planned another raid on the drifters using a force composed of the three Novara @-@ class cruisers . The three cruisers were to attack separately while two destroyers made a diversionary attack on the drifters near the Albanian coast . On the night of 14 May , the ships departed port and managed to pass through the line of drifters in the darkness without being identified . As the sounds from the diversionary attack were heard , the drifters released their nets and began to head towards Otranto . Helgoland turned around and attacked the westernmost group of drifters as dawn began on the morning of 15 May . Between the three cruisers , they sank 14 drifters and badly damaged an additional four . The skipper of the drifter Gowan Lea , Joseph Watt , refused to surrender and abandon ship when demanded by Helgoland , despite the cruiser only being 100 yards ( 91 m ) away . Watt 's crew only managed to fire one shot before their single 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) six @-@ pounder gun was disabled . Watt 's refusal to surrender in the face of overwhelming odds was recognized after the battle by the award of the Victoria Cross .
Helgoland did not linger to ensure that Gowan Lea was sunk , but proceeded to attack other drifters . She did , however , pause briefly to rescue 18 survivors from other drifters before turning for home . The Austrian ships were first contacted during their retreat by a group of three French destroyers led by a small Italian scout cruiser , Carlo Mirabello , but the heavier guns of the Austrian ships dissuaded the Allied commander from closing the range . They were intercepted shortly afterward by a stronger group of two British protected cruisers , Bristol and Dartmouth , escorted by four Italian destroyers . Dartmouth opened fire with her 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns at a range of 10 @,@ 600 yards ( 9 @,@ 700 m ) and Horthy ordered his ships to make smoke several minutes later . This nearly caused the three Austrian cruisers to collide in the dense smoke , but covered them against the fire from the British ships as they closed the range . When they emerged , the Austrian ships were only about 4 @,@ 900 yards ( 4 @,@ 500 m ) from the British , a range much more suitable for the smaller Austrian guns .
The three cruisers were gradually drawing away from their pursuers when Novara , leading the Austrian ships , was hit several times ; most critically in the engine room that knocked out half her boilers . Helgoland was also hit five times , but not seriously , aside from one gun disabled . One crewman had been killed and 16 were wounded . The British ships turned away , around the time that Novara had to extinguish her remaining boilers and went dead in the water , upon learning that more Austrian ships were approaching . Saida was preparing to take Novara under tow when several Italian destroyers attacked in succession . The weight of fire from the three cruisers prevented them from closing to torpedo range and they scored no hits . The Allied ship returned to Brindisi and the Austrians slowly proceeded back to base . Helgoland had fired 1052 shells from her 10 cm guns . Heyssler received the Order of Leopold with crossed swords in recognition of his leadership during the battle .
Helgoland and six destroyers attempted to duplicate the success of the earlier raid on 18 – 19 October , but they were spotted by Italian aircraft and turned back in the face of substantial Allied reinforcements alerted by the aircraft . She was caught under the guns of several mutinous armored cruisers during the Gulf of Kotor Mutiny in February 1918 , but managed to escape without damage . The ship was tasked to participate in a major attack on the Allied ships defending the Strait of Otranto on 11 June , but it was called off after the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk by an Italian motor torpedo boat en route to the rendezvous for the operation . Following the Armistice of Villa Giusti between Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary on 3 November , the entire Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet was transferred to the newly formed Yugoslavia .
= = Italian service = =
Italy received Helgoland from Austria @-@ Hungary on 19 September 1920 as part of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye that ended the country 's participation in World War I. Renamed Brindisi and anchored at Bizerte , Tunisia , when the transfer was made , the ship was rated as an esploratore ( scout cruiser ) by Italy , and reached La Spezia on 26 October where she was assigned to the Scouting Group ( Gruppo Esploratori ) . The ship was modified to suit the Italians at La Spezia from 6 April to 16 June 1921 before she entered service . She became the flagship of Rear Admiral Massimiliano Lovatelli , commander of the Light Squadron , upon recommissioning . Brindisi sailed for Istanbul on 3 July , visiting a number of ports in Italy , Greece , and Turkey en route . She relieved the armored cruiser San Giorgio as flagship of the Eastern Squadron upon her arrival on 16 July . The ship was replaced as flagship on 6 October and remained assigned to the Eastern Squadron until she returned to Italy on 7 January 1924 .
Brindisi hosted King Victor Emmanuel III aboard during the ceremonies that transferred Fiume to Italian control in accordance with the Treaty of Rome in February – March 1924 . The ship was then transferred to Libya where she spent the next year . Brindisi returned to Italy the following year and was briefly assigned to the Scout Squadron on 1 April 1926 before she was placed in reserve on 26 July . The ship was reactivated on 1 June 1927 when she was assigned as the flagship of the 1st Destroyer Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Enrico Cuturi . Six months later , she was relieved as flagship and was transferred to the Special Squadron where she became flagship of Rear Admiral Antonio Foschini on 6 June 1928 . In May – June 1929 , Brindisi made a cruise in the Eastern Mediterranean where she visited ports in Greece and the Dodecanese Islands . Rear Admiral Salvatore Denti relieved Foschini on 15 October and the ship was disarmed on 26 November . She was used as a depot ship at Ancona , Pula , and Trieste until she was stricken from the Navy List on 11 March 1937 .
= Briarcliff Manor , New York =
Briarcliff Manor / ˈbraɪərklɪf / is a suburban village in Westchester County , New York , around 30 miles ( 50 km ) north of New York City . It is on 5 @.@ 9 square miles ( 15 km2 ) of land on the east bank of the Hudson River , geographically shared by the towns of Mount Pleasant and Ossining . Briarcliff Manor includes the communities of Scarborough and Chilmark , and is served by the Scarborough station of the Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Hudson Line . A section of the village , including buildings and homes covering 376 acres ( 152 ha ) , is part of the Scarborough Historic District and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 . The village motto is " A Village between Two Rivers " , reflecting Briarcliff Manor 's location between the Hudson and Pocantico Rivers . Although the Pocantico is the primary boundary between Mount Pleasant and Ossining , since its incorporation the village has spread into Mount Pleasant .
In the precolonial era , the village 's area was inhabited by a band of the Wappinger tribes of Native Americans . In the early 19th century , the area was known as Whitson 's Corners . Walter William Law moved to the area and purchased lands during the 1890s . Law developed the village , establishing schools , churches , parks , and the Briarcliff Lodge . Briarcliff Manor was incorporated as a village in 1902 , and celebrated its centennial on November 21 , 2002 . The village has grown from 331 people when established to 7 @,@ 867 in the 2010 census .
Briarcliff Manor was historically known for its wealthy estate @-@ owning families , including the Vanderbilts , Astors , and Rockefellers . It still remains primarily residential and its population is still considered affluent by U.S. standards . It has about 180 acres ( 70 ha ) of recreational facilities and parks , all accessible to the public . The village has seven Christian churches for various denominations and two synagogues . The oldest church is Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church , built in 1851 . Briarcliff Manor has an elected local government , with departments including police , fire , recreation , and public works . It has a low crime rate : a 2012 study found it had the second @-@ lowest in the state . In the New York State Legislature it is split between the New York State Assembly 's 95th and 92nd districts , and the New York Senate 's 38th and 40th districts . In Congress the village is in New York 's 17th District .
= = History = =
= = = Names = = =
Briarcliff Manor 's original settlement was known as Whitson 's Corners for brothers John H. , Richard , and Reuben Whitson , who owned adjoining farms in the area totaling 400 acres ( 160 ha ) . Whitson 's Corners was named after the corner of Pleasantville and South State Roads , where John H. Whitson 's house , the Crossways , stood from 1820 until the 1940s . The Briarcliff Congregational Church 's parish house currently stands at its former location . The neighboring community of Scarborough was known as Weskora until it was renamed in 1864 , after resident William Kemey 's ancestral hometown in Yorkshire . After the community was incorporated into Briarcliff Manor in 1906 , the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad put up a sign reading " Briarcliff West " at the village 's Scarborough station . Soon afterward , attributed to the neighborhood 's pride over their name , that sign was thrown into the Hudson River and replaced with the original Scarborough sign .
Briarcliff Manor derives from " Brier Cliff " , a compound of the English words " brier " and " cliff " . The name originated in Ireland as that of the family home of John David Ogilby , a professor of ecclesiastical history at the General Theological Seminary . Ogilby had named his New York summer home Brier Cliff after his family home in Ireland . In 1890 , Walter Law bought James Stillman 's 236 @-@ acre ( 96 ha ) Briarcliff Farm and further developed it , later using the name Briarcliff for all his property . Law 's friend , Andrew Carnegie , called him " The Laird of Briarcliff Manor " ; since the title appealed to all concerned , the village was named " Briarcliff Manor " . By 1897 , the village post office and railroad station bore the name Briarcliff Manor . The village ( and its name ) were approved by its residents in a September 12 , 1902 referendum ; the name prevailed over other suggestions , including " Sing Sing East " . On November 21 , 1902 , the village of Briarcliff Manor was established .
The village is also known by several other names . It is conversationally called " Briarcliff " , and often erroneously written as " Briar Cliff Manor " ( although historically there has been little distinction ) . The village has been called " Briarcliff on the Hudson " by Mark Twain and Aileen Riggin ; it is also known as " the Village of Briarcliff Manor " . The name Briarcliff has also been applied to other municipalities , including the 470 @-@ person town of Briarcliffe Acres in South Carolina ; in naming it , the town 's founder had drawn inspiration from Briarcliff Manor 's name .
= = = Precolonial and colonial eras = = =
The history of Briarcliff Manor can be traced back to the founding of a settlement between the Hudson and Pocantico Rivers in the 19th century . The area now known as Briarcliff Manor had seen human occupation since at least the Archaic period , but significant growth in the settlements that are now incorporated into the village did not occur until the Industrial Revolution .
In the precolonial era , the area of present @-@ day Briarcliff Manor was inhabited by a band of the Wappinger tribes of Native Americans , known as Sint Sincks ( or " Sing Sings " ) . They owned territory as far north as the Croton River . In the 1680s , Frederick Philipse purchased about 156 @,@ 000 acres ( 631 km2 ) from the Sint Sincks , and named it Philipsburg Manor . The Philipses lost their claim to the land because of the American Revolutionary War ; the family , which was Loyalist , had its property confiscated in 1779 . The area remained largely unsettled until after the war ; in 1693 , fewer than twenty families lived in the 50 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 202 km2 ) area of Westchester which included Briarcliff Manor .
= = = Progressive era to present day = = =
After retiring as vice president of W. & J. Sloane , Walter Law moved with his family to the present Briarcliff Manor . He bought his first 236 acres ( 96 ha ) in 1890 , and then quickly expanded his property , buying about forty parcels in less than ten years ; by 1900 , he owned more than 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.@ 8 sq mi ) of Westchester County . Law developed the village , establishing schools , churches , parks , and the Briarcliff Lodge . His employees at Briarcliff Farms moved into the village , and the population grew to encourage Law to establish the area as a village . A proposition was presented to the supervisors of Mount Pleasant and Ossining on October 8 , 1902 that the area of 640 acres with a population of 331 be incorporated as the Village of Briarcliff Manor , and the village was incorporated on November 21 .
The Tudor Revival @-@ style Briarcliff Lodge was opened in 1902 as a premier resort hotel . It was surrounded by Walter Law 's dairy barns and greenhouses , and hosted numerous distinguished guests , including Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt . The lodge held the Edgewood Park School ( 1936 – 1954 ) and The King 's College ( 1955 – 1994 ) before it burned to the ground on September 20 , 2003 .
The Briarcliff Manor Fire Department was founded on February 10 , 1903 from Briarcliff Manor 's first fire company , the 1901 Briarcliff Steamer Company No. 1 . Scarborough was incorporated into Briarcliff Manor in 1906 , and the Police Department was organized two years later . The Village Municipal Building was built in 1913 and was opened on July 4 , 1914 . The high school opened in 1928 , and in 1946 , the People 's Caucus party , an organization which calls out interested residents for candidacy , was created . Briarcliff Manor celebrated its semicentennial celebration from October 10 – 12 , 1952 , publishing a book about the village and its history ; that year , the Crossroads neighborhood of 84 houses was completed .
In 1953 , Todd Elementary School opened to free space at the Law Park grade school . The Putnam Division of the New York Central Railroad was discontinued in 1958 , and the following year the Briarcliff Manor Public Library opened in the former Briarcliff Manor train station . The village 's first corporate facility ( part of Philips Research ) opened in 1960 . In 1964 the new Village Hall opened , replacing the Municipal Building . The present high school opened in 1971 to ease the large enrollment at the grade @-@ school building . In 1980 , Pace University began leasing the middle @-@ school building , and the middle school was moved to a portion of the new high @-@ school building . The grade @-@ school building was demolished in 1996 , and a retirement home was built on its site the following year . The village celebrated its centennial in 2002 , which involved celebratory events .
= = Geography = =
Briarcliff Manor is around 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of Manhattan . It is part of Westchester County and so part of the New York metropolitan area and the New York – Jersey City – White Plains , NY – NJ Metropolitan Division . It is on the Hudson River , just north of the Tappan Zee Bridge and south of Croton Point ( near the widest part of the river ) and just northwest of the county 's center . According to the 2010 United States Census Briarcliff Manor covers an area of 6 @.@ 7 square miles ( 17 km2 ) , of which 5 @.@ 9 square miles ( 15 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 8 square miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km2 ) is water .
The village is a part of the Pocantico and Saw Mill River Basin and the Lower Hudson River Drainage Basin , which leads to the Hudson west @-@ southwest of the village . Major streams running through Briarcliff Manor include the centrally @-@ located Caney Brook , the Pocantico River , and Sparta Brook . Abundant rock outcroppings include dolomite , granite , gneiss , and mica schist . Copper and silver were once mined near Scarborough , and Briarcliff Manor 's geographical area has large boulders , deposited in the last glacial period . Elevations within the village range from less than 100 feet ( 30 meters ) above mean sea level near the Hudson River to approximately 500 feet ( 150 meters ) above mean sea level around the center and eastern areas . The highest natural point in Briarcliff Manor is 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) southwest of NGS station mark LX4016 , off Farm Road , at 533 feet ( 162 m ) above sea level . The village , which covered one square mile when incorporated in 1902 , has expanded primarily through annexation : of Scarborough in 1906 and acreage from the town of Mount Pleasant in 1927 . It is in telephone area code 914 and the postal ZIP code area 10510 . Briarcliff Manor 's Ossining portion takes up nearly half of the village land area , about 93 percent of its population , and 85 percent of its land parcels .
= = = Climate = = =
The village is in a humid continental climate zone ( Köppen climate classification : Dfa ) , with cold , snowy winters and hot , humid summers and four distinct seasons . The United States Department of Agriculture places Briarcliff Manor in plant hardiness zone 7a . Summer high temperatures average in the lower 80s Fahrenheit ( upper 20s Celsius ) , with lows averaging in the lower 60s F ( upper 10s C ) . Its highest recorded temperature was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) in 1995 , and its lowest was − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) in 1979 .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
The village is home to neighborhoods and business and residential areas , including the central business district , the hamlets of Scarborough and Chilmark , and residential areas Central Briarcliff West , the Tree Streets and the Crossroads .
Scarborough , often called Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson because it borders the Hudson River , is an 0 @.@ 45 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) unincorporated district divided between Briarcliff Manor and the village of Ossining , with most of the area within Briarcliff Manor and a few streets in the village of Ossining . Briarcliff Manor 's portion of Scarborough was annexed into the village in 1906 . Scarborough is largely residential , and has some of the most expensive houses in the village , due in part to its proximity to the Hudson . Condominium complexes within Scarborough include Kemeys Cove , built in 1974 , and Scarborough Manor , a 7 @-@ story , 205 @-@ unit complex built in the 1960s . The hamlet has a post office and a station on the Metro @-@ North Hudson Line within walking distance of most houses in the hamlet . Unlike most of Briarcliff Manor , Scarborough is within the Ossining Union Free School District . During the 17th century , Scarborough became one of the first trading posts for the Dutch on the Hudson . During the early 20th century , the Astor , Rockefeller , and Vanderbilt families entertained guests on their river @-@ view country estates in the Scarborough area . The Scarborough Historic District , including the Scarborough Presbyterian Church , is on the National Register of Historic Places . Across the street from the church is Sparta Cemetery , containing graves of local Revolutionary War veterans and the Leatherman . A notable building on the register is Beechwood , built in 1780 and considered one of the finest examples of Federal architecture in Westchester County . Beechwood was later purchased by Frank A. Vanderlip , who constructed the Scarborough School on the estate . The school was founded in 1913 , and closed in 1978 . Holly Hill is a notable house nearby . Hubert Rogers , a New York City attorney , had the house designed around 1927 by William Adams Delano ; Rogers named it Weskora . After his death Brooke Astor purchased the estate , renaming it Holly Hill for its holly trees . Directly across from Holly Hill is the site used from 1965 for the U.S. headquarters of Philips Research , built on part of Waldheim , the former 130 @-@ acre ( 53 ha ) estate of James Speyer ; Philips plans to relocate to Cambridge , Massachusetts by 2016 .
Chilmark ( also known as Chilmark Park ) is an unincorporated residential community of about 300 acres ( 120 ha ) , established in 1925 , in northern Briarcliff Manor . The neighborhood was designed with Underhill Road as its main thoroughfare , running north @-@ south . It was named after the village of Chilmark , England , located near the home of Thomas Macy ( an ancestor of Valentine Everit Macy ) , who arrived in the colonies in 1635 . The area is culturally significant for its association with the Macy family , whose members were active in New York and Westchester County during the 19th and early 20th centuries . Valentine Everit Macy and his wife , Edith Carpenter Macy , founded the community and aided in its development ; Macy purchased several small family farms in present Chilmark in 1897 . In 1925 , Macy donated 265 acres ( 107 ha ) on Old Chappaqua Road for the first national Girl Scout camp , which later became the Edith Macy Conference Center , a conference and training facility owned and operated by the Girl Scouts of the USA . The Briarcliff Recreation Center was formerly the private Chilmark Club until the 1970s , when the village purchased the land for a recreation center and adjoining park . Macy 's residence in the area was the Chilmark estate , a Tudor @-@ style stone and stucco mansion built in 1896 with a nine @-@ hole golf course . The neighborhood hosts Briarcliff Manor 's Conservative temple Congregation Sons of Israel .
Chilmark features landscaped , winding roads designed to blend with the topography , access to transportation ( including a commuter rail line and a highway and homes built in revival styles echoing Tudor and Gothic architecture ; it is architecturally significant as an example of early @-@ 20th @-@ century suburban design . During the 1920s Macy 's son , V.E. Macy Jr . , founded the Chilmark Park Realty Corporation to sell land parcels . When he began marketing the area , he renovated or demolished existing homes to lend an air of development and built a private 8 @.@ 3 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 4 ha ) country club for use by Chilmark residents . The village of Briarcliff Manor later purchased the site , and operates it as Chilmark Park . To denote its development as an exclusive neighborhood , Macy planted distinctive shade trees along Underhill Road . Since its founding , additional homes have been built in Chilmark , most between 1955 and 1960 . The developments expanded the area beyond its original 300 acres ; it presently comprises Underhill Road and the streets immediately adjacent to it .
The central business district , also known as the Village Center , is located on Briarcliff Manor 's main street on Pleasantville Road and continues on North State Road . The area has numerous businesses lining Pleasantville Road , a large expansion from the three stores that existed there in 1906 . The business district is home to the village hall and a pocket park , and has brick sidewalks , period street lighting , and free parking . Farther south along the road is the Walter W. Law Memorial Park , and further east along the road are the three schools of the Briarcliff Manor Union Free School District . The Village Center contains a number of pre @-@ Revolutionary War houses , including the Whitson House , built during the 1770s and the former home of Richard Whitson ( one of the Whitson brothers , after whom Whitson 's Corners was named ) ; Buckhout House , also dating to the 1770s and named for the family who lived there for over a century and the oldest , Century Homestead , dating to about 1767 and first owned by Reuben Whitson . The Washburn House , another pre @-@ Revolutionary house , was sold by the New York State Commission on Forfeiture to Joseph Washburn in 1775 .
Central Briarcliff West is a neighborhood which has a number of mansions built by 20th @-@ century millionaires who stayed at the Briarcliff Lodge and later built estates in the area . The lodge stood in the area and on the highest point of Walter Law 's estate from its construction in 1902 until it burned down in 2003 . Other historic estates in the neighborhood include the Law family homes ( built in 1902 for Walter Law 's children ) and Law 's estate , the Manor House , all on Scarborough Road . The three estates for his children are Six Gables , Mt . Vernon , and Hillcrest . The modernist Vanderlip @-@ Street house , designed by Wallace Harrison for Frank A. Vanderlip ( who built it for his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law ) was one of the first contemporary @-@ style homes in Westchester . Ashridge , a large Greek Revival estate , was built around 1825 .
The Tree Streets is a network of streets in the Mount Pleasant portion of the village . Several of the streets are named after regional trees , including Satinwood Lane , Larch Road , and Oak Road . A number of houses in the neighborhood were constructed during a 1930s building boom , circling Jackson Park and near Todd Elementary School . The Crossroads is a group of 84 houses on streets named after local World War II veterans , including Schrade Road , Hazelton Circle , Matthes Road , and Dunn Lane . It was constructed at the end of World War II to provide affordable housing to returning veterans , and was completed in 1952 .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Historical = = =
Historically , Briarcliff Manor 's racial composition has not changed significantly . The village has seen a decrease in its non @-@ Hispanic white population to 86 percent , down from 92 percent in 1990 . The mid- to late @-@ 20th century saw an increase in the African @-@ American population from 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 4 percent .
The village has experienced significant population growth , with it and neighboring communities undergoing more rapid growth than Westchester County overall . The period from 1950 to 1970 saw the greatest increase in population , with growth leveling off since then .
= = = Modern = = =
Briarcliff Manor is primarily non @-@ commercial , with over 80 percent of village land residential . Approximately 99 % of the buildings are residential ; of these , 85 @.@ 3 % are single @-@ family units . In the 2010 United States Census there were 7 @,@ 867 people , 2 @,@ 647 households , and 2 @,@ 037 families living in 2 @,@ 753 housing units . Hispanic and Latino Americans made up 5 @.@ 3 percent of the population . Of the 2 @,@ 647 households , 39 @.@ 7 percent had children under age 18 living with them ; 68 @.@ 5 percent were married couples living together , 6 @.@ 6 percent were headed by women , 1 @.@ 9 percent were single males and 23 percent were non @-@ families . Twenty @-@ one percent of all households were individuals , with 14 @.@ 1 percent age 65 or older . Average household size was 2 @.@ 71 ; average family size was 3 @.@ 16 , with a median age of 43 @.@ 4 years .
The village 's population density was 1 @,@ 319 @.@ 5 inhabitants per square mile ( 509 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . In 2010 , its racial composition was 86 @.@ 4 percent white , 3 @.@ 4 percent African American , 0 @.@ 1 percent Native American , 6 @.@ 9 percent Asian American , and 2 @.@ 0 percent from two ( or more ) races ; 25 @.@ 6 percent of the population was under age 18 .
Median household income was $ 169 @,@ 310 , and median family income was $ 219 @,@ 063 . Males had a median income of $ 169 @,@ 118 , with $ 100 @,@ 039 for females ; per capita income was $ 81 @,@ 465 . About 4 @.@ 3 percent of families and 4 @.@ 8 percent of the overall population were below the poverty line , with the percentages rising to 5 @.@ 6 percent for those under 18 and 6 @.@ 4 percent for those 65 or over .
English is the primary language spoken at home , spoken by 87 @.@ 2 percent , followed by Spanish at 3 @.@ 3 percent , and 9 @.@ 5 percent primarily speaking other languages . Ancestry is primarily Italian and Irish , at 20 @.@ 8 and 18 @.@ 1 percents respectively , followed by Russian at 10 @.@ 3 and German at 10 percent .
Exact numbers on religious denominations in Briarcliff Manor are not readily available . Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the United States Census Bureau , which cannot ask about religious affiliation as part of its decennial census . It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics , but these are not representative of a municipality the size of Briarcliff Manor . One report from 2010 offers religious affiliations for Westchester County . According to the data , 59 @.@ 3 % of county residents identified as Christian : 50 @.@ 9 % are Roman Catholic , 5 @.@ 9 % are mainline Protestants , 2 % are Evangelical Protestants , and .5 % are Eastern or Oriental Orthodox Christians . Residents who practice Judaism make up 10 @.@ 1 % of the population and practitioners of other faiths represent .9 % . Note that these values are county @-@ wide ; municipal values could be significantly different .
= = Economy = =
About five percent of Briarcliff Manor 's land is occupied by businesses . The village has three retail business areas , a general ( non @-@ retail ) business area and scattered office buildings and laboratories . The village 's principal retail district is along Pleasantville and North State Roads .
The central business district primarily has retailers such as restaurants , cafes , small food markets , and specialty shops . The North State Road business district has a supermarket , a bank , a gas station , and a mixture of retail stores , and the other retail areas have national and local stores . The village has small offices and larger offices for the regional ( or national ) market , including Sony Electronics , Wüsthof , and Philips Research North America ; the latter is headquartered in Briarcliff Manor .
The village economy depends on education , health care and social services . Of the population aged 16 and older , 63 percent are in the labor force ; 33 percent of those employed work outside Westchester County . About 13 percent of workers live and work in the village , and the average commute is 37 @.@ 1 minutes . Briarcliff Manor has a number of wealthy residents , and was rated 19th on CNNMoney 's 25 Top @-@ Earning Towns in the U.S. An assessment by financial news corporation 24 / 7 Wall St. , using data from the U.S. Census Bureau 's American Community Survey from 2006 to 2010 , rated the village 's school district the fifth @-@ wealthiest in the United States and the third @-@ wealthiest in New York .
In 2004 , the top five employers in Briarcliff Manor were the Briarcliff Manor Union Free School District , Philips Research , Trump National Golf Club , The Clear View School , and engineering firm Charles H. Sells . Other large employers are USI Holdings ( a publicly traded insurer headquartered in the village ) , Atria Briarcliff Manor , Pace University , and the village ( which employs 81 people ) .
= = Arts and culture = =
The village symbol is the Briarcliff Rose , a more brightly colored offshoot of the American Beauty rose . Since 2006 , the Briarcliff Rose has been used on village street signs . The Briarcliff Manor Garden Club , which also uses the Briarcliff rose as their symbol , was established in 1956 . One of its primary functions is in planting , maintaining , and improving public gardens and grounds .
Briarcliff Manor has groups in several Scouting organizations , including Cub Scout Pack 6 and Boy Scout Troop 18 . Pack 6 became the first Cub Scout pack in the village at its establishment in 1968 ; by 2002 it had over 70 cubs in 12 dens . The village 's first Boy Scout troop was Troop 1 Briarcliff , founded before 1919 . Sources cite Bill Buffman as the first Scoutmaster and John Hersey as the troop 's first Eagle Scout . The first Girl Scout troop in the village was founded in 1917 by Louise Miller and Mrs. Alfred Jones , and the first Brownie troop was founded in 1929 .
The Briarcliff Manor Community Bonfire is a winter holiday event at Law Park , hosted by the village and the Briarcliff Friends of the Arts , involving live music ( primarily seasonal and holiday songs ) , refreshments , and craft projects for children . Another annual community event is the Memorial Day parade , a tradition in Briarcliff Manor for more than fifty years . Before the parade begins , the Municipal Building 's bell is rung to commemorate firefighters who have died in the previous year .
= = = Historical society = = =
Briarcliff Manor maintains strong ties to its history and traditions . During Briarcliff Manor 's 1952 semicentennial , nine people served on the Historical Committee and published a village history book . In March 1974 , after the mayor appointed twelve people for a 75th anniversary committee , the committee began by forming the Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society ( BMSHS ) . The historical society published an updated village history ( A Village Between Two Rivers : Briarcliff Manor ) in 1977 , marking the 75th anniversary of the village . The historical society was initially located at the since @-@ demolished Briarcliff Middle School building ; it later moved to the second floor of a realty building on Pleasantville Road , and moved back to the school building after it was leased by Pace University . On March 21 , 2010 , the BMSHS was given a permanent location at the Eileen O 'Connor Weber Historical Center , established as part of the expanded Briarcliff Manor Public Library . Members of the historical society joined the nine @-@ member Centennial Committee in 2002 to organize events for Briarcliff Manor 's centennial .
The Centennial Committee and BMSHS helped organize several events for the village 's 2002 centennial celebration , including the Centennial Variety Show at the Briarcliff High School auditorium in a sold @-@ out two @-@ night run on April 26 – 27 , 2002 . The two @-@ act show consisted of interpretations of village life by village organizations and a revue of Briarcliff Manor history in skits and songs . Other society @-@ sponsored events have included tours of homes and churches , bus tours , Hudson River cruises on historic boats such as the M / V Commander ( built in 1917 and listed on the national and state registers of historic places ) , dances , antique @-@ car exhibits , day trips to historic points of interest , art exhibits , and events with authors and elected officials .
= = = Historic sites = = =
Briarcliff Manor is home to a number of historic buildings and districts . Buildings on the National Register of Historic Places include All Saints ' Episcopal Church ( added May 14 , 2002 ) , Carrie Chapman Catt 's house Juniper Ledge ( added March 4 , 2006 ) and several structures in the 376 @-@ acre ( 152 ha ) Scarborough Historic District ( added September 7 , 1984 ) . Part of the Old Croton Aqueduct State Historic Park , controlled by the New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation , lies within the village . The Old Croton Aqueduct is on the National Register and is a National Historic Landmark .
Although Catt 's house Juniper Ledge is within Briarcliff Manor 's postal boundaries , the property is located within the municipal boundaries of the nearby town of New Castle . Briarcliff Manor composer and historian Carmino Ravosa initiated the house 's preservation by researching and initiating the nomination of Juniper Ledge to the National Register .
= = = Houses of worship = = =
Briarcliff Manor is home to seven Christian churches and two synagogues ; three churches ( Holy Innocents Anglican Church , Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church and Scarborough Presbyterian Church ) are in Scarborough . Other churches in the village are All Saints ' Episcopal Church , St. Theresa 's Catholic Church , Faith Lutheran Brethren Church , and Briarcliff Congregational Church ( United Church of Christ ) . Jewish synagogues Congregation Sons of Israel and Chabad Lubavitch of Briarcliff Manor & Ossining are in Chilmark .
Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church , founded in 1839 by William Creighton as Saint Mary 's Church , Beechwood , is Briarcliff Manor 's oldest church ; it was reincorporated in 1945 as Saint Mary 's Church of Scarborough . The granite church was built by local stonemasons and paid for by Creighton 's wealthy neighbors , including Commodore Matthew Perry , James Watson Webb , William Aspinwall , and Ambrose Kingsland . The church is in near @-@ original condition , with a design based on the 14th @-@ century Gothic St. Mary 's parish church in Scarborough , England and the only church with a complete set of William Jay Bolton stained @-@ glass windows . The church , built in 1851 , is a contributing property to the National Register @-@ listed Scarborough Historic District . The 338 @-@ acre ( 137 ha ) Sleepy Hollow Country Club surrounds the church grounds on three sides . Notable parishioners included Commodore Matthew C. Perry and Washington Irving . Irving , author of " Rip Van Winkle " and " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " , brought the ivy surrounding the church from Abbotsford ( home of Walter Scott ) . On July 5 , 2015 , Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church closed after 175 years in operation .
Scarborough Presbyterian Church , given to the community by Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard and her husband Colonel Elliott Fitch Shepard ( who lived on the nearby Woodlea estate ) , was the first church in the United States with an electric organ . Built in 1895 and designed by Augustus Haydel ( a nephew of Stanford White ) and Shepard ( a nephew of Elliott Shepard ) — who designed the 1899 Fabbri Mansion in Manhattan — the 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) church property is also part of the Scarborough Historic District .
All Saints ' Episcopal Church is a stone church also on the National Register of Historic Places . It was founded in 1854 by John David Ogilby , whose summer estate and family home in Ireland were the namesakes of Briarcliff Manor . The Gothic Revival church , built on Ogilby 's summer estate , was designed by Richard Upjohn and modeled on Saint Andrew 's in Bemerton , England . The church , with an 1883 Stick style rectory and 1904 Arts and Crafts @-@ style parish hall , is an example of the modest English Gothic parish church popular in the region during the mid @-@ 19th century .
The parish of St. Theresa 's Catholic Church was established in 1926 with thirty @-@ six families , and the present church was dedicated on September 23 , 1928 . The rectory of the church was the original farmhouse of Briarcliff Farms . The church ran a school for pre @-@ kindergarten to eighth grade students from 1965 to 2013 . At its closing , the school had approximately 150 students and 20 employees .
Faith Lutheran Brethren Church had its 1959 beginning in a white chapel in Scarsdale . Its congregation then sold the chapel and moved to its 2 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 8 ha ) current site in Briarcliff Manor . The church , built largely through volunteer labor by the congregation 's twelve families , held its first service on October 8 , 1967 . A nursery @-@ school program , the Little School , began in 1972 and the church also sponsors women 's and youth groups .
Briarcliff Congregational Church , built in 1896 , has windows by Louis Comfort Tiffany , William Willet , J & R Lamb Studios , Hardman & Co . , and Woodhaven . The church began in a small , one @-@ room schoolhouse ( known as the " white school " ) , built around 1865 and used as a school , a religious school , and a house of worship for up to 60 people . In 1896 , George A. Todd Jr. asked Walter Law to support the construction of a new church . Law donated the church land , making his new church a Congregational one so the entire community ( regardless of religious background ) could attend . The nave and a Norman @-@ style tower were built first , in an English @-@ parish style with Gothic windows . When the congregation outgrew the church , Law funded a northern section ( including transepts and apse ) which was dedicated in 1905 . He donated the church organ ( replacing it in 1924 ) , four Tiffany windows , and the manse across the street . The church housed a weekly indoor farmers ' market at its parish house from 2008 to 2011 , when the market was moved to Pace University 's Briarcliff Campus .
Congregation Sons of Israel , self @-@ described as egalitarian Conservative , was the first synagogue in Briarcliff Manor . The congregation was formed in 1891 by eleven men in Ossining , and until 1902 services were held in homes and stores . That year , the congregation ( now twenty @-@ three families ) purchased a building on Durston Avenue ; the Jewish Cemetery , established in 1900 on Dale Avenue , is still in use . In 1920 , the synagogue , numbering forty @-@ five families , established a religious school . After outgrowing its facilities , it purchased a site on Waller Avenue and completed a new synagogue in 1922 . During the 1950s the congregation purchased the eleven @-@ acre Mead Farm on Pleasantville Road , which it has used since 1960 .
Chabad Lubavitch of Briarcliff Manor & Ossining was established around 2004 , and is located on Orchard Road in Chilmark . On March 18 , 2015 , the organization purchased a building previously owned by the Ossining Heights United Methodist Church , on Campwoods Road in the village of Ossining . Chabad Lubavitch plans to renovate the building significantly before making it its first permanent synagogue .
= = Sports = =
Briarcliff High School offers intramural sports and fields junior varsity and varsity teams in sixteen sports as the Briarcliff Bears . Pace University fields fourteen intercollegiate varsity sports teams which play at the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division II level . The university is a member of the NCAA and the Northeast @-@ 10 Conference .
Briarcliff Manor has a history of auto racing . The First American International Road Race , sponsored by the village , centered around it . The prize , the Briarcliff Trophy valued at over $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 263 @,@ 400 in 2015 ) , was donated and presented by Walter Law . The race began at 4 : 45 a.m. on April 24 , 1908 at the front of the Briarcliff Lodge and ending at the village grandstand . The winner , Arthur Strang in an Isotta Fraschini , covered the 240 miles ( 390 km ) in five hours and fourteen minutes . More than 300 @,@ 000 people watched the race , and the village had more than 100 @,@ 000 visitors that day .
On November 12 , 1934 , the Automobile Racing Club of America held another road race in Briarcliff Manor . The 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) race was won by Langdon Quimby , driving a Willys 77 , in a time of two hours and seven minutes . The race was held again on June 23 , 1935 ; Quimby won again , four minutes faster than the previous year . In 1977 , during the village 's 75th anniversary , fifteen old racing cars participated in a motorcade around the 1934 race 's route . In 2008 , the village commemorated the first race 's centennial in a parade featuring about 60 antique cars .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Briarcliff Manor has about 180 acres ( 70 ha ) of recreational facilities and parks , all of which are accessible to the public . The village 's library houses its recreation department , which has four staff and a six @-@ member advisory committee , and provides recreation programming for the village . The village 's Department of Public Works maintains the village 's parks and recreational facilities with one parks foreman and two groundskeeping personnel . The following are available to Briarcliff Manor residents :
The 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) Briarcliff @-@ Peekskill Trailway runs from the village to the Blue Mountain Reservation in Peekskill . The parkland was acquired for use by the Briarcliff @-@ Peekskill Parkway ( now part of New York State Route 9A ) ; the parkway later changed course , freeing the land for trail use .
Chilmark Park , 8 @.@ 3 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 ha ) on Macy Road , formerly the Chilmark Country Club . The park has six tennis courts ( two clay , two all @-@ weather , and two green clay ) , a half @-@ court basketball court , a soccer field , a baseball @-@ softball field , and a playground . Renovation of the athletic fields and basketball court and the addition of a restroom are planned .
The Hardscrabble Wilderness Area is a 235 @-@ acre ( 95 ha ) network of wilderness trails .
The 4 @.@ 76 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 93 ha ) Jackson Road Park , dedicated in 1975 , features two half @-@ court basketball courts : one with a standard 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) rim and one with a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rim for younger players . The playground was renovated in 2005 . About half of the park is undeveloped wetlands .
The 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) Kate Kennard Trail , named for the late daughter of a former mayor , was dedicated in 1988 . It begins on Long Hill West , west of the Aspinwall Road intersection .
Lynn McCrum Field , named for Briarcliff Manor 's second village manager , was dedicated in June 1999 . The field , at the corner of Chappaqua Road and Route 9A , has a multi @-@ purpose playing field for baseball , softball , and soccer , parking for 50 cars , and a utility building with restrooms .
Neighborhood Park , dedicated in 1954 and augmented in 1958 and 1964 , is 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) at the corner of Whitson and Fuller Roads adjacent to Schrade Road . The Whitson Road side of the park has a youth baseball field ; a basketball court and playground are accessible from the Schrade Road entrance .
Nichols Nature Area , accessible from Nichols Place , is a steeply sloped 3 @.@ 8 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 5 ha ) site acquired in 1973 as part of a residential subdivision .
The Old Croton Aqueduct State Historic Park , running along the Old Croton Aqueduct , crosses the village between Broadway and the Hudson River . Its 26 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 42 @.@ 2 km ) trail , following the aqueduct from the Croton Reservoir to New York City , is a popular bicycling and running path maintained by New York State . Access from the village is from Scarborough Road north of the Scarborough Fire Station .
Pine Road Park , an undeveloped 66 @-@ acre ( 27 ha ) parcel acquired in 1948 and augmented in 1963 , lies between Pine Road and Long Hill Road East .
The 70 @.@ 9 @-@ acre ( 28 @.@ 7 ha ) Pocantico Park , Briarcliff Manor 's largest park , was acquired in 1948 and augmented in 1963 , 1964 , and 1967 . Abutting the Pocantico River , it is home to a large number and variety of regional fauna and has marked hiking trails .
The Recreation Center , purchased by the village in 1980 , is the former Chilmark Country Club clubhouse and provides seasonal indoor recreation . Community organizations using the center include the Briarcliff Manor Garden Club , the Senior Citizens Club and the Max Pavey Chess Club .
Scarborough Park , a 6 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 4 ha ) park acquired in 1908 and developed in the early 1900s near the Scarborough train station , is surrounded on three sides by the Hudson River . One acre is above @-@ water land , and the rest is below the Hudson .
The 2 @,@ 400 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 220 m2 ) Village Youth Center , near the central business district , has a deck , a patio , and a lighted outdoor basketball court . It also provides an indoor facility for community programs and activities .
Walter W. Law Memorial Park ( originally Liberty Park ) , in the center of the village on Pleasantville Road , is a 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) park which was donated to the village by Law in 1904 . Its outdoor pool complex , added in July 1927 at a cost of $ 8 @,@ 641 ( $ 117 @,@ 700 in 2015 ) , has a 30 @-@ foot @-@ diameter ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wading pool and a 120 @-@ by @-@ 75 @-@ foot ( 37 m × 23 m ) main pool , which was Westchester 's first public swimming pool . After a complete reconstruction of the pool in 1977 , a two @-@ story bathhouse and pavilion was completed in 2001 as part of a rehabilitation project , which included paved walkways and a veterans ' memorial . The park was rededicated on Veterans Day 2001 . It has four lighted tennis courts : three clay and one all @-@ weather . The pond was used for ice skating and hockey until the village bought a temporary rink for one of the tennis courts ; the shallow rink freezes days earlier than the pond , and the tennis court lighting system allows easier skating at night . Adjacent to the tennis courts is a playground . Two platform tennis courts are north of the park , and the Briarcliff Manor Public Library is on its eastern edge .
The Westchester County Bike Trail ( also known as the North County Trailway ) is a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 35 @.@ 6 km ) rail trail criss @-@ crossing forests , towns , and highways . One highlight is the New Croton Reservoir and its former railway bridge . Trail access from the village is behind the library , off Pleasantville Road . The trail extends north ( primarily along Route 100 ) to Baldwin Place in Somers , and south along Route 9A to Eastview in Mount Pleasant .
Although there are no public golf courses in Briarcliff Manor , the village has two large country clubs : Sleepy Hollow Country Club in Scarborough and Trump National Golf Club , owned by Donald Trump . The Trump property has been home to several golf clubs since the early 20th century , including Briarcliff Country Club , Briar Hills Country Club , and Briar Hall Golf and Country Club . Trump purchased the site in 1996 and opened the club in 2002 . The main building of Sleepy Hollow Country Club was formerly Woodlea , the 140 @-@ room Renaissance Revival mansion of Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard and her husband Elliott Fitch Shepard . The building , which has about 70 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 500 m2 ) , is one of the largest houses in the United States .
= = Government = =
As of 2015 , the head of village government is Mayor Lori A. Sullivan , a former deputy mayor elected in 2015 . The village government consists of a mayor and four trustees , all unpaid officials elected at @-@ large for two @-@ year terms . A full @-@ time , appointed village manager handles day @-@ to @-@ day community affairs ; the first was Max Vogel in 1967 . Briarcliff Manor 's government operates from the village hall , which houses the Justice Court and offices of the mayor and village manager . As of February 2014 , there are 5 @,@ 531 registered voters in Briarcliff Manor . As of 2007 the village 's government employed 81 people full @-@ time , including the five @-@ member Building Department , the six @-@ member Planning Board , the twenty @-@ nine @-@ member Department of Public Works , the four @-@ member Recreation Department , the twenty @-@ member Police Department , the volunteer Fire Department , the Architectural Review Advisory Committee , and the Conservation Advisory Council .
Briarcliff Manor maintains a voting custom that dates to at least around 1905 . In addition to its customary general election , held at the same day in every municipality in New York , the village has a nonpartisan caucus , a town meeting @-@ style forum to determine officeholders . The system of the People 's Caucus is largely unique to the village , and has been described as an extension of the New England town hall concept . The People 's Caucus , officially formed in 1946 , chooses candidates by majority vote two months before the village election , where the candidates usually run unopposed , turning the election into a formality . The caucus is open to citizens of 18 years or over who have lived in the village for at least a month ; voter registration is not required . Voters and candidates do not declare party affiliations , instead candidates present their platforms in early January of each year , and weeks later the caucus meets again to vote .
In the New York State Legislature , the western portion of Briarcliff Manor ( in Ossining ) is represented by Democrat Sandy Galef for the New York State Assembly 's 95th District , while the eastern part ( in Mount Pleasant ) is represented by Democrat Thomas Abinanti for the Assembly 's 92nd District . Democrat David Carlucci represents the Ossining portion of the village for the New York Senate 's 38th District , and Republican Gregory Ball represents the Mount Pleasant end of the village in the Senate 's 40th District . In Congress , the village is represented by Democrat Nita Lowey in the House of Representatives from New York 's 17th District and Democrats Kirsten Gillibrand and Chuck Schumer in the Senate .
= = = Crime = = =
The Briarcliff Manor police force was founded by Edward Cashman , a one @-@ person force who covered his beat on foot and by bicycle . The crime rate was low during both world wars , and village police work primarily involved rounding up animals ( as the constabulary had done since before the Revolution ) . Most other cases were traffic violations , due to the village 's size and parkway access . During the 1980s ( as in the 1940s ) , the police blotter primarily consisted of accidents and traffic violations on the four major roads traversing the village ; a 1939 village history asserted that " Briarcliff has never had a serious crime " . Burglaries have been primarily residential , and murder is rare . In 1989 , when the police force considered replacing its .38 six @-@ shot revolvers with semiautomatic 9mm pistols , opinion was divided ; village officials could not remember when an officer last fired a gun on duty .
In its study of 2012 FBI Uniform Crime Reports , national realtor Movoto LLC assessed Briarcliff Manor as the second @-@ safest municipality in New York , with the second @-@ lowest crime rate in the state . According to the FBI reports , the village had no reported violent crimes in 2012 and a resident had a 1 @-@ in @-@ 569 chance of being a crime victim . In 2014 , security system company Safe Choice Security used the same data and assessed Briarcliff Manor as the safest municipality in New York .
= = Education = =
= = = Early childhood education = = =
Garden House School is an elementary school in London ; it also runs preschools in New York City and in Briarcliff Manor , at the Briarcliff Congregational Church 's parish house . Briarcliff Nursery School is a preschool on Morningside Drive , just outside village borders in Ossining . It was established in 1947 at Briarcliff Manor 's old recreation building ; it moved to Walter Law 's Manor House and then to the William Kingsland mansion , and moved to its current location in 1955 .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
The village is home to the Briarcliff Manor Union Free School District , which covers 6 @.@ 58 square miles ( 17 @.@ 0 km2 ) of land and most of the village of Briarcliff Manor and an unincorporated portion of the town of Mount Pleasant . Parts of Briarcliff Manor not covered by the school district include Scarborough and Chilmark ; these areas are part of the Ossining Union Free School District . The district serves over 1 @,@ 000 students and includes Todd Elementary School , Briarcliff Middle School , and Briarcliff High School . From Briarcliff Manor 's settlement until 1918 , students in grades 1 – 8 were taught within one school facility ; from 1919 until the 1940s , students in grades 1 – 12 were as well . The district is noted for its annual high @-@ school musicals . The elementary school ( opened in 1953 ) is named after George A. Todd , Jr . , who was the village 's first teacher , first superintendent of schools , and taught for over 40 years . The middle school became a Blue Ribbon School in 2005 .
Briarcliff Manor has been home to a number of schools . Long Hill School was a public school in Scarborough until 1912 , with about 70 students , two classrooms , and two teachers . Dr. Holbrook 's Military School was on Holbrook Road from 1866 to 1915 . Miss Tewksbury 's School and later Mrs. Marshall 's Day & Boarding School for Little Girls was at Dysart House . Miss Knox 's School ran from 1905 in Pocantico Lodge , a hotel on Pleasantville Road under Briarcliff Lodge management . When it burned down in 1912 , the school moved to Tarrytown and then to Cooperstown . Since 1954 , the Knox School has been located at St. James , New York . The Scarborough School was first Montessori school in the United States ; it was located at the Beechwood estate from 1913 until it closed in 1978 . Since then , The Clear View School has run a day treatment program for 83 students from nursery school age to 21 there . The Macfadden School ran from 1939 to 1950 at the William Kingsland mansion in the village .
= = = Higher education = = =
The first institute for higher education in the village was the School of Practical Agriculture and Horticulture , which Walter Law helped establish on his Briarcliff Farms in 1900 . The school taught students ages 16 to 35 in crop and livestock care . In 1902 , the school moved to a larger location near Poughkeepsie and closed a year later due to a lack of funding . In addition , Briarcliff Manor has been the location for several colleges . Briarcliff Junior College was founded in 1903 at the Briarcliff Lodge , and moved near Briarcliff Congregational Church , on land Walter Law donated , in 1905 . Among its trustees were Howard Deering Johnson , Norman Cousins , Carl Carmer , Thomas K. Finletter , William Zorach , Eduard C. Lindeman , and Lyman Bryson . Ordway Tead was chairman of the board of trustees , and his wife Clara was the college 's first president . The school gradually improved its academic scope and standing , and was registered with the State Education Department and accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools in 1944 . In 1951 , the Board of Regents authorized the college to grant Associate of Arts and Associate of Applied Science degrees . The following year , the Army Map Service selected the college as the only one in the country for professional training in cartography . In 1956 , the junior college started issuing bachelor 's degrees , and became known as Briarcliff College . In 1977 Pace University bought the Spanish Renaissance @-@ style Briarcliff Public School building , incorporating it into its Pleasantville campus ( as the Pace University Village Center ) after leasing it for many years . During Pace 's lease , the building housed the Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society and the Village Youth Center . The Edgewood Park School operated at the Briarcliff Lodge from 1936 to 1954 ; King 's College was located there from 1955 to 1994 , also using the lodge building and other dormitories and academic buildings . Pace University purchased Briarcliff College in 1977 and operates the property as a satellite of the school 's Pleasantville campus .
= = Media = =
Briarcliff Manor has been the subject , inspiration , or location for literature , television episodes , and films . Much of James Patterson 's 2005 novel , Honeymoon , is set in the village ( where Patterson is a part @-@ year resident ) . Sharon Anne Salvato 's Briarcliff Manor takes place on the fictional estate of Briarcliff Manor , and the novel was published by Stein and Day in the village . The pilot episode of Saturday Night Live was filmed in the central business district , where Briarcliff Manor Pharmacy , Briarcliff Wines & Liquors , and Briarcliff Hardware are the backdrop for the " Show Us Your Guns " sketch ; the episode aired October 11 , 1975 . As well , Briarcliff College 's president Josiah Bunting III was the half @-@ brother of the show 's co @-@ creator Dick Ebersol ; while President , Bunting let Ebersol film the show at the college for free . In Pan Am , Sleepy Hollow Country Club was the setting for much of the series ' third episode . In February and March 2013 , the final three episodes of the first season of television show The Following were filmed in and around the former town of Ossining police station in Briarcliff Manor .
Films shot in the village include The Seven Sisters , House of Dark Shadows , Savages , Bed of Roses , Super Troopers , Analyze That , First Born , American Gangster , and The Bourne Legacy . The Seven Sisters , a 1915 production , was filmed at the Briarcliff Lodge . The 1970 House of Dark Shadows and the 1972 Merchant Ivory film Savages were filmed at the Beechwood mansion in Scarborough . Bed of Roses was released in 1996 , and was filmed at an 1860s house on Scarborough Road which was the home of Eileen O 'Connor Weber . Super Troopers , released in 2001 , was partially filmed on the Taconic State Parkway from Poughkeepsie to Briarcliff Manor . Analyze That , a film from 2002 , was filmed in the village and nearby locations , including the Sing Sing Correctional Facility in the village of Ossining . The 2007 film First Born was filmed at a house in Briarcliff Manor . American Gangster , also released in 2007 , includes scenes filmed at two village houses . Some parts of the 2012 film The Bourne Legacy were filmed at the village 's entranceway to the Taconic State Parkway and at other roads in the village .
Print media has been produced in the village since the early 20th century , when Briarcliff Farms operated a printing press and office , producing Briarcliff Farms , the Briarcliff Bulletin in 1900 , the monthly Briarcliff Outlook in 1903 followed by The Briarcliff Once @-@ a @-@ Week in 1908 ( all edited by Arthur W. Emerson ) . The Briarcliff Community Club , a social organization created by the village in 1910 and which existed until 1927 , later printed Community Notes . Later papers include The Briarcliff Forum ( founded in 1926 ) and the 1930s Briarcliff Weekly . Briarcliff Manor is the city of license of WXPK , and other media outlets include the Briarcliff Daily Voice , News 12 , Patch Media , and the River Journal . Official newspapers for the village include The Journal News and The Gazette .
= = Infrastructure = =
The Briarcliff Manor Police Department and the volunteer Briarcliff Manor Fire Department are stationed at the Briarcliff Manor Village Hall . The Police Department has 19 personnel — a chief , lieutenant , five sergeants , and twelve patrol officers — and one part @-@ time civilian . The Briarcliff Manor Fire Department Ambulance Corps provides emergency medical transport with two ambulances . The village is also serviced by two private EMS providers .
Consolidated Edison provides electric power and natural gas to the village , and the Briarcliff Manor Department of Public Works supplies water from the Catskill Aqueduct to the village 's water system . The department also maintains the sewer system , village vehicles , roads , and grounds , operates a recycling center , and removes snow . In 2012 the village tied for fourth place ( out of 48 Westchester municipalities ) in the percentage of recycled waste ( 71 percent , above the county average of 52 percent ) . The department , primarily rooted in the 1941 sale of Walter Law 's Briarcliff Table Water Company , began with a state @-@ mandated street commissioner . The commissioner in 1914 was Arthur Brown ; asked by village officials if he needed an automobile , Brown replied that he preferred a horse but would use an automobile if the village purchased it ( it did not ) . The department has about thirty vehicles and employs twenty @-@ nine people .
The department operates the Long Hill Road water treatment plant and village pump stations . The Long Hill Road pump house is the primary water supply for the village with supply capacity exceeding 3 @.@ 5 million gallons per day ( MGD ) . Briarcliff Manor 's average daily water supply demand is 1 @.@ 45 MGD with a peak demand of 3 @.@ 5 MGD . Briarcliff Manor has four water storage tanks ( at Rosecliff , Farm Road , the former King 's College , and the Edith Macy Conference Center ) and two pump stations ( the Long Hill Road pump house and the Dalmeny Road pump station ) .
= = = Transportation = = =
The village 's transportation system includes highways , streets , and a rail line ; its low population density favors automobiles . Briarcliff Manor is accessible by the controlled @-@ access Taconic State Parkway ; it can also be reached by U.S. Route 9 , New York State Route 9A and New York State Route 100 , which traverse the village north to south . East @-@ west travel is more difficult ; Long Hill , Pine , Elm , and Scarborough Roads are narrow , winding , and hilly . Routes 9 and 9A are the most heavily traversed roadways in the village .
According to the National Bridge Inventory , Briarcliff Manor has 15 bridges , with estimated daily traffic at 204 @,@ 000 vehicles . Briarcliff Manor has 64 roads , with a total length of 46 @.@ 1 miles ( 74 @.@ 2 km ) . Twelve are named after trees , eleven after local residents and eight after veterans , and most have the road type of " lane " or " avenue " , while the only " street " in the village is Stafford Street . The village 's oldest existing road is Washburn Road , on which is the oldest standing house in the village , Century Homestead . The longest road in the village , at 3 miles ( 5 km ) , is Pleasantville Road ; the shortest is Pine Court , 175 feet ( 53 m ) . Around the time when the Briarcliff Lodge was active , Briarcliff Manor roadways were constructed of macadam and lined with concrete drains and stone fences . Early in Briarcliff Manor 's history , the first person to own an automobile was Henry Law ( son of Walter Law ) , who owned a buckboard with an engine .
The Metro @-@ North Railroad Hudson Line 's Scarborough station offers direct service to New York 's Grand Central Terminal , and is the primary public transport to the city . About 750 commuters board southbound trains during the morning rush hour , most driving to the station . Westchester County 's Bee @-@ Line Bus System provides service to White Plains , Tarrytown , and Port Chester along Routes 9 and 9A .
Rail transportation in the village began in 1880 with the small Whitson 's Station on the New York City & Northern Railroad ( later the New York and Putnam Railroad ) ; the station was rebuilt by Walter Law in 1906 in the style of his Briarcliff Lodge , with Mission style furniture and rugs . The old station was moved to Millwood , New York around that time to become its station ; it fell out of use and was demolished May 9 , 2012 , although plans exist for the construction of a replica . Law 's Briarcliff station became the public library in 1959 .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Historic = = =
Briarcliff Manor was historically known for its wealthy estate @-@ owning families , including the Rockefellers , Astors , and Macys . Many of the extended Rockefeller family lived in and around the neighboring area of Pocantico Hills , and William Rockefeller ( brother of John D. Rockefeller ) lived for some time at Edgehill , his house in Scarborough . U.S. Naval Commodore Matthew C. Perry resided for years in Scarborough and was one of the founders of Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church , and donated a bell he captured in Tabasco , Mexico to the church in 1847 . Captain Alexander Slidell Mackenzie also lived in Scarborough . Businessman William Henry Aspinwall lived in Scarborough , and was sent to England during the American Civil War to prevent the construction of Confederate ironclad warships . He was involved in the Panama Canal ; Panama 's second @-@ largest city ( now known as Colón ) was named Aspinwall after him by emigrants from the U.S. , and Aspinwall Road in Scarborough was later named after him . John Lorimer Worden , a U.S. Navy rear admiral who commanded the USS Monitor against the CSS Virginia during the Battle of Hampton Roads , was born at Rosemont in Scarborough . Carrie Chapman Catt , a pioneer in the campaign for women 's suffrage ( president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and founder of the League of Women Voters and the International Alliance of Women ) , lived at Juniper Ledge during the 1920s . Carle Cotter Conway , a resident of Linden Circle , was president of the Continental Can Company for 33 years . Banker and businessman James Speyer lived at Waldheim , an estate in Scarborough , with his family . William J. Burns was the penultimate director of the Bureau of Investigation ; his successor , J. Edgar Hoover , transformed the agency into the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Burns established a private @-@ investigation service , the William J. Burns International Detective Agency , and his family moved to Shadowbrook , a house on Scarborough Road , in 1917 . Frank DuMond lived in the village and was the art director of Briarcliff College . Christian Archibald Herter , a physician and pathologist , lived with his wife at the Edgehill estate ; he worked at a separate laboratory building on the property . William Woodward Baldwin , a lawyer and the ninth Third Assistant Secretary of State , rented The Elms ( a house in the village ) from 1897 to 1926 . Further on , Baldwin bought property in the village and built a bungalow , and later bought a concrete house on Pleasantville Road near the Briarcliff train station . He was a trustee of the Briarcliff Congregational Church and district board of education , counsel to the village government , and member of the Mount Pleasant Field Club ( present @-@ day Trump National Golf Club Westchester ) .
Marian Cruger Coffin , a landscape architect , was born in Scarborough . Composer and conductor Aaron Copland , famous for Rodeo and Fanfare for the Common Man , began spending weekdays at Mary Churchill 's house in Briarcliff Manor in early 1929 , and had a post office box in Briarcliff Manor . He spent almost a month living there before moving to nearby Bedford ; his ultimate residence is in nearby Cortlandt Manor . Brooke Astor , a philanthropist , socialite , and member of the Astor family , lived in Briarcliff Manor for much of her life . Children 's author C.B. Colby was on the village board , was the village 's Fire Commissioner , and researched the BMSHS 1977 history . He lived on Pine Road until his death in 1977 . Anna Roosevelt Halsted lived with Curtis Bean Dall on Sleepy Hollow Road ; their children attended the Scarborough School . Blanchette Ferry Rockefeller , twice @-@ president of the Museum of Modern Art , lived in the village until her death . Eugene T. Booth , a nuclear physicist and Manhattan Project developer , lived in the village . John Cheever lived in Scarborough , and spent most of his writing career in Westchester towns such as Briarcliff Manor and Ossining . He served in the Briarcliff Manor Fire Department . Coby Whitmore , a painter and magazine illustrator , lived in the village from 1945 to 1965 . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning writer and journalist John Hersey attended public school and lived in Briarcliff Manor ; he was the village 's first Eagle Scout and a lifeguard at the village pool , and his mother Grace Baird Hersey was a village librarian . Folk singer and songwriter Tom Glazer lived on Long Hill Road for almost 30 years . Mathematician Bryant Tuckerman , who helped develop the Data Encryption Standard , was a long @-@ time village resident .
Ely Jacques Kahn , Jr . , a writer for The New Yorker , lived in Scarborough for more than 20 years , and was a member of the village fire department . His father ( Ely Jacques Kahn , a New York skyscraper architect ) designed two houses in Briarcliff Manor , including one for sports commentator Red Barber . Burton Benjamin , former vice president and director of CBS News , lived in the village for about 30 years . Harcourt president William Jovanovich lived in Briarcliff Manor for 27 years . Leonard Jacobson , a museum architect and colleague of I. M. Pei , lived in the village . John Kelvin Koelsch , a U.S. Navy officer during the Korean War and the first helicopter pilot to receive the Medal of Honor , lived in Scarborough and attended the Scarborough School . Novelist and short @-@ story writer Richard Yates lived at the corner of Revolutionary Road and Route 9 in Scarborough as a boy , and named his novel Revolutionary Road ; it was made into a 2008 film . Rolf Landauer , a German @-@ American physicist and a refugee from Nazi Germany , lived in the village . Author Sol Stein , founder and former president of the Briarcliff Manor @-@ based Stein and Day , was a village resident . Composer , pianist , and local historian Carmino Ravosa lived at the Crossroads and was a trustee of the Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society . John Chervokas was an advertising writer and executive and Ossining town supervisor and school board member , and a longtime resident of Briarcliff Manor . Physicist Praveen Chaudhari , an innovator in thin films and high @-@ temperature superconductors , lived in Briarcliff Manor . Lawrence M. Waterhouse was the founder , CEO , and president of TD Waterhouse , now part of the Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank and TD Ameritrade . Waterhouse was a resident and benefactor of the Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society . Cardiac surgeon Peter Praeger , a founder , president , and chief executive of Dr. Praeger 's Sensible Foods , was a village resident .
The Webb family lived on the Beechwood estate . Family members who lived at the estate include Henry Walter Webb , a New York Central Railroad executive who bought the property during the 1890s ; Webb 's cousin George Webb Morell , a Union Army brigadier general during the American Civil War , and Webb 's half @-@ brother Alexander S. Webb , a Union major general during the Civil War and a Medal of Honor recipient . Other family members were James Watson Webb ( father of Henry Walter Webb ) , a diplomat , newspaper publisher and New York politician ; General Samuel Blatchley Webb ( father of James Watson Webb ) , an aide to George Washington ; and businessman William Seward Webb ( brother of Henry Walter Webb ) , founder and president of the Sons of the American Revolution . Colonel Elliott Fitch Shepard , brother @-@ in @-@ law of William Seward Webb and aide @-@ de @-@ camp to New York governor Edwin D. Morgan , lived at Woodlea in Scarborough with his wife Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard and their children .
= = = Contemporary = = =
Broadway lyricist Lee Adams and his wife have lived in Briarcliff Manor since the early 2000s . Alice Low , who along with her family has lived in Briarcliff Manor since the 1950s , is an author of children 's books , poems , and screenplays . Minimalist painter Brice Marden grew up in the village , and is a 1965 graduate of Briarcliff High School . Biomechanics researcher and Columbia University professor Van C. Mow lives in Briarcliff Manor . His brother , architect Donald Mow , lived in Briarcliff and constructed his own house there . Warren Adelson lived with his family at Rabbit Hill , a Georgian Revival mansion in Scarborough designed around 1929 by Mott Schmidt . Robert Klein , a comedian , singer , and actor , has been living in Briarcliff Manor since the 1980s . Robert Mankoff , cartoon editor for The New Yorker magazine , lives in Briarcliff Manor . Simon Schama is a British historian and professor at Columbia University , and writer and host of the BBC series A History of Britain . John Batchelor , host of The John Batchelor Show radio news program , lives in the village with his family . He is an active member of the Briarcliff Congregational Church ; his wife , Dr. Bonnie Ann Rosborough , is the church 's pastor . Roz Abrams is a national @-@ news anchor known for her work with WABC and WCBS . Director , writer and producer Joseph Ruben lives in Briarcliff Manor , and musician Clifford Carter is a graduate of Briarcliff High School . William N. Valavanis and Yuji Yoshimura both lived and taught in Briarcliff Manor , where they ran the Yoshimura School of Bonsai from 1972 to 1995 . Thomas Fitzgerald is a senior creative executive at Walt Disney Imagineering . Tom Ortenberg , CEO of Open Road Films and former president of Lionsgate Films , was born and raised in Briarcliff Manor . Doris Downes , a botanical artist and widow of art critic Robert Hughes , owns a farmhouse in the village ( where they lived for many years ) . Radio journalist and host of Marketplace Kai Ryssdal is from Briarcliff Manor . Curler Bill Stopera has lived in the village for over a decade , minor league baseball player Bobby Blevins grew up in the village and graduated from its schools in 2003 , and Olympic swimmer Paola Duguet grew up in Briarcliff Manor . Susanne Rust , an award @-@ winning investigative journalist , was born and raised in the village .
= MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb is an exoplanet in the orbit of the red dwarf MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L . Its discovery was announced on February 21 , 2011 , making it the eleventh planet discovered using gravitational microlensing . The planet is thought to be over twice the mass of Jupiter and to have an orbit 80 percent larger than that of Earth 's , lasting approximately 1 @,@ 970 days . However , its exact characteristics are difficult to constrain because the characteristics of the host star are not well known .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Mass and orbit = = =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb is a gas giant , with an estimated mass 2 @.@ 6 times that of Jupiter 's and an estimated mean distance of 1 @.@ 8 AU from its host star . It has an orbital period of approximately 1970 days . Although the mass and mean distance of MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb is estimated , the confidence intervals are very large , indicating that there is a large uncertainty present . These uncertainties are largely due to how the exact parameters of the host star are not known .
= = = Host star = = =
The planet is the only one known to be in the orbit of the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L , which is an M @-@ type dwarf star that has a mass that is approximately 0 @.@ 19 times that of the Sun . The star is located at an estimated 5700 parsecs ( 18 @,@ 591 light years ) from the Earth . The star is named for the Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics group , which saw the star as a gravitational microlensing event in 2009 and combed the data in hope of discovering a planet .
= = Discovery = =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387 was a gravitational microlensing event detected by the Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics collaboration on July 24 , 2009 , which searches and documents chance and brief alignments of stars with other stars or objects ; such alignments cause a gravitational lens effect , which bends light and causes distorted , but magnified , images that can be interpreted . The detection of two caustics were logged over the next few days by the South African Astronomical Observatory , the Perth Observatory , and the Canopus Hill Observatory in Tasmania , with a separation of about seven days between caustic events .
On June 7 , 2010 , long after the microl
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. The being is malfunctioning ; the crew repair it and send it back to its own dimension .
= = Production = =
In May 1975 , Roddenberry entered a development deal with Paramount , with principal photography intended to start on July 15 , 1976 , and a budget of $ 5 million . He started work on treatments ; his first involved the formation of the Enterprise crew , including their training at Starfleet Academy and the formation of Starfleet , but this idea was never submitted to Paramount . His first major submitted script was The God Thing . A scene involving a discussion in which Spock 's tutors describe religion on Earth worried the studio . The tutor says , " We have never really understood your Earth legend of gods . Particularly in that so many of your gods have said , ' You have to bow down on your bellies every seven days and worship me ' . This seems to us like they are very insecure gods . " Roddenberry completed the script on 30 June ; Paramount rejected it the following month . The studio was also unhappy with , and rejected , scripts by Robert Silverberg , Chris Knopt , Dick Simmons and Theodore Sturgeon . Roddenberry blamed religious Paramount executives including Barry Diller for turning down The God Thing , a story that writer Jon Povill summarized as " God was a malfunctioning spaceship " .
The production start date for the film was postponed to 1977 , and Paramount brought in new staff . Jerry Isenberg was hired as executive producer , who hired writers British writers Bryant and Scott in September 1976 to begin work on a new treatment that became known as Star Trek : Planet of the Titans . After that failed , Roddenberry planned to take Star Trek back to television as the series Star Trek : Phase II , redeveloping The God Thing into the pilot episode of the series , " In Thy Image " . After this too was canceled , the story was again redeveloped to become the film Star Trek : The Motion Picture .
= = = Novelization = = =
Following the rejection of the script , Roddenberry planned to convert his treatment into a novel . After his assistant Susan Sackett showed him the manuscript of a novel that actor Walter Koenig had asked her to type , Roddenberry sought Koenig 's collaboration on The God Thing . Roddenberry had already produced 68 pages after working on it for a month when he handed it to Koenig , who added another 83 in two months . Roddenberry received the changes enthusiastically , but a few weeks later Sackett informed Koenig that the project had been abandoned . In his 1997 autobiography Warped Factors , Koenig stated that he still had copies of the work he had completed on the book .
In the January 1977 issue of Starlog , Roddenberry said he was not sure when the novel would be complete , but confirmed that it would discuss the meaning of God . By March 1978 , the novel was said to be half @-@ completed . Publisher Bantam Books told Roddenberry it would wait until he finished production on Phase II to resume work on the novel . When later in 1978 that production turned into The Motion Picture , Bantam gave Roddenberry an extension because the novelization was thought to be a full @-@ time effort .
In 1991 , Sackett discovered a partly @-@ completed manuscript while she researched documents for her book Inside Trek . This prompted her to suggest sending it to Pocket Books , which held the rights to Star Trek novels at the time , despite the prior agreement with Bantam . Roddenberry was not enthusiastic about the idea , but editor David Stern at Pocket Books was interested and wanted to know whether Sackett and fellow writer Fred Bronson would be able to expand and complete it . Contract negotiations for the work began in April 1991 , during which time Sackett had a version re @-@ typed because no electronic versions were available and the type on the existing print out was faint in places . The writers were dealing with Roddenberry 's lawyer Leonard Maizlish , but discussions lasted over six months . Two days after Roddenberry 's death on October 24 , they were informed that work on the novel would not continue . Sackett said this may have been linked to her dismissal from the Star Trek : The Next Generation television series following Roddenberry 's death . Pocket Books brought in Michael Jan Friedman to finish the work , but it was never published .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The God Thing remains known to Star Trek fans because of comparisons to other works , in particular the film Star Trek V : The Final Frontier . Roddenberry opposed the plot of The Final Frontier , not wanting the film to be part of the overall canon for the franchise . Roddenberry 's themes of interaction with religion and God have appeared elsewhere in the franchise .
Edward Gross described Roddenberry 's rejection of The Final Frontier as " ironic " because of the similarity between that film and The God Thing . In his book , Jewish Themes in Star Trek , Rabbi Yonassan Gershom compared the two plots , saying they were different in their approaches . He said Roddenberry wanted to disprove God 's existence in The God Thing , whereas William Shatner , who directed The Final Frontier , sought to take God seriously . This was partly due to the novelization of The Final Frontier , in which the original version of the scene was to show all manner of religious expression on the final showdown with the God @-@ like figure in Sha @-@ Ka @-@ Ree . However this scene was simplified for the film .
= Neila Sathyalingam =
Neila Sathyalingam ( Tamil : நீலா சத ் யலிங ் கம ் ) ( born 1938 ) is a Singaporean classical Indian dancer , choreographer and instructor of Sri Lankan Tamil origin . An alumna of Kalakshetra in Madras ( now Chennai ) under the tutelage of Srimathi Rukmini Devi Arundale , she emigrated with her family to Singapore in 1974 . In 1977 she and her husband founded the performance arts company Apsaras Arts , which has staged performances throughout the world . She is the company 's artistic director and continues to teach dance . In 1983 , Neila was appointed the dance instructor and choreographer for the Indian Dance Group of the People 's Association ( PA ) , and remains its resident choreographer . She is also an artistic adviser to the National Arts Council . For her contributions to dance , Neila was awarded the Cultural Medallion in 1989 . She became a Singapore citizen in 1994 .
Neila 's interactions with choreographers and dancers of different cultural backgrounds and traditions in Singapore have inspired her to create new Indian dance steps based on classical foundations ; for instance , her dance @-@ drama Kannagi , staged for the Singapore Festival of Arts in 1998 , was said to have stretched tradition to its limits and offered something to a range of audiences far wider than a traditional dance @-@ drama would have done . Up to 2007 , Neila had choreographed dance segments for the last 13 Chingay Parades , street parades held annually in Singapore as part of Chinese New Year festivities .
= = Biography = =
The second of four daughters of a well @-@ to @-@ do dental surgeon and a housewife , Srimathi Neila Sathyalingam was born Neila Balendra in 1938 in Colombo , Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) . She began dancing at the age of five , and trained in the classical Indian dance traditions of Bharatanatyam , Kathak , Kathakali and Manipuri at the Shanti Kumar School of Dance and the Kalaya School of Dance in Colombo . In 1954 , she won the gold medal at the All @-@ Ceylon Dance Festival and was selected to perform for Elizabeth II when the Queen visited Sri Lanka in April 1954 during her tour of the Commonwealth after acceding to the throne . Neila has said : " That was the day I decided I was going to devote my life to dance . My father wanted me to become a dental surgeon , but I refused " . At 18 , she enrolled in Kalakshetra , a cultural academy located in Madras ( now Chennai ) which was established to preserve traditional values in Indian art and reputed to be one of the best dance institutions in India , under the tutelage of Srimathi Rukmini Devi Arundale ( 1904 – 1986 ) . She lived a regimented lifestyle , living in a thatched house with " snakes above and rats running below " and waking at 4 : 30am for dance practice every day . She completed her five @-@ year course in two years , graduating with a first @-@ class honours diploma in Bharatanatyam in 1957 .
Neila met her husband , Sathyalingam Suntharalingam , at Kalakshetra . The son of a Sri Lankan politician , C. Suntharalingam , he had graduated from the University of Madras with a Sangitha Sironmani ( Degree in Music ) and from Kalakshetra in 1955 with a Diploma in Music , and was then teaching Indian classical music theory and the playing of the Indian drum and cymbals at the academy . After a two @-@ year courtship , they married in 1956 and moved back to Sri Lanka where they lived in a 40 @-@ ha farm just outside Colombo . Sathyalingam then taught dance in schools while raising her children , the first of whom was born in 1957 .
In May 1958 , riots broke out in Sri Lanka between the Sinhalese and Tamil communities . Although the Sathyalingams received a tip @-@ off that they had been targeted and managed to escape the violence , 80 Sinhalese rioters attacked and burned their home . Having lost their abode and all their possessions , they resettled in Colombo . In 1969 Neila returned to Kalakshetra to be trained as an instructor and to take up a postgraduate diploma course . She graduated in 1972 with a distinction and was appointed a dance teacher with Kalakshetra .
In 1974 the family moved to Singapore after American company Uniroyal Chemicals , for which Sathyalingam worked as an area sales manager , posted him there . Coming to Singapore exposed Neila to dancers of different cultural backgrounds and traditions , inspiring her to create new Indian dance steps based on classical foundations . In 1977 , Neila and her husband founded performing arts company Apsaras Arts under the auspices of the Kamala Club , an organisation for Indian ladies promoting Indian dance and music . Starting with 20 students , the company expanded in size and significance , and has staged numerous arangetrams ( dance débuts ) and performances in Singapore and abroad , including Australia , Indonesia and Vietnam . Apsaras Arts , now based at the Telok Ayer Performing Arts Centre , has also taken part in numerous arts and dance festivals worldwide , including the Asean Festival in Malaysia ( 1983 ) ; the Australian Youth Musical Festival ( August 1983 ) ; the Hong Kong Arts Festival ( 1990 ) ; the World of Music , Arts and Dance ( Womad ) Festival in Singapore ( 2002 ) ; the 17th National Cultural Festival in Nong Khai , Thailand ( 2003 ) ; and the Indian Festival of Arts in Singapore ( 2003 ) . Neila and her husband are respectively the company 's artistic director and music director , and continue to teach classical Indian dance and music .
In 1983 , Neila was appointed the dance instructor and choreographer for the Indian Dance Group of the People 's Association ( PA ) where , for a modest sum , she taught Indian dance to children from lower @-@ income families for free . She continues to be the resident choreographer for the Indian Dance Group , which is now under the umbrella of PA Talents . She is also an artistic adviser to the National Arts Council .
Neila was awarded the Cultural Medallion for her contributions to dance in 1989 . She became a Singapore citizen in 1994 , her husband and children following suit in subsequent years . Also in 1994 , she was honoured by Bharat Kalachar , a music and dance school in Chennai , with the Viswa Kala Bharathi , an award given to non @-@ resident Indian artistes who have helped to propagate Indian arts in foreign lands , for her artistic contributions throughout the world .
Together with fellow Cultural Medallion holders Som Said and Yang Choong Lian , Neila was a choreographer for the Lion City Angels , a multiracial children 's dance troupe formed in 1988 . The group performed in the Children 's Folklore Festival in France in 1995 and the International Children 's Folklore Festival in Spain in 1996 . Other major achievements of Neila 's include the dance @-@ drama Kannagi , staged for the Singapore Festival of Arts in 1998 , and the " Fire " segment of the performance The Rhythm of Life staged by the People 's Association Cultural Troupe in November 2001 ; the former was said to have " stretched the bounds of traditions to its limits and succeeded in offering something to a range of audiences far wider than what a traditional dance @-@ drama would have done " . Up to 2007 , Neila had also choreographed dance segments for the last 13 Chingay Parades , which are street parades held annually in Singapore as part of Chinese New Year festivities .
On 14 and 15 September 2007 , Neila staged at the Victoria Theatre what has been termed her " last mega @-@ production " , an Indian epic dance drama called Sivagami written by Kalki Krishnamurthy ( 1899 – 1954 ) , which involved 65 dancers from Apsaras Arts and from India . Thereafter , she has said that she intends to " slow down " by focusing on her teaching , although she has remarked : " There is really no such thing called a swan song , and I won 't like to keep still after being so active . ... I will keep dancing as long as my body will say yes to me " .
= = Personal life = =
Neila and her husband Sathyalingam have three daughters and two sons . Of her daughters , her eldest , Mohana ( born 1957 ) , sings for Apsaras Arts ' performances ; while Nandana ( born 1960 ) , runs an Indian performing arts school also called Apsaras Arts in Canberra , Australia . Her older son Shaan ( born 1962 ) is a legal adviser for the National Library Board of Singapore . Her younger son Skanda ( born 1963 ) contracted encephalitis at six months and became severely mentally and physically disabled . Skanda 's condition is a source of sadness for Neila , who has said , " People ask me how is it that I 'm so strong . But I don 't know whether I 'm strong . This strength is just a facade . If I talk [ about my son ] ... I 'm going to cry . My son has made me a better person , more patient and more compassionate towards people . I suppose good has come from the sad . " Neila 's younger sister , Anusha , who lives in Zambia , is also a Bharatanatyam dancer and teacher .
Neila enjoys cooking , sewing and keeping her home tidy , while her husband is an avid gardener .
= Oregon wine =
The state of Oregon in the United States has established an international reputation for its production of wine . Oregon has several different growing regions within the state 's borders that are well @-@ suited to the cultivation of grapes ; additional regions straddle the border between Oregon and the states of Washington and Idaho . Wine making dates back to pioneer times in the 1840s , with commercial production beginning in the 1960s .
American Viticultural Areas entirely within the state include the Willamette Valley , Southern Oregon , Umpqua Valley , and Rogue Valley AVAs . Parts of the Columbia Gorge , Walla Walla Valley , and Snake River Valley AVAs lie within Oregon . Pinot noir and Pinot gris are the top two grapes grown , with over 16 @,@ 000 tons ( 14 @,@ 515 metric tons ) harvested in 2005 . As of 2005 , Oregon wine makers produced over 1 @.@ 5 million cases combined .
With 679 wineries in Oregon , a tourism industry has developed around wine tasting . Much of the tourism focuses on the wineries and tasting rooms in and around the Yamhill Valley southwest of Portland . In 2004 , enotourism contributed an estimated USD $ 92 million to the state economy , excluding winery and tasting room sales .
= = History = =
Wine has been produced in Oregon since the Oregon Territory was settled in the 1840s ; however , winemaking has only been a significant industry in the state since the 1960s . Grapes were first planted in the Oregon Territory in 1847 . Valley View , the first recorded winery , was established by Peter Britt in the late 1850s in Jacksonville . Throughout the 19th century , there was experimentation with various varietals by immigrants to the state . In 1904 , an Oregon winemaker won a prize at the St. Louis World 's Fair . Wine production stopped in the United States during Prohibition . As in other states , the Oregon wine industry lay dormant for thirty years after Prohibition was repealed .
The Oregon wine industry started to rebuild in the 1960s , when California winemakers opened several vineyards in the state . By 1970 , there were five commercial wineries , with 35 recorded acres ( 14 ha ) .
This included the planting of Pinot noir grapes in the Willamette Valley , a region long thought too cold to be suitable for viticulture . In the 1970s , more out @-@ of @-@ state winemakers migrated to the state and started to organize as an industry . The state 's land use laws had prevented rural hillsides from being turned into housing tracts , preserving a significant amount of land suitable for vineyards . In 1979 , Eyrie Vineyards entered a 1975 Pinot noir in the Wine Olympics ; the wine was rated among the top Pinots in the world , thus gaining the region its first international recognition .
The accolades continued into the 1980s , and the Oregon wine industry continued to add both wineries and vineyards . The state industry continued to market itself , establishing the first of several AVAs ( American Viticulture Areas ) in the state . The state also grew strong ties with the Burgundy region of France , as Oregon 's governor paid an official visit to Burgundy and a leading French winemaking family bought land in Dundee .
In the early 1990s , the wine industry was threatened by a Phylloxera infestation in the state , but winemakers quickly turned to the use of resistant rootstocks to prevent any serious damage . The state legislature enacted several new laws designed to promote winemaking and wine distribution . The state found a newfound focus on " green " winemaking , leading the global wine industry into more environmentally friendly practices . Several new AVAs were established . By 2005 , there were 314 wineries and 519 vineyards in operation in Oregon . By 2009 , the number of wineries in the state has increased to 453 and remains the 3rd largest wine producer in the country
= = Varieties of wine = =
Like other wines produced in the United States , Oregon wines are marketed as varietals . Oregon law requires that wines produced in the state must be identified by the grape variety from which it was made , and for most varietals it must contain at least 90 % of that variety . The exceptions to the 90 % law are the following varietals : Red and White Bordeaux varietals , Red and White Rhône varietals , Sangiovese , Tempranillo , Zinfandel and Tannat . For these wines , they follow the Federal guidelines of 75 % . Oregon law has long forbidden use of place names , except as appellations of origin . Oregon is most famous for its Pinot noir , which is produced throughout the state . Pinot noirs from the Willamette Valley have received much critical acclaim from wine connoisseurs and critics , and Oregon is regarded as one of the premier Pinot @-@ producing regions in the world .
In 2005 , the top five varieties produced in Oregon were :
Pinot noir 7 @,@ 974 acres ( 3 @,@ 227 ha ) , 12 @,@ 086 short tons ( 10 @,@ 964 t )
Pinot gris 1 @,@ 184 acres ( 479 ha ) , 4 @,@ 317 short tons ( 3 @,@ 916 t )
Chardonnay 842 acres ( 341 ha ) , 1 @,@ 568 short tons ( 1 @,@ 422 t )
Merlot 550 acres ( 220 ha ) , 675 short tons ( 612 t )
Riesling 524 acres ( 212 ha ) , 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 907 t )
Other varieties with significant production in Oregon include Cabernet Sauvignon , Gewürztraminer , Müller @-@ Thurgau , Pinot blanc , Sauvignon blanc , Sémillon , and Syrah . V. vinifera based wines produced in smaller quantities include Arneis , Baco noir , Cabernet franc , Chenin blanc , Dolcetto , Gamay noir , Grenache , Marechal Foch , Malbec , Muscat , Nebbiolo , Petite Syrah , Sangiovese , Tempranillo , Viognier , and Zinfandel . The state also produces sparkling wine , late harvest wine , ice wine , and dessert wine .
= = Facts and figures = =
As of the 2005 wine growing season , the state of Oregon has 303 bonded wineries , 384 wine brands , and 734 vineyards growing Vitis vinifera , composing a total of 14 @,@ 100 acres ( 57 km2 ) of which 11 @,@ 800 acres ( 48 km2 ) were harvested in 2005 . Out of all US wine growing regions , Oregon ranked third in number of wineries and fourth in production . Nearly 1 @.@ 6 million cases of Oregon wine were sold in 2005 . The retail value of these cases was $ 184 @.@ 7 million , a 24 % increase over the previous vintage .
The industry has had a significant economic impact on the state . The industry contributed a total of US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the Oregon economy . Of that figure , over US $ 800 million is directly provided by wineries and vineyards via sales , wages , and spending . It is estimated that the industry contributed 8 @,@ 479 wine @-@ related jobs and US $ 203 million in wages . Exports to other states in 2004 were US $ 64 @.@ 1 million .
Oregon produces wine on a much smaller scale than the California wine industry . Oregon 's leading producer , King Estate , ships only 175 @,@ 000 cases per year and most produce under 35 @,@ 000 cases . The state features many small wineries that produce less than 5 @,@ 000 cases per year . In contrast , E & J Gallo Winery , the United States ' largest winery , produced 65 million cases of wine in 2002 . The majority of wineries in the state operate their own vineyards , although some purchase grapes on the market . Oregon contains a significant number of independent vineyards .
The Oregon wine industry focuses on the higher @-@ priced segments of the wine market . Oregon growers receive a higher average return per ton and a higher average revenue per case than do growers in other wine @-@ producing regions in the United States . Despite producing a much smaller volume of wine , Oregon winery revenues per capita are comparable to those of New York and Washington .
= = Major wine @-@ producing regions = =
There are , loosely speaking , three main wine producing regions with a major presence in the state of Oregon , as defined by non @-@ overlapping American Viticultural Areas . Two of them — the Willamette Valley AVA and the Southern Oregon AVA — are wholly contained within Oregon ; a third , the Columbia Gorge AVA straddles the Columbia River and includes territory in both Oregon and Washington ; however , this AVA is considered to be an Oregon AVA . Portions of the Walla Walla Valley AVA , an area primarily in Washington ( along with the Columbia Valley AVA , which contains it ) , descend into Oregon in the Milton @-@ Freewater area . The Southern Oregon AVA was recently created as the union of two Southern Oregon winegrowing regions long considered distinct , the Rogue Valley and the Umpqua Valley . Several other smaller AVAs are found within some of these larger regions . The Snake River Valley AVA , which straddles Oregon 's border with Idaho along the Snake River , is the first AVA to include a part of Eastern Oregon .
= = = Willamette Valley = = =
The Willamette Valley AVA is the wine growing region that encompasses the Willamette Valley . It stretches from the Columbia River in the north to just south of Eugene in the south , where the Willamette Valley ends ; and from the Oregon Coast Range in the West to the Cascade Mountains in the East . At 5 @,@ 200 square miles ( 13 @,@ 500 km2 ) , it is the largest AVA in the state , and contains most of the state 's wineries ; approximately 200 as of 2006 .
The climate of Willamette Valley is mild year @-@ round , with cool , wet winters and warm , dry summers ; extreme temperatures are uncommon . Most rainfall occurs outside the growing season and the valley gets relatively little snow . Not all parts of the Valley are suitable for viticulture , and most wineries and vineyards are found west of the Willamette River , with the largest concentration in Yamhill County .
The region is best known for its Pinot noir , and also produces large amounts of Pinot gris , Riesling , and Chardonnay . The region also produces Cabernet Sauvignon , Gewürztraminer , Müller @-@ Thurgau , Sémillon , and Zinfandel grapes , but in far smaller quantities .
The region is divided into six subordinate AVAs : Chehalem Mountains AVA , Dundee Hills AVA , Eola @-@ Amity Hills AVA , McMinnville AVA , Ribbon Ridge AVA , and the Yamhill @-@ Carlton District AVA . In addition , many wine connoisseurs further divide the Willamette Valley into northern and southern regions approximately at the latitude of Salem .
= = = Southern Oregon = = =
The Southern Oregon AVA is an AVA formed as the union of two existing AVAs — the Rogue Valley AVA and the Umpqua Valley AVA . ( A small strip of connecting territory is included in the Southern Oregon AVA to make it a contiguous region ; however , this strip passes through mountains regions not suitable for vineyards . ) This AVA was established in 2004 to allow the two principal regions in Southern Oregon to jointly market themselves . As the Rogue Valley and Umpqua Valley regions produce different grapes and different varietals , they are examined separately .
= = = = Umpqua Valley AVA = = = =
The Umpqua Valley AVA contains the drainage basin of the Umpqua River , excluding mountainous regions . The Umpqua Valley has a warmer climate than the Willamette Valley , but is cooler than the Rogue Valley to the south . It is the oldest post @-@ prohibition wine region in Oregon . Grapes grown here include Tempranillo , Baco noir , Pinot noir , Pinot gris , Cabernet Sauvignon , Chardonnay , and Riesling , Grüner Veltliner , and a host of lesser known Vitis vinifera . The region includes two sub @-@ AVAs , the Red Hill Douglas County , Oregon AVA , a single vineyard AVA , as well as the Elkton , Oregon AVA , which was established in early 2013 .
= = = = Rogue Valley AVA = = = =
The Rogue Valley AVA includes the drainage basin of the Rogue River and several tributaries , including the Illinois River , the Applegate River , and Bear Creek . Most wineries in the region are found along one of these three tributaries , rather than along the Rogue River itself . The region is 70 miles ( 110 km ) wide by 60 miles ( 100 km ) long ( although much of the land within the AVA is not suitable for grape cultivation ) ; there are currently 32 wineries with only 1 @,@ 100 acres ( 4 km2 ) planted . The three valleys differ greatly in terroir , with the easternmost Bear Creek valley being warmest and driest , and the westernmost Illinois River valley being coolest and wettest . Each river valley has a unique climate and grows different varieties of grapes . Overall , however , this region is the warmest and driest of Oregon 's wine @-@ growing regions . The region has one sub @-@ AVA , the Applegate Valley AVA .
= = = Columbia Gorge = = =
The Columbia Gorge AVA is found in the Columbia Gorge . This region straddles the Columbia River , and thus lies in both Oregon and Washington ; it is made up of Hood River and Wasco counties in Oregon , and Skamania and Klickitat counties in Washington . The region lies to the east of the summits of nearby Mount Hood and Mount Adams , situated in their rain shadows ; thus , the region is significantly drier than the Willamette Valley . It also exhibits significant differences in elevation due to gorge geography , and strong winds common in the area also play a factor in the region 's climate . This allows a wide variety of grapes to be grown in the Columbia Gorge . The region has nearly 40 vineyards , growing a wide variety of grapes , including Syrah , Pinot noir , Chardonnay , Gewürztraminer , Zinfandel , Cabernet Sauvignon , Pinot gris , Riesling , and Sangiovese .
= = = Walla Walla Valley = = =
Portions of northeastern Oregon ( in the vicinity of Milton @-@ Freewater ) are part of the Walla Walla Valley AVA , which was established in 1984 . This appellation , which is part of the Columbia Valley AVA , lies primarily within Washington state . This region has nearly 100 wineries and 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 5 km2 ) planted . Wines grown in the valley include Syrah , Merlot , and Cabernet Sauvignon , as well as Sangiovese and a few exotic varietals including Counoise , Carmenère , Mourvèdre , Cabernet Franc , Nebbiolo and Barbera .
A new AVA , The Rocks District of Milton – Freewater , was established in 2015 .
= = = Snake River Valley = = =
A new viticultural area along the Snake River was established on April 9 , 2007 . Principally located in Idaho , the area also encompasses two large counties in Eastern Oregon , Baker County and Malheur County . The region 's climate is unique among AVAs in Oregon ; the average temperature is relatively cool and rainfall is low , creating a shorter growing season . Current production is led by hardy grapes such as Riesling , Gewürztraminer , and Chardonnay . The climate also lends itself extremely well to the production of ice wine . However , the AVA is quite large and warmer microclimates within the area can also support different types of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot .
= = = Yamhill County = = =
= = Enotourism = =
With the continuing improvement in the region 's winemaking reputation , enotourism in Oregon has become a significant industry in its own right . On @-@ site sales are becoming an increasingly important part of the business of Oregon winemaking , and other businesses that cater to wine tourists , such as lodging , fine restaurants , art gallerys , have been appearing in places like Dundee , many of which have long been rural farming communities . Wine festivals and tastings are commonplace . It is estimated that enotourism contributed USD $ 92 million to the state economy in 2004 , excluding sales at wineries and tasting rooms . There are approximately 1 @.@ 48 million visits to Oregon wineries each year , 49 % by Oregonians and 51 % from out of state visitors . Major events drawing significant numbers of tourists to wine country include the International Pinot Noir Celebration and the Oregon Pinot Camp .
Facilities for wine tourists in Oregon are considered underdeveloped compared to wine regions in California , especially premium growing regions like the Napa Valley AVA . Only 5 % of overnight leisure trips in the state involve visits to wineries , a much smaller figure than comparable Californian growing regions , which range from 10 % to 25 % . Oregon lacks many accommodations found in wine growing regions in other states such as luxury hotels , resorts , and other attractions suitable for well @-@ heeled tourists . As of August 2006 , a resort hotel is being planned in Dundee , which would be located near notable wineries such as Domaine Drouhin Oregon . A local developer and businessman has proposed construction of a 50 @-@ room hotel , spa and restaurant in the Dundee Hills region , but has met with opposition from many notable vintners , including David Lett , who fear that such a development would dramatically alter the landscape of the region . Concern has also been raised by vintners that the proposed site is on prime growing land that should be used for wine production rather than a resort hotel .
The increase in winery @-@ related tourism , as well as the presence of a casino in the Willamette Valley , has greatly impacted the region 's transportation infrastructure . Oregon Route 99W , the highway running through the heart of Willamette Valley wine country ( and which is the main street in towns such as Newberg and Dundee ) , is plagued with frequent traffic jams . Plans to construct a freeway bypass around Newberg and Dundee ( avoiding the prime growing areas in the hills ) are in motion , but are highly controversial . Currently , construction of the highway project is unfunded , and the Oregon Department of Transportation has proposed making the new bypass a toll road , highly unusual for Oregon . Tolls have also been proposed on the existing route of OR 99W , in addition to the new bypass . This proposal has proven to be highly controversial , with many local residents opposing the plan , primarily due to potential negative effects on businesses located on 99W and a general aversion to tolling existing roads .
= = Recognition = =
= = = Recognition for quality = = =
Oregon wines have won several major awards , and / or been praised by notable wine critics .
In 1904 , Forest Grove winemaker Ernest Reuter won a silver medal at the St. Louis World 's Fair .
In 1979 , Eyrie Vineyards ' 1975 South Block Pinot noir placed in the top 10 of Burgundy @-@ style wines at the Gault @-@ Millau French Wine Olympiades , and was rated the top Pinot noir . In a rematch , however , the Eyrie finished second to a French wine .
Two gold medals in the International Wine Competition in London in 1982 .
A Yamhill Valley Vineyards 1983 Pinot noir was the first place preference at the 1985 Oregon Pinot noir / French Burgundy Challenge at the International Wine Center in New York City .
= = = Other recognition = = =
In 2006 , seven Oregon wines made Wine Spectator 's annual Top 100 Wines list . Producers on the list included : Shea , Argyle , Archery Summit , Lemelson , Ken Wright , Elk Cove , and Benton Lane .
Oregon wines have continued to appear on Wine Spectator 's annual Top 100 Wines list . For example , the 2009 list included the King Estate 2008 Signature Pinot gris and the 1999 Argyle Extended Tirage . The 2011 list had 2009 Pinot noirs from Sineann and Rex Hill wineries .
= = Notable wineries and vineyards = =
This is a list of notable operating and defunct wineries and vineyards in the state of Oregon in the United States , including those in the Southern Oregon AVA and Willamette Valley AVA . Included are wineries and vineyards owned or operated by larger wineries not based in Oregon .
= Pulaski Skyway =
The Pulaski Skyway is a four @-@ lane bridge @-@ causeway in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey , carrying a freeway designated U.S. Route 1 / 9 ( US 1 / 9 ) for most of its length . The landmark structure has a total length of 3 @.@ 502 miles ( 5 @.@ 636 km ) . Its longest bridge spans 550 feet ( 168 m ) . Travelling between Newark and Jersey City , the roadway crosses the Passaic and Hackensack rivers and Kearny Point , the peninsula between them .
Designed by Sigvald Johannesson , the Pulaski Skyway opened in 1932 as the last part of the Route 1 Extension , one of the first controlled @-@ access highways or " super @-@ highways " in the United States , to provide a connection to the Holland Tunnel . One of several major projects built during the reign of Hudson County political boss Frank Hague , its construction was a source of political and labor disputes . The viaduct is listed in the state and federal registers of historic places .
Unpredictable traffic congestion and its functionally obsolete design makes the Skyway one of the most unreliable roads in the United States . As of 2014 , the bridges handle about 74 @,@ 000 crossings per day , none by trucks , which have been barred from the road since 1934 . The bridges have been little altered . In 2007 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) began a rehabilitation program , which it estimates will cost more than $ 1 billion . To facilitate the work , it closed the eastbound ( northbound US 1 / 9 ) lanes for traffic on April 12 , 2014 , and expects to reopen them in 2016 .
= = Description = =
Built as part of the 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) long Route 1 Extension , sources differ on the length and terminal points of the skyway . The National Bridge Inventory identifies the Hudson County section as 14 @,@ 906 feet ( 4 @,@ 543 @.@ 5 m ) long and the Essex County section as 3 @,@ 592 feet ( 1 @,@ 094 @.@ 8 m ) . In a historic roadway and bridge study for NJDOT , it was described as 16 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) long . NJDOT has indicated the overall length of the bridge structures to be 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) and identified the Hudson County section as 14 @,@ 900 feet ( 4 @,@ 500 m ) long . Other sources , along with the National Register of Historic Places , The New York Times , and The Star @-@ Ledger , describe it as being 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) long .
The four @-@ lane iconic skyway carries the US 1 / 9 concurrency for most its length . While the skyway generally runs east – west between Newark and Jersey City , US 1 and US 9 are generally north – south routes . The west end of the skyway begins as US 1 / 9 roadway ascends and passes over Raymond Boulevard in Newark 's Ironbound neighborhood . At Tonnele Circle , US 1 / 9 exits to grade and follows Tonnele Avenue north towards the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge and the skyway becomes the four @-@ lane Route 139 as it passes over it . While the road continues to the Holland Tunnel , the skyway soon comes to its eastern end at a cut in Bergen Hill , just west of John F. Kennedy Boulevard . In addition to crossing the Hackensack and the Passaic , the skyway also passes over the New Jersey Turnpike , with which it has no interchange . Under most of the skyway is other vehicular , rail , maritime , and industrial infrastructure built on landfilled wetlands of the New Jersey Meadowlands .
Some maps , including one of Newark ( 1938 ) and one of Elizabeth ( 1967 ) , labeled the US 1 / 9 southern approach starting north of Newark Airport as the Pulaski Skyway . An NJDOT single line diagram ( 2010 ) shows the General Pulaski Skyway starting at mile post 49 @.@ 00 , which is just north of the renamed Newark Liberty International Airport . Google Maps includes the Route 139 eastern approach .
There is limited intermediate access to the skyway : two single @-@ lane ramps rise to the inner lanes of the elevated structure , requiring traffic to enter or exit from the left providing access at the Marion Section ( southbound entrance and northbound exit only ) of Jersey City and South Kearny ( northbound entrance and southbound exit only ) .
Trucks have been prohibited for the " safety and welfare of the public " since 1934 because of the state 's approval of a local ordinance that was championed by Frank Hague , mayor of Jersey City . They are detoured to use U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck , along the route of the Lincoln Highway that carried traffic before the skyway 's construction . Pedestrians and cyclists are banned , as the road has no dedicated lanes or sidewalks . The speed limit on the skyway is 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) , but is generally not enforceable as there is nowhere for police to pull over speeders because of the absence of shoulders .
In 2011 , the Texas Transportation Institute determined that the Skyway was the sixth @-@ most unreliable road in the United States because of the unpredictability of traffic congestion and therefore travel times .
= = Design and construction = =
Except for crossings over Jersey City rail lines and the Hackensack and the Passaic , the main part of the skyway is a steel deck truss cantilever bridge , supported by concrete piers . Each of the two river crossings is a 1 @,@ 250 @-@ foot ( 381 m ) combination of a 550 @-@ foot ( 168 m ) subdivided ( K @-@ shaped ) through Pratt truss between the supports and a 350 @-@ foot ( 107 m ) basic Pratt truss structure connecting each end to the deck truss part of the skyway . Spanning the rivers , they reach a clearance height of 135 feet ( 41 m ) . In Jersey City , three short Pratt through truss spans take the roadway over rail lines , the westernmost passing over the Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ( PATH ) rapid transit line and the Conrail Passaic and Harsimus Line . The two easternmost Pratt through truss spans are in the vicinity of Marion Junction , one of which passes over the Marion Running Track , to the east of which the skyway is low enough to use simple vertical supports .
Design began in 1919 for the Holland Tunnel , the first fixed roadway connection between New Jersey and New York City ; construction began in 1922 , and the tunnel opened in late 1927 . To provide for a continuous highway connection on the New Jersey side , the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill in 1922 authorizing the extension of Route 1 from its end at Elizabeth through Newark and Jersey City to the proposed tunnel . It was conceived as the nation 's first " super @-@ highway " . State highway engineer Hugh L. Sloan appointed old acquaintance Fred Lavis , a consulting engineer who had worked on foreign rail lines and the Panama Canal and written four books on locating and designing rail lines , to design this Route 1 Extension . Sigvald Johannesson designed the Skyway portion .
Frank Hague , mayor of Jersey City and boss of the state 's political machine , directed the state to avoid the open cuts that were already common where the railroads crossed Bergen Hill , and to include an access ramp in Kearny to spur industrial development . Construction of the highway , which was mostly raised on embankments and passed through Bergen Hill in a cut , began in mid @-@ 1925 . The two major eastern and western sections in Jersey City and Newark — including the viaduct leading to the " covered roadway " ( Route 139 ) and the embankments in eastern Newark — were opened on December 16 , 1928 , about a year after the tunnel opened . Traffic was still required to use the Lincoln Highway to cross the Hackensack and the Passaic on the since replaced drawbridges that frequently stopped traffic to allow ships to pass .
Lavis 's design for the final viaduct passageway , which would be raised on concrete piers across the Meadowlands , included two vertical @-@ lift bridges 35 feet ( 11 m ) above the Passaic and Hackensack rivers , sufficient for the majority of ships to pass underneath . He resigned in 1928 , believing his task was complete , but in January 1929 the War Department objected to the continued existence of the Lincoln Highway bridges once the skyway was complete . Since the Route 1 Extension was not intended for local traffic , and replacing the vertical @-@ lift bridges with tunnels would have been expensive , a compromise was worked out by late 1929 to raise the river bridges to 135 feet ( 41 m ) while allowing the Lincoln Highway drawbridges to remain in place . The concrete jacketing of the steel was removed from the plans since it would make the taller fixed bridges heavier . This resulted in more maintenance .
Four companies — the American Bridge Company , McClintic @-@ Marshall Company , Phoenix Bridge Company , and Taylor @-@ Fichter Steel Construction Company — were awarded contracts for the so @-@ called " Diagonal Highway " , with construction to start in April 1930 . The two river bridges , McClintic @-@ Marshall 's portion , were completed first , and the $ 21 million road was opened at 8 : 00 a.m. on November 24 , 1932 , after an official ceremony the previous day on the Kearny ramp . Owing to the Great Depression and problems with funding , Governor A. Harry Moore directed the Highway Commission on October 25 , 1932 to make a formal request to the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads to charge tolls on the Diagonal Highway . It was thought that tolls would be illegal because of the use of $ 600 @,@ 000 of federal aid to build the road , but that it might be possible to transfer this funding to other projects . A bill was introduced into the state legislature on May 1 , 1933 , to add tolls to the road ( then known as the " sky way " ) , at a rate of 10 cents for cars and 20 cents for trucks . The legal obstacle to federal aid was resolved by gaining approval to transfer the funds .
During planning and construction , and for about half a year after opening , the road had no official name and was known as the Diagonal Highway , Newark – Jersey City Viaduct , or High @-@ Level Viaduct . On May 3 , 1933 , the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill sponsored by Assemblyman Eugene W. Hejke of Jersey City naming the road the General Casimir Pulaski Memorial Skyway after Casimir Pulaski , the Polish military leader who helped train and lead Continental Army troops in the American Revolutionary War . An official ceremony was held on October 11 , 1933 , including the unveiling of signs with an abbreviated designation , Gen. Pulaski Skyway .
Surveys taken during 1932 and 1933 proved that the skyway saved time on the new and old routes . Not only was the distance shortened by one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) , but it took at least six minutes less to travel the new route during regular traffic . Trucks gained even more time , saving anywhere from five to eleven minutes . During times of previous traffic congestion on weekends on the old route , the viaduct saved around 25 minutes or more from the elimination of traffic congestion . In addition , the new route did not have the much longer delays and traffic back @-@ ups that were caused whenever the bridges on the old highway were opened . It was found that the skyway also diverted a good deal of traffic from other routes .
= = Labor issues = =
Pulaski Skyway construction ended up causing a dispute between Mayor of Jersey City Frank Hague , who ran a statewide political machine , and Theodore M. Brandle , a " labor czar " allied with Hague . Brandle and Hague had become friends through Hague 's efforts to get approval of unions . Brandle helped organize Branleygran Company , a construction bond underwriter , which Hague channeled construction projects towards . During the mid @-@ 1920s redevelopment of Journal Square , Brandle 's Labor National Bank , founded in June 1926 , acquired a new 15 @-@ story headquarters , the Labor Bank Building . Essentially Brandle controlled any construction projects in northern New Jersey , and any strikes he might call would be backed by Hague 's police .
The relationship between Hague and Brandle started to go bad in late 1931 , during construction of Jersey City Medical Center , an important project to Hague . Leo Brennan , a contractor approved by Hague without consulting Brandle , who was building a backup power station for the hospital , refused to work with Brandle 's card @-@ file system , by which he kept track of union members and blacklisted those whom he disliked . The annoyed Brandle called a strike , but Brennan 's workers refused ; the police shut down the site after a brawl , but Brennan got court approval to continue . To placate Brandle , who threatened a strike that would stop all construction work on the center , Hague paid off Brennan and hired another contractor that Brandle had approved .
For the construction of the Pulaski Skyway , which began in April 1930 , Hague chose four members of the National Erectors ' Association , an organization of " open shop " ( anti @-@ union ) steel contractors . Performance bonds were paid in cash , bypassing Branleygran , and the companies hired Foster 's Industrial and Detective Bureau to guard the site against Brandle 's threat to " unionize this job or else " . Brandle organized picket lines of loyal union men , and the two sides frequently fought in the streets or in the work area . Brandle 's sole victory was a five @-@ day stoppage in July 1931 by 165 non @-@ union workers , who were interested in higher pay and afraid of the ongoing fights , but decided against joining the union . During the LaFollette Civil Liberties Committee hearings , it was discovered that , in order to save about $ 50 @,@ 000 in salary , the American Bridge Company , one of the four contractors , spent almost $ 300 @,@ 000 on keeping its " open shop " .
The first casualty of the labor battle was a picketer , shot and temporarily paralyzed by a perimeter guard on November 14 , 1931 , for throwing stones at workers . Several months later , on February 27 , 1932 , a car carrying six workers to the construction site was surrounded by union men , who began to beat them with iron bars . One of the workers , William T. Harrison , was dead by the next morning ; Hague broke all ties with Brandle and ordered the police to " wage relentless war against the Brandle gang @-@ rioters " . In April 1932 , 21 ironworkers were indicted as suspects in the Harrison murder . The trial was held on December 6 , 1932 , two weeks after the completion of the skyway . Every defendant was found not guilty , since county prosecutor John Drewen was unable to place any of them at the scene of the crime , and witnesses and defendants testified that they had been forced under torture or the threat of prosecution to sign affidavits and confessions . In addition to William T. Harrison 's death , 14 lives were claimed by work @-@ related accidents during construction .
Hague refused to allow Brandle and the unions to win , and began to force unions to foreclose through his control of the courts . On the public side , Hague attacked the " labor racketeers " with words , and the local newspapers gladly went along . In 1937 and 1938 , Hague turned Jersey City into a police state to fight the Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO ) , which was trying to inform workers of their rights under the 1935 National Labor Relations Act . Socialist Norman Thomas was prevented from speaking in Jersey City and Newark by Hague and his friends . This and other similar cases turned the national spotlight on Hague , and he was attacked by the New Yorker and Life in early 1938 . Finally , in 1947 , Governor Alfred E. Driscoll cut off Hague 's judicial power , and the mayor retired .
= = Truck and other safety issues = =
The slippery concrete surfacing , steep left @-@ side ramps , center breakdown lane , and wide @-@ open alignment built for high speeds all contributed to a high number of crashes . Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City passed an ordinance in November 1933 banning trucks from its section of the skyway , which effectively banned them from the whole road . Enforcement began on January 15 , 1934 , when Jersey City police began arresting truck drivers using the skyway . The New Jersey State Highway Commission approved the ban on January 23 .
As a result of controversy caused by the ban , 300 @,@ 000 ballots were distributed on February 6 to motorists on the skyway , asking whether trucks should be banned . Mayor Hague promised to go with the majority , which agreed with the ban . The matter was also taken to court , with one of the convicted truck drivers arguing that the ban was an unreasonable restraint of interstate commerce , and that since the federal government contributed money towards the road , Jersey City lacked the power to ban trucks . On August 14 , Justice Thomas W. Trenchard of the New Jersey Supreme Court upheld the ban , stating that " the court is not at liberty to substitute its judgment for that of the municipality 's as to the best and most feasible manner of curing traffic evils and traffic congestion where such regulation bears a direct relationship to public safety and is reasonable and not arbitrary . " The Tonnele Circle Viaduct , a new offramp allowing westbound trucks from the Holland Tunnel to bypass Tonnele Circle to southbound US 1 / 9 Truck , which now also leads to Interstate 280 ( I @-@ 280 ) , opened on September 14 , 1938 . The Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 78 ) opened in September 1956 , allowing trucks to bypass the old surface road , US 1 / 9 Truck .
On May 21 , 1952 , large numbers of trucks were spotted by Jersey City police entering the city on the skyway . Upon pulling over the drivers , they were told that the exit in Newark for the truck route was closed for construction . A call to Newark police confirmed the situation . Hudson County police refused to force trucks to exit before Jersey City , since there was no state law banning trucks from the skyway . Jersey City Police Chief James McNamara gave in , and trucks were temporarily allowed to use the skyway , though only in one direction .
When the skyway first opened , it carried five lanes ; the center one was intended as a breakdown lane , but was used as a " suicide lane " for passing slower traffic . By the 1950s , the skyway was seeing over 400 crashes per year ; an aluminum median barrier was added in mid @-@ 1956 , in addition to a new pavement coating designed to make the road less slippery .
The skyway was a constraint in the building of the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951 . The turnpike had to be built low enough to provide enough clearance underneath the skyway , but high enough to then provide sufficient clearance over the nearby Passaic River . Turnpike engineers could have built over the skyway ( at a much higher cost ) or under the skyway 's trusses ; the latter option was chosen . As part of a 2005 seismic retrofit project , the New Jersey Turnpike Authority lowered the Passaic River Viaduct Bridge on its easterly alignment to increase vertical clearance and allow for full @-@ width shoulders underneath the Pulaski Skyway . Engineers replaced the bearings and lowered the turnpike bridge by four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , without shutting it to traffic .
= = Rehabilitation = =
Since its design does not meet current highway bridge standards , Pulaski Skyway is considered functionally obsolete , In 2007 , it was rated structurally deficient . The 2007 collapse of the I @-@ 35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis raised concerns about the stability of the skyway , one of eight New Jersey bridges with similar design features . Within days of the collapse , NJDOT announced that it would start a previously planned one @-@ year , $ 10 @-@ million project to make critical repairs . The work was the first phase of a planned 10 @-@ year , $ 200 @-@ million interim renovation project , the first significant repairs since 1984 .
After work began , it was determined that the repairs needed were more extensive , costly , and time @-@ consuming than expected , and NJDOT estimated that rehabilitation could cost more than $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . In 2009 , NJDOT estimated that it would take a decade before the state could afford to rehabilitate or replace the structure . In a controversial move in 2011 , Governor Chris Christie directed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey ( PANYNJ ) to divert money originally earmarked for the Access to the Region 's Core rail project to highway projects . The agency agreed to pay $ 1 @.@ 8 billion to partially fund efforts to rehabilitate the skyway and Route 139 , replace Wittpenn Bridge , and extend US 1 / 9 Truck , all part of the larger distribution network in the Port of New York and New Jersey .
In January 2013 , NJDOT announced that work on the $ 335 million projects for repaving and restoration of the roadway would begin at the end of 2013 . To facilitate the work , the eastbound lanes ( northbound US 1 / 9 ) would close for two years after the Super Bowl XLVIII in February 2014 at the nearby Meadowlands Sports Complex . The proposal was opposed by local politicians , who contended that it did not satisfactorily address the effect on local traffic and called for more thorough investigation into alternatives . The closure date was postponed by NJDOT to more completely work out comprehensive traffic and travel options .
The roadway remained open through the use of alternate lane closures during the work until April 12 , 2014 , affecting the 74 @,@ 000 daily crossings . The rehabilitation project , with an estimated cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 billion , is being done in phases and spread out over ten contracts , the first of which began in 2012 , and the last , for final painting of the steel structure , planned for completion in 2020 . The improvements are expected to extend the life of the bridge until at least 2095 .
The skyway was closed for eastbound ( northbound US 1 / 9 ) traffic on April 12 , 2014 , for two years in order to replace the entire bridge deck . The midway access ramps in South Kearny and Jersey City were closed to regular traffic , but would be available to emergency responders . In April 2015 , NJDOT said that unforeseen additional repairs would be made , extending the scheduled April 2016 completion date to sometime later that year and adding $ 14 million in costs .
= = = Travel alternatives = = =
NJDOT worked with New Jersey Transit ( NJT ) to bolster public transportation , encouraged car and van pooling , worked with local community officials , employers , truckers , local port employees , and the public to alleviate problems and address flexible working hours , and publicized alternate transportation options through television , radio , social media , news media , and its skyway website .
To ease congestion , the Turnpike Authority converted a shoulder of the Newark Bay @-@ Hudson County Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike to a traveling lane . Temporary lane control lights on six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the extension would indicate that extra lane is open during peak hours , at which time the speed limit would be reduced . This set @-@ up would be able to handle 1 @,@ 900 vehicles an hour in addition to the slightly more than 4 @,@ 000 vehicles per hour on the existing lanes during peak periods . To reduce delays , variable message signs would provide motorists with daily traffic alerts and an adaptive traffic signal system would be installed and monitored by the Meadowlands Commission to synchronize traffic lights at 15 intersections along US 1 / 9 Truck and Route 440 in Kearny Point and Jersey City . They are part of a larger " intelligent transportation system " , the Meadowlands Adaptive Signal System , a network of traffic @-@ controlled intersections with vehicle detectors in the Meadowlands . In anticipation of traffic overflow onto local Jersey City streets , off @-@ duty police officers would be hired to direct traffic heading to the Holland Tunnel during rush hours .
To promote public transportation , NJT and PATH would offer more frequent peak hour train services to Newark , Hoboken and Jersey City on the Hudson Waterfront , and Manhattan . NJT would add a new bus route for peak hour service between Watchung and Newark Penn Station , along the US 22 corridor , and their bus schedules would accommodate additional passengers on existing routes .
= = = Funding controversy = = =
On June 12 , 2014 , the PANYNJ acknowledged that the Securities and Exchange Commission , New York County District Attorney , and United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey were investigating its diversion of $ 1 @.@ 8 billion to fund the Pulaski Skyway and other New Jersey roadway rehabilitation projects . These inquiries were related to how this funding , which was made at the urging of the Christie administration , was potentially misrepresented in documents related to bond sales . State laws require the PANYNJ to spend money only related to its own facilities , unless it gets approval from lawmakers in New Jersey and New York . The PANYNJ documents state that the Pulaski Skyway was designated as also providing access to the Lincoln Tunnel , even though it is miles from the tunnel and does not connect to it directly . In December 2014 , United Airlines filed a complaint with the Federal Aviation Administration that claims that since 2004 the PANYNJ has diverted more than $ 2 billion from the metro area airports to non @-@ airport uses and that in 2014 alone it spent $ 181 million to repair the Pulaski Skyway and $ 60 million on the Wittpenn Bridge , NJDOT @-@ owned and -operated structures .
= = In popular culture = =
The Pulaski Skyway is the subject of The Last Three Miles , a book written by Steven Hart published in 2007 . The Skyway has been used in radio , film , television , and at least one video game . In the 1938 radio drama The War of the Worlds , one of the Martian machines straddles the skyway ( a scene replicated in the 2005 film wherein the first machine appears in the shadow of the bridge ) . It was featured in the 1979 film Hair . Alfred Hitchcock 's 1943 film Shadow of a Doubt and the 1999 – 2007 television drama The Sopranos include shots of the bridge in the opening montages . Clutch included the track " Pulaski Skyway " on its 2005 release Robot Hive / Exodus .
= Projections ( Star Trek : Voyager ) =
" Projections " is the 19th ( 3rd in the second season ) episode of the American science fiction television program Star Trek : Voyager . Originally slated for the first season , the episode originally aired on September 11 , 1995 , and tells the story of Voyager 's holographic doctor having an identity crisis on the holodeck regarding whether he or the world around him is the illusion .
Brannon Braga compared " Projections " to the work of René Descartes , and wrote the episode around the premise of cogito ergo sum , questioning whether the Doctor or the Voyager is the illusion . Beating out LeVar Burton ( Geordi La Forge ) for the guest appearance , Dwight Schultz as Reginald Barclay was praised by the cast and crew , especially for his on @-@ screen chemistry with co @-@ star Robert Picardo . The episode received decidedly mixed reviews , ranging from 50 – 92 % approval with critics commenting on predictability and the underutilization of Schultz and Picardo .
= = Plot = =
Voyager 's Emergency Medical Holographic Program ( EMH ) , " the Doctor " ( Robert Picardo ) , is activated due to a red alert . Despite the computer 's ( Majel Barrett ) assertion that nobody is aboard , B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) soon arrives in sickbay . She informs the Doctor that the ship was attacked by Kazon and that all except herself and Captain Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) have abandoned ship . After treating her injuries , Torres transfers the Doctor 's program to the bridge using newly installed holographic emitters there . After treating the captain and then assisting Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) to defeat a stray Kazon in the mess hall , the Doctor discovers he 's bleeding and feeling pain , neither of which are functions of his program . In sickbay , making inquiries with the computer , the Doctor is told that there are no holographic programs matching his own and that he is actually Lewis Zimmerman ( Picardo ) — whom the Doctor recognizes as his programmer .
With the computer insisting that the crew of Voyager is only a collection of holographic programs , a new hologram appears in sickbay and claims that he 's Reginald Barclay ( Dwight Schultz ) , Doctor Zimmerman 's assistant at the Jupiter Station Holoprogramming Center . Barclay explains that the Doctor is really Lewis Zimmerman and that the Voyager is actually a simulation in which he 's been stuck and is suffering mental damage due to radiation poisoning . To end the program and rescue Zimmerman , Barclay suggests destroying the ship before he suffers irreparable brain damage . To convince the Doctor that he 's Zimmerman in a simulation , Barclay restarts the Voyager program and the Doctor finds himself reliving the events of " Caretaker " when he was first brought online .
Convinced of Barclay 's claims , the Doctor prepares to destroy the ship when Chakotay ( Robert Beltran ) arrives and gives an alternate story : he is the Voyager EMH , but his program is stuck in the malfunctioning holodeck . The crew is trying to extricate his program so he only needs to wait it out ; if he destroys the ship as Barclay suggests , it will prematurely end the program and the Doctor will be lost . Even though Barclay introduces Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) as Zimmerman 's wife , the Doctor finally opts to believe in his holographic existence . The simulation ends and the Doctor finds himself on the holodeck ; Chakotay 's story was true and the Doctor is safely returned to sickbay .
= = Writing = =
" Projections " is one of four first @-@ season episodes that was held over by UPN to get the jump on other networks in the 1995 – 1996 television season .
Brannon Braga wrote the story from the initial idea of the Doctor having an identity crisis , " What if the doctor discovers that Voyager is a hologram and he is real ? " From there , Braga questioned the axiom " I think , therefore I am " and what it means to be " real " . Calling it a " creepy , philosophical quandary " , Braga related the story of " Projections " to the work of René Descartes , where " the [ character is ] plagued by an evil demon out to prove he doesn 't exist " ; in this instance , Braga made Barclay ( Schultz ) the demon . The episode was written to keep the viewer guessing as to which reality was true ; Braga would later say that the fun of the episode wasn 't in the story itself , but in the telling of the story , " in considering all the different twists and turns along the way . "
The final draft of the episode was submitted on March 30 , 1995 .
= = Casting = =
Casting for " Projections " was done by Junie Lowry @-@ Johnson and Ron Surma .
Writer Brannon Braga came up with the idea of having Dwight Schultz guest star as Lieutenant Barclay , later saying that he and Picardo worked so well together that " they should have a spin @-@ off series . " Episode director Jonathan Frakes would also laud the chemistry between the two actors . Schultz was pleased to be back on Star Trek , and was surprised to be considered for a Voyager guest appearance . On meeting Robert Picardo , he recalled they spent their time joking with each other on set , discussing mutual friends , and comparing notes on their theatre experiences . Picardo would call working with Schultz " like having party . "
Before deciding on Schultz , it was originally suggested that the guest star would be Star Trek : The Next Generation 's LeVar Burton as Geordi La Forge .
= = Reception = =
Writer Brannon Braga called " Projections " his favorite installment of Star Trek : Voyager in a 1996 interview with The Official Star Trek Voyager Magazine . Series co @-@ creator and executive producer Michael Piller called the episode " a wonderful show " and " a fascinating episode " , specifically praising Robert Picardo 's performance alongside fellow co @-@ creator and executive producer Jeri Taylor . Picardo himself would rate " Projections " as one of the two best Doctor @-@ heavy stories of the second season , second only to " Lifesigns " .
In an interview with the Star Trek Communicator magazine , Jeri Taylor would point to an ongoing Internet survey that ranked " Projections " as the third @-@ highest ranked episode of the second season . In his book Delta Quadrant : The unofficial guide to Voyager , though David McIntee would ding the episode on its ultimate predictability and the characterization of Barclay near the end of the episode , he found the interplay between Picardo and Schultz to be overwhelmingly in the episode 's favor ; he rated the episode 8 out of 10 . Cinefantastique 's Dale Kutzera was less impressed by the episode , saying it lost momentum in the middle and that it ill @-@ used " [ Star Trek ] ' s greatest inferiority @-@ complex and greatest egotist . " Kutzera gave the episode two out of four stars .
= Silent Hill : Shattered Memories =
Silent Hill : Shattered Memories ( サイレントヒル シャッタードメモリーズ , Sairento Hiru : Shattādo Memorīzu ) is a survival horror video game developed by Climax Studios and published by Konami Digital Entertainment for the Wii in December 2009 . It was ported to the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable platforms , and these versions were released in January 2010 . In April 2014 , it appeared on the PlayStation Network in Europe . The game is the seventh installment in the Silent Hill video game series , serving as both a reboot of the franchise and a reimagining of the first installment .
Shattered Memories retains the premise of the original game — Harry Mason 's quest to find his missing daughter in the fictitious American town of Silent Hill — but is set in a different fictional universe , has a different plot , and altered characters , alongside new ones . Five endings are available . Gameplay takes place in two parts : a framing , first @-@ person psychotherapy session , and an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective of Harry 's journey through Silent Hill , which is periodically interrupted by the occurrence of a shift to an alternate dimension . Answers given to the psychological tests in the therapy session affect various gameplay elements in Harry 's journey .
After designing the Silent Hill prequel ( 2007 ) , which intentionally replicated elements of the first installment , Climax Studios wanted to try a different approach to creating a title in the series . Among the changes made was the removal of combat and the constant presence of monsters , which they thought unnecessary to the storyline . Akira Yamaoka composed the soundtrack of the game , which was the first in the series to prominently feature dynamic music . The game received generally positive reviews , and its graphics , storyline , voice acting , soundtrack , and use of the Wii Remote were praised by reviewers . Some reviewers criticized Shattered Memories ' chase sequences and duration , which they deemed potentially frustrating and short .
= = Gameplay = =
Silent Hill : Shattered Memories is a reimagining of the first installment of the series , Silent Hill . It keeps the premise of writer Harry Mason 's quest for his missing daughter after a car crash , although it leads into a different plot . The personalities and roles of characters from the first game have also been changed , and Shattered Memories introduces new characters as well .
Silent Hill : Shattered Memories divides its gameplay between two different settings . The first section is set in a psychotherapist 's office and the second in a town called Silent Hill . In the first section , the player interacts with Dr. Michael Kaufmann , a therapist who is a non @-@ player character , from a first @-@ person perspective . The player responds to Kaufmann 's questions and completes a psychological test , fills in a questionnaire or colors pictures . The player 's responses to these tests alters aspects of gameplay in the second setting , including the available areas , the physical appearance and behavior of characters encountered , and the physical appearance of the monsters . Shattered Memories returns to Kaufmann 's office periodically throughout the game .
In the second setting , the player guides Harry Mason in an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder view as he searches for his missing daughter Cheryl in the snowy town of Silent Hill . Harry is equipped with a smartphone and flashlight : he can use the phone to check his location on a Global Positioning System map , take photographs , and make telephone calls . Moving to certain spots with high interference , represented by a lot of radio noise , or by taking pictures of spots where shadowy figures can be seen , unlock various text and voicemail messages that expand the story and occasionally provide clues . To view the details of various documents , the player can zoom in on objects . The game also alters details of gameplay based on what the player views . Throughout his journey , Harry encounters puzzles such as mechanisms , which reward either a key required to progress or a bonus memento . In the Wii version , the Wii Remote is used for puzzle solving and to control the flashlight and cell phone .
The game occasionally shifts to an icy alternate dimension called " Nightmare " , where hostile monsters exist . To escape from this dimension , Harry must find a predetermined exit while avoiding the wandering creatures which chase him upon detection . Unlike previous installments in the series , there is no combat element to the gameplay : Harry is weaponless for the entire duration of the game and can only run , hide , slow down the monsters by knocking down objects to block their path , throw off the creatures if they latch onto him , and temporarily ward them off by picking up and using flares found lying on the ground . His running speed and " health " ( the amount of damage that he can endure before dying ) decrease every time the monsters grab him . In contrast to the previous installments of the series , which featured various types of monsters , Shattered Memories features only one type of humanoid monster , whose physical appearance changes in response to the player 's actions inside and outside the Nightmare realm , including their responses to Kaufmann 's psychological tests .
= = Plot = =
The game begins with a psychotherapy session conducted by Dr. Kaufmann , which acts as a frame story for Harry 's quest . Suffering from issues with his memory , Harry travels home to search for his seven @-@ year @-@ old daughter Cheryl , hoping that she is already there . His consciousness moves between the in @-@ game real world and Nightmare — a frozen version of the town in which monsters chase him — and finds that another family lives in his house . Police officer Cybil Bennett arrives and decides to take him to the police station , but they become caught in a blizzard , and Harry eventually leaves his car to continue his search . Eventually , Harry finds his way to the local high school , where he learns from a woman named Michelle Valdez that a Cheryl Mason attended school there previously , but then moved . She offers to drive Harry to Cheryl 's new address , but after briefly stepping away , he returns to find Michelle has been replaced by Dahlia Mason , who claims to be Harry 's lover and acts as if she has been with him the whole time . He accepts the ride , although during another shift to the Nightmare , the car falls into a river . Harry escapes but loses consciousness .
He awakens in a wheelchair pushed by Cybil in the town 's hospital . Before Cybil can tell him about his file at the station , the town transitions to the Nightmare . Harry escapes and meets Lisa Garland , a nurse injured in a crash , and escorts her to her home . At her request , Harry gives Lisa pills for her headache , and returns to find her either dead or dying , depending on in @-@ game actions taken by the player . Finding him next to Lisa 's corpse , Cybil attempts to arrest him , but is frozen as the Nightmare emerges around them . Harry escapes to Cheryl 's home , where he finds an older Dahlia who claims to be his wife and tells him that Cheryl is at the lighthouse . Harry enters the Nightmare , escapes it , and eventually gets a ride from Michelle . Harry finds a young Dahlia aboard a boat at a lakeside harbour , who sets the course for the lighthouse and seduces him . Harry wakes , finds Dahlia and the environment covered in ice , and crosses the now @-@ frozen lake but falls into the water and passes out . Harry is dragged ashore near the lighthouse by Cybil , who confronts him with the news that Harry Mason died eighteen years ago in a car accident . As Harry proceeds , he finds " the lighthouse " is the name of Dr. Kaufmann 's counseling clinic : the patient in the therapy session is an adult Cheryl , who is in denial over her father 's death . Harry enters the office and Cheryl either reconciles herself to his death or continues to cling to her fantasy father .
At the end of the game , an old video clip from Cheryl 's camcorder is played . Four variations of this clip are available depending upon the player 's actions as Harry . In " Love Lost " , Harry packs his luggage in a car and tells Cheryl not to blame herself for her parents ' separation . In " Drunk Dad " , a drunken Harry yells at Cheryl , demands a beer and blames his drinking on his family . In " Sleaze and Sirens " , Harry flirts on his bed with Lisa and Michelle . In " Wicked and Weak " , Dahlia verbally abuses Harry and slaps him . In the " UFO " joke ending , Cheryl tells Dr. Kaufmann that she believes Harry was kidnapped by aliens and that Silent Hill is a spaceship . After James Sunderland interrupts , the therapy session continues , revealing Cheryl to be a dog and Dr. Kaufmann to be a grey alien . Regardless of the ending , the final scene shows Cheryl packing away mementos that the player can collect throughout the game . An additional scene the player can obtain shows her reconciling with Dahlia outside the clinic .
= = Development = =
Plans for a Silent Hill remake , and speculation about a possible remake based on the Silent Hill film , were circulating as early as 2006 . The idea of a remake was also considered early in the development of the prequel game Silent Hill : Origins ( 2007 ) . Rumours persisted into 2009 , and were seemingly confirmed in February when the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) re @-@ rated the original game . The game was officially announced in the May 2009 issue of Nintendo Power .
Climax Studios , the developer of Silent Hill : Origins , developed Shattered Memories with a development team made up of more than 55 members and a supporting network of more than 90 artists . With the completion of Origins — for which they had attempted to closely replicate the atmosphere and gameplay elements of the first Silent Hill game ( 1999 ) — Climax Studios wanted to create a different horror game . Because of the tenth anniversary of the first Silent Hill installment , Konami thought the time was ideal " to revisit " the game . Climax Studios saw the then @-@ newly introduced Wii platform as a way to reach a wider range of gamers , especially as outside Japan , no Silent Hill title had been exclusively released on a Nintendo platform . Development costs for the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 and their gamers ' " mindset " factored into the decision for the gaming platform . Additionally , the developers wanted to use the Wii Remote to incorporate the gameplay elements of the flashlight and radio static . Climax felt that the first game would be a good starting point , instead of continuing any existing storylines or adding onto the mythology of the town . To please fans of the series and bring in new ones , they decided to reimagine the setting and characters , such as Dahlia , who was changed from " a haggard old woman " who led the town 's cult into a physically attractive young woman .
Climax Studios began with the game 's plot , which the development team considered the main appeal of the series . Early in the game 's development , some team members visited a psychiatrist for research . The use of ice as a visual theme originated partly because the developers wanted to create an Otherworld for the game , as previous games in the series had featured the same theme as Silent Hill , and because snowfall is common in the northeastern or midwestern United States , where the fictional town is located . Falling snow was added to limit the player 's visibility and build an atmosphere of dread . The developers included a system of psychological profiling that adjusted gameplay elements based on the player 's interaction with the game . Writer Sam Barlow explained the system : " ultimately every little thing you do in the game or piece of content you can interact with can be assigned a little personality score . This is all added into a very classical psychometric profile of your personality that can then be mapped onto research . " The opening questionnaire has little significance in the player 's profile . Capturing the multiple variations of gameplay elements for submission to the Entertainment Software Rating Board proved to be difficult , according to the game 's producer , Tomm Hulett . Loading times were eliminated from the game to maintain a sense of immersion for the player .
The developers felt that creating another game in the series with the same style of gameplay had limited potential . In an attempt to imbue the game with the feel of a horror film where the protagonist is a regular person and the antagonist is powerful , they avoided the common survival horror gameplay feature of a player character who is skilled in the use of weapons . Instead they generated an unarmed player character ; and examined the survival horror gameplay staple of difficult combat and sluggish opponents , inspired by zombie films and modelled after the video games Alone in the Dark ( 1992 ) and Resident Evil ( 1996 ) . They also analyzed around 50 chase sequences from various films , including horror films , and the structure of slasher films , in which a powerful and intelligent antagonist pursues the protagonists . The developers drew inspiration from common childhood
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= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Cris Ericson , perennial candidate ( also ran for Vermont 's at @-@ large congressional district )
Bernard Peters
Emily Peyton , Independent candidate for Governor in 2010 and 2012 ( also ran in the Republican primary )
= = = = Declined = = = =
Bruce Lisman , banker
= = General election = =
= = = Debates = = =
A general election debate , attended by party nominees Shumlin , Milne , Diamondstone and Feliciano and Independent candidates Ericson , Peters and Peyton , was held on October 9 . It attracted considerable media attention and was described variously as " funny " , " strange " , " crazy " , " one of the strangest of this election cycle " , " very , very special " and " beard @-@ filled " . Comments by all of the candidates apart from Shumlin drew media attention and laughter from the studio audience , such as Milne describing himself as " third @-@ generation , born in Vermont " , only to correct himself and state that he was born in Brooklyn ; Ericson , who sported a large bow @-@ topped hat , suggesting that poor Vermonters use their food stamps to buy lottery tickets and decrying " chemtrails " ; Diamondstone , who wore jean shorts with suspenders and long socks and sported a large beard , calling for revolutionary socialism , the legalisation of all drugs and secession from the union , as well as comparing students to " slaves " because of the cost of higher education and responding to a question about the Department of Children and Families by railing against the U.S. military and the " Zionist regime " ; Peters answering a question about the affordability of college in Vermont by saying that he had " no idea " ; and self @-@ described " light worker " Peyton shouting at Shumlin for allegedly closing highway restrooms and using her closing remarks to ask Vermonters if they 'd rather choose money or love .
Additional debates among the candidates were held , which also drew attention . Former Governor Howard Dean described the debates as a " good thing for the state " and Time magazine 's Denver Nicks called them a " breath of fresh air " and " pure entertainment " . There was a final debate on October 29 with just the top three candidates : Shumlin , Milne and Feliciano .
= = = Polling = = =
= = = Results = = =
= = = = Results by district = = = =
Of Vermont 's 275 " polling places " that report results separately — corresponding to the state 's 255 towns and cities , with some larger municipalities broken into multiple precincts — Milne won a plurality in 162 precincts , or 58 @.@ 9 % . Shumlin won 112 , or 40 @.@ 7 % , and they were tied in one other . Shumlin won the state 's biggest voting area , Burlington ( representing 9 @,@ 604 gubernatorial voters ) , by a margin of 66 % to 23 % . Of the state 's 10 largest municipalities , Shumlin also won South Burlington , Bennington , Montpelier , Hartford and Middlebury . Milne won Essex , Colchester , Rutland City , Williston and Barre Town . Of Vermont 's 13 multi @-@ member Senate districts , aligning roughly with the state 's 14 counties , Milne won eight ( 61 @.@ 5 % ) and Shumlin five ( 38 @.@ 5 % ) . Milne won the popular vote in 53 House districts ; Shumlin won in 51 .
= = = Analysis = = =
As no candidate received a majority of the vote , the Vermont General Assembly was required to decide the election , choosing among the top three vote @-@ getters , Shumlin , Milne and Feliciano . The result came as a surprise to most observers , who had expected Shumlin to win easily . RealClearPolitics rated the race " Likely Democratic " and The Cook Political Report , Daily Kos Elections , Governing , The Rothenberg Political Report and Sabato 's Crystal Ball all rated the race " Safe Democratic " . RealClearPolitics reported an average lead in the polls of 15 @.@ 2 % for Shumlin and HuffPost Pollster 's model estimated Shumlin would beat Milne 51 @.@ 1 % to 37 % with the probability that Shumlin would win the election at 95 % .
Analyzing the results , The Burlington Free Press pointed to Shumlin 's relatively soft numbers in opinion polls – he was in the mid @-@ 40s in the last four polls of the race – as evidence that voters were dissatisfied with the progress the state had made in instituting single @-@ payer health care , with rising property taxes , and with the unsuccessful roll @-@ out of Vermont Health Connect , the state 's federal health care exchange . Shumlin 's internal polls showed a close race and he touted an endorsement from popular U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy to try and put him over 50 % . By comparison , Milne lagged in fundraising and spending , with just $ 100 @,@ 000 available compared to Shumlin 's $ 1 @.@ 1 million , which meant that he could not even afford to pay for polling .
The presence of Libertarian nominee Dan Feliciano on the ballot divided opinion , with Milne and former Republican Governor Jim Douglas saying that he split the anti @-@ Shumlin vote . By contrast , the Free Press said that Feliciano was likely to have drawn many voters dissatisfied with Shumlin but who would not have otherwise have voted for Milne . Feliciano agreed with this assessment , saying that he was " not a spoiler " . Republicans wondered whether they should have done more to push Feliciano out , whether Milne should have run more strongly against single @-@ payer , whether 2012 nominee and former State Auditor Randy Brock should have run again , and whether the state party should have been less focused on state legislative races .
Analysis by political experts pointed to the record low voter turnout – around 43 @.@ 6 % – and the fact that 39 @,@ 000 more people voted for Democratic Congressman Peter Welch than voted for Shumlin as a sign of dissatisfaction with Shumlin . University of Vermont political science professor Garrison Nelson said that " the people who showed up are the angry ones " and that , unlike Shumlin , " Welch demonstrated an appeal far beyond just the Democratic base . "
In a news conference on November 12 , Shumlin stated that the result was " humbling " and said that he would " listen , learn , reflect [ and ] be more inclusive . " He also pledged to move ahead with single @-@ payer health care and to address school spending , property taxes and the $ 100m budget gap .
= = General Assembly vote = =
Since 1853 , the General Assembly has selected the first @-@ place finisher in every gubernatorial election that has come before it , most recently in 2010 , when Shumlin received 49 @.@ 5 % of the vote and was chosen over Republican Brian Dubie , and in 2002 , when the Democratic @-@ controlled legislature picked Republican Jim Douglas , who had received 44 @.@ 9 % , over Democrat Doug Racine , who received 42 @.@ 4 % . The Assembly most recently reversed a plurality vote in the 1976 lieutenant gubernatorial election , when the Republican @-@ controlled legislature picked Republican T. Garry Buckley rather than Democrat John Alden , who was suspected , and later convicted , of insurance fraud .
Although the second @-@ place finisher usually concedes the race , as happened in 2002 and 2010 , Milne refused to concede . He considered requesting a recount , but did not do so , reasoning that it was " extremely unlikely , almost unfathomable , that a recount would put either candidate above the 50 percent mark . " Before the election , Milne said that if Shumlin won a plurality , he would support him and would expect Shumlin to do the same if the situation were reversed . After the election , however , he said , " it 's clear that 54 % of Vermonters want a new governor , and a new path forward . "
As 91 votes are needed to elect the Governor from the 180 @-@ member body and Democrats and Progressives held 112 seats , it was considered unlikely that Milne would win . Milne argued that legislators should decide the election in line with how their individual districts voted . Neal Goswami of the Vermont Press Bureau calculated that if each legislator voted according to the results in their district , the vote would result in a 90 – 90 tie . Milne disagreed with this calculation and claimed voting according to district outcome would result in his winning 93 – 87 .
Republican legislative leaders said that they would not whip their members to vote for Shumlin , leaving them free to vote their consciences . Though Republican Lieutenant Governor Phillip Scott did not have a vote , he said that he would vote for Shumlin , and Republican State Representative Kurt Wright said that he would do so . Initially , no Democrats indicated that they would vote for Milne . Indeed , several Democrats whose districts voted for Milne over Shumlin said that they would vote for Shumlin , citing his plurality win .
For almost a month , Milne made no further comment as he considered whether to lobby for legislators ' votes . Former Governor Douglas cautioned Milne against waging a legislative campaign for Governor , saying that it was " unlikely " to be an effective strategy and that Milne should seek to preserve the " good will that he has accrued " and " acknowledge the result and come back and fight another day . "
Then , on December 8 , Milne held a press conference in which he defied suggestions that he would concede by officially announcing that he was asking state legislators to vote for him . He went on to say that he would not be " pro @-@ actively " trying to convince legislators to vote for him , nor would he start " twisting arms " , but that his " door is open " and called on legislators to " consider the record of the incumbent " and what was " best " for Vermont . Shumlin responded that he was " honored to have received the most votes in this election and would not want to serve as governor if I did not . " He went on to say that he believed that " the Legislature will honor the long democratic tradition of electing the candidate who received the most votes . "
After Milne 's announcement , Independent State Representative Paul Poirier , a liberal whose district voted for Milne by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin , announced that he would vote for Milne . One Democrat , State Representative Jim Condon , said that he would vote for Milne , also citing his district 's support for Milne over Shumlin . Political science professors Eric Davis and Garrison Nelson and House Minority Leader Don Turner expected the General Assembly vote to roughly follow party lines , with Milne receiving about one @-@ third of the votes , including most of the Republicans and a few Democrats and Independents .
On December 17 , Shumlin announced that he was dropping his plan to implement single @-@ payer healthcare . The reforms , which required business and personal tax increases , had never advanced beyond the framework stage . Shumlin , who had missed two earlier financing deadlines , said that " this is not the right time " because the federal government had offered less funding than expected and " the potential economic disruption and risks would be too great to small businesses , working families and the state 's economy . " The media also cited controversy surrounding comments made by economist Jonathan Gruber , who was involved in crafting and advocating for the plan , and Shumlin 's failure to win a majority in the election as reasons for the cancellation . The decision , which Shumlin called the " biggest disappointment " of his career , drew a mixed response . Business groups lauded his " pragmatic " move but supporters of health care reform organized protests and said that it would end his political career .
At the end of December , the newly formed group " Vermonters for Honest Government " raised $ 30 @,@ 000 to air television advertisements aimed at pressuring legislators to vote for Milne . The group 's founder , retired United States Navy Captain Bill Round , said that legislators should vote against Shumlin because " he 's promised a lot and failed to deliver . " Round did not reveal the source of the group 's funding . Milne said that while he had no connection to the group , he appreciated the sentiment . By contrast , Shumlin said that he would " absolutely not " run any advertisements , nor would he campaign for legislators ' votes or spend any money . He added that he was " not worried " about the vote .
In early January , Milne reiterated that he was not actively campaigning for legislators ' votes but said that he felt that his odds of victory were " getting better on a weekly basis , if not a daily basis . " Shumlin said that if Milne were to win , Vermont would be " paralyzed " , as the new administration lacked the time needed to assemble a new staff and draft a budget for the 2016 fiscal year . He also offered his support for amending the state constitution so that as long as a plurality winner received at least 40 % of the vote , the Assembly would not be required to decide the election .
On January 8 , the General Assembly voted to re @-@ elect Shumlin by 110 votes to 69 , with one legislator not voting . Shumlin stated that he was " grateful for the opportunity to continue serving this state I love . I expect this will be a productive session addressing the issues Vermonters care about so deeply . " Milne said that it was " a good day for Vermont ... I was happy to be a part of it . I think the road that 's led us here has a lot of people feeling like one person can make a difference . " Milne did not rule out running again in 2016 .
= = = Results = = =
= = Aftermath = =
On June 8 , 2015 , Shumlin announced that he would not run for a fourth term in 2016 . He said that he had " never seen politics as a lifelong career " and " decided to make this decision now because I want these next 18 months to be about the work that we still have to do . " He said that his decision was " not driven by poll numbers ; [ nor ] driven by politics " and that after leaving office in January 2017 , he would return to his family business in Putney .
Several candidates have announced their intention to run : for the Democrats , former State Senator and 2010 gubernatorial candidate Matt Dunne , former Secretary of the Vermont Agency of Transportation and former State Representative Sue Minter and Speaker of the Vermont House of Representatives Shap Smith ; for the Republicans , retired banker Bruce Lisman and Lieutenant Governor Phil Scott . Milne is not running again . After saying that he was " unlikely " to run when Scott entered the race , it was later reported that he " would only get in the governor 's race if Scott was to falter . " Milne later clarified that he expected Scott to win the nomination and , in September 2015 , officially endorsed him . Libertarian nominee Dan Feliciano , who joined the Republican Party in mid @-@ January 2015 , is considering running for the Republican nomination .
= The Thrill Book =
The Thrill Book was a U.S. pulp magazine published by Street & Smith in 1919 . It was intended to carry " different " stories : this meant stories that were unusual or unclassifiable , which in practice often meant that the stories were fantasy or science fiction . The first eight issues , edited by Harold Hersey , were a mixture of adventure and weird stories . Contributors included Greye La Spina , Charles Fulton Oursler , J. H. Coryell , and Seabury Quinn . Hersey was replaced by Ronald Oliphant with the July 1 issue , probably because Street & Smith were unhappy with his performance .
Oliphant printed more science fiction and fantasy than Hersey had done , though this included two stories by Murray Leinster which Hersey had purchased before being replaced . The most famous story from The Thrill Book is The Heads of Cerberus , a very early example of a novel about alternate time tracks , by Francis Stevens . Oliphant was given a larger budget than Hersey , and was able to acquire material by popular writers such as H. Bedford @-@ Jones , but he was only able to produce eight more issues before the end came . The last issue was dated October 15 , 1919 ; it was probably cancelled because of poor sales , although a printers ' strike at that time may have been a factor .
Although The Thrill Book has been described as the first American pulp to specialize in fantasy and science fiction , this description is not supported by recent historians of the field , who regard it instead as a stepping stone on the path that ultimately led to Weird Tales and Amazing Stories , the first true specialized magazines in the fields of weird fiction and science fiction respectively .
= = Publication history = =
In the late 19th century popular magazines typically did not print fiction to the exclusion of other content ; they would include non @-@ fiction articles and poetry as well . In October 1896 , the Frank A. Munsey company 's Argosy magazine was the first to switch to printing only fiction , and in December of that year it switched to using cheap wood @-@ pulp paper . This is now regarded by magazine historians as having been the start of the pulp magazine era . For twenty years pulp magazines were successful without restricting their fiction content to any specific genre , but in 1915 the influential magazine publisher Street & Smith began to issue titles that focused on a particular niche , such as Detective Story Magazine and Western Story Magazine , thus pioneering the specialized and single @-@ genre pulps . In the midst of these changes , some time in 1918 , Street & Smith 's circulation manager , Henry Ralston , decided to launch a new magazine to publish " different " stories : " different " meant stories that were unusual or unclassifiable in some way , which in most cases meant that they included either fantasy or science fiction elements . In The Fiction Factory , Quentin Reynolds ' history of Street & Smith , Reynolds asserts that the magazine was the brainchild of Ormond G. Smith , one of the publishers , but pulp historian Will Murray regards this as unlikely to be the full story , given that Reynolds ' book was written almost forty years later and was an " approved " history . Murray asserts that Ralston was certainly involved in the creation of The Thrill Book . Walter Adolphe Roberts , the editor of Street & Smith 's Ainslee 's Magazine , told a friend of his , Harold Hersey , that Ralston was looking for an editor for a new magazine . Hersey had sold some writing to the pulps but his editorial experience was limited to no more than a year 's work on several little magazines . He met with Ralston in early 1919 and was immediately hired on the basis of the interview . It is possible that Eugene A. Clancy , the editor of Street & Smith 's The Popular Magazine , was originally intended to be the editor of The Thrill Book , but was unable to take on the additional work , though Clancy did assist Hersey on some issues of The Thrill Book . Bringing Hersey on as editor was unfortunate ; historians of the field describe Hersey as lacking talent both as a writer and an editor .
The first issue of The Thrill Book was dated March 1 , 1915 , and was published in a format similar to that of a dime novel . The choice of format was probably a mistake , as it was associated in the minds of the buying public with low @-@ quality fiction aimed at readers with very low standards . The plan to publish twice a month indicated that Street & Smith were confident that the new magazine would be successful .
With the ninth issue , dated July 1 , 1919 , Hersey was replaced by Ronald Oliphant . The reason he was replaced is not clear , though several explanations have been suggested . Murray Leinster claimed that Hersey was fired for publishing too much of his own fiction and poetry in the magazine ; according to Leinster , some of the poetry may have actually been written by Hersey 's mother rather than by Hersey himself . Pulp historian Richard Bleiler regards this theory as unlikely , since although up to eighteen of the twenty @-@ five short poems in the first eight issues of the magazine may have been by Hersey , only two stories in those issues are definitely by him , and there are only four other stories which may have been Hersey 's work published under a pseudonym . Bleiler suggests that at most Street & Smith would have reprimanded Hersey , and that the real reason for his dismissal is more likely to be that Street & Smith were dissatisfied with The Thrill Book under his editorship . Bleiler also suggests that Hersey may have started the rumor that he was let go for buying too much of his own material , as this would have been less harmful to his reputation than a dismissal for failure . Hersey himself claimed that he was not fired , but quit : " I wasn 't fired , but I should have been ... I saw the ' handwriting on the wall ' ahead of time . I asked to be relieved of my duties ... and my request was promptly accepted ! "
At the same time that Oliphant was appointed editor , the layout of the magazine was changed to that of a standard pulp . At 160 pages , this offered readers much better value for money than the 48 @-@ page dime novel format of the first eight issues , even with a price increase from 10 to 15 cents . A question and answer department , " Cross @-@ Trails " , was begun , in imitation of a similar feature in Adventure , the most successful pulp magazine of the day , and the format change may also have been done to increase the resemblance of the two magazines , along with a change to the appearance of The Thrill Book 's contents page to resemble that of Adventure .
Street & Smith cancelled the magazine after the sixteenth issue , dated October 15 . A printers ' strike has often been suggested as the reason , though Hersey denied it in his reminiscences , and it is clear that poor sales were at least part of the reason for the cancellation . Stories were still being acquired for the magazine by Street & Smith in November , and since the final issue would have appeared on newsstands some time in September , this implies that the magazine went on hiatus ( possibly because of the printers ' strike ) with the expectation of returning , perhaps on a less frequent schedule . A note in Street & Smith 's files records the cancellation date as December 1 , 1919 , which may indicate the point at which the delay caused by the strike convinced Street & Smith to finally kill the magazine .
= = Contents and reception = =
Hersey began by making himself familiar with the work of writers already in the market who were capable of producing the kind of material Ralston wanted . He soon concluded that the new magazine would have to include some reprinted stories alongside the original material . The budget did not permit Hersey to pay rates that would attract top @-@ quality writers , nor even to reprint the best @-@ known stories of the kind he was looking for , and he was forced to use relatively unknown authors such as Perley Poore Sheehan and Robert W. Sneddon . Hersey distributed a " Notice to Writers " that described what he was looking for : " strange , bizarre , occult , mysterious tales ... mystic happenings , weird adventures , feats of leger @-@ de @-@ main , spiritualism , et cetera ... If you have an idea which you have considered too bizarre to write , too weird or strange , let us see it . " This did not restrict the submissions to fantasy or science fiction , and as a result Hersey received ( and printed ) all kinds of fiction , including mysteries , adventures , and love stories , though it may be that he simply did not receive enough good quality science fiction and fantasy to fill the magazine . Hersey later recalled that the notice did not bring in many usable manuscripts : " As a result of the notices in the writers ' magazines , I received a thousand manuscripts but was able to buy only ten ! "
The first issue included " Wolf of the Steppes " , a werewolf story by Greye La Spina . This had been submitted to The Popular Magazine but purchased by Clancy for The Thrill Book in 1918 , when Street & Smith began making plans for the new magazine . The story was the first by La Spina , whose real name was Fanny Greye Bragg ; she would go on to publish several more stories in The Thrill Book , and later became a regular contributor to Weird Tales . Another first story was " The Thing That Wept " , by Charles Fulton Oursler , who later went on to edit Liberty and to write novels under the name Anthony Abbot . Two serials were begun in the first issue : " The Jeweled Ibis " by J.C. Kofoed , and " In the Shadows of Race " , by J. Hampton Bishop . Both contained enough fantastic or science @-@ fictional elements to fit the original plans for the magazine : " The Jeweled Ibis " was about worshippers of the ancient Egyptian gods , and Bishop 's story was about a lost race in Africa , and included intelligent apes . The cover for the first issue was by Sidney H. Riesenberg ; Bleiler describes it as " shabby and second @-@ rate " by comparison to cover art in successful magazines of the day such as Adventure and Detective Story Magazine . The May 1 issue included an early short story by Seabury Quinn , " The Stone Image " , which features a character named Dr. Towbridge , who would later appear ( renamed Dr. Trowbridge ) in Quinn 's popular occult detective stories about Jules de Grandin , though Quinn had not yet invented de Grandin . Tod Robbins , a well @-@ regarded writer of fantasy , supplied several short pieces , all " shallow mood sketches " without much substance , in the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley . The contributors included Sophie Louise Wenzel , who later published stories in Weird Tales under the name Sophie Wenzel Ellis , but most of the writers from Hersey 's editorship , such as George C. Jenks and John R. Coryell — both authors of dime novels — are no longer well @-@ known names .
When Oliphant took over the editorship , he placed notices in writers ' magazines looking for more submissions . Much of the material published under Oliphant 's editorship would have been bought by Hersey , making it hard to judge Oliphant 's impact . However , it is clear that Oliphant bought more science fiction and fantasy stories than Hersey had done : in particular , Hersey had published almost no stories that were straightforward science fiction , though two he did purchase , Murray Leinster 's " A Thousand Degrees Below Zero " and " The Silver Menace " , appeared in the first few issues of Oliphant 's editorship . Stories such as " The Lost Days " by Trainor Lansing , which dealt with perceptions of time , and " The Ultimate Ingredient " by Greye La Spina , about invisibility , published in August and October respectively , were more evidence of this change in emphasis . The most famous science fiction to appear in The Thrill Book was Francis Stevens ' novel The Heads of Cerberus , which was one of the earliest fictional depictions of alternate timelines . In addition to increasing the science fiction content , Oliphant also brought in authors who were better known than those published under Hersey 's editorship , including H. Bedford @-@ Jones and William Wallace Cook . It seems likely that the fiction budget increased when Oliphant took control , and he used this to pay higher word @-@ rates to the better writers . Hersey had paid about a cent per word for fiction , but Bedford @-@ Jones received $ 800 for " The Opium Ship " , which was a rate of between 2 @.@ 5 and 3 cents per word . However , Francis Stevens was paid only $ 400 , or less than a cent per word , for the much longer novel The Heads of Cerberus . Poetry continued to appear , including several more poems by Hersey , and also including " Dissonance " by Clark Ashton Smith , whom Hersey had contacted in March asking for submissions in what Will Murray describes as " a rare instance of Hersey 's editorial foresight " .
When The Thrill Book ceased publication , Street & Smith had numerous manuscripts in inventory that had been purchased for the magazine . These were offered to other Street & Smith magazines such as Sea Stories over the next few years . Greye La Spina bought back her manuscript to " The Dead Wagon " in 1927 and re @-@ sold it to Weird Tales . Francis Stevens had sold three serials and three short stories to The Thrill Book that remained unpublished : one of the serials , Serapion , was published in Argosy in 1920 , but the fate of the other two is not known — they may have been earlier titles for known works of hers . The three short stories are not known to have been published elsewhere . In 1940 , John L. Nanovic , the editor of Doc Savage and The Shadow , reviewed the remaining Thrill Book manuscripts , and suggested to Ralston that a few stories might be publishable in Love Story Magazine , and also suggested a few stories that John W. Campbell might be interested in for Unknown . The following year Oliphant reviewed ten of the manuscripts and returned them to Nanovic with his recommendations . Campbell reviewed three of them and declined to take any ; he also declined to take Murray Leinster 's " The Great Catastrophe " , which had been submitted to The Thrill Book and found independently of Nanovic 's review . Other magazines that considered and rejected the stories Oliphant recommended included Clues , Mystery , and Detective Story Magazine . The only story from The Thrill Book 's inventory that was used from this review was Clyde Broadwell 's " The Speed Demon 's Vendetta " , which was rewritten and published in The Avenger in March 1942 under the pseudonym " Denby Brixton " , which Broadwell had used for a story he had sold to The Thrill Book .
In 1976 the manuscripts were reviewed again by Will Murray . By this time they had been donated to Syracuse University by Condé Nast , which had acquired Street & Smith in 1961 . The ten stories reviewed by Oliphant were found and plans were made for Odyssey Publications to publish a paperback edition of Thrill Book material including these stories along with some reprints . The following year another group of Thrill Book manuscripts was found in the Syracuse collection , including Leinster 's " The Great Catastrophe " and La Spina 's " The Bracelet " , and the planned contents of the anthology were revised to include some of this material . None of the Francis Stevens stories were found in either group of manuscripts . One story , " As It Is Written " , by De Lysle Ferree Cass , was misidentified by Murray as the work of Clark Ashton Smith , and this led to delays in publication as Odyssey made separate plans to publish the story under Smith 's name . The misidentification was not discovered until after the story appeared in print in 1982 . Four years later , Odyssey went out of business , and the anthology of Thrill Book material never appeared .
Because The Thrill Book was only sold in selected parts of the US , copies of the magazine are very scarce and are highly prized by pulp magazine collectors . Despite its rarity , or perhaps because of it , it has been often described as the first science fiction and fantasy magazine ever published , though more recent assessments by science fiction and pulp historians agree instead that the magazine was a failed attempt at specialization . In the words of Will Murray , the view that The Thrill Book is the first such magazine is " erroneously held by many " , and he adds that it was " merely a prologue to the Golden Era of periodical weird fiction " . In Murray 's opinion it might well have become a dominant force in the genre had it continued publication . Richard Bleiler comments that " it was a magazine that somehow became a symbol to a generation of pulp readers ... it was the first eidetic flash of a dream that would later come into being with Weird Tales " , and in Mike Ashley 's opinion it was just " a step towards a full @-@ blown fantasy magazine " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The Thrill Book was published by Street & Smith . Initially the magazine was saddle @-@ stapled , 10 3 ⁄ 4 in by 8 in , 48 pages long , and priced at 10 cents . This changed with the ninth issue , dated July 1 , 1919 , to pulp format , with 160 pages , priced at 15 cents . The editor was Harold Hersey from March 1 , 1919 to June 15 , 1919 , and Ronald Oliphant thereafter . There were eight issues to the first volume , six in the second , and two in the third and final volume . Hersey later recalled that he had heard of a Thrill Book Quarterly being issued , but no evidence of such a magazine has been found .
Two issues of The Thrill Book have been reprinted in facsimile editions , both by Wildside Press : the September 1 , 1919 issue , published in 2005 , and the first issue , March 1 , 1919 , which appeared in 2011 .
= Dive Coaster =
The Dive Coaster is a steel roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard where riders experience a moment of free @-@ falling with at least one 90 @-@ degree drop . Unlike other roller coasters where the lift hill takes the train directly to the first drop , a Dive Coaster lift hill leads to a flat section of track followed by a holding brake which stops the train just as it enters the vertical drop . After a few seconds , the train is released into the drop .
Development of the Dive Coaster began between 1994 and 1995 with Oblivion at Alton Towers opening on March 14 , 1998 , making it the world 's first Dive Coaster . The trains for this type of coaster are relatively short consisting of two to three cars . Bolliger & Mabillard have recently begun to also use floorless trains on this model to enhance the experience . As of May 2016 , ten Dive Coasters have been built , with the newest being Valravn at Cedar Point .
= = History = =
According to Walter Bolliger , development of the Dive Coaster began between 1994 and 1995 . On March 14 , 1998 , the world 's first Dive Coaster , Oblivion , opened at Alton Towers . Though Oblivion is classified as a Dive Coaster , it does not have a true vertical drop as the drop angle is 88 @.@ 8 @-@ degrees . Two years later , the second Dive Coaster built , Diving Machine G5 , opened at Janfusun Fancyworld and also does not have a vertical drop . In 2005 , SheiKra opened at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay and was the first Dive Coaster to feature a 90 @-@ degree drop and a splashdown element . In 2007 , Busch Gardens Williamsburg announced that Griffon would be the first ever Dive Coaster to feature floorless trains and SheiKra would have its trains replaced with floorless ones . In 2011 , the first ' mini ' Dive Coaster opened at Heide Park Resort , named Krake . Unlike other Dive Coasters , Krake has smaller trains consisting of three rows of six riders .
= = Design = =
The design of a Dive Coaster can vary slightly from one to another . Depending on the amusement park 's request , one row on the train can seat anywhere from 6 to 10 riders . Stadium seating is also used to give every rider a clear view . Next , compared to standard Bolliger & Mabillard 4 abreast cars , because of the extra weight of each car on a Dive Coaster , the size of the track must be larger than other B & M models ( such as the Hyper Coaster ) to support the weight . At the top of the primary vertical drop , a braking system holds the train for 3 to 5 seconds , giving riders a view of the drop ahead before being released into the drop .
In the station , Dive Coasters that use non @-@ floorless trains simply use a standard station . With Dive Coasters that use floorless trains , in order to allow riders to load and unload the train , a movable floor is necessary . Because the front row has nothing in front of it to stop riders from walking over the edge of the station , a gate is placed in front of the train to prevent this from happening . Once all the over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints are locked , the gate opens and the floor separates into several pieces and moves underneath the station . When the next train enters the station , the gate is closed and the floors are brought back up where the next riders board .
= = Installations = =
Bolliger & Mabillard has built ten Dive Coasters with one to be openned in 2017 . The roller coasters are listed in order of opening dates .
= Nathu La =
Nathu La ( Devanagari नाथू ला ; Tibetan : རྣ ་ ཐོས ་ ལ ་ , IAST : Nāthū Lā , Chinese : 乃堆拉山口 ; pinyin : Nǎiduīlā Shānkǒu ) is a mountain pass in the Himalayas . It connects the Indian state of Sikkim with China 's Tibet Autonomous Region . The pass , at 4 @,@ 310 m ( 14 @,@ 140 ft ) above mean sea level , forms a part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road . Nathu means " listening ears " and La means " pass " in Tibetan . On the Indian side , the pass is 54 km ( 34 mi ) east of Gangtok , the capital of Sikkim . Only citizens of India can visit the pass , and then only after obtaining a permit in Gangtok .
Nathu La is one of the three open trading border posts between China and India ; the others are Shipkila in Himachal Pradesh and Lipulekh ( or Lipulech ) at the trisection point of Uttarakhand – India , Nepal and China . Sealed by India after the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War , Nathu La was re @-@ opened in 2006 following numerous bilateral trade agreements . The opening of the pass shortens the travel distance to important Hindu and Buddhist pilgrimage sites in the region and was expected to bolster the economy of the region by playing a key role in the growing Sino @-@ Indian trade . However , trade is limited to specific types of goods and to specific days of the week .
It is also one of the four officially agreed BPM ( Border Personnel Meeting ) points between the Indian Army and People 's Liberation Army of China for regular consultations and interactions between the two armies , which helps in defusing stand @-@ offs . The four BPM are : Chushul in Ladakh , Nathu La in Sikkim , Bum La Pass in Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh , and Lipulekh Pass in Uttarakhand , 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) from the Chinese town of Burang .
= = History = =
Nathu La is located on the 563 km ( 350 mi ) Old Silk Route , an offshoot of the historic Silk Road . The Old Silk Route connects Lhasa in Tibet to the plains of Bengal to the south . In 1815 , trade volume increased after the British annexed territories belonging to the Sikkimese , Nepalese , and Bhutanese . The potential of Nathu La was realised in 1873 , after the Darjeeling Deputy Commissioner published a report on the strategic importance of mountain passes between Sikkim and Tibet . In December 1893 , the Sikkimese monarchy and Tibetan rulers signed an agreement to increase trade between the two nations . The agreement culminated in 1894 when the trade pass was opened .
Nathu La played a vital role in the 1903 – 1904 British expedition to Tibet , which sought to prevent the Russian Empire from interfering in Tibetan affairs and thus gaining a foothold in the region . In 1904 , Major Francis Younghusband , serving as the British Commissioner to Tibet , led a successful mission through Nathu La to capture Lhasa . This led to the setting up of trading posts at Gyantse and Gartok in Tibet , and gave control of the surrounding Chumbi Valley to the British . The following November , China and Great Britain ratified an agreement approving trade between Sikkim and Tibet .
In 1947 and 1948 , a popular vote for Sikkim to join newly independent India failed and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to a special protectorate status for Sikkim . Sikkim agreed to be a protectorate nation and Indian troops were allowed to man its borders , including Nathu La . During this period , more than 1 @,@ 000 mules and 700 people were involved in cross @-@ border trade through Nathu La . In 1949 , when the Tibetan government expelled the Chinese living there , most of the displaced Chinese returned home through the Nathu La – Sikkim – Kolkata route .
The current Dalai Lama , Tenzin Gyatso , used this pass to travel to India for the 2,500th birthday celebration of Gautama Buddha , which was held between November 1956 and February 1957 . Later , on 1 September 1958 , Nehru , his daughter Indira Gandhi , and Palden Thondup Namgyal ( son of — and internal affairs adviser to — Tashi Namgyal , the Chogyal of Sikkim ) used this pass to travel to nearby Bhutan .
After the People 's Republic of China took control of Tibet in 1950 and suppressed a Tibetan uprising in 1959 , the passes into Sikkim became a conduit for refugees from Tibet . During the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War , Nathu La witnessed skirmishes between soldiers of the two countries . Shortly thereafter , the passage was sealed and remained closed for more than four decades . Between 7 and 13 September 1967 , China 's People 's Liberation Army and the Indian Army had six @-@ day " border skirmishes " , including the exchange of heavy artillery fire . In 1975 , Sikkim acceded to India and Nathu La became part of Indian territory . China , however , refused to acknowledge the accession at that time .
In 2003 , with the thawing of Sino @-@ Indian relations , Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee 's visit to China led to the resumption of talks on opening the border . Later in 2004 , the Indian Defence Minister 's visit to China led to the formal opening of the pass . The opening , originally scheduled for 2 October 2005 , was postponed due to last @-@ minute infrastructure problems on the Chinese side . Finally , after a decade of talks , Nathu La was opened on 6 July 2006 . The date of the reopening , which also formally recognised Tibet as part of China by India and Sikkim 's accession to India , coincided with the birthday of the reigning Dalai Lama . In the years before the reopening , the only person permitted to cross the barbed @-@ wire frontier had been a Chinese postman with an Indian military escort , who would hand over mail to his Indian counterpart in a building at the border .
The opening of the pass was marked by a ceremony on the Indian side that was attended by officials from both countries . A delegation of 100 traders from India and 100 Tibetans crossed the border to respective trading towns . Despite heavy rain and chilly winds , the ceremony was marked by the attendance of many officials , locals , and international and local media . The barbed wire fence between India and China was replaced by a 10 m ( 30 ft ) wide stone @-@ walled passageway . It was also decided to mark the year 2006 as the year of Sino @-@ Indian friendship .
= = Geography = =
The pass is 54 km ( 34 mi ) east of Gangtok , the capital of Sikkim and 430 km ( 270 mi ) from Lhasa , the capital of Tibet . In the winter , the pass is blocked by heavy snowfall . Because there is no meteorological centre in Nathu La , systematic measurements of meteorological data ( such as temperature and rainfall ) are not available for the region . However , it is known that in the higher reaches of the Himalayas around the region , summer temperature never exceeds 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) .
Nathu La has moderately shallow , excessively drained , coarse , and loamy soil on a steep slope ( 30 – 50 % ) with gravelly loamy surface , moderate erosion , and moderate stoniness . It has several sinking zones and parts of it are prone to landslides . To preserve the fragile environment of Nathu La on the Indian side , the government of India regulates the flow of tourists . Road maintenance is entrusted to Border Roads Organisation , a wing of the Indian Army . On the Chinese side the pass leads to the Chumbi Valley of the Tibetan Plateau .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Because of the steep elevation increase around the pass , the vegetation graduates from sub @-@ tropical forest at its base , to a temperate region , to a wet and dry alpine climate , and finally to cold tundra desert devoid of vegetation . Around Nathu La and the Tibetan side , the region has little vegetation besides scattered shrubs . Major species found in the region include dwarf rhododendrons ( Rhododendron anthopogon , R. setosum ) and junipers . The meadows include the genera Poa , Meconopsis , Pedicularis , Primula , and Aconitum . The region has a four @-@ month growing season during which grasses , sedges , and medicinal herbs grow abundantly and support a host of insects , wild and domestic herbivores , larks , and finches . The nearby Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary has rare , endangered ground orchida and rhododendrons interspersed among tall junipers and silver firs .
There are no permanent human settlements in the region , though it has a large number of defence personnel who man the borders on both sides . A small number of nomadic Tibetan graziers or Dokpas herd yak , sheep and pashmina @-@ type goats in the region . There has been intense grazing pressure due to domestic and wild herbivores on the land . Yaks are found in these parts , and in many hamlets they serve as beasts of burden . The region around Nathu La contains many endangered species , including Tibetan gazelle , snow leopard , Tibetan wolf , Tibetan snowcock , lammergeier , raven , golden eagle , and ruddy shelduck . Feral dogs are considered a major hazard in this region . The presence of landmines in the area causes casualties among yak , nayan , kiang , and Tibetan wolf .
The avifauna consists of various types of laughing thrushes , which live in shrubs and on the forest floor . The blue whistling @-@ thrush , redstarts , and forktails are found near waterfalls and hill @-@ streams . The mixed hunting species present in the region include warblers , tit @-@ babblers , treecreepers , white @-@ eyes , wrens , and rose finches . Raptors such as black eagle , black @-@ winged kite and kestrels ; and pheasants such as monals and blood pheasant are also found .
= = Economy = =
Up until 1962 , before the pass was sealed , goods such as pens , watches , cereals , cotton cloth , edible oils , soaps , building materials , and dismantled scooters and four @-@ wheelers were exported to Tibet through the pass on mule @-@ back . Two hundred mules , each carrying about 80 kilograms ( 180 lb ) of load , were used to ferry goods from Gangtok to Lhasa , which used to take 20 – 25 days . Upon return , silk , raw wool , musk pods , medicinal plants , country liquor , precious stones , gold , and silverware were imported into India . Most of the trade in those days was carried out by the Marwari community , which owned 95 % of the 200 authorised firms .
Since July 2006 , trading is open Mondays through Thursdays . Exports from India exempted from duty include agricultural implements , blankets , copper products , clothes , cycles , coffee , tea , barley , rice , wheat , flour , dry fruits , vegetables , vegetable oil , tobacco , snuff , spices , shoes , kerosene oil , stationery , utensils , milk processed products , canned food , dyes , and local herbs . Chinese exports to India exempted from duty include goat skin , sheep skin , wool , raw silk , yak tail , yak hair , china clay , borax , butter , common salt , horses , goats , and sheep . Restrictions are placed on traders , with permits only given to those who were Sikkimese citizens before the kingdom merged with India in 1975 .
There were fears among some traders in India that Indian goods would find a limited outlet in Tibet , while China would have access to a ready market in Sikkim and West Bengal . The reopening of the pass was expected to stimulate the economy of the region and bolster Indo @-@ Chinese trade , but this has not happened . Figures released by the Tibet Autonomous Regional Bureau of Commerce show that in the 51 days of trading in 2006 , only US $ 186 @,@ 250 worth of trade passed through Nathu La .
On the Indian side , only citizens of India can visit the pass on Wednesdays , Thursdays , Saturdays , and Sundays , after obtaining permits one day in advance in Gangtok . The pass is particularly useful for pilgrims visiting monasteries in Sikkim such as Rumtek , one of the holiest shrines in Buddhism . For Hindus , the pass reduces the journey time to Mansarovar Lake from fifteen to two days .
A major concern of the Indian government is the trafficking of wildlife products such as tiger and leopard skins and bones , bear gall bladders , otter pelts , and shahtoosh wool into India . The Indian government has undertaken a program to sensitise the police and other law enforcement agencies in the area . Most of such illicit trade currently takes place via Nepal .
= = = Transport = = =
On the Tibetan side two highways — from Kangmar to Yadong and from Yadong to Nathu La — were listed in the 2006 construction plans . Plans are also underway to extend the Qinghai @-@ Tibet Railway to Yadong over the next decade .
The nearest railheads are New Jalpaiguri ( Siliguri ) in India and Xigazê in China .
The Chinese government is planning to extend its rail service to Yadong , a few kilometers ( miles ) from Nathu La . In addition , the Government of India is planning an extension of rail services from Sevoke in Darjeeling district to Sikkim 's capital Gangtok , 38 miles ( 61 km ) from Nathu La .
= Rajiin =
" Rajiin " is the 56th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the fourth episode of season three . It first aired on October 1 , 2003 , on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was written by Brent V. Friedman and Chris Black from a story idea from Friedman and Paul Brown , and was directed by Mike Vejar .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi . In this episode , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) and the crew visit an alien bazaar seeking a formula to help protect the ship against the anomalies in the Delphic Expanse . They bring back on board a former slave called Rajiin ( Nikita Ager ) , whose motivations are not what the crew initially believe .
Several sets were built for the episode , including the alien bazaar . Filming took longer than the normal seven days , with secondary shoots taking an additional day and a half . It was the highest @-@ rated episode of the season so far , with 4 @.@ 52 million viewers watching the first broadcast . However , the critical reception was mixed with criticism levelled at the " gratitious " female sexuality seen but the reviewers were pleased that it showed a sense of continuity in the overall Xindi arc with it described as a " space opera " .
= = Plot = =
The Xindi Council meet to discuss the progress of Enterprise . Although the Reptilians and Insectoids want to attack the humans , Degra advises them to continue with the plan to build the superweapon . On Enterprise , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol continues to help Commander Tucker with Vulcan neuropressure sessions . The ship , seeking the formula for a compound to reinforce its hull against spatial anomalies , then approaches a planet with a vast floating alien bazaar . Captain Archer leads an away team to meet with B 'Rat Ud , a chemist who they have met before .
After bartering , he sells them the formula for liquid trellium @-@ D , and also informs them that the Xindi recently visited a merchant nearby . Archer meets the merchant , Zjod , a slaver who tries to sell him a female called Rajiin . Archer refuses and leaves , but Rajiin chases after him . Following a fight between Archer and Zjod , the away team leave with Rajiin , and Archer promises to return her to her home planet . Later she approaches Archer in his quarters , and as she nears him she puts him in a trance , and he no longer remembers her visit . Meanwhile , T 'Pol and Tucker attempt to replicate the chemical from B 'Rat 's formula but the first attempt fails .
Afterwards , T 'Pol returns to her cabin and is surprised to find Rajiin inside . She tries to resist , but is soon overcome . Rajiin attempts to flee using the transporter , but is quickly captured and placed in the brig . As Archer attempts to question her , Lieutenant Reed informs him that two Reptilian ships are on an intercept course . Rajiin admits she was gathering information for the Xindi . Reptilians , after running battles with the crew , retrieve Rajiin and take her back to one of the ships . Enterprise attempts to pursue , but the Xindi enters a subspace vortex . Afterwards , the Council convenes again to discuss the development and construction a new bio @-@ weapon , a project helped by Archer 's bio @-@ data that was stolen by Rajiin .
= = Production = =
Filming on " Rajiin " began on July 30 , 2003 , and primary shooting concluded after seven days filming on August 7 . The second unit continued on August 8 , with a further half day of shooting taking place the following week during the filming of the following episode " Impulse " . This was the first episode to be worked on by Brent V. Friedman , who had joined the staff as a Consulting Producer . He had previously been a producer on other similar genre television series such as Dark Skies and The Twilight Zone . " Rajiin " was directed by Mike Vejar , who had previously directed episodes of The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine and Voyager . This was his fifth episode of Enterprise , and his first of season three .
Several sets were built for this episode , including an alien bazaar and a chemical laboratory . As the Xindi council returned in Rajiin for the first time after the first episode of the season " The Xindi " , the guest stars who had appeared as their members returned . These included Tucker Smallwood , Randy Oglesby , Rick Worthy and Scott MacDonald . The titular character , Rajiin , was played by Nikita Ager . She had recently appeared in the television film Mermaids which had also been co @-@ written by Friedman . Main cast member Dominic Keating described Ager , saying " This girl is HOT ! Oh my word . I forgot my lines a couple of times . " Dell Yount appeared as B 'Rat ; he had previously appeared in the Deep Space Nine episode " Sons of Mogh " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Rajiin " was first aired on October 1 , 2003 on UPN . It received a 2 @.@ 7 / 4 % share , meaning that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast . This translated to approximately 4 @.@ 52 million viewers . It was the highest rated episode of season three at that point , despite it going up against Smallville on The WB for the first time this season .
In her review for TrekNation , Michelle Erica Green said that she was pleased with the continuity seen in " Rajiin " but felt that the female sexuality seen in this episode was the " most gratuitous ... I can remember on Trek " . She thought that the Rajiin character was a cliché , calling her a " trained slut who comes on to everyone around her " . Green described the overall plot as " feeble " , but praised the alien bazaar set . Jamahl Epsicokhan , on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , said that " Rajiin " demonstrated that there was an intention for the Xindi story @-@ arc to be a fully fledged space opera . He thought that the episode was average for the third season , and wasn 't as good as " Anomaly " . However , he felt that the scenes were reminiscent of comic books , saying that " There 's nothing really wrong with that . Nothing great about it either . " He gave it a score of 2 @.@ 5 / 4 .
The only home media release of " Raijin " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 , and released on January 7 , 2014 .
= Charles Barkley =
Charles Wade Barkley ( born February 20 , 1963 ) is an American retired professional basketball player and current analyst on the television program Inside the NBA . Nicknamed " Chuck " , " Sir Charles " , and " The Round Mound of Rebound " , Barkley established himself as one of the National Basketball Association 's most dominating power forwards . He was drafted by the Philadelphia 76ers with the 5th pick of the 1984 NBA draft . He was selected to the All @-@ NBA First Team five times , the All @-@ NBA Second Team five times , and once to the All @-@ NBA Third Team . He earned eleven NBA All @-@ Star Game appearances and was named the All @-@ Star MVP in 1991 . In 1993 , he was voted the league 's Most Valuable Player and during the NBA 's 50th anniversary , named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History . He competed in the 1992 and 1996 Olympic games and won two gold medals as a member of the United States ' " Dream Team " . Barkley is a two @-@ time inductee into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , being inducted in 2006 for his individual career , and in 2010 as a member of the " Dream Team " .
Barkley was popular with the fans and media and made the NBA 's All @-@ Interview Team for his last 13 seasons in the league . He was frequently involved in on- and off @-@ court fights and sometimes stirred national controversy , as in March 1991 when he spat on a young girl while attempting to spit at a heckler , and as in 1993 when he declared that sports figures should not be considered role models . Short for a power forward , Barkley used his strength and aggressiveness to become one of the NBA 's most dominant rebounders . He was a versatile player who had the ability to score , create plays , and defend . In 2000 , he retired as the fourth player in NBA history to achieve 20 @,@ 000 points , 10 @,@ 000 rebounds and 4 @,@ 000 assists .
Since retiring as a player , Barkley has had a successful career as a television NBA analyst . He works with Turner Network Television ( TNT ) alongside of Shaquille O 'Neal as a studio pundit for its coverage of NBA games and is a spokesman for CDW . In addition , Barkley has written several books and has shown an interest in politics ; in October 2008 , he announced that he would run for Governor of Alabama in 2014 , but he changed his mind in 2010 .
= = Early life = =
Barkley was born and raised in Leeds , Alabama , ten miles ( 16 km ) outside Birmingham , and attended Leeds High School . As a junior , Barkley stood 5 ' 10 " ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and weighed 220 pounds ( 99 @.@ 8 kg ) . He failed to make the varsity team and was named as a reserve . However , during the summer Barkley grew to 6 ' 4 " ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) and earned a starting position on the varsity team in his senior year . He averaged 19 @.@ 1 points and 17 @.@ 9 rebounds per game and led his team to a 26 – 3 record en route to the state semifinals . Despite his improvement , Barkley garnered no attention from college scouts until the state high school semifinals , where he scored 26 points against Alabama 's most highly recruited player , Bobby Lee Hurt . An assistant to Auburn University 's head coach , Sonny Smith , was at the game and reported seeing , " a fat guy ... who can play like the wind " . Barkley was soon recruited by Smith and majored in business management while attending Auburn University .
= = College = =
Barkley played collegiate basketball at Auburn for three seasons . Although he struggled to control his weight , he excelled as a player and led the SEC in rebounding each year . He became a popular crowd @-@ pleaser , exciting the fans with dunks and blocked shots that belied his lack of height and overweight frame . It was not uncommon to see the hefty Barkley grab a defensive rebound and , instead of passing , dribble the entire length of the court and finish at the opposite end with a two @-@ handed dunk . His physical size and skills ultimately earned him the nickname " The Round Mound of Rebound . "
During his college career , Barkley played the center position , despite being shorter than the average center . His height , officially listed as 6 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) , is stated as 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) in his book , I May Be Wrong but I Doubt It . He became a member of Auburn 's All @-@ Century team and still holds the Auburn record for career field goal percentage with 62 @.@ 6 % . He received numerous awards , including Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) Player of the Year ( 1984 ) , three All @-@ SEC selections and one Second Team All @-@ American selection . Later , Barkley was named the SEC Player of the Decade for the 1980s by the Birmingham Post @-@ Herald .
In Barkley 's three @-@ year college career , he averaged 14 @.@ 8 points on 68 @.@ 2 % field goal shooting , 9 @.@ 6 rebounds , 1 @.@ 6 assists and 1 @.@ 7 blocks per game . In 1984 , he made his only appearance in the NCAA Tournament and finished with 23 points on 80 % field goal shooting , 17 rebounds , 4 assists , 2 steals and 2 blocks . Auburn retired Barkley 's No. 34 jersey on March 3 , 2001 .
In 2010 , just two years removed from announcing he had a serious interest in becoming a candidate for Governor of Alabama , Barkley admitted that he asked for , and had been given , money from sports agents during his career at Auburn University . Barkley called the sums he had requested from agents as being " chump change " , and went on to say , " Why can 't an agent lend me some money and I 'll pay him back when I graduate ? " According to Barkley , he paid back all of the money he had borrowed after signing his first NBA contract .
= = NBA career = =
= = = Philadelphia 76ers = = =
Barkley left before his final year at Auburn and made himself eligible for the 1984 NBA draft . He was selected with the fifth pick in the first round by the Philadelphia 76ers , two slots after the Chicago Bulls drafted Michael Jordan . He joined a veteran team that included Julius Erving , Moses Malone and Maurice Cheeks , players who took Philadelphia to the 1983 NBA championship . Under the tutelage of Malone , Barkley was able to manage his weight and learned to prepare and condition himself properly for a game . He averaged 14 @.@ 0 points and 8 @.@ 6 rebounds per game during the regular season and earned a berth on the All @-@ Rookie Team . In the postseason , the Sixers advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals but were defeated in five games by the Boston Celtics . As a rookie in the postseason , Barkley averaged 14 @.@ 9 points and 11 @.@ 1 rebounds per game .
During his second year , Barkley became the team 's leading rebounder and number two scorer , averaging 20 @.@ 0 points and 12 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . He became the Sixers ' starting power forward and helped lead his team into the playoffs , averaging 25 @.@ 0 points on .578 shooting from the field and 15 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . Despite his efforts , Philadelphia was defeated 4 – 3 by the Milwaukee Bucks in the Eastern Conference Semifinals . He was named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team .
Before the 1986 – 87 season , Moses Malone was traded to the Washington Bullets and Barkley began to assume control as the team leader . He earned his first and only rebounding title , averaging 14 @.@ 6 rebounds per game and also led the league in offensive rebounds with 5 @.@ 7 per game . He averaged 23 @.@ 0 points on .594 shooting , earning his first trip to an NBA All @-@ Star game and All @-@ NBA Second Team honors for the second straight season . In the playoffs , Barkley averaged 24 @.@ 6 points and 12 @.@ 6 rebounds in a losing effort , for the second straight year , to the Bucks in a five @-@ game first round playoff series .
The following season , Julius Erving announced his retirement and Barkley became the Sixers ' franchise player . Playing in 80 games and getting 300 more minutes than his nearest teammate , Barkley had his most productive season , averaging 28 @.@ 3 points on .587 shooting and 11 @.@ 9 rebounds per game . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game and was named to the All @-@ NBA First Team for the first time in his career . His celebrity status as the Sixers ' franchise player led to his first appearance on the cover of Sports Illustrated . For the first time since the 1974 – 75 season , however , the 76ers failed to make the playoffs . In the 1988 – 89 season , Barkley continued to play well , averaging 25 @.@ 8 points on .579 shooting and 12 @.@ 5 rebounds per game . He earned his third straight All @-@ Star Game appearance and was named to the All @-@ NBA First team for the second straight season . Despite Barkley contributing 27 @.@ 0 points on .644 shooting , 11 @.@ 7 rebounds and 5 @.@ 3 assists per game , the 76ers were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the New York Knicks .
During the 1989 – 90 season , despite receiving more first @-@ place votes , Barkley finished second in MVP voting behind the Los Angeles Lakers ' Magic Johnson . He was named Player of the Year by The Sporting News and Basketball Weekly . He averaged 25 @.@ 2 points and 11 @.@ 5 rebounds per game and a career high .600 shooting . He was named to the All @-@ NBA First Team for the third consecutive year and earned his fourth All @-@ Star selection . He helped Philadelphia win 53 regular season games , only to lose to the Chicago Bulls in a five @-@ game Eastern Conference Semifinals series . Barkley averaged 24 @.@ 7 points and 15 @.@ 5 rebounds in another postseason loss . His exceptional play continued into his seventh season , where he averaged 27 @.@ 6 points on .570 shooting and 10 @.@ 1 rebounds per game . His fifth straight All @-@ Star Game appearance proved to be his best yet . He led the East to a 116 – 114 win over the West with 17 points and 22 rebounds , the most rebounds in an All @-@ Star Game since Wilt Chamberlain recorded 22 in 1967 . Barkley was presented with Most Valuable Player honors at the All @-@ Star Game and , at the end of the season , named to the All @-@ NBA First Team for the fourth straight year . In the postseason , Philadelphia lost again to Jordan 's Chicago Bulls in the Eastern Conference Semifinals , with Barkley contributing 24 @.@ 9 points and 10 @.@ 5 rebounds per game .
The 1991 – 92 season was Barkley 's final year in Philadelphia . In his last season , he wore number 32 instead of his 34 to honor Magic Johnson , who had announced prior to the start of the season that he was HIV @-@ positive . Although the 76ers initially retired the number 32 in honor of Billy Cunningham , it was unretired for Barkley to wear . Following Johnson 's announcement , Barkley also apologized for having made light of his condition . Responding to concerns that players may contract HIV by contact with Johnson , Barkley stated , " We 're just playing basketball . It 's not like we 're going out to have unprotected sex with Magic . "
In his final season with the Sixers , averaging 23 @.@ 1 points on .552 shooting and 11 @.@ 1 rebounds per game , Barkley earned his sixth straight All @-@ Star appearance and was named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team , his seventh straight appearance on either the first or second team . He ended his 76ers career ranked fourth in team history in total points ( 14 @,@ 184 ) , third in scoring average ( 23 @.@ 3 ppg ) , third in rebounds ( 7 @,@ 079 ) , eighth in assists ( 2 @,@ 276 ) and second in field @-@ goal percentage ( .576 ) . He led Philadelphia in rebounding and field @-@ goal percentage for seven consecutive seasons and in scoring for six straight years . However , Barkley demanded a trade out of Philadelphia after the Sixers failed to make the postseason with a 35 – 47 record . Barkley was initially traded to the Los Angeles Lakers before the end of the season , but the 76ers wound up retracting their deal a few hours later . On July 17 , 1992 , he was officially traded to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for Jeff Hornacek , Tim Perry and Andrew Lang .
During Barkley 's eight seasons in Philadelphia , he became a household name and was one of the few NBA players to have a figure published by Kenner 's Starting Lineup toy line . He also had his own signature shoe line with Nike . His outspoken and aggressive play , however , also caused a few scandals ; notoriously a fight with Detroit Pistons center Bill Laimbeer in 1990 , an event which drew a record total $ 162 @,@ 500 fine , and the infamous spitting incident .
= = = = Spitting incident = = = =
In March 1991 , during a game in New Jersey , Barkley attempted to spit on a fan that had been heckling with racial slurs ; however , his spit instead hit a young girl nearby . Rod Thorn , the NBA 's president of operations at the time , suspended Barkley without pay and fined him $ 10 @,@ 000 for spitting and using abusive language at the fan . It became a national story and Barkley was vilified for it . Barkley , however , eventually developed a friendship with the girl and her family . He apologized and , among other things , provided tickets to future games .
Upon retirement , Barkley was later quoted as stating , in regards to his career , " I was fairly controversial , I guess , but I regret only one thing — the spitting incident . But you know what ? It taught me a valuable lesson . It taught me that I was getting way too intense during the game . It let me know I wanted to win way too bad . I had to calm down . I wanted to win at all costs . Instead of playing the game the right way and respecting the game , I only thought about winning . "
= = = Phoenix Suns = = =
The trade to Phoenix in the 1992 – 93 season went well for both Barkley and the Suns . He averaged 25 @.@ 6 points on .520 shooting , 12 @.@ 2 rebounds and a career high 5 @.@ 1 assists per game , leading the Suns to an NBA best 62 – 20 record . For his efforts , Barkley won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award , and was selected to play in his seventh straight All @-@ Star Game . He became the third player ever to win league MVP honors in the season immediately after being traded , established multiple career highs and led Phoenix to their first NBA Finals appearance since 1976 . Despite Barkley 's proclamation to Jordan , that it was " destiny " for the Suns to win the title , they were defeated in six games by the Chicago Bulls . He averaged 26 @.@ 6 points and 13 @.@ 6 rebounds per game during the whole postseason , including 27 @.@ 3 points , 13 @.@ 0 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists per game throughout the championship series . In the fourth game of the Finals , Barkley recorded a triple @-@ double after collecting 32 points , 12 rebounds and 10 assists .
As a result of severe back pains , Barkley began to speculate his last year in Phoenix during the 1993 – 94 season . Playing through the worst injury problems of his career , Barkley managed 21 @.@ 6 points on .495 shooting and 11 @.@ 2 rebounds per game . He was selected to his eighth consecutive All @-@ Star Game , but did not play because of a torn right quadriceps tendon , and was named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team . With Barkley fighting injuries , the Suns still managed a 56 – 26 record and made it to the Western Conference Semifinals . Despite holding a 2 – 0 lead in the series , however , the Suns lost in seven games to the eventual champions , the Houston Rockets , who were led by Hakeem Olajuwon . Despite his injuries , in Game 3 of a first @-@ round playoff series against the Golden State Warriors , Barkley hit 23 of 31 field @-@ goal attempts and finished with 56 points , the then @-@ third @-@ highest total ever in a playoff game . After contemplating retirement in the offseason , Barkley returned for his eleventh season and continued to battle injuries . He struggled during the first half of the season , but managed to gradually improve , earning his ninth consecutive appearance in the All @-@ Star Game . He averaged 23 points on .486 shooting and 11 @.@ 1 rebounds per game , while leading the Suns to a 59 – 23 record . In the postseason , despite having a 3 – 1 lead in the series , the Suns once again lost to the defending and eventual two @-@ time champion Rockets in seven games . Barkley averaged 25 @.@ 7 points on .500 shooting and 13 @.@ 4 rebounds per game in the postseason , but was limited in Game 7 of the semifinals by a leg injury .
The 1995 – 96 season was Barkley 's last with the Phoenix Suns . He led the team in scoring , rebounds and steals , averaging 23 @.@ 3 points on .500 shooting , 11 @.@ 6 rebounds and a career high .777 free throw shooting . He earned his tenth appearance in an All @-@ Star Game as the top vote @-@ getter among Western Conference players and posted his 18th career triple @-@ double on November 22 . He also became just the tenth player in NBA history to reach 20 @,@ 000 points and 10 @,@ 000 rebounds in their career . In the postseason , Barkley averaged 25 @.@ 5 points and 13 @.@ 5 rebounds per game in a four @-@ game first round playoff loss to the San Antonio Spurs . After the Suns closed out the season with a 41 – 41 record and a first @-@ round playoff loss , Barkley was traded to Houston in exchange for Sam Cassell , Robert Horry , Mark Bryant and Chucky Brown .
During his career with the Suns , Barkley excelled as a player , earning All @-@ NBA and All @-@ Star honors in each of his four seasons . The always outspoken Barkley , however , continued to stir up controversy during the 1993 season , when he claimed that sports figures should not be role models .
= = = Role model controversy = = =
Throughout his career , Barkley had been arguing that athletes should not be considered role models . He stated , " A million guys can dunk a basketball in jail ; should they be role models ? " In 1993 , his argument prompted national news when he wrote the text for his " I am not a role model " Nike commercial . Dan Quayle , the former Vice President of the United States , called it a " family @-@ values message " for Barkley 's oft @-@ ignored call for parents and teachers to quit looking to him to " raise your kids " and instead be role models themselves .
Barkley 's message sparked a great public debate about the nature of role models . He argued ,
I think the media demands that athletes be role models because there 's some jealousy involved . It 's as if they say , this is a young black kid playing a game for a living and making all this money , so we 're going to make it tough on him . And what they 're really doing is telling kids to look up to someone they can 't become , because not many people can be like we are . Kids can 't be like Michael Jordan .
= = = Houston Rockets = = =
The trade to the Houston Rockets in the 1996 – 97 season was Barkley 's last chance at capturing an NBA championship title . He joined a veteran team that included two of the NBA 's 50 Greatest Players , Hakeem Olajuwon and Clyde Drexler . To begin the season , Barkley was suspended for the season opener and fined $ 5 @,@ 000 for fighting Charles Oakley during an October 25 , 1996 preseason game . After Oakley committed a flagrant foul on Barkley , Barkley responded by shoving Oakley . In his first game with the Houston Rockets , Charles Barkley had a career @-@ high 33 rebounds . He continued to battle injuries throughout the season and played only 53 games , missing fourteen because of a laceration and bruise on his left pelvis , eleven because of a sprained right ankle and four due to suspensions . He became the team 's second leading scorer , averaging 19 @.@ 2 points on .484 shooting ; the first time since his rookie year that he averaged below 20 points per game . With Olajuwon taking most of the shots , Barkley focused primarily on rebounding , averaging 13 @.@ 5 per game , the second best in his career . The Rockets ended the regular season with a 57 – 25 record and advanced to the Western Conference Finals , where they were defeated in six games by the Utah Jazz . Barkley averaged 17 @.@ 9 points and 12 @.@ 0 rebounds per game in another postseason loss .
The 1997 – 98 season was another injury @-@ plagued year for Barkley . He averaged 15 @.@ 2 points on .485 shooting and 11 @.@ 7 rebounds per game . The Rockets ended the season with a 41 – 41 record and were eliminated in five games by the Utah Jazz in the first round of the playoffs . Limited by injuries , Barkley played four games and averaged career lows of 9 @.@ 0 points and 5 @.@ 3 rebounds in 21 @.@ 8 minutes per game . During the league @-@ lockout @-@ shortened season , Barkley played 42 regular @-@ season games and managed 16 @.@ 1 points on .478 shooting and 12 @.@ 3 rebounds per game . He became the second player in NBA history , following Wilt Chamberlain , to accumulate 23 @,@ 000 points , 12 @,@ 000 rebounds and 4 @,@ 000 assists in his career . The Rockets concluded the shortened season with a 31 – 19 record and advanced to the playoffs . In his last postseason appearance , Barkley averaged 23 @.@ 5 points on .529 shooting and 13 @.@ 8 rebounds per game in a first @-@ round playoff loss to the Los Angeles Lakers . He concluded his postseason career averaging 23 points on .513 shooting , 12 @.@ 9 rebounds and 3 @.@ 9 assists per game in 123 games .
The 1999 – 2000 season would be Barkley 's final year in the NBA . Initially , Barkley averaged 14 @.@ 5 points on .477 shooting and 10 @.@ 5 rebounds per game . Along with Shaquille O 'Neal , Barkley was ejected from a November 10 , 1999 game against the Los Angeles Lakers . After O 'Neal blocked a layup by Barkley , O 'Neal shoved Barkley , who then threw the ball at O 'Neal . Barkley 's season and career seemingly ended prematurely at the age of 36 after rupturing his left quadriceps tendon on December 8 , 1999 in Philadelphia , where his career began . Refusing to allow his injury to be the last image of his career , Barkley returned after four months for one final game . On April 19 , 2000 , in a home game against the Vancouver Grizzlies , Barkley scored a memorable basket on an offensive rebound and putback , a common trademark during his career . He accomplished what he set out to do after being activated from the injured list , and walked off the court to a standing ovation . He stated , " I can 't explain what tonight meant . I did it for me . I 've won and lost a lot of games , but the last memory I had was being carried off the court . I couldn 't get over the mental block of being carried off the court . It was important psychologically to walk off the court on my own . " After the basket , Barkley immediately retired and concluded his sixteen @-@ year Hall of Fame career .
= = Olympics = =
Barkley was invited by Bobby Knight to try out for United States men 's basketball team for the 1984 Summer Olympics . He made it all the way to final cuts , but wasn 't selected for the team , despite outplaying almost all of the front @-@ court players there . According to Knight , Barkley was cut because of poor defense .
Barkley competed in the 1992 and 1996 Olympic games and won two gold medals as a member of the United States men 's basketball team . International rules which had previously prevented NBA players from playing in the Olympics were changed in 1992 , allowing Barkley and fellow NBA players to compete in the Olympics for the first time . The result was the " Dream Team " , which went 6 – 0 in the Olympic qualifying tournament and 8 – 0 against Olympic opponents . The team averaged an Olympic record 117 @.@ 3 points a game and won games by an average of 43 @.@ 8 points . Barkley led the team with 18 @.@ 0 points on 71 @.@ 1 % field goal shooting and set a then @-@ Olympic single game scoring record with 30 points in a 127 – 83 victory over Brazil . He also set a U.S. Men 's Olympic record for highest three @-@ point field goal percentage with 87 @.@ 5 % and added 4 @.@ 1 rebounds and 2 @.@ 6 steals per game . Barkley was also part of an ugly moment in the 1992 Olympics when he intentionally elbowed Angola player Herlander Coimbra in the chest during a 116 – 48 rout of that team .
At the 1996 Atlanta Summer Olympic Games , Barkley led the team in scoring , rebounds , and field goal percentage . He averaged 12 @.@ 4 points on 81 @.@ 6 % field goal shooting , setting a U.S. Men 's Olympic record . In addition , he also contributed 6 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . Under Barkley 's leadership , the team once again compiled a perfect 8 – 0 record and captured gold medal honors .
= = Player profile = =
Barkley played the power forward position ; but on some occasions , he would play the small forward and center positions . He was known for his unusual build as a basketball player , stockier than most small forwards , yet shorter than most power forwards he faced . However , Barkley was still capable of outplaying both taller and quicker opponents because of his strength and agility .
Barkley was a prolific scorer who averaged 22 @.@ 1 points @-@ per @-@ game during the regular season for his career and 23 @.@ 0 points @-@ per @-@ game in the playoffs for his career . Barkley was an incredibly efficient offensive force , leading the NBA in 2 @-@ point field goal percentage every season from the 1986 @-@ 87 season to the 1990 @-@ 91 season . He led the league in effective field goal percentage in both the 1986 @-@ 87 and 1987 @-@ 88 seasons as well , and also led the league in offensive rating in both the 1988 @-@ 89 and 1989 @-@ 90 seasons . He was one of the NBA 's most versatile players and accurate scorers capable of scoring from anywhere on the court and established himself as one of the NBA 's premier clutch players . During his NBA career , Barkley was a constant mismatch because he possessed a set of very uncommon skills and could play in a variety of positions . He would use all facets of his game in a single play ; as a scorer , he had the ability to score from the perimeter and the post , using an array of spin moves and fadeaways , or finishing a fast break with a powerful dunk . He was one of the most efficient scorers of all @-@ time , scoring at 54 @.@ 13 % total field goal percentage for his season career and 51 @.@ 34 % total field goal shooting for his playoff career ( including a career @-@ high season average of 60 % during the 1989 – 90 NBA season ) .
Barkley is the shortest player in NBA history to lead the league in rebounding when he averaged a career high 14 @.@ 6 rebounds per game during the 1986 – 87 season . His tenacious and aggressive form of play built into an undersized frame that fluctuated between 284 pounds ( 129 kg ) and 252 pounds ( 114 kg ) helped cement his legacy as one of the greatest rebounders in NBA history , averaging 11 @.@ 7 rebounds per game in the regular season for his career and 12 @.@ 9 rebounds per game in his playoff career and totaling 12 @,@ 546 rebounds for his season career . Barkley topped the NBA in offensive rebounding for three straight years and was most famous among very few power forwards who could control a defensive rebound , dribble the length of the court and finish at the rim with a powerful dunk .
Barkley also possessed considerable defensive talents led by an aggressive demeanor , foot speed and his capacity to read the floor to anticipate for steals , a reason why he established his career as the second All @-@ Time leader in steals for the power forward position and leader of the highest all @-@ time steal per game average for the power forward position . Despite being undersized for both the small forward and power forward positions , he also finished among the all @-@ time leaders in blocked shots . His speed and leaping ability made him one of the few power forwards capable of running down court to block a faster player with a chase @-@ down block .
In a SLAM magazine issue ranking NBA greats , Barkley was ranked among the top 20 players of All @-@ Time . In the magazine , NBA Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Bill Walton commented on Barkley 's ability . Walton stated , " Barkley is like Magic [ Johnson ] and Larry [ Bird ] in that they don 't really play a position . He plays everything ; he plays basketball . There is nobody who does what Barkley does . He 's a dominant rebounder , a dominant defensive player , a three @-@ point shooter , a dribbler , a playmaker . "
= = Legacy = =
During his 16 @-@ year NBA career , Barkley was regarded as one of the most controversial , outspoken and dominating players in the history of basketball . His impact on the sport went beyond his rebounding titles , assists , scoring and physical play . His confrontational mannerisms often led to technical fouls and fines on the court , and his larger than life persona sometimes gave rise to national controversy off of it , such as when he was featured in ads that rejected pro athletes as role models and declared , " I am not a role model . " Although his words often led to controversy , according to Barkley his mouth was never the cause because it always spoke the truth . He stated , " I don 't create controversies . They 're there long before I open my mouth . I just bring them to your attention . "
Besides his on @-@ court fights with other players , he has exhibited confrontational behavior off @-@ court . He was arrested for breaking a man 's nose during a fight after a game with the Milwaukee Bucks and also for throwing a man through a plate @-@ glass window after being struck with a glass of ice . Barkley continues to be popular with the fans and media because of his sense of humor and honesty .
As a player , Barkley was a perennial All @-@ Star who earned league MVP honors in 1993 . He employed a physical style of play that earned him the nicknames " Sir Charles " and " The Round Mound of Rebound " . He was named to the All @-@ NBA team eleven times and earned two gold medals as a member of the United States Olympic Basketball team . He led both teams in scoring and was instrumental in helping the 1992 " Dream Team " and 1996 Men 's Basketball team compile a perfect 16 – 0 record . He retired as one of only four players in NBA history to record at least 20 @,@ 000 points , 10 @,@ 000 rebounds and 4 @,@ 000 assists in their career , although a fifth player , Kevin Garnett , has since accomplished that feat .
In recognition of his collegiate and NBA achievements , Barkley 's number 34 jersey was officially retired by Auburn University on March 3 , 2001 . In the same month , the Philadelphia 76ers also officially retired Barkley 's jersey . On March 20 , 2004 , the Phoenix Suns honored Barkley as well by retiring his jersey and including him in the " Suns Ring of Honor " . In recognition of his achievements as a player , Barkley was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2006 .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = Career highs = = =
= = NBA records = =
= = = Regular season = = =
Most offensive rebounds in a half : 13 , Philadelphia 76ers vs. New York Knicks , March 4 , 1987
Most offensive rebounds in a quarter : 11 , Philadelphia 76ers vs. New York Knicks , 000000001987 @-@ 03 @-@ 04 @-@ 0000March 4 , 1987
Tied with Larry Smith ( Golden State Warriors vs. Denver Nuggets , 000000001986 @-@ 03 @-@ 23 @-@ 0000March 23 , 1986 )
= = = Playoffs = = =
Most free throws made in a half : 19 , Phoenix Suns vs. Seattle SuperSonics , 000000001993 @-@ 06 @-@ 05 @-@ 0000June 5 , 1993
Most free throw attempts in a 7 @-@ game series : 100 , Philadelphia 76ers vs. Milwaukee Bucks , 1986 Eastern Conference Semifinals
Most turnovers in a 7 @-@ game series : 37 , Philadelphia 76ers vs. Milwaukee Bucks , 1986 Eastern Conference Semifinals
As of 2015 , he has the 11th highest PER in NBA history .
= = Post @-@ basketball life = =
= = = Television analyst = = =
Since 2000 , Barkley has served as a studio analyst for Turner Network Television ( TNT ) . He appears on the network 's NBA coverage during pre @-@ game and halftime shows , in addition to special NBA events . He also occasionally works as an onsite game analyst . He is part of the crew on Inside the NBA , a post @-@ game show during which Barkley , Ernie Johnson Jr . , Kenny Smith and Shaquille O 'Neal recap and comment on NBA games that have occurred during the day and also on general NBA affairs . During the broadcast of a game , in which Barkley was courtside with Marv Albert , Barkley poked fun at NBA official Dick Bavetta 's age . Albert replied to Barkley , " I believe Dick would beat you in a footrace . " In response to that remark , Barkley went on to challenge Bavetta to a race at the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Weekend for $ 5 @,@ 000 . The winner was to choose a charity to which the money would be donated . The NBA agreed to pitch in an additional $ 50 @,@ 000 , and TNT threw in $ 25 @,@ 000 . The pair raced for three and a half lengths of the basketball court until Barkley ultimately won . After the event , the two embraced in a show of good sportsmanship .
Additionally , since 2011 , Barkley has served as a studio analyst for the joint coverage of the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament between Turner Sports and CBS . Barkley has broadcast every Final Four since 2011 .
He also served as a guest commentator for NBC 's coverage of the NFL Wild Card playoffs on January 7 , 2012 ; the same night he hosted Saturday Night Live , which is taped next door to the Football Night in America studio in Manhattan 's GE Building . In April 2012 , Barkley won a Sports Emmy Award for " Outstanding Studio Analyst " for his work on TNT .
Barkley announced in November 2012 that he was contemplating retirement from broadcasting . " [ N ] ow I 'm like , ' Dude , you have been doing this for 13 years and if I make it to the end of the contract it will be 17 years . ' Seventeen years is a long time . It 's a lifetime in broadcasting . I personally have to figure out the next challenge for me , " he said .
= = = Gambling = = =
Barkley is known for his compulsive gambling . In an interview with ESPN 's Trey Wingo , Barkley revealed that he lost approximately $ 10 million through gambling . In addition , he also admitted to losing $ 2 @.@ 5 million , " in a six @-@ hour period " , while playing blackjack . Although Barkley openly admits to his problem , he claims it is not serious since he can afford to support the habit . When approached by fellow TNT broadcaster Ernie Johnson about the issue , Barkley replied , " It 's not a problem . If you 're a drug addict or an alcoholic , those are problems . I gamble for too much money . As long as I can continue to do it I don 't think it 's a problem . Do I think it 's a bad habit ? Yes , I think it 's a bad habit . Am I going to continue to do it ? Yes , I 'm going to continue to do it . "
Despite suffering big losses , Barkley also claims to have won on several occasions . During a trip to Las Vegas , he claims to have won $ 700 @,@ 000 from playing blackjack and betting on the Indianapolis Colts to defeat the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI . He went on to state , however , " No matter how much I win it ain 't a lot . It 's only a lot when I lose . And you always lose . I think it 's fun , I think it 's exciting . I 'm gonna continue to do it but I have to get to a point where I don 't try to break the casino ' cause you never can . "
In May 2008 , the Wynn Las Vegas casino filed a civil complaint against Barkley , alleging that he had failed to pay a $ 400 @,@ 000 debt stemming from October 2007 . Barkley responded by taking blame for letting time lapse on the repayment of the debt and promptly paid the casino . After repaying his debt , Barkley stated during a pregame show on TNT , " I 've got to stop gambling ... I am not going to gamble anymore . For right now , the next year or two , I 'm not going to gamble ... Just because I can afford to lose money doesn 't mean I should do it . "
= = = Politics = = =
Barkley spoke for many years of his Republican Party affiliation . In 1995 , he considered running as a Republican candidate for Alabama 's governorship in the 1998 election . However , in 2006 , he altered his political stance , stating " I was a Republican until they lost their minds . " At a July 2006 meeting of the Southern Regional Conference of the National School Boards Association in Destin , Florida , Barkley lent credence to the idea of running for Governor of Alabama , stating :
I 'm serious . I 've got to get people to realize that the government is full of it . Republicans and Democrats want to argue over stuff that 's not important , like gay marriage or the war in Iraq or illegal immigration ... When I run — if I run — we 're going to talk about real issues like improving our schools , cleaning up our neighborhoods of drugs and crime and making Alabama a better place for all people .
In September 2006 , Barkley once again reiterated his desire to run for Governor . He noted , " I can 't run until 2014 ... I have to live there for seven years , so I 'm looking for a house there as we speak . " In July 2007 , he made a video declaring his support for Barack Obama in the 2008 Presidential election . In September 2007 , during a broadcast on Monday Night Football , Barkley announced that he bought a house in Alabama to satisfy residency requirements for a 2014 campaign for governor . In addition , Barkley declared himself an Independent and not a Democrat as previously reported . " The Republicans are full of it , " Barkley said , " The Democrats are a little less full of it . "
In February 2008 , Barkley announced that he would be running for Governor of Alabama in 2014 as an Independent . On October 27 , 2008 , he officially announced his candidacy for Governor of Alabama in an interview with CNN , stating that he planned to run in the 2014 election cycle , but he began to back off the idea in a November 24 , 2009 interview on The Jay Leno Show . In 2010 , he confirmed that he was not running in 2014 .
Barkley is an outspoken supporter of gay rights . In 2006 , he told Fox Sports : " I 'm a big advocate of gay marriage . If they want to get married , God bless them . " Speaking to Wolf Blitzer on CNN two years later , he said : " Every time I hear the word ' conservative , ' it makes me sick to my stomach , because they 're really just fake Christians , as I call them . That 's all they are . ... I think they want to be judge and jury . Like , I 'm for gay marriage . It 's none of my business if gay people want to get married . I 'm pro @-@ choice . And I think these Christians , first of all , they 're not supposed to judge other people . But they 're the most hypocritical judge of people we have in the country . And it bugs the hell out of me . They act like they 're Christians . They 're not forgiving at all . " During a 2011 Martin Luther King , Jr . Day double @-@ header on TNT , Barkley responded to a statement by Dr. King 's daughter Bernice by saying , " People try to make it about black and white . [ But ] he talked about equality for every man , every woman . We have a thing going on now , people discriminating against homosexuality in this country . I love the homosexuality people . God bless the gay people . They are great people . "
Commenting on the 2014 Ferguson unrest Barkley called the Ferguson looters " scumbags , " and praised the police officers who work in black neighborhoods , also saying that he supports the decision made by the grand jury not to indict officer Darren Wilson in the Michael Brown shooting . In 2013 Barkley also expressed his agreement with the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting of Trayvon Martin .
= = = Books = = =
In 2000 , Barkley wrote the foreword for Sports Illustrated columnist Rick Reilly 's book The Life of Reilly . In it , Barkley quipped , " Of all the people in sports I 'd like to throw through a plate glass window , Reilly 's not one of them . It 's a shame though , skinny white boys look real aerodynamic . " In 2002 , Barkley released the book I May Be Wrong , But I Doubt It , which included editing and commentary by close friend Michael Wilbon . Three years later , Barkley released Who 's Afraid of a Large Black Man ? , which is a collection of interviews with leading figures in entertainment , business , sports , and government . Michael Wilbon also contributed to this book and was present at many of the interviews .
= = = Acting = = =
He made a brief appearance in the TV series Suits , in episode 3 of the fifth season . He also played himself in Space Jam in 1996 .
= = = DUI conviction = = =
On December 31 , 2008 , Barkley was pulled over in Scottsdale , Arizona , for initially running a stop sign . Officer smelled alcohol on Barkley 's breath and proceeded to administer field sobriety tests , which he failed . He was arrested on drunk driving charges and had his vehicle impounded . Barkley refused to submit a breath test and was given a blood test . He was then cited and released . Gilbert police noted Barkley was cooperative and respectful during the entire incident , adding that he was treated no differently than anyone arrested on DUI charges . The police report of the incident stated that Barkley told police he was in a hurry to receive oral sex from his female passenger when he ran through a stop sign early Wednesday . Test results released by police showed that Barkley had a blood @-@ alcohol level at .149 , nearly twice the legal limit of .08 in Arizona . Two months after his arrest , Barkley pleaded guilty to two DUI @-@ related counts and one count of running a red light . He was sentenced to ten days in jail and fined $ 2 @,@ 000 . The sentence was later reduced to three days after Barkley entered an alcohol treatment program .
As part of the fallout of his arrest , Barkley took a two @-@ month hiatus from his commentating duties for TNT . During his absence , T @-@ Mobile elected not to air previously scheduled ads that featured Barkley , stating , " Given the recent developments , for the time being , we 've replaced TV ads featuring Mr. Barkley with more general @-@ market advertising . " On February 19 , 2009 , Barkley returned to TNT and spent the first segment of the NBA pregame show discussing the incident and his experiences . Shortly after his return , T @-@ Mobile once again began airing ads featuring Barkley .
= = = WeightWatchers = = =
In 2011 , Barkley became a spokesman for WeightWatchers , promoting their " Lose Like a Man " program and appearing in both television and online ads .
= = Video games = =
Barkley has been featured in several video games . Barkley Shut Up and Jam ! was a basketball video game which was developed by Accolade . It was released for the Super NES and the Sega Genesis / Mega Drive in 1994 , and was followed up by a sequel for only the Genesis in 95 . An unofficial sequel to the initial game called Barkley , Shut Up and Jam : Gaiden was developed and published in 2008 . The game was developed by Tales of Game 's Studios and was a departure from the first game in that the game was a traditional style JRPG .
Barkley features in EA games starting with Lakers versus Celtics and the NBA Playoffs in 1991 , but by the late 1990s did not appear due to licensing reasons .
Barkley was featured in NBA 2K13 as part of the 1992 Olympic " Dream Team . "
= = Personal life = =
Barkley married Maureen Blumhardt in 1989 . The couple have a daughter together , Christiana , born the same year . A DNA test read by George Lopez on Lopez Tonight revealed Charles Barkley to be of 14 % Native American , 11 % European and 75 % African descent .
= Big Fat Bass =
" Big Fat Bass " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her seventh studio album Femme Fatale ( 2011 ) . The house song was written and produced by will.i.am as a celebration to the bass and its influence on club music . The song contains a double entendre gender metaphor sang by Spears . " Big Fat Bass " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics , who deemed it as an instant radio and club hit , and also considered it the most old @-@ school work on the album . However , a few reviews considered it as an unfortunate collaboration with will.i.am , and dismissed Spears ' heavily processed vocals .
Following the release of Femme Fatale , " Big Fat Bass " charted at number 31 on the South Korean International Singles Chart , and at number 18 on Billboard 's Hot Dance / Electronic Digital Songs for a week . Spears performed the song at Rain Nightclub , Good Morning America and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . The performance on the latter aired after three months due to technical problems . She has also performed it during the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
Spears spoke to V about the sessions for Femme Fatale , commenting that she had been recording the album for two years . On February 8 , 2011 , Spears tweeted she was in the studio with will.i.am , recording a song for the album . Later , the producer described the collaboration as " a monster . It 's mean , pretty , edgy , next level . [ ... ] She 's singing fresh over it . It 's something that today needs , " and unveilead a teaser of the song through a blog message on February 28 , 2011 . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Spears commented that she is a fan of The Black Eyed Peas , due the fact that the band " make [ s ] incredibly catchy , fun pop / dance records and I LOVE will.i.am 's style . I have always wanted to do a song with him and would love to work with him more in the future . He is so interesting . " will.i.am also praised Spears for the song , saying , " Thank you Britney for collaborating it was a pleasure working with you . Thank you for trusting my instincts . You 're a doll . " " Big Fat Bass " was written and produced by will.i.am , and Spears recorded her vocals for the song at Ethernet Studios in Los Angeles , California and at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California .
" Big Fat Bass " is a house song with a length of four minutes and forty @-@ five seconds. will.i.am revealed that the song celebrates bass — which he considers the most important element in club music . " Big Fat Bass " opens with piano @-@ infused background and an electronically altered voice of will.i.am singing , " Big fat bass / the big fat bass . " As the beat begins , Spears start to rap " I can be the treble , baby / You can be the bass / You can be the bass . " Nicole James of MTV News considered the " dramatic piano / house music intro " of the song reminiscent to " Another Night " ( 1993 ) by Real McCoy , while Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that it recalls " When I Hear Music " ( 1984 ) by Debbie Deb . The song 's lyrics also intercalates with a double entendre gender metaphor , where Spears sings " It 's gettin bigger / The bass is getting bigger " . Spears ' vocals were also deemed as heavily processed , yet similar to the ones of Fergie and Rihanna .
= = Critical reception = =
Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that " Big Fat Bass " is " the most old @-@ school work " on Femme Fatale , with Robert Copsey of Digital Spy considering the album 's production " polished , intriguing and – best of all – fun " , exemplifying the piano breakdown in the song . Keith Caulfield of Billboard said he could " completely hear this track blasting in a club , with Spears cooing ' I can be your treble ' while the crowd screams back ' you can be my bass ! ' . " The Daily Collegian 's stated that the song is " catchy " , yet different from " Till the World Ends " and " Hold It Against Me " , and added that " the combined star power of Spears and Will.i.am would have surely made it a radio hit . " The Independent journalist Andy Gill noted that the album sounds more programmed than natural , but said that the song " sticks to dancefloor essentials " . David Buchanan of Consequence of Sound thought that the song " might as well be a B @-@ side to ' The Time ( Dirty Bit ) ' ( otherwise known as the most annoying Black Eyed Peas song ever created ) . " Both Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic and About.com reviewer Bill Lamb selected it as a top song on Femme Fatale . Lamb further added that the song " will leave you laughing as you sing along on the dance floor . "
Rudy Klapper of Sputnikmusic wondered how " Big Fat Bass " isn 't a Black Eyed Peas song , and further commented that " for every ill @-@ advised will.i.am guest spot ... there ’ s an out @-@ of @-@ left field flute ... solo that actually works . " Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times considered the song " one unfortunate collaboration , " while saying Spears " herself could beat [ will.i.am ] in a rap battle . " Similarly , Eric R. Danton of the Hartford Courant deemed the " banal " song as " characteristically vapid , with a refrain that quickly progresses from inane to annoying . " Robert Everett @-@ Green of The Globe and Mail wrote that " Big Fat Bass " is a " verseless tune " , and commented that " [ will.i.am ] thought it would be fun to make [ Spears ] sound like Rihanna " on the song . Braulio Lorentz of Billboard Brasil said that " even will.i.am can 't save [ the album ] " with " Big Fat Bass " . The Idolator staff noted that the song has " all the strengths and weaknesses of your average Black Eyed Peas tune — it ’ s catchy but repetitive , danceable with pretty inconsequential lyrics , and has the potential to become annoying if played too frequently . "
= = Live performances = =
Spears first performed " Big Fat Bass " at Rain Nightclub in the Palms Casino Resort on March 25 , 2011 . Following the performance of " Hold It Against Me " , she emerged from a speaker box and danced around the stage , sporting a body @-@ hugging latex bodysuit . The song was remixed for the performance with elements of " 3 " , " Gimme More " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News stated that the performance had Spears ' fans amazed . The singer also taped performances of " Hold It Against Me " , " Big Fat Bass " and " Till the World Ends " at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium on March 27 , 2011 , that aired on Good Morning America on March 29 , 2011 . Pop Crush 's Cristin Maher noted that the singer " definitely let loose more as she popped and locked alongside her dancers , but still failed to wow us with her dancing . " The same day , Spears performed the set on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . However , the performance of " Big Fat Bass " aired on May 24 , 2011 due to technical problems . The song was added to the setlist of 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . Spears sported a pink latex and lace jacket during the performance , which had a similar setting to early performances of the song . Additionally , will.i.am appeared in the backdrops .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Technical
Recorded and Engineered at Ethernet Studios in Los Angeles , California and The Record Plant in Hollywood , California .
Mixed at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Britney Spears — lead vocals
will.i.am — guest vocals , songwriting , producer , piano , synths , programming , vocal recording
DJ Ammo — additional programming , synths , piano
Dylan " 3D " Dresdow — mixing
Padraic " padlock " Kerin — vocal recording
Source :
= = Chart performance = =
For the week ending April 7 , 2011 , " Big Fat Bass " debuted at number 31 on the South Korean International Singles Chart , selling 8 @,@ 874 digital downloads . It also charted on Billboard 's Hot Dance / Electronic Digital Songs on April 16 , 2011 at number 18 .
= Gladiator ( 2000 film ) =
Gladiator is a 2000 British @-@ American epic historical drama film directed by Ridley Scott , and starring Russell Crowe , Joaquin Phoenix , Connie Nielsen , Ralf Möller , Oliver Reed ( in his final film role before his death ) , Djimon Hounsou , Derek Jacobi , John Shrapnel , and Richard Harris . Crowe portrays the fictional character , loyal Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius , who is betrayed when Commodus , the ambitious son of Emperor Marcus Aurelius , murders his father and seizes the throne . Reduced to slavery , Maximus rises through the ranks of the gladiatorial arena to avenge the murders of his family and his emperor .
The film was released in the United States on May 5 , 2000 , and was a box office success , receiving generally positive reviews and being credited with rekindling interest in the historical epic . The film won multiple awards , including Best Picture , Best Actor for Crowe , and three other Oscars at the 73rd Academy Awards .
= = Plot = =
In AD 180 , Hispano @-@ Roman General Maximus Decimus Meridius leads the Roman army to a decisive victory against the Germanic tribes near Vindobona , ending a long war on the Roman frontier and winning the favor of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius . Maximus , weary of battle , desires to retire to his Spanish farm estate , but the Emperor tells him that his own son and heir to the throne , Commodus , is unfit to rule and so appoints Maximus as regent to help save Rome from corruption . Marcus Aurelius tells Commodus that he will not be emperor ; Commodus murders him in a fit of rage and becomes the Emperor of Rome .
Commodus asks Maximus for his loyalty , but the general suspects foul play and refuses . Soon after , Maximus is arrested and is scheduled to be executed at dawn . Maximus manages to escape and makes the long journey to his farm on horseback , but arrives to find it burnt and his family dead , under orders of Commodus . He buries them and collapses in despair . He is then captured by slavers who take him to Zucchabar , a North African province . He is sold to a man named Proximo , who trains him as a gladiator . There he befriends two of Proximo 's gladiators , a Numidian named Juba and a German named Hagen .
Reluctant at first , Maximus is forced to fight in local tournaments . He wins every match because of his superior military skills and traumatized indifference to death . His newfound fame and recognition is brought to Proximo 's attention . Proximo reveals to Maximus that he himself was once a gladiator , and had fought well enough to have gained his freedom . He encourages Maximus to go to Rome and fight in the Colosseum , where the Emperor has organized 150 days of games to commemorate his late father . Proximo advises him to " win the crowd " to earn their respect and eventually his freedom . He could then use this leverage to possibly overthrow or kill the Emperor as part of his plan for revenge .
Maximus ' first taste of gladiatorial combat in the Colosseum is depicted as a re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Zama . With his team portrayed as Carthaginian infantry , they defy all expectations and are able ( solely due to Maximus ' commands ) to defeat " Scipio 's legionaries " who were supposed to obliterate them . A surprised and delighted Commodus comes into the arena to personally congratulate them . Maximus braces himself to kill the Emperor , but at the last moment decides against it because of the presence of Commodus ' young nephew Lucius Verus . He then reveals himself to the startled Commodus and vows to have his vengeance . As the Praetorian Guard prepares to kill him , the crowd chants " Live ! " repeatedly , earning their favor and showing their support . Commodus relents and leaves angrily .
Next , Maximus is pitted against the formidable Tigris of Gaul , an undefeated gladiator . After a fierce and lengthy duel which Commodus attempted to fix , Maximus is able to gain the upper hand , but spares his opponent 's life despite the crowd 's urging that he kill him . Angered by this action , Commodus berates him , even taunting him with harrowing details of his family 's death . Undaunted , Maximus turns around and walks away . This act of defiance , along with his victory over Tigris , makes him more popular than the Emperor himself .
As Maximus is being escorted back to the gladiators ' quarters , his former orderly Cicero approaches him and says that he still has the loyalty of the legions , encamped near Rome . Commodus ' sister Lucilla and the chief senator Gracchus secure a meeting with Maximus , and he obtains their promise to help him escape Rome , rejoin his soldiers , topple Commodus by force , and hand power over back to the Senate . Suspicious , Commodus learns of this plot from Lucilla by threatening young Lucius , then dispatches his men to arrest and / or kill the conspirators . Gracchus is quickly apprehended , while a contingent of Praetorians is sent to Maximus ' quarters . Proximo lets Maximus escape and sacrifices himself and his men ( including Hagen ) to gain him more time . Maximus reaches the rendezvous point but falls into a trap ; Cicero is killed and Maximus is captured .
Commodus , desperate and jealous of Maximus ' growing popularity , challenges him to a duel in the Colosseum . Before the fight , and unknown to the crowd , he stabs him in the side to put him at a disadvantage . During the fight , Maximus manages to evade Commodus ' blows and disarm him . Commodus asks the Praetorians to give him a sword , but his request is denied . He produces a hidden stiletto , but Maximus instinctively turns the blade back into his throat , killing him .
However , Maximus succumbs to the stab wound , asking with his last words that reforms be made , his gladiator allies freed , and that Senator Gracchus be reinstated . He is then carried away for an honorable funeral as a " soldier of Rome " , while Commodus ' corpse is left unceremoniously on the ground . Later , Juba revisits the Colosseum at night , now free to go back to his own family , and he buries Maximus ' figurines of his wife and son at the spot where he died . He promises that he will see Maximus again , " but not yet " .
= = Cast = =
Russell Crowe as Maximus Decimus Meridius : a Hispano @-@ Roman legatus forced into becoming a slave who seeks revenge against Commodus . He has earned the favor of Marcus Aurelius , and the love and admiration of Lucilla prior to the events of the film . His home is near Trujillo in today 's Province of Cáceres , Spain . After the murder of his family he vows vengeance . Maximus is a fictional character partly inspired by Marcus Nonius Macrinus , Narcissus , Cincinnatus , and Maximus of Hispania . Mel Gibson was first offered the role , but declined as he felt he was too old to play the character . Antonio Banderas and Hugh Jackman were also considered .
Joaquin Phoenix as Commodus : The corrupted , twisted and immoral son of Marcus Aurelius , he murders his father when he learns that Maximus will hold the emperor 's powers in trust until a new republic can be formed .
Connie Nielsen as Lucilla : Maximus 's former lover and the older child of Marcus Aurelius . Lucilla has been recently widowed . She resists her brother 's incestuous advances for she hates him , while also having to be careful to protect her son , Lucius , from her brother 's corruption and wrath .
Oliver Reed as Antonius Proximo : An old , gruff gladiator trainer who buys Maximus in North Africa . A former gladiator himself , he was freed by Marcus Aurelius , and gives Maximus his own armor and eventually a chance at freedom , and becomes somewhat of a mentor to Maximus . This was Reed 's final film appearance , before he died during the filming . In the original film script , Proximo was supposed to live .
Derek Jacobi as Senator Gracchus : A member of the Roman Senate who opposes Commodus 's rule and an ally of Lucilla and Maximus .
Djimon Hounsou as Juba : A Numidian tribesman who was taken from his home and family by slave traders . He becomes Maximus 's closest ally and friend .
David Schofield as Senator Falco : A Patrician , a senator opposed to Gracchus . He helps Commodus to consolidate his power .
John Shrapnel as Senator Gaius : Another Roman senator allied with Gracchus , Lucilla , and Maximus against Commodus .
Tomas Arana as General Quintus : another Roman legatus , who served under and was a friend to Maximus . Made commander of the Praetorian Guard by Commodus , after betraying Maximus . In the extended version , Quintus sees the mad side of the Emperor when he is forced to execute two innocent men . Quintus later redeems himself by refusing to allow Commodus a sword during his duel with Maximus .
Ralf Möller as Hagen : A Germanic warrior and Proximo 's chief gladiator who later befriends Maximus and Juba during their battles in Rome .
Spencer Treat Clark as Lucius Verus : The young son of Lucilla . He is named after his father Lucius Verus . He is also the grandson of Marcus Aurelius .
David Hemmings as Cassius : the master of ceremonies for the gladiatorial games in the Colosseum .
Tommy Flanagan as Cicero : Maximus 's loyal servant who provides liaison between the enslaved Maximus , his former legion based at Ostia , and Lucilla . He is used as bait for the escaping Maximus and eventually killed by the Praetorian Guard .
Sven @-@ Ole Thorsen as Tigris of Gaul : An undefeated champion gladiator who is called out of retirement by Commodus to kill Maximus but is defeated by Maximus . Commodus then ordered Maximus to kill Tigris , but he spared him , which caused Commodus to hate Maximus even more .
Richard Harris as Marcus Aurelius : The old and wise emperor of Rome who appoints Maximus , whom he loves as a son , with the ultimate aim of returning Rome to a republican form of government . He is murdered by his son Commodus before his wish can be fulfilled .
Omid Djalili as a slave trader .
Giannina Facio as Maximus 's wife .
Giorgio Cantarini as Maximus 's son who is the same age as Lucilla 's son Lucius .
= = Production = =
= = = Screenplay = = =
Gladiator was based on an original pitch by David Franzoni , who wrote the first draft . Franzoni was given a three @-@ picture deal with DreamWorks as writer and co @-@ producer on the strength of his previous work , Steven Spielberg 's Amistad , which helped establish the reputation of DreamWorks . Not a classical scholar , Franzoni was inspired by Daniel P. Mannix 's 1958 novel Those About to Die , and he chose to base his story on Commodus after reading the Augustan History . In Franzoni 's first draft , dated April 4 , 1998 , he named his protagonist Narcissus , a wrestler who , according to the ancient sources Herodian and Cassius Dio , strangled Emperor Commodus to death .
Ridley Scott was approached by producers Walter F. Parkes and Douglas Wick . They showed him a copy of Jean @-@ Léon Gérôme 's 1872 painting entitled Pollice Verso ( Thumbs Down ) . Scott was enticed by filming the world of Ancient Rome . However , Scott felt Franzoni 's dialogue was too " on the nose " ( lacking subtlety ) and hired John Logan to rewrite the script to his liking . Logan rewrote much of the first act , and made the decision to kill off Maximus 's family to increase the character 's motivation .
Russell Crowe describes being eager for the role as pitched by Walter F. Parkes , in his interview for Inside the Actors Studio : " They said , ' It 's a 100 @-@ million @-@ dollar film . You 're being directed by Ridley Scott . You play a Roman General . ' I 've always been a big fan of Ridley 's . "
With two weeks to go before filming , the actors complained of problems with the script . William Nicholson was brought to Shepperton Studios to make Maximus a more sensitive character , reworking his friendship with Juba and developed the after
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I love how the guest judge segments of these contest episodes are beginning to become mini @-@ series unto themselves . I hope that tradition continues . " James Poniewozik had mixed feelings regarding Griffin 's performance . He went on to write , " Glee can be sharp and topical enough that I thought it could actually do something clever with the much @-@ publicized cameo . Instead , the performance hinged on expected gags [ ... ] and Griffin delivered it all with a stiffness that felt more like a recitation than a performance . " Todd VanDerWerff reacted negatively to both performances . In his review of the episode , he opined , " That judges ’ scene [ ... ] was a pale retread of the original , only this time , it had Kathy Griffin and Loretta Devine , as well as a bunch of tired Tea Party gags that were tired when this episode was written . "
The Kurt – Blaine storyline was met with general acclaim from critics . In her review for the episode , Katie Morgan of Billboard reacted positively to the interaction between Kurt and Blaine . She wrote , " It sure took them long enough , but we 're so glad to finally see Kurt happy . " In his review , Mark Perigard opined , " It was utterly , sweetly romantic , and Criss sold the hell out of the moment . It ’ s long overdue and it will silence the growing legion of critics out there who were unhappy with the pace of this story and why Kurt always seemed to be stuck in pure misery . " Robert Canning was more critical on the storyline . He highly criticized Darren Criss ' performance as Blaine . In a detailed review regarding the storyline , Canning wrote , " Kurt finally got the first kiss he deserved . Too bad it came from the wooden , glass @-@ eyed Blaine . Chris Colfer has been in the running for performance awards for good reason . Darren Criss will not be . Colfer and his character deserve better than the cardboard , unemotional declaration of love that Criss delivered . Yay for Kurt and his first boyfriend , but that was a bland work up to their kiss . " Sandra Gonzalez called the whole development " simply perfect " . Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic thought the kiss was " sweet " , and stated that he was pleased that it attracted no controversy whatsoever . James Poniewozik reacted positively to the storyline . In his review , Poniewozik wrote , " As for the at @-@ long @-@ last kiss , it 's to Glee 's credit that it made me think , ‘ Finally , Blaine and Kurt are locking lips already ! ’ before it made me think , ‘ Look , an honest @-@ to @-@ God gay kiss , between two men , on my primetime TV show ! ’ " Aly Semigran of MTV praised the interaction between Kurt and Blaine , saying that the kiss scene was a " sweet , real and , shockingly , un @-@ hyped moment " . Semigran went on to praise the acting in the scene , saying that both actors " handled it with dignity and honesty " . Brett Berk deemed the interaction to be " appropriately fervid " .
= = = = Music and performances = = = =
The musical performances and selection in the episode were met with mixed response from critics . The original track " Loser Like Me " received general acclaim from critics . Berk praised the performance , and gave it four stars . He opined , " All four stars are for the lyrics [ ... ] in which the lovable dorks sing about being the lovable dorks we fell in love with [ ... ] " . In her review for the episode , Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone praised the song , and called it a " true anthem " that " ends triumphantly " . Raymond Flandez of The Wall Street Journal gave a positive review of the song : " The song grew out of a collaborative brainstorming session that went beyond rhyming dictionaries or first attempts at ditties such as ' Trouty Mouth ' , ' Big Ass Heart ' , and ' Hell to the No ' . " Jarrett Wieselman of the New York Post commended the show for the use of original songs , and wrote " Glee entered uncharted territory last night [ ... ] no , not Kurt 's first kiss . I 'm talking about New Directions dabbling in , and debuting , their very first original songs . It was as risky for the show as it was for the group since opting to perform wholly new creations would either give them a leg up on the competition or put them six feet under . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle praised the song , and deemed it " fun and summery " .
Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly was generally positive on most of the songs featured in the episode . She gave the performance of " Loser Like Me " a " B " , and explained that " This one took a little time to grow on me . I liked it better on the show than when I heard it by itself , which is weird because it 's exactly the same thing . Goes to show how much of a difference a good performance [ ... ] makes . " Gonzalez gave the highest grade to the cover versions of " Misery " and " Raise Your Glass " , both performed by the Dalton Academy Warblers . In her review for " Misery " , she praised the performance , and gave it an " A " . She opined , " I 'm a sucker for a Warbler @-@ ized pop song , especially when it makes Blaine dance and make his weird , animated faces . They 're simply adorable , and these Warblers are simply amazing . " Gonzalez gave the performance of " Raise Your Glass " an " A " . The lowest grade given by Gonzalez was a " D " for Santana 's performance of " Trouty Mouth " . She explained " If we 're taking this song as a joke , it gets a ' B − ' because Santana sounded great . But [ ... ] I think about how bad I felt for Sam watching his utter mortification . " " Candles " was generally well received by Gonzalez . She gave the performance a " B " and went on to write " It ’ s really hard for this pair to live up to the awesomeness of ' Baby , It 's Cold Outside ' . I 'm sure they could one day , but this one fell a bit short for me musically . [ ... ] In the context of the show , however , it was a great moment . "
Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times reacted positively to all of the songs . In her review for " Original Song " , Reiter opined that " The original songs [ ... ] weren 't half bad : From Santana 's ode to poor , horrified Sam , ' Trouty Mouth , ' to Puck 's tribute to Lauren , ' Big Ass Heart , ' to Mercedes ' self @-@ celebrating ' Hell to the No , ' the original songs on this episode were funny and revealing . And rousing Regionals @-@ winning anthem ' Loser Like Me ' landed like an exuberant slushy in the face [ ... ] . " Katie Morgan of Billboard praised the performance of " Candles " , and called it " beautifully intimate " , and commended The Warblers ' " solid performance " . Todd VanDerrWerf of The A.V. Club responded negatively to " Trouty Mouth " , but was generally pleased with the other songs . VanDerWerff went on to praise the voice of Lea Michele : " The first song Rachel sang at regionals [ ... ] was a nicely done little ballad , the sort of song you could both see someone like Rachel writing and later belting . " James Poniewozik also praised the voice of Michele , as well as her character development . He opined , " That said , I like the arc of Rachel @-@ as @-@ songwriter , which has played to some of Lea Michele 's greatest strengths both as a comic and dramatic actress . " Robert Canning of IGN found the original songs to be " hilarious " . He opined , " Getting to run through a series of comical and catchy false starts was entertaining . Santana 's ' Trouty Mouth ' was sultry and hilarious . Puckerman 's rocking ode to Lauren , ' Big Ass Heart , ' was also a ridiculous treat . And then both were outdone by Mercedes ' stomping , Amy Winehouse @-@ aping ' Hell to the No ' . "
= = = Chart history = = =
Seven of the eleven songs featured on the episode charted on several popular musical charts . In the United States , " Loser Like Me " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number six , and in Canada , the song debuted at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 . The single was the second highest charting single for Glee after " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , and sold 210 @,@ 000 downloads its first week in the US , second only to the cast 's cover of Katy Perry 's " Teenage Dream " , which sold 214 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . It was certified gold in the US before the end of 2011 . " Get It Right " debuted at number sixteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and number twenty @-@ three on the Canadian Hot 100 . These two original songs were featured in the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 5 . It was released on March 15 , 2011 , and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling over 90 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States . A third original song , " Hell to the No " , was released only as a single , and debuted at number fifty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 and number sixty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 . Four covers from the episode were featured on the album Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers , which was released on April 19 , 2011 , and all four charted in the top 100 in the US , Australia , and Canada : " Misery " , " Blackbird " , " Candles " , and " Raise Your Glass " .
= Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix =
Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix ( 24 October 1949 – 18 October 2013 ) was a Mexican drug lord and former leader of the Tijuana Cartel , a drug trafficking organization . He was the oldest of seven brothers and headed the criminal organization early in the 1990s alongside them . Through his brother Benjamín , Francisco Rafael joined the Tijuana Cartel in 1989 following the arrest of Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo , one of the most prominent drug czars in Mexico during the 1980s . When the Arellano Félix took control of the organization in the early 1990s , tensions with the rival Sinaloa Cartel prompted violent attacks and slayings from both fronts .
The drug lord was arrested in 1993 in Tijuana , Baja California , and imprisoned at Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 , a maximum security prison . In 2006 , he was extradited to the United States pending charges on drug trafficking in a California federal district court . He was released from prison two years later and deported back to Mexico . Back in his home country , Francisco Rafael had no other pending criminal charges . While celebrating his birthday in Los Cabos , Baja California Sur , on 18 October 2013 , a gunman disguised as a clown shot him dead .
= = Early life = =
Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix was born in Culiacán , Sinaloa , on 24 October 1949 , to Benjamín Francisco Arellano Sánchez ( father ) and Norma Alicia Félix Zazueta ( mother ) . His father was from the state of Durango but emigrated to Sinaloa , where he met his wife , in the 1940s . The couple had eleven children , Francisco Rafael being the eldest of his seven brothers ( Benjamín , Carlos Alberto , Eduardo , Ramón Eduardo , Luis Fernando , Francisco Javier ) and four sisters ( Alicia María , Enedina , Norma Isabel and Leticia ) . He also had two half @-@ brothers , Jesús and Manuel Arellano , but their second surnames remain confidential . Francisco Rafael grew up in a modest house in Miguel Hidalgo St. # 566 in Culiacán , blocks away from the Autonomous University of Sinaloa , and lived there for about 20 years . Neighbors recall that the Arellano Félix brothers were " cheerful boys " without addictions and inclined to selling clothes , licor , and candy that they brought illegally from the United States . Francisco Rafael went to " Álvaro Obregón " elementary school a couple of streets away from their house . He later attended " Emilio Obeso " middle school in the same neighborhood . At a young age , Francisco Rafael dropped out of middle school to help out his father , a mechanic . Alongside his brothers Benjamín and Ramón , however , he also smuggled contraband from Tijuana . His affinity towards music led him and his two brothers to form a musical group known as " Sonido Escorpión " and later renamed as " Los Escorpiones " . By the 1970s , his family moved to Guadalajara , Jalisco , but Francisco Rafael stayed in Culiacán , where he owned an event center known as " El Chaplín " . He then moved years later to Mazatlán and created the discothèque Frankie Oh . Francisco Rafael 's discothèque was a major nightlife attraction in Mazatlán during the mid @-@ 1980s . With an estimated US $ 5 million investment to build it , Frankie Oh had the capacity to host 2 @,@ 500 people ; it had an internal waterfall and a large dance floor surrounded by a fish tank . The nightclub 's theme also mirrored a zoo because it had several exotic animals , including two lions , in the entrances and in the surroundings . The only non @-@ living animal inside Frankie Oh was a scorpion , which was found as a giant metal statue at a water fountain and as the logo of the nightclub . Francisco Rafael usually carried a diamond @-@ encrusted scorpion necklace in reference to his astrological sign , the Scorpio .
His discothèque invited several famous Mexican and international artists , including but not limited to Luis Miguel , Emmanuel , Mijares , Nelson Ned , Ricardo Montaner , among others . It also hosted car and motorcycle shows where Francisco Rafael performed with his Harley @-@ Davidson . With his popularity rising in Mazatlán , he was named " Businessman of the Year " by a local radio station . Aside from managing the Frankie Oh , Francisco Rafael organized beauty contests , sports tournaments , and made frequent appearances in social magazines . He was a close friend of former World Champion Mexican boxer Julio César Chávez , whom he considered as close as a brother of his . Francisco Rafael lived most of his early life as a businessman and playboy while his brothers , Benjamín and Ramón , became involved in the drug trade after moving to Tijuana in the 1980s . Francisco Rafael was first married to Victoria Barrionuevo and had three children ( Francisco , Benjamín Arellano Barrionuevo , and an unnamed daughter ) ; after separating , he married Rocío del Carmen Lizárraga Lizárraga , whom he kidnapped a few months after she was declared queen of a carnival in Mazatlán and just after her 18th birthday in May 1990 .
= = Criminal career = =
The sister of Francisco Rafael 's mother , Agustina Félix Zazueta , married Jesús Labra Avilés ( alias " El Chuy " ) , a drug trafficker under the tutelage of Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo , the former leader of the Guadalajara Cartel and a high profile drug lord in Mexico . Other sources say that the Arellano Félix brothers were nephews of the drug lord Félix Gallardo , who allegedly introduced them to the drug trade in Baja California . Benjamín worked with the drug trafficker Javier Caro Payán ( cousin of Rafael Caro Quintero ) , who later fled to Canada after Félix Gallardo was arrested in 1989 and after he feared a coup from the Arellano Félix . With the leadership void open , Benjamín started to work full @-@ time with his uncle Labra Avilés ; Francisco Rafael , Ramón , and Javier later join them in Tijuana . The arrest of Félix Gallardo led to the disintegration of the Guadalajara Cartel into several drug trafficking organizations : in the western coast , a faction formed the Sinaloa Cartel ; in the Ciudad Juárez border area , another group formed the Juárez Cartel ; and in the Baja California border region , others formed the so @-@ called Tijuana Cartel , which was formed by the Arellano Félix and lieutenants previously loyal to Félix Gallardo in the area . In December 1989 , the Arellano Félix ordered their gunmen to decimate the Machi Ramírez , a once @-@ prominent crime family that controlled the drug trade in Tijuana prior to their arrival . Once established in Tijuana , the Arellano Félix forged important relations with some of the most prominent families in the region .
The flight , eventual arrest , and murder of Caro Payán angered his associates that headed the Sinaloa and Sonora Cartels . Two leaders of the Sinaloa Cartel , Joaquín " El Chapo " Guzmán , now Mexico 's most @-@ wanted , and his business partner Héctor " El Güero " Palma , attempted to take control of Tijuana from the hands of the Arellano Félix in the early 1990s . The antagonism lasted for several years and was accompanied by violent acts in the states of Baja California , Sonora , Sinaloa , Durango , Jalisco , Guerrero , Michoacán and Oaxaca . In 1989 , " El Chapo " Guzmán sent Armando López ( alias " El Rayo " ) , one of his most @-@ trusted men , to speak with the Arellano Félix in Tijuana . Before he had a chance to speak face @-@ to @-@ face with them , López was killed by Ramón . The corpse was disposed in the outskirts of the city and the Tijuana Cartel ordered a hit on the remaining family members of the López family to prevent future reprisals . Two years later , Ramón killed another Sinaloa Cartel associate , Rigoberto Campos Salcido ( alias " El Rigo " ) , prompting bigger conflicts with the rival cartel . In September 1992 , the Tijuana Cartel ordered another hit against their rivals ; in Iguala , Guerrero , lawyers of Félix Gallardo and several of his family members were kidnapped and killed by gunmen . " El Güero " Palma responded to the attacks by ordering several of his men to kill eight members of the Arellano Félix organization at the Christine discothèque in Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco . Ramón and Francisco Javier were the prime targets but they escaped uninjured .
Their deep @-@ seated rivalry reached its peak on 24 May 1993 when gunmen affiliated with the Tijuana Cartel attempted to kill " El Chapo " Guzmán in the Guadalajara International Airport . In the raging fire , gunmen shot a luxurious vehicle thought to hold Guzmán ; however , among those aboard was Catholic Cardinal Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo , who was killed at the scene , along with six other civilians . Guzmán successfully escaped the assassination attempt by leaving in a taxi . On 4 December 1993 , Francisco Rafael was arrested by the Federal Judicial Police ( PJF ) in Tijuana for charges on drug trafficking , illegal use of weaponry under Mexican law , and complicity in the murder of Posadas Ocampo . He was sentenced to 10 years and three months and imprisoned at the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 , a maximum security prison in Almoloya de Juárez , State of Mexico . Unlike the rest of his brothers who eventually led the Tijuana Cartel and made it one of the leading and most violent drug trafficking organizations in Mexico during the 1990s , Francisco Rafael was not a key player in the cartel 's hegemony . His arrest in 1993 was earlier than the eventual downfall of his other brothers , who were later arrested and / or killed . In the Tijuana Cartel , his task was to coordinate the buying and selling of narcotics to the United States .
= = = Extradition to the U.S. = = =
A 1980 US indictment said that Francisco Rafael was under investigation by the DEA for alleged cocaine and heroin distribution in the San Diego area . The DEA had identified him as one of the cocaine suppliers and set up an undercover operation to arrest him and his associates by purchasing multi @-@ ton shipments of cocaine . He admitted to have worked with drug distributor Ramón Torresillos @-@ Rendón , and that he used him as a mediator for a drug transaction with an undercover federal agent . In court , Francisco Rafael admitted having sent Torresillos @-@ Rendón and four other individuals to sell nine ounces of cocaine to the agent . He was arrested in California on 7 August 1980 and remained under custody until or around 8 September 1980 after paying a US $ 150 @,@ 000 bond and promising to appear at every court session . Nonetheless , he fled to Mexico shortly afterwards and did not appear in court on 8 October 1980 .
On 2 June 2003 U.S. authorities requested the Mexican government to extradite Francisco Rafael . A Mexican federal judge approved the request the following year , but the drug lord was extradited to the United States on 16 September 2006 . He was flown from Matamoros , Tamaulipas , via helicopter and handed over to U.S. authorities in a prison in Brownsville , Texas , after a 10 @-@ year sentence in Mexico . He was then transferred to the state of California pending federal charges on drug trafficking . On 18 June 2007 , he pleaded guilty to the possession and distribution of cocaine before U.S. District Judge Irma E. Gonzalez in a San Diego federal court . In his testimony , he admitted to selling about 250 grams of cocaine to a supplier who negotiated with an undercover Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) agent in an unnamed motel in San Diego in 1980 . In October 2007 , Francisco Rafael was sentenced to six years in prison and with possibility to parole in four months given the time he had already served in prison .
= = = Release and deportation = = =
Though sentenced to six years in prison , Francisco Rafael was released on 4 March 2008 after a year and five months behind bars . His lawyer confirmed that he was released for the time he had previously served in Mexico . Once released , he was deported to Mexico through the Paso del Norte International Bridge ( " Santa Fe " ) international bridge in Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua , and El Paso , Texas . He had no pending charges in his home country . Mexican authorities watched Francisco Rafael from a distance as he merged through the multitude of people close to the border . It was unknown if his family was notified of his deportation but the authorities allege that shortly after his arrival he took a flight to Tijuana to see his wife and children . Upon his arrival , Francisco Rafael moved to Mazatlán before deciding to move to Los Cabos , a resort town in the Baja California peninsula . The former drug lord lived there with his wife in Cumbres del Tezal , an upper @-@ middle @-@ class neighborhood on a hill and with view towards the Arco de Cabo San Lucas . Instead of his actual name , Francisco Rafael went by his pseudonym Mauro Vázquez , and posed as a businessman , avid motorcyclist , and music producer .
= = Death = =
Francisco Rafael was celebrating his 64th birthday along with his wife , children , and friends at Ocean House , a beachfront banquet hall owned by Hotel Marbella in Los Cabos , Baja California Sur on 18 October 2013 . There were about 80 to 100 attendees at the party , including prominent businessmen , politicians , celebrities , and sport figures like former Mexican footballer Jared Borgetti and boxing champion Omar Chávez . The party also hosted a number of musical groups , including banda La Cabeña , El Mariachi de Los Cabos , and the former leading vocalist of Banda El Recodo . At around 8 : 00 p.m. that day , a black @-@ colored SUV entered the private property and parked near the entrance of the ballroom . In the front seats of the car , according to eye @-@ witness reports , were two men ; in the back seat was a man dressed as a clown , who descended from the vehicle and headed towards the door that led to the kitchen . Once inside the ballroom , the clown identified Francisco Rafael at the center of the room and began to walk towards him . When the clown was about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) close , he pulled out a pistol from his costume and shot him point @-@ blank in his head and then several times more as he fell to the ground , killing him on the scene . As the former drug lord lay dead near the entrance , the assassin ran through a rear exit while the attendees yelled , fell to the ground , and hid under the tables . Four more shots were heard outside the ballroom shortly after the attack ; according to eyewitnesses , the clown had done this to scare off one of Francisco Rafael 's sons , who was chasing him . The suspect then fled the crime scene in the black @-@ colored SUV and headed towards the highway .
The first to arrive at the crime scene were the municipal authorities of Los Cabos , followed by the Mexican Armed Forces and the federal and state police forces . Upon the arrival of the authorities , Francisco Rafael 's wife — in between tears — informed them of the former drug lord 's identity . The autopsy revealed that Francisco Rafael died of severe traumatic brain injury from shots in the thorax and head with a FN Five @-@ seven pistol . The murder of Francisco Rafael initially fell under state jurisdiction because he was not wanted by the federal government when he was killed . Therefore , the murder investigation was started by the Baja California Sur authorities and not by the Office of the General Prosecutor ( PGR ) . However , the PGR joined the case after it was requested by the state authorities .
= = = Funeral = = =
On 19 October 2013 , the Baja California Sur state police escorted the corpse of Francisco Rafael and his family members to the port of Pichilingue . The body was then shipped by boat to his home state of Sinaloa . It was initially reported by the media that his corpse was to be cremated in Mazatlán ; however , his remains were taken to the city of Los Mochis in the municipality of Ahome for cremation on 20 October 2013 .
= = = Aftermath and investigation = = =
Roughly twenty @-@ four hours after the death of Francisco Rafael , the Mexican federal police arrested Manuel Aguirre Galindo ( alias " El Caballo " – " The Horse " ) , a founder of the Tijuana Cartel and a high @-@ ranking leader and money launderer who had been a fugitive for more than 20 years , in Mexico City . It is unknown who notified the authorities of his whereabouts but they allege that they were either notified by a rival gang or by members of the Arellano Félix clan . Among the hypotheses presented by Zeta , a Tijuana @-@ based magazine known for its investigative reports on the Tijuana Cartel , are as followed : ( 1 ) shortly after the murder of Francisco Rafael , the police interrogated his family and several of the party invitees , who may have proportionated information that led to Aguirre Galindo 's arrest , given that the drug lord was allegedly responsible for providing security to Francisco Rafael ; ( 2 ) the other hypothesis is that Aguirre Galindo 's location was tipped by members of the Tijuana Cartel who were mad at him for failing to protect Francisco Rafael .
The motives behind the murder case are officially unknown but Mexican authorities believe that given the circumstances and the players involved , the suspected source of fire was organized crime and that the motives possibly stemmed from " unpaid old debts , and old retributions " . The authorities are working with two separate lines of investigation : ( 1 ) the first line alleges that Francisco Rafael was killed by members of the Beltrán Leyva Cartel , a drug trafficking organization that fights for the control of the smuggling routes in the Baja California peninsula against the Sinaloa Cartel ; ( 2 ) the second line alleges that Francisco Rafael was killed by members of the Sinaloa Cartel , specifically on orders of " El Chapo " Guzmán , the cartel 's leader . " El Chapo " was nearly captured by the Mexican federal police in Los Cabos in March 2012 , after an anonymous call informed the DEA that the drug lord was possibility hiding in three properties . Investigators allege that Francisco Rafael , although he was no longer involved in organized crime , might have tipped the authorities to his whereabouts and incurred " El Chapo 's " wrath . They also believe that the attack might have been carried out by a local drug @-@ dealing group in Los Cabos ; the main suspect of this allegation is a man named Javier López Rivera or Javier Acosta López ( alias " El Javier " and / or " El Javi " ) , the supposed leader of this crime cell . In this line of investigation , the authorities believe that the drug dealer sent two of his men to pick up the assassin who had arrived from Sinaloa at the Los Cabos International Airport . Two of the three men involved in the murder case , they allege , go by the aliases " Caín " and " El Chapito " .
According to the Mexican authorities , the murder plot was possibly carried out with the collaboration of the Tijuana Cartel because no security measures were taken during the party and because the entrances were open to the public ( when they are usually closed for private events ) . The investigation was further complicated by the fact that many of the invitees — fearing for their lives — fled from the scene when Francisco Rafael was killed by the clown . Out of the 80 to 100 attendees , only 20 of them stayed , many of them family members and employees of the banquet hall . When the authorities interrogated those who stayed and asked them whether they had recognized the assassin or any other physical features , none of them were able to give any details . Some stated that they did not even pay attention to the clown when he entered the crime scene , while others stated that they did not even recall exactly what the clown was wearing , remembering only that the assassin was wearing a blue @-@ stripped or purple shirt , a multicolored wig , and a red clown nose .
On 7 November 2013 , a person who was at the murder scene uploaded a 1 : 04 minute video on YouTube showing the scene before Francisco Rafael was killed . The video starts with the former vocalist of Banda El Recodo singing " El Señor de las Canas " , a song by Vicente Fernández , alongside a mariachi group . As the film progresses , the camera turns to the sides and shows former footballer Jared Borgetti siting at a table with Rocío del Carmen Lizárraga , wife of Francisco Rafael . Towards the last seconds of the video , a bald @-@ looking man passes through the back of the tables in front of the camera and apparently gives a hand signal to the assassin before walking away . Then , a man dressed as a clown ( the presumed assassin ) passes through the front and heads towards the place where Francisco Rafael was at . Seconds later , one shot was heard ; most of the invitees were not aware of what had happened , and the music continued . Shortly afterwards , four more shots were heard from the rear . Following the second round of shots , the music stopped and the invitees started screaming . The video only captured a few seconds after the last four shots before concluding . The Baja California Sur authorities believe that the bald @-@ looking man that appeared on the video shortly before the clown and apparently gave him a hand signal is involved in the murder plot . Eyewitnesses who sat at a table with the suspect stated that they did not know who he was but that they saw him greet Francisco Rafael during the party . The suspect reportedly made three phone calls during the party and sent several text messages . Investigators believe that the man was possibly communicating with the assassin ; the authorities are investigating the text messages and phone calls made that day in the area through the Telcel database . With the surface of the video , the authorities were able to also gather more information about the assassin and the murder . They were able to identify other invitees , including former Cruz Azul footballer Héctor López . The video allowed the authorities to identify the physical characteristics of the assassin , including his skin color , approximate height , and the color of his clothing . The authorities are investigating whether any purchases made in custom or fabric stores in the area might lead them to the murderers .
In January 2014 , the PGR stated that the alleged mastermind of the murder was possibly José Rodrigo Aréchiga Gamboa ( alias " El Chino Ántrax " ) , the leader of Los Ántrax , an armed squadron of the Sinaloa Cartel . The agency revealed through several photographs that Francisco Rafael and Aréchiga Gamboa met at the fight promotion event of boxers Omar Chávez and Joachim Alcine in Los Cabos two days prior to the murder . The PGR hypothesized that the murder was possibly stemmed from Francisco Rafael 's involvement in money laundering activities and as a message from the Los Ántrax to show that they were in charge of organized crime in Los Cabos . They also believe that Ismael " El Mayo " Zambada , a top leader of the Sinaloa Cartel , might have ordered the attack . The state authorities identified two other possible murderers : Noé Castro ( alias " R1 " ) , Aréchiga Gamboa 's right @-@ hand man in Los Cabos ; and a man known by his alias " R13 " . They also conducted anthropometry studies to conclude if Aréchiga Gamboa fit the physical descriptions of the man featured in the video .
= The Show ( Girls Aloud song ) =
" The Show " is a song recorded by British girl group Girls Aloud for their second studio album , What Will the Neighbours Say ? ( 2004 ) . It was released by Polydor Records on 13 September 2004 , as the lead single from the album . The song was written by Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Lisa Cowling , Jon Shave , and Tim Powell . The synth rhythm , composed by Shave , represents a change in musical direction from the band 's previous releases . " The Show " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop and electropop song with elements of the 1990 rave records . It garnered a positive response from music critics , who deemed it as another unique track produced by Xenomania , and was considered one of the best songs of 2004 by The Times .
" The Show " debuted and peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , continuing the band 's string of hits by becoming their fifth consecutive single to chart within the top three . The song also peaked inside the top ten in Ireland and certain European territories . In 2006 , it charted at number 67 on Australia 's singles chart . The accompanying music video was directed by Trudy Bellinger , and portrays the five members as characters working in a salon . To promote the song , Girls Aloud performed " The Show " at the 2004 Royal Variety Performance and at London gay nightclub G @-@ A @-@ Y. It was also performed on five of the group 's concert tours .
= = Background and release = =
Following a brief hiatus , Polydor Records enlisted Brian Higgins and Xenomania to produce Girls Aloud 's second album in its entirety , following the success of their debut album . Higgins explained that Polydor were not going to continue with the group 's contract unless he produced songs for the album . He continued , saying that his initial reaction was that he thought he would only be required to produce a couple of songs , however Polydor insisted that he produce the album in its entirety and that they thought only he understood what they wanted . The album was recorded from April to September 2004 . For the lead single from What Will the Neighbours Say ? , Polydor presented the band four singles choices , including " The Show " , " Wake Me Up " , " Graffiti My Soul " , and " Androgynous Girls " . Although " Wake Me Up " was the preferred choice , it was deemed too hard sounding and the record company didn 't want to take the risk , and they also added " Androgynous Girls " as a b @-@ side to the album 's second single three months later . " The pressure to come up with singles was , as always , immense . But [ ... ] we were able to have a lot of fun working on ideas that were maybe a little too odd to be on the radio , " Higgins said . They decided to release " The Show " , which was debuted on 28 June 2004 , less than six months after the release of " Jump " . It was released on two different CD single formats , but did not feature any new b @-@ sides . A remix of " Jump " appears on the first disc , while the Gravitas Club Mix of " The Show " and an exclusive interview both appeared on the second disc . " The Show " was also released in Australia two years later , on 3 June 2006 , as the second single from the Australian version of Chemistry .
= = Composition = =
The song was written by Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Lisa Cowling , Jon Shave , and Tim Powell . Contrary to the verse @-@ chorus form that is typically used in modern pop music , " The Show " opts for a less conventional song structure . It was noted for its intricacy . The song 's lyrics , which contain an anti @-@ promiscuity message , " set in motion a writing style that would come to epitomise Girls Aloud 's music . " In the group 's 2008 autobiography Dreams That Glitter - Our Story , Cheryl Cole described Girls Aloud 's cover of the Pointer Sisters ' " Jump " as " the point when we realized everything we 'd been doing was quite down and moody [ ... ] and that 's not what people wanted . " As their first single following the cover , " The Show " served as an introduction to Girls Aloud 's new sound , being " their most risqué cut at the time . " Rather than the guitar that dominated the band 's first three singles , " The Show " mostly utilises synthesisers . The synth rhythm was composed by a Xenomania musician named Jon Shave . MusicOMH contributor John Murphy deemed the track 's composition similar to " Love Machine " , which he considered inspired by " ' 80s synth pop . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Show " was described by BBC Music as " a feisty , thumping track with a positively rude bassline , " while a reviewer for Virgin Media described the song as a " rush of thrilling synth stabs and natty vocal hooks . " Paul Scott of Stylus Magazine referred to " The Show " as one of Girls Aloud 's best songs , deeming it " audacious to say the least . With its clipped delivery and gnarled synth riffs barely sweetened , it ’ s SAW doing SST ; tungsten and gristle polished to an FM sheen . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian considered " The Show " and " Love Machine " as the perfect examples of Xenomania 's unique production , and added that the lead single " is based around a frantically exciting electronic noise that seems to have escaped from an early @-@ 1990s rave record . " In their best @-@ of @-@ year countdown , The Times noted that the song helped Xenomania to establish themselves as the best pop music production team .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending 17 July 2004 , " The Show " debuted at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , being held of the top spot by Usher 's " Burn " . It fell to number 5 the following week . " The Show " is Girls Aloud 17th best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom . The single also debuted and peaked at number 9 on the European Hot 100 Singles , falling to number 18 the following week . In Ireland , it debuted at number ten , and peaked at number 5 three weeks later . After its release in Australia in 2006 , " The Show " failed to make impact and missed the top forty of the ARIA Charts , debuting and peaking at number 67 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " The Show " was directed by Trudy Bellinger . After the video shoot , Girls Aloud decided it was time to change their choreographer , hiring Beth Honan , who continued to work with the band for several years . Walsh also said that the music video for " The Show " was her least favourite from the band . The story takes place in a salon called " Curls Allowed . " Each member of the band plays a character working in the salon , pampering and making @-@ up a variety of men . Nicola Roberts is " Chelsea Tanner , " who sprays insulting messages with fake bronzer onto her male customers ; Nadine Coyle is " Frenchie " , who ineptly tries to give her male customers facials ; Sarah Harding is " Supa Styler " , a hair stylist who fails to satisfy any of her customers ; Cheryl Cole is " Maxi Wax " , who makes the waxing process as painful as possible ; and Kimberley Walsh is " The Boss " , who looks on amusedly as her employees take their revenge on the salon 's male customers .
= = Live performances = =
Girls Aloud performed " The Show " at 2004 's Royal Variety Performance . During the performance , they changed from little black uniforms to sultry red dresses during the course of their routine . They also performed the song at London gay nightclub G @-@ A @-@ Y , to promote the release of the single , on 26 June 2004 . Girls Aloud have included " The Show " in five of their concert tours . For their first tour , 2005 's What Will the Neighbours Say ? Live , " The Show " served as the opening number . For 2006 's Chemistry Tour , each member have individual " stations " modeled after beauty salons , referencing the song 's music video . The stations are surrounded by frames , which are illuminated through the song . The group then uses the framework for their dance routine . The following year , on their first greatest hits tour , the band performed the song with a half @-@ naked male dance partner , using a bed for a prop . " The Show " was also performed on 2009 's Out of Control Tour , where the song was included in a greatest hits medley which closed the concerts . In 2013 , the song was performed in full during the Ten : The Hits Tour in the style of a Victoria 's Secret show .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " The Show " .
= = Personnel = =
Nadine Coyle – co @-@ lead vocals
Cheryl Fernandez @-@ Versini – co @-@ lead vocals
Sarah Harding – co @-@ lead vocals
Nicola Roberts – co @-@ lead vocals
Kimberley Walsh – co @-@ lead vocals
= = Charts = =
= Henry Adams Thompson =
Henry Adams Thompson ( March 23 , 1837 – July 8 , 1920 ) was an American prohibitionist and professor who was the vice @-@ presidential nominee of the Prohibition Party in 1880 .
Thompson was a native of Pennsylvania , but spent much of his career in Ohio . He became a member of the United Brethren church and taught mathematics at several United Brethren colleges in the Midwest . Thompson served as president of Otterbein University from 1872 to 1886 . Much of his time as college president was devoted to improving the financial standing of the school during the economic depression that followed the Panic of 1873 .
Initially a Republican , he became an early member of the Prohibition Party . His attempt at election to the vice presidency in 1880 , running on a ticket with Neal Dow of Maine , was the party 's best showing to date , but they still placed a distant fourth to the eventual winners , James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur . He ran for office under the Prohibition banner several other times before and after 1880 , all without success .
= = Early life and educational career = =
Henry Thompson was born in Stormstown , Centre County , Pennsylvania on March 23 , 1837 , the son of John Thompson and Lydia Blake Thompson . John Thompson was the manager of an ironworks in Centre County , and later owned a general mercantile business in Stormstown . Lydia Blake was a Quaker from Kennett Square , Pennsylvania , who was disinherited when she married Thompson , a Presbyterian . John Thompson was politically active and served two terms as county sheriff . He was active in anti @-@ slavery and temperance causes , in both of which his son Henry followed him .
Thompson graduated from Jefferson College ( now Washington & Jefferson College ) in 1858 with a bachelor 's degree , and studied for two years at the Western Theological seminary ( now Pittsburgh Theological Seminary ) . In 1861 , he was appointed professor of mathematics at Western College ( now Leander Clark College ) , a United Brethren @-@ affiliated college in Shueyville , Iowa , and taught there for one year . The United Brethren , a pietist church that arose first among Pennsylvania Germans during the Great Awakening , was one of the earliest churches in the United States to embrace abolitionism . By Thompson 's time , they had also joined the fight for the prohibition of alcohol , though most did so from within the Republican Party and did not join the small single @-@ issue Prohibition Party .
The next year , 1862 , Thompson began teaching mathematics and natural science at another United Brethren school , Otterbein University in Westerville , Ohio . That same year , he married Harriet Copeland , an artist who also taught at Otterbein . They had three children : Jessie , Clara , and Louis ; two of the three became medical doctors . In 1867 , Thompson left Otterbein to become superintendent of schools in Troy , Ohio . After four years in that position , he returned to teaching , serving again as a mathematics professor in Westfield College , a United Brethren school in Westfield , Illinois .
In 1872 , Thompson was elected president of Otterbein University , and remained in that position until 1886 . He received a doctorate in divinity from Otterbein the following year . As president , Thompson continued to teach and delivered speeches around the country on school or church business . Thompson took office shortly before the financial Panic of 1873 , with the result that his primary concern as president was keeping the college funded . In this he was successful , although the college had to borrow money to stay afloat until the economy recovered . After the initial debt was incurred , Thompson worked to raise donations to pay it off more quickly . He also worked to attract new professors to teach at Otterbein , improving both the quality of education and the school 's reputation among scholars . Thompson was involved in organizing the General Board of Education of the United Brethren Church , which served as a coordinating body for the schools affiliated with the church .
= = Political career = =
Thompson had identified with the Republican Party since its founding in the 1850s , but in 1874 he left it to join the new Prohibition Party . The Prohibitionists , more of a movement than a party , focused their efforts on banning alcohol . Like Thompson , most party members came from pietist churches , and most were former Republicans . He was the party 's nominee for the federal House of Representatives from Ohio 's 12th district at a special election held that year because of the resignation of Democrat Hugh J. Jewett , as well as for the full term that would follow . Thompson lost both , receiving only a few hundred votes and losing to Democratic candidate William E. Finck . He served as chairman of the Prohibition National Convention in 1876 in Cleveland , but the young party 's nominees fared poorly , winning fewer than 7000 votes nationwide .
In 1880 , the party nominated Thompson for vice president , joining a ticket headed by Neal Dow of Portland , Maine , the author of one of the nation 's first municipal prohibition laws . Only twelve states sent delegates to the convention , and the platform they agreed on was silent on most issues of the day , focusing instead on the evils of alcohol . The Prohibitionists increased their vote total in the election that year , but still received just over 10 @,@ 000 votes out of more than nine million cast . Thompson made another bid for elected office in 1887 , when the Prohibition Party nominated him for Governor of Ohio . He was again unsuccessful , netting less than one percent of the vote and finishing in a distant fifth place behind the winner , Democrat Richard M. Bishop . Thompson 's vote total was also surpassed by the Republican candidate , William H. West , and the candidates of two other minor parties , the Workingman Party and the Greenback Party .
Thompson ran for Congress several more times . In 1900 , he ran in Ohio 's 3rd congressional district as the nominee of the Union Reform Party , which was made up of Prohibition Party members who split from the main party . He received just 0 @.@ 32 % of the vote , and Republican Robert M. Nevin won the election . In 1908 , he ran for the same seat for the re @-@ united Prohibition Party , but won just 0 @.@ 4 % of the vote , losing the election to Democrat James M. Cox . In 1910 , Thompson ran for governor of Ohio . Despite the growing popularity of the idea of prohibition , the Prohibition Party candidate got just 0 @.@ 77 % of the vote as Democrat Judson Harmon carried the state . His final attempt at election came in Indiana 's 4th congressional district , just over the Ohio border . With 2 @.@ 24 % of the vote , it was Thompson 's best performance , but he still fell far short of victory .
= = Later life = =
After retiring as college president in 1886 , Thompson remained active in school , party , and church affairs . He became a director of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society in 1885 and prepared their exhibit at the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 . He wrote several books on church topics , including Our Bishops : A Sketch of the Origin and Growth of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ , published in 1889 . In 1901 , he was elected editor of the United Brethren Review . He died in Dayton , Ohio on July 8 , 1920 , and was buried at Westerville , Ohio 's Otterbein Cemetery .
= ECW One Night Stand ( 2006 ) =
ECW One Night Stand ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was held on June 11 , 2006 , at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York , New York .
The main event was John Cena versus Rob Van Dam for the WWE Championship , which Van Dam won by pinfall after performing a Five Star Frog Splash following interference from Edge . The predominant match on the undercard was Rey Mysterio versus Sabu for the World Heavyweight Championship , which ended in a no contest after Sabu hit Mysterio with a Triple Jump DDT through a table on to the floor rendering both men kayfabe unable to wrestle , as a result , Mysterio retained the title . Another match on the undercard was Edge , Mick Foley , and Lita versus Terry Funk , Tommy Dreamer and Beulah McGillicutty in a Hardcore Intergender match .
= = Background = =
The build @-@ up for One Night Stand occurred on both Raw and SmackDown heading into the pay @-@ per @-@ view , but build @-@ up behind the scenes began several months earlier , as WWE was bringing back ECW full @-@ time . The news that WWE was planning to bring back ECW was leaked in the middle of April as Vince McMahon decided to revive ECW as a full @-@ time brand . Reports beforehand stated that WWE was prepared to bring back ECW immediately after WrestleMania 22 . WWE opted to cancel its webcast Velocity and replace it with the new ECW program . The new brand was officially confirmed by WWE on May 25 , 2006 , with its debut show airing on June 13 , 2006 on the Sci Fi Channel .
The main feud heading into One Night Stand was between John Cena and Rob Van Dam over the WWE Championship . At WrestleMania , Van Dam competed in a six @-@ man Money in the Bank ladder match , in which Van Dam won and earned the right to face the champion of his choice anytime he wanted to in 12 months . On the May 22 episode of Raw , Cena defeated Chris Masters . After the match , Van Dam came out to the ring and announced that he was cashing in his opportunity for the WWE Championship at One Night Stand . The two exchanged lefts and rights , with Masters getting involved . The distraction allowed Van Dam to toss his briefcase into Cena 's face and then hit him with the Van Daminator . The two had a contract signing for their match on the June 5 , 2006 episode of Raw . Before signing the contract , Van Dam told Cena that he would win the WWE Championship at One Night Stand and rename it the ECW World Heavyweight Championship . ECW representative Paul Heyman told Cena that the ECW fans can ’ t wait to boo him out of the Hammerstein Ballroom . Cena signed the contract and wished Van Dam luck . Heyman , however , told Cena that he had brought some people from ECW and at that point , Balls Mahoney , Terry Funk , Tommy Dreamer and the Sandman came to the ring . Cena attempted to fight them off , but Sandman hit Cena with his Singapore cane . ECW 's Sabu then came out and sent Cena through the table with his Atomic Arabian Facebuster move . Several Raw superstars ran out to attempt to fight off the ECW Originals . Because of this , a match was booked for the WWE vs. ECW Head to Head special that aired on the USA Network on June 7 , 2006 between Cena and Sabu . The match ended in a no contest after ECW 's newest wrestler , The Big Show attacked Cena , sparking a brawl between WWE and ECW superstars .
The other main match on the card was a Hardcore Intergender match , as Edge and Mick Foley faced Terry Funk and Tommy Dreamer . The rivalry started between Edge and Foley , when the two faced in a Hardcore match at WrestleMania 22 . Edge won the match after a spear off the apron and through a flaming table on the outside . Foley was a guest on the Cutting Edge on the May 1 , 2006 episode of Raw , and the two agreed to a WrestleMania Hardcore rematch the following week . Before the match began on the May 8 , 2006 edition of Raw , Foley announced that the match was now a triple threat match , with Tommy Dreamer added as the third person . During the match , however , Foley turned heel for the first time in over eight years and attacked Dreamer with a barbed wire baseball bat . Foley handed Edge the bat and Edge hit Dreamer with it , busting him open . Foley hit the Mandible claw on Dreamer and Edge simultaneously speared Dreamer , with Foley getting the pinfall . The two , along with Lita celebrated up the entrance ramp . On the May 15 , 2006 episode of Raw , Foley wanted to apologize to Dreamer for what happened the previous week ; however , Dreamer was not in the arena , so Foley brought out Terry Funk . Funk asked Foley to apologize for what happened to Dreamer . Instead , Foley started bashing ECW . In an attempt to get into a fight with Foley , Funk made comments about Foley 's family , calling his wife a whore and his kids bastards . When the two exchanged punches , Edge and Lita came out , with Lita low @-@ blowing Funk . Edge and Foley double @-@ teamed Funk , with Edge hitting Funk with a barbed wire baseball bat . A week later , on the May 22 , 2006 edition of Raw , Edge and Foley announced themselves as co @-@ holders of the WWE Hardcore Championship . Paul Heyman came out and made a challenge to Edge and Foley to face Funk and Dreamer at One Night Stand , which Edge accepted . The two , along with Lita , went after Heyman up the ramp , before Dreamer and Funk attacked them with several weapons , sending the trio out of the arena . On the WWE vs. ECW Head to Head special that aired on June 7 , 2006 , Edge faced Dreamer in an Extreme Rules match . Dreamer hit Edge with a Dreamer Driver through the table . Lita interfered , and hit Dreamer repeatedly with a cane . Dreamer was not hurt by the shots , and he got Lita up for a powerbomb , before Edge speared Dreamer . Edge got the pinfall and won the match . During the match , Foley and Funk were fighting outside the ring , with Funk busting Foley open . After the match , Foley sat in the middle of the ring and stated his kayfabe thoughts on ECW .
Where the hell do any of you get off , telling me I sold out ? Where do you get off ? Where do you find the nerve , to call me a whore ? You think I hate ECW ? I love that place . I love that place ! But ECW simply didn 't love me back . She was like the girl I can 't let go off , but the one who makes me sick , upon seeing her . She wanted too much blood , too much of my heart , too much of my life ! So I left , and I found fame and fortune in WWE . And Paul Heyman was right . There 's only one real difference between me and Tommy Dreamer . I 'm a whore , and he 's not . You see , seven years ago , I pulled the sock out of my pants , and made Vince McMahon laugh , and the doors of opportunity open wide for Mick Foley , but not for Tommy Dreamer . All he 's got is his heart , his pride and the initials ECW . And I wanted to tell Edge that I went back and I watched our WrestleMania match , the greatest hardcore match of all time , I said . Well the truth is , maybe it wasn 't quite as good as I thought . Maybe Edge , you and I are gonna have to be tougher than ever , hungrier than ever , sicker than ever , to walk into that steaming cesspool that is the Hammerstein Ballroom . 2 @,@ 500 sickening , twisted fans , screaming for our blood , because Tommy Dreamer can do everything I can , and maybe with more passion . He 's gonna beat us up , all over New York City . He 's gonna bludgeon us . Terry Funk , the greatest wrestler I ever saw . You look at Terry Funk and you see an old man , you 're not seeing the real Terry Funk . His slaps are worse than most men 's punches . His punches dole out concussions , and when he picks up a weapon , he can use it like no man ever has . He has an excruciating pain waking up every single day , looking for one more chance to have one great last match . I blew the son of a bitch up in Japan , and he came back and hugged me . I set him up on fire in Philadelphia , and he put his arm around me . He doesn 't put his arm around me anymore . I don 't want your arm around me , Terry Funk . Tommy Dreamer , the only difference between me and you , is I have the guts to go to WWE . ( At this point , a fan was audibly heard on the telecast telling Foley to shut up . ) No , you shut your mouth ! ( pointing out to said fan ) Because when I go to Hammerstein Ballroom , Edge and I are prepared to take the beatings of our lives , and I will do that to exorcise the sick , twisted whore that is ECW . I want her out of my life . You ’ ve seen me thrown off cells , you 've seen me slammed in tacks , you 've seen me go through a burning table at WrestleMania ; it is nothing compared to the horrors I will unleash on Dreamer and Funk at ( goddamn you ) ECW . ' Cause I 'm gonna stake the hearts of your heroes , and I 'm gonna shove them down their throats for making me fall in love with you to begin with . You stepped on my heart , you stepped on my soul , you took everything I 've had faith in , and you just throw it away . And then when I walk to that ring at the Hammerstein Ballroom as a WWE Legend , you Terry Funk and you Tommy Dreamer will learn about loss ... Have a nice day .
One of the main undercard matches on the card was between Rey Mysterio and Sabu for the World Heavyweight Championship . ECW representative Paul Heyman announced that Mysterio had accepted the challenge for One Night Stand on the June 2 , 2006 edition of SmackDown . Before the June 9 , 2006 edition of SmackDown , Heyman kayfabe revealed to WWE 's official website that he was trying to get Mysterio to join the new ECW brand . Mysterio turned down Heyman 's offer on the June 9 , 2006 edition of SmackDown . In the main event on that edition of SmackDown , Mysterio faced Finlay . Mysterio was about to 619 Finlay , when Sabu , who was holding a steel chair , climbed onto the ring apron . Mysterio dropkicked the chair into Sabu , which distracted the referee . This allowed Finlay to hit Mysterio with his shillelagh , and the Celtic Cross for the victory . After the contest , Sabu set up a table on the outside of the ring , and hit Mysterio with a springboard legdrop that sent Mysterio through the table .
= = Event = =
Paul Heyman began the event as it aired on pay @-@ per @-@ view , coming to the ring to " ECW " chants . Heyman stated that " this [ ECW 's resurrection ] didn 't happen because of me and it didn 't happen because of Vince McMahon . This happened because of you [ the fans ] . And on behalf of every single one of us , from the bottom of my heart , thank you , thank you , thank you ! "
The first match on the card was a match between ECW Original Tazz and WWE Raw commentator Jerry Lawler . In what was a squash match , Lawler slapped ECW commentator Joey Styles in the face en route to the ring . Tazz won after 35 seconds by making Lawler pass out to the Tazzmission . After the match , Tazz joined Joey Styles on commentary for the rest of the show .
ECW 's Kurt Angle versus Raw 's Randy Orton was next . Despite Angle 's participation as an anti @-@ ECW crusader from last year 's One Night Stand he was met with raucous cheers from the ECW faithful . Randy Orton , by contrast , received an overwhelmingly negative reaction from the fans in attendance , and was subjected throughout the match to several derogatory chants including " Go Fuck Cena " and " Orton 's a Homo " . Orton gained the main advantage in the match after Angle missed a Running Shoulder Tackle , which sent him into the ringpost . The crowd inside the Hammerstein Ballroom chanted " Boring ! " as Orton applied a rear choke on Angle . Angle hit a series of German Suplexes , before hitting an Angle Slam . Orton attempted an RKO , but Angle countered , locking on the Ankle lock . Orton tapped out , giving Angle the victory .
The Full Blooded Italians ( Little Guido Maritato and Tony Mamaluke ) versus Super Crazy and Tajiri was next . After Guido propelled Crazy into the crowd , Guido and Mamaluke hit Tajiri with the Muscle Buster for the victory . After the contest , The Big Show entered the ring hitting Mamaluke with the cobra clutch backbreaker and kicked F.B.I. ' s enforcer Big Guido in the head . After the match , Big Show came to low blow Big Guido .
John " Bradshaw " Layfield made a surprise appearance , cutting a promo . Just over a week earlier , he announced on his radio show that he was not going to return to professional wrestling . JBL recalled his ( legitimate ) assault on The Blue Meanie from One Night Stand 2005 and referred to himself as " The King of Hardcore " . He announced that he was replacing Tazz as the color commentator of SmackDown ! .
Rey Mysterio versus Sabu was next in an Extreme Rules match with the World Heavyweight Championship on the line . The match started with several chair shots from both competitors . Sabu had the upper part for most of the match , hitting an Arabian Facebuster and a Triple Jump Moonsault , but Mysterio kicked out of both moves . Mysterio regained the upper hand , as he hit a Seated Senton that sent both men through a table at ringside . Sabu countered a second Seated Senton attempt , and put Mysterio on a second table at ringside . Sabu proceeded to hit a Triple @-@ Jump Somersault Splash , but Mysterio made it to his feet while on the table . This turned the move into a DDT , sending both men through the table at ringside . Although neither men were legitimately hurt , Dr. Ferdinand Rios came out and kayfabe declared that the match could not continue . This meant that Mysterio retained the World Heavyweight Championship .
Edge and Mick Foley versus Tommy Dreamer and Terry Funk was next in what was a Hardcore Tag Team match . Before the match began Edge and Foley entered the ring , accompanied by Lita and Dreamer and Funk entered the ring , accompanied by Beulah McGillicutty , which turned the match into a Hardcore six @-@ person tag @-@ team match . Despite McGillicutty and Lita being added to the match , they stayed out of the action for most of the contest . Funk was taken backstage halfway through the match as Foley wrapped barbed wire around his fist and raked it across the forehead and eyes of Funk . Funk later returned to the match , hitting Edge and Foley with a Barbed Wire Bat . Funk then set the bat on fire and left it at ringside . Funk hit Foley , and Foley fell onto a Barbed Wire Board . Foley 's shirt was on fire , but was put out by a ringside attendant . Dreamer and Funk got the upper @-@ hand after Dreamer DDT 'd Edge . Dreamer then locked a Modified Crossface onto Edge , using Barbed wire against Edge 's face . Lita broke the hold up only to have Dreamer give her the Spicolli Driver . Edge blindsided Dreamer wrapping Barbed Wire around his head , before dropping him with the Inverted DDT . McGillicutty entered the ring to check on Dreamer , but Edge speared McGillicutty and pinned her with a cover that resembled the " legs up " version of the missionary position .
Balls Mahoney faced Masato Tanaka in the second Extreme Rules match of the night . Mahoney got the early advantage after throwing a beer can in the face of Tanaka . Tanaka gained the advantage after hitting a superplex off the top rope . Mahoney won the match after hitting Tanaka with a steel chair . Before the WWE Championship match , Eugene came to the ring to cut a promo . He reminded the fans that he was Eric Bischoff 's nephew , before being interrupted by The Sandman . Sandman hit Eugene repeatedly with his Singapore cane , leaving Eugene to run to the back , with The Sandman chasing after him .
The main event was reigning champion John Cena defending his WWE Championship against Rob Van Dam . It was evident that the crowd was decidedly anti @-@ Cena even before the match began ; in keeping with his traditional entrance , Cena threw the T @-@ shirt he wore to the ring out into the crowd , only to have it thrown back at him a number of times . Loud , insulting chants were directed at Cena throughout the match , such as " Fuck You , Cena ! " , " Same Old Shit " , " Overrated " and " You Can 't Wrestle ! " The action quickly went to ringside , and Van Dam got the advantage on Cena , with a Moonsault Press off the steel steps . Van Dam continued his offense when the action went back inside the ring as he placed a chair on Cena 's stomach before hitting the Rolling Thunder . Cena later managed to get the advantage , hitting a DDT on a steel chair . Cena went for his finishing move , the FU , but Van Dam blocked the attempt . Van Dam would then set up a table in the corner , but Cena got Van Dam in the STFU . When John Cena refused to break the hold after Van Dam got to the ropes , Cena clotheslined the referee , after they had a push and shove . Cena proceeded to deliver Van Dam with a Superplex off the top rope and then hitting Van Dam with steel steps . Replacement referee Nick Patrick officiated the remainder of the match , with Van Dam kicking out of two . As Cena got up he went to deliver Van Dam an FU , Van Dam grabbed onto the rope , which leads Cena to deliver Van Dam an FU out of the ring . As Cena turned around , someone in a motorcycle helmet interfered and speared Cena through a table . The person was revealed as Edge , who won a number one contender 's match to challenge for the WWE Championship at Vengeance on June 25 , 2006 . Edge also knocked out Nick Patrick . The Hammerstein Ballroom crowd chanted " Thank You Edge ! " . Van Dam then hit the Five @-@ Star Frog Splash on Cena , but there was no referee as Patrick was knocked out . Paul Heyman ran to the ring , and counted the pinfall to three , giving Van Dam the victory . The ECW locker room came to the ring to celebrate with Van Dam , but it was unclear at the time whether Van Dam was " officially " WWE Champion .
= = Aftermath = =
On Raw the next day Paul Heyman addressed the controversy of Rob Van Dam 's WWE Championship win . He announced that Vince McMahon ruled Van Dam 's WWE Championship win as official and that the WWE Championship would be rechristened as the ECW World Heavyweight Championship on the premiere of ECW on Sci Fi . On the debut episode of ECW on June 13 , 2006 , Heyman presented Van Dam with the ECW World Heavyweight Championship . Van Dam said that he had opted to keep the spinner belt ( sarcastically remarking that " this one spins ! " ) , making him both WWE Champion and ECW World Heavyweight Champion . Edge , who was the number one contender for Van Dam 's WWE Championship at Vengeance appeared , and speared Van Dam . Soon after , John Cena came through the crowd and attacked Edge , followed by a punch to Heyman , before being chased out by ECW Originals . At Vengeance Van Dam defeated Edge to retain the WWE Championship .
= = Reception = =
The overall reaction to the pay @-@ per @-@ view was very good , with 280 @,@ 000 people ordering the event , down from the 325 @,@ 000 orders the previous year .
= = Results = =
= Aether ( video game ) =
Aether is a video game designed by Edmund McMillen and Tyler Glaiel and published by Armor Games , released on September 3 , 2008 . Players control a lonely boy and an octopus @-@ like monster that the boy encounters , solving puzzles on different planets to restore them from monochrome to color . The pair travel through space by swinging on clouds and asteroids with the monster 's elongated tongue , searching other planets for life to which the boy can relate . It is also a part of The Basement Collection .
McMillen and Glaiel created the game and developed it in 14 days . Both developers expressed interest in seeing a version being released on the Wii game console through the WiiWare online service . Aether received a positive response from video game blogs for its unusual visual style and atmosphere . The single looped piece of background music received a mixed response and the controls were highlighted as an area of the game that could have been improved before release .
= = Gameplay = =
Aether is a space adventure game with washed @-@ out pastel colors and a varying soundtrack consisting of a piano , synthesizer , guitar , and percussion piece . There are four monochrome planets to explore , which have subdued hues . Players control a lonely boy from Earth and an octopus @-@ like monster he befriends . The monster 's tongue is used to propel itself and the boy through space and onto other planets . Each planet has a unique soundtrack that gets louder as you approach it . Each moon or planet exerts gravity over the player character , requiring momentum to escape from the planet 's orbit . To escape a planet , the tongue must first be latched onto a cloud floating above the planet 's surface , which can then be used to swing the player around . By propelling themselves from the initial cloud using swinging momentum , players can latch onto the next and repeat the process to leave the planet 's orbit . After reaching space the process is repeated with stars and asteroids . In space the lack of gravity causes the player to drift until the direction is changed by swinging on another object .
When travelling through space , players are drawn to a planet 's orbit once they get close . Each planet 's location is labeled with a colored marker which disappears once that planet 's puzzle is solved . The player encounters characters who can be helped if a puzzle is solved . Each planet besides Earth has its own puzzle . The monster 's ability to swing around objects is used in some of the game 's puzzles . One puzzle involves swinging on the crystals which surround the core of a hollow planet called Gravida , without swinging on the same crystal twice or breaking the chain . Solving each planet 's puzzle produces a flash of light , after which monochrome planets change to color , subdued pastel colors brighten , and the planet 's unique soundtrack becomes permanent .
The game 's plot describes a journey through a child 's emotions and anxieties . After befriending the monster , the boy leaves Earth on the creature 's back to look for life elsewhere in the galaxy . He hopes to find someone to relate to . The hollow planet Gravida 's surface is patrolled by a creature that complains of stomach pains . This larger creature is followed by several tiny creatures , some of which ride on its back . One of these smaller inhabitants has fallen into the core of Gravida . Though it is isolated and lonely , the creature consoles itself that nobody can harm it . The planet Malaisus is composed of water , with a monster identical to the player 's swimming around with a shoal of fish . The monster tells the player to leave . Planet Bibulon has two faces on opposite sides , one angry and one happy . A two @-@ faced creature travels across the surface ; one is happy and the other morose . Bibulon is orbited by four moons , each of which has differing opinions on an unnamed man or boy . When players find the planet Debasa , they discover that it is surrounded by a green fog . Gravity is very intense within the fog . Four orbiting satellites produce the fog , which has trapped two boys . Earth shrinks slightly after each planet has been completed . After restoring color to all the surrounding planets , the game is completed by returning to Earth . The Earth has shrunk until it is only slightly larger than the monster ; it is destroyed when the boy and his monster land . Both fly upwards and land on the moon , where the boy is free to craft a future of his choosing .
= = Development = =
Aether was created by Edmund McMillen and Tyler Glaiel , McMillen was a member of independent development studio Cryptic Sea and co @-@ creator of the award winning Gish . Glaiel runs his own independent studio , Glaiel Games , and develops Flash games for game and animation website Newgrounds . The game 's graphics and story were created by McMillen , while Glaiel wrote the game 's music and code . The game was developed in 14 days ; McMillen found he could " ride off " Glaiel 's inspiration and allowed the project to be completed quickly . " People being creative and taking risks with their work always is inspiring to me , honesty in art is also very inspiring , " he stated .
McMillen 's childhood experiences and fears were used for the game 's themes of loneliness , nervousness , and fear of abandonment or rejection . The boy 's journeys through space represent inward @-@ thinking and imagination , planets represent fears and the inhabitants personify McMillen 's childhood " inner demons " . He was initially unsure as to whether or not he wished to release Aether , since it was based on personal experiences and made him feel vulnerable . Glaiel created the game 's planets and gameplay , designing the layout of the planets to convey the emotions involved in the game , but he did not know which planets would ultimately be used to relate to each emotion . He felt that the game 's sense of emotion and mood was improved because development was not thoroughly planned from the outset . Both developers expressed a wish to port the game to the WiiWare service on the Wii video game console . Aether was released as part of McMillen 's game and comic compilation CD This is a Cry For Help in early November 2008 .
= = Reception = =
The game was positively received by gaming blogs , though reviewers held mixed opinions about the controls . The story was compared to The Little Prince , Antoine de Saint Exupéry 's 1943 novella . Aether 's graphics were praised by reviewers . Alec Meer of website Rock Paper Shotgun described them as " beautiful to look at " , Justin McElroy of Joystiq said the game has a " unique visual style " and described the pastel shades as attractive , and Peter Cohen of Macworld described them as a unique look composed of " cute characters with sometimes grotesque imagery " . " StaceyG " of Jay Is Games found the music relaxing and called the game " a truly compelling experience with excellent atmosphere " . Meer also enjoyed the game but found the looped piano music irritating . Nate Ralph of Wired found the game " hauntingly beautiful , if short " .
Reviewers noted that the solution to some of the puzzles were unclear , further hindered by the planets ' inhabitants , whose dialogue does not change when the planet 's puzzle is completed . The tongue propulsion physics were said to be clumsy by StaceyG , who stated that , in conjunction with the gravity exerted by planets , it is more difficult to leave planets ' surfaces than to navigate through space . Both Meer and StaceyG enjoyed the spacefaring aspect of the game , and Derek Yu of website TIGSource stated the controls " sometimes felt brilliant , at other times felt unresponsive and awkward . " Patrick Dugan of Play This Thing saw potential in the tongue @-@ swinging gameplay , noting that Aether appeared to be the first of a series . He suggested that more spatial elements , such as nebulae and black holes , would have made space flight more interesting . McMillen described Aether as " just the prelude to a larger experience " , while Yu suggested that a larger game with improved controls " could be something better than great " .
Aether received an Honorable Mention at IndieCade in 2009 .
= John Robert Boyle =
John Robert Boyle , KC ( February 1 , 1870 or February 3 , 1871 – February 15 , 1936 ) was a Canadian politician and jurist who served as a Member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , a cabinet minister in the Government of Alberta , and a judge on the Supreme Court of Alberta .
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for animated feature in sales revenue , on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray . Additionally , on the first day of its iTunes release , it immediately became the most downloaded Disney film ever .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
= = = = Worldwide = = = =
Toy Story 3 earned $ 415 @,@ 004 @,@ 880 in North America and $ 648 @,@ 167 @,@ 031 in other countries for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 063 @,@ 171 @,@ 911 , earning more revenue than the previous two films of the series combined . It became the highest @-@ grossing animated film , surpassing the six @-@ year record held by 2004 's Shrek 2 ( $ 919 million ) , until Walt Disney Animation Studios ' Frozen surpassed it in 2014 followed by Minions in 2015 . It is the 19th highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing film of 2010 , the third highest @-@ grossing animated film ( behind Frozen and Minions ) , the highest @-@ grossing film in the Toy Story series , the highest @-@ grossing Pixar film , and the seventh highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Disney . In estimated attendance , though , it still ranks fourth on the list of modern animated films , behind Shrek 2 , Finding Nemo , and The Lion King . On its first weekend , Toy Story 3 topped the worldwide box office with $ 145 @.@ 3 million ( $ 153 @.@ 7 million with weekday previews ) , the third @-@ largest opening weekend worldwide for an animated feature . On August 27 , 2010 — its 73rd day of release , it surpassed the $ 1 billion mark , becoming the third Disney film , the second Disney @-@ distributed film in 2010 ( after Alice in Wonderland ) , the first animated film , and the seventh film in cinematic history to do so .
= = = = North America = = = =
In North America , Toy Story 3 is the 17th highest @-@ grossing film , unadjusted for inflation . Adjusted for ticket price inflation , though , it ranks 94th on the all @-@ time chart . It is also the highest @-@ grossing film of 2010 , the 2nd highest @-@ grossing Pixar film ( behind Finding Dory ) , the second highest @-@ grossing G @-@ rated film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing animated film , and the seventh highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Disney . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 52 million tickets in the US . The film earned $ 41 @,@ 148 @,@ 961 on its opening day ( June 18 , 2010 ) from 4 @,@ 028 theaters , including $ 4 million at midnight shows from about 1 @,@ 500 theaters , setting an opening @-@ day record for an animated film .
During its opening weekend , the film topped the box office with $ 110 @,@ 307 @,@ 189 , setting an opening @-@ weekend record among Pixar films , films released in June , ( surpassed by Man of Steel ) and G @-@ rated films . The film also achieved the second @-@ largest opening weekend for an animated film , and the fourth @-@ largest opening weekend for a film from 2010 . Its average of $ 27 @,@ 385 per venue is the second highest for a G @-@ rated film and the second highest for an animated feature . Its opening @-@ week gross ( Friday @-@ through @-@ Thursday ) of $ 167 @.@ 6 million is the largest among animated films , the largest among 2010 films , and the 23rd largest of all time . It also achieved the largest 10 @-@ day gross among 2010 films . It topped the box office for two consecutive weekends .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
Outside of North America , Toy Story 3 is the 19th highest @-@ grossing film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing animated film , the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2010 , the highest @-@ grossing Pixar film , and the seventh highest @-@ grossing Disney film . It topped the box office outside North America three times , on its first ( $ 35 @.@ 0 million ) , second , and sixth weekend ( which was its largest ) .
Its highest @-@ grossing market after North America is Japan ( $ 126 @.@ 7 million ) , where it is the second highest @-@ grossing U.S. animated feature ( behind Finding Nemo ) , followed by the UK and Ireland , and Malta ( £ 73 @.@ 8 million - $ 116 @.@ 6 million ) , where it is the fourth highest @-@ grossing film , and Mexico ( $ 59 @.@ 4 million ) , where it is the second highest @-@ grossing film . It set opening weekend records for animated films in Ecuador , Colombia , Mexico , China , Argentina , Hong Kong , Spain , and the UK . It is the highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time in the UK , Ireland and Malta , Mexico , Hong Kong , and Egypt . It is the highest @-@ grossing 2010 film in Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Hong Kong , Mexico , Spain , the UK , Ireland , and Malta .
= = = Critical response = = =
Toy Story 3 received critical acclaim . The film has a 99 % approval rating on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews from 290 critics , with an average score of 8 @.@ 9 / 10 . The site 's consensus was " Deftly blending comedy , adventure , and honest emotion , Toy Story 3 is a rare second sequel that really works . " Toy Story 3 was the best @-@ reviewed film of 2010 on Rotten Tomatoes . Another review aggregator , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 92 based on 39 reviews , signifying " universal acclaim " . TIME named Toy Story 3 the " best film of 2010 " , as did Quentin Tarantino . In 2011 , TIME named it one of " The 25 All @-@ TIME Best Animated Films " . Audiences surveyed by Cinemascore gave the film a grade " A " rating .
A. O. Scott of The New York Times stated " This film — this whole three @-@ part , 15 @-@ year epic — about the adventures of a bunch of silly plastic junk turns out also to be a long , melancholy meditation on loss , impermanence and that noble , stubborn , foolish thing called love . " Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave the film an " A " saying " Even with the bar raised high , Toy Story 3 enchanted and moved me so deeply I was flabbergasted that a digitally animated comedy about plastic playthings could have this effect . " Gleiberman also wrote in the next issue that he , along with many other grown men , cried at the end of the film . Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter also gave the film a positive review , saying " Woody , Buzz and playmates make a thoroughly engaging , emotionally satisfying return . "
Mark Kermode of the BBC gave the film , and the series , a glowing review , calling it " the best movie trilogy of all time " . In USA Today , Claudia Puig gave the film a complete 4 star rating , writing " This installment , the best of the three , is everything a movie should be : hilarious , touching , exciting , and clever . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post wrote " Toy Story 3 ( which is pointlessly being shown in 3 @-@ D at most locations ) may not be a masterpiece , but it still had me in tears at the end . " Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , writing that " Compared with the riches of all kinds in recent Pixar masterworks such as Ratatouille , WALL @-@ E , and Up , Toy Story 3 looks and plays like an exceptionally slick and confident product , as opposed to a magical blend of commerce and popular art . " Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel , who gave the film 3 ½ out of 4 stars , wrote " Dazzling , scary , and sentimental , Toy Story 3 is a dark and emotional conclusion to the film series that made Pixar famous . "
= = = Accolades = = =
On January 25 , 2011 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences announced that Toy Story 3 was not only nominated for Best Animated Feature , but also for Best Picture . This makes Toy Story 3 not only the first animated sequel in history to be nominated for Best Picture , but also just the third animated film to ever be so nominated ( following Beauty and the Beast and Up ) , with Toy Story 3 becoming the second Pixar film to be nominated for both awards . Toy Story 3 also became the first @-@ ever Pixar film — and the first animated feature film since Shrek — to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay , though six of Pixar 's previous films were nominated for the Best Original Screenplay : Toy Story , Finding Nemo , The Incredibles , Ratatouille , WALL @-@ E , and Up . In 2011 , it was nominated for a Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Animated Movie , but lost to Despicable Me .
= = Music = =
The film score for Toy Story 3 was composed and conducted by Randy Newman , his sixth for Pixar after Toy Story , A Bug 's Life , Toy Story 2 , Monsters , Inc . , and Cars . Initially , Disney released the soundtrack only as digital download . This was the second instance where Disney did not release the award @-@ winning soundtrack of a Pixar film on CD , the first being Up . In January 2012 , Intrada released the Toy Story 3 soundtrack on Compact Disc .
All songs written and composed by Randy Newman .
In addition to the tracks included in the soundtrack album , the film also uses several other tracks such as " Dream Weaver " by Gary Wright , " Le Freak " by Chic , and Randy Newman 's original version of " You 've Got a Friend in Me " . Furthermore , tracks " Cowboy ! " and " Come to Papa " included material from Newman 's rejected score to Air Force One . The song " Losing You " from Newman 's own album Harps and Angels was also used in the first trailer for the film . The Judas Priest song " Electric Eye " was also used in the film in the temp score for the opening scene of Toy Story 3 . The aliens are playing the tune in their sports car . The song was ultimately replaced by another piece of music .
Chart positions
Music awards
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , titled Toy Story 4 , will be released on June 15 , 2018 . The film will be directed by John Lasseter and co @-@ directed by Josh Cooley . The film will focus on the relationship between Woody and Bo Peep , whose role was reduced to a cameo in the third film .
= Do What U Want =
" Do What U Want " is a song by American singer Lady Gaga , featuring guest vocals from singer R. Kelly . The song was released to digital outlets on October 21 , 2013 as the second single from Gaga 's third studio album Artpop ( 2013 ) . The singers wrote the song with DJ White Shadow , Martin Bresso , and William Grigahcine . DJ White Shadow first presented Gaga with the song 's initial concept two years prior to its release . The song 's production was completed in 2013 , with Kelly 's vocals added soon after . A snippet of " Do What U Want " premiered in a Best Buy / Beats by Dr. Dre commercial on October 17 . Warm reception from fans and music critics led to its release as the album 's second single .
It is a synthpop and R & B song featuring 1980s @-@ style synthesizers and an electronic instrumental track . The song 's lyrics represent themes of sexual submission , with Gaga telling detractors that her thoughts , dreams , and feelings are her own , no matter what one does with her body . Critics praised the song 's simplicity , production , and commercial appeal . The single cover for " Do What U Want " , a close @-@ up of Gaga 's buttocks in a floral thong , was photographed by Terry Richardson who had also directed the song 's music video , which was planned to be released through BitTorrent in December 2013 ; the release was cancelled due to unknown circumstances .
" Do What U Want " achieved top @-@ ten peaks on the record charts in Canada , South Korea , and several European countries , and peaked at number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Live performances of the song were televised on the 2013 American Music Awards , Alan Carr : Chatty Man , Saturday Night Live , America 's The Voice , and Britain 's The X Factor . Several remixes of the song were released , including ones with vocals from Christina Aguilera and Rick Ross .
= = Writing and development = =
" Do What U Want " was co @-@ written by Lady Gaga , Blair , R. Kelly , Martin Bresso , and William Grigahcine . It was produced by Blair and Gaga and features vocals by Kelly . Gaga had been living in Chicago and completing the songs for Artpop , which was being influenced by the R & B and hip hop music predominant there . One day , the singer came to know about an article discussing her weight and she was angered with such news . She decided that it was through her music that she could take a stance against " shallow journalism " . After the release of the first single from the album , titled " Applause " , the singer was also determined to create something different and unfamiliar to her past hit singles , and " Do What U Want " stemmed from these thoughts .
Blair recalled how in 2011 his friend Martin was playing him a particular beat from his own remix project . Blair liked the music and presented it to Gaga who had begun writing the song 's lyrics while on the Born This Way Ball tour . Blair described its beat as " some space age George Jetson R & B sound " . After the lyrics were completed in September 2013 , Blair suggested bringing Kelly on board as a collaborator . Kelly was in the process of completing his album , Black Panties , and agreed to participate following a telephone conversation with Gaga . Kelly told Billboard that working with the singer was " natural jelling " . Gaga told MTV News about the song :
" I 've been living in Chicago and spending a lot of time there , and that 's where R. Kelly hails from . I was working on Artpop and I wrote [ ' Do What U Want ' ] on tour . It was about my obsession with the way people view me . I have always been an R. Kelly fan and actually it is like an epic pastime in the Haus of Gaga that we just get fucked up and play R. Kelly . This is a real R & B song and I [ said ' I ] have to call the king of R & B and I need his blessing . ' It was a mutual love . "
= = Recording and composition = =
" Do What U Want " is a mid @-@ tempo synthpop and R & B track , drawing influence from 1980s @-@ inspired throbbing synths and an electronic beat . Eric R. Danton of Rolling Stone described it as a " muscular club beat " . James Montgomery from MTV News said that a " lurching , lascivious beat " was the main backbone of the song , interspersed with Gaga 's loud @-@ voiced vocals , a " corky " chorus and Kelly 's " cool , coital " singing . The song 's chorus is built around arpeggios . Complex described its " Do what you want , what you want with my body " hook as " catchy and somewhat raunchy " . The song 's lyrics represent themes of sexual submissiveness , with Gaga telling off detractors that her thoughts , dreams , and feelings are her own , no matter what one does with her body . Jim Farber of New York Daily News suggested " Do What U Want " to be a response to " everyone who ever made a tart comment about her — which , by now , involves half the planet " . Gaga and Kelly alternate singing the lines " Do what u want / What u want with my body / Do what u want / What u want with my body / Write what you want , say what you want about me / If you want you know that I 'm not sorry " .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , " Do What U Want " is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A major with Gaga 's vocals spanning the tonal nodes of E3 to F ♯ 5 . The song follows a basic sequence of D – E – F ♯ m – E – D – E as its chord progression . " Do What U Want " was recorded at Record Plant Studios in Hollywood , California and at PatchWerk Recording Studios , in Atlanta , Georgia . Gaga 's vocals were recorded by Dave Russell and Bill Malina , while Kelly 's by Abel Garibaldi and Ian Moonness . Russell held primary mixing of the track at Record Plant , with additional support from Benjamin Rice , Ghazi Hourani , Zane Shoemake , and Dino " SpeedoVee " Zisis . The song 's instrumentals include guitars by Tim Stewart , programming by Rick Pearl , and audio mastering done by Gene Grimaldi at Oasis Mastering Studios in Burbank , California .
= = Release and promotion = =
On September 3 , 2013 , Gaga asked her fans through Twitter to help her choose the second single : options given were " Manicure " , " Sexxx Dreams " , " Aura " , and " Swine " . On September 20 , 2013 , Gaga announced that " Venus " had been chosen as the second single , and that it would be released before the album . A snippet of " Do What U Want " debuted in a US commercial for Best Buy / Beats on October 17 , 2013 . It was also used in promotion for British mobile company , O2 , as part of their " Be More Dog " campaign . Subsequently , Gaga and her label decided to release " Do What U Want " as the second official single from Artpop , instead of " Venus " . " Do What U Want " officially impacted Italian radio stations on October 25 , 2013 , and five days later in the UK . The song impacted Mainstream Top 40 and Rhythmic radio stations in the United States on November 5 , 2013 . Lipshutz compared the song 's last @-@ minute release to that of " Judas " from Born This Way in April 2011 . After quick commercial success , the label soon decided to rush a single release .
The first promotional artwork features Gaga naked with moss covering her genitals . The single 's official cover art was released on October 21 , showing Gaga 's backside , wearing a floral thong . The cover art was shot by photographer Terry Richardson . In an interview with German television station ProSieben , Gaga explained that the explicit imagery for the cover art was due to the constant criticism and discussion surrounding her , adding that " When I look at how society has changed , I feel like this is a good time to show you my ass , because it 's all I choose to give you . "
According to Digital Spy 's Catherine Earp , the shoot resembles a polaroid . Leigh Silver from Complex magazine compared it to Andy Warhol 's polaroid series , where the artist shot pictures of blonds and their rear . Hilary Hughes from Esquire called the cover art " awful " but felt that the image paved way for much imagination in lieu of the suggestive theme of the song . The night before the song 's release , Gaga tweeted lyrics of " Do What U Want " in reference to critics and rumors that had surfaced throughout her career , including those claiming the singer to be a hermaphrodite , gaining weight in 2012 , and her drug addiction . She also addressed media fabrications on her alleged negative relationships with Madonna and Katy Perry . Alex Camp from Slant Magazine felt Gaga 's stunt cheapened the song 's intent , pointing out how it highlighted the singer 's preoccupation with social media and her public image .
= = Critical response = =
Upon release , " Do What U Want " received generally positive response from reviewers . Critics complimented the simplicity of the song , with some comparing Gaga 's vocals to those of Tina Turner and Aguilera . Alexa Camp , writing for Slant Magazine , describes the track as " a measured electro banger that smartly doubles as a love song . " Lars Brandle of Billboard complimented the song as " radio @-@ friendly " and concluded that " Gaga is in good form . " Lipshutz from the same publication wrote that the song and its lyrics were a " thrilling listen , intoxicatingly defiant " . Writing for The Daily Beast , Kevin Fallon was highly enthusiastic toward the song , calling it " pure pop heaven " and giving his praise to its " chorus that will make it a radio hit ..... and driving , danceable beat throughout . " Carl Williot of Idolator website summarized the song as " a pretty flawless piece of R & B. " Dharmic X from Complex praised " Do What U Want " as " catchy " . Latifah Muhammad from Black Entertainment Television felt that " Between the two , Kelly seems the furthest of his sonic comfort zone but nestles into a groove over the dance beat " and described the track as " musical genius " .
Jim Farber of New York Daily News gave the song four out of five stars , saying that the " music provides its own quirk . To match the R & B @-@ style beat — and the guest appearance by R. Kelly — Gaga finds a new soul edge to her voice . She belts , scoring a hit in every sense . " Slate magazine 's Aisha Harris felt that Gaga and Kelly 's efforts worked " surprisingly well " . Nidhi Tewari of International Business Times said that Gaga sounded her " rebellious best " on the upbeat song . Lewis Corner from Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , stating that its " ear @-@ snagging melody revives some of her earlier pop perfection . " Hilary Hughes from Esquire felt that Kelly 's guest appearance on the song , improved its quality much more than the preceding single " Applause " . Hughes added that Gaga 's Whitney Houston @-@ esque vocals are elevated further by Kelly 's " standard , soaring tenor " . " Do What U Want " was listed as one of the 100 Best Songs Of 2013 by Rolling Stone , ranked at number 17 .
A mixed review came from Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly , who felt that Gaga and Kelly 's vocals track did not " come together " since Gaga 's singing style interfered with the composition of the song as well as Kelly 's R & B vocals . Anderson also felt that the lyrics sung by Kelly were rehash and subpar . He concluded saying that the song is " an intriguing mind @-@ meld nonetheless " . March Hogan from Spin magazine said that the song was " as usual " about fame but felt that the cover art complemented the theme the song portrayed .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " Do What U Want " was predicted by industry prognosticators to sell between 150 @,@ 000 and 160 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the week ending November 11 , 2013 . Nielsen SoundScan reported that the song had sold 156 @,@ 000 digital downloads , entering the Hot Digital Songs chart at number three and becoming Gaga 's 14th top ten on that chart . Consequently it debuted at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song is Kelly 's 52nd Hot 100 entry and highest rank since " I 'm a Flirt " peaked at number 12 in 2007 . The song plummeted down to number 58 the following week . In its third week , " Do What U Want " climbed to number 48 on the chart , aided by its move upwards on the Radio Songs chart , from number 64 to 51 , with an audience impression of 23 million , up by about 22 % from the second week . Following the release of Artpop , the song returned to the top twenty of Hot 100 , moving in to number 18 . The song has sold 1 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of April 2015 , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . On the Pop Songs chart , " Do What U Want " debuted at number 39 for the issue of November 11 , 2013 , and moved up to number 29 the next week with a spin increase of 991 on the US radio stations . Next week , the song acquired a further 1 @,@ 096 spins and moved to number 23 on the chart . It has reached a peak of number seven on Pop Songs , with 9 @,@ 237 spins . The song also peaked at number eight on the Rhythmic chart with 2 @,@ 662 spins . " Do What U Want " became the second single by Gaga — the first being her debut single " Just Dance " — not to reach the top of the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , where it stalled inside the top @-@ ten at number seven .
In Australia , " Do What U Want " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 21 ; also debuting on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number twelve . The song entered the Irish Singles Chart at number nine and in The Netherlands ' Mega Single Top 100 at number 27 . It also entered the Finnish Download Chart at number two . In South Korea , the song sold 10 @,@ 576 digital downloads , reaching number eight in the Gaon Digital Chart . It fell to number 13 the next week , selling a further 7 @,@ 184 copies . Following the album release , the song sold 20 @,@ 309 copies and reached a new peak of number two . " Do What U Want " reached the top of the charts in Greece , and also reached the top @-@ ten in Finland , France , Italy , and Spain . The song had debuted at number 50 on the Japan Hot 100 , but rose to position 26 , after two weeks . " Do What U Want " also debuted at number seven on the Canadian Hot 100 and in its eleventh week on the chart , the song reached a new peak of number three . It was certified gold by Music Canada , for selling over 40 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
In the United Kingdom " Do What U Want " was deemed ineligible to enter the UK Singles Chart . The Official Charts Company released a statement explaining that the song would be allowed to chart only after the associated album 's pre @-@ order offer ended . The rules of the Official Chart Company " allow one ' instant grat ' promotion per album , i.e a single track download given away as an album pre @-@ order incentive . ' Do What U Want ' is the second track [ following ' Applause ' ] to be delivered to fans who pre @-@ order Artpop " . Thus the song was not eligible to enter the chart until the promotion finished and the album was released . According to Alan Jones from Music Week , in the week following its release the single sold 22 @,@ 915 copies in the UK ; had it been eligible to chart , Jones predicted it would have entered at number ten . After the release of Artpop , " Do What U Want " debuted at number nine on the UK charts with sales of 29 @,@ 657 copies becoming her 11th top @-@ ten single there . It also entered the Scottish Singles Chart at the same position . " Do What U Want " became Gaga 's 13th best selling single in the United Kingdom , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for selling over 400 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Live performances = =
Gaga performed the song live along with " Venus " on the tenth series of The X Factor ( UK ) on October 27 , 2013 , at Fountain Studio in Wembley . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard denoted it as " intoxicatingly weird " . ITV , which aired the performance , and Ofcom , the British media regulator , received around 260 complaints regarding the performance , due to Gaga 's costume and the suggestive lyrics of the track , which was broadcast before the 9pm watershed . A spokesperson from the channel released a statement that they did not believe the performance to be inappropriate . During her ArtRave party for the release of Artpop , Gaga performed eight songs from the album , closing the set with " Do What U Want " . The performance ended with the singer mirroring the pose of the album cover art — a Jeff Koons sculpture — on the stage , by sitting down and spreading her legs apart , while cupping her breasts . On November 16 , 2013 , Gaga performed " Do What U Want " at episode 751 of the 39th season of comedy show Saturday Night Live . Kelly appeared as the guest vocalist , doing the similar routine with Gaga , and picking her up from the stage on his shoulder . There was also sex simulations , dry humping and they ended the performance in an embrace . According to Zach Johnson from E ! , the performance drew mixed reaction from the media .
Gaga had revealed during ArtRave that she and Kelly would perform " Do What U Want " at the American Music Awards of 2013 on November 24 . During the performance , Gaga enacted the role of a secretary for the President of the United States , which was played by Kelly . The stage was set up to be reminiscent of the Oval Office . Gaga belted out the final chorus of the song alone , as the backdrops displayed a video of the singer playing a piano as a child . The epilogue featured self @-@ depreciating newspaper headlines in the backdrops , proclaiming " Lady Gaga is Over " and " Lady Gaga is Fat " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard called it " the most elaborate performance " of the ceremony and found parallels with Kelly 's own rap opera Trapped in the Closet in its storytelling .
At the British chat show , Alan Carr : Chatty Man , Gaga performed another acoustic version of the track . Wearing a Kansai Yamamoto bodice with an iPad attached to it , Gaga belted out the song while playing the piano . Another performance took place at the 2013 Jingle Bell Ball on December 8 , 2013 , where she sang " Do What U Want " along with other songs from her discography . It was first announced that Gaga would perform on the fifth season finale of The Voice on December 12 , 2013 , with the assumption that R. Kelly would accompany her during a performance of " Do What U Want " . However , a television commercial aired on December 17 , the evening of the finale , teased that " Christina joins Lady Gaga for one epic performance " ; they sung " Do What U Want " as the final performance of the evening . Both appeared in " matching clothes " with few differences , Gaga wore a " jumpsuit all sharp , off @-@ kilter angles " , while Aguilera was dressed in a " slinky @-@ sexy gown emphasizing her smooth curves " . A writer from Rap @-@ Up praised it as an " over @-@ the @-@ top " performance . Los Angeles Times writer Amy Reiter commended the pair 's vocal ability as " triumphant " . On the 2014 ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour , the song was performed after " Paparazzi " . Gaga perched atop a silver chair shaped like a hand , and sang the song . Kelly 's verses were removed from the live rendition . Eric Leijon from The Gazette praised the song saying that it had " earned [ its ] place alongside crowd pleasers ' Paparazzi ' and ' Bad Romance ' " from Gaga 's catalogue of hits .
= = Music video = =
Gaga confirmed the director during her ArtRave party , along with Kelly 's presence in the video and spoke about their " chemistry " . Richardson and Gaga had previously shot the " Cake Like Lady Gaga " snippet video , featuring the singer playing with cake . He had been wanting to do music videos for some time , and started his work in the medium with the video for Miley Cyrus ' single " Wrecking Ball " and Beyoncé 's " XO " . After her provocative performance of the song on Saturday Night Live , many interviewers had questioned Gaga regarding her chemistry with Kelly , leading the singer to tweet the following message : " Many interviewers quelped today about my ' SHOCKING ' performance w / R Kelly on SNL I 'm beginning to think y 'all aren 't ready for the video . "
On November 26 , 2013 , Interscope announced that the video would be released through file sharing service BitTorrent and Vice , sometime in December 2013 . This is BitTorrent 's second initiative , following a similar release for singer Madonna and her secretprojectrevolution video . The bundle would consist of the music video , pictures , a separate clip in 4K resolution documenting the making of the release , and interviews with Gaga and director Richardson . Interscope described the bundle as a means of " explor [ ing ] the link between open expression and open technology ; providing an inside look at the creative process , with original film , music , archival content and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage direct from artists . "
On December 4 , 2013 , Gaga tweeted that she was intent on making the video " perfect " since it was unlike her previous endeavors , adding that it was " very personal " . Two days later , Richardson posted a black @-@ and @-@ white photo from the set of the video , which showed Gaga being held by Kelly ; with her legs wrapped around his waist . She wore nothing but a black bikini , while Kelly gestured his middle finger towards the camera in a leather pant / kilt dress . One week later , a colored behind @-@ the @-@ scenes photo was released , showing the singers in the same garments as the previous image , while Kelly stood with his legs spread apart as Gaga crawled in between them .
However the bundle as well as the video was not released in December ; Gaga later released a statement in her social networking website Little Monsters that the video was delayed since the singer was given just one week to plan and complete it , like the video for " Applause " . She added that it was unlike her since she preferred planning her videos over a period of time to honor her creativity . The video remained unreleased despite Gaga releasing the official video for follow @-@ up single , " G.U.Y. " On June 19 , 2014 , celebrity news website TMZ published previously unseen footage from the video showing sexually suggestive scenes . In one of them , Kelly , playing a doctor , reaches under a sheet covering a naked Gaga , causing her to moan . In another scene , Richardson appeared to be photographing Gaga as she writhes on newspapers . According to the TMZ report , the video was cancelled possibly due to weariness and fear of backlash for Kelly 's past trial on child pornography , as well as sexual harassment claims by several models who had previously worked with Richardson .
= = Remixes = =
= = = DJWS Remix = = =
The DJWS Remix of " Do What U Want " featuring R. Kelly and rapper Rick Ross was released on December 20 , 2013 . Ross told in an interview with MTV that he was not prepared for collaborating with Gaga . The remix starts with Kelly 's vocals with a new introduction , followed by Ross rapping on a verse , adding new lines like " Photos of the Bawse just to post ' em on a blog / Get alotta views cause they know we be the top / Jean Basquiats in the hall , she my work of art so I pin her to the wall . " During Gaga 's vocals , the " groove " of the song is updated which was described by Fuse as " nostalgic , banging , sex @-@ freaky and new all at the same time . It 's a 2013 ode to another era of synth R & B. " Molly Wardlow from the channel was however dismissive of Ross ' verse , calling it unnecessary . Spin magazine 's Chris Martin noted that Ross ' contribution to " Do What U Want " sounded " awkward " and found similarity with Jay @-@ Z 's rap verse in singer Beyoncé 's song , " Drunk in Love " . Mike Wass from Idolator commented that the remix felt unnecessary , following controversy in the media surrounding Ross ' lyrics in the song " U.O.E.N.O. " about date rape , and recapitulation of Kelly 's child @-@ sex abuse case .
= = = Remix featuring Christina Aguilera = = =
An alternate studio version of " Do What U Want " featuring Christina Aguilera was released on January 1 , 2014 ; it marks their first collaboration . The song was released in the US , Canada and Mexico on January 1 , 2014 and then released a day later worldwide . On December 24 , Aguilera tweeted that she was " working on something special " and attached an image of her singing in a recording studio . The session took place in the living room of singer Carly Simon 's home at Martha 's Vineyard , with assistance from Oak Bluffs @-@ based producer Jimmy Parr . The following week , it was announced that a revised studio version of " Do What U Want " would be released , where the original vocals by Kelly are substituted for a verse performed by Aguilera .
The final product was digitally released shortly after midnight on January 1 , 2014 . On February 11 , 2014 , Gaga uploaded four other remixes of the version with Aguilera , all commissioned by Interscope and mixed by Steven Redant . The Aguilera remix received generally favorable reviews from music critics ; Melissa Locker from Time felt that the re @-@ recorded version of the track " will allow more sales of the track without the moral dilemma that comes with supporting Kelly " , who had previously been charged and acquitted for child pornography in the 2000s , and also complimented Gaga as a " savvy marketer " for releasing " two versions of a hit song with two different megastars " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download
" Do What U Want " feat . R. Kelly – 3 : 48
Digital download – remix single
" Do What U Want " feat . R. Kelly and Rick Ross ( DJWS Remix ) – 4 : 19
Digital download – remix single
" Do What U Want " feat . Christina Aguilera – 3 : 36
Digital remixes EP
" Do What U Want " feat . R. Kelly ( DJ White Shadow Remix ) – 4 : 03
" Do What U Want " feat . R. Kelly ( Samantha Ronson Remix ) – 4 : 27
" Do What U Want " feat . R. Kelly ( Kronic Remix ) – 5 : 12
" Do What U Want " feat . Christina Aguilera ( Steven Redant Madrid Radio Remix ) – 4 : 00
" Do What U Want " feat . Christina Aguilera ( Steven Redant Madrid Club Remix ) – 7 : 31
" Do What U Want " feat . Christina Aguilera ( Steven Redant Barcelona Remix ) – 6 : 28
" Do What U Want " feat . Christina Aguilera ( Red Ant & Amp Lexvas Deep House Remix ) – 6 : 50
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood , California and PatchWerk Recording Studios , West Midtown , Atlanta , Georgia
R. Kelly appears courtesy of RCA Records , a division of Sony Music Entertainment
Stefani Germanotta P / K / A Lady Gaga ( BMI ) Sony ATV Songs LLC / Haus of Gaga Publishing , LLC / GloJoe Music Inc . ( BMI ) , Maxwell and Carter Publishing , LLC ( ASCAP ) , Administered by Universal Music Publishing Group , Etrange Fruit ( SACEM ) , Fuzion ( SACEM ) , Administered by Get Familiar Music ( ASCAP ) , R. Kelly Publishing Inc . / Universal Music – Z Music LLC ( BMI )
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Artpop .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Alan McNicoll =
Vice Admiral Sir Alan Wedel Ramsay McNicoll , KBE , CB , GM ( 3 April 1908 – 11 October 1987 ) was a senior officer in the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) and a diplomat . Born in Melbourne , he entered the Royal Australian Naval College at the age of thirteen and graduated in 1926 . Following training and staff appointments in Australia and the United Kingdom , he was attached to the Royal Navy at the outbreak of the Second World War . As torpedo officer of the 1st Submarine Flotilla in the Mediterranean theatre , McNicoll was decorated with the George Medal in 1941 for disarming enemy ordnance . He served aboard HMS King George V from 1942 , sailing in support of several Arctic convoys and taking part in the Allied invasion of Sicily . McNicoll was posted for staff duties with the Admiralty from September 1943 and was involved in the planning of the Normandy landings . He returned to Australia in October 1944 .
McNicoll was made executive officer of HMAS Hobart in September 1945 . Advanced to captain in 1949 , he successively commanded HMAS Shoalhaven and HMAS Warramunga before being transferred to the Navy Office in July 1950 . In 1952 , McNicoll chaired the planning committee for the British nuclear tests on the Montebello Islands , and was appointed commanding officer of HMAS Australia . He commanded the ship for two years before it was sold off for scrap , at which point he returned to London to attend the Imperial Defence College in 1955 . He occupied staff positions in London and Canberra before being posted to the Naval Board as Chief of Personnel in 1960 . This was followed by a term as Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet .
McNicoll 's career culminated with his promotion to vice admiral and appointment as First Naval Member and Chief of Naval Staff ( CNS ) in February 1965 . As CNS , McNicoll had to cope with significant morale and recruitment issues occasioned by the February 1964 collision between HMAS Melbourne and Voyager and , furthermore , oversaw an extensive modernisation of the Australian fleet . In 1966 , he presided over the RAN contribution to the Vietnam War , and it was during his tenure that the Australian White Ensign was created . McNicoll retired from the RAN in 1968 and was appointed as the inaugural Australian Ambassador to Turkey . He served in the diplomatic post for five years , then retired to Canberra . McNicoll died in 1987 at the age of 79 .
= = Early life and career = =
Alan McNicoll was born in the Melbourne suburb of Hawthorn , Victoria , on 3 April 1908 . He was the second of four sons of Walter McNicoll , a school teacher and Militia officer , and Hildur ( née Wedel Jarlsberg ) . The young McNicoll was of noble Norwegian descent through his mother . He was initially educated at Scotch College , Melbourne , before the family moved to Goulburn , from where he was sent to attend The Scots College in Sydney . On 1 January 1922 , at the age of thirteen , McNicoll entered the Royal Australian Naval College at Jervis Bay . Described as " urbane and studious " , he performed well both academically and in sport , ultimately placing first in seamanship , history and English . On graduation in 1926 , McNicoll was posted to Britain for service and further training with the Royal Navy .
Advanced to acting sub @-@ lieutenant in September 1928 , McNicoll 's appointment to the United Kingdom concluded the following year , at which point he returned to Australia and was initially posted to the land base HMAS Cerberus . He was attached to HMAS Penguin soon after , before being assigned for duties with HMAS Australia . In his Lieutenants ' Examinations in 1929 , McNicoll achieved 1st Class Certificates in all of his subjects and was awarded a prize of ₤ 10 as a result . He was promoted to lieutenant in July 1930 , with seniority from 1 April that year . Completing a twelve @-@ month posting aboard HMAS Canberra between 1932 and 1933 , McNicoll decided to specialise as a torpedo officer and returned to the United Kingdom in order to undertake the long course at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth . While in the UK , McNicoll wrote and published Sea Voices , a book of poems centred on naval life .
McNicoll 's detachment to the Royal Navy was terminated in 1935 on his graduation from Dartmouth , and he returned to Australia . Over the next three years , he saw service in HMAS Canberra , HMAS Sydney and Cerberus , advancing to lieutenant commander on 1 April 1938 . On 18 May 1937 , McNicoll wed Ruth Timmins at St Stephen 's Church of England at Brighton . From March 1939 , McNicoll was once again seconded to the Royal Navy , receiving a posting to the torpedo school HMS Vernon ; he was serving in Vernon on the outbreak of the Second World War . While residing at Portsmouth , McNicoll and his wife had their first child , a son named Ian , in June that year . Ian died when one week old . The couple later had two more sons , Guy and Anthony , and a daughter , Deborah .
= = Second World War = =
On 14 September 1939 , eleven days after the outbreak of the Second World War , McNicoll was posted to HMS Victory , the flagship of Admiral Sir William James , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Portsmouth . In April 1940 , McNicoll was transferred to the light cruiser HMS Fiji as a member of the ship 's commissioning crew . During McNicoll 's time aboard the ship , it was severely damaged by a torpedo in operations on 1 September and barely made it back to harbour . McNicoll ultimately served on Fiji for six months before being attached to HMS Medway , a submarine depot ship stationed at Alexandria , Egypt , in October 1940 . In this post he was made torpedo officer of the 1st Submarine Flotilla operating in the Mediterranean theatre . In addition to his standard duties , McNicoll was regularly involved in rendering safe captured enemy ordnance . On one such occasion , he was tasked with disarming the captured Italian submarine Galileo Galilei , which entailed removing the inertia pistols from eight torpedoes that had badly corroded . As a consequence of his " gallant and undaunted devotion to duty " in this action , McNicoll was awarded the George Medal and presented a Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Commendation . His decoration was promulgated in a supplement to the London Gazette on 8 July 1941 .
In April 1942 , McNicoll transferred to the battleship HMS King George V and served as Squadron Torpedo Officer . As part of the Home Fleet , King George V provided support to several Arctic convoys throughout the conflict . From April to May 1942 , King George V formed up as a support component to Convoy PQ 15 , the first for McNicoll . While sailing in thick fog on 1 May , King George V collided with the destroyer HMS Punjabi after the latter crossed under the bow of the battleship . Punjabi was sliced in two during the collision , and sank with heavy loss of life . Several depth charges were also ignited on the damaged stern of King George V during the accident . King George V was patched up at Seidisfjord , before sailing to Gladstone Dock , Liverpool , to receive repairs .
In December 1942 , HMS King George V deployed in support of Convoy JW 51A , the first Russian convoy to sail direct from the United Kingdom without stopping at Iceland . The journey was completed without incident . On receiving word of the German naval attack on Convoy JW 51B in what became known as the Battle of the Barents Sea , King George V was dispatched along with nine other ships from Scapa Flow on 31 December to provide cover for the returning Convoy RA 51 and to attempt to catch the German ships engaged in the previous assault . The German ships were ultimately not encountered , and RA 51 was returned safely . King George V later provided a covering force for two further convoys during early 1943 , before being transferred to the Mediterranean during May in preparation for Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily . Promoted to commander on 30 June 1943 , McNicoll took part in the Sicilian invasion the following month , with King George V serving as part of the covering force . Prior to the invasion , King George V , along with HMS Howe , had executed a bombardment of Trapani and the islands of Favignana and Levanzo on the night of 11 / 12 July , as part of a deception suggesting landings on the west coast of Sicily .
McNicoll was briefly reposted to HMS Victory on 1 September 1943 , before being transferred for staff duties with the Admiralty in London the following month . He completed a year @-@ long attachment with the Admiralty , and was involved in the planning for the Normandy landings . On 15 February 1944 , he attended an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace , where he was formally presented his George Medal by King George VI . McNicoll returned to Australia and was attached to the staff of HMAS Cerberus in October 1944 ; he spent the remainder of the war in this post . Up to this period , McNicoll had completed all but five of his years of military service attached to the Royal Navy . McNicoll 's three brothers also served in the Second World War : Ronald Ramsay , who ultimately retired with the rank of major general and served in the Korean War , as a colonel with the Royal Australian Engineers ; Frederick Oscar Ramsay as a lieutenant in the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) ; and David Ramsay — who would become an accomplished journalist — as a lieutenant in the 7th Division up to 1944 , before spending the remainder of the conflict as a war correspondent for Consolidated Press , in which capacity he covered the Normandy landings .
= = Senior command = =
= = = Ships ' captain = = =
McNicoll was appointed executive officer of the light cruiser HMAS Hobart on 16 September 1945 , a fortnight after the cessation of hostilities in the Pacific theatre . From November 1945 until July 1947 , Hobart spent nine months operating in Japanese waters over three distinct periods as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . The ship was placed in reserve from December 1947 , and McNicoll briefly transferred to HMAS Penguin before assuming the post of Director of Plans and Operations at the Navy Office in Melbourne on 6 January 1948 . Advanced to captain in June 1949 , he was posted two months later to HMAS Shoalhaven , a River @-@ class frigate , as the ship 's commanding officer , and was simultaneously placed in charge of the 1st Frigate Squadron . He was appointed an honorary aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor @-@ General of Australia in December for a period of three years . In January 1950 , McNicoll transferred to command the destroyer HMAS Warramunga and was subsequently made Captain ( D ) in control of the 10th Destroyer Squadron .
During McNicoll 's tenure as commanding officer of Warramunga , the ship operated in Australian waters as part of the Australia Station , sailing to New Zealand for a visit during March 1950 . On the outbreak of the Korean War in June that year , Warramunga was selected as part of the Australian contribution to the conflict . Moreover , the ship was to be attached to a force of five Royal Navy destroyers led by a captain , making it expedient to have the Australian ship commanded by an officer of lower rank ; McNicoll was consequently replaced by Commander Otto Becher on 28 July . McNicoll was then posted to the Navy Office to assist in the introduction and co @-@ ordination of National Service in the Australian military in response to the National Service Act 1951 . He moved to the land base HMAS Lonsdale in October 1951 , on being made Deputy Chief of Naval Staff .
In 1952 , McNicoll was appointed chairman of the planning committee for the British nuclear tests on the Montebello Islands , off the coast of Western Australia . Later that year , he was made commanding officer of the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia , a post he held for the next two years . As commander of Australia , McNicoll also served as Chief Staff Officer to the Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet . HMAS Australia was near the end of its naval service and had been relegated to training duties from 1950 . As such , the cruiser was primarily consigned to Australian waters , though a brief trip to New Zealand did occur in October 1953 . McNicoll was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1954 New Year Honours List for his involvement in the British atomic program ; he was presented with the decoration three months later by Queen Elizabeth II in a ceremony at Government House , Melbourne .
The year of 1954 was to be HMAS Australia 's last in service , with the ship conducting Royal and Vice Regal tasks as some of its final duties . In February and March , HMAS Australia served as part of the escort for the Royal Yacht Gothic during the Australian leg of Queen Elizabeth II 's coronation tour . The cruiser was presented with the Gloucester Cup on 25 March as the ship " considered to be foremost in general efficiency , cleanliness , seamanship and technical training " during the year of 1953 . As one of the ship 's final duties with the Navy , Australia was tasked with transporting Field Marshal Sir William Slim , the Governor @-@ General of Australia , along with his wife and their staff on a cruise around the Coral Sea , the Great Barrier Reef and the Whitsunday Passage . The voyage embarked on 4 May , and two days later Australia fired its 8 @-@ inch guns for the final time . While in the Coral Sea , a Dutch naval ship was discovered to be incapacitated off the coast of Hollandia , Netherlands New Guinea , and was consequently towed by Australia to Cairns . McNicoll was later appointed a Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau by the Dutch government for his rescue of the ship .
= = = Rise to Chief of Naval Staff = = =
McNicoll relinquished command of HMAS Australia in July 1954 before the cruiser was paid off and marked for disposal the following month , and he briefly returned to duties at the Navy Office . In November , he embarked for London to attend the Imperial Defence College as part of the 1955 course intake , which signified that he had been marked for senior command . McNicoll and his wife , Ruth , had separated in 1950 and their divorce , which cited adultery as the cause , was finalised in October 1956 , while the former was still in London . On 17 May the following year , McNicoll wed Frances Mary Chadwick , a journalist , in the Hampstead register office . Made acting rear admiral in January 1957 , McNicoll was appointed as Head of the Australian Joint Service Staff in London . He returned to Australia in February 1958 and was selected to serve as Deputy Secretary ( Military ) at the Department of Defence ; McNicoll 's rank was made substantive in July that year .
On 8 January 1960 , McNicoll was posted to the Naval Board in Canberra as Second Naval Member and Chief of Personnel . As noted by historian Ian Pfennigwerth , McNicoll held this position at a time in which recruitment and retention in the Navy particularly lagged behind targets . McNicoll was additionally appointed as a trustee of the RAN Relief Trust Fund during this period . Completing his term on the Naval Board , McNicoll was posted as Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet on 8 January 1962 and hoisted his standard aboard HMAS Melbourne , the flagship of the RAN . The Australian government had designated the role of the RAN to be primarily one of anti @-@ submarine warfare , a posture which McNicoll thought unwise . McNicoll argued that surface and air weapons posed a threat equal to that of submarines toward vessels in modern naval warfare . As such , he campaigned for a contemporary aircraft carrier to replace that of HMAS Melbourne . The Army and Air Force opposed McNicoll 's stance , and the government ultimately concluded that there was no strategic requirement for a new carrier in light of agreements contained in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization . In any event , McNicoll experienced a particularly demanding tenure as Fleet Commander since the RAN was in the process of a complete overhaul of its order of battle and , as a consequence , he had to manage the introduction and deployment into service of six Ton @-@ class minesweepers acquired from the Royal Navy , along with the first batch of Westland Wessex helicopters and modernised afloat support capabilities . Furthermore , McNicoll was charged with the responsibility of ensuring Australian naval commitments to the Far East Strategic Reserve were met .
McNicoll 's two @-@ year term as Fleet Commander concluded on 6 January 1964 , at which point he returned to the Naval Board as Fourth Naval Member and Chief of Supply . However , this post proved short @-@ lived with his appointment as Flag Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge East Australia Area , headquartered at the land base HMAS Kuttabul in Sydney , from June that year . In the 1965 New Year Honours , McNicoll was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath .
= = = Chief of Naval Staff = = =
On 24 February 1965 , McNicoll was promoted vice admiral and made Chief of Naval Staff ( CNS ) in succession to Vice Admiral Sir Hastings Harrington . By virtue of this position , McNicoll was head of the Naval Board and the functional commander of the RAN . McNicoll 's term as CNS was characterised by a period of heightened activity for the RAN in light of the Australian commitments to the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi and the Vietnam War . He furthermore had to oversee an extensive modernisation of the fleet , with the introduction into service of the Perth @-@ class destroyers , Attack @-@ class patrol boats , and the initial batch of Oberon @-@ class submarines . The Fleet Air Arm was also re @-@ equipped with American fixed wing aircraft . Despite these acquisitions , the RAN possessed a rather thin and limited fleet during this period , which McNicoll blamed on past naval planning . He criticised the lack of foresight in earlier decisions that had led to " inconsistencies and inadequate estimating " in the future needs of the RAN , which had consequently left the fleet outdated and minimal . In addition to the RAN 's materiel issues , McNicoll faced significant problems with morale and recruitment . A series of mishaps and accidents over the previous decade led to what naval historian Tom Frame termed as " an appreciable erosion of public confidence in the navy 's professional standards " . The situation intensified following the February 1964 collision between HMAS Melbourne and Voyager . The two subsequent Royal Commissions into the incident subjected the RAN to unprecedented scrutiny and damaged the public perception of its senior leadership . McNicoll had to cope with the turmoil occasioned by these events and concerned himself with the restoration of morale in the Navy .
The tenure of Air Chief Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger as Chairman , Chiefs of Staff Committee was set to expire in May 1966 , and a replacement had to be selected from the service chiefs . The Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Sir John Wilton , had among defence and military circles been assumed to be the natural successor . However , mounting speculation arose from late 1965 over who was to be selected for the position as it became known Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies preferred McNicoll for the post , as did Secretary of the Department of Defence Sir Ted Hicks , who thought McNicoll more intelligent and objective than his Army counterpart . McNicoll lobbied ardently for the position , and was supported by his wife , Frances , who actively campaigned on her husband 's behalf . By December 1965 , Scherger 's replacement had still not been decided upon and Menzies chose to delay the decision until the new year . However , Menzies retired in January 1966 and was succeeded by his deputy , Harold Holt . Holt and the newly appointed Minister for Defence , Allen Fairhall , preferred Wilton and ultimately selected him to succeed Scherger . In any event , McNicoll was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1966 New Year Honours for his service as CNS .
McNicoll was eager for a RAN contribution to the Vietnam War and , in July 1966 , proposed that the four Australian minesweepers operating out of Singapore be deployed to Vietnamese waters since Konfrontasi was at an end and the vessels were no longer necessary in that area . The notion was rejected by Fairhall , however , who was conscious of an upcoming election and was adamant that nothing be decided until afterward . The possibility of a naval contribution to Vietnam was raised again in December , and it was decided that the guided missile destroyer HMAS Hobart and a clearance diving team of six personnel be deployed as the Royal Australian Navy Force Vietnam . Per an agreement between McNicoll and Admiral Roy L. Johnson , Commander of the United States Pacific Fleet , HMAS Hobart was to be attached to the United States Seventh Fleet and conduct shore bombardment operations . The deployment of an Australian destroyer to Vietnam became permanent , with the ships operating on a six @-@ month rotation . To McNicoll 's satisfaction , the RAN contribution to the theatre was further bolstered in 1967 with the formation of the RAN Helicopter Flight Vietnam and the dispatch of naval aviators to serve in an Army support role with No. 9 Squadron RAAF .
The visible legacy of McNicoll 's service as CNS is the Australian White Ensign . The British White Ensign had been flown by Australian vessels since the formation of the RAN in 1911 , but the Australian contribution to Vietnam — a conflict in which the United Kingdom was not involved — served to complicate the situation . Federal politician Sam Benson questioned the Australian use of the British ensign before parliament in October 1965 , and McNicoll later raised the issue with the Naval Board . The Naval Board ultimately decided to recommend to the government that the RAN create its own unique white ensign . A design accompanied the recommendation , which described the ensign as a " white flag with the Union Flag in the upper canton at the hoist with six blue stars positioned as in the Australian flag " . The government approved the proposal , and the Australian White Ensign was formally introduced throughout the RAN on 1 March 1967 .
After 46 years of service , McNicoll retired from the RAN on 2 April 1968 and was succeeded as CNS by Vice Admiral Victor Smith . In the lead @-@ up to his retirement , McNicoll completed a farewell tour by visiting several ships and naval establishments throughout Australia . The trip culminated with a two @-@ week visit to Vietnam , and McNicoll was present in Saigon when the city was attacked by Viet Cong forces as part of the Tet Offensive . As a man who " liked action " , McNicoll later stated that he received a " great thrill " during the assault as he awaited transportation back to Australia .
= = Ambassador and later life = =
On his retirement from the Navy , McNicoll was appointed by the Australian government as its inaugural ambassador to Turkey . He was able to form amiable relations between the governments of Australia and Turkey , despite the physical and logistic issues associated with the establishment of a new embassy and the lack of knowledge both nations had of one another . McNicoll held his diplomatic post in Ankara for five years , before he returned to Australia in 1973 and retired to Canberra . A man of " culture and refined literary tastes " , McNicoll engaged his passion for the arts during retirement and in 1979 published his translation of The Odes of Horace . He was also a music lover and a keen fly @-@ fisherman .
Sir Alan McNicoll died on 11 October 1987 at the age of 79 . Remembered as a " well @-@ informed , hard working and skilled administrator " , he was cremated with full naval honours . McNicoll was survived by his wife , and by the children from his first marriage .
= Siege of Savage 's Old Fields =
The Siege of Savage 's Old Fields ( also known as the First Siege of Ninety Six , November 19 – 21 , 1775 ) was an encounter between Patriot and Loyalist forces in the back country town of Ninety Six , South Carolina , early in the American Revolutionary War . It was the first major conflict in South Carolina in the war , having been preceded by bloodless seizures of several military fortifications in the province . Patriot forces under the command of Major Andrew Williamson had been dispatched to the area to recover a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition intended for the Cherokees that had been seized by Loyalists . Williamson 's force , numbering over 500 , established a stockaded fort near Ninety Six , where it was surrounded by some 1 @,@ 900 Loyalists .
Because the war was in its early days and the partisan war in the southern back country had not become as brutal as it would be later in the war , the siege was conducted desultorily , and was effectively a stalemate . After two days the Loyalists withdrew , having lost four killed and 20 wounded to one Patriot killed and 12 wounded . The Patriots also withdrew toward the coast , but a major Patriot expedition not long after resulted in the arrest or flight of most of the Loyalist leadership .
= = Background = =
When the American Revolutionary War began in Massachusetts in April 1775 , the free population of the Province of South Carolina was divided in its reaction . Many English coastal residents were either neutral or favored the rebellion , while significant numbers of back country residents , many of whom were German and Scottish immigrants , were opposed . Loyalist sentiment in the back country was dominated by Thomas Fletchall , a vocal and active opponent of Patriot attempts to resist King and Parliament . By August 1775 tensions between Patriot and Loyalist in the province had escalated to the point where both sides had raised sizable militia forces .
Events were largely nonviolent for some time , although there were isolated instances of tarring and feathering , but tensions were high as the sides struggled for control of munitions . The Council of Safety in early August sent William Henry Drayton and Reverend William Tennent to Ninety Six to rally Patriot support and suppress growing Loyalist support in the back country . Drayton was able to negotiate a tenuous truce with Fletchall in September .
On September 15 , Patriot militia seized Fort Johnson , the principal fortification overlooking the Charleston harbor . Governor William Campbell dissolved the provincial assembly , and fearing for his personal safety , fled to the Royal Navy sloop of war HMS Tamar . This left the Patriot Council of Safety in control of the provincial capital . The council began improving and expanding Charleston 's coastal defenses ; eventually this culminated in a bloodless exchange of cannon fire between Patriot positions and Royal Navy ships in the harbor on November 11 and 12 .
Matters also escalated after the seizure by Loyalists in October of a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition sent by the Council of Safety and intended for the Cherokee . The council responded by organizing a large @-@ scale expedition to recover the munitions . On November 8 it voted to send Colonel Richard Richardson , the commander of the Camden militia , to recover the shipment and arrest Loyalist leaders .
= = Siege = =
While Richardson gathered his forces , Major Andrew Williamson , who had already been recruiting in the back country , learned of the gunpowder seizure . He arrived at Ninety Six early on November 19 with 560 men . Finding the small town to be not very defensible , he established a camp on John Savage 's plantation , provided a field of fire for the force 's three swivel guns . He began fortifying the camp , ordering the construction of an improvised stockade . Loyalist recruiting had been more successful : Williamson had learned that Captain Patrick Cuningham and Major Joseph Robinson were leading a large Loyalist force ( estimated to number about 1 @,@ 900 ) toward Ninety Six . In a war council that day , the Patriot leaders decided against marching out to face the Loyalists . The Loyalists arrived the next day , and surrounded the Patriot camp .
The leaders of the two factions were in the midst of negotiating an end to the standoff when two Patriot militiamen were seized by Loyalists outside the stockade . This set off a gunfight that lasted for about two hours . The next morning the two sides resumed firing at each other at long range . The Loyalists attempted to set fires , creating a smokescreen they could use to approach the stockade . This attempt was frustrated by the wet ground . The Loyalists next constructed a large wooden shield behind which they sought to bring incendiaries closer to the fort , but they only succeeded in " [ setting ] Fire to their own Engine themselves " , according to one account , and it was not proof against the Patriot 's guns .
On the afternoon of November 21 the Patriots held a war council , in which they decided to sortie that night . They were preparing for this action at sunset when a Loyalist approached with a parley flag . Nothing was decided in the discussion beyond an agreement to meet the next morning . In that meeting , the Loyalists agreed to withdraw across the Saluda River and the Patriots agreed to destroy the fort . Both sides were to return prisoners taken since November 2 and not interfere with each other 's communications with their respective political leaders . The Patriot leaders were also required to surrender their swivel guns , although they were returned three days later . The truce also included reinforcements for both sides , terms that the Council of Safety claimed did not apply to Colonel Richardson 's force .
= = Aftermath = =
The reasons why the Loyalists chose to negotiate the truce are unknown . Governor Campbell described the Loyalists as lacking in effective leadership , and historian Martin Cann speculates that it may have been caused by Colonel Richardson 's preparations or approach . Richardson mobilized 2 @,@ 500 men , which grew by the end of November to more than 4 @,@ 000 . This force scoured the back country , arresting or driving away most of the Loyalist leadership . The campaign effectively ended on December 22 , when 15 inches ( 38 cm ) of snow fell on the area . Richardson 's men , unprepared for the snow , made a difficult trek back to the lowlands .
Some of the Loyalist leaders who escaped Richardson 's expedition , including most notably Thomas Brown , fled to West Florida where they joined regular and irregular forces serving with the British . These events resulted in the end of large @-@ scale Loyalist activity in the southern Appalachians , although what was in many ways a civil war became progressively more brutal in the following years . Ninety Six became a British outpost after the 1780 Siege of Charleston , and was besieged in 1781 by forces under the command of Nathanael Greene . Although Greene was forced to lift that siege by the approach of a relief force , the British abandoned Ninety Six not long afterward .
= Assata Shakur =
Assata Olugbala Shakur ( born JoAnne Deborah Byron ; July 16 , 1947 ) , whose married name was Chesimard , is an African @-@ American activist and member of the former Black Panther Party ( BPP ) and Black Liberation Army ( BLA ) . Between 1971 and 1973 , Shakur was convicted of several crimes and was the subject of a multistate manhunt .
In May 1973 , Shakur was involved in a shootout on the New Jersey Turnpike , in which she was accused of killing New Jersey State Trooper Werner Foerster and grievously assaulting Trooper James Harper . BLA member Zayd Malik Shakur was also killed in the incident , and Shakur was wounded . Between 1973 and 1977 , Shakur was indicted in relation to six other incidents — charged with murder , attempted murder , armed robbery , bank robbery , and kidnapping — resulting in three acquittals and three dismissals . In 1977 , she was convicted of the first @-@ degree murder of Foerster and of seven other felonies related to the shootout .
Shakur was incarcerated in several prisons in the 1970s . She escaped from prison in 1979 and fled to Cuba in 1984 after living as a fugitive for a few years , and received political asylum . She has been living in Cuba ever since . Since May 2 , 2005 , the FBI has classified her as a domestic terrorist and offered a $ 1 million reward for assistance in her capture . On May 2 , 2013 , the FBI added her to the Most Wanted Terrorist List ; the first woman to be listed . On the same day , the New Jersey Attorney General offered to match the FBI reward , increasing the total reward for her capture to $ 2 million .
= = Early life = =
Shakur was born in Jamaica , Queens , New York City , on July 16 , 1947 , where she lived for three years with her parents and grandparents , Lula and Frank Hill . After her parents divorced in 1950 , Shakur spent most of her childhood in Wilmington , North Carolina with her grandmother , until her family relocated to Queens when she was a teenager . Assata describes her Aunt Evelyn as the heroine of her childhood , as she was constantly exposing Assata to new things . In her autobiography , Assata writes about how her Aunt encouraged her to read , visited museums and saw plays with her and describes her aunt as " very sophisticated and knew all kinds of things . She was right up my alley because I was forever asking all kinds of questions . I wanted to know everything . " ( Pg . 40 ) For a time , she ran away from home and lived with strangers until she was taken in by her aunt , Evelyn Williams , who later became her lawyer . Shakur dropped out of high school , but later earned a General Educational Development ( GED ) with her aunt 's help . Before dropping out of high school , Shakur attended a segregated school in New York which she writes about within her autobiography . Constantly being either the only black student or one of few , Shakur describes how the integrated school system was poorly set up . She talks about how teachers would act surprised whenever she would answer a question in class , as if they were surprised that black people can be intelligent . Shakur talks about how history was often taught sugar coated , and that students were taught a history that erases the oppression that people of color have experienced . She references a play about George Washington 's birthday in which she participated in , and how her role within the play was to sing “ George Washington never told a lie ” over and over again ; Her reaction to participating in the play is shared in her autobiography as “ I didn ’ t know what a fool they had made out of me until i grew up and started to read real history ” ( Pg 33 ) . Shakur attended Borough of Manhattan Community College ( BMCC ) and then the City College of New York ( CCNY ) in the mid @-@ 1960s , where she was involved in many political activities , protests , and sit @-@ ins .
Shakur was arrested for the first time in 1967 with 100 other BMCC students , on charges of trespassing . The students had chained and locked the entrance to a college building to protest a curriculum deficient in black studies and a lack of black faculty . She married Louis Chesimard , a fellow student @-@ activist at CCNY , in April 1967 , and divorced him in December 1970 . Shakur devotes only one paragraph of her autobiography to her marriage , attributing its termination to disagreements related to gender roles .
After graduation from CCNY at 23 , Shakur became involved in the Black Panther Party ( BPP ) , and eventually became a leading member of the Harlem branch . Before joining the BPP , Shakur had met several of its members on a 1970 trip to Oakland , California . One of Shakur 's main activities with the BPP was coordinating a school breakfast program . However , she soon left the Party , charging macho behavior of males in these organizations , but did not go as far as other female Panthers like Regina Jennings , who left the organization over sexual harassment . Instead , Shakur 's main criticism of the BPP was its alleged lack of focus on black history :
" The basic problem stemmed from the fact that the BPP had no systematic approach to political education . They were reading the Red Book but didn 't know who Harriet Tubman , Marcus Garvey , and Nat Turner were . They talked about intercommunalism but still really believed that the Civil War was fought to free the slaves . A whole lot of them barely understood any kind of history , Black , African or otherwise . [ ... ] That was the main reason many Party members , in my opinion , underestimated the need to unite with other Black organizations and to struggle around various community issues . "
That same year Chesimard changed her name to Assata Shakur and joined the Black Liberation Army ( BLA ) , “ a radical and violent organization of black activists ” " whose primary objective ( was ) to fight for the independence and self @-@ determination of Afrikan people in the United States . " In 1971 , Shakur joined the Republic of New Afrika , an organization formed to create an independent black @-@ majority nation composed of Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , Mississippi , and South Carolina .
= = Allegations and manhunt = =
On April 6 , 1971 , Shakur was shot in the stomach during a struggle with a guest at the Statler Hilton Hotel in Midtown Manhattan and was arrested on a string of charges . According to police , Shakur knocked on the door of a room occupied by an out @-@ of @-@ town guest and asked " Is there a party going on here ? " to which the occupant responded in the negative . Shakur then allegedly displayed a revolver and a struggle ensued , during which she was shot . She was booked on charges of attempted robbery , felonious assault , reckless endangerment , and possession of a deadly weapon , then released on bail . Shakur is alleged to have said that she was glad that she had been shot since , having experienced what it was like , she was no longer afraid to be shot again .
Following an August 23 , 1971 bank robbery in Queens , Shakur was sought for questioning , and a photograph of a woman ( who was later alleged to be Shakur ) with thick @-@ rimmed black glasses , a high hairdo pulled tightly over her head , and a steadily pointed gun became ubiquitous in banks and full page print ads paid for by the New York Clearing House Association . On December 21 , 1971 , Shakur was named as one of four suspects by New York City police in a hand grenade attack that destroyed a police car and slightly injured two patrolmen in Maspeth , Queens ; a 13 @-@ state alarm was issued three days after the attack when a witness identified Shakur and Andrew Jackson from FBI photographs . Atlanta law enforcement officials said that Shakur and Jackson had lived together for several months in Atlanta , Georgia , in the summer of 1971 .
Shakur was one of those wanted for questioning for wounding a police officer attempting to serve a traffic summons in Brooklyn on January 26 , 1972 . After a March 1 , 1972 $ 89 @,@ 000 Brooklyn bank robbery , a Daily News headline asked : " Was that JoAnne ? " ; Shakur was also wanted for questioning after a further September 1 , 1972 Bronx bank robbery . Msgr. John Powis alleged that Shakur was involved in an armed robbery at his Our Lady of the Presentation church in Brownsville , Brooklyn , on September 14 , 1972 , based on FBI photographs .
In 1972 , Shakur was the subject of a nationwide manhunt after the FBI alleged that she was the " revolutionary mother hen " of a Black Liberation Army cell that had conducted a " series of cold @-@ blooded murders of New York City police officers , " including the " execution style murders " of New York Police Officers Joseph Piagentini and Waverly Jones on May 21 , 1971 and Gregory Foster and Rocco Laurie on January 28 , 1972 . Shakur was alleged to have been directly involved with the Foster and Laurie murders , and involved with the Piagentini and Jones murders . Some sources go further , identifying Shakur as the de facto leader and the " soul of the Black Liberation Army " after the arrest of co @-@ founder Dhoruba Moore . Robert Daley , Deputy Commissioner of the New York City Police , for example , described Shakur as " the final wanted fugitive , the soul of the gang , the mother hen who kept them together , kept them moving , kept them shooting . "
As of February 17 , 1972 , when Shakur was identified as one of four BLA members on a short trip to Chattanooga , Tennessee , Shakur was wanted for questioning ( along with Robert Vickers , Twyman Meyers , Samuel Cooper , and Paul Stewart ) in relation to police killings , a Queens bank robbery , and the grenade attack . Shakur was announced as one of six suspects ( pictured left ) in the ambushing of four policemen — two in Jamaica , Queens , and two in Brooklyn — on January 28 , 1973 , despite the fact that the assailants were identified as male .
By June 1973 , an apparatus that would become the FBI 's Joint Terrorism Task Force ( JTTF ) was issuing near daily briefings on Shakur 's status and the allegations against her . According to Cleaver and Katsiaficas , the FBI and local police " initiated a national search @-@ and @-@ destroy mission for suspected BLA members , collaborating in stakeouts that were the products of intensive political repression and counterintelligence campaigns like NEWKILL " and " attempted to tie Assata to every suspected action of the BLA involving a woman . " The JTTF would later serve as the " coordinating body in the search for Assata and the renewed campaign to smash the BLA , " after her escape from prison . After her capture , however , Shakur was not charged with any of the crimes that had made her the subject of the manhunt .
Shakur and others claim that she was targeted by the FBI 's COINTELPRO as a result of her involvement with these organizations . Specifically , documentary evidence suggests that Shakur was targeted by an investigation named CHESROB , which " attempted to hook former New York Panther Joanne Chesimard ( Assata Shakur ) to virtually every bank robbery or violent crime involving a black woman on the East Coast . " Although named after Shakur , CHESROB ( like its predecessor , NEWKILL ) was not limited to Shakur .
= = New Jersey Turnpike shootout = =
On May 2 , 1973 , at about 12 : 45 a.m. , Assata Shakur , along with Zayd Malik Shakur ( born James F. Costan ) and Sundiata Acoli ( born Clark Squire ) , were stopped on the New Jersey Turnpike in East Brunswick by State Trooper James Harper , backed up by Trooper Werner Foerster in a second patrol vehicle ( Car 820 ) , for driving with a broken tail light . According to Col. David B. Kelly , the vehicle was also " slightly " exceeding the speed limit . Recordings of Trooper Harper calling the dispatcher were played at the trials of both Acoli and Assata Shakur . After reporting his plans to stop the vehicle he had been following , Harper can later be heard to say : " Hold on — two black males , one female . " The stop occurred 200 yards ( 183 m ) south of what was then the Turnpike Authority administration building at exit 9 , the headquarters of Troop D. Zayd Shakur was driving the two @-@ door vehicle , Assata Shakur was seated in the right front seat , and Acoli was in the right rear seat . Trooper Harper asked the driver for identification , noticed a discrepancy , asked him to get out of the car , and questioned him at the rear of the vehicle .
It is at this point , with the questioning of Zayd Shakur , that the accounts of the confrontation begin to differ ( see the witnesses section below ) . However , in the ensuing shootout , Trooper Foerster was shot twice in the head with his own gun and killed , Zayd Shakur was killed , and Assata Shakur and Trooper Harper were wounded .
According to initial police statements , at this point one or more of the suspects began firing with semiautomatic handguns and Trooper Foerster fired four times before falling mortally wounded . At Acoli 's trial , Harper testified that the gunfight started " seconds " after Foerster arrived at the scene . At this trial , Harper said that Foerster reached into the vehicle , pulled out and held up a semiautomatic pistol and ammunition magazine , and said " Jim , look what I found , " while facing Harper at the rear of the vehicle . At this point , Assata Shakur and Acoli were ordered to put their hands on their laps and not to move ; Harper said that Assata Shakur then reached down to the right of her right leg , pulled out a pistol , and shot him in the shoulder , after which he retreated to behind his vehicle . Harper later retracted this version of events . Questioned by prosecutor C. Judson Hamlin , Harper said he saw Foerster shot just as Assata Shakur was felled by bullets from Harper 's gun . Harper testified that Acoli shot Foerster with a .38 caliber semiautomatic pistol and then used Foerster 's own gun to " execute him . " According to the testimony of State Police investigators , two jammed semiautomatic pistols were discovered near Foerster 's body .
Acoli then drove the car ( a white Pontiac LeMans with Vermont license plates ) — which contained Assata Shakur , who was wounded , and Zayd Shakur , who was dead or dying — 5 miles ( 8 km ) down the road at milepost 78 across from Service Area 8 @-@ N ( the Joyce Kilmer Service Area ) , where Assata Shakur was apprehended . The vehicle was chased by three patrol cars and the booths down the turnpike were alerted . Acoli then exited the car and — after being ordered to halt by Trooper Robert Palentchar ( Car 817 ) , the first on the scene — fled into the woods as Palentchar emptied his gun . According to Palentchar , Assata Shakur then walked towards him from 50 feet ( 15 m ) away with her bloody arms raised in surrender . Acoli was captured after a 36 @-@ hour manhunt — involving 400 people , state police helicopters , and bloodhounds from the Ocean County Sheriff 's Department — the following day . Zayd Shakur 's body was found in a nearby gully along the road .
At the time of the shootout , Assata Shakur was a member of the Black Liberation Army ( BLA ) and no longer a member of the Black Panther Party . According to a New Jersey Police spokesperson , Assata Shakur was on her way to a " new hideout in Philadelphia " and " heading ultimately for Washington " and a book in the vehicle contained a list of potential BLA targets . Assata Shakur testified that she was on her way to Baltimore for a job as a bar waitress .
Assata Shakur , with gunshot wounds in both arms and a shoulder was moved to Middlesex General Hospital , under " heavy guard , " and was reported to be in " serious condition " ; Trooper Harper was wounded in the left shoulder , in " good " condition , and given a protective guard at the hospital . Assata Shakur was interrogated and arraigned from her hospital bed , and her medical care during this period is often alleged to have been " substandard . " She was transferred from Middlesex General Hospital in New Brunswick to Roosevelt Hospital in Edison after her lawyers obtained a court order from Judge John Bachman , and then transferred to Middlesex County Workhouse a few weeks later .
The Pontiac LeMans and Trooper Harper 's patrol car were taken to a state police garage in East Brunswick . Following the incident , on May 11 , the State Police instituted two @-@ man night patrols on the turnpike and Garden State Parkway , although the change was not made public until June .
= = Criminal charges and dispositions = =
Between 1973 and 1977 , in New York and New Jersey , Shakur was indicted ten times , resulting in seven different criminal trials . Shakur was charged with two bank robberies , the kidnapping of a Brooklyn heroin dealer , attempted murder of two Queens police officers stemming from a January 23 , 1973 failed ambush , and eight other felonies related to the Turnpike shootout . Of these trials , three resulted in acquittals , one in a hung jury , one in a change of venue , one in a mistrial due to pregnancy , and one in a conviction ; three indictments were dismissed without trial .
= = = Turnpike shootout change of venue = = =
On the charges related to the New Jersey Turnpike shootout , New Jersey Superior Court Judge Leon Gerofsky ordered a change of venue in 1973 from Middlesex to Morris County , New Jersey , saying " it was almost impossible to obtain a jury here comprised of people willing to accept the responsibility of impartiality so that defendants will be protected from transitory passion and prejudice . " Polls of residents in Middlesex County , where Acoli had been convicted less than three years earlier , showed that 83 % knew her identity and 70 % said she was guilty .
= = = Bronx bank robbery mistrial = = =
In December 1973 , Shakur was tried for a September 29 , 1972 , $ 3 @,@ 700 robbery of the Manufacturer 's Hanover Trust Company in the Bronx , along with co @-@ defendant Kamau Sadiki ( born Fred Hilton ) . In light of the pending murder prosecution against Shakur in New Jersey state court , her lawyers requested that the trial be postponed for six months to permit further preparation . Judge Lee P. Gagliardi denied a postponement , and the Second Circuit denied Shakur 's petition for mandamus . In protest , the lawyers stayed mute , and Shakur and Sadiki conducted their own defense . Seven other BLA members were indicted by District Attorney Eugene Gold in connection with the series of holdups and shootings on the same day , who — according to Gold — represented the " top echelon " of the BLA as determined by a year @-@ long investigation .
The prosecution 's case rested largely on the testimony of two men who had pleaded guilty to participating in the holdup . The prosecution called four witnesses : Avon White and John Rivers ( both of whom had already been convicted of the robbery ) and the manager and teller of the bank . White and Rivers , although convicted , had not yet been sentenced for the robbery and were promised that the charges would be dropped in exchange for their testimony . White and Rivers testified that Shakur had guarded one of the doors with a .357 magnum pistol and that Sadiki had served as a lookout and drove the getaway truck during the robbery ; neither White nor Rivers was cross @-@ examined due to the defense attorney 's refusal to participate in the trial . Shakur 's aunt and lawyer , Evelyn Williams , was also cited for contempt after walking out of the courtroom after many of her attempted motions were denied . The trial was delayed for a few days after Shakur was diagnosed with pleurisy .
During the trial , the defendants were escorted to a " holding pen " outside the courtroom several times after shouting complaints and epithets at Judge Gagliardi . While in the holding pen , they listened to the proceedings over loudspeakers . Both defendants were repeatedly cited for contempt of court and eventually barred from the courtroom , where the trial continued in their absence . A contemporary New York Times editorial criticized Williams for failing to maintain courtroom " decorum , " comparing her actions to William Kunstler 's recent contempt conviction for his actions during the " Chicago Seven " trial .
Sadiki 's lawyer , Robert Bloom , attempted to have the trial dismissed and then postponed due to new " revelations " regarding the credibility of White , a former co @-@ defendant working for the prosecution . Bloom had been assigned to defend Hilton over the summer , but White was not disclosed as a government witness until right before the trial . Judge Gagliardi instructed both the prosecution and the defense not to bring up Shakur or Sadiki 's connections to the BLA , saying they were " not relevant . " Gagliardi denied requests by the jurors to pose questions to the witnesses — either directly or through him — and declined to provide the jury with information they requested about how long the defense had been given to prepare , saying it was " none of their concern . " This trial resulted in a hung jury and then a mistrial when the jury reported to Gagliardi that they were hopelessly deadlocked for the fourth time .
= = = Bronx bank robbery retrial = = =
The retrial was delayed for one day to give the defendants more time to prepare . The new jury selection was marked by attempts by Williams to be relieved of her duties due to disagreements with Shakur as well as Hilton 's attorney . Judge Arnold Bauman denied the application , but directed another lawyer , Howard Jacobs , to defend Shakur while Williams remained the attorney of record . Shakur was ejected following an argument with Williams , and Hilton left with her as jury selection continued . After the selection of twelve jurors ( 60 were excused ) , Williams was allowed to retire from the case , with Shakur officially representing herself , assisted by lawyer Florynce Kennedy . In the retrial , White testified that the six alleged robbers had saved their hair clippings to create disguises , and identified a partially obscured head and shoulder in a photo taken from a surveillance camera as Shakur 's . Kennedy objected to this identification on the grounds that the prosecutor , assistant United States attorney Peter Truebner , had offered to stipulate that Shakur was not depicted in any of the photographs . Although both White and Rivers testified that Shakur was wearing overalls during the robbery , the person identified as Shakur in the photograph was wearing a jacket . The defense attempted to discredit White on the grounds that he had spent eight months in Matteawan Hospital for the Criminally Insane in 1968 , and White countered that he had faked insanity ( by claiming to be Allah in front of three psychiatrists ) to get transferred out of prison .
Shakur personally cross @-@ examined the witnesses , getting White to admit that he had once been in love with her ; the same day , one juror ( who had been frequently napping during the trial ) was replaced with an alternate . Like the first trial , the retrial was marked by the defendants leaving and / or being thrown out of the court room for periods of varying lengths . Both defendants were acquitted in the retrial ; six jurors interviewed after the trial stated that they did not believe the two key prosecution witnesses . Shakur was immediately returned to Morristown , New Jersey , under a heavy guard following the trial . Louis Chesimard ( Shakur 's ex @-@ husband ) and Paul Stewart , the other two alleged robbers , had been acquitted in June .
= = = Turnpike shootout mistrial = = =
The Turnpike shootout proceedings continued with Judge John E. Bachman in Middlesex County . The jury was chosen from Morris County , which had a far smaller black population than Middlesex County . On this basis , Shakur unsuccessfully attempted to remove the trial to federal court .
Shakur was originally slated to be tried with Acoli , but the trials were separated ( before jury selection was complete ) due to Shakur 's pregnancy , and hers resulted in a mistrial in 1974 because of the possibility of miscarriage ; Shakur was then hospitalized on February 1 .
= = = Attempted murder dismissal = = =
Shakur and four others ( including Fred Hilton , Avon White , and Andrew Jackson ) were indicted in the State Supreme Court in Bronx on December 31 , 1973 on charges of attempting to shoot and kill two policemen — Michael O 'Reilly and Roy Polliana , who were wounded but had since returned to duty — in a January 28 , 1973 , ambush in St. Albans , Queens . On March 5 , 1974 , two new defendants ( Jeannette Jefferson and Robert Hayes ) were named in an indictment involving the same charges . On April 26 , while Shakur was pregnant , New Jersey Governor Brendan Byrne signed an extradition order to move Shakur to New York to face two counts of attempted murder , attempted assault , and possession of dangerous weapons related to the alleged ambush ; however , Shakur declined to waive her right to an extradition hearing , and asked for a full hearing before Middlesex County Court Judge John E. Bachman .
Shakur was extradited to New York City on May 6 , arraigned on May 11 ( pleading innocent ) , and remanded to jail by Justice Albert S. McGrover of the State Supreme Court , pending a pretrial hearing on July 2 . In November 1974 , New York State Supreme Court Justice Peter Farrell dismissed the attempted murder indictment because of insufficient evidence , declaring " The court can only note with disapproval that virtually a year has passed before counsel made an application for the most basic relief permitted by law , namely an attack on the sufficiency of the evidence submitted by the grand jury . "
= = = Kidnapping trial = = =
Shakur was indicted on May 30 , 1974 , on the charge of having robbed a Brooklyn bar and kidnapping bartender James E. Freeman for ransom . Shakur and co @-@ defendant Ronald Myers were accused of entering the bar with pistols and shotguns , taking $ 50 from the register , kidnapping the bartender , leaving a note demanding a $ 20 @,@ 000 ransom from the bar owner , and fleeing in a rented truck . Freeman was said to have later escaped unhurt . The text of Shakur 's opening statement in the trial is reproduced in her autobiography . Shakur and co @-@ defendant Ronald Myers were acquitted on December 19 , 1975 after seven hours of jury deliberation , ending a three @-@ month trial in front of Judge William Thompson .
= = = Queens bank robbery trial = = =
In July 1973 , after being indicted by a grand jury , Shakur pleaded not guilty in Federal Court in Brooklyn to an indictment related to an August 31 , 1971 $ 7 @,@ 700 robbery of the Bankers Trust Company bank in Queens . Judge Jacob Mishlerset set a tentative trial date of November 5 that year . The trial was delayed until 1976 , when Shakur was represented by Stanley Cohen and Evelyn Williams . In this trial , Shakur acted as her own co @-@ counsel and told the jury in her opening testimony :
" I have decided to act as co @-@ counsel , and to make this opening statement , not because I have any illusions about my legal abilities , but , rather , because there are things that I must say to you . I have spent many days and nights behind bars thinking about this trial , this outrage . And in my own mind , only someone who has been so intimately a victim of this madness as I have can do justice to what I have to say . "
One bank employee testified that Shakur was one of the bank robbers , but three other bank employees ( including two tellers ) testified that they were uncertain . The prosecution showed surveillance photos of four of the six alleged robbers , contending that one of them was Shakur wearing a wig . Shakur was forcibly subdued and photographed by the FBI on the judge 's order , after having refused to cooperate , believing that the FBI would use photo manipulation ; a subsequent judge determined that the manners in which the photos were obtained violated Shakur 's rights and ruled the new photos inadmissible . In her autobiography , Shakur recounts being beaten , choked , and kicked on the courtroom floor by five marshals , as Williams narrated the events to ensure they would appear on the court record . Shortly after deliberation began , the jury asked to see all the photographic exhibits taken from the surveillance footage . The jury determined that a widely circulated FBI photo allegedly showing Shakur participating in the robbery was not her .
Shakur was acquitted after seven hours of jury deliberation on January 16 , 1976 , and was immediately remanded back to New Jersey for the Turnpike trial . The actual transfer took place on January 29 . She was the only one of the six suspects in the robbery to be brought to trial . Andrew Jackson and two others indicted for the same robbery pleaded guilty ; Jackson was sentenced to five years in prison and five years ' probation ; another was shot and killed in a gun fight in Florida on December 31 , 1971 , and the last remained at large at the time of Shakur 's acquittal .
= = = Turnpike shootout retrial = = =
By the time Shakur was retried in 1977 , Acoli had already been convicted of the murder of Foerster ( on the theory that he fired the bullets ) , and a total of 289 articles had been published in the local press relating to the various crimes with which Shakur had been accused . Shakur 's trial , along with Acoli 's , would end up costing Middlesex County an estimated $ 1 million .
Shakur again attempted to remove the trial to federal court . The United States District Court for the District of New Jersey denied the petition and also denied Shakur an injunction against the holding of trial proceedings on Fridays ( the Muslim Sabbath ) . An en banc panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit affirmed .
The nine @-@ week trial was widely publicized , and was even reported on by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union ( TASS ) . On March 25 , 1977 , back in Middlesex County , Shakur was convicted as an accomplice in the murders of New Jersey State Trooper Werner Foerster and Zayd Shakur and possession of weapons , as well as of assault and attempted murder of Harper . During the trial , hundreds of civil rights campaigners demonstrated outside of the Middlesex County courthouse each day .
Following the 13 @-@ minute opening statement by Edward J. Barone , the first assistant Middlesex County prosecutor ( directing the case for the state ) , William Kunstler ( the chief of Shakur 's defense staff ) moved immediately for a mistrial , calling the eight @-@ count grand jury indictment " adversary proceeding solely and exclusively under the control of the prosecutor , " whom Kunstler accused of " improper prejudicial remarks " ; Judge Theodore Appleby , noting the frequent defense interruptions that had characterized the previous days ' jury selection , denied the motion . The prosecution contended that Shakur shot and killed her companion , Zayd Shakur , and " executed " Trooper Foerster with his own weapon .
The next day , the jury listened to State Police radio tapes while being provided with a printed transcript , an arrangement that resulted from " hours of haggling " between the defense and prosecution . The " climax " of the tape came when Trooper Ronald Foster , the State Police radio operator , shouted into his microphone " They just shot Harper ! Be on the lookout for this car ! " and " It is a Pontiac . It 's got one tail light " after the wounded Harper entered into the administration building near the site of the shootout . As the tapes were played , Shakur was seated " calmly and without apparent concern " wearing a yellow turban and brightly colored floor @-@ length dress over a white turtleneck sweater .
On February 23 , Shakur 's attorneys filed papers asking Judge Appleby to subpoena FBI Director Clarence Kelley , Senator Frank Church and other federal and New York law enforcement officials to testify about the Counter Intelligence Program , which they alleged was designed to harass and disrupt black activist organizations . Kunstler had previously been successful in subpoenaing Kelley and Church for the trials of American Indian Movement ( AIM ) members charged with murdering FBI agents . The motion ( argued March 2 ) — which also asked the court to require the production of memos , tapes , documents , and photographs of alleged COINTELPRO involvement from 1970 to 1973 — was denied .
Shakur herself was called as a witness on March 15 , the first witness called by the defense ; she denied shooting either Harper or Foerster , and also denied handling a weapon during the incident . She was questioned by her own attorney , Stuart Ball , for under 40 minutes , and then cross @-@ examined by Barone for less than two hours ( see the Witnesses section below ) . Ball 's questioning ended with the following exchange :
" On that night of May 2 [ n ] d , did you shoot , kill , execute or have anything to do with the death of Trooper Werner Foerster ? "
" No . "
" Did you shoot or assault Trooper James Harper ? "
" No . "
Under cross @-@ examination , Shakur was unable to explain how three magazines of ammunition and 16 live shells had gotten into her shoulder bag ; she also admitted to knowing that Zayd Shakur carried a gun at times , and specifically to seeing a gun sticking out of Acoli 's pocket while stopping for supper at a Howard Johnson 's restaurant shortly before the shooting . Shakur admitted to carrying an identification card with the name " Justine Henderson " in her billfold the night of the shootout , but denied using any of the aliases on the long list that Barone proceeded to read .
= = = = Defense attorneys = = = =
Shakur 's defense attorneys were William Kunstler ( the chief of Shakur 's defense staff ) , Stuart Ball , Robert Bloom , Raymond A. Brown , Stanley Cohen ( who died of unknown causes early on in the Turnpike trial ) , Lennox Hinds , Florynce Kennedy , Louis Myers , Laurence Stern , and Evelyn Williams , Shakur 's aunt . Of these attorneys , Kunstler , Ball , Cohen , Myers , Stern and Williams appeared in court for the turnpike trial . Kunstler became involved in Shakur 's trials in 1975 , when contacted by Williams , and commuted from New York City to New Brunswick every day with Stern .
Her attorneys , in particular Lennox Hinds , were often held in contempt of court , which the National Conference of Black Lawyers cited as an example of systemic bias in the judicial system . The New Jersey Legal Ethics Committee also investigated complaints against Hinds for comparing Shakur 's murder trial to " legalized lynching " undertaken by a " kangaroo court . " Hinds ' disciplinary proceeding reached the U.S. Supreme Court in Middlesex County Ethics Committee v. Garden State Bar Ass 'n ( 1982 ) . According to Kunstler 's autobiography , the sizable contingent of New Jersey State Troopers guarding the courthouse were under strict orders from their commander , Col. Clinton Pagano , to completely shun Shakur 's defense attorneys .
Judge Appleby also threatened Kunstler with dismissal and contempt of court after he delivered an October 21 , 1976 speech at nearby Rutgers University that in part discussed the upcoming trial , but later ruled that Kunstler could represent Shakur . Until obtaining a court order , Williams was forced to strip naked and undergo a body search before each of her visits with Shakur — during which Shakur was shackled to a bed by both ankles . Judge Appleby also refused to investigate a burglary of her defense counsel 's office that resulted in the disappearance of trial documents , amounting to half of the legal papers related to her case . Her lawyers also claimed that their offices were bugged .
Tensions and dissension existed among the members of the defense team . Evelyn Williams felt
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believe that Bashō invented haiku . The impressionistic and concise nature of Bashō 's verse greatly influenced Ezra Pound , the Imagists , and poets of the Beat Generation .
Two of Bashō 's poems were popularized in the short story " Teddy " written by J.D. Salinger and published in 1952 by The New Yorker magazine .
In 1979 , The International Astronomical Union named a crater found on Mercury after him .
= = List of works = =
Kai Ōi ( The Seashell Game ) ( 1672 )
Edo Sangin ( 江戸三吟 ) ( 1678 )
Inaka no Kuawase ( 田舎之句合 ) ( 1680 )
Tōsei Montei Dokugin Nijū Kasen ( 桃青門弟独吟廿歌仙 ) ( 1680 )
Tokiwaya no Kuawase ( 常盤屋句合 ) ( 1680 )
Minashiguri ( 虚栗 , " A Shriveled Chestnut " ) ( 1683 )
Nozarashi Kikō ( Record of a Weather @-@ Exposed Skeleton ) ( 1684 )
Fuyu no Hi ( Winter Days ) ( 1684 ) *
Haru no Hi ( Spring Days ) ( 1686 ) *
Kawazu Awase ( Frog Contest ) ( 1686 )
Kashima Kikō ( A Visit to Kashima Shrine ) ( 1687 )
Oi no Kobumi , or Utatsu Kikō ( Record of a Travel @-@ Worn Satchel ) ( 1688 )
Sarashina Kikō ( A Visit to Sarashina Village ) ( 1688 )
Arano ( Wasteland ) ( 1689 ) *
Hisago ( The Gourd ) ( 1690 ) *
Sarumino ( 猿蓑 , " Monkey 's Raincoat " ) ( 1691 ) *
Saga Nikki ( Saga Diary ) ( 1691 )
Bashō no Utsusu Kotoba ( On Transplanting the Banana Tree ) ( 1691 )
Heikan no Setsu ( On Seclusion ) ( 1692 )
Fukagawa Shū ( Fukagawa Anthology )
Sumidawara ( A Sack of Charcoal ) ( 1694 ) *
Betsuzashiki ( The Detached Room ) ( 1694 )
Oku no Hosomichi ( Narrow Road to the Interior ) ( 1694 )
Zoku Sarumino ( The Monkey 's Raincoat , Continued ) ( 1698 ) *
* Denotes the title is one of the Seven Major Anthologies of Bashō ( Bashō Shichibu Shū )
= = = English translations = = =
Matsuo , Bashō ( 2005 ) . Bashō ’ s Journey : Selected Literary Prose by Matsuo Bashō. trans . David Landis Barnhill . Albany , NY : State University of New York Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7914 @-@ 6414 @-@ 4 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 1966 ) . The Narrow Road to the Deep North and Other Travel Sketches. trans . Nobuyuki Yuasa . Harmondsworth : Penguin . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044185 @-@ 7 . OCLC 469779524 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 2000 ) . Narrow Road to the Interior and Other Writings. trans . Sam Hamill . Boston : Shambhala . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57062 @-@ 716 @-@ 3 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 1999 ) . The Essential Bashō. trans . Sam Hamill . Boston : Shambhala . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57062 @-@ 282 @-@ 3 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 2004 ) . Bashō 's Haiku : Selected Poems of Matsuo Bashō. trans . David Landis Barnhill . Albany , NY : State University of New York Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7914 @-@ 6166 @-@ 2 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 1997 ) . The Narrow Road to Oku. trans . Donald Keene , illustrated by Masayuki Miyata . Tokyo : Kodansha International . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7700 @-@ 2028 @-@ 4 .
Matsuo , Bashō ; et al . ( 1973 ) . Monkey 's Raincoat. trans . Maeda Cana . New York : Grossman Publishers . SBN 670 @-@ 48651 @-@ 5 . ISBN 0670486515 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 2008 ) . Basho : The Complete Haiku. trans . Jane Reichhold . Tokyo : Kodansha International . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7700 @-@ 3063 @-@ 4 .
Matsuo , Bashō ; et al . ( 1981 ) . The Monkey ’ s Straw Raincoat and Other Poetry of the Basho School. trans . Earl Miner and Hiroko Odagiri . Princeton : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 06460 @-@ 4 .
Matsuo , Bashō ( 1985 ) . On Love and Barley : Haiku of Basho. trans . Lucien Stryk . Penguin Classics . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044459 @-@ 9 .
= = In fiction = =
Bashō appeared in the Magic Treehouse book The Dragon of the Red Dawn .
= Sharabha =
Sharabha ( Sanskrit : शरभ , Śarabha , Kannada : ಶರಭ ) or Sarabha is a part @-@ lion and part @-@ bird beast in Hindu mythology , who , according to Sanskrit literature , is eight @-@ legged and more powerful than a lion or an elephant , possessing the ability to clear a valley in one jump . In later literature , Sharabha is described as an eight @-@ legged deer .
Shaiva scriptures narrate that god Shiva assumed the Avatar ( incarnation ) of Sharabha to pacify Narasimha - the fierce man @-@ lion avatar of Vishnu worshipped by Vaishnava sect . This form is popularly known as Sharabeshwara ( " Lord Sharabha " ) or Sharabeshwaramurti . The Vaishnavas refute the portrayal of Narasimha as being destroyed by Shiva @-@ Sharabha and regard Sharabha as a name of Vishnu . Another tale narrates that Vishnu assumed the form of the ferocious Gandaberunda bird @-@ animal to combat Sharabha . In Buddhism , Sharabha appears in Jataka Tales as a previous birth of the Buddha .
Sharabha also appears in the emblem of State government of the Indian state of Karnataka , University of Mysore and the Karnataka Soaps and Detergents Limited .
= = Development of character and iconography = =
In Sanskrit literature , Sharabha is initially described as an animal that roared and scared other animals in the hills and forest areas . Similies compare warriors to Sharabha . In the later epic Mahabharata , this form of Sharabha was exaggerated as a lion @-@ slaying monster with eight legs , eyes on the top ; living in the forest and which ate raw flesh . It is also mentioned as residing on Mount Krauncha but not as a monster but as an ordinary beast along with lions and tigers on mount Gandhamandana . The epic also includes Sharabha in the list of edible animals - the mrigajatis- the animal group of antelope , deer , hare , bear , ruru deer , sambar , gayal , boar , and buffalo - which was offered as part of food at dinner to guests . Sharabha also appears as a name of a monkey @-@ king in the epic Ramayana , also as a proper name of heroes , apes , demons ( danavas ) and serpent Nāgas and one of the names of god Vishnu as well as Buddha . In defining the ecological theme in Hindu medicine related to jungle and the aroma of meats , Sharabha has also been listed among the deer natives of Kashmir , Nepal , and Sikkim . However , the features explained are of an eight legged animal of the size of a camel with huge horns and conjectured as a large Himalayan goat .
= = = Shiva 's incarnation = = =
In Puranic literature , Sharabha is associated with god Shiva , who incarnates to subdue fierce manifestations of Vishnu . The legend of Sharabha fighting Narasimha - the man @-@ lion form of Vishnu - brings to fore the overt rivalry between the devotees of Vishnu ( Vaishnavite sect ) and those of Shiva ( Shaivite sect ) , which exposes the gory blood @-@ letting aspect . According to Roy , the Narasimha @-@ Sharabha encounter may be a Shiava version of Vedic tale of Vishnu piercing the boar . Shiva Purana describes Sharabha as thousand @-@ armed , lion @-@ faced and with matted hair , wings and eight feet . Sharabha Upanishad portrays Sharabha with two heads , two wings , eight legs of the lion with sharp claws and a long tail . Kalika Purana describes Sharabha as black in colour , with four feet downwards and four feet uplifted , with an enormous body . It also has a long face and nose , nails , eight legs , eight tusks , a cluster of manes , and a long tail . It jumps high repeatedly making a loud cry .
The iconography of Sharabeshwaramurti ( Shiva as Sharabha ) is specifically defined in texts such as Khamikagama and Sritattvanidhi . In Khamikagama , Sharabha is described in the form of a bird with golden colour , with two uplifted wings , two red eyes , four legs in the form of a lion touching the ground , four legs with claws upwards , and with an animal tail . The top part of the body is shown as human but with the face of a lion with an ornamented crown ; side tusks are also depicted giving an overall frightening sight . It also shows the Narasimha beneath Sharabha ’ s legs as a lion @-@ faced human with anjali ( hands folded prayer gesture ) . ( See Infobox image )
In the Sritattvanidhi , the depiction prescribed for Sharabeshwaramurti is of thirty arms ; arms on the right are to hold thunderbolt , mushti , abhaya , chakra ( discus ) , sakti , staff , goad , sword , Khatvanga , axe , akshamala , a bone , bow , musala , and fire ; and the left hands to display noose , varada , mace , arrow , flag , and another type of sword , a snake , a lotus flower , skull @-@ cup , pustaka , plough , and mrudanga with one hand encircling Durga in a hug . This form is extolled to usher good luck , cure all diseases and destroy all enemies .
The Chola dynasty in Tamil Nadu was particularly favourable to the beliefs of Shaiva sect . It is said that the sectarian aspect got highlighted during their reign . This is evident from the four Sharabha images , the earliest at the Vikramsolishwaram temple near Kumbakonam built by Vikrama Chola ( 1118 – 35 ) . The other images are at Darasuram and Kampahareshvarar temple , Thirubuvanam built by a Chola ruler , Kulottunga Chola III where Sharabha 's image is housed in a separate shrine .
A sculpture of Sharbeshwaramurti in the Tribhuvanam temple , a Shiva temple in Tanjore district , in Tamil Nadu is seen with three legs , with body and face of a lion and a tail . It has four human arms , the right upper hand holds axe , noose is held in the lower right hand , the deer in the upper left hand and fire in the lower left hand . Narasimha is shown with eight armsIn the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram , a rare image of the Chola period , in black basalt , depicts Shiva as Sharabha . It is deified in an exclusive small shrine , as part man , beast and bird , destroying the man @-@ lion incarnation of Vishnu , Narasimha . This highlights the hostility between the Shaivite and Vaishnavite sects . In the Chennakeshava temple of Belur ( 1113 ) , Karnataka , Gandaberunda ( 2 @-@ faced bird identified with Vishnu ) depiction is a carved scene of " chain of destruction " . Initially , a deer is prey to a large python , followed by being lifted by an elephant and a lion attacking the elephant , and the lion shown as devoured by Sharabha .
In iconographic representations of the myth of Shiva vis @-@ à @-@ vis Vishnu , Sharabha form has been built around Narasimha but substantially embellished with wings to represent Kali and Durga to denote the female powers ( shaktis ) of Shiva ; Sharabha is also shown with a bird head and a serpent in his beak head .
= = In Hindu scriptures = =
= = = In Mahabharata = = =
The Mahabharata , the great Hindu epic , narrates : a dog , with the help of a Rishi ( sage ) assumes various animal forms - starting from a dog to a tiger then to an elephant followed by a lion and a sharabha - terrorized every one in the hermitage of the Rishi . Eventually , Sharabha assumed a further fiercer form . In this fierce form he wanted to devour the Rishi . The Rishi then narrating the process of change in Sharabha ’ s development , as a result of his benevolence , cursed Sharabha to go back to his original form of a dog . The epic does not relate Shiva to Sharabha .
= = = Shaivite views = = =
The legend of Sharabha as an incarnation of Shiva is narrated in many Hindu scriptures and each presents a different version to suit one ’ s religious beliefs . But one common refrain in all these depictions is that Sharabha is a combination of a huge animal @-@ bird beast with enormous strength manifested with the purpose of pacifying similar ferocious avatars of Vishnu such as Narasimha ( man @-@ lion ) or Varaha ( the boar ) .
The Narasimha @-@ Sharabha legend is linked to gods assuming mythical animal forms to slay or subdue as the case may be . First , Vishnu assumed the form of Narasimha to slay Hiranyakashipu , an asura ( demon ) king , who was terrorizing the universe and devotee of Shiva . The Shiva Purana mentions : After slaying Hiranyakashipu , Narasimha ’ s wrath was not appeased . The world trembled , fearing what he might do . The Devas ( the gods ) requested Shiva to tackle Narasimha . Initially , Shiva brings forth Virabhadra , one of his terrifying forms , in order to calm Narasimha . When that failed , Shiva manifested as the human @-@ lion @-@ bird Sharabha . Shiva then assumed the Sharabha form . Sharabha then attacked Narasimha and seized him up until he was immobilized . He thus quelled Narasimha ’ s terrifying rage . Narasimha became a devotee of Shiva after being bound by Sharabha . Sharabha then decapitated and de @-@ skinned Narasimha so Shiva could wear the hide and lion @-@ head as a garment . The Linga Purana and Sharabha Upanishad also mention this mutilation and murder of Narasimha . After the mutilation , Vishnu assumed his normal form and retired to his abode , after duly praising Shiva . It was from here on that Shiva came to be known as " Sharabeshamurti " or " Simhagnamurti " .
The Skanda Purana considers Narasimha as a mere irritation and not a threat to the world , contrary to what was brought out in the Shiva and Linga Puranas . The perception was that Vishnu may permanently adopt the fierce form of Narasimha , which would be detrimental to his role of doing good deeds . Hence , the purpose of Shiva assuming the form of Sharabha was to ensure that the lion body of Vishnu was discarded and he got united with his original divine form . Narasimha struck Sharabha with his body , it was Vishnu who groaned in pain and not Sharabha who was in an " adamantine body " . It was then that Vishnu realised that Sharabha was none other than Shiva and bowed and praised Sharabha . Shiva then blesses Vishnu and gives him a boon to kill demons . A Purana ends the story with gods fearing that Sharabha may not be able to control his rage and thus urging Shiva to give up his Sharabha form . Thereafter , Shiva dismembered Sharabha ’ s form ; his limbs were given away and his torso became a Kapalika . The Vamana Purana too discusses the tale , ending with Narasimha becoming the calm Vishnu again and Sharabha becoming a lingam , the symbol of Shiva .
In the Kalika Purana , Varaha - Vishnu ’ s boar avatar - had amorous dalliance with the earth goddess . He and his three boar sons then created mayhem in the world , which necessitated Shiva to take the form of Sharabha , to kill the Varaha form . Even , Vishnu requests Shiva to destroy Varaha , unable to control his own form . Here , Narasimha appears to aid Varaha . Sharabha kills Narasimha first and then kills Varaha , allowing Vishnu to reabsorb the energies of both his fierce forms . Finally , Vishnu defeats Sharabha .
= = = Vaishnava and Smartha views = = =
Vaishnava followers including Dvaita scholars , such as Vijayendra Tirtha ( 1539 – 95 ) refute the portrayal of Narasimha as being destroyed by Sharabha as they consider the Shaivite Puranas as tamasic - and thus not authoritative - based on their reading of Sattvic Puranas and Shruti texts . The refutation of the Sharabha legend along with ten other Shaivite legends is discussed in a text by Vijayindra Tirtha called Shaivasarvasvakhandanam .
Some regional South @-@ Indian scriptures narrate that Narasimha took the form of Gandaberunda ( literally " the mighty two @-@ headed " ) , a more ferocious two @-@ headed bird @-@ animal , who combats and destroys Shiva @-@ Sharabha .
The Sharabha Upanishad mentions that shara means jiva ( " soul " ) and Hari ( Vishnu ) is gleaming in the form of Sharabha , and that Hari has manifested as Sharabha who is capable of granting moksha ( salvation ) . There is a reference to Sharabha in the Vishnu sahasranama , the 1000 names of Vishnu , and the literal meaning seems to suggest the praise of Sharabha ( the lion @-@ killing animal ) .
Narasimhan Krishnamachari , a scholar on Vishishtadvaita philosophy , states that the name " Sharabha " has been interpreted in two ways namely ; the first interpretation means " the Destroyer ( of those who transgress the bounds of ethics ) , " as given by the Sri Vaishnavite commentator , Parasara Bhattar and the second interpretation as given by Adi Sankara , among others . The former is based on the Sanskrit verb SR , which means " to injure to destroy " . According to C. V. Radhakrishna Sastri , " Sara " also refers to an arrow , and the perishable body shines if it is aimed at Bhagavan , because He shines in that body . "
Adi Shankaracharya , as with the reference in the Sharabha Upanishad , refers to this 356th name of Vishnu sahasranama as not mentioning the lion @-@ killing animal at all and instead interprets the name to mean , " As the Lord shines in the body as the indwelling Self , He is called Sharabha , while the body is sara ( perishable ) . " As these commentaries on the Vishnu sahasranama suggest , none of them refer to the avatar of Shiva .
= = In Buddhist scriptures = =
In the Jataka tales of the Buddha 's previous lives , there is narration related to his birth as Boddhisattva in a forest as a Sharabha , the eight @-@ legged deer . This story is of one compassion of the deer shown towards the King who wanted to hunt the deer . The King , while trying to hunt the deer , fell into a precipice with his horse . The deer instead of abandoning the king to his fate rescued him . The King was deeply touched by the compassion shown by the deer and thereafter promulgated a decry stating that hunting was an illegal activity in his country .
In Tibetan Buddhism , sharabha is represented as a beast with a goat 's head and horns , a lion 's mane and horse 's body and legs . It symbolizes determination , strength and speed . Sometimes , it is represented additionally with horns of an antelope and claws of an eagle . Sometimes , the goat head is replaced by a lion 's , horse 's feet by a lion 's and horns can be of a ram . A common feature of all representations is the horse 's body . It is often depicted as mounts of young Devas or dwarfs in a Torana – a six @-@ level archway behind an enlightenment throne of a Buddha or Boddhisattva . Together with the devas , they symbolize the perfection of effort ( virya ) .
= = As emblem = =
The Government of Karnataka , the University of Mysore and the Karnataka Soaps and Detergents Limited ( KSDL @-@ an industrial unit owned by the Government of Karnataka ) have adopted Sharabha , with modifications and also appropriate justifications , as their emblem or logo .
In Karnataka Soaps and Detergents Limited logo , Sharabha is depicted in the form of a body of a lion with the head of an elephant to represent the virtues of wisdom , courage and strength . The Royal Emblem of Mysore has also been adopted by the University of Mysore as their logo too . This logo displays Gandabherunda flanked on either side by the lion @-@ elephant Sharabha - stronger than the lion and the elephant and defender of uprightness , surmounted by a lion .
= Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt =
Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt is the debut solo album by John Frusciante , released on November 22 , 1994 , on American Recordings . Frusciante released the album after encouragement from several friends , who told him that there was " no good music around anymore . "
Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt combines avant @-@ garde and stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness styles , with guitar , piano and various effects on a four @-@ track recorder . The album 's first half , Niandra Lades , was recorded before Frusciante left the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1992 ; during the recording of Blood Sugar Sex Magik . The second half , Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt , was recorded while the band was on tour in the months leading up to Frusciante 's departure . Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt sold poorly upon its release in 1994 , and was taken off the market , only to be re @-@ released in 1999 .
= = Background = =
Frusciante joined the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1988 , at the age of 18 , and released his first album with the group , Mother 's Milk the following year . The follow @-@ up album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik , was recorded in an empty mansion that the band decided to live in for the duration of recording . Frusciante adapted well to the environment , and often spent his time alone painting , listening to music , and recording songs that would eventually make up the first half of the album , Niandra Lades . Blood Sugar Sex Magik was released on September 24 , 1991 and was an instant success . The album peaked at number three in the U.S. and went on to sell over 12 million copies worldwide . Soon after the album 's release , Frusciante developed a dislike of the band 's newfound popularity . He felt that the band was too famous , and wished they were still playing small nightclubs like they were before he joined the group . By his own admission , the band 's rise to popularity took Frusciante by surprise , and he could not cope with it . During Blood Sugar Sex Magik 's promotional tour , Frusciante began using heroin and cocaine heavily . He and vocalist Anthony Kiedis often argued before and after performances . According to Kiedis , Frusciante began purposely sabotaging shows by playing the wrong intro for a song , or playing out of key . His relationship with the band had become progressively more strained , and he abruptly quit during the Japanese leg of their world tour in 1992 .
= = Writing and recording = =
After leaving the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Frusciante continued to write and record solo material . He had been doing so since the age of nine , but had never considered releasing his material to the public . That was until several of his friends — including Johnny Depp , Perry Farrell , Gibby Haynes and former Red Hot Chili Peppers band mate Flea — encouraged him to release the material he wrote in his spare time during the Blood Sugar Sex Magik sessions . Frusciante began working on final cuts of the songs he had been writing , and producing them at his home in mid @-@ 1992 . The production process , however , became hampered by his increasingly severe addiction to heroin . Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was recorded in the order it appears , with the final tracks being recorded shortly prior to Frusciante 's departure from the Chili Peppers . Frusciante 's use of heroin and cocaine became more extreme during the final stages of recording in late 1993 ; he began viewing drugs as the only way to " make sure you stay in touch with beauty instead of letting the ugliness of the world corrupt your soul . "
During a 1994 interview , a visibly intoxicated Frusciante noted that he wrote the album in order to create " interesting music " , which he felt no longer existed . He felt contemporary artists were not writing material he deemed worth listening to and the mainstream population were settling for mediocrity . Drugs were another significant topic Frusciante based Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt on . According to Frusciante , he " was stoned for every single note [ he ] played on the album . " He increased his drug use to cope with worsening depression that was caused by leaving the Red Hot Chili Peppers , and his subsequent isolation . Several songs on the album deal with his dislike for the Chili Peppers ' success , such as the album 's eleventh track , " Blood on My Neck From Success " .
All of the music on the record was written by Frusciante , save for the cover of hardcore punk band Bad Brains ' song " Big Takeover " . The track was intentionally slowed down and recorded melodically because of a pastime in which Frusciante sang punk songs in different time signatures : " It was just something I had been walking around thinking of in my head . Sometimes I 'll walk around singing punk rock songs to myself , but as if they were regular songs instead of punk rock songs , you know , slow it down and make a melody instead of just yelling them out . And then the idea occurred me to record it like a Led Zeppelin ballad with mandolins and stuff . " River Phoenix , a friend of Frusciante 's , had contributed guitar and backing vocals to two songs that were intended be included on the record , but they were ultimately left off due to protests from his family . These were later included under different names on the album Smile from the Streets You Hold in 1997 .
Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt incorporated Frusciante 's avant @-@ garde style of song composition , with his stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness methodology . He recorded , mixed , produced and mastered the entire record by himself , and released it on Rick Rubin 's label , American Recordings . Warner Bros. , the Chili Peppers ' label , originally held the rights to the album because of the leaving @-@ artist clause in Frusciante 's Chili Peppers contract . Because he was living as a recluse , however , the label gladly handed the rights over to Rubin , who released the album under his label .
= = Release , reception , and aftermath = =
Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was initially previewed by Billboard magazine , who said that " Chili Peppers fans might be daunted by the album 's elusive experimentalism . " A representative of American Recordings did not foresee the album as being viable in any mainstream music stores , and some retailers went as far as to ban it from being sold . After the album was released , Frusciante played three small performances , and participated in a few magazine interviews to promote the album , explaining in one interview that people would only be able to understand his work if " their heads are capable of tripping out . " At one point shortly after release , Frusciante began searching for a string quartet to play the album with him on tour . The idea was eventually discarded when he could not find a band that " understands why Ringo Starr is such a great drummer , can play Stravinsky , and also smokes pot . " The concept of a tour was ultimately abandoned as well , due to Frusciante 's diminishing health .
Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was not widely reviewed , but yielded a generally positive response from critics . Steve Huey of AllMusic , who rated the album four out of five stars , said that " [ the album was ] an intriguing and unexpected departure from Frusciante 's work with the Chili Peppers " , and that " the sparse arrangements of the first half help set the stage for the gossamer guitar work later on . " He went on to say that Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt — the latter half of the album — contained " pleasant psychedelic instrumentals with plenty of backward @-@ guitar effects . " Ned Raggett , also of Allmusic , noted that " there 's nothing quite so stunning as [ Frusciante 's ] magnificent remake of Bad Brains ' ' The Big Takeover ' . " Adam Williams of PopMatters said the album " fall [ s ] somewhere between madness and brilliance " . He went on to compare Frusciante to Syd Barrett , and felt it was a " hint at a deeply cerebral artist looking within for inspiration and creativity . " High Times ' Tim Kenneally saw the record as " a revelation , both disturbingly intimate and cryptically veiled . Ladeled straight out of the guitarist 's stream of consciousness , it 's worlds away from the up @-@ front , balls @-@ out funk assault of his former band , " with " an ethereal , otherworldly quality . " The album received its share of negative criticism as well . Rolling Stone 's Christian Hoard felt " Frusciante 's eccentricities run seriously amok " , and that " [ the album ] sounds like a string of four @-@ track demos . The first part of the album is slightly more tuneful than the more ambient , experimental second section [ ... ] Mostly what you get are Frusciante 's acoustic @-@ guitar scratchings and stream @-@ of @-@ conscious ramblings . " The first Rolling Stone review of the record , however , was positive : " All in all , [ the album is ] a mess - but definitely a fascinating , often lovely mess . As one might expect of an album titled Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ shirt this is twisted , cool stuff . " The Boston Herald said that while the album was " a stark display of Frusciante 's acoustic guitar virtuosity " and " eerily beautiful " , the singing was " terrible ; his high notes will drive the neighborhood dogs into a frenzy . "
Frusciante 's drug addiction worsened as the years progressed . An article published by the New Times LA described him as " a skeleton covered in thin skin " . He participated in an interview with Dutch public broadcast station VPRO — the first media appearance he made since leaving the Chili Peppers . In the interview Frusciante speaks of the positive effects drugs have had on his mind and proudly admits to being a " junkie " . He went on to confess addictions to heroin and crack cocaine , but ultimately described himself as being in the best health of his life . In 1997 , Frusciante released his second solo album Smile From the Streets You Hold , primarily for drug money . Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was estimated to have sold only 45 @,@ 000 copies when Frusciante ordered it out of print in 1998 — when Frusciante rehabilitated and rejoined the Chili Peppers . Smile From the Streets You Hold was withdrawn from the market a year later . In 1999 Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was re @-@ released on American Recordings . In the early 2000s , Frusciante said he planned to re @-@ release Smile From the Streets You Hold sometime in the future , but did not give any indication as to when . It was eventually re @-@ released on American Records in Europe of 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by John Frusciante , except where noted .
Niandra LaDes
" As Can Be " – 2 : 57
" My Smile Is a Rifle " – 3 : 48
" Head ( Beach Arab ) " – 2 : 05
" Big Takeover " ( cover of Bad Brains ) – 3 : 18
" Curtains " – 2 : 30
" Running Away into You " – 2 : 12
" Ants ( Cassette only bonus track ) " – 2 : 23
" Mascara " – 3 : 40
" Been Insane " – 1 : 41
" Skin Blues " – 1 : 46
" Your Pussy 's Glued to a Building on Fire " – 3 : 17
" Blood on My Neck From Success " – 3 : 09
" Ten to Butter Blood Voodoo " – 1 : 59
Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt [ commonly referred to as ' Untitled # 1 @-@ 13 ' ]
Untitled # 0 ( Cassette only bonus track ) – 3 : 41
Untitled # 1 – 0 : 34
Untitled # 2 – 4 : 21
Untitled # 3 – 1 : 50
Untitled # 4 – 1 : 38
Untitled # 5 – 1 : 30
Untitled # 6 – 1 : 29
Untitled # 7 – 1 : 42
Untitled # 8 – 7 : 55
Untitled # 9 – 7 : 04
Untitled # 10 – 0 : 25
Untitled # 11 – 1 : 51
Untitled # 12 – 5 : 27
Untitled # 13 – 1 : 52
= = Personnel = =
John Frusciante - vocals , guitar , bass , piano , mandolin , banjo , clarinet , producer
Toni Oswald - vocals ( Untitled # 9 ) ( Uncredited )
Martyn Atkins - art direction and design
Dirk Walter - design
= Horst Wessel =
Horst Ludwig Georg Erich Wessel ( 9 October 1907 – 23 February 1930 ) was a Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) activist known for writing the lyrics to the " Horst @-@ Wessel @-@ Lied " . His death in 1930 was used by the party for propaganda purposes .
Wessel first joined the German National People 's Party ( DNVP ) , but by 1926 was removed for being too extremist . He then joined the NSDAP , where he wrote songs for Nazi events . He rose to command several SA squads and districts . On 14 January 1930 , he was shot in the head by two members of the Communist Party of Germany ( KPD ) . Albrecht Höhler was arrested and charged with his murder . He was initially sentenced to six years in prison , but was executed after the Nazis came to power . Wessel 's funeral was given wide attention in Berlin , with many of the Nazi elite in attendance . After his death , he became a major Nazi propaganda symbol . His name was used for several civilian and military purposes during the time of the Third Reich .
= = Early life = =
Horst Ludwig Georg Erich Wessel was born on 9 October in 1907 in Bielefeld , Westphalia , as the son of Wilhelm Ludwig Georg Wessel ( born 15 July 1879 ) , a doctor and Lutheran minister at the Nikolai Church , one of Berlin 's oldest churches . Wessel 's mother , Bertha Luise Margarete Wessel ( neé Richter ) , also came from a family of Lutheran pastors . Wessel 's parents were married on 1 May 1906 . He grew up alongside his sister Ingeborg Paula Margarethe ( born 19 May 1909 ) and his brother Werner Georg Erich Ludwig ( born 22 August 1910 ) . The family lived in the Judenstraße ( " Street of the Jews " ) , which in medieval times had been the centre of Berlin 's Jewish community . Wessel 's refusal to follow his father into the ministry was the subject of many father and son conflicts .
The Wessel family , mainly influenced by the father , avidly supported the monarchist German National People 's Party ( DNVP ) , and when he was 15 , Wessel joined the DNVP 's youth group Bismarckjugend ( " Bismarck Youth " ) . He soon became a local leader , engaging in street battles with youth members of the Social Democratic Party ( SPD ) and Communist Party ( KPD ) . Later , Wessel joined groups with a more sinister reputation , including the Organisation Consul and finally the Black Reichswehr .
Wessel attended Volksschule ( primary school ) in Cölln from 1914 to 1922 , and thereafter attended high school at Königstädtisches and Luisenstädtisches Gymnasium , where he passed his Abitur examination . In 1926 Wessel enrolled in Friedrich Wilhelm University .
= = In the Nazi Party = =
= = = Joining the SA = = =
By 1926 , the German National People 's Party decided that Wessel had become " too radical " and he was removed . That December , he joined Adolf Hitler 's National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) and its paramilitary organisation the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Detachment " ; SA ) . Part of the attraction to Wessel was the socialist stance taken by the Nazi groups in northern Germany . He was also impressed by Joseph Goebbels , the Nazi Party 's Gauleiter ( regional leader ) of Berlin , about whom he said " There was nothing [ Goebbels ] couldn 't handle . The party comrades clung to him with great devotion . The SA would have let itself be cut to pieces for him . Goebbels – he was like Hitler himself . Goebbels – he was our Goebbels . "
In a group of fifty SA men , Wessel traveled to the Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg in August 1927 , joining other Berlin Nazis to make a group of 400 , led by Goebbels . At the time , the SA was banned in Berlin . When they returned , the 450 brownshirts were arrested .
Wessel soon impressed Goebbels in turn , and in January 1928 , a period in which the Berlin city authorities had banned the SA in an effort to curb political street violence , Wessel was sent to Vienna to study the National Socialist Youth Group , as well as the organisational and tactical methods of the Nazi Party there . He returned to Berlin in July 1928 to recruit local youths , and was involved in helping to implement a reorganisation of the NSDAP in the city into a cell @-@ structure similar to that used by the German Communist Party ( KPD ) . Wessel did this despite SA rules forbidding members from working for the party .
In 1929 , Wessel became the Street Cell Leader of the Alexanderplatz Storm Section of the SA . In May , he was appointed district leader of the SA for Friedrichshain where he lived . In October 1929 , Wessel dropped out of university to devote himself full @-@ time to the Nazi movement .
= = = Erna Jänicke = = =
At around the same time , the Alexanderplatz , the centre of Berlin 's nightlife , was part of the territory of Wessel 's SA troops . In September 1929 , he met Erna Jänicke , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old prostitute , in a bar . Soon he moved into her apartment in Große Frankfurter Straße ( today Karl @-@ Marx @-@ Allee ) . The landlady was Elisabeth Salm , whose late husband had been an active Communist . Some sources claim Wessel earned money as her procurer . After a few months , there was a dispute between Salm and Wessel over unpaid rent .
= = Death = =
= = = Assassination = = =
In the evening of 14 January 1930 , at around ten o 'clock , Wessel was shot in the face at point @-@ blank range by two members of the KPD in Friedrichshain . The attack occurred at Große Frankfurter Straße 62 , the building where Wessel and Jänicke lived . As he was lying seriously wounded in hospital , Goebbels was already releasing reports asserting that those who had carried out the attack were " degenerate communist subhumans " . He later died in hospital on 23 February from blood poisoning he contracted during his hospitalisation .
Following his death , the Nazis and Communists offered different accounts of the events . The police ( led by Chief Inspector Teichmann ) and several courts determined that both political and private reasons had led to Wessel 's assassination . By 17 January 1930 , the police announced their manhunt for their prime suspect : KPD member Albrecht Höhler . Jänicke identified Höhler as the gunman . It was then reported by a democratic @-@ minded newspaper that Jänicke knew about the existence of Höhler prior to the murder because Wessel had used her for espionage . Jänicke responded by saying she had never been a spy for Wessel , and that she only knew Höhler as an " acquaintance from the streets " . The police and courts believed Jänicke , and Höhler was quickly arrested . He was sentenced to six years imprisonment for the shooting ; the light sentence the result of the court finding that there were extenuating circumstances . Seven accomplices were also found guilty and sentenced to jail .
Three years later , after the Nazi accession to power in 1933 , Höhler was dragged out of prison and murdered by the SA .
= = = Funeral = = =
Goebbels ' plan was to turn Wessel 's funeral into a mass demonstration full of speeches and processions of SA men in uniform , but he could not get the necessary police permits to do so , even after Wessel 's sister requested Hindenburg to relent .
Wessel was buried in Berlin on 1 March 1930 . Contrary to Nazi claims , there were no attacks on the funeral procession . His funeral was filmed and turned into a major propaganda event by the NSDAP . Wessel was elevated by Goebbels ' propaganda apparatus to the status of leading martyr of the Nazi movement . Many of Goebbels 's most effective propaganda speeches were made at gravesides , but Wessel received unusual attention among the many unremembered storm troopers . In an editorial in the Völkischer Beobachter ( " People 's Observer " ) , Alfred Rosenberg wrote of how Wessel was not dead , but had joined a combat group that still struggled with them ; afterwards , Nazis spoke of how a man who died in conflict had joined " Horst Wessel 's combat group " or were " summoned to Horst Wessel 's standard . " The Prussian police had outlawed public gatherings and the display of swastikas at the funeral procession , with the exception of a few Nazi Party vehicles . Wessel 's coffin was paraded through large parts of the center of Berlin in a procession that took many hours .
As the coffin reached Bülowplatz ( now Rosa @-@ Luxemburg @-@ Platz ) , KPD members began singing " The Internationale " in an attempt to disrupt the event . The police were unable to prevent abusive shouts and , at some points , flying rocks . No major clashes occurred , although someone had written " To Wessel the pimp , a last Heil Hitler " in white paint on the cemetery wall .
In attendance of Wessel 's funeral was Goebbels ( who delivered the eulogy ) , Franz Pfeffer von Salomon , Hermann Göring , and Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia , referred to as the " Nazi prince . " Prior to the event , Goebbels and Göring had discussed the possibility of Hitler attending . In his diary entry on the day of the funeral , Goebbels recalled : " Hitler isn 't coming . Had the situation explained to him over the telephone and he actually declined . Oh well " Goebbels blamed Rudolf Hess for preventing Hitler from coming .
Goebbels continue to use the " martyrdom " of Wessel as a propaganda device for years , including in January 1933 , when " an enormous procession ... led by Hitler , Goebbels , Röhm , and other top officials of the NSDAP , ... marched to the St. Nicholas Cemetery ... [ where ] Hitler spoke of Wessel 's death as a symbolic sacrifice , and dedicated a memorial to him . Wessel 's name was frequently invoked by the Nazis to bolster core tenets of National Socialist ideology during the remaining existence of the Third Reich . For example , a wartime article from the Nazi @-@ owned Völkischer Beobachter newspaper called Wessel " the hero of the Brown Revolution " and referred to his " sacrificial death " that " passionately inflamed millions who followed " . The paper further referred to Wessel as " the driving force behind the struggle for freedom of the armed services and the homeland of the Greater German Reich " .
After World War II , Wessel 's memorial was vandalized and his remains were destroyed . Such activity became common for buried Nazis in East Germany . The grave site was long marked only by part of the headstone of Wessel 's father , Ludwig , from which the surname " Wessel " had been removed . This , too , was destroyed around 2005 and the site was marked only by a raised mound of earth bounded by ivy , with two iceplants in the center . Later in 2011 , a group of anti @-@ Nazi activists attacked Wessel 's grave and sprayed the words Keine Ruhe für Nazis ! ( English : " No Rest For Nazis ! " ) on his headstone . In August 2013 , the grave of Wessel 's father was levelled as well , as the church wished to stop the site from being a rally point for Neo @-@ Nazis .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Horst Wessel Song = = =
Wessel played the schalmei ( shawm ) , a double @-@ reed woodwind instrument which was played in groups called Schalmeienkapellen ( " Schalmeien orchestras or bands " ) , and are still used in folk celebrations . Wessel founded an " SA Schalmeienkapelle " band , which provided music during SA events . In early 1929 , Wessel wrote the lyrics for a new Nazi fight song Kampflied ( " fight song " ) , which was first published in Goebbels 's newspaper Der Angriff in September , under the title Der Unbekannte SA @-@ Mann ( " The Unknown SA @-@ Man " ) . The song later became known as Die Fahne Hoch ( " Raise the Flag " ) and finally the " Horst @-@ Wessel @-@ Lied " ( " Horst Wessel Song " ) . The Nazis made it a co @-@ national anthem of Nazi Germany , along with the first stanza of the Deutschlandlied . It was later claimed by the Nazis that Wessel also wrote the music , but it was considered more likely that the tune was in reality adapted from a World War I German Imperial Navy song , and was probably originally a folk song . The authorship of the melody was finally determined by a German court in 1937 as not by Wessel .
= = = Executions = = =
On April 10 , 1935 , five years after Wessel 's assassination , and two years after the SA murder of Wessel 's killer , Albrecht Höhler , two persons accused of being involved in Wessel 's killing were put on trial and subsequently beheaded in Berlin 's Plotzensee Prison : Solly Epstein , a Jewish painter , and Hans Ziegler , a barber . The two had been arrested in August 1933 , and were put on trial in May 1934 with a third defendant , Peter Stoll , a tailor . In 2009 the sentences against them were rescinded by the German government .
= = = Posthumous notability = = =
= = = = Hans Westmar = = = =
Hans Westmar was one of the first films of the Nazi era to idealise a version of his life . Goebbels , however , disliked the film and temporarily banned it , eventually allowing its release with alterations and with the main character 's name changed to the fictional " Hans Westmar " . Part of the problem was the authentic depiction of storm trooper brutality , including violent clashes with Communists , did not fit the more reasonable tone the Nazis attempted to present initially , after coming to power ; unlike Wessel , Westmar preaches class reconciliation and does not alienate his family . It was among the first films to depict dying for Hitler as a glorious death for Germany , resulting in his spirit inspiring his comrades .
= = = = Memorial namings = = = =
Passau named a street Horst @-@ Wessel @-@ Straße .
The Berlin district of Friedrichshain , where Wessel died , was renamed " Horst Wessel Stadt " , and a square in the Mitte district was renamed " Horst @-@ Wessel @-@ Platz " . The U @-@ Bahn station nearby was also renamed . After the war , the name Friedrichshain was restored and Horst @-@ Wessel @-@ Platz ( which was in East Berlin ) became " Liebknechtplatz " ( after Karl Liebknecht ) . In 1947 it was renamed " Luxemburg @-@ Platz " after Rosa Luxemburg ( it has been called Rosa @-@ Luxemburg @-@ Platz since 1969 ) .
In 1936 , Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine commissioned a three @-@ masted training ship and named her the Horst Wessel . The ship was taken as a war prize by the United States after World War II . After repairs and modifications , she was commissioned on 15 May 1946 into the United States Coast Guard as the USCGC Eagle ( WIX @-@ 327 ) . She remains in service to this day .
Examples of German military units adopting the name of this Nazi @-@ era " martyr " in World War II include the 18th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division , known as the " Horst Wessel " Division , and the Luftwaffe 's 26th Destroyer ( or heavy fighter ) Wing Zerstörergeschwader 26 , as well as its successor day fighter unit Jagdgeschwader 6 , which was similarly named the " Horst Wessel " wing .
= SR Q1 class =
The SR Q1 class is a type of austerity steam locomotive constructed during the Second World War . The class was designed by Oliver Bulleid for use on the intensive freight turns experienced during wartime on the Southern Railway network . A total of 40 locomotives were built . Bulleid incorporated many innovations and weight @-@ saving concepts to produce a highly functional design . The class lasted in service until July 1966 , and the first member of the class , number C1 , has been preserved by the National Railway Museum .
The highly unusual and controversial design represents the ultimate development of the British 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 freight engine , capable of hauling trains that were usually allocated to much larger locomotives on other railways . Nicknames for the class included " Ugly Ducklings " , " Coffee Pots " and " Charlies " .
= = Background = =
In late 1939 , the Southern Railway , until then primarily a high @-@ density commuter railway serving London and South @-@ East England , much of it electrified with third @-@ rail pick @-@ up , found itself on the British front line of the Second World War , with a severe lack of modern freight @-@ handling capability . The newest freight design was the Q Class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 of 1938 , the last locomotive designed by Richard Maunsell . Built to essentially Victorian era principles , these had been designed as replacements for many of the older 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s inherited by the Southern Railway in 1923 , and entered service in January 1938 . Maunsell , having retired at the end of October 1937 , was replaced by Oliver Bulleid .
The Southern Railway , therefore , became an essential strategic war @-@ asset because of its proximity to continental Europe , and needed to equip itself with adequate freight @-@ handling capability to transport the vast quantities of supplies and troops required for the conflict . The brief stipulated high route availability and high tractive effort .
= = Construction history = =
The answer to this problem came from the drawing board of the Southern Railway 's innovative Chief Mechanical Engineer , Oliver Bulleid in the shape of the Q1 . Using the minimum amount of raw materials , and with all superfluous features stripped away , he produced in 1942 the most powerful 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam locomotive ever to run on Britain 's railways . The first twenty locomotives were constructed at Brighton works and the remaining twenty at Ashford . Powerful and light , the Q1s formed the backbone of the Southern 's heavy freight capability . The engine weighed less than 90 tons ( 90 @.@ 6 tonnes ) so could be used over more than 97 % of the Southern Railway 's route mileage .
= = = Design = = =
The class was one of several built under the wartime austerity regime , which stressed pure functionality above any considerations of style or decoration . This austere approach to the design explains its functional appearance . One aspect of their shape was that , like Bulleid 's SR Merchant Navy class and SR West Country and Battle of Britain classes , they could be simply driven through a coach @-@ washer for cleaning at a time when manpower for this time @-@ consuming chore could not be spared .
The unusual shape was also dictated by the use of materials ; the lagging was made of a glass fibre insulation material known as ' Idaglass ' , which , although cheap and plentiful during the war years , could not support any weight , and therefore a separate casing was required which followed that seen in the Merchant Navy class locomotives , and the boiler rings were adapted to lend the lagging the support needed . A copper , rather than steel , firebox was utilised , unlike Bulleid 's Pacific designs . The wheels were smaller , 5 ft 1 in ( 1 @.@ 55 m ) adaptations of the Bulleid Firth Brown type utilised on the Pacifics . The locomotive had two cylinders with Stephenson link outside admission piston valves , having a travel in full gear of 6 1 ⁄ 8 in ( 155 @.@ 58 mm ) and a steam lap of 1 5 ⁄ 8 in ( 41 @.@ 28 mm ) . It was provided with a five @-@ nozzle blast @-@ pipe .
The boiler design was based upon that of the Lord Nelson class , and the firebox used the same throatplate and backplate . The boiler barrel measured 10 ft 6 in ( 3 @.@ 20 m ) in length , with diameters of 5 ft 0 in ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) at the front and 5 ft 9 in ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) at the back . The grate area was 27 sq ft ( 2 @.@ 51 m2 ) , the heating surface of the 209 tubes and 21 flues was 1 @,@ 302 sq ft ( 120 @.@ 96 m2 ) , that of the firebox was 170 sq ft ( 15 @.@ 79 m2 ) giving a total evaporative heating surface of 1 @,@ 472 sq ft ( 136 @.@ 75 m2 ) ; the superheater heating surface was 218 sq ft ( 20 @.@ 25 m2 ) .
= = Operational details = =
The Q1 represented the final development of the British 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 main line steam locomotive . Later designs of medium @-@ powered freight locomotives , such as the LMS Ivatt Class 2 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 and LMS Ivatt Class 4 Moguls all had a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement ; the 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement was not used again in the BR Standard designs of locomotive .
BR classified the Q1 class in the power classification 5F . This represented a rarity , as few other 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s exceeded the classification of 4F , with notable exceptions being the LNER Class J20 ( 5F ) , LNER Class J39 ( 4P5F ) and LNER Class J38 ( 6F ) .
The Q1 's route availability meant that although they were primarily freight locomotives , they also frequently deputised on secondary passenger services . However , the class gained a reputation for poor braking on unfitted freight trains due to the light construction of the tender braking system .
The Q1s thrived on their intended duties during World War II , where the class had proved that they were an indispensable addition to the Southern locomotive fleet . This was achieved to such an extent that they all remained in service until the 1960s , long after they were intended to cease operation as an " austerity " design . Withdrawals began in 1963 , during the implementation of the BR Modernisation Plan which saw the end of steam operations on Britain 's railways , the last example of the class being withdrawn in 1966 .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = Southern Railway and Bulleid numbering system = = =
Livery of the Q1 Class was plain freight black , with Sunshine Yellow numbering on the cabside , and " Southern " lettering on the tender , shaded in green . Bulleid advocated a continental style of locomotive nomenclature , based upon his experiences at the French branch of Westinghouse Electric before the First World War , and those of his tenure in the rail operating department during that conflict . The Southern Railway number followed an adaptation of the UIC classification system where " C " refers to the number of coupled driving axles – in this case three . All these locomotives therefore carried numbers which started " C " followed by the individual identifier from C1 to C40 .
= = = Post @-@ 1948 ( nationalisation ) = = =
After nationalisation , the original Southern livery was in continued use , although with " British Railways " on the tender in Sunshine Yellow . From 1950 onwards , livery remained plain , although in the guise of British Railways Freight Black without lining of any description . The British Railways crest was located on the tender side . Given the British Railways power classification 5F , the locomotives were also renumbered to the British Railways ' standard numbering system as 33001 – 33040 .
= = Preservation = =
Only one locomotive of the class survived into preservation . First @-@ of @-@ class 33001 ( C1 ) has been preserved , and now resides at the National Railway Museum in York , where it carries its original SR livery and number . Before its return to York in 2004 , the locomotive worked on the Bluebell Railway in East Sussex .
= = In fiction = =
The locomotive Neville in the Thomas and Friends children 's television series is based on Q1 class No. 33010 .
= Hairography =
" Hairography " is the eleventh episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on November 25 , 2009 . It was written by series creator Ian Brennan and directed by Bill D 'Elia . The episode introduces New Directions ' rival glee clubs , the Jane Addams Girls Choir for girls recently released from juvenile detention , and the Haverbrook Deaf Choir . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) sabotages New Directions by giving their set @-@ list for sectionals to the competing clubs . Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) reconsiders having her baby adopted , but ultimately recommits to the idea , and Rachel ( Lea Michele ) tries unsuccessfully to attract Finn ( Cory Monteith ) .
Rapper Eve guest @-@ stars as Grace Hitchens , director of the Jane Addams Girls Choir , and So You Think You Can Dance contestants Katee Shean , Kherington Payne and Comfort Fedoke appear as members of her group . The episode features covers of eight songs , including a mash @-@ up of " Hair " from the musical Hair and " Crazy in Love " by Beyoncé featuring Jay @-@ Z. Studio recordings of all but one of the songs performed in the episode were released as singles , available for digital download .
" Hairography " was watched by 6 @.@ 1 million US viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal deemed the mash @-@ up performance one of the worst of the season , with Zap2it 's Liz Pardue agreeing that it was " hideous " . Flandez , Pardue and Mike Hale of the New York Times all felt that it was inappropriate for New Directions to interrupt the deaf choir 's performance of " Imagine " , however Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle opined that reviewers needed to " realize that this show takes its jabs at everyone , but it always has a wink and a hug and lots and lots of love behind it " .
= = Plot = =
New Directions ' director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) suspects that cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) has been colluding with rival glee clubs , and visits the Jane Addams Academy for girls recently released from juvenile detention . When their club director Grace Hitchens ( Eve ) reveals the extent of the school 's under @-@ funding , Will invites her club to perform in the McKinley High auditorium . Will is intimidated by their opposition , but Rachel ( Lea Michele ) assures him that the girls are using the power of " hairography " — frequent , dramatic hair @-@ tossing — to distract from the fact their singing and dancing ability is limited . Will purchases wigs for New Directions and has them utilize hairography themselves , performing a mash @-@ up of " Hair " and " Crazy in Love " . Dalton Rumba ( Michael Hitchcock ) , glee club director at Haverbrook School for the Deaf , feels slighted by the invitation Will extended to the Jane Addams Academy , and arranges for his own club to also perform at McKinley High . His club duets with New Directions on John Lennon 's " Imagine " , and Will realizes that the new mash @-@ up and hairography routine is not working . He removes it from the club 's set @-@ list , replacing it with a performance of " True Colors " . Unbeknownst to Will , Sue reveals two songs from New Directions ' line @-@ up for sectionals to Grace and Dalton , suggesting they have their own clubs perform them to gain an edge in the competition .
Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) begins to doubt her decision to give her baby to Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , and re @-@ considers her stance on raising the baby with Puck ( Mark Salling ) instead of Finn ( Cory Monteith ) . She tells Terri she wants to keep the baby , but in an effort to change her mind , Terri 's sister Kendra ( Jennifer Aspen ) has Quinn babysit her three unruly sons . Quinn invites Puck to babysit with her and the two bond , however when Quinn discovers that Puck spent the evening sexting his ex @-@ girlfriend Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , she re @-@ commits to having the baby adopted , believing her daughter deserves a better father .
Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) gives Rachel a make @-@ over , ostensibly to help her attract Finn , but in reality attempting to sabotage her chances with him . Finn is unimpressed with Rachel 's new look before telling her he remembered having the conversation with Kurt about what he liked in girls . Rachel confronts Kurt , stating that even if he is in love with Finn , she will always have a better chance " because [ she 's ] a girl " . But Kurt tells her that they are both kidding themselves : Finn is in love with Quinn and nothing will change that .
= = Production = =
" Hairography " was written by series creator Ian Brennan , and directed by Bill D 'Elia . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Rivera ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , Terri 's sister Kendra Giardi ( Aspen ) , Kendra 's husband Phil ( Michael Loeffelholz ) , and their triplet sons ( Aidan , Ethan and Ben Freedman ) . Hitchcock guest @-@ stars as rival glee club director Dalton Rumba , and rapper Eve plays another club director , Grace Hitchens . So You Think You Can Dance contestants Katee Shean , Kherington Payne and Comfort Fedoke appear as members of Grace 's club .
Eve was contracted to appear in two episodes of Glee , having been offered the role of Grace after Whitney Houston declined to appear . Discussing her casting , Eve stated : " I got asked and I 'd heard the buzz about the show . When the first pilot episode came out , I figured it was something different and something we haven 't seen on TV before . I didn 't want to turn it down ! " She commented that she would have loved to have seen Whitney Houston appear in the show , explaining : " I think it would 've been different in a sense because she 's an original diva . She would 've brought a whole other energy , which would 've been amazing . " Comparing her character Grace to McKinley High glee director Will , Eve explained : " For me especially , I come from a harder place . I 'm the teacher of a reform school . I 'm used to being very strict . " Asked if she would return to the show in the future , she replied : " If I 'm asked to do it , I definitely would . It 's just a really well @-@ made , smart show . " Though she does not sing in " Hairography " , Eve commented that she would like to do so if she returned to Glee in the future , naming " Sweet Dreams " by Eurythmics as her ideal song choice .
The episode features cover versions of " Bootylicious " by Destiny 's Child , " Don 't Make Me Over " by Dionne Warwick , " Papa Don 't Preach " by Madonna , a mash @-@ up of " Hair " from the musical Hair and " Crazy in Love " by Beyoncé featuring Jay @-@ Z , " Imagine " by John Lennon , " True Colors " by Cyndi Lauper and " You 're the One That I Want " from Grease . Yoko Ono was hesitant about allowing Glee the rights to " Imagine " . Series music supervisor P.J. Bloom explained : " It was very difficult to convince Yoko Ono that it was the right thing to do . She needed to truly understand how the music was going to be used . The added component of us wanting to have a deaf choir signing the song made for this incredibly poignant moment . ... It really took a lot of convincing to get her on board and realize that it was a great , great moment , and a tribute to John and his song . " Jenna Ushkowitz has commented that the performance of " Imagine " brought the cast and crew of Glee to tears , and that several cast members got " Imagine " tattoos afterwards as it was " such a nice checkpoint in our lives . " Studio recordings of all the songs performed in the episode except " You 're the One That I Want " were released as singles , available for digital download . " Imagine " charted at number 82 in Australia , 49 in Canada and 67 in America , while " True Colors " charted at number 47 in Australia , 38 in Canada and 66 in America . " Don 't Make Me Over " , " Imagine " and " True Colors " are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 .
= = Reception = =
" Hairography " was watched by 6 @.@ 1 million U.S. viewers , and attained a 2 @.@ 5 / 7 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Its viewership was a season low , however the episode aired the night before Thanksgiving , when all the major networks saw decreased ratings . In Canada , it was the twenty @-@ second most watched show for the week of broadcast , attaining 1 @.@ 37 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 231 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 886 million on E4 , and 345 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time . Lynda K. Walker , Ann Marie Luddy , Michael Ward and Gina Bonacquisti were nominated for the " Outstanding Hairstyling for a Single @-@ Camera Series " award at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for their work on the episode .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal was critical of New Directions ' mash @-@ up performance , deeming it one of the worst performances of the season . He enjoyed the deaf choir 's rendition of " Imagine " , but wished that New Directions had not interrupted and joined in with them . Mike Hale of the New York Times also disapproved of New Directions joining in with the deaf choir , writing that " Imagine " : " was shaping up to be the best thing in the episode " until New Directions " torpedoed the moment . " Liz Pardue of Zap2it felt that with " Hairography " Glee " wasn 't at its best " , deeming the writing less sharp than usual and observing that the pregnancy storyline dulled the episode for her . Pardue felt that New Directions were " butting in " to the Haverbrook performance of " Imagine " , which she found " a little insulting " , observing : " Good intentions , but cringe @-@ y outcome . " Pardue also criticized the mash @-@ up of " Hair " and " Crazy in Love " as " hideous " .
Gerrick D. Kennedy for the Los Angeles Times was generally more positive regarding the episode 's musical performances , however was critical of the ongoing pregnancy plot , noting that he cringed whenever Quinn appeared on screen . Conversely , Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle enjoyed Quinn in the episode , writing : " I love that she can keep her Mean Girls edge while being heartbreakingly sad or as joyful as she was singing " Papa Don 't Preach " . He countered criticism of the portrayal of New Directions ' rival choirs , suggesting : " at this point , everyone needs to realize that this show takes its jabs at everyone , but it always has a wink and a hug and lots and lots of love behind it . " Entertainment Weekly 's Dan Snierson reviewed the episode positively , calling the " Imagine " performance " a classic feel @-@ good Glee moment , teeming with sappy but undeniable heart " , while Aly Semigran of MTV deemed it her favorite musical moment from the show , feeling that it : " honored the classic song in such a respectful way . "
= Circle the Drain =
" Circle the Drain " is a song by American singer Katy Perry , from her third studio album , Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) . It was written by Perry , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Monte Neuble . Lyrically , " Circle the Drain " candidly focuses on a former lover 's drug @-@ addiction and the strains it put on both of them . Following its release , several media outlets reported it to have been inspired by her former relationship with Travie McCoy . Critics were divided on the track , with some finding Perry to be in a hypocritical position , given the album 's other material . Other reviewers found it nice to see a different side to the singer .
Capitol Records released the track as a promotional single two weeks before the album 's release on August 10 . The song achieved modest charting , with its highest peak position being number 30 on the Canadian Hot 100 . It charted similarly in New Zealand and managed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 58 . " Circle the Drain " has been performed by Perry on her 2011 world tour , California Dreams Tour . On the tour , she was dressed in a catsuit and the stage was decorated in cartoonish meat . Concert reviewers gave her performances mixed reviews .
= = Production and composition = =
Along with Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Monte Neuble , Perry wrote the song entitled " Circle the Drain " for her third studio album , Teenage Dream . A total of 17 music engineers contributed to the track 's composition . Critics suggest the song is about her former relationship with Gym Class Heroes ' lead vocalist Travie McCoy . When finally asked about his opinion on the track , McCoy admitted to hearing about " Circle the Drain " , but has never actually listened to the song . Nonetheless , he commented : " I heard she put out a song that 's about me , or about some old habits or whatever . [ And ] I look at it like this : I 'm just stoked that she finally has a song with some substance on her record . Good job . "
" Circle the Drain " is a rant song where , lyrically , Perry is telling off a self @-@ destructive drug @-@ addicted ex @-@ boyfriend . Its candid lyrics also discuss the strains his addiction put on both of them . In the track 's chorus , she sings about how she wants to be his lover , not someone who has to take care of him , such as a maternal figure . She also sings about how he had ultimately lost large opportunities . Styled in the genres of electronic rock , disco @-@ rock , and gothic rock tones , it is an up @-@ tempo song that lasts for four minutes and 32 seconds , and also has influences of techno . The track is composed in the key of E ♭ minor and is set in time signature of common time , with a tempo of 135 beats per minute . Perry 's vocal range spans over an octave , from A ♭ 3 to D ♭ 5 .
Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt stated that Perry 's lyrical talent is not her strength , adding : " neither , in fact , is rhyming ' forte ' with ' foreplay , ' as she does painfully on the druggie @-@ boyfriend takedown ' Circle the Drain ' . " Billboard journalist Monica Herrera found the song to have been inspired by Pat Benatar 's material , while Perry herself said : " It 's kind of like my ' You Oughta Know ' Alanis Morissette moment . " Al Fox of BBC News wrote that the song has " menacing undertones " which unveils a different side to Perry , unlike her current " unsolicited residency in many a showbiz column . "
= = Release and reception = =
Capitol Records released " Circle the Drain " as a promotional single from Teenage Dream two weeks before the album 's release on August 10 . The song charted modestly and only remained on music charts for its debut week . The track 's highest peak position was on the Canadian Hot 100 , where it debuted at number 30 ; " Circle the Drain " became the biggest jump on that chart ( 28 places , from number 58 ) for the week ending on August 28 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the song performed similarly , peaking at number 36 on August 23 . Additionally , " Circle the Drain " managed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 58 .
Critical reaction to " Circle the Drain " was mixed . Keri Mason from Billboard believed that tracks like " Circle the Drain " made the Teenage Dream album " get heavier sonically and lyrically , with a boom @-@ boom @-@ pow electro punch " . Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole found the singer to be virtually less sympathetic than her former lover . This being because her " put @-@ downs are alternately pedantic " and hypocritical even , as she finds offense to his substance use before foreplay , but was singing about blacking out and hooking up on another of the album 's tracks – " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post had a similar reaction , finding it impossible to take any of the cautionary advice " Circle the Drain " offered , as Perry had just bragged about being very drunk on the very same record .
MTV News reporter James Montgomery , said when discussing several tracks on Teenage Dream , one of which included " Circle the Drain " , that " they are all really pretty great " and are " destined to be smash hits . " Yahoo ! Music journalist Chris Parkin found the song to be the only track on Teenage Dream to offer something deep and dark , citing the lyric " You fall asleep during foreplay because the pills you take are more your forté " . In his review of the record for PopMatters , Steve Leftridge stated that tracks such as " Circle the Drain " are not strong , edgy or clever enough " to lend any genuine credibility to Perry as a serious artist with anything to actually say . "
= = Live performances = =
Perry has included the song on the setlist for her 2011 world concert tour entitled California Dreams Tour . For performances of the track , the stage was decorated with cartoonish link sausages and rib @-@ eye steak that dangled from the rafters , while Perry was dressed in a catsuit . Along with Perry 's performances of " Teenage Dream " and " E.T. " , music blog Idolator staff writer Erika Brooks Adickman cited " Circle the Drain " as being a highlight of the tour . The Patriot Ledger 's Jay N. Miller found " Circle the Drain " to be " the most rocking " out of the setlist 's line @-@ up at TD Garden .
In contrast , The Hollywood Reporter quoted Rolling Stone 's Meredith Blake in her concert review saying she found it pointless to have those items onstage given the song 's theme . Writing for NME , Emily MacKay did a live review of the singer 's tour at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London during March 2011 . She said that the spiritless " Circle the Drain " , " Hummingbird Heartbeat " and " Who Am I Living For ? " were enough to make you feel somewhat like that of a " fractious toddler having a series of expensive toys waved in its mottled face by a fretful aunt to keep it from deciding it wants to cry . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Circle the Drain " – 4 : 32
= = Charts = =
= Fourth International =
The Fourth International ( FI ) is the Communist international organisation consisting of followers of Leon Trotsky , or Trotskyists , with the declared goal of helping the working class bring about socialism and work toward international communism . The Fourth International was established in France in 1938 : Trotsky and his supporters , having been expelled from the Soviet Union , considered the Comintern or Third International to have become " lost to " Stalinism and incapable of leading the international working class to political power . Thus , Trotskyists founded their own , competing " Fourth International " .
Today , there is no longer a single , cohesive Fourth International . Throughout the better part of its existence , the Fourth International was hounded by agents of the Soviet secret police , repressed by capitalist countries such as France and the United States and rejected by followers of the Soviet Union and later Maoism as illegitimate — a position these communists still hold today . It struggled to maintain contact under these conditions of simultaneous illegality and scorn around much of the world during World War II , because when workers ' uprisings did occur , they were usually under the influence of Soviet @-@ inspired , anarchist , social democratic , Maoist , or militant nationalist groups , leading to further defeats for the FI and its Trotskyists , who never gathered similar support . Even after the Soviet repudiation of Stalin and de @-@ stalinization , Trotskyism continued to be regarded as politically discredited and there was very little renewed support for Trotskyist ideas , particularly from those already committed to another form of communism . Ideologically , Maoists , left communists , and anarchists all consider Trotskyism , and thus also the Fourth International , to be ideologically bankrupt and impotent . Despite this , many parts of Latin America and Europe continue to have large Trotskyist groupings , with followings both young and old , who are attracted to its " anti @-@ Stalinist " positions and its rhetoric of workers ' internationalism . Quite a few of these groups carry the label " Fourth Internationalist " either in their organisation 's name , major political position documents , or both .
The Fourth International , in line with its Trotskyist underpinnings , tended to view the Comintern as worthy of conditional support even considering its corruption , and although it regarded its own ideas as more advanced and thus superior to those of the Third International , it did not actively seek the Comintern 's destruction . It has not succeeded in capitalizing on the renewed interest in socialism and does not operate as a cohesive entity in the manner of the prior internationals . The FI suffered a major split in 1940 and an even more significant split in 1953 . A partial reunification occurred in 1963 , but the international never recovered enough to re @-@ emerge as a single transnational grouping . Trotskyists ' response to that situation has been in the form of its broad array of Trotskyist Internationals , almost all of whom are bitterly divided over which organisation represents the " true " Fourth Internationalist political continuity .
= = Trotskyism = =
Trotskyists regard themselves as working in opposition to both capitalism and Stalinism . Trotsky advocated proletarian revolution as set out in his theory of " permanent revolution " , and believed that a workers ' state would not be able to hold out against the pressures of a hostile capitalist world unless socialist revolutions quickly took hold in other countries as well . This theory was advanced in opposition to the view held by the Stalinists that " socialism in one country " could be built in the Soviet Union alone . Furthermore , Trotsky and his supporters harshly criticised the increasingly totalitarian nature of Joseph Stalin 's rule . They argued that socialism without democracy is impossible . Thus , faced with the increasing lack of democracy in the Soviet Union , they concluded that it was no longer a socialist workers ' state , but a degenerated workers ' state .
Trotsky and his supporters had been organised since 1923 as the Left Opposition . They opposed the bureaucratisation of the Soviet Union , which they analysed as being partly caused by the poverty and isolation of the Soviet economy . Stalin 's theory of socialism in one country was developed in 1924 as an opposition to Trotsky 's Theory of Permanent Revolution , which argued that capitalism was a world system and required a world revolution in order to replace it with socialism . Prior to 1924 , the Bolsheviks ' international perspective had been guided by Trotsky 's position . Trotsky argued that Stalin 's theory represented the interests of bureaucratic elements in direct opposition to the working class .
Eventually Trotsky was sent into internal exile and his supporters were jailed . The Left Opposition , however , continued to work in secret within the Soviet Union . Trotsky was eventually exiled to Turkey . He moved from there to France , Norway , and finally to Mexico . He was assassinated on Stalin 's orders in Mexico , by Ramón Mercader , a Spanish @-@ born Soviet agent in August 1940 .
= = Political internationals = =
A political international is an organisation of political parties or activists with the aim of co @-@ ordinating their activity for a common purpose . There had been a long tradition of socialists organising on an international basis , and Karl Marx had led the International Workingmen 's Association , which later became known as the " first international " .
After the International Workingmen 's Association disbanded in 1876 , several attempts were made to revive the organisation , culminating in the formation of the Socialist International ( Second International ) in 1889 . This , in turn , was disbanded in 1916 following disagreements over World War I. Although the organisation reformed in 1923 as the Labour and Socialist International , supporters of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks had already set up the Communist International ( Comintern ) , which they regarded as the Third International . This was organised on a democratic centralist basis , with component parties required to fight for policies adopted by the body as a whole .
By declaring themselves the Fourth International , the " World Party of Socialist Revolution " , the Trotskyists were publicly asserting their continuity with the Comintern , and with its predecessors . Their recognition of the importance of these earlier Internationals was coupled with a belief that they eventually degenerated . Although the Socialist International and Comintern were still in existence , the Trotskyists did not believe those organisations were capable of supporting revolutionary socialism and internationalism .
The foundation of the Fourth International was therefore spurred in part by a desire to form a stronger political current , rather than being seen as the communist opposition to the Comintern and the Soviet Union . Trotsky believed that its formation was all the more urgent for the role he saw it playing in the impending World War .
= = Decision to form the International = =
In the early 1930s , Trotsky and his supporters believed that Stalin 's influence over the Third International could still be fought from within and slowly rolled back . They organised themselves into the International Left Opposition in 1930 , which was intended to be a group of anti @-@ Stalinist dissenters within the Third International . Stalin 's supporters , who dominated the International , would no longer tolerate dissent . All Trotskyists , and those suspected of being influenced by Trotskyism , were expelled .
Trotsky claimed that the Third Period policies of the Comintern had contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany , and that its turn to a popular front policy ( aiming to unite all ostensibly anti @-@ fascist forces ) sowed illusions in reformism and pacifism and " clear [ ed ] the road for a fascist overturn " . By 1935 he claimed that the Comintern had fallen irredeemably into the hands of the Stalinist bureaucracy . He and his supporters , expelled from the Third International , participated in a conference of the London Bureau of socialist parties outside both the Socialist International and the Comintern . Three of those parties joined the Left Opposition in signing a document written by Trotsky calling for a Fourth International , which became known as the " Declaration of Four " . Of those , two soon distanced themselves from the agreement , but the Dutch Revolutionary Socialist Party worked with the International Left Opposition to declare the International Communist League .
This position was contested by Andrés Nin and some other members of the League who did not support the call for a new International . This group prioritised regroupment with other communist oppositions , principally the International Communist Opposition ( ICO ) , linked to the Right Opposition in the Soviet Party , a regroupment which eventually led to the formation of the International Bureau for Revolutionary Socialist Unity . Trotsky considered those organisations to be centrist . Despite Trotsky , the Spanish section merged with the Spanish section of ICO , forming the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( POUM ) . Trotsky claimed the merger was to be a capitulation to centrism . The Socialist Workers ' Party of Germany , a left split from the Social Democratic Party of Germany founded in 1931 , co @-@ operated with the International Left Opposition briefly in 1933 but soon abandoned the call for a new International .
In 1935 , Trotsky wrote an Open Letter for the Fourth International , reaffirming the Declaration of Four , while documenting the recent course of the Comintern and the Socialist International . In the letter , he called for the urgent formation of a Fourth International . The " First International Conference for the Fourth International " was held in Paris in June 1936 , reports giving its location as Geneva for security reasons . This meeting dissolved the International Communist League , founding in its place the Movement for the Fourth International on Trotsky 's perspectives .
The foundation of the Fourth International was seen as more than just the simple renaming of an international tendency that was already in existence . It was argued that the Third International had now degenerated completely and was therefore to be seen as a counter @-@ revolutionary organisation that would in time of crisis defend capitalism . Trotsky believed that the coming World War would produce a revolutionary wave of class and national struggles , rather as World War I had done .
Stalin reacted to the growing strength of Trotsky 's supporters with a major political massacre of people within the Soviet Union , and the assassination of Trotsky 's supporters and family abroad . He had agents go through historical documents and photos in order to attempt to erase Trotsky 's memory from the history books . According to the historian Mario Kessler , Stalin 's supporters turned to anti @-@ semitism to whip up sentiment against Trotsky ( as Trotsky was a Jew ) . Stalin 's daughter later claimed that his fight with Trotsky laid the foundations for his later anti @-@ semitic campaigns .
= = Founding Congress = =
The International 's rationale was to construct new mass revolutionary parties able to lead successful workers ' revolutions . It saw these arising from a revolutionary wave which would develop alongside and as a result of the coming World War . Thirty delegates attended a founding conference , held in September 1938 , in the home of Alfred Rosmer just outside Paris . Present at the meeting were delegates from all the major countries of Europe , and from North America , although for reasons of cost and distance , few delegates attended from Asia or Latin America . An International Secretariat was established , with many of the day 's leading Trotskyists and most countries in which Trotskyists were active represented . Among the resolutions adopted by the conference was the Transitional Programme .
The Transitional Programme was the central programmatic statement of the congress , summarising its strategic and tactical conceptions for the revolutionary period that it saw opening up as a result of the war which Trotsky had been predicting for some years . It is not , however , the definitive programme of the Fourth International – as is often suggested – but instead contains a summation of the conjunctural understanding of the movement at that date and a series of transitional policies designed to develop the struggle for workers ' power .
= = World War II = =
At the outbreak of World War II , in 1939 , the International Secretariat was moved to New York City . The resident International Executive Committee failed to meet , largely because of a struggle in the U.S. Socialist Workers Party ( SWP ) between Trotsky 's supporters and the tendency of Max Shachtman , Martin Abern and James Burnham . The secretariat was composed of those committee members who happened to be in the city , most of whom were co @-@ thinkers of Shachtman . The disagreement centred on the Shachtmanites ' disagreements with the SWP 's internal policy , and over the FI 's unconditional defence of the USSR .
Trotsky opened a public debate with Shachtman and Burnham and developed his positions in a series of polemics written in 1939 – 1940 and later collected in In Defense of Marxism . Shachtman and Burnham 's tendency resigned from the International in early 1940 , alongside almost 40 % of the SWP 's members , many of whom became founder members of the Workers Party .
= = = Emergency conference = = =
In May 1940 an emergency conference of the International met at a secret location " somewhere in the Western Hemisphere " . It adopted a manifesto drafted by Trotsky shortly before his murder and a range of policies on the work of the International , including one calling for the reunification of the then @-@ divided Fourth Internationalist groups in Britain .
Secretariat members who had supported Shachtman were expelled by the emergency conference , with the support of Trotsky himself . While leader of the SWP James P. Cannon later said that he did not believe the split to be definitive and final , the two groups did not reunite . A new International Executive Committee was appointed , which came under the increasing influence of the Socialist Workers Party .
The Fourth International was hit hard during World War II . Trotsky was assassinated , many of the FI 's European affiliates were destroyed by the Nazis and several of its Asian affiliates were destroyed by the Empire of Japan . The survivors , in Europe , Asia and elsewhere , were largely cut off from each other and from the International Secretariat . The new secretary , Jean Van Heijenoort ( also known as Gerland ) , was able to do little more than publish articles in the SWP 's theoretical journal Fourth International . Despite this dislocation , the various groups sought to maintain links and some connections were kept up throughout the early part of the war by sailors enlisted in the U.S. Navy who had cause to visit Marseilles . Contact was steady , if irregular , between the SWP and the British Trotskyists , with the result that the Americans exerted what influence they had to encourage the Workers ' International League into the International through a fusion with the Revolutionary Socialist League , a union that had been requested by the Emergency Conference .
In 1942 , a debate on the national question in Europe opened up between the majority of the SWP and a movement led by Van Heijenoort , Albert Goldman and Felix Morrow . This minority anticipated that the Nazi dictatorship would be replaced with capitalism rather than by a socialist revolution , leading to the revival of Stalinism and social democracy . In December 1943 , they criticised the SWP 's view as underestimating the rising prestige of Stalinism and the opportunities for the capitalists to use democratic concessions . The SWP 's central committee argued that democratic capitalism could not revive , resulting in either military dictatorship by the capitalists or a workers ' revolution . It held that this would reinforce the need for building the Fourth International , and adhered rigidly to their interpretation of Trotsky 's works .
= = = European Conference = = =
The wartime debate about post @-@ war perspectives was accelerated by the resolution of the February 1944 European Conference of the Fourth International . The conference appointed a new European Secretariat and elected Michel Raptis , a Greek resident in France also known as Michel Pablo , the organisational secretary of its European Bureau . Raptis and other bureau members re @-@ established contact between the Trotskyist parties . The European conference extended the lessons of a revolution then unfolding in Italy , and concluded that a revolutionary wave would cross Europe as the war ended . The SWP had a similar perspective . The British Revolutionary Communist Party ( RCP ) disagreed and held that capitalism was not about to plunge into massive crisis but rather that an upturn in the economy was already underway . A group of leaders of the French Internationalist Communist Party ( PCI ) around Yvan Craipeau argued a similar position until they were expelled from the PCI in 1948 .
= = = International conference = = =
In April 1946 delegates from the principal European sections and a number of others attended a " Second International Congress " . This set about rebuilding the International Secretariat of the Fourth International with Michel Raptis appointed Secretary and Ernest Mandel , a Belgian , taking a leading role .
Pablo and Mandel aimed to counter the opposition of the majorities inside the British Revolutionary Communist Party and French Internationalist Communist Party . Initially , they encouraged party members to vote out their leaderships . They supported Gerry Healy 's opposition in the RCP . In France , they backed elements , including Pierre Frank and Marcel Bleibtreu , opposed to the new leadership of the PCI – albeit for differing reasons .
The Stalinist occupation of Eastern Europe was the issue of prime concern , and it raised many problems of interpretation . At first , the International held that , while the USSR was a degenerated workers ' state , the post @-@ World War II East European states were still bourgeois entities , because revolution from above was not possible , and capitalism persisted .
Another issue that needed to be dealt with was the possibility that the economy would revive . This was initially denied by Mandel ( who was quickly forced to revise his opinion , and later devoted his PhD dissertation to late capitalism , analysing the unexpected " third age " of capitalist development ) . Mandel 's perspective mirrored uncertainty at that time about the future viability and prospects of capitalism , not just among all Trotskyist groups , but also among leading economists . Paul Samuelson had envisaged in 1943 the probability of a " nightmarish combination of the worst features of inflation and deflation , " worrying that " there would be ushered in the greatest period of unemployment and industrial dislocation which any economy has ever faced . " Joseph Schumpeter for his part claimed that " The general opinion seems to be that capitalist methods will be unequal to the task of reconstruction . " He regarded it as " not open to doubt that the decay of capitalist society is very far advanced " .
= = Second World Congress = =
The Second World Congress in April 1948 was attended by delegates from 22 sections . It debated a range of resolutions on the Jewish Question , Stalinism , the colonial countries and the specific situations facing sections in certain countries . By this point the FI was united around the view that the Eastern European " buffer states " were still capitalist countries .
The Congress was especially notable for bringing the International into much closer contact with Trotskyist groups from across the globe . These included such significant groups as the Revolutionary Workers ' Party of Bolivia and the Lanka Sama Samaja Party in what was then Ceylon , but the previously large Vietnamese Trotskyist groups had mostly been eliminated or absorbed by the supporters of Ho Chi Minh .
After the Second World Congress in 1948 , the International Secretariat attempted to open communications with Josip Broz Tito 's regime in Yugoslavia . In their analysis , it differed from the rest of the Eastern Bloc because it was established by the partisans of World War II who had fought against Nazi occupation , as opposed to by Stalin 's invading armies . The British RCP , led by Jock Haston and supported by Ted Grant , were highly critical of this move .
= = Third World Congress = =
The Third World Congress in 1951 resolved that the economies of the East European states and their political regimes had come to resemble that of the USSR more and more . These states were then described as deformed workers states in an analogy with the degenerated workers state in Russia . The term deformed was used rather than degenerated , because no workers ' revolution had led to the foundation of these states .
The Third World Congress envisaged the real possibility of an " international civil war " in the near future . It argued that the mass Communist parties " may , under certain favourable conditions , go beyond the aims set for them by the Soviet bureaucracy and project a revolutionary orientation " . Given the supposed closeness of war , the FI thought that the Communist Parties and social democratic parties would be the only significant force that could defend the workers of the world against the imperialist camp in those countries where there were mass forces .
In line with this geopolitical perspective , Pablo argued that the only way the Trotskyists could avoid isolation was for various sections of the Fourth International to undertake long @-@ term entryism in the mass Communist or Social Democratic parties . This tactic was known as entrism sui generis , to distinguish it from the short @-@ term entry tactic employed before World War II . For example , it meant that the project of building an open and independent Trotskyist party was shelved in France , because it was regarded as not politically feasible alongside entry into the French Communist Party .
This perspective was accepted within the Fourth International , yet sowed the seeds for the split in 1953 . At the Third World Congress , the sections agreed with the perspective of an international civil war . The French section disagreed with the associated tactic of entryism sui generis , and held that Pablo was underestimating the independent role of the working class parties in the Fourth International . The leaders of the majority of the Trotskyist organisation in France , Marcel Bleibtreu and Pierre Lambert , refused to follow the line of the International . The International leadership had them replaced by a minority , leading to a permanent split in the French section .
In the wake of the World Congress , the line of the International Leadership was generally accepted by groups around the world , including the U.S. SWP whose leader , James P. Cannon , corresponded with the French majority to support the tactic of entrism sui generis . At the same time , however , Cannon , Healy and Mandel were deeply concerned by Pablo 's political evolution . Cannon and Healy were also alarmed by Pablo 's intervention into the French section , and by suggestions that Pablo might use the International 's authority in this way in other sections of the Fourth International that felt entrism " sui generis " was not a suitable tactic in their own countries . In particular , minority tendencies , exemplified in Britain by John Lawrence and in the U.S. by Bert Cochran , to support entrism " sui generis " hinted that Pablo 's support for their views indicated that the International might also demand Trotskyists in those countries adopt that tactic .
= = Formation of the International Committee of the Fourth International = =
In 1953 , the SWP 's national committee issued an Open Letter to Trotskyists Throughout the World and organised the International Committee of the Fourth International ( ICFI ) . This was a public faction which initially included , in addition to the SWP , Gerry Healy 's British section The Club , the Internationalist Communist Party in France ( then led by Lambert who had expelled Bleibtreu and his grouping ) , Nahuel Moreno 's party in Argentina and the Austrian and Chinese sections of the FI . The sections of the ICFI withdrew from the International Secretariat , which suspended their voting rights . Both sides claimed they constituted a majority of the former International .
Sri Lanka 's Lanka Sama Samaja Party , then the country 's leading workers ' party , took a middle position during this dispute . It continued to participate in the ISFI but argued for a joint congress , for reunification with the ICFI .
An excerpt from the Open Letter explains the split as follows :
To sum up : The lines of cleavage between Pablo 's revisionism and orthodox Trotskyism are so deep that no compromise is possible either politically or organizationally . The Pablo faction has demonstrated that it will not permit democratic decisions truly reflecting majority opinion to be reached . They demand complete submission to their criminal policy . They are determined to drive all orthodox Trotskyists out of the Fourth International or to muzzle and handcuff them . Their scheme has been to inject their Stalinist conciliationism piecemeal and likewise in piecemeal fashion , get rid of those who come to see what is happening and raise objections .
= = From the Fourth World Congress to reunification = =
Over the following decade , the IC referred to the rest of the International as the " International Secretariat of the Fourth International " , emphasising its view that the Secretariat did not speak for the International as a whole . The Secretariat continued to view itself as the leadership of the International . It held a Fourth World Congress in 1954 to regroup and to recognise reorganised sections in Britain , France and the U.S.
Parts of the International Committee were divided over whether the split with " Pabloism " was permanent or temporary , and it was perhaps as a result of this that it did not declare itself to be the Fourth International . Those sections that considered the split permanent embarked on a discussion about the history of the split and its meanings .
The sections of the International that recognised the leadership of the International Secretariat remained optimistic about the possibilities for increasing the International 's political influence and extended the entrism into social democratic parties which was already underway in Britain , Austria and elsewhere . The 1954 congress emphasised entrism into communist parties and nationalist parties in the colonies , pressing for democratic reforms , ostensibly to encourage the left @-@ wing they perceived to exist in the communist parties to join with them in a revolution . Tensions developed between those who subscribed to the mainstream views of Pablo and a minority that argued unsuccessfully against open work . A number of these delegates walked out of the World Congress , and would eventually leave the International , including the leader of the new British section , John Lawrence , George Clarke , Michele Mestre ( a leader of the French section ) , and Murray Dowson ( a leader of the Canadian group ) .
The Secretariat organised a Fifth World Congress in October 1957 . Mandel and Pierre Frank appraised the Algerian revolution and surmised that it was essential to reorient in the colonial states and neocolonies towards the emerging guerrilla @-@ led revolutions . According to Robert Alexander , Ernest Mandel has written that an organisation in Indonesia , the Partai Acoma , was affiliate to the FI from 1959 until the 1965 coup in that country .
The Sixth World Congress in 1961 marked a lessening of the political divisions between the majority of supporters of the International Secretariat and the leadership of the SWP in the United States . In particular , the congress stressed support for the Cuban revolution and a growing emphasis on building parties in the imperialist countries . The sixth congress also criticised the Lanka Sama Samaja Party , its Sri Lankan section , for seeming to support the Sri Lanka Freedom Party , which they saw as bourgeois nationalists ; the U.S. SWP made similar criticisms .
In 1962 the IC and IS formed a Parity Commission to organise a common World Congress . The supporters of Michel Pablo and Juan Posadas opposed the convergence . The supporters of Posadas left the International in 1962 . At the 1963 reunification congress , the sections of the IC and IS reunified ( with two exceptions : the British and French sections of the IC ) . This was largely a result of their mutual support for Ernest Mandel and Joseph Hansen 's resolution Dynamics of World Revolution Today and for the Cuban Revolution . This document distinguished between different revolutionary tasks in the imperialist countries , the " workers ' states " , and the colonial and semi @-@ colonial countries . In 1963 , the reunified Fourth International elected a United Secretariat of the Fourth International ( USFI ) , by which name the organisation as a whole is often still referred .
= = Since reunification = =
Since the 1963 reunification , a number of approaches have developed within international Trotskyism towards the Fourth International .
The reunified Fourth International is the only current with direct organisational continuity to the original Fourth International at an international level . The International Committee and International Secretariat reunified at the 1963 congress , but without the Socialist Labour League and Internationalist Communist Organisation . It is sometimes known as the United Secretariat of the Fourth International ( USFI ) after the name of its leading committee , although that committee was replaced in 2003 . It is also the only current to have continuously presented itself as " the " Fourth International . It is the largest current and leaders of some other Trotskyist Internationals occasionally refer to it as " the Fourth International " : ICFI secretary Gerry Healy , when proposing reunification discussions in the 1970s , described it as " the Fourth International " ; the International Socialist Tendency also usually refers to it in this way .
The International Committee of the Fourth International member groups customarily describe themselves as sections of the Fourth International , and the organisation as a whole describes itself as the " leadership of the Fourth International " . However , the ICFI presents itself as the political continuity of the Fourth International and Trotskyism , not as the FI itself . It clearly dates its creation as 1953 , rather than from 1938 .
Some tendencies argue that the Fourth International became dislocated politically during the years between Trotsky 's murder and the establishment of the ICFI in 1953 ; they consequently work to " reconstruct " , " reorganise " or " rebuild " it . This view originated with Lutte Ouvriere and the international Spartacist tendency and is shared by others who diverged from the ICFI . For example , the Committee for a Workers ' International , whose founders dropped out of the reunified FI after 1965 , call for a new " revolutionary Fourth International " . Indeed , the Fourth International ( ICR ) reproclaimed the Fourth International at a congress attended by ICR sections in June 1993 .
Other Trotskyist groups argue that the Fourth International is dead . They call for the establishment of a new " workers ' international " or a Fifth International .
= = Impact = =
In uniting the large majority of Trotskyists in one organisation , the Fourth International created a tradition which has since been claimed by many Trotskyist organisations .
Echoing Marx 's Communist Manifesto , the Transitional Programme ended with the declaration " Workers – men and women – of all countries , place yourselves under the banner of the Fourth International . It is the banner of your approaching victory ! " . It declared demands to be placed on capitalists , opposition to the bureaucracy in the Soviet Union , and support for workers ' action against fascism . Most of the demands on capitalists remain unfulfilled . The collapse of the Soviet Union occurred , but through a social revolution leading to the restoration of capitalism , rather than the political revolution proposed by the Trotskyists . Many Trotskyist groups have been active in anti @-@ fascist campaigns , but the Fourth International has never played a major role in the toppling of a regime .
Those groups which follow traditions that left the Fourth International in its early years argue that , despite initially correct positions , it had little impact . Lutte Ouvriere claims that it " did not survive the Second World War " . Workers Liberty , which follows in the third camp tradition established by the Workers Party , holds that " Trotsky and everything he represented was defeated and – as we have to recognise in retrospect – defeated for a whole historical period . "
Other groups point to a positive impact . The ICFI claim that " the [ early ] Fourth International consisted mainly of cadres who remained true to their aims " and describes much of the Fourth International 's early activity as " correct and principled " . The reunified FI claim that " the Fourth International refused to compromise with capitalism either in its fascist or democratic variants . " In its view , " many of the predictions made by Trotsky when he founded the Fourth International were proved wrong by history . But what was absolutely vindicated were his key political judgements . "
= The Principal and the Pauper =
" The Principal and the Pauper " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 28 , 1997 . In the episode , Seymour Skinner begins to celebrate his twentieth anniversary as principal of Springfield Elementary School , when a man arrives claiming that Skinner has assumed his identity . Principal Skinner admits that his real name is Armin Tamzarian , and that he had thought the true Seymour Skinner , a friend from the army , had died in the Vietnam War . Armin leaves Springfield , but is later persuaded to return as principal .
" The Principal and the Pauper " was written by Ken Keeler and directed by Steven Dean Moore . It guest starred Martin Sheen as the real Seymour Skinner . Although it aired during the show 's ninth season , it was a holdover from season eight . The episode is one of the most controversial episodes of The Simpsons . Many fans and critics reacted extremely negatively to the revelation that Principal Skinner , a recurring character since the first season , was an impostor . The episode has been criticized by series creator Matt Groening , and by Harry Shearer , who provides the voice of Principal Skinner . Despite this , Ken Keeler considers the episode the best work he has ever done for television . Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein have also defended the episode .
= = Plot = =
On the eve of his twentieth anniversary as school principal , Seymour Skinner is lured by his mother to Springfield Elementary School for a surprise party . The celebration goes well until a strange man arrives , claiming to be the real Seymour Skinner . Principal Skinner admits that he is an impostor , and that his real name is Armin Tamzarian . Armin then tells the story of the events that led him to steal Seymour Skinner 's identity .
Armin was once a troubled young man and finds himself in the Army . There , he met and befriended the real Sergeant Seymour Skinner , who became his mentor and helped him find meaning in his troubled life . Seymour told Armin that his dream was to become an elementary school principal after the war . Later , Seymour was declared missing and presumed dead . Armin took the news of the apparent death to Seymour 's mother , Agnes . Upon meeting him , however , Agnes mistook him for her son , and Armin could not bear to deliver the message . He instead allowed Agnes to call him Seymour , and took over Seymour 's life . Meanwhile , the real Seymour Skinner spent five years in a POW camp , then worked in a Chinese sweatshop for two decades until it was shut down by the United Nations .
After these revelations , the people of Springfield begin to distrust Armin . Armin decides that there is no longer any place for him in Springfield . The real Skinner is then offered the chance to realize his dream and take over as school principal . He takes the job , but the real Skinner finds himself isolated by the townspeople who realize they prefer Armin over him . Armin , however , has already left Springfield and gone to Capital City to resume his old persona as a no @-@ good street thug .
Marge heads to Capital City with Edna Krabappel , Agnes and the rest of the Simpson family . After Agnes orders Armin to return home , Homer persuades Mayor Quimby and all the other citizens to allow Armin to resume his assumed identity as Principal Skinner . The real Skinner is unhappy about this , and refuses to give up his job and his dignity just because the people of Springfield prefer Armin to him . In response , the townspeople banish the real Skinner from town by tying him to a chair on a flatcar of a freight train . Judge Snyder declares that Armin will again be referred to as Seymour Skinner , that he will return to his job as school principal , and that no one shall mention the name " Armin Tamzarian " again .
= = Production = =
" The Principal and the Pauper " was the last episode of The Simpsons written by Ken Keeler , who also pitched the original idea for the episode . Many fans believe the episode is based on the story of Martin Guerre or the 1993 film Sommersby . According to animation director Steve Moore , one of the working titles for the episode was " Skinnersby " . However , Keeler has said he was inspired by the Tichborne Case of nineteenth @-@ century England . The episode 's official title is a reference to the book The Prince and the Pauper by Mark Twain .
Producers Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were excited about the episode because Principal Skinner was one of their favorite characters . The pair had already written the season five episode " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " , which was an in @-@ depth study of the character . Oakley said he and Weinstein " spent a month immersed in the mind of Seymour Skinner " to prepare that episode , and from that point forward , took every opportunity to " tinker with [ Skinner 's ] personality and his backstory and his homelife " .
Describing the real Seymour Skinner , Keeler remarked , " It would have been easy to make him a really horrible , nasty , dislikeable guy , but we didn 't do that . We made him just not quite right , not quite Skinner , and a little bit off . " Bill Oakley said the idea behind the character was that he " just lacked pizzazz " . The producers selected Martin Sheen to voice the character because they admired his performance in Apocalypse Now and felt his voice would be appropriate for a Vietnam veteran .
Keeler borrowed the name Armin Tamzarian from a claims adjuster who had assisted him after a car accident when he moved to Los Angeles . However , the real Tamzarian ( now a California Superior Court Judge ) was unaware his name was being used until after the episode aired . Keeler said he later received a " curtly phrased " letter from Tamzarian , who wanted to know why his name appeared in the episode . Keeler feared he would face legal troubles , but afterwards , Tamzarian explained that he was simply curious and did not intend to scare anyone .
= = Reception = =
" The Principal and the Pauper " finished 41st in the United States in the ratings for the week of September 22 – 28 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 2 . The episode was the second highest rated show on the Fox network that week , following King of the Hill . The Fox network 's ratings average for the week was 6 @.@ 4 .
The revelation that Principal Skinner was an impostor and the self @-@ referential deus ex machina ending were negatively received by many fans and critics . Skinner had been a recurring character since the first season and , after years of development , his backstory had suddenly been changed . Bill Oakley considers " The Principal and the Pauper " the most controversial episode from his tenure as executive producer .
In his 2004 book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner describes " The Principal and the Pauper " as the " broadcast that marked [ the ] abrupt plunge " from The Simpsons ' " Golden Age " , which he says began in the middle of the show 's third season . He calls the episode " [ one of ] the weakest episodes in Simpsons history " , and adds , " A blatant , continuity @-@ scrambling plot twist of this sort might 've been forgivable if the result had been as funny or sharply satirical as the classics of the Golden Age , but alas it 's emphatically not . " Turner notes that the episode " still sports a couple of virtuoso gags " , but says that such moments are limited .
In July 2007 , in an article in The Guardian , Ian Jones argues that the " show became stupid " in 1997 , pointing to " The Principal and the Pauper " as the bellwether . " Come again ? A major character in a long @-@ running series gets unmasked as a fraud ? It was cheap , idle storytelling " , he remarks .
In a February 2006 article in The Star @-@ Ledger , Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz cite the episode when asserting that the quality of The Simpsons " gets much spottier " in season nine . Alan Sepinwall observes in another Star @-@ Ledger article , " [ The episode ] was so implausible that even the characters were disavowing it by the end of the episode . " Jon Hein , who coined the term " jumping the shark " to refer to negative changes in television series , writes in Jump the Shark : TV Edition , " We finally spotted a fin at the start of the ninth season when Principal Skinner 's true identity was revealed as Armin Tamzarian . " James Greene of Nerve.com put the episode fifth on his list " Ten Times The Simpsons Jumped the Shark " , calling it a " nonsensical meta @-@ comedy " and arguing that it " seemed to betray the reality of the show itself " .
In contrast , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised the episode , calling it " one of the series ' all @-@ time best episodes , mainly because it shows us a human side , not just of Principal Skinner , but of his hectorish [ sic ] Mom as well . " They add that " Martin Sheen steals the show [ ... ] in a brief but important slice of Simpsons history . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum named Martin Sheen 's performance in the episode the 20th best guest appearance on The Simpsons .
Ken Keeler , Bill Oakley , and Josh Weinstein all defend the episode in its DVD commentary . Keeler asserts , " I am very , very proud of the job I did on this episode . This is the best episode of television I feel I ever wrote . " He describes the episode as a commentary on " people who like things just the way they are " , and remarks , " It never seems to have occurred to anyone that this episode is about the people who hate it . " However , Keeler says that some of the dialogue was changed from his original draft , making this point less obvious . Oakley and Weinstein explain that they wanted to push the boundaries of the series while working as show @-@ runners , and advise viewers to treat " The Principal and the Pauper " as an " experiment " . They surmise that the negative reception was partly due to the fact that it was not immediately apparent to viewers that this was such an episode ( as opposed to , for example , " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " ) . They also describe the ending of the episode as an attempt to reset the continuity and allow fans to consider the episode as non @-@ canonical , divorced from the larger series .
Other figures associated with The Simpsons have publicly criticized the episode . In an April 2001 interview , Harry Shearer , the voice of Principal Skinner , recalled that after reading the script , he told the writers , " That 's so wrong . You 're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason , for a story we 've done before with other characters . It 's so arbitrary and gratuitous , and it 's disrespectful to the audience . "
In December 2006 , in an interview , Shearer added , " Now , [ the writers ] refuse to talk about it . They realize it was a horrible mistake . They never mention it . It 's like they 're punishing [ the audience ] for paying attention . " In the introduction to the ninth season DVD boxset , series creator Matt Groening describes " The Principal and the Pauper " as " one of [ his ] least favorite episodes " . He also called the episode " a mistake " in an interview with Rolling Stone .
Later episodes of The Simpsons contain references to " The Principal and the Pauper " . A clip from the episode was used in season eleven 's " Behind the Laughter " as an example of the show 's increasingly " gimmicky and nonsensical plots " . In the season fifteen episode " I , ( Annoyed Grunt ) -Bot " , Lisa addresses Principal Skinner as " Principal Tamzarian " when Skinner chides her for naming her new cat Snowball II , after a cat that had died earlier in the episode . Additionally , the continuity of the series appears to revert to the original story of Seymour Skinner in the season 21 episode " Boy Meets Curl " , as he is clearly shown to kick Agnes Skinner in utero , establishing him as Agnes ' biological son after all .
= John Thomas North =
John Thomas North ( 30 January 1842 – 5 May 1896 ) was an English investor and businessman . North was born in Leeds , Yorkshire , the son of a coal merchant and a churchwarden . At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to millwrights and engineers before working for several years as a mechanic . He moved to Chile where his first occupation was as a boiler riveter in Huasco . He later moved to the Peruvian town of Iquique where he worked as a waterworks operator , importer and ship owner . The War of the Pacific ( 1879 – 1883 ) provided North with an opportunity to purchase large numbers of bonds in the Peruvian nitrate industry . When Chile annexed Iquique and the surrounding province of Tarapacá the Chilean government transferred ownership of the nitrate fields to the bondholders . North was thus able to take a monopoly share of the lucrative Chilean nitrate industry for a very small initial investment , becoming known as " The King of Nitrates " .
North built upon his nitrates business by expanding into further monopolies in waterworks and freight railways , but also owned several iron and coal fields . North maintained his monopolies by employing lawyers to block competing entrepreneurs both in court and the Chilean National Congress . This was allowed by Chilean president Domingo Santa María , but María 's successor , José Manuel Balmaceda , became concerned that Tarapacá was starting to resemble a " state within a state " and resolved to break North 's monopoly . Balmaceda had to force competition reforms through against opposition in congress , amongst a series of disputes which would eventually escalate into the 1891 Chilean Civil War between the president and the congress .
North also had investments in the Anglo @-@ Belgian India Rubber Company which operated a concession in the Congo Free State . This company was involved in the extraction and export of rubber from the state , another highly profitable business , but later became involved in abuses of human rights against those under its power . However North 's finances were eventually depleted and when he died his business empire had collapsed .
= = Early life = =
North was born in Leeds , Yorkshire on 30 January 1842 , the son of a coal merchant and a churchwarden . At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to millwrights and engineers before working for several years as a mechanic . He moved to Chile in South America at the age of 23 where his first occupation was as a boiler riveter in Huasco . He moved from Huasca to Iquique in the province of Tarapacá , which was then part of Peru . Here North established what later became a large business empire , working as a waterworks operator , importer and ship owner .
= = War of the Pacific = =
Territorial disputes between Chile , Peru and Bolivia triggered the War of the Pacific in 1879 with Chile invading and occupying Peruvian and Bolivian land . In the course of the war , North suffered damage to his waterworks , and one of his ships
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of 143 were built . It featured the AN / APN @-@ 148 navigational radar .
EF @-@ 105F
Initial designation for a Wild Weasel / SEAD version , 54 converted from F @-@ 105Fs .
F @-@ 105G
Two @-@ seat Wild Weasel / SEAD improved version of EF @-@ 105F conversions . The variant used the AN / APN @-@ 196 navigational radar .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Air Force
United States Air Force Thunderbirds
Air Force Reserve
Air National Guard
= = Survivors = =
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 105D ) = =
Data from The Great Book of Fighters and Quest for Performance
General characteristics
Crew : 1 ( 2 for F @-@ 105C / E / F / G variants )
Payload : 14 @,@ 000 lb ( 6 @,@ 700 kg ) of weapons
Length : 64 ft 4 @.@ 75 in ( 19 @.@ 63 m )
Wingspan : 34 ft 11 @.@ 25 in ( 10 @.@ 65 m )
Height : 19 ft 8 in ( 5 @.@ 99 m )
Wing area : 385 ft ² ( 35 @.@ 76 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA 65A005.5 root , NACA 65A003.7 tip
Empty weight : 27 @,@ 500 lb ( 12 @,@ 470 kg )
Loaded weight : 35 @,@ 637 lb ( 16 @,@ 165 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 52 @,@ 546 lb ( 23 @,@ 834 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Pratt & Whitney J75 @-@ P @-@ 19W afterburning turbojet
Dry thrust : 14 @,@ 300 Ibf ( 63,74kN )
Thrust with afterburner : 24 @,@ 500 Ibf ( 109 kN )
Zero @-@ lift drag coefficient : 0 @.@ 0173
Drag area : 6 @.@ 65 ft ² ( 0 @.@ 62 m ² )
Aspect ratio : 3 @.@ 16
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 08 ( 1 @,@ 372 mph , 2 @,@ 208 km / h ) at 36 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m )
Combat radius : 780 mi ( 680 nmi , 1 @,@ 250 km )
Ferry range : 2 @,@ 210 mi ( 1 @,@ 920 nmi , 3 @,@ 550 km )
Service ceiling : 48 @,@ 500 ft ( 14 @,@ 800 m )
Rate of climb : 38 @,@ 500 ft / min ( 195 m / s )
Wing loading : 93 lb / ft ² ( 452 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 74
Lift @-@ to @-@ drag ratio : 10 @.@ 4
Time to altitude : 1 @.@ 7 min to 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m )
Armament
Guns : 1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) M61A1 Vulcan 6 @-@ barreled Gatling cannon , 1 @,@ 028 rounds
Hardpoints : 5 total : 4 × under @-@ wing , 1 × centerline pylon stations plus an internal bomb bay with a capacity of Up to 14 @,@ 000 lb ( 6 @,@ 400 kg ) of ordnance , including conventional and nuclear bombs , and AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder and AGM @-@ 12 Bullpup missiles .
Avionics
NASARR R @-@ 14A radar
AN / ASG @-@ 19 Thunderstick fire control system
AN / ARN @-@ 85 LORAN ( AN / ARN @-@ 92 in Thunderstick II @-@ modified aircraft )
= Jabala Upanishad =
The Jabala Upanishad ( Sanskrit : जाबाल उपनिषत ् , IAST : Jabala Upaniṣad ) , also called Jabalopanisad , is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism . The Sanskrit text is one of the 20 Sannyasa Upanishads , and is attached to the Shukla Yajurveda .
The Jabala Upanishad is an ancient text , composed before 300 CE . It is among the oldest Upanishads that discuss the subject of renouncing the worldly life for the exclusive pursuit of spiritual knowledge . The text discusses the city of Banaras in spiritual terms , as Avimuktam . It describes how that city became holy , then adds that the holiest place to revere is one within – the Atman ( soul , self ) .
The Upanishad asserts that anyone can renounce – this choice is entirely up to the individual , regardless of which Ashrama ( stage of life ) he is in . The Jabala Upanishad seems to justify suicide as an individual choice in certain circumstances , a view opposed by earlier Vedic texts and Principal Upanishads . Those too sick may renounce the worldly life in their mind . The Jabala Upanishad presents the Vedanta philosophy view that one who truly renounces lives an ethical life , which includes not injuring anyone in thought , word or deed . Such a sannyasi ( renunciate ) abandons all rituals , is without attachments to anything or anyone , and is one who is devoted to the oneness of Atman and Brahman .
= = History = =
The Jabala Upanishad is an ancient text , composed before 300 CE and likely around the 3rd century BCE , and among the oldest that discuss the subject of renouncing the worldly life for the exclusive pursuit of spiritual knowledge . The text is also referred to as Jabalopanishad ( Sanskrit : जाबालोपनिषत ् ) or Gabala Upanishad .
The themes of this Upanishad are meditation and renunciation . Sage Yajnavalkya " as the expounder of the precepts of this Upanishad " elaborates on the aspects of renunciation of the worldly life , in the interests of achieving spiritual enlightenment as the " transcendence of attachment to every desire , including the desire for renunciation itself " . According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , a professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics , this Upanishad seems to justify suicide in certain circumstances , a view opposed by earlier Vedic texts and principal Upanishads . The text discusses the city of Banaras as " one Shiva never leaves " , and as a holy place to revere . It also is among the earliest texts which states that the four stages of life are not necessarily sequential in that anyone can renounce their worldly life at any time . The Jabala Upanishad presents the Vedanta philosophy view that the proper life of a sannyasi is not about any rituals , nor wearing any sacrificial thread , but about the knowledge of one 's soul ( Atman , self ) .
In the Vedic @-@ era literature , only three ashramas ( life stages ) were mentioned , with Brahmacharya ( student ) as the first stage and the Grihastha ( householder ) as the second stage . The third stage of life , in the Vedic texts , combined Vanaprastha ( retired or forest dweller ) and Sannyasa ( renunciation ) as one ashrama . According to Soti Shivendra Chandra , a scholar at the Rohilkhand University , the separation of Vanaprastha and Sannyasa as two different stages of life is first mentioned in the Jabala Upanishad . However , Patrick Olivelle , a professor at the University of Texas at Austin , states that the Sannyasa ashrama as a separate stage is mentioned in Aruni Upanishad , which likely is a more ancient Upanishad .
= = Chronology and anthology = =
It is unclear when the Jabala Upanishad was composed , as is true with most ancient Indian texts . Textual references and literary style suggest that this Hindu text is ancient , composed before the Asrama Upanishad which is dated to 300 CE . Hajime Nakamura , a Japanese scholar of Vedic literature , dates Jabala Upanishad along with Paramahamsa Upanishad to around the start of the common era . The German scholar of Upanishads , Joachim Sprockhoff , assigns it to be from the last few centuries prior to the beginning of the common era , while the German Indologist Georg Feuerstein dates it to around 300 BCE . The text is one of the oldest renunciation @-@ related Upanishads .
In the anthology of 108 Upanishads of the Muktika canon , narrated by Rama to Hanuman , it is listed at number 13 . In the Colebrooke anthology of 52 Upanishads , which is popular in North India , the Jabala Upanishad is listed at number 51 . In Narayana 's anthology of 52 Upanishads , which is popular in South India , the Jabala Upanishad is listed at number 39 or 40 depending on the manuscript . In later compilations brought out in South India , it is part of the 108 Upanishads . In the 30 minor Upanishads published by the 19th @-@ century Sanskrit scholar Ramamaya Tarkaratna in the Bibliothica Indica , the Jabala Upanishad is given the name Gabala Upanishad and listed at number 28 .
The Jabala Upanishad is one of the 20 Sannyasa Upanishads . The Sultan Mohammed Dara Shikhoh , in 1656 helped organize and publish a collection of 50 Upanishads translated into the Persian language , with the title of Oupanekhat ; in this collection the Jabala Upanishad is listed at number 29 and " Jabala " is spelled " Djabal " . This Persian translation was itself translated into Latin by Anquetil du Perron in 1801 – 02 , wherein Anquetil remarked that the Indians are reading this collection of Upanishads all the time " knowing it to be the best book on religion " . The Anquetil translation brought the Upanishads to the attention of Arthur Schopenhauer and other western philosophers .
= = Structure = =
The Sanskrit text of this Upanishad has six chapters . Sage Yajnavalkya answers questions in the first five , wherein the questions are posed by Brihaspati , Atri , students of Brahman @-@ Atman , King Janaka and by Atri again . The last chapter lists the names of famous sages who were model sannyasis ( renunciates ) .
The extant texts are found in two versions . One consists of six chapters structured into 14 verses , while the other version has six chapters with the same content but does not number the 14 verses .
The first three chapters are devoted to defining the place where the seat of all beings and ultimate reality ( Brahman ) resides , and how to reach it through meditation , the Hindu god Shiva and the city of Varanasi . The next three chapters relate to renunciation . They describe the characteristics of a Paramahamsa as one who has reached the highest status of spirituality , who abandons all external signs of asceticism and discards all relationships or worldly comforts to know " Brahman , the nature of the Self " .
= = Contents = =
= = = Holy city of Varanasi = = =
The first chapter of the Upanishad opens as a conversation between Brihaspati and Yajnavalkya , where Brihaspati asks Yajnavalkya for information about the place where the seat of all beings , the Brahman , lives . Yajnavalkya states that true Brahman @-@ seat of all beings , or Kurukshetra , is Avimuktam – a place that Shiva never left . This Avimuktam is a part of Varanasi ( Banaras ) . All renouncers , after having wandered places , should stay at this Avimuktam . This is the place , asserts the Upanishad , where Rudra imparts the moksha knowledge just when the last vital breaths of the dying are departing , leading one to videhamukti ( salvation after death ) . This place is holy , a place to revere and not leave .
In the second chapter , sage Atri asks Yajnavalkya " how can I know this infinite , non @-@ manifested Atman ? " The Atman , states Yajnavalkya , can be found in Avimuktam . Atri then asks how to find Avimuktam . The Jabala Upanishad uses wordplay to express a literal and hidden allegorical meaning . Yajnavalkya answers that Avimuktam is to be found between Varana and Nasi , or Varayati and Nasayati .
Geographically , the city of Varanasi is situated on the Ganges river , where two small , mostly dry rivers named Varana and Asi join the Ganges . Metaphorically , the text adds , Varana is named as it wards off errors of organs ( Varayati ) , and Nasi is named as it destroys the sins committed by one 's organs ( Nasayati ) . Atri , after listening to this metaphorical answer , repeats his question , with " but where is this place of Avimuktam ? " Yajnavalkya replies that Avimuktam is already within Atri , " where his nose and eye brows meet , for there is the place of the world of heaven and highest world of Brahman . " This Avimuktam is the " abode of Brahman " .
A person who is aware of Brahman reveres it as the Atman in the Avimuktam within him . Ramanathan interprets this verse to mean that one who knows the true nature of Avimuktam understands that " the individual Self ( soul ) is no other than the attributeless Brahman " .
In the third chapter , the shortest in the Upanishad , the students of Brahman ask Yajnavalkya to recommend a hymn that guides someone to immortality . Yajnavalkya recommends the Satarudriya , the hymn with the hundred names of the god Rudra . This hymn is found in sections 16 @.@ 1 to 16 @.@ 66 of the Vajasaneyi Samhita in Yajurveda , and is conceived as many epithets of Atman .
= = = How to renounce = = =
In the fourth chapter of the Upanishad , King Janaka of Videha asks Yajnavalkya , " Lord , explain Sannyasa [ renunciation ] . "
Yajnavalkya answers that one may complete Brahmacharya ( the student stage of life ) , then Grihastha ( householder ) , followed by Vanaprastha ( retirement ) and finally Sannyasa ( pilgrimage as Parivrajaka Bhikshu , renunciation ) . Or , continues Yajnavalkya , one may renounce immediately after completing the student stage of life , or after the householder stage , regardless of whether or not one has completed the sacred fire ritual or any other rituals . Olivelle interprets the sacred fire ritual reference as an indirect reference to marriage , and thus the text asserts that those who have married or never married can both renounce . The Jabala Upanishad herein recommends that a person may renounce on the day he feels detached from the world , regardless of which stage of life he is in , and whether he has completed that stage .
Yajnavalkya states that some people perform the Prajapati ritual [ 1 ] when they renounce , but this should not be done . A person should instead make an offering to Agni ( fire ) that is one 's own vital breath . He should make the " three @-@ element offering " , namely , to " Sattva [ goodness ] , Rajas [ energy ] and Tamas [ darkness ] " within . He should revere Prana ( internal life force ) because it is the yoni ( womb , birthplace ) of all fires . If he cannot obtain this fire , he should offer the oblation " Om ! I offer to all godheads , svaha " with water as he begins the renunciation stage of life . As he offers this oblation , he should learn that the liberating mantra of Om is the three Vedas and the Brahman to be revered .
= = = Life is sacred , ending it a choice = = =
In the fifth chapter , Atri asks Yajnavalkya whether someone pursuing Brahman can be without the sacred thread . According to the translation by Paul Deussen , a professor and German Indologist , Yajnavalkya answers that " this very thing is sacred thread , namely the Atman " . A renouncer or Parivrajaka ( another term for renouncer ) performs a sacrifice to the Atman whenever he feeds himself or rinses his mouth with water . Feeding and dressing his Prana ( life force ) is the only duty of the renouncer .
Yajnavalkya states that the renouncer can choose a hero 's death by dying in a " just war " , or abstain from eating any food , or go into water or fire , or start off on the " great journey " . This section has led some scholars to believe that this Upanishad may be giving the choice of ending life to the individual and justifying suicide in certain circumstances . This view is different from Vedic texts and Principal Upanishads which consider suicide to be wrong .
According to this Upanishad , the renouncer pilgrim undertakes the journey to the knowledge of Brahman with purity of thought , without belongings , with his head shaved , wearing discoloured garments , free from enmity towards all , and he lives on alms . This method is not essential for anyone too sick or in mortal danger – such a person may renounce verbally or mentally .
= = = Paramahamsa : the ideal renouncer = = =
In the sixth and final chapter , Yajnavalkya lists exemplars of Paramahamsas , the highest renouncers : the sages Samvartaka , Aruni , Svetaketu , Durvasa , Ribhu , Nidagha , Jadabharata , Dattatreya and Raivataka . The Paramahamsas do not carry articles or show signs that suggest they have renounced , their conduct is concealed , they may only seem insane . They do not carry staves , nor bowl , nor hair tuft , nor sacred thread , but they are the ones who seek after the Atman ( self , soul ) .
Naked as he was born , beyond the pair of opposites ( joy versus sorrow etc . ) , without belongings , wholely devoted to the way to truth , the Brahman , with a pure heart , going out , begging alms at a proper time only to sustain his life , with the belly as his utensil , even @-@ tempered whether he gets anything or not , staying homeless , whether in a deserted house , in a temple , on a heap of grass , on an ant @-@ hill , at the roots of tree , in a potter 's workshop , on a river bank , in a mountain cave , in a ravine , in a hollow tree , at a waterfall , or just bare ground , not striving , free from feeling of " mine " , given to pure contemplation , firmly rooted in the supreme Self , eradicating all evil deeds , [ ... ] he is called a Paramahamsa .
The Paramahamsa is the renouncer who seeks his own self , abandons impure acts and evil within , who devotes himself to meditating on the Atman and the Brahman .
= = Influence = =
Five important Upanishad texts , according to Olivelle – the Jabala plus the Aruni , Laghu @-@ Samnyasa , Kathashruti and Paramahamsa Upanishads – provide different answers to the question of when someone may renounce the worldly life to lead a monastic one . The Laghu @-@ Samnyasa Upanishad , Kathashruti Upanishad and Paramahamsa Upanishad suggest that a man may renounce after sequentially completing the student , householder and retirement stages of life , and then getting the consent of his elders and direct family members . In contrast , the Jabala Upanishad and Aruni Upanishad assert that the choice is entirely up to the individual , without needing to have completed any stage of life nor requiring the consent of anyone else .
If an individual feels Vairagya ( detachment from the world ) , the Jabala Upanishad maintains that no preconditions apply , and the individual has the spiritual right to renounce immediately . This principle in the Jabala Upanishad was cited by medieval @-@ era scholars such as Adi Shankara , Vijñāneśvara , Sureśvara , and Nilakantha as the Vedic basis that makes renunciation an individual choice and right . This choice has been referred to as a Vikalpa by the later scholars , which the society and state must respect . The Jabala Upanishad concurred with some Dharmasastras on the right to renounce and lead a monastic life , but its views contradicted others such as those in Manusmriti verses 6 @.@ 35 – 37 . The text fed a debate on the right of the individual , and medieval Hindu scholars relied on and sided with the Jabala Upanishad .
The Jabala Upanishad influenced other scholarly works as well . The Jivanmukti @-@ viveka , written by the 14th @-@ century Advaita Vedanta scholar and Vijayanagara Empire mentor Vidyaranya , refers to the Jabala Upanishad while describing those who achieve living liberation .
= Yoko Ono =
Yoko Ono ( 小野 洋子 , Ono Yōko , born February 18 , 1933 ) is a Japanese multimedia artist , singer , songwriter , and peace activist who is also known for her work in performance art , music , and filmmaking . She is the widow and second wife of singer @-@ songwriter John Lennon .
Ono grew up in Tokyo , and studied at Gakushuin . She withdrew from her course after two years and rejoined her family in New York in 1953 . She spent some time at Sarah Lawrence College , and then became involved in New York City 's downtown artists scene , including the Fluxus group . She first met Lennon in 1966 at her own art exhibition in London , and they became a couple in 1968 . Ono and Lennon famously used their honeymoon at the Hilton Amsterdam as a stage for public protests against the Vietnam War with their performance , Bed @-@ Ins for Peace , in Amsterdam and Montreal in 1969 . She brought feminism to the forefront in her music , influencing artists as diverse as the B @-@ 52s and Meredith Monk . Ono achieved commercial and critical acclaim in 1980 with the chart @-@ topping album Double Fantasy , a collaboration with Lennon released three weeks before his death .
Public appreciation of Ono 's work has shifted over time , helped by a retrospective at a Whitney Museum branch in 1989 and the 1992 release of the six @-@ disc box set Onobox . Retrospectives of her artwork have also been presented at the Japan Society in New York City in 2001 , in Bielefeld , Germany , and the UK in 2008 , and Frankfurt , and Bilbao , Spain , in 2013 . She received a Golden Lion Award for lifetime achievement from the Venice Biennale in 2009 and the 2012 Oskar Kokoschka Prize , Austria 's highest award for applied contemporary art .
As Lennon 's widow , Ono works to preserve his legacy . She funded Strawberry Fields in New York City , the Imagine Peace Tower in Iceland , and the John Lennon Museum in Saitama , Japan ( which closed in 2010 ) . She has made significant philanthropic contributions to the arts , peace , Philippine and Japan disaster relief , and other causes . Ono continues her social activism , inaugurating a biennial $ 50 @,@ 000 LennonOno Grant for Peace in 2002 and co @-@ founding the group Artists Against Fracking in 2012 . She has a daughter , Kyoko Chan Cox , from her marriage to Anthony Cox and a son , Sean Taro Ono Lennon , with whom she collaborates musically , from her marriage to Lennon .
= = Early life and family = =
Ono was born on February 18 , 1933 , in Tokyo , to Isoko Ono ( 小野 磯子 Ono Isoko ) and Eisuke Ono ( 小野 英輔 Ono Eisuke ) , a banker and former classical pianist . Isoko 's father was ennobled in 1915 . Isoko 's maternal grandfather Zenjiro Yasuda ( 安田 善次郎 Yasuda Zenjirō ) was an affiliate of the Yasuda clan and zaibatsu . Eisuke came from a long line of samurai warrior @-@ scholars . The kanji translation of Yoko 's first name Yoko means " ocean child " .
Two weeks before Yoko 's birth , Eisuke was transferred to San Francisco by his employer , the Yokohama Specie Bank . The rest of the family followed soon after , with Yoko meeting Eisuke when she was two . Her younger brother Keisuke was born in December 1936 . Yoko was enrolled in piano lessons from the age of 4 . In 1937 , the family was transferred back to Japan and Ono enrolled at Tokyo 's Gakushuin ( also known as the Peers School ) , one of the most exclusive schools in Japan .
In 1940 , the family moved to New York City . The next year , Eisuke was transferred from New York City to Hanoi , and the family returned to Japan . Ono was enrolled in Keimei Gakuen , an exclusive Christian primary school run by the Mitsui family . She remained in Tokyo through the great fire @-@ bombing of March 9 , 1945 , during which she was sheltered with other family members in a special bunker in the Azabu district of Tokyo , far from the heavy bombing . Ono later went to the Karuizawa mountain resort with members of her family .
Ono and her family were forced to beg for food while pulling their belongings in a wheelbarrow . It was during this period in her life , Ono says , that she developed her " aggressive " attitude and understanding of " outsider " status when children taunted her and Keisuke , who were once well @-@ to @-@ do . Other stories have her mother bringing a large number of goods with them to the countryside , where they bartered them for food . In one anecdote , her mother bartered a German @-@ made sewing machine for 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) of rice to feed the family . Her father remained in the city , unknown to the family , who believed he was in a prisoner of war camp in China . Ono told Amy Goodman of Democracy Now on October 16 , 2007 , that " He was in French Indochina , which is Vietnam actually .... in Saigon . He was in a concentration camp . "
By April 1946 , Gakushuin was reopened and Ono re @-@ enrolled . The school , located near the imperial palace , had not been damaged by the war , and Ono found herself a classmate of Prince Akihito , the future emperor of Japan . She graduated in 1951 and was accepted into the philosophy program of Gakushuin University as the first woman to enter the department . However , she left the school after two semesters .
= = New York City = =
= = = College and downtown beginnings = = =
Ono 's family moved to Scarsdale , New York , without her after the war . When she later rejoined her family in the US , she enrolled nearby in Sarah Lawrence College . While her parents approved of her college choice , Ono said they disapproved of her lifestyle and chastised her for befriending people they felt were beneath her . In spite of her parents ' disapproval , Ono loved meeting artists , poets , and others who represented the bohemian lifestyle to which she aspired . Visiting galleries and art happenings in the city whetted her desire to display her own artistic endeavors publicly . American avant @-@ garde artist , composer , and musician La Monte Young , her first important contact in the New York art world , helped Ono start her career by using her Chambers Street loft in Tribeca as a performance space . After Ono set a painting on fire at one performance , her mentor John Cage advised her to treat the paper with flame retardant .
= = = Return to Japan , early career , and motherhood = = =
In 1956 , Ono left college to elope with composer Toshi Ichiyanagi , a star in Tokyo 's experimental community . After living apart for several years , they filed for divorce in 1962 . Ono returned home to live with her parents and , suffering from clinical depression , she was briefly placed in a mental institution . Later that year , on November 28 , 1962 , Ono married Anthony Cox , an American jazz musician , film producer , and art promoter , who was instrumental in securing her release from the Japanese mental institution . However , because Ono had neglected to finalize her divorce from Ichiyanagi , her second marriage was annulled on March 1 , 1963 . After finalizing the divorce , Cox and Ono married again on June 6 , 1963 . She gave birth to their daughter Kyoko Chan Cox two months later on August 8 , 1963 .
The marriage quickly fell apart , but the Coxes stayed together for the sake of their joint careers . They performed at Tokyo 's Sogetsu Hall , with Ono lying atop a piano played by John Cage . Soon , the couple returned to New York with Kyoko . In the early years of the marriage , Ono left most of Kyoko 's parenting to Cox while she pursued her art full @-@ time . Cox also managed her publicity . She and Cox divorced on February 2 , 1969 . However , in 1971 , Cox disappeared with their then @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter , in the midst of the custody battle . He won custody after claiming Ono was an " unfit mother " due to her drug use . Ono 's ex @-@ husband subsequently raised Kyoko under the name Ruth Holman in an organization known as the Church of the Living Word ( or " the Walk " ) . Ono and Lennon searched for Kyoko for years , to no avail . She first saw Kyoko again in 1998 .
= = John Lennon = =
Fluxus , a loose association of Dada @-@ inspired avant @-@ garde artists that developed in the early 1960s , was active in New York and Europe . Ono visited London to meet artist and political activist Gustav Metzger 's Destruction in Art Symposium in September 1966 , as the only woman artist chosen to perform her own events and only one of two invited to speak .
There are two versions of the story regarding how Lennon met Ono . According to the first , on November 9 , 1966 , Lennon went to the Indica Gallery in London , where Ono was preparing her conceptual art exhibit , and they were introduced by gallery owner John Dunbar . Lennon was initially unimpressed with the exhibits he saw , including a pricey bag of nails , but one piece had a ladder with a spyglass at the top . When he climbed the ladder , Lennon felt a little foolish , but he looked through the spyglass and saw the word " YES " which he said meant he didn 't walk out , as it was positive , whereas most concept art he encountered was " anti " everything .
Lennon was also intrigued by Ono 's Hammer a Nail . Viewers hammered a nail into a wooden board , creating the art piece . Although the exhibition had not yet opened , Lennon wanted to hammer a nail into the clean board , but Ono stopped him . Dunbar asked her , " Don 't you know who this is ? He 's a millionaire ! He might buy it . " Ono supposedly had not heard of the Beatles , but relented on the condition that Lennon pay her five shillings , to which Lennon replied , " I 'll give you an imaginary five shillings and hammer an imaginary nail in . "
In a second version of Ono 's and Lennon 's first meeting , told by Paul McCartney , Ono was in London in 1965 compiling original musical scores for a book on which John Cage was working entitled Notations . McCartney declined to give her any of his own manuscripts , but suggested that Lennon might oblige . Lennon did , giving Ono the original handwritten lyrics to " The Word . "
In a 2002 interview , she said , " I was very attracted to him . It was a really strange situation . " The two began corresponding and , in September 1967 , Lennon sponsored Ono 's solo show at Lisson Gallery in London . When Lennon 's wife Cynthia asked for an explanation for Ono 's telephoning their home , he told her that Ono was only trying to obtain money for her " avant @-@ garde bullshit . " In early 1968 , while the Beatles were making their famous visit to India , Lennon wrote " Julia " and included a reference to Ono : " Ocean child calls me " , referring to the translation of Yoko 's Japanese spelling . In May 1968 , while his wife was on holiday in Greece , Lennon invited Ono to visit . They spent the night recording what would become the Two Virgins album , after which , he said , they " made love at dawn " . When Lennon 's wife returned home , she found Ono wearing her bathrobe and drinking tea with Lennon who simply said , " Oh , hi . "
Lennon wrote and recorded " Happiness Is a Warm Gun " on September 24 and 25 , 1968 @.@ which contains sexual references to Ono . A few weeks after Lennon 's divorce from Cynthia was granted , Ono became pregnant though she suffered a miscarriage of what would have been a male child on November 21 , 1968 .
= = = Bed @-@ Ins and other early collaborations = = =
During Lennon 's last two years with the Beatles , he and Ono began attending as well as creating their own public protests against the Vietnam War . They were married at the registry office in Gibraltar on March 20 , 1969 , and spent their honeymoon in Amsterdam campaigning with a week @-@ long Bed @-@ In for Peace . They planned another Bed @-@ In in the US , but were denied entry to the country . They held one instead at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , where they recorded " Give Peace a Chance " . Lennon later stated his regrets about feeling " guilty enough to give McCartney credit as co @-@ writer on my first independent single instead of giving it to Yoko , who had actually written it with me . " The famous couple often combined advocacy with performance art , such as in " bagism " , first introduced during a Vienna press conference , where they satirised prejudice and stereotyping by wearing a bag over their entire bodies . Lennon detailed this period in the Beatles ' song " The Ballad of John and Yoko " .
Lennon changed his name by deed poll on April 22 , 1969 , switching out Winston for Ono as a middle name . Although he used the name John Ono Lennon thereafter , official documents referred to him as John Winston Ono Lennon , since he was not permitted to revoke a name given at birth . The couple settled at Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill , Berkshire , in southeast England . When Ono was injured in a car accident , Lennon arranged for a king @-@ sized bed to be brought to the recording studio as he worked on the Beatles ' last recorded album , Abbey Road .
The two collaborated on many albums , beginning in 1968 when Lennon was still a Beatle , with Unfinished Music No.1 : Two Virgins , an album of experimental musique concrète . The same year , the couple contributed an experimental piece to The White Album called " Revolution 9 " . Also on The White Album , Ono contributed backing vocals on " Birthday " , and one line of lead vocals on " The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill . " The latter marked the only occasion in a Beatles recording in which a woman sings lead vocals .
= = = The Plastic Ono Band = = =
Ono influenced Lennon to produce more " autobiographical " output and , after " The Ballad of John and Yoko " , they decided it would be better to form their own band rather than put the material out under the Beatles name . In 1969 , the Plastic Ono Band 's first album , Live Peace in Toronto 1969 , was recorded during the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival festival . This first incarnation of the group also consisted of guitarist Eric Clapton , bass player Klaus Voormann , and drummer Alan White . The first half of their performance consisted of rock standards . During the second half , Ono took to the microphone and performed an avant @-@ garde set along with the band , finishing with music that consisted mainly of feedback , while she screamed and sang .
= = = First solo album and Fly = = =
Ono released her first solo album , Yoko Ono / Plastic Ono Band , in 1970 as a companion piece to Lennon 's better @-@ known John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band . The two albums also had companion covers : Ono 's featured a photo of her leaning on Lennon , and Lennon 's a photo of him leaning on Ono . Her album included raw , harsh vocals , which bore a similarity with sounds in nature ( especially those made by animals ) and free jazz techniques used by wind and brass players . Performers included Ornette Coleman , other renowned free jazz performers , and Ringo Starr . Some songs on the album consisted of wordless vocalizations , in a style that would influence Meredith Monk and other musical artists who have used screams and vocal noise in lieu of words . The album reached No. 182 on the US charts .
When Lennon was invited to play with Frank Zappa at the Fillmore ( then the Filmore West ) on June 5 , 1971 , Ono joined them . Later that year , she released Fly , a double album . In it , she explored slightly more conventional psychedelic rock with tracks including " Midsummer New York " and " Mind Train " , in addition to a number of Fluxus experiments . She also received minor airplay with the ballad " Mrs. Lennon " . The track " Don 't Worry , Kyoko ( Mummy 's Only Looking for Her Hand in the Snow ) " was an ode to Ono 's missing daughter , and featured Eric Clapton on guitar . That same year , while studying with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in Majorca , Spain , Ono 's ex @-@ husband Anthony Cox accused Ono of abducting their daughter Kyoko from his hotel . Accusations flew between the two , as well as the matter of custody . Cox eventually moved away with Kyoko ; Ono would not see her daughter until 1998 . It was during this time that she wrote " Don 't Worry Kyoko " , which also appears on Lennon and Ono 's album Live Peace In Toronto 1969 , in addition to Fly . Kyoko is also referenced in the first line of " Happy Christmas ( War Is Over ) " when Yoko whispers " Happy Christmas , Kyoko " , followed by Lennon whispering , " Happy Christmas , Julian . " The song reached No. 4 in the UK , where its release was delayed until 1972 , and has periodically reemerged on the UK Singles Chart . Originally a protest song about the Vietnam War , " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " has since become a Christmas standard . That August the couple appeared together at a benefit in Madison Square Garden with Roberta Flack , Stevie Wonder , and Sha Na Na for mentally handicapped children organized by WABC @-@ TV 's Geraldo Rivera .
= = Separation from Lennon and reunion = =
After the Beatles disbanded , Ono and Lennon lived together in London and then in New York — the latter to escape tabloid racism towards Ono . Their relationship , however , became strained by the threat of deportation Lennon faced ( because of drug charges filed in England ) , and Ono 's separation from her daughter . The couple separated in 1973 , with Ono pursuing her career and Lennon living between Los Angeles and New York with personal assistant May Pang , with Ono 's blessing .
By December 1974 , Lennon and Pang were considering buying a house together , and he was refusing to accept Ono 's phone calls . The next month , Lennon agreed to meet Ono , who claimed to have found a cure for smoking . After the meeting , he failed to return home or call Pang . When Pang telephoned the next day , Ono told her Lennon was unavailable , being exhausted after a hypnotherapy session . Two days later , Lennon reappeared at a joint dental appointment with Pang , stupefied and confused to such an extent that Pang believed he had been brainwashed . He told her his separation from Ono was now over , though Ono would allow him to continue seeing her as his mistress .
Ono and Lennon 's son , Sean , was born on October 9 , 1975 , Lennon 's 35th birthday . John did not help relations with his first son when he described Julian in 1980 as being part of the " ninety percent of the people on this planet [ who resulted from an unplanned pregnancy ] " and that " Sean is a planned child , and therein lies the difference . " He said , " I don 't love Julian any less as a child . He 's still my son , whether he came from a bottle of whiskey or because they didn 't have pills in those days . " The couple maintained a low profile for the next five years . Sean has followed in his parents ' footsteps with a musical career , performing solo work , working with Ono , and forming a band , the Ghost of a Saber Tooth Tiger .
= = = Lennon 's murder , tributes , and memorials = = =
John Lennon retired from music , becoming a househusband to care for Sean , until shortly before his murder in December 1980 , which Ono witnessed at close range . She has stated that the couple were thinking about going out to dinner after spending several hours in a recording studio , but were returning to their apartment instead , because Lennon wanted to see Sean before he was put to bed . Following the murder , Ono went into complete seclusion for an extended period .
Ono funded the construction and maintenance of the Strawberry Fields memorial in New York City 's Central Park , directly across from the Dakota Apartments where they lived and Lennon died . It was officially dedicated on October 9 , 1985 , which would have been his 45th birthday . In 1990 , Ono collaborated with music consultant Jeff Pollack to honor what would have been Lennon 's 50th birthday with a worldwide broadcast of " Imagine " . Over 1 @,@ 000 stations in over 50 countries participated in the simultaneous broadcast . Ono felt the timing was perfect , considering the escalating conflicts in the Middle East , Eastern Europe , and Germany .
In 2000 , she founded the John Lennon Museum in Saitama , Saitama , Japan . In March 2002 , she was present with Cherie Blair at the unveiling of a 7 @-@ foot statue of Lennon , to mark the renaming of Liverpool airport to Liverpool John Lennon Airport . ( Julian and Cynthia Lennon were present at the unveiling of the John Lennon Peace Monument next to ACC Liverpool in the same city eight years later . ) On October 9 , 2007 , she dedicated a new memorial called the Imagine Peace Tower , located on the island of Viðey , 1 km outside the Skarfabakki harbour in Reykjavík , Iceland . Each year , between October 9 and December 8 , it projects a vertical beam of light high into the sky . In 2009 , Ono created an exhibit called " John Lennon : The New York City Years " for the NYC Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Annex . The exhibit used music , photographs , and personal items to depict Lennon 's life in New York , and a portion of the cost of each ticket was donated to Spirit Foundation , a charitable foundation set up by Lennon and Ono .
Every time Mark Chapman has requested release from prison — as he is allowed to do every two years — Yoko Ono has come out strongly against it . As a relative of the victim , her opinion has a strong influence on the parole board .
= = Artwork = =
= = = Fluxus = = =
Ono is often associated with the Fluxus group , whose founder George Maciunas , her friend during the 1960s , admired and promoted her work enthusiastically , giving Ono her US show at his AG Gallery in 1961 . Maciunas invited her formally join the Fluxus group , but she declined because she wanted to remain independent . She did however , collaborate with him , Charlotte Moorman , George Brecht , and the poet Jackson Mac Low , among others associated with the group .
John Cage and Marcel Duchamp were significant influences on Ono 's art . She learned of Cage at Sarah Lawrence and met him through his student Ichiyanagi Toshi in Cage 's legendary experimental composition class at the New School for Social Research : She was thus introduced to more of Cage 's unconventional neo @-@ Dadaism first hand and his New York City protégés Allan Kaprow , Brecht , Mac Low , Al Hansen and the poet Dick Higgins .
After Cage finished teaching at the New School in the summer of 1960 , Ono was determined to rent a place to present her works along with the work of other avant @-@ garde artists in the city . She eventually found a cheap loft in downtown Manhattan at 112 Chambers Street that she used as a studio and living space . Supporting herself through secretarial work and lessons in the traditional Japanese arts at the Japan Society , Ono allowed composer La Monte Young to organize concerts in the loft . Both began organizing a series of events there from December 1960 through June 1961 , with people such as Marcel Duchamp and Peggy Guggenheim attending , and both Ono and Young claimed to have been the primary curator of these events , with Ono claiming to have been eventually pushed into a subsidiary role by Young . The Chambers Street series hosted some of Ono 's earliest conceptual artwork , including Painting to Be Stepped On , which was a scrap of canvas on the floor that became a completed artwork upon the accrual of footprints . With that work , Ono suggested that a work of art no longer needed to be mounted on a wall and inaccessible . She showed this work and other instructional work again at Macunias 's AG Gallery in July 1961 .
= = = Cut Piece , 1964 = = =
Ono was a pioneer of conceptual art and performance art . A seminal performance work is Cut Piece , first performed in 1964 at the Sogetsu Art Center in Tokyo . The piece consisted of Ono , dressed in her best suit , kneeling on a stage with a pair of scissors in front of her . She invited then instructed audience members to join her on stage and cut pieces of her clothing off . Confronting issues of gender , class and cultural identity , Ono sat silently until the piece concluded at her discretion . The piece was subsequently performed at New York 's Carnegie Hall in 1965 and London 's Africa Center in 1966 . Of the piece , John Hendricks in the catalogue to Ono 's Japan Society retrospective wrote : " [ Cut Piece ] unveils the interpersonal alienation that characterizes social relationships between subjects , dismantling the disinterested Kantian aesthetic model ..... It demonstrates the reciprocity between artists , objects , and viewers and the responsibility beholders have to the reception and preservation of art . "
Other performers of the piece have included Charlotte Moorman and John Hendricks . Ono reprised the piece in Paris in 2003 , in the low post @-@ 9 / 11 period between the US and France , saying she hoped to show that this is " a time where we need to trust each other . " In 2013 , the Canadian singer , Peaches reprised it at the multi @-@ day Meltdown festival at the Southbank Centre in London , which Ono curated .
= = = Grapefruit book , 1964 = = =
Another seminal piece of conceptual art is Ono 's small book titled Grapefruit . First published in 1964 , the book reads as a set of instructions through which the work of art is completed @-@ either literally or in the imagination of the viewer participant . One example is " Hide and Seek Piece : Hide until everybody goes home . Hide until everybody forgets about you . Hide until everybody dies . " Grapefruit has been published several times , most widely distributed by Simon & Schuster in 1971 , who reprinted it again in 2000 . David Bourdon , art critic for The Village Voice and Vogue , called Grapefruit " one of the monuments of conceptual art of the early 1960 's . " He noted that her conceptual approach was made more acceptable when white male artists like Joseph Kosuth and Lawrence Weiner came in and " did virtually the same things " she did , and that her take also has a poetic and lyrical side that sets it apart from the work of other conceptual artists .
Ono would enact many of the book 's scenarios as performance pieces throughout her career , which formed the basis for her art exhibitions , including the highly publicized retrospective exhibition , This Is Not Here in 1971 at the Everson Museum in Syracuse , New York , that was nearly closed when it was besieged by excited Beatles fans , who broke several of the art pieces and flooded the toilets . It was her last major exhibition until 1989 's Yoko Ono : Objects , Films retrospective at the Whitney .
Nearly fifty years later , in July 2013 , she released a sequel to Grapefruit , another book of instructions , Acorn via OR Books .
= = = Experimental films , 1964 – 72 = = =
Ono was also an experimental filmmaker who made 16 short films between 1964 and 1972 , gaining particular renown for a 1966 Fluxus film called simply No. 4 , often referred to as Bottoms . The five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute film consists of a series of close @-@ ups of human buttocks walking on a treadmill . The screen is divided into four almost equal sections by the elements of the gluteal cleft and the horizontal gluteal crease . The soundtrack consists of interviews with those who are being filmed , as well as those considering joining the project . In 1996 , the watch manufacturing company Swatch produced a limited edition watch that commemorated this film .
In March 2004 , the ICA London , showed most of her films from this period in their exhibition The Rare Films of Yoko Ono . She also acted in an obscure exploitation film in 1965 , Satan 's Bed .
= = = Wish Tree , 1981 – present = = =
Another example of Ono 's participatory art was her Wish Tree project , in which a tree native to the installation site is installed . Her 1996 Wish Piece had the following instructions :
Make a wish
Write it down on a piece of paper
Fold it and tie it around a branch of a Wish Tree
Ask your friends to do the same
Keep wishing
Until the branches are covered with wishes .
Her Wish Tree installation in the Sculpture Garden of the Museum of Modern Art , New York , established in July 2010 , has attracted contributions from all over the world . Other installation locations include London ; St. Louis ; Washington , DC ; San Francisco ; the Stanford University campus in Palo Alto , California ; Japan ; Venice ; and Dublin .
= = = Recognition and retrospectives = = =
John Lennon once described her as " the world 's most famous unknown artist : everybody knows her name , but nobody knows what she does . " Her circle of friends in the New York art world has included Kate Millett , Nam June Paik , Dan Richter , Jonas Mekas , Merce Cunningham , Judith Malina , Erica Abeel , Fred DeAsis , Peggy Guggenheim , Betty Rollin , Shusaku Arakawa , Adrian Morris , Stefan Wolpe , Keith Haring , and Andy Warhol ( she was one of the speakers at Warhol 's 1987 funeral ) , as well as George Maciunas and La Monte Young . In addition to Mekas , Maciunas , Young , and Warhol , she has also collaborated with DeAsis , Yvonne Rainer , and Zbigniew Rybczyński .
In 1989 , the Whitney Museum held a retrospective of her work , Yoko Ono : Objects , Films , marking Ono 's reentry into the New York art world after a hiatus . At the suggestion of Ono 's live @-@ in companion at the time , interior decorator Sam Havadtoy , she recast her old pieces in bronze after some initial reluctance . " I realized that for something to move me so much that I would cry , there 's something there . There seemed like a shimmering air in the 60s when I made these pieces , and now the air is bronzified . Now it 's the 80s , and bronze is very 80s in a way - solidity , commodity , all of that . For someone who went through the 60s revolution , there has of course been an incredible change . . . . I call the pieces petrified bronze . That freedom , all the hope and wishes are in some ways petrified . "
Over a decade later , in 2001 , Y E S YOKO ONO , a 40 @-@ year retrospective of Ono 's work , received the International Association of Art Critics USA Award for Best Museum Show Originating in New York City , considered one of the highest accolades in the museum profession . YES refers to the title of a 1966 sculptural work by Yoko Ono , shown at Indica Gallery , London : viewers climb a ladder to read the word " yes " , printed on a small canvas suspended from the ceiling . The exhibition 's curator Alexandra Munroe wrote that " John Lennon got it , on his first meeting with Yoko : when he climbed the ladder to peer at the framed paper on the ceiling , he encountered the tiny word YES . ' So it was positive . I felt relieved . ' ” The exhibition traveled to 13 museums in the U.S. , Canada , Japan , and Korea from 2000 through 2003 . In 2001 , she also received an honorary Doctorate of Laws from Liverpool University and , in 2002 , was presented with the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts from Bard College , as well as the Skowhegan Medal for work in assorted media . The next year , she was awarded the fifth MOCA Award to Distinguished Women in the Arts from the Museum of Contemporary Art Los Angeles . In 2005 , she received a lifetime achievement award from the Japan Society of New York , which had hosted Yes Yoko Ono and where she had worked in the late 1950s and early 1960s .
In 2008 , she showed a large retrospective exhibition , Between The Sky And My Head , at the Kunsthalle Bielefeld , Bielefeld , Germany , and the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art in Gateshead , England . The following year , she showed a selection of new and old work as part of her show " Anton 's Memory " in Venice , Italy . She also received a Golden Lion Award for lifetime achievement from the Venice Biennale in 2009 . In 2012 , Ono held a major exhibition of her work To The Light at the Serpentine Galleries , London . She was also the winner of the 2012 Oskar Kokoschka Prize , Austria 's highest award for applied contemporary art . In February 2013 , to coincide with her 80th birthday , the largest retrospective of her work , Half @-@ a @-@ Wind Show , opened at the Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt and travelled to Denmark 's Louisiana Museum of Modern Art , Austria 's Kunsthalle Krems , and Spain 's Guggenheim Museum Bilbao . In 2014 she contributed several artworks to the triennial art festival in Folkestone , England
= = Musical career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Lennon = = =
Ono studied piano from the age of 4 to 12 or 13 . She attended kabuki performances with her mother , who was trained in shamisen , koto , otsuzumi , kotsuzumi , nagauta , and could read Japanese musical scores . At 14 Yoko took up vocal training in lieder @-@ singing . At Sarah Lawrence , she studied poetry with Alastair Reid , English literature with Kathryn Mansell , and music composition with the Viennese @-@ trained André Singer . Of this time Ono has said that her heroes were the twelve @-@ tone composers Arnold Schoenberg and Alban Berg . She said , " I was just fascinated with what they could do . I wrote some twelve @-@ tone songs , then my music went into [ an ] area that my teacher felt was really a bit off track , and ..... he said , ' Well , look , there are people who are doing things like what you do and they 're called avant @-@ garde . ' " Singer introduced her to the work of Edgar Varèse , John Cage , and Henry Cowell . She left college and moved to New York in 1957 , supporting herself through secretarial work and lessons in the traditional Japanese arts at the Japan Society .
She met Cage through Ichiyanagi Toshi in Cage 's legendary composition class at the New School for Social Research , and in the summer of 1960 , she found a cheap loft in downtown Manhattan at 112 Chambers Street and allowed composer La Monte Young to organize concerts in the loft with her , with people like Marcel Duchamp and Peggy Guggenheim attending . Ono only presented work once during the series . In 1961 , years before meeting Lennon , Ono had her first major public performance in a concert at the 258 @-@ seat Carnegie Recital Hall ( smaller than the " Main Hall " ) . This concert featured radical experimental music and performances . She had a second engagement at the Carnegie Recital Hall in 1965 , in which she debuted Cut Piece . She premiered The Fog Machine during her Concert of Music for the Mind at the Bluecoat Society of Arts in Liverpool , England in 1967 .
= = = 1980s = = =
In early 1980 , Lennon heard Lene Lovich and the B @-@ 52 's ' " Rock Lobster " on vacation in Bermuda . The latter reminded him of Ono 's musical sound and he took this as an indication that she had reached the mainstream ( the band in fact had been influenced by Ono ) . In addition to her collaborations with experimental artists including John Cage and jazz legend Ornette Coleman , many other musicians , particularly those of the new wave movement , have paid tribute to Ono ( both as an artist in her own right , and as a muse and iconic figure ) . For example , Elvis Costello recorded a version of Ono 's song " Walking on Thin Ice " , the B @-@ 52 's ( who drew from her early recordings ) covered " Don 't Worry , Kyoko ( Mummy 's Only Looking for Her Hand in the Snow ) " ( shortening the title to " Don 't Worry " ) , and Sonic Youth included a performance of Ono 's early conceptual " Voice Piece for Soprano " on their experimental album SYR4 : Goodbye 20th Century .
On December 8 , 1980 , Lennon and Ono were in the studio working on Ono 's song " Walking on Thin Ice " . When they returned to The Dakota , their home in New York City , Lennon was shot dead by Mark David Chapman , a deranged fan who had been stalking Lennon for two months . " Walking on Thin Ice ( For John ) " was released as a single less than a month later , and became Ono 's first chart success , peaking at No. 58 and gaining major underground airplay . In 1981 , she released the album Season of Glass , which featured the striking cover photo of Lennon 's bloody spectacles next to a half @-@ filled glass of water , with a window overlooking Central Park in the background . This photograph sold at an auction in London in April 2002 for about $ 13 @,@ 000 . In the liner notes to Season of Glass , Ono explained that the album was not dedicated to Lennon because " he would have been offended — he was one of us . " The album received highly favorable reviews and reflected the public 's mood after Lennon 's assassination .
In 1982 , she released It 's Alright ( I See Rainbows ) . The cover featured Ono in her famous wrap @-@ around sunglasses , looking towards the sun , while on the back the ghost of Lennon looks over her and their son . The album scored minor chart success and airplay with the single " Never Say Goodbye " .
In 1984 , a tribute album titled Every Man Has a Woman was released , featuring a selection of Ono songs performed by artists such as Elvis Costello , Roberta Flack , Eddie Money , Rosanne Cash , and Harry Nilsson . It was one of Lennon 's projects that he never got to finish . Later that year , Ono and Lennon 's final album , Milk and Honey , was released as an unfinished demo . It peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 11 in the U.S. , going gold in both countries as well as in Canada .
Ono 's final album of the 1980s was Starpeace , a concept album that she intended as an antidote to Ronald Reagan 's " Star Wars " missile defense system . On the cover , a warm , smiling Ono holds the Earth in the palm of her hand . Starpeace became Ono 's most successful non @-@ Lennon effort . The single " Hell in Paradise " was a hit , reaching No. 16 on the US dance charts and No. 26 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and the video , directed by Zbigniew Rybczyński received major airplay on MTV and won " Most Innovative Video " at Billboard Music Video Awards in 1986 . In 1986 , Ono set out on a goodwill world tour for Starpeace , primarily visiting Eastern European countries .
= = = 1990s = = =
Ono went on a musical hiatus until signing with Rykodisc in 1992 to release the comprehensive six @-@ disc box set Onobox . It included remastered highlights from all of Ono 's solo albums , as well as unreleased material from the 1974 " lost weekend " sessions . She also released a one @-@ disc sampler of highlights from Onobox , simply titled Walking on Thin Ice . That year , she sat down for an extensive interview with music journalist Mark Kemp for a cover story in the alternative music magazine Option . The story took a revisionist look at Ono 's music for a new generation of fans more accepting of her role as a pioneer in the merger of pop and the avant @-@ garde .
In 1994 , Ono produced her own off @-@ Broadway musical entitled New York Rock , featuring Broadway renditions of her songs . In 1995 , she released Rising , a collaboration with her son Sean and his then @-@ band , Ima . Rising spawned a world tour that traveled through Europe , Japan , and the United States . The following year , she collaborated with various alternative rock musicians for an EP entitled Rising Mixes . Guest remixers of Rising material included Cibo Matto , Ween , Tricky , and Thurston Moore . In 1997 , Rykodisc reissued all her solo albums on CD , from Yoko Ono / Plastic Ono Band through Starpeace . Ono and her engineer Rob Stevens personally remastered the audio , and various bonus tracks were added , including outtakes , demos , and live cuts .
= = = 2000s = = =
2001 , saw the release of Ono 's feminist concept album Blueprint for a Sunrise . In 2002 , Ono joined The B @-@ 52 's in New York for their 25th anniversary concerts , coming out for the encore and performing " Rock Lobster " with the band . Starting the next year , some DJs remixed other Ono songs for dance clubs . For the remix project , she dropped her first name and became known simply as " ONO " , in response to the " Oh , no ! " jokes that dogged her throughout her career . Ono had great success with new versions of " Walking on Thin Ice " , remixed by top DJs and dance artists including Pet Shop Boys , Orange Factory , Peter Rauhofer , and Danny Tenaglia .
In April 2003 , Ono 's Walking on Thin Ice ( Remixes ) was rated No. 1 on Billboard 's Dance / Club Play chart , gaining Ono her first No. 1 hit . She returned to No. 1 on the same chart in November 2004 with " Everyman ... Everywoman ... " , a reworking of her song " Every Man Has a Woman Who Loves Him " , in January 2008 , with " No No No " , and in August 2008 , with " Give Peace a Chance " . In June 2009 , at the age of 76 , Ono scored her fifth No. 1 hit on the Dance / Club Play chart with " I 'm Not Getting Enough " .
Ono released the album Yes , I 'm a Witch in 2007 , a collection of remixes and covers from her back catalog by various artists including The Flaming Lips , Cat Power , Anohni , DJ Spooky , Porcupine Tree , and Peaches , released in February 2007 , along with a special edition of Yoko Ono / Plastic Ono Band . Yes I 'm a Witch has been critically well received . A similar compilation of Ono dance remixes entitled Open Your Box was also released in April of that year .
In 2009 , Ono recorded Between My Head and the Sky , her first album to be released as " Yoko Ono / Plastic Ono Band " since 1973 's Feeling the Space . The all @-@ new Plastic Ono Band lineup included Sean Lennon , Cornelius , and Yuka Honda . On February 16 , 2010 , Sean organized a concert at the Brooklyn Academy of Music called " We Are Plastic Ono Band " , at which Yoko performed her music with Sean , Clapton , Klaus Voormann , and Jim Keltner for the first time since the 1970s . Guests including Bette Midler , Paul Simon and his son Harper , and principal members of Sonic Youth and the Scissor Sisters interpreted her songs in their own styles .
= = = 2010s = = =
In April 2010 , RCRD LBL made available free downloads of Junior Boys ' mix of " I 'm Not Getting Enough " , a single originally released 10 years prior on Blueprint for a Sunrise . That song and " Wouldnit ( I 'm a Star ) " , released September 14 , made it to Billboard 's end of the year list of favorite Dance / Club songs at # 23 and # 50 respectively . The next year , " Move on Fast " became her sixth consecutive number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart and her eighth number @-@ one hit overall . In January 2012 , a Ralphi Rosario mix of her 1995 song " Talking to the Universe " became her seventh consecutive No. 1 hit on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and both songs charted again as favorites on Billboard 's year @-@ end lists for Dance / Club songs for 2011 . In 2013 , She and her band released the LP Take Me to the Land of Hell which featured numerous guests including Yuka Honda , Cornelius , Hirotaka " Shimmy " Shimizu , mi @-@ gu 's Yuko Araki , Wilco 's Nels Cline , tUnE @-@ yArDs , Questlove , Lenny Kravitz , and Ad @-@ Rock and Mike D of the Beastie Boys . Her online video for " Bad Dancer " released in November 2013 , which featured some of these guests , was well @-@ liked by the press . By the end of the year she had become one of three artists with two songs in the Top 20 Dance / Club and had two consecutive No. 1 hits on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play Charts . On the strength of the singles " Hold Me " ( Featuring Dave Audé ) and " Walking on Thin Ice " the artist , the then @-@ 80 @-@ year @-@ old beat Katy Perry , Robin Thicke , and her friend Lady Gaga . In 2014 , " Angel " was Ono 's twelfth number one on the US Dance chart .
= = = Collaborations = = =
During her career , Ono also has collaborated with Earl Slick , David Tudor , Fred DeAsis , and Richard Maxfield . As a dance music artist , Ono has worked with re @-@ mixers / producers including Basement Jaxx , Bill Kates , Keiji Haino , Nick Vernier Band , Billy Martin , DJ Spooky , Apples In Stereo , Damien Price , DJ Chernobyl , Bimbo Jones , DJ Dan , Craig Armstrong , Jorge Artajo , Shuji Nabara , and Konrad Behr .
In 2012 , the album Yokokimthurston was released featuring a collaboration with Sonic Youth 's Thurston Moore and Kim Gordon . Notable also as the first collaboration between Moore and Gordon after their divorce , it was characterized by AllMusic as " focused and risk @-@ taking " and " above the best " of the couple 's experimental music , with Ono 's voice described as " one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind . "
= = Public image = =
Ono was frequently criticized by the press and the public for many years . She was blamed for the breakup of the Beatles and repeatedly criticized for her influence over Lennon and his music . Her experimental art was also not popularly accepted . The English press were particularly negative , and prompted the couple 's move to the US . As late as December 1999 , NME was calling her a " no @-@ talent charlatan " , and in October 2013 , the mother of tennis pro Andy Murray took over a Twitter handle entitled Destroying Yoko Ono on Twitter .
Her name still connotes the figure of the evil female interloper to the mainstream . Courtney Love , Kurt Cobain 's widow , has endlessly been compared to Ono for her supposed bothersome role in Nirvana 's businesses and as a scapegoat for Cobain 's suicide .
In 2007 , when American singer Jessica Simpson was dating Dallas Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo , the Simpson @-@ Romo relationship was blamed for Romo 's poor performances . In response , some Cowboys ' fans gave her the moniker " Yoko Romo . "
In March 2015 , Perrie Edwards , member of English girl group Little Mix , was compared to Yoko Ono and criticised for being the supposed reason for Zayn Malik 's departure from the British boy band One Direction , creating tension within the group and causing widespread controversy .
= = 2000s = =
One month after the 9 / 11 attacks , she organized the concert " Come Together : A Night for John Lennon 's Words and Music " at Radio City Music Hall . Hosted by the actor Kevin Spacey and featuring Lou Reed , Cyndi Lauper and Nelly Furtado , it raised money for September 11 relief efforts and aired on TNT and the WB .
During the Liverpool Biennial in 2004 , Ono flooded the city with two images on banners , bags , stickers , postcards , flyers , posters and badges : one of a woman 's naked breast , the other of the same model 's vulva . ( During her stay in Lennon 's city of birth , she said she was " astounded " by the city 's renaissance . ) The piece , titled My Mummy Was Beautiful , was dedicated to Lennon 's mother , Julia , who had died when he was a teenager . According to Ono , the work was meant to be innocent , not shocking ; she was attempting to replicate the experience of a baby looking up at its mother 's body , those parts of the mother 's body being a child 's introduction to humanity .
Ono performed at the opening ceremony for the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Turin , Italy , wearing white , like many of the other performers during the ceremony , to symbolize the snow of winter . She read a free verse poem calling for world peace as an introduction to Peter Gabriel 's performance of " Imagine " .
On December 13 , 2006 , one of Ono 's bodyguards was arrested after he was allegedly taped trying to extort $ 2 million from her , threatening to release private conversations and photographs . His bail was revoked , and he pleaded not guilty to two counts of attempted grand larceny . In February 16 , 2007 a deal was reached where extortion charges were dropped , and he pleaded guilty to attempted grand larceny in the third degree , a felony , and sentenced to the 60 days he had already spent in jail . After reading an unapologetic statement , he was released to immigration officials because he had also been found guilty of overstaying his business visa .
On June 26 , 2007 , Ono appeared on Larry King Live along with McCartney , Ringo Starr , and Olivia Harrison . She headlined the Pitchfork Music Festival in Chicago on July 14 , 2007 , performing a full set that mixed music and performance art . She sang " Mulberry , " a song about her time in the countryside after the Japanese collapse in World War II for only the third time ever , with Thurston Moore : She had previously performed the song with John and with Sean . On October 9 of that year , the Imagine Peace Tower on Viðey Island in Iceland , dedicated to peace and to Lennon , was turned on with her , Sean , Ringo , George Harrison 's widow Olivia in attendance .
Ono returned to Liverpool for the 2008 Liverpool Biennial , where she unveiled Sky Ladders in the ruins of Church of St Luke ( which was largely destroyed during World War II and now stands roofless as a memorial to those killed in the Liverpool Blitz ) . Two years later , on March 31 , 2009 , she went to the inauguration of the exhibition " Imagine : The Peace Ballad of John & Yoko " to mark the 40th anniversary of the Lennon @-@ Ono Bed @-@ In at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , Canada , from May 26 to June 2 , 1969 . ( The hotel has been doing steady business with the room they stayed in for over 40 years . ) That year she became a grandmother , when Emi was born to Kyoko .
In May 2009 , she designed a T @-@ shirt for the second Fashion Against AIDS campaign and collection of HIV / AIDS awareness , NGO Designers Against AIDS , and H & M , with the statement " Imagine Peace " depicted in 21 languages . Ono appeared onstage at Microsoft 's June 1 , 2009 , E3 Expo press conference with Olivia Harrison , Paul McCartney , and Ringo Starr to promote the Beatles : Rock Band video game , which was universally praised by critics . Ono appeared on the Basement Jaxx album Scars , featuring on the single " Day of the Sunflowers ( We March On ) " .
= = 2010s = =
On February 16 , 2010 , Ono revived an early Plastic Ono Band lineup with Eric Clapton , and special guests including Paul Simon and Bette Midler . On April 1 of that year , she was named the first " Global Autism Ambassador " by the Autism Speaks organization . She had created an artwork the year before for autism awareness and allowed it to be auctioned off in 67 parts to benefit the organization . Ono appeared with Ringo Starr on July 7 at New York 's Radio City Music Hall in celebration of Starr 's 70th birthday , performing " With a Little Help from My Friends " and " Give Peace a Chance " . On September 16 , she and Sean attended the opening of Julian Lennon 's photo exhibition at the Morrison Hotel in New York City , appearing for the first time photos with Cynthia and Julian . She also promoted his work on her website . On October 2 , Ono and the Plastic Ono Band performed at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles , with special guest Lady Gaga , whom she deeply admires .
On February 18 , 2011 , her 78th birthday , Ono took out a full page advert in the UK free newspaper Metro for " Imagine Peace 2011 " . It took the form of an open letter , inviting people to think of , and wish for , peace . With son Sean , she held a benefit concert to aid in the relief efforts for earthquake and tsunami @-@ ravaged Japan on March 27 in New York City . The effort raised a total of $ 33 @,@ 000 . In July 2011 , she visited Japan to support earthquake and tsunami victims and tourism to the country . During her visit , Ono gave a lecture and performance entitled " The Road of Hope " at Tokyo 's Mori Art Museum , during which she painted a large calligraphy piece entitled " Dream " to help raise funds for construction of the Rainbow House , an institution for the orphans of the Great East Japan Earthquake . She also collected the 8th Hiroshima Art Prize for her contributions to art and for peace , that she was awarded the year prior .
In January 2012 , a Ralphi Rosario mix of her 1995 song " Talking to the Universe " became her seventh consecutive No. 1 hit on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In March of the same year , she was awarded the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ euro ( $ 26 @,@ 400 ) Oskar Kokoschka Prize in Austria . From June 19 to September 9 , her work To the Light was exhibited at the Serpentine Gallery in London . It was held in conjunction with the London 2012 Festival , a 12 @-@ week UK @-@ wide celebration featuring internationally renowned artists from Midsummer 's Day ( June 21 ) to the final day of the Paralympic Games on September 9 .
On June 29 , 2012 , Ono received a lifetime achievement award at the Dublin Biennial . During this ( her second ) trip to Ireland ( the first was with John before they married ) , she visited the crypt of Irish leader Daniel O 'Connell at Glasnevin Cemetery and Dún Laoghaire , from where Irish departed for England to escape the famine . In February 2013 , Ono accepted the Rainer Hildebrandt Medal at Berlin 's Checkpoint Charlie Museum , awarded to her and Lennon for their lifetime of work for peace and human rights . The next month , she tweeted an anti @-@ gun message with the Season of Glass image of Lennon 's bloodied glasses on what would have been her and Lennon 's 44th anniversary , noting that more than 1 million people have been killed by guns since Lennon 's death in 1980 . She was also given a Congressional citation from the Philippines for her monetary aid to the victims of typhoon Pablo . She also donated to disaster relief efforts after typhoon Ondoy in 2009 , and she assists Filipino schoolchildren .
In June 2013 , she curated the Meltdown festival in London , where she played two concerts , one with the Plastic Ono Band , and the second on backing vocals during Siouxsie Sioux 's rendition of " Walking on Thin Ice " at the Double Fantasy show . In July , OR Books published Ono 's sequel to 1964 's Grapefruit , another book of instruction @-@ based ' action poems ' this time entitled , Acorn . She was made an honorary citizen of Reykjavík , Iceland , on October 9 , 2013 . That same year , she became an honorary patron to Alder Hey Charity .
On February 26 , 2016 , Ono was hospitalized after suffering what was rumored to be a possible stroke . It was later announced that she was experiencing extreme symptoms of influenza .
= = Political activism and social media = =
Ono has been an activist for peace and human rights since the 1960s . After their wedding , she and Lennon held a " Bed @-@ In for Peace " in their honeymoon suite at the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel in March 1969 , where the pair of newlyweds in pajamas invited visitors and members of the press , eager to talk about and promote world peace . Another Bed @-@ In two months later at the Queen Elizabeth Fairmont in Montreal resulted in the recording of their first single , " Give Peace A Chance " , a top @-@ 20 hit for the newly christened Plastic Ono Band . Other performance / demonstrations with John included " bagism , " iterations with John of the Bag Pieces she introduced in the early 1960s , which encouraged a disregard for physical appearance in judging others . In December 1969 , the two continued spread their message of peace with billboards in 12 major world cities reading " WAR IS OVER ! If You Want It - Happy Christmas from John & Yoko . "
In the 1970s , Ono and Lennon became close to many radical , counterculture leaders , including Bobby Seale , Abbie Hoffman , Jerry Rubin , Michael X , John Sinclair ( for whose rally in Michigan they flew to sing Lennon 's song " Free John Sinclair " that effectively released the poet from prison ) , Angela Davis , and street musician David Peel . Friend and Sexual Politics author Kate Millett has said Ono inspired her activism . Ono and Lennon appeared on The Mike Douglas Show , taking over hosting duties for a week . Ono spoke at length about the evils of racism and sexism . She remained outspoken in her support of feminism , and openly bitter about the racism she had experienced from rock fans , especially in the UK . Her reception within the UK media was not much better . For example , an Esquire article of the period was titled " John Rennon 's Excrusive Gloupie " and featured an unflattering David Levine cartoon .
In 1999 , after the Columbine High School massacre , Ono paid for billboards to be put up in New York City and Los Angeles that bore the image of Lennon 's blood @-@ splashed spectacles . Early in 2002 she paid about £ 150 @,@ 000 ( $ 213 @,@ 375 ) for a billboard in Piccadilly Circus with a line from Lennon 's " Imagine " : " Imagine all the people living life in peace . " Later the same year , she inaugurated a peace award , the LennonOno Grant for Peace , by giving $ 50 @,@ 000 ( £ 31 @,@ 900 ) in prize money originally to artists living " in regions of conflict " . The award is given out every two years in conjunction with the lighting of the Imagine Peace Tower , and was first given to Israeli and Palestinian artists . Its program has since expanded to include writers , such as Michael Pollan and Alice Walker , activists such as Vandana Shiva and Pussy Riot , organizations such as New York 's Center for Constitutional Rights , even an entire country ( Iceland ) .
On Valentine 's Day 2003 , on the eve of the Iraqi invasion by the US and UK , Ono heard about a couple , Andrew and Christine Gale , who were holding a love @-@ in protest in their tiny bedroom in Addingham , West Yorkshire . She phoned them and said , " It 's good to speak to you . We 're supporting you . We 're all sisters together . " The couple said that songs like " Give Peace a Chance " and " Imagine " inspired their protest . In 2004 , Ono remade her song " Everyman ..... Everywoman ..... " to support same @-@ sex marriage , releasing remixes that included " Every Man Has a Man Who Loves Him " and " Every Woman Has a Woman Who Loves Her " .
In August 2011 , she made the documentary film about the Bed @-@ Ins Bed Peace available for free on YouTube , and as part of her website " Imagine Peace " . In January 2013 , the 79 @-@ year @-@ old Ono , along with Sean Lennon and Susan Sarandon , took to rural Pennsylvania in a bus under the banner of the Artists Against Fracking group she and Sean created with Mark Ruffalo in August 2012 to protest against hydraulic fracturing . Other group members include Lady Gaga and Alec Baldwin .
Ono promotes her art , and shares inspirational messages and images , through a robust and active Twitter , Instagram , and Facebook presence . In April 2014 her Twitter followers reached 4 @.@ 69 million , while her Instagram followers exceeded 99 @,@ 000 . Her tweets are short instructional poems , comments on media and politics , and notes about performances .
= = Relationship with the Beatles = =
According to journalist Barry Miles , after Lennon and Ono had been injured in a car accident in June 1969 , partway through recording Abbey Road , a bed was installed in the studio with a microphone so the latter could make artistic comments about the album . Miles thought Ono 's continual presence in the studio during the latter part of the Beatles ' career put strain on Lennon 's relationship with the other band members . George Harrison verbally assaulted her after she took one of his chocolate digestive biscuits without asking . The English press dubbed her " the woman who broke up the Beatles " , but Ono has stated that the Beatles broke up themselves without any direct involvement from her , adding " I don 't think I could have tried even to break them up . " In an interview with Dick Cavett , Lennon explicitly denied that Ono broke up The Beatles and even Harrison said in an interview with Cavett that The Beatles had problems long before Ono came on the scene .
While the Beatles were together , every song written by Lennon or McCartney was credited as Lennon – McCartney regardless of whether the song was a collaboration or written solely by one of the two ( except for those appearing on their first album , Please Please Me , which originally credited the songs to McCartney – Lennon ) . In 1976 , McCartney released a live album called Wings over America , which credited the five Beatles tracks as P. McCartney – J. Lennon compositions , but neither Lennon nor Ono objected . After Lennon 's death , however , McCartney again attempted to change the order to McCartney – Lennon for songs that were solely or predominantly written by him , such as " Yesterday , " but Ono would not allow it , saying she felt this broke an agreement that the two had made while Lennon was still alive , and the surviving Beatle argued that such an agreement never existed . A spokesman for Ono said McCartney was making " an attempt to rewrite history " .
In a Rolling Stone interview in 1987 , Ono pointed out McCartney 's place in the process of the disintegration of the band . On the 1998 John Lennon anthology , Lennon Legend , the composer credit of " Give Peace a Chance " was changed to " John Lennon " from its original composing credit of " Lennon – McCartney . " Although the song was written by Lennon during his tenure with the Beatles , it was both written and recorded without the help of the band , and released as Lennon 's first independent single under the " Plastic Ono Band " moniker . Lennon subsequently expressed regret that he had not given co @-@ writing credit to Ono instead , who actually helped him write the song . In 2002 , McCartney released another live album , Back in the U.S. Live 2002 , and the 19 Beatles songs included are described as " composed by Paul McCartney and John Lennon " , which reignited the debate over credits with Ono . Her spokesperson Elliott Mintz called it " an attempt to rewrite history . " , but nevertheless , Ono did not sue .
In 1995 , after the Beatles released Lennon 's " Free as a Bird " and " Real Love " , with demos provided by Ono , McCartney and his family collaborated with her and Sean to create the song " Hiroshima Sky is Always Blue " , which commemorates the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of that Japanese city . Of Ono , McCartney stated : " I thought she was a cold woman . I think that 's wrong ..... she 's just the opposite ..... I think she 's just more determined than most people to be herself . " Two years later , however , Ono publicly compared Lennon to Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , while McCartney , she said , more closely resembled his less @-@ talented rival Antonio Salieri . This remark infuriated McCartney 's wife Linda , who was dying from breast cancer at the time , and when Linda died less than a year later , McCartney did not invite Ono to his wife 's memorial service in Manhattan .
Accepting an award at the 2005 Q Awards , Ono mentioned that Lennon had once felt insecure about his songwriting . She had responded , " You 're a good songwriter . It 's not June with spoon that you write . You 're a good singer , and most musicians are probably a little bit nervous about covering your songs . "
In an October 2010 interview , Ono spoke about Lennon 's " lost weekend " and her subsequent reconciliation with him . She credited McCartney with helping save her marriage to John . " I want the world to know that it was a very touching thing that [ Paul ] did for John . " While visiting with Ono in March 1974 , McCartney , on leaving , asked " [ W ] hat will make you come back to John ? " McCartney subsequently passed her response to Lennon while visiting him in Los Angeles . " John often said he didn 't understand why Paul did this for us , but he did . " In 2012 , McCartney revealed that he did not blame Ono for the breakup of the Beatles and credited Ono with inspiring much of Lennon 's post @-@ Beatles work .
= = = Relationship with Julian Lennon = = =
Ono had a difficult relationship with her stepson , Lennon 's son Julian , which has improved over the years . He has expressed disappointment at her handling of Lennon 's estate , and at the difference between his upbringing and Sean 's , adding , " when Dad gave up music for a couple of years to be with Sean , why couldn 't he do that with me ? " More egregiously , however , Julian was left out of his father 's will , and he battled Ono in court for years , settling in 1996 for an unspecified amount which the papers reported was " believed to " be in the area of £ 20 million , which Julian has denied .
He has admitted that he is his " mother 's boy " , which Ono has cited as the reason why she was never able to get close to him : " Julian and I tried to be friends . Of course , if he 's too friendly with me , then I think that it hurts his other relatives . He was very loyal to his mother . That was the first thing that was in his mind . " Nevertheless , she and Sean attended the opening of Julian 's photo exhibition at the Morrison Hotel in New York City in 2010 , appearing for the first time for photos with Cynthia and Julian . She also promoted the exhibition on her website , and Julian and Sean are close .
= = In popular culture = =
Canadian rock band Barenaked Ladies ' debut single was " Be My Yoko Ono , " first released in 1990 and later appearing on their 1992 album Gordon . The lyrics are “ a shy entreaty to a potential girlfriend , caged in terms that self @-@ deflatingly compare himself to one of pop music 's foremost geniuses . ” It also has a “ sarcastic imitation of Yoko Ono 's unique vocal style in the bridge ” .
In 2000 , American folk singer Dar Williams recorded a song titled " I Won 't Be Your Yoko Ono . " Bryan Wawzenek of the website Ultimate Classic Rock described the song as " us [ ing ] John and Yoko as a starting point for exploring love , and particularly , love between artists . "
The British band Elbow mentioned Ono in their song " New York Morning " from their 2014 album The Take Off and Landing of Everything ( " Oh , my giddy aunt , New York can talk / It 's the modern Rome and folk are nice to Yoko " ) . In response Ono posted an open letter to the band on her website , thanking them and reflecting on her and Lennon 's relationship with the city .
The post @-@ punk rock band Death of Samantha named themselves after a song from Ono 's 1973 album Approximately Infinite Universe .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Albums with John Lennon = = =
= = = Compilations , soundtrack albums and EPs = = =
Onobox ( 1992 )
Walking on Thin Ice ( 1992 )
New York Rock ( 1994 ) ( Original cast recording )
A Blueprint for the Sunrise ( 2000 ) ( 3 @-@ track EP included with YES YOKO ONO book )
Don 't Stop Me ! EP ( 2009 )
= = = Remix albums = = =
Rising Mixes ( 1996 )
Yes , I 'm a Witch ( 2007 )
Open Your Box ( 2007 )
Onomix ( 2012 )
Yes , I 'm a Witch Too ( 2016 )
= = = Tribute albums = = =
Every Man Has a Woman ( 1984 )
Mrs. Lennon ( 2010 )
= = Singles = =
= = = B @-@ side appearances on John Lennon singles = = =
" Remember Love " ( on " Give Peace a Chance " ) ( 1969 )
" Don 't Worry , Kyoko " ( on " Cold Turkey " ) ( 1969 )
" Who Has Seen the Wind ? " ( on " Instant Karma ! " ) ( 1970 )
" Why " ( on " Mother " ) ( 1971 )
" Open Your Box " ( on " Power to the People " ) ( 1971 )
" Listen , the Snow is Falling " ( on " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " ) ( 1971 )
" Sisters , O Sisters " ( on " Woman Is the Nigger of the World " ) ( 1972 )
" Kiss Kiss Kiss " ( on " ( Just Like ) Starting Over " ) ( 1980 )
" Beautiful Boys " ( on " Woman " ) ( 1981 )
" Yes , I 'm Your Angel " ( on " Watching the Wheels " ) ( 1981 )
" O 'Sanity " ( on " Nobody Told Me " ) ( 1984 )
" Your Hands ( あなたの手 " ) ( on " Borrowed Time " ) ( 1984 )
" Sleepless Night " ( on " I 'm Stepping Out " ) ( 1984 )
" It 's Alright " ( on " Every Man Has a Woman Who Loves Him " ) ( 1985 )
= = Books and monographs = =
Grapefruit ( 1964 )
Summer of 1980 ( 1983 )
ただの私 ( Tada @-@ no Watashi – Just Me ! ) ( 1986 )
The John Lennon Family Album ( 1990 )
Instruction Paintings ( 1995 )
Grapefruit Juice ( 1998 )
YES YOKO ONO ( 2000 )
Odyssey of a Cockroach ( 2005 )
Imagine Yoko ( 2005 )
Memories of John Lennon ( editor ) ( 2005 )
2 : 46 : Aftershocks : Stories From the Japan Earthquake ( contributor ) ( 2011 )
郭知茂 Vocal China Forever Love Song
Acorn ( 2013 )
= = Films = =
= = = Director = = =
Eye blink ( 1966 , 5 min )
Bottoms ( 1966 , 5 ½ min )
Match ( 1966 , 5 min )
Cut Piece ( 1965 , 9 min )
Wrapping Piece ( 1967 , approx . 20 min , music by Delia Derbyshire )
Film No. 4 ( Bottoms ) ( 1966 / 1967 , 80 min )
Bottoms , advertisement / commercial ( 1966 / 1967 , approx . 2 min )
Two Virgins ( 1968 , approx . 20 min ) , a portrait film consisting of super @-@ impositions of John 's and Yoko 's faces .
Film No . Five ( Smile ) ( 1968 , 51 min )
Rape ( 1969 , 77 min ) , filmed by Nick Rowland , a young woman is relentlessly pursued by a camera crew .
Apotheosis ( 1970 , 18 ½ mins )
Freedom ( 1970 , 1 min ) , a slow @-@ motion film showing a woman attempting to take off her bra .
Making of Fly ( 1970 , approx . 30 min )
Up Your Legs Forever ( 1970 , 70 min ) , a film consisting of continuous panning shots up a series of 367 human legs .
Erection ( 1971 , 20 min ) , a film of a hotel 's construction over many months , based on still photographs by Iain McMillan .
Sisters , O Sisters ( 1971 , 4 min )
Luck of the Irish ( 1971 , approx . 4 min )
Blueprint for the Sunrise ( 2000 , 28 min )
Onochord ( 2004 , continuous loop )
= = = Collaborations = = =
With John Lennon , Bed @-@ In , ( 1969 , 74 min )
With Jonas Mekas , Fly ( 1970 , 25 min ) , a fly crawls slowly across a woman 's naked body . Premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1971 .
= = = Actress or as self = = =
Satan 's Bed ( as an actress ) , directed by Michael Findlay
Let It Be ( 1970 , 81 min )
Imagine ( 1971 , 70 min )
Flipside ( Canadian TV show , 1972 , approx . 25 min )
Mad About You ( American TV show , guest star in 1995 episode " Yoko Said " )
= Operation Colossus =
Operation Colossus was the codename given to the first airborne operation undertaken by the British military , which occurred on 10 February 1941 during World War II . The British airborne establishment was formed in June 1940 by the order of the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , in response to the successful airborne operations conducted by the German military during the Battle of France . Training began immediately , but a shortage of proper equipment and training facilities , as well as bureaucratic difficulties , meant that only a small number of volunteers could immediately be trained as parachute troops . The first airborne unit to be formed was actually a re @-@ trained Commando unit , No. 2 Commando , which was subsequently renamed as No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion and numbered approximately 350 officers and other ranks by September 1940 . The battalion finished its training in December 1940 , and in February 1941 thirty @-@ eight members of the battalion , known as X Troop , were selected to conduct an airborne operation , which was intended to test the capability of the airborne troops and their equipment , as well as the ability of the Royal Air Force to accurately deliver them .
The target chosen for the operation was a fresh @-@ water aqueduct near Calitri in southern Italy , which supplied water to a large portion of the Italian population as well as several ports used by the Italian military ; it was also hoped that its destruction would hamper Italian military efforts in North Africa and Albania . The airborne troops were delivered by converted Armstrong Whitworth Whitley medium bombers to the target on 10 February , but equipment failures and navigational errors meant that a significant portion of the troops explosives , and a team of Royal Engineer sappers , landed in the wrong area . Despite this setback the remaining members of the troop successfully destroyed the aqueduct and withdrew from the area , but were all captured by the Italian authorities within a short time ; an Italian translator was tortured and executed and one paratrooper managed to escape captivity , but the rest remained as prisoners of war . The aqueduct was rapidly repaired before local water reserves ran out , ensuring that the local population and the ports were not deprived of water , and , consequently , that the Italian war efforts were not hampered . However , it served as a morale boost for the fledgling airborne establishment , and the technical and operational lessons learnt from the operation helped the development of further airborne operations .
= = Background = =
The German military was one of the pioneers of the use of airborne formations , conducting several successful airborne operations during the Battle of France in 1940 , including the Battle of Fort Eben @-@ Emael . Impressed by the success of German airborne operations , the Allied governments decided to form their own airborne formations . This decision would eventually lead to the creation of two British airborne divisions , as well as a number of smaller units . The British airborne establishment began development on 22 June 1940 , when the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office in a memorandum to investigate the possibility of creating a corps of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . Despite the Prime Minister 's desire to have 5 @,@ 000 airborne troops within a short period , a number of problems were rapidly encountered by the War Office . Very few gliders existed in Britain in 1940 , and these were too light for military purposes , and there was also a shortage of suitable transport aircraft to tow gliders and carry paratroopers . On 10 August , Churchill was informed that although 3 @,@ 500 volunteers had been selected to train as airborne troops , only 500 could currently begin training due to limitations in equipment and aircraft . The War Office stated in a memorandum to the Prime Minister in December 1940 that 500 parachute troops could probably be trained and be ready for operations by the spring of 1941 , but this figure was purely arbitrary ; the actual number that could be trained and prepared by that period would rely entirely on the creation of a training establishment and the provision of required equipment .
A training establishment for parachute troops was set up at RAF Ringway near Manchester on 21 June 1940 and named the Central Landing Establishment , and the initial 500 volunteers began training for airborne operations . The Royal Air Force provided a number of Armstrong Whitworth Whitley medium bombers for conversion into transport aircraft for paratroopers . A number of military gliders were also designed , starting with the General Aircraft Hotspur , but gliders were not used by the British until Operation Freshman in 1942 . Organizational plans were also being laid down , with the War Office calling for two parachute brigades to be operational by 1943 . However , the immediate development of any further airborne formations , as well as the initial 500 volunteers already training , was hampered by three problems . With the threat of invasion in 1940 , many War Office officials and senior British Army officers did not believe that sufficient men could be spared from the effort to rebuild the Army after the Battle of France to create an effective airborne force ; many believed that such a force would only have a nuisance raiding value and would not affect the conflict in any useful way . There were also material problems ; all three of the armed services were expanding and rebuilding , particularly the Army , and British industry had not yet been organized to a sufficient war footing to support all three services as well as the fledgling airborne force . Finally , the airborne forces lacked a single , coherent policy , with no clear idea as to how they should be organized , or whether they should come under the command of the Army or the RAF ; inter @-@ organizational rivalry between the War Office and the Air Ministry , in charge of the RAF , was a major factor in delaying the further expansion of British airborne forces .
= = Preparation = =
On 26 April 1941 , the Prime Minister was shown a demonstration of the airborne force that Britain currently possessed , and was informed that although some 800 parachute troops had been trained , their deployment was severely limited by the lack of suitable aircraft which could be used to transport them to any prospective targets . The primary airborne formation in existence by this time
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was No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion , which numbered approximately 350 officers and other ranks , and had been formed from No. 2 Commando , a Commando unit which had been selected for conversion into an airborne unit . The Commando began intensive airborne training in June 1940 , originally 500 strong , but this had been reduced to 21 officers and 321 other ranks by September 1940 ; despite already receiving rigorous training , many of the commandos failed their training by refusing to conduct a parachute drop . One senior RAF officer at the Central Landing Establishment believed that such a large number refused due to a combination of inexperience and a fear that their parachute would not open when they jumped out of the aircraft . On 21 November 1940 the Commando was officially renamed as No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion and reorganized to form a battalion headquarters , one parachute wing and one glider wing . By 17 December the battalion had officially completed its parachute training , including taking part in a number of demonstrations for military observers , and was considered to be ready for active duty .
There were few airborne resources available to the British Army by mid @-@ 1941 . The only unit trained and available for an airborne operation was No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion , there were very few transport aircraft available to transport an airborne force , there were few RAF flight crews with experience of parachute droppings and none with operational experience , and there were no specialized overseas facilities to cater exclusively for airborne operations . However , it had been decided that some form of airborne operation would have to be carried out . The reasons for mounting an operation with such meagre resources were two @-@ fold ; firstly a successful raid would demonstrate to the rest of the world that Britain was still a force to be reckoned with and had not been defeated , and secondly a raid would test the fighting ability of the battalion and its equipment , as well as the RAF 's ability to deliver paratroopers at a predetermined location at a required time . The target chosen for the operation was an aqueduct that crossed the Tragino river in the Campania province of southern Italy near the town of Calitri . The aqueduct carried the main water supply for the province of Apulia , which at the time was inhabited by approximately two million Italians and included the strategically important port of Taranto ; it was hoped that destroying the aqueduct and depriving the population of their regular water supply would damage their morale , and also have some impact on the Italian war efforts in North Africa and Albania . The aqueduct was a significant distance from the Italian coast , making it unlikely that a sea @-@ borne raiding party could reach it , and it was believed that it was too strongly constructed to be destroyed by aerial bombing ; as such , an airborne raid conducted by parachute troops was thought to be the ideal way to eliminate the aqueduct .
A small force of thirty @-@ eight men – seven officers and thirty @-@ one other ranks – was selected from the battalion and designated X Troop , commanded by Major T.A.G. Pritchard of the Royal Welch Fusiliers . Three Italian @-@ speaking interpreters were attached to the troop for the duration of the operation : Squadron Leader Lucky MC , Rifleman Nasri from the Rifle Brigade and a civilian named Fortunato Picchi , a waiter in the Savoy Hotel . Training for the operation began in January 1941 and lasted for six weeks , in order to allow time for six Whitley bombers to be converted to drop parachutists . A full @-@ scale model of the aqueduct was built in early February to allow the troop to practice its assault , and during training one enlisted man was killed when he parachuted into an ice @-@ covered pond and drowned before he could be rescued . The plan for the operation called for six Whitleys of No. 51 Squadron RAF to transport X Troop from Malta to the target area on 10 February , while another two bombers would carry out a diversionary raid against railway yards at Foggia , approximately 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the north of the aqueduct . At 21 : 30 the troop would be dropped around the objective , attack and demolish it , and then withdraw 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the coast to the mouth of the Sele River , where the submarine HMS Triumph would pick them up on the night of 15 February .
= = Battle = =
On 7 February X Troop boarded the six converted Whitley bombers and were transported 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) to Malta without incident despite a significant portion of the journey being over occupied France . There the troop were briefed with aerial reconnaissance photographs of the objective that were provided by the Photographic Reconnaissance Unit , which showed that there were actually two aqueducts in the area , one larger than the other ; after a brief discussion it was decided that the larger of the two would be targeted . At 18 : 30 on 10 February the six Whitleys took off from Malta , each carrying one officer and five other ranks of X Troop ; the flight to the target area was uneventful , with clear weather and perfect visibility . The lead Whitley reached the drop zone , which was approximately 500 metres ( 550 yd ) from the aqueduct , at 21 : 42 . All six men and their equipment containers landed within 250 metres ( 270 yd ) of the drop zone , as did the men from the next four aircraft ; however two of the bombers failed to drop their containers due to the icing up of the release mechanisms , and the sixth aircraft failed to locate the drop zone and eventually dropped its six men and containers two hours later in a valley two miles from the aqueduct . The six men who had not landed in the drop zone were Royal Engineer sappers who were supposed to rig the aqueduct for demolition , and their Whitley had been carrying most of the explosives to be used in the operation . Despite these losses , the troop gathered up the remaining containers and took up positions around the aqueduct . However , on examining the aqueduct it was found the piers supporting it were made of reinforced concrete and not brick as had been expected , leading Pritchard to suspect that the remaining explosives might be insufficient to demolish the aqueduct . After closer inspection , Pritchard ordered that the majority of the explosives be placed around the western pier and the rest against its abutment , in the hope that this would cause enough damage to destroy the aqueduct . A small amount of explosives were also placed under a nearby bridge that bridged the Ginestra river .
At 00 : 30 on 11 February the explosives were detonated and the western pier destroyed , causing the aqueduct to crumble and effectively break in half , and the Ginestra bridge was also successfully destroyed . Leaving one man who had broken his ankle when he had landed with a nearby farmer , the remainder of the Troop withdrew from the area at 01 : 00 , splitting into three groups and heading towards the coast . The three groups moved as fast as possible towards the coast , but were all captured within a few hours of the aqueduct being demolished . The group commanded by Major Pritchard was spotted by a farmer who raised the alarm at a nearby village , leading to a local carabinieri unit surrounding the group ; with little ammunition and heavily outnumbered , Pritchard decided to surrender . The other three groups , including the six sappers who had landed two miles from the objective , fared little better . The two groups from the aqueduct were soon located by Italian soldiers and ambushed , forcing them to surrender after brief firefights . The third group were found by a group of civilians as they moved towards the coast ; after attempting to bluff their way past by claiming to be German soldiers on a special field exercise , which failed when the local Mayor demanded identity papers , they were captured by carabinieri . All were stripped of their weapons and equipment and transported to Naples , with the exception of the Italian translator , Picchi ; he was handed over to the Blackshirts , a Fascist paramilitary group , who tortured and then executed him . Even if any of the groups had managed to make their way to the coast and the rendezvous point , they would not have been picked up by HMS Triumph . One of the two Whitleys conducting the diversionary raid at Foggia suffered engine trouble after bombing the railway yards . The pilot radioed Malta , informing his airfield that he was ditching in the mouth of the River Sele , coincidentally the area where the rendezvous was to occur . Fearing that the message had been monitored by the Italians and that the submarine might sail into a trap , the decision was made by senior officers not to send it to the rendezvous point .
= = Aftermath = =
The destruction of the Tragino aqueduct had a negligible effect on the Italian war effort in North Africa and Albania , as it did not create a serious interruption to the water supplies of Taranto and other ports ; the water supplies in local reservoirs lasted for the short period needed for the aqueduct to be repaired . However , the operation did create a certain amount of alarm in the Italian population and caused stringent new air raid precautions to be introduced by the Italian government , which were still in place when Italy surrendered in 1943 . Major General Julian Thompson has criticized the operation , claiming that although there was a great deal of planning in terms of how to insert the airborne troops , there was insufficient planning devoted to how they would be extracted . He is also critical about the lack of information gathered about the aqueduct , despite it being " hardly difficult to obtain . "
Lessons taken from the operation provided the British military with valuable operational and technical experience that helped shape future airborne operations , such as Operation Biting . It demonstrated the range and flexibility of airborne troops and proved that they could pose a threat to the Axis powers , and also provided a morale boost for the British military and the fledgling airborne establishment . In terms of technical experience , it was found that the containers used to drop equipment for the troop were manufactured from a soft @-@ skinned material , which sagged during flight and blocked the bomb bay doors from opening ; future containers were constructed from metal to ensure this did not occur . All of the surviving members of X Troop would remain as prisoners of war until they were repatriated with the Italian surrender , with one exception ; Lieutenant Anthony Deane – Drummond managed to escape after being captured and eventually returned to England in 1942 , joining the newly formed 1st Airborne Division . When the airborne establishment was expanded , No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion was renamed 1st Parachute Battalion , and eventually formed the nucleus of 1st Parachute Brigade when it was created in September 1941 .
= Quehanna Wild Area =
Quehanna Wild Area is a wildlife area within parts of Cameron , Clearfield , and Elk counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania ; with a total area of 48 @,@ 186 acres ( 75 sq mi ; 195 km2 ) , it covers parts of Elk and Moshannon State Forests . Founded in the 1950s as a nuclear research center , Quehanna has a conflicting legacy of radioactive and toxic waste contamination , while also being the largest state forest wild area in Pennsylvania , with herds of native elk . The wild area is bisected by Pennsylvania Route 1011 , the Quehanna Highway , and is home to second growth forest with mixed hardwoods and evergreens . Quehanna has two state forest natural areas : the 1 @,@ 215 @-@ acre ( 492 ha ) Wykoff Run Natural Area , and the 917 @-@ acre ( 371 ha ) Marion Brooks Natural Area . The latter has the largest stand of white birch in Pennsylvania and the eastern United States .
The land that became Quehanna Wild Area was home to Native Americans , including the Susquehannock and Iroquois , before it was purchased by the United States in 1784 . Settlers soon moved into the region and , in the 19th and early 20th centuries , the logging industry cut the virgin forests ; clearcutting and forest fires transformed the once verdant land into the " Pennsylvania Desert " . Pennsylvania bought this land for its state forests and in the 1930s the Civilian Conservation Corps worked to improve them . In 1955 the Curtiss @-@ Wright Corporation bought 80 square miles ( 210 km2 ) of state forest for a research and manufacturing facility to focus on developing nuclear @-@ powered jet engines . They named their facility Quehanna for the nearby West Branch Susquehanna River , itself named for the Susquehannocks .
Curtiss @-@ Wright left in 1960 , after which a succession of tenants further contaminated the nuclear reactor facility and its hot cells with radioactive isotopes , including strontium @-@ 90 and cobalt @-@ 60 . The manufacture of radiation @-@ treated hardwood flooring continued until 2002 . Pennsylvania reacquired the land in 1963 and 1967 , and in 1965 established Quehanna as a wild area , albeit one with a nuclear facility and industrial complex . The cleanup of the reactor and hot cells took over eight years and cost $ 30 million ; the facility was demolished and its nuclear license terminated in 2009 . Since 1992 the industrial complex has been home to Quehanna Motivational Boot Camp , a minimum @-@ security prison . Quehanna Wild Area has many sites where radioactive and toxic waste was buried , some of which have been cleaned up while others were dug up by black bear and white @-@ tailed deer .
In 1970 the name was officially changed to Quehanna Wild Area , and later that decade the 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) Quehanna Trail System was built through the wild area and surrounding state forests . Primitive camping by hikers is allowed , but the area has no permanent residents . The trails are open to cross @-@ country skiing in the winter , but closed to vehicles . Quehanna is on the Allegheny Plateau and was struck by a tornado in 1985 . Defoliating insects have further damaged the forests . Quehanna Wild Area was named an Important Bird Area by the Pennsylvania Audubon Society , and is home to many species of birds and animals . Eco @-@ tourists come to see the birds and elk , and hunters come for the elk , coyote , and other game .
= = History = =
= = = Native Americans = = =
The Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks were the earliest recorded inhabitants of the West Branch Susquehanna River basin , which includes Quehanna Wild Area . They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large long houses . The Susquehannocks ' numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . After this , the Iroquois exercised nominal control of the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley . They also lived in long houses , primarily in what is now New York , and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois encouraged such displaced eastern tribes as the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) to settle in the West Branch watershed .
The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois hunted in much of Pennsylvania and the Quehanna area . The Iroquois and other tribes used the Great Shamokin Path , the major native east – west path connecting the Susquehanna and Allegheny River basins , which passed south of what is now the wild area . The native village of Chinklacamoose ( or Chingleclamouche ) was on this path at the West Branch Susquehanna River , at what is now Clearfield to the southwest of Quehanna . The Sinnemahoning Path along Sinnemahoning Creek ran north of Quehanna ; as the path with the gentlest grade , it may have been the route the first Paleo @-@ Indians took entering this part of Pennsylvania from the west .
The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) and the subsequent colonial expansion encouraged the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . In October 1784 , the United States acquired a large tract of land , including what is now Quehanna Wild Area , from the Iroquois in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix ; this acquisition is known as the Last Purchase in Pennsylvania .
Although most of the Native Americans left this area of Pennsylvania , the state 's Native American heritage can be found in many of its place names . The Susquehannocks were also known as the Susquehanna , from which the Susquehanna River and its West Branch obtained their names . In the 1950s the Curtiss @-@ Wright Corporation coined the name " Quehanna " for its nuclear reservation , which it derived from the last three syllables of " Susquehanna " , " in honor of the river that drained the entire region " . Part of Quehanna Wild Area lies in the Moshannon State Forest , named for Moshannon Creek , which means " moose stream " or " elk stream " in the Lenape language . Sinnemahoning Creek 's name means " stony salt lick " in Lenape .
= = = Lumber era = = =
Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682 , forests covered up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania : more than 31 @,@ 000 square miles ( 80 @,@ 000 km2 ) of eastern white pine , eastern hemlock , and a mix of hardwoods . Scull 's 1770 map of the Province of Pennsylvania showed the colonists ' ignorance of the land north of the West Branch Susquehanna River ; Sinnemahoning Creek was missing and the region that includes Quehanna was labeled " Buffaloe Swamp " . This began to change when the land was purchased from the Iroquois in 1784 , and became part of Northumberland County . In 1795 it became part of Lycoming County ; as the new county was divided into more townships , Quehanna became part of Chingleclamouche Township ( named for the native village ) . Chingleclamouche Township was included in Clearfield County when it was established in 1804 . Later it was divided between at least three counties and many townships , and no longer exists under that name .
The southern part of Quehanna Wild Area is now in parts of Covington , Girard , and Karthaus townships in Clearfield County ; they were incorporated in 1817 , 1832 , and 1841 . The northwest part of Quehanna is in Benezette Township in Elk County , established in 1843 . The northeast part of Quehanna is in Cameron County ( incorporated in 1860 ) in Gibson Township , which was formed in 1804 while part of Clearfield County .
The first European American settlers arrived in Chingleclamouche Township in about 1793 , and the first sawmill in Clearfield County began operating in 1805 . Settlers initially occupied land along the river and creeks , as these provided a means of transportation . Some settlers would harvest timber and float it downstream once a year to make money for items they could not produce themselves , but by 1820 the first full @-@ time lumbering operations began in the region . The white pine was the most sought after tree , yielding spars for ships and timber for buildings . Hardwoods were also harvested , and eventually hemlocks were cut for their wood and their bark , which contained tannins used in tanning leather .
As lumber became an industry in Pennsylvania , the rivers and creeks were declared public highways by the Pennsylvania General Assembly . This permitted their use to float logs to sawmills and markets . Log booms were placed on the West Branch Susquehanna River to catch the floating timber ; Lock Haven built a boom in 1849 , and Williamsport 's Susquehanna Boom opened in 1851 . Businesses purchased vast tracts of land and built splash dams on the creeks ; these dams controlled water in small streams that would otherwise be unable to carry logs and rafts . For example , in 1871 a single splash dam on the Bennett Branch of Sinnemahoning Creek could release enough water to produce a wave 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) high on the main stem for two hours . Mosquito Creek , which drains much of the southern part of Quehanna Wild Area , had at least nine splash dams in its watershed . This was the predominant lumber transport system in the Quehanna region from 1865 to 1885 and after 1850 , five different kinds of lumber rafts could be found on its streams and river .
Much of the timber was too remote to be transported via the streams , and logging railroads were the next development in the Quehanna lumber era . In or around 1880 , these railroads allowed the clearcutting of the remaining forests . The Quehanna plateau was unusual in using standard gauge track for its logging railroads : most such railways were narrow gauge . The logging railroads used special geared steam locomotives , such as the Shay , Climax and Heisler . Nine companies operated logging railroads in what became Moshannon State Forest ; the Goodyear Lumber Company was the largest and cut much of what became Quehanna Wild Area between 1902 and 1912 . The Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company logged land in the northern part of the wild area between 1907 and 1911 .
There were only two major roads on the Quehanna plateau in the 19th and early 20th centuries , both originally turnpikes . The Caledonia Pike ran east – west from Bellefonte to Smethport , and passed south of what became the wild area , while the Driftwood Pike ran from near Karthaus north to Driftwood on the Sinnemahoning , and passed through the wild area . Wagon trains and railroads brought supplies to the lumber camps in the woods ; some wood hicks set up small farms on cleared land that also provided food . There were at least eight farms in Quehanna , though they were not very productive because of " poorly drained acid soil and a short growing season " .
The lumber era in Quehanna did not last ; the old @-@ growth and second @-@ growth forests were clearcut by the early 20th century . Fire had always been a hazard ; the sparks from logging steam engines started many wildfires , and more wood may have been lost to fires than to logging in some areas . On the clearcut land nothing remained except the discarded , dried @-@ out tree tops , which were very flammable ; much of the land burned and was left barren . The soil was depleted of nutrients , fires baked the ground hard , and jungles of blueberries , blackberries , and mountain laurel covered the clearcut land , which became known as the " Pennsylvania Desert " .
= = = State forests = = =
As the timber was exhausted and the land burned , many companies simply abandoned their holdings . Conservationists such as Joseph Rothrock became concerned that the forests would not regrow without proper management . They called for a change in the philosophy of forest management and for the state to purchase land from the lumber companies . In 1895 , Rothrock was appointed the first forestry commissioner in what became the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters , the forerunner of today 's Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) . In 1897 , the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed legislation that authorized the purchase of " unseated lands for forest reservations " and the first of the Pennsylvania state forest lands were acquired the following year .
The state first bought land that became the Moshannon State Forest in 1898 ; the second purchase , and first in the Quehanna region , was 3 @,@ 263 acres ( 1 @,@ 320 ha ) in the Three Runs area , acquired for $ 1 an acre ( $ 2 @.@ 47 a hectare ) in 1900 . Three smaller state forests ( Karthaus , Sinnemahoning , and Moshannon ) were merged to form the present Moshannon State Forest ; in 1997 , the forest covered 131 @,@ 622 acres ( 53 @,@ 266 ha ) . The first purchase for the Elk State Forest was made in 1900 and , in 1997 , it encompassed 197 @,@ 729 acres ( 80 @,@ 018 ha ) . Forty @-@ six percent , or 22 @,@ 179 acres ( 8 @,@ 976 ha ) , of the total 48 @,@ 186 acres ( 19 @,@ 500 ha ) of Quehanna Wild Area lies in the Elk State Forest . The remainder lies in the Moshannon State Forest .
The state established a tree nursery in the Moshannon State Forest in 1911 , which became the largest in Pennsylvania before it closed in 1980 . In addition to planting millions of trees , in 1913 the state encouraged use of state forest lands by allowing permanent leases for camp sites ; when the state stopped issuing new permits in 1970 , 4 @,@ 500 campsites had been leased . The Pennsylvania Game Commission began purchasing land for state game preserves in 1920 , and , by 1941 , State Game Lands 34 , which is partly in Quehanna Wild Area , had been established . Despite these conservation efforts , major forest fires swept the Moshannon and Elk state forests in 1912 , 1913 , 1926 , and 1930 , and minor fires occurred in other years .
During the Great Depression , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) established ten camps in Moshannon State Forest , and ten in Elk State Forest . The young men of the CCC planted trees , blazed new trails , built roads and bridges , and fought fires , which continued to be a problem . In 1938 a fast @-@ moving fire in the Elk State Forest , north of Quehanna , killed eight firefighters . The CCC also built structures and established or improved many of the state parks , including Parker Dam and S. B. Elliott State Parks on the western Quehanna plateau . The United States ' entry into the Second World War ended the CCC , and all its camps were closed by the summer of 1942 . The Quehanna Trail System passes near or through the sites of several former CCC camps .
Other Depression @-@ era public works projects shaped the area . The Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) had at least two camps for World War I veterans in the Quehanna area , and built the Karthaus emergency landing field for airmail planes , similar to those that became Mid @-@ State Regional Airport and Cherry Springs Airport . The 3 @,@ 700 @-@ by @-@ 1 @,@ 800 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 100 by 550 m ) airfield was built in 1935 and 1936 along Hoover Road ( the old Driftwood Pike ) , just north of what is now Wykoff Run Natural Area . During World War II the landing strip was blocked to prevent enemy planes from secretly landing there .
In 1946 the Mosquito Creek Sportsmen 's Association was founded to promote conservation in the region . One of the Association 's initial concerns was the acidification of streams , which they originally attributed to tannic acid from the trees used by the beavers to construct their dams . With the assistance of Pennsylvania 's Department of Forests and Waters , Game Commission , and Fish and Boat Commission , they dynamited 79 dams . Afterward , they discovered the water was acidic upstream of the dams too , and eventually realized that the problem was caused by acid rain , not the beavers . The Association has operated several stations to reduce the acidity of Mosquito Creek and its tributaries , with technical assistance from the Pennsylvania State University ( Penn State ) .
= = = Atoms for Peace = = =
In a December 8 , 1953 , speech to the United Nations , President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced a new Atoms for Peace policy , and the United States Congress enacted his program into law the following year . Atoms for Peace " made funding accessible to anyone who had the imagination , if not the ability , to harness the atom 's power for peaceful purposes " . Under the new program , the airplane manufacturer Curtiss @-@ Wright Corporation sought a large isolated area in central Pennsylvania " for the development of nuclear @-@ powered jet engines and to conduct research in nucleonics , metallurgy , ultrasonics , electronics , chemicals and plastics " . Curtiss @-@ Wright worked closely with the state and , in June 1955 , George M. Leader , the Governor of Pennsylvania , signed legislation that authorized the construction of a research facility at Quehanna . The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania sold Curtiss @-@ Wright 8 @,@ 597 acres ( 3 @,@ 479 ha ) for $ 181 @,@ 250 ( $ 22 @.@ 50 an acre , $ 55 @.@ 60 a hectare ) , and gave the company a 99 @-@ year lease on the remaining 42 @,@ 596 acres ( 17 @,@ 238 ha ) at $ 30 @,@ 000 a year . Curtiss @-@ Wright controlled 51 @,@ 193 acres ( 80 @.@ 0 sq mi ; 207 @.@ 2 km2 ) in a regular 16 @-@ sided polygon , which was easier to fence than a circular area .
The state constructed $ 1 @.@ 6 million of roads to the area ; the Quehanna Highway was built on parts of an old CCC road , which followed an earlier logging railroad grade . Pennsylvania also canceled 212 camp site leases to help ensure security for the installation . Curtiss @-@ Wright built three facilities on its land . The first was a nuclear research center with a nuclear reactor and six shielded radiation containment chambers for handling radioactive isotopes , referred to as hot cells , at the end of Reactor Road . The second was for jet engine trials and had two test cells with bunkers just north of Quehanna Highway , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) apart . The northern test cell was at the center of the 16 @-@ sided polygon ; even if a jet engine broke its moorings , it could not leave the polygonal area . Both of these were on the land which Curtiss @-@ Wright had purchased , which was a regular octagon surrounded with a 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) fence built by forest rangers , supervised from three guard houses on Quehanna Highway and Wykoff Run Road . The third installation was an industrial complex at the southeast edge of the polygon , in Karthaus Township , on the Quehanna Highway . At this site , a Curtiss @-@ Wright division manufactured Curon foam for furniture and household products and used beryllium oxide to make high @-@ temperature ceramics for application in the nuclear industry .
In 1956 Curtiss @-@ Wright began isotope work at the facility , and The New York Times published two stories on the new nuclear research laboratory that year , followed by a November 1957 report that the one @-@ megawatt nuclear reactor was completed . In 1958 , the corporation received a twenty @-@ year license from the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) to operate a four @-@ megawatt pool @-@ type nuclear research reactor , and received permission from the Pennsylvania Sanitary Water Board to dispose of some radioactive waste in Meeker Run , a tributary of Mosquito Creek . The project was billed as " the greatest thing that ever happened in North Central Pennsylvania " , and was expected to employ between 7 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 people . Curtiss @-@ Wright spent $ 30 million on the project , and developed a community for its scientific and technical staff at the village of Pine Glen , southeast of Karthaus in Centre County .
By 1960 the Air Force had decided not to pursue nuclear @-@ powered aircraft , and the federal government canceled $ 70 million in " high @-@ altitude testing contracts " with Curtiss @-@ Wright . By June 1960 , the reactor was on standby and only 750 employees remained , 400 of which were in the Curon foam division ; many engineers and scientists had already left . On August 20 , 1960 , Curtiss @-@ Wright announced that it was donating the reactor facility to Penn State and selling its Curon foam division ; the remaining 235 employees lost their jobs . Penn State , located about an hour south of Quehanna , had its own nuclear reactor , but intended to use the Quehanna facility for research and training .
The Curtis @-@ Wright reactor was dismantled and its fuel returned to the AEC . Martin Company , which soon became Martin Marietta , leased the hot cells , intending to use them in the manufacture of small radioisotope thermoelectric generators . Curtiss @-@ Wright warned Penn State " that the radiation involved in Martin 's operations would be ' extremely high ' and of a type that posed a particular risk to human health " , but Curtiss @-@ Wright itself had left both solid and liquid radioactive waste in the facility . Some of the Curtiss @-@ Wright waste was contaminated with toxic beryllium oxide . Penn State had acquired the reactor license and with it came legal responsibility for the nuclear waste on the site ; its plan with the AEC called for the release of 90 percent of the liquid radioactive waste into the environment and the burial of most radioactive solids on site . Items coated with beryllium oxide dust " were covered in plastic and buried out in the woods " , where some were subsequently unearthed by black bears and white @-@ tailed deer . Once jet engine testing stopped , the bunkers at the test cells were used " to store hazardous and explosive material " .
In 1962 Martin Marietta began to manufacture Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power ( SNAP ) thermoelectric generators under a contract with the AEC ; their AEC license allowed them to have up to 6 million curies of radioactive strontium @-@ 90 in the form of strontium titanate , which powered the SNAP generators . A SNAP @-@ 7 reactor made at Quehanna was used in the world 's first nuclear @-@ powered lighthouse , the Baltimore Harbor Light , from May 1964 to April 1966 . In early 1963 , Curtiss @-@ Wright still owned or leased all of Quehanna and sublet land along Quehanna Highway to a firm that recovered copper from wire by burning off its insulation , a procedure that contaminated the soil . On July 12 , 1963 , Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton announced the termination of Curtiss @-@ Wright 's lease on 42 @,@ 596 acres ( 17 @,@ 238 ha ) ; the state paid the company for the roads it had built , and Curtiss @-@ Wright donated six of the eight buildings in the industrial complex to the state . In 1965 the state legislature passed an act declaring the former leased area a wilderness area , and Maurice K. Goddard , secretary of the Department of Forests and Waters , named it the Quehanna Wilderness Area .
Although Martin Marietta completed its AEC contract and its lease expired on December 21 , 1966 , it had to stay at the reactor site " until radiation contamination was brought to acceptable levels " . Martin Marietta partially decontaminated the site and , in April 1967 , undertook a joint radiological survey with Penn State and the AEC . The survey found " licensable [ sic ] quantities of strontium @-@ 90 stayed behind as structural contamination and residual radioactivity in piping and tanks , estimated at about 0 @.@ 2 curies " . This met the standards for that day , although Penn State did raise questions about the contamination remaining . Strontium is chemically very similar to calcium ( both are alkaline earth metals ) and can be absorbed by the body , where it is chiefly incorporated into bones . Strontium @-@ 90 decays by beta decay and has a half @-@ life of 29 years ; when it is in the body , its radioactivity can lead to bone cancer and leukemia .
Many in the conservation movement urged the state to buy back the land , especially after the Curtiss @-@ Wright lease was canceled . In April 1967 Penn State vacated the site and gave the reactor complex to the state . Martin Marietta departed in June 1967 , and early in that same year , Pennsylvania bought the remaining land back from Curtiss @-@ Wright for $ 992 @,@ 500 , about $ 811 @,@ 000 more than they had sold it for in 1955 . Various usage plans for the area were proposed , including : a vacation resort with a large artificial lake , motels , golf courses , and honeymoon resort ; a Penn State game preserve stocked with exotic animals like bison and boar ; a large youth camp for several hundred children ; and a radioactive waste disposal site . By November 1967 , all of the land was back in the state forests and state game lands .
= = = Protected area and reclamation = = =
= = = = Reactor facility = = = =
In 1967 , Pennsylvania leased the reactor complex to the Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corporation ( NUMEC ) , which already had a federal license to work with nuclear materials . NUMEC , which soon became a subsidiary of Atlantic @-@ Richfield Corporation ( ARCO ) , set up a large irradiator in what had been the reactor pool . The irradiator contained over 1 million curies of cobalt @-@ 60 to produce intense gamma rays , which were used to sterilize medical equipment and irradiate food and wood . In the spring of 1967 the state had concluded that radiation contamination at the Quehanna site " could never be completely cleaned up " , and so was glad to find a tenant with nuclear experience .
A group of NUMEC employees discovered that irradiating hardwood treated with plastics produced very durable flooring . In 1978 they formed PermaGrain Products , Inc. as a separate company from ARCO , and purchased the rights to the process as well as " the main irradiator , a smaller shielded irradiator and related equipment " . PermaGrain sold the flooring for use in basketball courts and gymnasiums , and was the longest occupant of the Quehanna facility , operating there from 1978 to December 2002 . PermaGrain also let Neutron Products , Inc . , a Maryland company , do cobalt @-@ 60 work in its hot cells , which required an amendment of their license from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission ( NRC , the successor to the AEC ) .
In 1993 , strontium @-@ 90 contamination in the reactor facility led the NRC to require PermaGrain to begin decontamination work , and the Pennsylvania DEP commissioned a " site characterization study " . In 1998 , a firm named NES began the cleanup work ; they changed their name to Scientech in 1999 and to EnergySolutions in 2006 . The cleanup was originally estimated to take six months ; by 2006 it had taken 8 years and cost $ 30 million . According to the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection 's ( DEP ) Bureau of Radiation Protection : " Inadequate characterization of the site and the presence of ongoing industrial operations resulted in many project delays and increased costs . " The hot cells proved to have more radioactive sources than originally thought . In October 1998 a Scientech worker doing decontamination cut a tube in hot cell number 4 , which accidentally released strontium @-@ 90 into PermaGrain 's work area . As a result , a robot had to be constructed to remove 3 @,@ 000 curies of cobalt @-@ 60 in two of the hot cells , dismantle cell 4 , and decontaminate the rest remotely .
After the accidental release , another radiological survey was performed and the state government concluded that PermaGrain needed to be relocated . The DCNR made the policy decision that Quehanna Wild Area would be closed to industrial uses . After looking at multiple sites with Clearfield County development authorities , a new site for PermaGrain Products was purchased , and the company submitted its plans for a new building and license to the NRC in October 2001 . In order to approve the move to the new site , the NRC required PermaGrain to provide an inventory of all their cobalt @-@ 60 sources , dispose of a damaged source , and dispose of any other sources not mechanically certified . However in late December 2002 , PermaGrain filed for bankruptcy under Chapter Seven . PermaGrain had employed 135 people in 1988 and 80 in 1995 .
When PermaGrain went bankrupt , about 100 @,@ 000 curies of cobalt @-@ 60 were abandoned at the reactor facility , which was now under the control of Pennsylvania 's government . The DEP assumed responsibility for the NRC license and legacy contamination . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , working with the NRC and state , removed the cobalt @-@ 60 from the site for disposal at the low @-@ level radioactive waste facility in Barnwell , South Carolina , in September 2003 . Scientech continued decontamination work and demolished the hot cells ; much of this work was done robotically , with financial aid from the United States Department of Energy .
The cleanup was thought finished , so a final survey was done in December 2004 , and a Final Status Survey Report was filed in February 2005 . However , when the NRC and scientists from the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education surveyed the facility in May 2005 , they found many areas of contamination above the legal limits . According to the NRC 's Quehanna Site Status Summary , strontium @-@ 90 had contaminated the " buildings as well as ... surface and subsurface soil " but was not in groundwater . More cleanup work was done in the summer of 2005 , but the site still did not meet NRC regulations . DEP concluded that " some type of migration of radioactive material [ was ] taking place in the concrete at the facility " , and changed its disposal plan . The new plan called for demolition of the building without completing decontamination , and disposal of the above ground material in a regular landfill . This plan was approved by the NRC in October 2006 , and a December 2006 survey showed " that the above grade structure met the release limits " of the disposal plan . The former reactor structure was demolished and on May 13 , 2009 the NRC released the state from its license for the site . As of 2011 , a small octagonal " restricted area " around the reactor site is still shown on official DCNR maps .
= = = = Contamination and cleanup = = = =
On September 20 , 1967 , two Bureau of Forestry employees attempted to remove a metal ladder from a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 76 @,@ 000 l ; 17 @,@ 000 imp gal ) metal storage tank for jet fuel at the northern jet engine test cell . Both were killed in an explosion when the acetylene torch cut through the tank wall and ignited fumes inside it . A tract within the Elk State Forest at the northern edge of the wild area is known as Noble @-@ Chambers Memorial Forest in their memory . Although Fergus reports entering a bunker in his 2002 book , and Young describes a bunker 's slit windows in his 2008 book , as of 2010 the southern bunker is covered with earth , while the northern bunker is still completely intact and enter @-@ able .
In 1986 , former Curtiss @-@ Wright and Martin Marietta employees testified about hazards and waste disposal practices before a hearing of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . A former employee told how a night watchman walked through a spill in the reactor complex without knowing it ; the man 's car and the carpets in his house had to be destroyed as a result of the contamination . Others told about burying hundreds of drums of unknown waste from the reactor facility and digging a trench 125 by 25 feet ( 38 @.@ 1 by 7 @.@ 6 m ) and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep for waste drums north of Wykoff Run Road . The locations of some sites , which included radioactive waste , beryllium oxide , and other toxic compounds , were not recorded . A forest ranger testified that he had dismantled a CCC @-@ built drinking water fountain fed by a spring because it was downhill from the reactor and he feared people might drink contaminated water from it .
In 1964 , drilling revealed that the Quehanna Wild Area 's geology and hydrology made it unsuitable for burying waste . However , according to Seeley 's Great Buffaloe Swamp , a history of the Quehanna region , there are 180 contamination sites in the wild area . Waste has been found at the former air field , within the Wykoff Run Natural Area , near the industrial complex , at the former Lincoln Farm , and at the copper wire @-@ burning site on the highway . These last three waste sites were cleaned in 1991 at a cost of $ 187 @,@ 698 . At the wire @-@ burning site 150 short tons ( 140 t ) of contaminated soil were removed from 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) , with clean earth and grass seed placed on top of the area . The waste was also removed from the farm site , but at the industrial complex the waste was covered with 2 @,@ 500 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m3 ) of soil on 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) and fenced off .
= = = = Piper complex and boot camp = = = =
The industrial complex covers about 100 acres ( 40 ha ) on both sides of Quehanna Highway at the southeast edge of the Quehanna Wild Area . Although the industrial complex lies within the historic 16 @-@ sided polygon , it is no longer part of the wild area . After Curtiss @-@ Wright 's lease ended and it donated six of the eight buildings in the complex to the state in 1963 , Pennsylvania formed the Commonwealth Industrial Research Corporation to administer and lease the Quehanna facilities , which it did until 1967 . Over the years a series of tenants have occupied parts of the industrial complex . One company manufactured logging trailers there from 1967 to 1971 , while another processed frozen meat from 1968 to 1970 . In 1968 Piper Aircraft established a plant to make metal and plastic parts for airplanes . The complex was renamed from Quehanna to Piper , a name it retains . Piper employed up to 1 @,@ 000 people , but moved its operations from Pennsylvania to Florida in 1984 .
The Young Adult Conservation Corps was also based at Piper from 1977 to 1982 . This federally funded program employed up to 45 young people for local conservation projects in the state parks and forests and on state game lands . In addition , Sylvania Electric Products used two buildings in the industrial complex as warehouses for light bulbs until 1993 . In 1992 , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation began a heavy equipment training school at Piper , which is still in operation .
In 1992 the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections opened the Quehanna Motivational Boot Camp at Piper as the state 's " first military @-@ style motivational boot camp " . The minimum security program for non @-@ violent , first @-@ time offenders has accepted both male and female inmates from the start . Originally designed to house 200 , the Department of Corrections expanded the facility in the late 1990s to a capacity of 500 on about 50 acres ( 20 ha ) . The inmates spend six months in a military @-@ style program that offers opportunities for education and builds positive life skills ; they also are offered drug and alcohol therapy . Those who successfully complete the boot camp program , which is considered an alternative to prison , are released on parole . The boot camp began to receive men and women from the " general population of state prison inmates " in 2005 and 2006 , respectively . At the end of June 2009 , the facility had 494 inmates , 61 percent of whom were in the boot camp program , and cost just over $ 17 million a year to operate .
= = = = Wild area = = = =
In December 1970 the state forest commission officially changed the designation from Quehanna Wilderness Area to Quehanna Wild Area , making it the first state forest wild area in Pennsylvania . Elk and Moshannon state forests jointly administer Quehanna 's 48 @,@ 186 acres ( 75 @.@ 3 sq mi ; 195 @.@ 0 km2 ) ; for comparison , this is over three times larger than the 23 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 60 km2 ) area of Manhattan , making Quehanna the largest of the 16 wild areas in the state . According to the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry , " a wild area is an extensive area , which the general public will be permitted to see , use and enjoy for such activities as hiking , hunting , and fishing . No development of a permanent nature will be permitted in order to retain the undeveloped character of the area . These areas will be administered according to the principals of forest protection ... " .
Consequently , within a wild area , no new permanent camp leases , mines , wells , roads , or rights @-@ of @-@ way for utility lines are allowed , although existing camps , roads , and rights @-@ of @-@ way may remain . Vehicles are allowed only on public roads ; trails are limited to hikers , bicyclists , equestrians , and wheelchairs , and only primitive camping by backpackers is allowed . Quehanna has two paved roads open to vehicles , and is crossed by rights @-@ of @-@ way for three electrical power lines and two natural gas pipelines . It is one of the largest areas in Pennsylvania without permanent inhabitants .
The state forest system also has natural areas , with more restricted usage . According to the Bureau of Forestry , " A natural area is an area of unique scenic , historic , geologic or ecological value that will be maintained in a natural condition by allowing physical and biological processes to operate , usually without direct human intervention . " Quehanna Wild Area contains two state forest natural areas : the 1 @,@ 215 @-@ acre ( 492 ha ) Wykoff Run Natural Area in the center , and the 917 @-@ acre ( 371 ha ) Marion Brooks Natural Area on the northwest edge . Marion Brooks Natural Area , known for its 22 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) stand of white birch , was formerly known as Paige Run Natural Area ; in 1975 it was renamed for Marion E. Brooks , a pioneering environmentalist from Elk County . Quehanna Wild Area also has two wildlife viewing areas with blinds for observing elk and other animals : Beaver Run Dam 's pond and wetlands and Hoover Farm 's fields and feeding plots .
The Quehanna plateau is home to the Quehanna Trail System , a 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) loop hiking trail , 33 @.@ 6 miles ( 54 @.@ 1 km ) of which are in Quehanna Wild Area . The trail was built in 1976 and 1977 with help from a federally funded jobs program , the Young Adult Conservation Corps , and the Pennsylvania Conservation Corps . As of 2010 it is maintained by the Quehanna Area Trails Club . Parts of the trail have been moved , away from damage caused by the 1985 tornado , to avoid pipelines , to circumvent the Piper Boot Camp , and to pass closer to streams . The wild area also has six shallow ponds for waterfowl and other wildlife , the result of dams built on marshy areas in the 1970s . In 1997 the whole Quehanna Wild Area was declared Pennsylvania Important Bird Area # 31 by the Pennsylvania Audubon Society . In 2003 , the Bureau of Forestry proposed expanding the Quehanna Wild Area by incorporating more of the surrounding Elk and Moshannon State Forests .
Despite efforts to restrict use , some environmentalists criticize Quehanna 's administration . Christopher Klyza , author of Wilderness Comes Home : Rewilding the Northeast , notes that the Pennsylvania wild areas are not true wilderness areas . He is especially critical of the continued use of roads through the wild areas and limited logging allowed " for forest health and wildlife habitat improvements " .
= = Geology and climate = =
Quehanna Wild Area lies at an elevation of 1 @,@ 896 feet ( 578 m ) on the Allegheny Plateau . The area falls into portions of two distinct geological physiographic provinces , with all but the northernmost part in the Pittsburgh Low Plateau , known for its coal and mineral deposits , and characterized by steep @-@ cut stream beds . The northernmost part of the wild area , including Marion Brooks Natural Area , is in the Deep Valleys section , home to some of the most remote and wild areas of the state ; streams here have cut deep valleys with steep @-@ sided slopes . In the southern part of Quehanna Wild Area , the Mosquito Creek gorge is up to 500 feet ( 150 m ) deep , while the Red Run gorge in the north is almost 900 feet ( 270 m ) deep .
The Allegheny Plateau formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with the landmass that became North America , forming Pangaea . In the dissected plateau , years of erosion have cut away the soft rocks , forming the valleys , and leaving the hardest rocks relatively untouched . The land on which Quehanna Wild Area sits was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America in the Pennsylvanian subperiod . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today .
At least five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods are present in Quehanna Wild Area . The youngest of these , which forms the highest points on the plateau , is the Pennsylvanian Allegheny Formation , which has clay , coal , limestone , sandstone , and shale . Below this is the Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation , a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone , siltstone , and shale , as well as anthracite coal , and which forms much of the Quehanna plateau . The next formations are found in the valleys and gorges which the creeks have eroded over time . The first of these is the Mississippian Pocono Formation , which is buff colored with shale , coal , and conglomerate inclusions ; parts of this formation are also known as the Burgoon Sandstone . Below this is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation , which is made of relatively soft grayish @-@ red shale and olive @-@ gray sandstone . The lowest and oldest layer is the red shale and siltstone of the Catskill Formation .
The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges ( the difference between the daily high and low ) of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . Quehanna Wild Area is part of the Mosquito Creek and Wykoff Run watersheds , where the mean annual precipitation is 40 to 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 016 to 1 @,@ 067 mm ) . Weather records are not available for Quehanna Wild Area , but they are known for the nearby village of Karthaus . The highest recorded temperature at Karthaus was 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) in 2011 , and the record low was − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) in 1994 . On average , January is the coldest month , July is the hottest month , and June is the wettest month .
= = = 1985 tornado = = =
On May 31 , 1985 , an outbreak of 43 tornadoes struck northeastern Ohio , western and central Pennsylvania , New York , and southern Ontario , killing 88 people . The Storm Data Center of the National Weather Service rated the outbreak " the 12th most ' significant ' tornado event of all time " . Pennsylvania was struck by 17 tornadoes that Memorial Day , including the only F5 tornado on the Fujita scale in the state 's history . The tornadoes caused 65 deaths in Pennsylvania and were not dissipated by the state 's mountainous landscape , " forever putting to rest the myth that such terrain can deter them " .
An F4 tornado passed through Quehanna Wild Area ; its path of destruction crossed the Quehanna Highway at the Clearfield – Cameron county line . It traveled over 69 miles ( 111 km ) of mainly dense forest and wilderness in central Pennsylvania , and damaged or destroyed buildings early in its life , including a CCC @-@ built lodge at Parker Dam State Park . The damage path from this storm was estimated to be at least 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) wide . Its winds — 200 to 260 miles per hour ( 320 to 420 km / h ) — ripped up small and medium sized trees and shrubs , tore leaves and limbs from some of the big trees , and snapped others like matchsticks . As it headed west through Moshannon State Forest in Clearfield and Centre counties , Gregory S. Forbes , then a meteorology professor at Penn State , said the debris from the tornado was visible on his WSR @-@ 57 radar scanners . The reactor building was just north of the tornado 's path and suffered $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage , but no radiation leaks occurred .
The tornado outbreak injured more than 1 @,@ 000 people and caused $ 450 million in total damages and destruction . Moshannon State Forest lost an estimated $ 8 million in lumber to the tornado that hit Quehanna ; after the storm , $ 2 million in timber was salvaged in the state forest . In the ensuing years , the affected forest at Quehanna , though younger and smaller than the surrounding woods , has partly recovered . The official map for the Quehanna Trail is labeled " tornado zone " where the twister passed through the wild area .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Flora = = =
The virgin forests of what became Quehanna Wild Area were different in composition and quality than those of today . Eastern white pine and eastern hemlock were more common , often found on shady slopes and damp areas on plateaus . Chestnut oak and pitch pine favored slopes that were sandy or rocky , and the forest had a mixture of hardwoods , including ash , beech , birch , chestnut , maple , and yellow poplar . Each acre ( 0 @.@ 4 ha ) of these virgin forests could produce up to 100 @,@ 000 board feet ( 236 m3 ) of white pine and 200 @,@ 000 board feet ( 472 m3 ) of hemlock and hardwoods . For comparison , the same area of forest today produces a total of 5 @,@ 000 board feet ( 11 @.@ 8 m3 ) on average . The virgin forests cooled the land and streams . Centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into the streams , so they flowed more evenly year @-@ round .
The clearcutting and repeated fires changed all of this . New growth was often composed of different plants and trees than had originally been there . Near Beaver Run in Quehanna there are wetlands that were originally hemlock forest . Hemlocks transpire large amounts of water and once they were gone the soil was too wet to support most trees ; the bracken and ferns that replaced the hemlocks altered the soil qualities to discourage trees as well . Within the Quehanna Wild Area 650 acres ( 260 ha ) are wetlands . Fires and erosion removed nutrients from the soil , and in some areas the soil was so poor in nutrients that only white birch , a pioneer species , would grow there . Marion Brooks Natural Area has the largest stand of white birch in Pennsylvania and the eastern United States . These trees are now 80 to 90 years old and reaching the end of their lifespans .
Besides forest fires and tornado damage , there have been other threats to Quehanna 's forests in the 20th century . Many trees were lost when chestnut blight wiped out the American chestnut trees by 1925 ; in the Quehanna area , this species constituted between one @-@ quarter and one @-@ half of the hardwoods . In the 1960s , white and chestnut oak trees had high mortality from pit scale insects and associated fungi . Larvae of oak leaf roller moths , which defoliate oaks , first appeared on 8 @,@ 200 acres ( 3 @,@ 300 ha ) of Quehanna Wild Area in the late 1960s ; at their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s they had defoliated 234 @,@ 700 acres ( 95 @,@ 000 ha ) of Moshannon State Forest and 110 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 @,@ 000 ha ) in Elk State Forest , with moderate to heavy tree mortality . A similar pest , oak leaf tier , stripped 375 @,@ 000 acres ( 152 @,@ 000 ha ) of oaks in Elk State Forest by 1970 . The gypsy moth defoliated over 156 @,@ 000 acres ( 63 @,@ 000 ha ) of deciduous trees in the 1970s and 1980s . The forests within the Quehanna Important Bird Area are 84 percent hardwoods , 4 percent mixed hardwood and evergreens , less than 1 percent evergreens , 7 percent transitional between forests and fields , and 3 percent perennial herbaceous plants . As well as trees , the forests have blueberry and huckleberry bushes and thickets of mountain laurel and rhododendron .
= = = Fauna = = =
Some animals , previously present in abundance , have disappeared , or the populations declined , through habitat loss . By 1912 , after the forests had been clearcut , Quehanna was covered by " vast expanses of brush , created when the root systems of cut @-@ off trees sprouted up through the discarded tops and limbs of the logged forest " . Once the forest fires were controlled , this brush offered habitat for many game species . By the early 1940s , the CCC had thinned brush in many areas , and the forest had matured . Shade from the canopy decreased brush in the understory . By the early 21st century , many of the trees in Quehanna were 80 to 100 years old , and the maturation of the forests led to the disappearance of species like bobwhite quail , ring @-@ necked pheasant , and snowshoe hare , while white @-@ tailed deer , ruffed grouse , black squirrel , and cottontail rabbit all became less common than they had been . Efforts by the Mosquito Creek Sportsmen 's Association ( MCSA ) to reintroduce bobwhite quail , ring @-@ necked pheasant , and snowshoe hare have been unsuccessful .
Other animals became locally extinct through overhunting . The last elk in Pennsylvania was killed in Elk County in 1867 . The Pennsylvania Game Commission brought 177 animals from the Rocky Mountains to the state from 1913 to 1926 ; today the elk herd of over 600 animals can often be seen in Quehanna Wild Area . Between 1906 and 1925 , Pennsylvania became so concerned about declining numbers of white @-@ tailed deer that it imported nearly 1 @,@ 200 animals from Michigan to re @-@ establish the species , and made it the official state animal in 1959 . In the early 21st century , over @-@ grazing by deer threatens plant diversity . By the early 20th century , the fisher , a small mammal similar to the European polecat or American marten , was hunted to extinction in Pennsylvania . Between 1994 and 1998 , 190 animals were released in five sites in the northern part of the state , including 23 animals along Quehanna 's Wykoff Run in 1995 . Breeding populations of fisher appear to have been reestablished .
Still other animals seem to thrive regardless of the maturity of the forest or the presence of the understory . Common animals found in Quehanna include chipmunks , porcupine , and beaver , omnivores such as the black bear and raccoon , and predators like bobcat , red fox , and coyote ( which has been in Pennsylvania since the 1930s ) . Many of the streams in Quehanna Wild Area are known for trout ( brook , brown and rainbow ) ; some populations are wild and others are stocked by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission and Mosquito Creek Sportsmen 's Association . The wild area is also home to timber rattlesnake , eastern garter snake , and spring peeper ( a type of frog ) , as well as butterflies like great spangled fritillary , monarch , red @-@ spotted purple , and black , eastern tiger , and spicebush swallowtails . Any of these mammals , especially the white @-@ tailed deer , can carry ticks , and such tick @-@ borne diseases as Lyme disease are a health concern for hikers .
As an International Bird Area , Quehanna 's forests are recognized as a " large , unfragmented tract with exceptional diversity of woodland species " and are home to 102 species of birds . Common birds include American crow , black @-@ capped chickadee , blue jay , broad @-@ winged hawk , common raven , hermit thrush , house sparrow , northern waterthrush , starling , whip @-@ poor @-@ will , and wild turkey . Quehanna Wild Area includes a variety of forest , riparian , and wetland habitats that support a diversity of animals . The shrub and scrubland areas left by the 1985 tornado and cleared for elk to feed in are home to indigo bunting and prairie warbler , while ponds and wetlands attract waterfowl such as hooded merganser and wood duck , and wading birds like great blue heron . The birch forest of Marion Brooks Natural Area is home to downy , hairy , and pileated woodpeckers , the oak forest of Wykoff Run Natural Area has black @-@ throated green warbler , red @-@ eyed vireo , and white @-@ breasted nuthatch , and its aspen groves have woodcock . In addition to the commonly seen red @-@ tailed hawk , other raptors include the northern goshawk and the golden and bald eagles .
= = Recreation = =
According to the DCNR , Quehanna Wild Area is for the public " to see , use and enjoy for such activities as hiking , hunting , and fishing " . The main hiking trail on the Quehanna plateau is the Quehanna Trail , a 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) loop trail that passes through the wild area and Moshannon and Elk State Forests . The main trailhead for most hikers is at Parker Dam State Park to the west of the wild area . From there the trail , which is blazed in orange , heads east to the southern part of Quehanna Wild Area , skirts Piper and the Boot Camp there , then turns north , crosses Wykoff Run and turns west again . After passing through Marion Brooks Natural Area , the trail leaves the wild area and completes the loop back at Parker Dam . The Quehanna Trail is considered a strenuous hike not just because of its length , but for its 9 @,@ 700 feet ( 2 @,@ 957 m ) of changes in elevation . Two blue @-@ blazed connector trails add 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the system , and there are many side trails and small trails off the Quehanna Highway . Most trails are open to cross @-@ country skiing in the winter . According to the DCNR , the Quehanna Trail " passes through some of the most wild and beautiful country Pennsylvania has to offer " .
Susan Stranahan 's Susquehanna : River of Dreams reports that before Curtiss @-@ Wright took over the area in 1955 , Quehanna was considered " some of the best hunting land in the state " . While no hunting or fishing were initially allowed on the leased land , by July 1959 fishing on Mosquito Creek was allowed again , as was limited hunting to help control the deer . In October 1963 hunting resumed throughout the wild area , four years before the state purchased the land back from Curtiss @-@ Wright . As of 2010 , the Pennsylvania Game Commission allows hunting of the following species found in Quehanna Wild Area : American crow , beaver , black bear , black squirrel , bobcat , bobwhite quail , cottontail rabbit , coyote , elk , house sparrow , raccoon , red fox , ring @-@ necked pheasant , ruffed grouse , white @-@ tailed deer , wild turkey , and woodcock . The Mosquito Creek Sportsmen 's Association has sponsored an annual coyote hunt each winter hunt since 1992 . The club has also provided food plots for deer and elk , fed game animals in winter , planted and pruned fruit trees , stocked fish , and treated streams for acid rain . Fishing is primarily for trout .
The Quehanna Wild Area is also seen , used , and enjoyed by bird watchers attracted by its status as an Important Bird Area . Audubon Pennsylvania and the DCNR have prepared the Susquehanna River Birding and Wildlife Trail guide which lists three sites in Quehanna : Wykoff Run , Beaver Run Wildlife Viewing Area , and the whole wild area . The DCNR has published a guide to Elk Scenic Drive which lists 23 attractions , four in Quehanna : Marion Brooks and Wykoff Run Natural Areas , and Beaver Run and Hoover Farm Wildlife Viewing Areas .
= Avianca Flight 52 =
Avianca Flight 52 was a regularly scheduled flight from Bogotá to New York , via Medellín that crashed on January 25 , 1990 , at 21 : 34 ( UTC − 05 : 00 ) . The Boeing 707 flying this route ran out of fuel on approach to John F. Kennedy International Airport ( JFK ) , causing the aircraft to crash onto a hillside in the small village of Cove Neck , New York , on the north shore of Long Island . Eight of the nine crew members and 65 of the 149 passengers on board were killed . The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) determined that the crash occurred due to the flight crew failing to properly declare a fuel emergency , resulting in air traffic control underestimating the seriousness of the situation .
The flight left Medellín with more than enough fuel for the journey and progressed toward JFK normally . While en route , the flight was placed in three holding patterns . Due to poor communication between the air crew and the air traffic controllers , as well as an inadequate management of the fuel load by the pilots , the flight became critically low on fuel . This dire situation was not recognized as an emergency by the controllers . The flight attempted to make a landing at JFK , but bad weather , coupled with poor communication and inadequate management of the aircraft , forced it to abort and attempt a go @-@ around . The flight ran out of fuel before it was able to make a second landing attempt . The airplane crashed approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) from JFK .
Hundreds of emergency personnel responded to the crash site and helped save victims . Many of those who survived were severely injured and required months or years to physically recover . NTSB investigators looked at various factors that contributed to the crash . The failures of the flight crew were cited as the probable cause of the crash , but the weather , air traffic controller performances , and FAA traffic management were also cited as contributing to the events that led to the accident . This conclusion was controversial , with disagreement between investigators , passengers , and Avianca as to who was ultimately responsible . Eventually , the U.S. government joined with Avianca and settled to pay for the damages to the victims and their families . The crash was also portrayed in a variety of media .
= = Background = =
The Avianca Flight 52 aircraft was a Boeing 707 @-@ 321B ( registration number HK 2016 ) . The aircraft was manufactured in June 1967 and was purchased by Avianca from Pan Am in 1977 . By the time of the crash , the aircraft had over 61 @,@ 000 flight hours . The 707 was equipped with four JT3D @-@ 3B engines modified with a hush kit to reduce noise pollution . Avianca personnel reported that they factored in a five @-@ percent fuel overburn into the performance calculations due to the hush kit along with an additional five @-@ percent overburn due to the age of the aircraft . Additionally , maintenance crews had noted recurring issues with the aircraft 's autopilot , including the altitude hold function .
The flight was manned by a crew of nine , including six flight attendants and three flight crewmen . The flight crew was captained by 51 @-@ year @-@ old Laureano Caviedes with 28 @-@ year @-@ old first officer ( copilot ) Mauricio Klotz and 45 @-@ year @-@ old flight engineer Matias Moyano . At the time of the crash , Captain Caviedes had been employed with Avianca for over 27 years and had logged over 16 @,@ 000 hours of flight time , including over 1 @,@ 500 in the 707 . Caviedes had 478 hours of night flying experience in the 707 and had no record of any prior accidents . Copilot Klotz had been employed with Avianca for three years and had 1 @,@ 837 hours of flight time . Klotz had transitioned to the 707 the previous October and had logged 64 flight hours in the airframe , including 13 at night . Flight engineer Moyano had been employed with Avianca for over 23 years and had over 10 @,@ 000 hours of flight time , including over 3 @,@ 000 hours in the 707 and over 1 @,@ 000 hours of night flying in the same airframe .
= = Flight = =
Avianca Flight 52 was a regularly scheduled international passenger flight from El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá , Colombia , to John F. Kennedy International Airport ( JFK ) in Queens , New York , with an intermediate stop in José María Córdova International Airport near Medellín , Colombia .
= = = Departure and flight = = =
Flight 52 departed Bogotá at 13 : 10 Eastern Standard Time , five minutes ahead of schedule , on January 25 , 1990 . The flight landed at Medellín at 14 : 04 and prepared to fly the leg to JFK . At Medellín , the aircraft landed with 67 @,@ 200 pounds ( 30 @,@ 500 kg ) of fuel . The flight plan filed for the journey to JFK called for 55 @,@ 520 pounds ( 25 @,@ 180 kg ) of fuel required for the trip to JFK , 4 @,@ 510 pounds ( 2 @,@ 050 kg ) for reserve fuel , 7 @,@ 600 pounds ( 3 @,@ 400 kg ) for alternate fuel , 4 @,@ 800 pounds ( 2 @,@ 200 kg ) for holding fuel , and 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) of taxi fuel totaling 73 @,@ 930 pounds ( 33 @,@ 530 kg ) minimum of block fuel . The dispatcher at Medellín ordered a total fuel load of 78 @,@ 000 pounds ( 35 @,@ 000 kg ) , including 4 @,@ 070 pounds ( 1 @,@ 850 kg ) of " top off " fuel to raise the aircraft weight to the maximum allowable for the planned departure runway . At Medellín , the captain and dispatcher decided to use another runway and requested an additional 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) of fuel .
The flight departed Medellín at 15 : 08 , bound for JFK . The flight first entered U.S. airspace of Miami Air Route Traffic Control Center at 17 : 28 , flying at 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) , and proceeded northward , climbing to 37 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . The flight was cleared to fly Atlantic route 7 to the DIXON navigational aid and jet airway 174 to Norfolk , Virginia . Flight 52 entered its first holding pattern over Norfolk at 19 : 04 and remained circling until 19 : 23 . From there , Flight 52 continued on to the BOTON intersection near Atlantic City , New Jersey where it was placed in a second holding pattern from 19 : 43 to 20 : 12 . The flight proceeded to the CAMRN intersection where it entered its third holding pattern from 20 : 18 to 20 : 47 . Flight 52 entered the CAMRN holding pattern at 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) , having been cleared to descend prior to arrival at the intersection , and the flight descended further to 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) while in the CAMRN holding pattern . At 20 : 44 : 09 , while still holding at CAMRN , the New York Air Route Traffic Control Center ( ZNY ) advised Flight 52 that there was an " indefinite hold " and to continue holding at CAMRN . At 20 : 44 : 43 , the ZNY controller told the flight to " expect further clearance " at 21 : 05 . The flight had previously been given two delay estimates that had passed .
At that point , First Officer Klotz radioed the controller , saying , " ah well I think we need priority we 're passing [ unintelligible ] . " The controller inquired as to how long the flight could hold as well as what their alternate airport was . Klotz replied at 20 : 46 : 03 that they could hold for five more minutes . The controller once again inquired as to their alternate airport and Klotz replied at 20 : 46 : 24 , " It was Boston but we can 't do it now we , we , don 't , we run out of fuel now . " A handoff controller listening in on the conversation called the New York Terminal Radar Approach Control ( NY TRACON ) at 20 : 46 : 24 and advised the TRACON controller that Avianca Flight 52 could only hold for five more minutes . The handoff controller asked whether NY TRACON could take the flight or whether to send Avianca to its alternate airport . The NY TRACON controller replied , " Slow him to one eight zero knots and I 'll take him . " The handoff controller later testified that he had not heard Flight 52 say that they could no longer reach their alternate airport . At 20 : 46 : 47 , the NY ARTCC radar controller cleared the flight to proceed to JFK at 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) and to slow to 180 knots ( 210 mph ) . Flight 52 departed the CAMRN holding pattern at 20 : 47 .
= = = Landing attempt = = =
At 20 : 47 : 27 , the NY TRACON feeder controller told the flight crew to " expect an ILS two two left " " altimeter two niner six niner proceed direct Deer Park . " At 20 : 54 : 40 , the feeder controller directed Flight 52 to make a 360 ° turn . At 20 : 56 : 16 , the controller gave the flight a wind shear advisory of an " increase of ten knots at fifteen hundred feet and then an increase of ten knots at five hundred feet . " The flight crew acknowledged the advisory . At 21 : 00 , JFK was experiencing light drizzle and fog with 1 ⁄ 4 mile visibility , an indefinite ceiling with 200 feet ( 61 m ) obscured , and a wind of 21 knots ( 24 mph ) at 190 ° .
At 21 : 03 : 07 , Flight 52 contacted the NY TRACON final controller who cleared them to descend progressively to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . At 21 : 03 : 46 , the flight crew discussed the go @-@ around procedures . At 21 : 09 : 29 , flight engineer Moyano stated that the controllers " already know that we are in [ a ] bad condition . " The captain said , " No they are descending us , " and the second officer added , " They are giving us priority . " At 21 : 11 : 07 , the NY TRACON final vector controller informed the flight that they were fifteen miles from the outer marker and instructed them to maintain an altitude of 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) " until established on the localizer . " The flight crew began preparing for an instrument landing approach , extending flaps and discussing the appropriate airspeed . The final controller instructed the flight crew to contact the JFK tower controllers and signed off . Klotz acknowledged the transmission .
At 21 : 15 : 19 , Klotz contacted the tower controllers and informed that Flight 52 was " established two two left . " One minute later , the captain asked if he should lower the landing gear , but the first officer replied , " No I think it 's too early now . " At 21 : 17 : 30 , JFK tower asked Flight 52 to increase their airspeed by ten knots to 150 knots ( 170 mph ) . At 21 : 18 : 11 , the flight was three miles from the outer marker . Twenty @-@ one seconds later , the first officer remarked " glideslope alive . " At 21 : 19 : 09 , the captain requested the landing gear be deployed . Almost a minute later , the JFK tower cleared the flight to land on runway 22L . The captain asked the first officer to confirm that the flight was cleared to land . At 21 : 20 : 28 , the first officer began informing the captain that the aircraft was below the glideslope . At 21 : 22 : 07 , Flight 52 descended to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) . The aircraft began descending beyond the angle of the glideslope , then began climbing above it , followed by a steeper descent . At 21 : 22 : 57 , the first officer commented , " This is the wind shear . " The first officer warned the pilot about the sink rate and noted an altitude of 500 feet ( 150 m ) at 21 : 23 : 10 . As he warned the pilot , the ground proximity warning system ( GPWS ) began eleven " whoop whoop pull up " audible warnings . At 21 : 23 : 13 , the pilot called for lights , followed by questions as to where the runway was a few seconds later . The GPWS began four " glideslope " audible warnings a few seconds later , alerting the flight crew that the aircraft was below the glideslope . In response to the captain 's inquiries , the first officer replied that he did not see the runway . At 21 : 23 : 23 , the flight began climbing again , having come within 250 feet ( 76 m ) of crashing two miles short of the runway . The landing gear was raised and the first officer announced that the flight was executing a missed approach .
= = = Crash = = =
The JFK tower controller asked the flight to climb to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) and make a left turn . At 21 : 24 : 06 , the captain asked the first officer to " tell them we are in [ an ] emergency . " The first officer told the JFK tower controller that " we 'll try once again [ ; ] we 're running out of fuel , " to which the controller replied , " okay . " A few seconds later , the captain again told the first officer to " advise him we are [ in an ] emergency " and asked if he did so . The first officer replied , " Yes sir , I already advised him . " The JFK controller directed the flight to contact the NY TRACON approach controller once more at 21 : 24 : 39 . The TRACON controller asked the flight to climb once more to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . The captain asked the first officer again to " advise him we don 't have fuel . " The first officer replied , " Climb and maintain three thousand and ah we 're running out of fuel sir . " The captain once again asked whether the first officer had advised the controller of the fuel emergency , and the first officer replied , " Yes sir . I already advise him [ ; ] hundred and eighty on the heading [ ; ] we are going to maintain three thousand feet and he 's going to get us back . "
A minute later , the controller instructed the flight to turn to the northeast and asked the flight crew if they had enough fuel to be directed fifteen miles from the airport . First Officer Klotz replied , " I guess so thank you very much . " At 21 : 29 : 11 , Klotz asked the controller if he " can give us a final now ... ? " The controller said , " affirmative sir [ ; ] turn left heading zero four zero . " At 21 : 30 : 12 , the controller cleared another aircraft for landing . Klotz briefly thought the clearance was directed at Avianca and began to tell Captain Caviedes to change course before the controller corrected him . The controller then asked Avianca to climb to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . Klotz replied , " negative sir we just running out of fuel we okay three thousand now okay . " The controller continued to direct the flight northward , away from the airport . At 21 : 31 : 01 , the controller said , " Okay and you 're number two for the approach [ ; ] I just have to give you enough room so you make it without ah having to come out again . "
At 21 : 32 : 38 , the cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) recorded a temporary interruption in power . A second later , Flight Engineer Moyano exclaimed , " Flame out [ ; ] flame out on engine number four . " The CVR recorded another interruption in power one second after that , and Moyano said , " Flame out on engine number three [ ; ] essential on number two or number one . " The captain acknowledged . At 21 : 32 : 49 , Klotz radioed the controller , informing him that the flight had " just ah lost two engines [ , ] and ... we need priority please . " The controller instructed the flight to fly southwest to intercept the localizer . Klotz acknowledged this . The flight crew selected the ILS . At 21 : 33 : 04 , the controller informed the flight that they were fifteen miles from the outer marker and cleared them for an ILS approach on runway 22L . Klotz acknowledged . That was the final radio transmission from Flight 52 . Caviedes asked if the ILS had been selected . Klotz replied , " It is ready on two " at 21 : 33 : 23 . One second later , the CVR stopped recording . At 21 : 34 : 00 , the controller tried to radio the flight , asking , " You have enough fuel to make it to the airport ? " There was no response .
The NTSB report estimates that around this time , the flight crashed . The aircraft descended without power , clipped several trees and posts , and crashed onto a hill with a 24 ° slope in Cove Neck , New York . The fuselage partially fragmented into three distinct pieces . The cockpit and forward cabin separated from the rest of the airframe and were hurled over the crest of the hill , coming to a stop 90 feet ( 27 m ) from the rest of the wreckage . The rest of the fuselage stopped within 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) after impact . The main fuselage came to rest on the upslope of the hill , facing south , with the forward end extending over the crest of the hill . The right side of the forward end of the fuselage fractured a residential wooden deck .
= = Recovery = =
= = = First response = = =
Residents of Cove Neck immediately called emergency services . Jeff Race , a paramedic and member of New York City 's Emergency Medical Service who lived half a mile from the crash site was the first rescuer on site . He reported that most passengers were still strapped in their seats and the survivors were crying out for help . Survivors later commented that it took about half an hour for rescue teams to arrive . Initial reports to emergency services reported that a much larger Boeing 747 had crashed . Fire Chief Thomas Reardon of Oyster Bay Fire Company No. 1 was in charge of the initial effort to remove people from the wreckage . In his first call to the Nassau County Fire Commission dispatch , he requested all the help available . Thirty @-@ seven fire and ambulance companies , as well as more than seven hundred Nassau County police officers arrived to help . Other companies that were not called showed up voluntarily to assist . The swell of support created major problems for extricating survivors .
The crash was only accessible to vehicles via a single residential street . With the surge of rescue personnel who converged on the area , the roads leading to the site soon became choked with traffic . Emergency vehicle drivers abandoned their vehicles counter to established policy in the course of the rescue efforts . This prevented other vehicles from being able to access the crash area . The road was so impassible , many rescue workers left their vehicles miles away and made it to the scene on foot . Fog also grounded rescue helicopters for two hours . As a result , many critically injured survivors were not evacuated until 23 : 30 . Eventually , four helicopters from the New
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Been Waiting became the second highest @-@ selling Australian album of 2009 , and was certified double platinum . Her second studio album , Get ' Em Girls ( 2010 ) , included the top ten singles , " Saturday Night " and " Inescapable " . Mauboy 's third studio album , Beautiful , was released in 2013 and produced the top @-@ ten singles " Pop a Bottle ( Fill Me Up ) " , " Never Be the Same " and " Can I Get a Moment ? " .
Mauboy has received sixteen ARIA Music Awards nominations , of which she has won two . In April 2013 , she was ranked at number 16 on Herald Sun 's list of the " 100 Greatest Australian Singers of All Time " . Aside from her music career , Mauboy has also ventured into acting . She made her acting debut in the 2010 movie musical Bran Nue Dae , and starred in the critically acclaimed film , The Sapphires ( 2012 ) , which earned her the AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role .
= = Early life = =
Jessica Hilda Mauboy was born on 4 August 1989 and raised in Darwin , Northern Territory . Her father , Ferdi , is an Indonesian born electrician who came from East Timor , and her mother , Therese , is an Indigenous Australian . Mauboy 's mother is from the indigenous Kuku Yalanji people in the rainforest regions of Far North Queensland . Mauboy has three older sisters Sandra , Jenny and Catherine , and a younger sister Sophia . From an early age , she was involved in the local church choir with her grandmother Harriett . Her home was described as the " noisiest house on the block " , with her mother often singing , her father playing guitar and the rest of the family displaying their passion for music . Mauboy attended Wulagi Primary School and Sanderson High School in Darwin . She dropped out of school in year 11 .
At the age of fourteen , Mauboy 's talents were exposed through the Telstra Road to Tamworth competition at the 2004 Tamworth Country Music Festival in Tamworth , New South Wales . As the first winner of the competition , Mauboy travelled to Sydney to perform and scored a recording deal with Sony Music Australia . She then released a country @-@ inspired rendition of the Cyndi Lauper hit " Girls Just Wanna Have Fun " . A video for her version of the song had a release ; however , the song went nowhere and Mauboy returned to Darwin .
= = Music career = =
= = = 2006 : Australian Idol = = =
In 2006 , Mauboy auditioned for the fourth season of Australian Idol in Alice Springs , Northern Territory singing Whitney Houston 's " I Have Nothing " . Her audition impressed all three judges , and she progressed through to the semi @-@ finals . Following the semi @-@ final process , Mauboy had advanced through to the top twelve . The media cited her previous Sony contract as grounds for dismissal , but since the contract had expired , Australian Idol producers refused to remove her from the show . Throughout the series , Mauboy continued to impress the judges with her performances . In the final eleven week , following her rendition of Kelly Clarkson 's " Walk Away " , judge Kyle Sandilands commented on Mauboy 's weight , that if she wished to succeed in the music industry , she should " lose the jelly belly " . Mauboy appeared stunned by the comment . In an interview with Who magazine 's Alicia Neil , two years after the comment was made , Mauboy stated " I kind of took it as a joke ... I look back on it as a positive thing – it made me a stronger person . "
In the final ten @-@ week , Mauboy received the first touchdown of the season from judge Mark Holden for her rendition of Christina Aguilera 's hit , " Beautiful " . During the final nine @-@ week , Mauboy had a sore throat that resulted in a mediocre rendition of Phil Collins ' " Another Day in Paradise " and near @-@ elimination , which landed her in the bottom three . Following that week , she never landed in the bottom three again , and ended up progressing through to the final show with Damien Leith . The grand finale was held on 27 November at the Sydney Opera House . After the viewer votes had been tallied it was announced that Mauboy was runner @-@ up to Leith . In December 2006 , Mauboy signed a recording contract with Sony Music Australia – two weeks after Idol ended .
= = = 2007 – 09 : The Journey , Young Divas and Been Waiting = = =
Mauboy released her debut live album The Journey on 24 February 2007 , which contained two discs . Disc one contained re @-@ recorded covers of the selected songs Mauboy performed as part of the top twelve on Australian Idol , while disc two included a DVD of her performances on the series . The Journey debuted at number four on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . In September 2007 , Mauboy joined as the new member of the girl group Young Divas , replacing one of the group 's original members , Ricki @-@ Lee Coulter , who had left in June to resume her solo career . Their second studio album New Attitude was released on 24 November 2007 , and debuted at number 10 and was certified gold . The album was preceded by the lead single " Turn Me Loose " , which peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In March 2008 , Mauboy signed on to the Australian Government In2Oz program , designed to promote closer ties with Indonesia . As a part of the program , she travelled to Indonesia for a three @-@ day trip performing around the country , including an appearance on Indonesian Idol . It was during this time that Mauboy had begun to work on her first solo studio album . In August 2008 , Mauboy announced that after a year with the Young Divas , she had decided to quit in order to concentrate on her solo career . Founding member Paulini had also decided to depart , leaving Kate DeAraugo and Emily Williams as the only remaining members . However , both DeAraugo and Williams resumed their solo careers , and the group officially disbanded .
Mauboy 's debut studio album Been Waiting was released on 22 November 2008 ; it peaked at number 11 and was certified double platinum for shipments of 140 @,@ 000 units . Mauboy co @-@ wrote eleven of the album 's songs , which were produced by Audius Mtawarira , Israel Cruz , Jonas Jeberg , Cutfather , Adam Reily , Fingaz and Kwamé . The album received positive reviews from critics . Davey Boy of Sputnikmusic gave the album three out of five stars and wrote that it was an " impressive debut which suggests that there could indeed be quality music to look forward to in the future as she matures and gains experience " . The lead single " Running Back " , featuring American rapper Flo Rida , peaked at number three and was certified double platinum . The second single , " Burn " , became Mauboy 's first number @-@ one single , and was certified platinum . It also reached number 92 on the Japan Hot 100 and became Mauboy 's first single to chart internationally . The album 's third single and title track peaked at number 12 and was certified gold . The following singles , " Because " and " Up / Down " , peaked at numbers nine and 11 , respectively , and both were certified gold .
In February 2009 , Mauboy signed with UK record label Ministry of Sound . Been Waiting was released in Japan on 22 April 2009 , and reached number 138 on the Japanese Albums Chart . At the 2009 Deadly Awards , Mauboy won three awards in the categories of Female Artist of the Year , Album of the Year for Been Waiting , and Single Release of the Year for " Burn " . Along with Flo Rida , Mauboy served as a support act for Beyoncé on the Australian leg of her I Am ... World Tour in September 2009 . At the 2009 ARIA Music Awards , Mauboy earned seven nominations for Been Waiting and its singles ; she was nominated for Highest Selling Album , Best Pop Release , Breakthrough Artist Album , Best Female Artist , Breakthrough Artist Single for " Running Back " , and Highest Selling Single for " Running Back " and " Burn " . Eventually , Mauboy won Highest Selling Single for " Running Back " .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Get ' Em Girls = = =
In January 2010 , Mauboy signed to Universal Music for an exclusive worldwide long @-@ term publishing agreement . In May 2010 , Mauboy collaborated with four other international artists representing their continents — Sean Kingston representing America , Jody Williams representing Africa , Tabitha Nauser ( Asia ) , Steve Appleton ( Europe ) , with Mauboy representing Oceania — on the theme song for the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics titled " Everyone " . Mauboy , Williams , Nauser and Appleton performed " Everyone " at the opening of the Youth Olympics held in Singapore on 14 August 2010 . Kingston was unable to attend the performance , due to a passport mix @-@ up . Mauboy released her second studio album Get ' Em Girls on 5 November 2010 ; it debuted at number six and was certified gold . She had travelled to the United States in February of that year to work on the album in Los Angeles , New York , and Atlanta with American songwriters and producers , most of whom she had not worked with previously . Mauboy co @-@ wrote eight of the album 's songs . Get ' Em Girls received mixed reviews from critics . Majhid Heath of ABC Online Indigenous gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , writing that it 's a " non @-@ cohesive mess of similar sounding , auto @-@ tuned ravaged pop / R & B that diminishes the talent of this brilliant young songstress " .
The album 's title track , featuring American rapper Snoop Dogg , peaked at number 19 . Mauboy performed " Get ' Em Girls " at the 2010 Nickelodeon Australian Kids ' Choice Awards , where she co @-@ hosted the award ceremony with Liam Hemsworth and Jerry Trainor , and won the award for Fave Aussie Muso . The following singles , " Saturday Night " featuring American rapper Ludacris and " What Happened to Us " featuring English singer Jay Sean , peaked at numbers seven and 14 , respectively . The former single was certified double platinum while the latter was only certified platinum . At the 2010 Australian of the Year Awards , Mauboy received her first nomination for Young Australian of the Year . On 10 December 2010 , she performed in front of an audience of 92 @,@ 000 at the Federation Square in Melbourne , ahead of Oprah Winfrey 's visit to the place . Mauboy 's performance was shown in the first of the four Australian specials of The Oprah Winfrey Show on 18 January 2011 . In April 2011 , she served as a support act for Chris Brown 's Australian leg of his F.A.M.E. Tour .
Get ' Em Girls was re @-@ released as a deluxe edition on 12 August 2011 , which included the singles " Inescapable " and " Galaxy " featuring Stan Walker . The former single peaked at number four and was certified double platinum , while the latter peaked at number 13 and was certified platinum . " Galaxy " also reached number 36 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and became Mauboy 's first single to chart in that country . On 17 November 2011 , Mauboy performed for the Australian troops at RAAF Base Darwin , ahead of US President Barack Obama 's visit to the place . In January 2012 , Mauboy and Walker embarked on their Galaxy Tour across Australia , which served as her first headlining tour . Mauboy recorded 15 songs for The Sapphires ' soundtrack album , which was released on 27 July 2012 . The album debuted at number one and was certified platinum . Mauboy released " Gotcha " as the album 's lead single , which peaked at number 43 and was certified gold . At the 2012 ARIA Music Awards , she was nominated for Best Female Artist , Best Pop Release for " Gotcha " , and Song of the Year for " Galaxy " .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Beautiful = = =
Mauboy received two nominations at the 2013 Australian of the Year Awards for Young Australian of the Year and Northern Territory Young Australian of the Year ; she won the latter award . In March 2013 , she participated in a singing quiz segment for Ellen DeGeneres ' two Australian shows in Sydney and Melbourne . In September 2013 , she performed at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards Governors Ball in Los Angeles . Mauboy 's third studio album Beautiful was released on 4 October 2013 ; it debuted at number three and was certified platinum . The lead single " To the End of the Earth " peaked at number 21 and was certified gold , while the second single " Pop a Bottle ( Fill Me Up ) " debuted at number two and was certified platinum . " Pop a Bottle ( Fill Me Up ) " also reached number 33 in New Zealand and became Mauboy 's third single to chart internationally . The following singles , " Beautiful " and " Never Be the Same " , peaked at numbers 46 and six , respectively , with the latter single being certified platinum .
At the 2013 NRL Grand Final on 6 October 2013 , Mauboy performed the Australian national anthem , " Livin ' la Vida Loca " with Ricky Martin , and a medley of " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " and " Pop a Bottle ( Fill Me Up ) " . At the 2013 ARIA Music Awards , Mauboy won Best Female Artist for " To the End of the Earth " . She embarked on the To the End of the Earth Tour , her second headlining tour , from November 2013 to January 2014 . To coincide with the 2014 Australia Day celebrations , Mauboy along with Dami Im , Justice Crew , Nathaniel Willemse , Samantha Jade and Taylor Henderson released a cover of " I Am Australian " which peaked at number 51 . She appeared in an episode of Sesame Street on 20 March 2014 , singing " Count the Kangaroos " in a clip which was filmed in Alice Springs with children from Yipirinya State Primary School . Mauboy was chosen by SBS to perform at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest , in recognition of Australia 's love affair with the annual event . She performed the single " Sea of Flags " during the second semi @-@ final in Denmark , making her the first solo artist from outside Europe to perform on the contest as a guest . SBS screened the documentary , Jessica Mauboy 's Road to Eurovision on 10 May 2014 before their coverage of the second semi @-@ final .
Mauboy 's first extended play iTunes Session was released on 18 July 2014 , and debuted at number 25 . On 3 August 2014 , she performed during the 2014 Commonwealth Games Flag Handover Ceremony at Hampden Park Stadium in Glasgow , Scotland to mark the official handover of the Commonwealth Games from Glasgow to the Gold Coast in 2018 . Beautiful was re @-@ released as a platinum edition on 21 November 2014 , which included the singles " Can I Get a Moment ? " and " The Day Before I Met You " . The former single debuted at number five and was certified platinum . Mauboy received three nominations at the 2014 ARIA Music Awards , including Album of the Year and Best Female Artist for Beautiful , and Best Video for " Never Be the Same " .
= = = 2015 : Upcoming fourth studio album = = =
Mauboy performed at the ICC Cricket World Cup opening ceremony held on 12 February 2015 at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl in Melbourne . On 3 May 2015 , she appeared on the US Today show in a segment that was filmed live at the Sydney Opera House with host Savannah Guthrie . In an interview with the Australian Associated Press , Mauboy revealed that she has already begun writing songs for her upcoming fourth studio album , which she hopes to release in February 2016 . She said , " This time around with the album I would like to ... just take risks in terms of the sound and identifying who I am as a woman . It 's more of a rhythmic pop so it 's not going to be extreme pop . It 's going to be a little bit more soul . " The album 's lead single " This Ain 't Love " was released in September 2015 ; it peaked at number five and was certified gold .
= = Personal life = =
In late 2008 , Mauboy moved from Darwin to Sydney , ahead of the release of her debut studio album Been Waiting . In January 2009 , she began a long @-@ distance relationship with Themeli " Magoo " Magripilis , a soccer player and council worker of Greek descent , who was born and raised in Darwin . Magripilis played for the Darwin soccer league 's club Hellenic Athletic , the same club that Mauboy 's younger sister Sophie played for . Mauboy and Magripilis do not see each other often , as she is based in Sydney and he still lives in Darwin . When she is not working , Mauboy returns to Darwin to spend time with her family and Magripilis .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Music and songwriting = = =
Mauboy 's music is generally R & B and pop , but she also incorporates dance , funk , soul and hip hop into some of her songs . Mauboy 's debut studio album Been Waiting ( 2008 ) was described as " a blend of electro beats , heartfelt pop tunes and R & B bass lines . " Most of the themes on the album dealt with boys , love and break @-@ ups , everyday life , family issues , and friendship . Alasdair Duncan from Rave magazine described Mauboy 's second studio album Get ' Em Girls ( 2010 ) as " a more hard @-@ edged take on R & B and pop than her debut , pumped full of hip hop beats , jagged synths and futuristic vocal effects . " Mauboy said that she wanted each song on the album to talk about a " woman 's needs " , and that the album 's theme was " very much about the empowerment of women and the domination of women . " Kylie Northover of The Sydney Morning Herald noted that Mauboy 's third studio album Beautiful ( 2013 ) featured " a mix of more dance @-@ oriented tunes and her usual R & B sound " .
Mauboy has also incorporated her Indigenous Australian culture into her music , including songs on the soundtrack album for The Sapphires and in the single " Sea of Flags " . Aside from her vocals work , Mauboy can also play the piano and has co @-@ written some of her material . She co @-@ wrote eleven songs on her first studio album , eight on her second studio album , and fourteen on her third studio album . In 2010 , Mauboy was nominated for Breakthrough Songwriter of the Year at the APRA Awards . Mauboy stated in an interview that while working with American producer Harvey Mason , Jr . , they came up with the melodies and hooks for the songs " Fight for You " and " Here for Me " on the album Get ' Em Girls . She also experimented with an operatic @-@ type voice on her song " Scariest Part " .
= = = Influences = = =
Mauboy grew up listening to country singers Patsy Cline , Dolly Parton and Slim Dusty , as well as rappers Tupac Shakur , Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg . Mauboy cites Mariah Carey as her main influence and inspiration , stating that she has " drawn a lot of inspiration from watching and listening to her live performances " . She grew up listening to many of Carey 's songs and was inspired by her vocal style and songwriting , " I loved ' Dream Lover ' and ' Fantasy ' – and picked up loads of tips from her style of singing . She taught me that the lyrics you write have to come from personal experiences – I really felt her music . Now I aspire to writing honest lyrics with real feelings that people can relate to . " Mauboy also names Whitney Houston as another influence , stating that she looks up to her and Carey " for their outstanding vocal performances " . Her other musical influences are John Farnham and Beyoncé . Mauboy is also inspired by fellow Indigenous Australian women such as Olympic gold medalist Cathy Freeman and actress Deborah Mailman .
= = = Public image = = =
Mauboy is known for her good girl image and is considered a role model to young girls and Indigenous communities in Australia . Ed Gibbs of The Sydney Morning Herald described her as a " wholesome girl @-@ next @-@ door " , while Genevieve Rosen of The Vine wrote that " her flawless public image is no farce . Humble , genuinely engaging and passionate about public service , Mauboy , put simply , is really nice " . Anna Byrne of the Herald Sun observed , " It 's clear this endearing unpretentiousness is not a fame facade . In every respect , the pint @-@ sized pop star embodies one of the most elusive qualities of stardom : relatability . It 's this genuineness that has seen her star ascend to where she actually is . " Fashion has had an impact on Mauboy 's music career and image . Byrne noted that her " fashion choices have mirrored her rise in fame , with her style evolving from shy schoolgirl to confident diva , set to steal the sartorial spotlight . " Mauboy cites Jennifer Lopez as her style icon . She has worn dresses designed by Dolce & Gabbana , J 'Aton , Steven Khalil and Toni Matičevski , and has appeared on the covers of fashion magazines in Australia , including Elle , InStyle , and Marie Claire . In November 2012 , she appeared on the cover of Who magazine as one of their " Sexiest People of 2012 " .
Mauboy 's weight has been the subject of media interest , ever since her rise to fame on Australian Idol when judge Kyle Sandilands publicly told her to " lose the jelly belly " . Mauboy told Women 's Health magazine that she was proud of her curvy figure , saying " having curves is one of my favourite things " . In 2014 , she received media attention for her weight loss transformation from a size 12 to 8 . Mauboy has an alter ego named J Malley , who she described as her " fearless side " and " sort of like Beyoncé 's Sasha Fierce " . Mauboy is often referred to as Australia 's answer to Beyoncé . However , she does not agree with the comparisons , saying " I totally disagree with that one . I 've ... watched her documentary [ Life Is But a Dream ] and was just blown away by how magnificent she really is and it 's so inspiring for me . I just think she 's fantastic and I 'm completely nowhere near where she is , but I aspire to that . "
With the release of Mauboy 's second studio album Get ' Em Girls , some critics felt that she was becoming an " R & B sexpot " . Both the album and its title track also received negative reviews from critics . The music video for the title track was heavily criticised by fans who felt that Mauboy had become too sexy and moved away from her good girl image . Speaking of Mauboy 's image for R & B music , Fairfax Media journalist Bernard Zuel said : " It 's a problem , matching the personality to a formula . The formula with young women singing modern R & B is that they have to be out there sexually , thrusting physically and vocally . But that 's just not who she is . " Following the release of her single " Gotcha " in 2012 , Miranda Cashin of Sunshine Coast Daily noted that it was " a return to the Mauboy [ we knew ] before the infamous 2010 sexed @-@ up fist @-@ pumping album , Get ' Em Girls " .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Acting career = = =
In January 2010 , Mauboy made her acting debut in the film adaptation of the 1990 Aboriginal musical Bran Nue Dae . The film was directed by Rachel Perkins and also starred Ernie Dingo , Geoffrey Rush , Missy Higgins , and Deborah Mailman . In the film , Mauboy played the role of Rosie , a local church singer who has a love interest for a school boy named Willie ( played by Rocky McKenzie ) . Her performance in the film earned her a nomination for Female Actress of the Year at the 2010 Deadly Awards . In November 2010 , Mauboy made a guest appearance in the final episode of the mini @-@ series Underbelly : Razor , and played the role of a nightclub singer named Gloria Starr .
In 2012 , Mauboy had a lead role in The Sapphires , a film based on the stage show of the same name . It was directed by Wayne Blair and also starred Mailman , Shari Sebbens , and Miranda Tapsell . Mauboy played the role of Julie McCrae , one of the four Indigenous Australian women who travel to Vietnam to sing for the American troops . Mauboy and the cast attended the film 's premiere at the 65th Annual Cannes Film Festival in Cannes , France on 20 May 2012 . Upon its release in the US , Mauboy appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on 18 April 2013 . Her performance in The Sapphires earned her the AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Australian Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress . In September 2013 , Mauboy made a guest appearance as herself in the third and final season of the teen drama Dance Academy . Mauboy will play the lead role in the upcoming drama series The Secret Daughter , which will air on the Seven Network in 2016 . It is Mauboy 's first major TV role and was written especially for her . She will portray the role of Billie , a part @-@ time country pub singer whose life changes after coming in contact with a rich hotelier .
= = = Endorsements = = =
In 2007 , Mauboy appeared in advertisements for the shampoo product , Head & Shoulders . In April 2009 , she teamed up with Bloom Cosmetics to create two designer collection nail polishes , which included shades of sangria red and metallic green . Mauboy became the new face of the video game Nintendogs + Cats 3DS in October 2010 , and joined forces with RSPCA and Nintendo to help promote the game . She teamed up with clothing label KuKu in December 2010 to launch her five @-@ dress fashion range , which were made available to buy at Myer stores across Australia . In February 2013 , Mauboy was announced as the ambassador for the National Rugby League ( NRL ) and featured in their television advertising campaign singing her cover version of Etta James ' " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " , the theme song for the 2013 NRL season . The following month , Mauboy became the ambassador of the 2013 Woolworths Earn & Learn program , which enables primary and secondary schools in Australia as well as early learning centres to earn educational resources through the school community shopping at Woolworths . She appeared in two television commercials for the program , featuring students from Wulagi Primary School in Darwin . In 2014 , Mauboy became the ambassador for the health and wellness company Swisse and appeared in a television commercial for Telstra 's commitment to its customers campaign . In May 2015 , she became the new face for Target Australia 's Womenswear and will represent the brand for a year . Mauboy 's first fragrance , Be Beautiful , was released on 30 October 2015 . The fragrance was developed by Mauboy in partnership with BrandPoint and was inspired by her hometown of Darwin .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Throughout her career , Mauboy has supported various charities in Australia . She is an ambassador for the Sony Foundation , which raises funds for youth @-@ related causes . As an ambassador for the Foundation , Mauboy has made several hospital visits and performed at many of their annual fundraising events such as Wharf4Ward , which raises funds to build specialised youth cancer centres across Australia . In April 2009 , sales from the nail polish bottles Mauboy created with Bloom Cosmetics were donated to Children 's Hospital Foundations Australia to support the research into childhood illness . Mauboy has performed at several other fundraising events including charity balls , charity dinners , Christmas carols events , and telethons . For many years , Mauboy has performed at the annual Channel Seven Perth Telethon . In December 2011 , she performed free acoustic concerts across Australia as part of the Indian Pacific Outback Christmas train journey , an annual fund @-@ raiser for the Royal Flying Doctor Service . On 14 December 2012 , she performed a free pop up show at Federation Square in Melbourne , as part of the Optus Carols for a Cause event , which raised funds for Kids Helpline and The Smith Family . Mauboy headlined the Come Together charity concert in Ulverstone , Tasmania on 19 May 2013 , in aid of two boys who were burnt in an explosion . All proceeds from the concert went into a trust fund for the boys ' ongoing treatment .
Mauboy has also contributed to Indigenous organisations aimed at improving children 's education . In 2009 , she became a spokesperson for the Indigenous Literacy Project ( ILP ) , which aims to provide " books and learning materials to schools , libraries and women 's centres in remote areas . " As spokesperson for the charity , Mauboy visited schools across Australia and talked to students about the importance of education . In 2011 , she worked with the Yalari organisation " that offers children from regional , rural and remote communities and towns across Australia the opportunity to get a first @-@ class secondary education . " In 2013 , Mauboy was appointed as the ambassador of the independent Aboriginal Yipirinya School in Alice Springs . Along with making several visits to the school , Mauboy has helped promote the school and assist with its fundraisings . In August 2015 , she became an ambassador for the Indigenous Literacy Foundation , which raises support and awareness of literacy in remote indigenous communities . Her songs have been included on charity compilation albums such as Bushfire Aid : Artists for the Bushfire Appeal ( 2009 ) , Spirit of Christmas ( 2009 ) , and Flood Relief – Artists for the Flood Appeal ( 2011 ) . Mauboy along with Guy Sebastian , Sheppard , Jon Stevens , Shannon Noll and Megan Washington were featured on Lee Kernaghan 's 2015 charity single " Spirit of the Anzacs " , which raised funds for Legacy and Soldier On .
= = Discography = =
Been Waiting ( 2008 )
Get ' Em Girls ( 2010 )
Beautiful ( 2013 )
= = Filmography = =
Films
Bran Nue Dae ( 2010 )
The Sapphires ( 2012 )
Television
The Secret Daughter ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
Galaxy Tour ( with Stan Walker ) ( 2012 )
To the End of the Earth Tour ( 2013 – 14 )
Supporting act
Beyoncé 's I Am ... World Tour : Australian leg ( 2009 )
Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. Tour : Australian leg ( 2011 )
= Tiger catshark =
The tiger catshark ( Halaelurus natalensis ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae . It is found over sandy areas and near reef peripheries off South Africa and perhaps Mozambique , from close to shore to usually no deeper than 100 m ( 330 ft ) . Reaching a length of 50 cm ( 20 in ) , this small , slim shark has a broad , flattened head with an upturned snout tip . It can additionally be identified by its dorsal colour pattern of ten dark brown saddles on a yellowish brown background .
Bottom @-@ dwelling and inactive , the tiger catshark feeds on a wide variety of fishes and invertebrates from on or near the sea floor . An oviparous species , the female retains her eggs internally until the embryos are at an advanced state of development , resulting in a relatively short hatching time after laying . Between 12 and 22 encapsulated eggs are produced at a time , which the female attaches to the bottom . The tiger catshark is caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fishers but has no economic value . It has been listed as Data Deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , pending more information .
= = Taxonomy = =
British ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan described the tiger catshark in a 1904 issue of the scientific journal Annals and Magazine of Natural History , based on two specimens presented to the British Museum by J. F. Queckett . He placed the species in the genus Scyllium ( a synonym of Scyliorhinus ) and gave it the specific epithet natalense , because the type specimens were reportedly collected off the Natal coast of South Africa ( though there is suspicion that they were mislabelled and actually came from Algoa Bay ) . Later authors reassigned this species to the genus Halaelurus . The lined catshark ( Halaelurus lineatus ) was once treated as conspecific to the tiger catshark , until it was described as a separate species in 1975 .
= = Description = =
The body of the tiger catshark is slim and firm , and it grows up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long . The head is broad and flattened , with a distinct and upturned snout tip . The horizontally oval eyes are situated high on the head and protected by rudimentary nictitating membranes . Beneath each eye is a broad ridge , and behind is a spiracle . The medium @-@ sized nostrils are divided by lobe @-@ like flaps of skin on their anterior rims . The nasal flaps do not reach the large mouth , which forms a wide arch and bears short furrows around the corners . When the mouth is closed , the centre of the lower jaw falls well short of the upper , leaving the upper teeth exposed . The teeth are small and 3 @-@ cusped ( rarely 5 @-@ cusped ) , with the central cusp the longest . The five pairs of gill slits are placed higher than the level of the mouth and face somewhat upwards .
The pectoral fins are fairly large and rounded . The origin of the first dorsal fin lies over the last third of the pelvic fin bases , while the origin of the much larger second dorsal fin lies over the rear of the anal fin . The claspers of adult males are moderately long and tapering , though those of some individuals may be knob @-@ shaped and spiky . The anal fin is roughly equal in size to the pelvic fins , and smaller but longer @-@ based than the second dorsal fin . The short caudal fin has an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The skin is thick ; the dermal denticles have three @-@ pointed crowns and are widely spaced compared to other species in the genus . Coloured yellowish brown above and cream below , this shark has a characteristic series of ten dorsal saddles from the head to the tail ; each saddle is dark brown with a darker edge and a lighter middle . Unlike in the similar lined catshark , there are no spots or additional markings between the saddles .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The tiger catshark is endemic to southern Africa , but the limits of its distribution are not well known . It is known to occur off the Western and Eastern Cape , South Africa , while easterly records from KwaZulu @-@ Natal and Mozambique are uncertain due to confusion with the lined catshark . A common , bottom @-@ dwelling inhabitant of the continental shelf , this shark favours sandy flats and the edges of reefs . It is usually found from the shore to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) ; sharks in the eastern part of its range tend to occur in deeper water than those in the west . There are species records from as deep as 172 m ( 564 ft ) , as well as a single dubious record from 355 m ( 1 @,@ 165 ft ) down on the continental slope . It may segregate by size , with the adults found farther from shore .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The tiger catshark is a sluggish predator of a diverse array of benthic organisms . Its diet is dominated by bony fishes and crustaceans , and also includes cephalopods , polychaete worms , smaller sharks , and scavenged fish offal . It has been observed at the spawning grounds of the chokka squid ( Loligo vulgaris reynaudi ) , feeding on squid that have descended to the bottom to mate and deposit eggs . Documented predators of this species include the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) and the ragged tooth shark ( Carcharias taurus ) .
Reproduction in the tiger catshark is oviparous : females produce 6 – 11 ( typically 6 – 9 ) eggs in each of their two oviducts at a time . The eggs are contained in tough capsules around 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) across ; the capsule has thick tendrils at the corners that allow it to be secured to the sea floor . The female retains the eggs internally until the embryos are substantially developed , measuring at least 4 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) long . Thus , the eggs hatch within only one or two months of being laid , reducing the amount of time that they are exposed to predators . Males and females begin to reach sexual maturity at lengths of 29 – 35 cm ( 11 – 14 in ) and 30 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the tiger catshark is caught incidentally by bottom trawlers , recreational anglers , and rarely squid fishers . Though edible , it is not a valued catch and is usually discarded . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks sufficient data to assess its conservation status .
= Lince ( tank ) =
The Lince ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈlinθe ] , meaning " Lynx " ) was a Spanish development programme for a proposed main battle tank that unfolded during the late 1980s and early 1990s . The intention was to replace the M47 and M48 Patton tanks that the Spanish Army had received under the U.S. Mutual Defense Assistance Act between 1954 and 1975 , and to complement the AMX @-@ 30E tanks manufactured for the army during the 1970s . Companies from several nations , such as German Krauss @-@ Maffei , Spanish Santa Bárbara , and French GIAT , made bids for the development contract . The main priorities were mobility and firepower , with secondary priority placed on protection ; the Lince tank was to have been lighter and faster than its competitors . The vehicle 's size would also have been restricted by the Spanish rail and highway network . To achieve a sufficient level of firepower and protection , given the size requirements , the Lince was to use Rheinmetall 's 120 mm L / 44 tank @-@ gun and German composite armour from the Leopard 2A4 .
The Spanish government decided to upgrade its fleet of AMX @-@ 30Es in the late 1980s . The focus on upgrading Spain 's AMX @-@ 30E 's distracted attention from the Lince plan , which was eventually shelved in 1990 after Spain acquired a large number of M60 Patton tanks , which were no longer required by the U.S. , in accordance with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe . These tanks replaced the M47s and M48s , and fulfilled Spain 's need to modernize its tank forces in the short term . No prototype of the planned Lince tank was manufactured , and no announcements were made on who would receive the contract . Four years later the Spanish government procured and locally manufactured the Leopard 2 , fulfilling the long @-@ term modernisation goal established in the Lince programme .
= = Background = =
During the 1950s the Spanish Army was supplied by the United States with 552 M47 and M48 Patton tanks as a mutual defense pact against a potential Soviet invasion of Western Europe . The first tanks were delivered in 1954 , and the fleet was upgraded in the 1970s to equal the capabilities of M60 Patton tanks . Spain was , however , interested in replacing these tanks as early as the 1960s with the French AMX @-@ 30 or German Leopard 1 . Spain eventually decided to buy the French tank and by 1975 the Spanish Army had 299 AMX @-@ 30s , designated as AMX @-@ 30Es . Of these , 280 tanks were manufactured by the local company Empresa Nacional Santa Bárbara ( now Santa Bárbara Sistemas ) who received the AMX @-@ 30 patent from the French company GIAT . As the first batch of production of AMX @-@ 30s ended , the French Army and Santa Bárbara began a research programme for an eventual modernisation of the AMX @-@ 30 to correct deficiencies such as mechanical reliability , armor protection and the fire control system . In fielding the AMX @-@ 30E , the army found its upgraded M47s and M48s to be outdated ; its earliest M47 tank was more than 30 years old . The army required a modern tank that could complement its AMX @-@ 30Es and started looking for a replacement for its Patton fleet .
= = Bidding = =
In 1984 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense declared its intent to set aside 120 billion pesetas ( 1 @.@ 1 billion U.S. dollars ) for a future tank program and attracted interest from five foreign companies . German company Krauss @-@ Maffei and Spanish company Santa Bárbara presented a joint bid in mid @-@ 1984 that would produce a tank based on 1970s technology . The French government proposed to cooperate with Spain in designing a tank complete with new technology — France would later develop this programme on its own as the AMX @-@ Leclerc . However , the French admitted that there would be restrictions placed on Empresa Nacional Santa Bárbara when it came to exporting the tank . The Italian government proposed a similar deal for a cooperative tank design . The American company General Dynamics and British company Vickers offered the M1 Abrams and Valiant , respectively ; the Spanish government rejected their offers the following year because of the low likelihood of local production and export of the tank . By late 1985 , the only offers still under consideration were those from the German @-@ Spanish collaboration and the French and Italian governments .
Krauss @-@ Maffei 's Lince bid provided the clearest technical designs . The tank would be 49 tonnes and equipped with a 120 @-@ millimeter main gun . It could fire this gun on the move and aim at targets with effectiveness in day and night operations . Fitted with a 1 @,@ 200 horsepower ( 890 kW ) engine , the Lince could travel as fast as 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) on the roads . Although heavily based on the Leopard 2A4 , the Lince was smaller and lighter , trading protection for mobility . Specifically , the Lince prioritised enhanced mobility over the irregular Spanish terrain . Furthermore , size restrictions were imposed because of the existing capabilities of Spain 's railroad and highway network . Although the reduced armor conflicted with the problems that the Spanish had with AMX @-@ 30E 's thin armor , the Lince used a multilayer armor similar to that of the German Leopard 2A4 , providing greater protection than standard armor for a similar weight . The protection was further enhanced by the low profile turret , again similar to that of the Leopard 2A4 .
In early 1986 , the Ministry of Defense declared that it would choose a contract within a matter of months . News sources cited said that Krauss @-@ Maffei would most likely gain the contract , although the French might get it because of past and existing French armament contracts with Spain . Apart from producing the French @-@ designed AMX @-@ 30 , the Spanish government also had a contract for Mirage F1 fighter planes and Puma utility helicopters in 1979 . In early 1987 , France again offered Spain the contract to co @-@ develop and co @-@ produce the AMX @-@ Leclerc . This time it added the lucrative term of joint export . Despite the offer and ongoing collaboration with the Italians , Spanish investment in the German @-@ Spanish Lince program grew to 200 billion pesetas ( 1 @.@ 8 billion dollars ) . However , the Spanish government did not announce a winner for the contract . This indecision led Krauss @-@ Maffei to freeze its bid for the Lince . Krauss @-@ Maffei also cited the loss of millions of dollars because of failures on the part of Santa Bárbara Sistemas , who would manufacture the Lince .
= = Decline of the programme = =
The Spanish Ministry of Defense agreed to modernise the Army 's AMX @-@ 30Es in 1987 and allotted 16 billion pesetas ( 155 million dollars ) to the programme . From July 1987 , the Army upgraded its entire AMX @-@ 30E fleet to EM1 and EM2 standards . This upgraded programme posed a threat to the Lince programme . Around the same time , the Spanish government expressed interest in acquiring American M60 Patton tanks that were being retired from Central Europe , in accordance with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe . In October and November , the Spanish government began to negotiate for 400 to 500 M60A1 and M60A3 tanks , and planned to upgrade its acquired M60A1 tanks to M60A3 standards . In December , the United States agreed to transfer 532 M60A1 and M60A3 tanks to replace Spain 's M47s and M48s . After receiving 50 of the 272 A1s , Spain cancelled procurement of these tanks and opted to receive only the 260 M60A3s . Because of the modernisation of the AMX @-@ 30 , the decision to replace older Patton tanks with the M60A3 and Krauss @-@ Maffei 's criticism of the management of the indigenous tank programme , the Lince was canceled in 1989 . Management issues in Santa Bárbara Sistemas also played a part , including yearly negative balances and the reduction of factory personnel . However , unlike the planned Lince , the M60s only satisfied Spain 's immediate need to modernise the Army 's tank fleet in the short term . They were not a long @-@ term modernisation solution as Spain 's M47s and M48s had already been upgraded to equivalents of the M60 .
As a result , Spain negotiated with Germany over the procurement and local production of a large number of Leopard 2A5s ; a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the two in 1995 , and the Germans lent 108 Leopard 2A4s to the Spanish Army for five years starting in 1998 . In 2005 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense declared intention to buy the tanks instead of renting them . The local production terms in the Memorandum allowed Santa Bárbara Sistemas to start producing Leopard 2Es in 2003 , and the first platoon of tanks was delivered in December 2003 . In comparison to the smaller Lince , the Leopard 2A4 weighs 55 t ( 61 short tons ) and is powered by a 1 @,@ 500 hp ( 1 @,@ 100 kW ) diesel engine . The greater weight of the Leopard 2A4 is due in part to its thicker armor , affording greater protection and balancing out the loss in mobility as compared to the Lince .
= = Comparison to the alternatives = =
= Hughie Edwards =
Air Commodore Sir Hughie Idwal Edwards , VC , KCMG , CB , DSO , OBE , DFC ( 1 August 1914 – 5 August 1982 ) was a senior officer in the Royal Air Force , Governor of Western Australia , and an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . Serving as a bomber pilot in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , Edwards was decorated with the Victoria Cross in 1941 for his efforts in leading a bombing raid against the port of Bremen , one of the most heavily defended towns in Germany . He became the most highly decorated Australian serviceman of the Second World War .
Born in Fremantle , Western Australia , Edwards joined the Royal Australian Air Force in 1935 , and a year later was granted a short service commission with the RAF . Serving throughout the Second World War , he gained a permanent commission and continued his career in the RAF after the war ; he retired in 1963 with the rank of air commodore . Returning to Australia , he was appointed Governor of Western Australia in 1974 .
= = Early life = =
Edwards was born in Fremantle , Western Australia , on 1 August 1914 , the third of five children to Welsh parents Hugh , a blacksmith and farrier , and his wife Jane ( née Watkins ) , who had emigrated to Australia in 1909 . Named after his father , he was always referred to by his middle name of Idwal in his family . Edwards received his initial education at White Gum Valley School , before attending the Fremantle Boy 's School where he achieved well academically , although he later claimed this was due to a good memory rather than high intelligence . However , Edwards was reluctantly forced to leave school at the age of fourteen as the family finances could no longer support him . Described as a " shy , under @-@ confident , introspective and imaginative lad " at this stage in his life , he gained employment as a shipping office clerk .
With the onset of the Great Depression , Edwards found himself unemployed , before gaining a job with a horse racing stable in Fremantle . His position entailed him taking the horses to the beach each morning for a swim , grooming them , and attending the twice weekly race meetings ; a lifelong interest in horse racing consequently emerged at this time . After later working for a brief period in a factory , he enlisted in the Australian Army in March 1933 and was posted to the 6th Heavy Battery , Royal Australian Artillery , with the rank of private . During this period , Edwards was an active sportsman , excelling in Australian rules football — where he played six matches with leading Western Australian Football League ( WAFL ) club South Fremantle — and cricket with the Fremantle garrison team .
= = Early Air Force career = =
In 1935 , he was selected for flying training with the Royal Australian Air Force at RAAF Point Cook , after which he transferred to the RAF , being granted a short service commission as a pilot officer on 21 August 1936 . Posted to No. 15 Bomber Squadron , he was appointed adjutant of No. 90 Squadron in March 1937 , flying Bristol Blenheim bombers . He received a promotion to flying officer on 21 May 1938 .
In August 1938 , Edwards was piloting a Blenheim near the Scottish border when he flew into a storm at 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . When the ailerons froze , the aircraft was forced down to 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) and Edwards ordered the navigator and rear gunner to bale out of the aircraft . Down to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) , he made an effort to jump clear , but his parachute became entangled with the bomber 's radio mast pylon . In the ensuing crash , he sustained head injuries and a badly broken leg , which was only saved after extensive surgery , which left that leg shorter than the other . After the accident , he was declared unfit for flying duties until April 1940 , when he was posted to No. 139 Squadron for active service due to the outbreak of war . He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 21 May 1940 .
= = Second World War = =
In May 1941 , Edwards became commanding officer of No. 105 Squadron replacing the previous incumbent , who had been killed in an anti @-@ shipping raid on Stavanger . At that time , the Squadron was engaged in a series of daylight operations against Germany and the occupied countries , with its principal targets being enemy shipping , power installations , shipbuilding yards , locomotives , steelworks and marshalling yards . On 15 June , by now an acting wing commander , Edwards led six Blenheims on a search for enemy shipping and soon sighted a convoy of eight merchantmen anchored near The Hague . He launched an attack at low level , his bombs striking a 4 @,@ 000 ton ship . He was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for this action .
On 4 July 1941 , Edwards led a daylight attack ( " Operation Wreckage " ) against the port of Bremen , one of the most heavily defended towns in Germany . Edwards ' force of twelve Blenheims attacked at a height of about 50 feet through telephone wires and high voltage power lines . The bombers successfully penetrated fierce anti @-@ aircraft fire and a dense balloon barrage , but further fire over the port itself resulted in the loss of four of the attacking force . Edwards brought his remaining aircraft safely back , although all had been hit and his own Blenheim ( serial V6028 ) had been hit over 20 times . His actions in the raid earned him the Victoria Cross .
The full citation for Edwards ' Victoria Cross appeared in the London Gazette on 22 July 1941 , it read :
Air Ministry , 22nd July , 1941 .
ROYAL AIR FORCE
The KING has been graciously pleased to confer the Victoria Cross on the undermentioned officer in recognition of most conspicuous bravery : —
Acting Wing Commander Hughie Idwal Edwards , D.F.C. ( 39005 ) , No 105 . Squadron .
Wing Commander Edwards , although handicapped by a physical disability resulting from a flying accident , has repeatedly displayed gallantry of the highest order in pressing home bombing attacks from very low heights against strongly defended objectives .
On 4th July , 1941 , he led an important attack on the Port of Bremen , one of the most heavily defended towns in Germany . This attack had to be made in daylight and there were no clouds to afford concealment . During the approach to the German coast several enemy ships were sighted and Wing Commander Edwards knew that his aircraft would be reported and that the defences would be in a state of readiness . Undaunted by this misfortune he brought his formation 50 miles overland to the target , flying at a height of little more than 50 feet , passing under high @-@ tension cables , carrying away telegraph wires and finally passing through a formidable balloon barrage . On reaching Bremen he was met with a hail of fire , all his aircraft being hit and four of them being destroyed . Nevertheless he made a most successful attack , and then with the greatest skill and coolness withdrew the surviving aircraft without further loss .
Throughout the execution of this operation which he had planned personally with full knowledge of the risks entailed , Wing Commander Edwards displayed the highest possible standard of gallantry and determination .
In July 1941 , Edwards took the Squadron to Malta , in order to conduct operations against Axis shipping carrying reinforcements from Italy to Tripoli and Benghazi . The unit remained in the area until October , when they returned to Britain . Participating in a goodwill mission to the United States , he was appointed chief flying instructor at an operational training unit in January 1942 , before re @-@ assuming command of No. 105 Squadron on 3 August . During this time , Edwards married Cherry Kyrle " Pat " Beresford ; the pair were later to have a son , Anthony , and a daughter , Sarah . He was promoted to temporary wing commander on 1 September .
On 6 December 1942 , Edwards participated in a daylight bombing raid on the Philips Factory at Eindhoven , The Netherlands . Despite heavy opposition , the bombers successfully damaged or destroyed many of their targets , with two gun posts being silenced . Several members of the raid were decorated , including Edwards , who was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ; becoming the first airman to receive the Victoria Cross , Distinguished Service Order and Distinguished Flying Cross in the Second World War . Promoted to acting group captain , he assumed command of the bomber station at Binbrook in February 1943 , where , despite his senior position , he continued to participate in operations . On 18 August , he was promoted to war substantive wing commander .
With the end of the European campaigns in sight , Edwards was transferred to the Pacific theatre , first to Ceylon as Group Captain , Bomber Operations . In January 1945 , he was mentioned in despatches , and appointed the senior administrative staff officer at Headquarters , South East Asia Command ; serving in this position until the conclusion of the war .
= = Later career = =
Edwards continued his career in the post @-@ war RAF , and was granted the substantive rank of squadron leader from 1 September 1945 . Posted as a staff officer at Air Headquarters , Malaya , from November 1945 until February 1946 , he served with the Netherlands East Indies Forces for a short period before returning to Malaya as air adviser to the General Officer Commanding . In September 1945 , he was posted as station commander at the RAF Base in Kuala Lumpur ; he remained there until May 1947 , and was awarded an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his services in south @-@ east Asia .
Returning to Britain in June 1947 , he undertook a six @-@ month course at the Staff College , before receiving a two @-@ year posting as senior personnel staff officer of No. 21 Group , Flying Training Command . Promoted to wing commander on 1 July 1947 , his next posting was as the senior instructor on the leadership course at Digby , Lincolnshire . Subsequently , he was appointed station commander at Wattisham , Suffolk . He was promoted to group captain on 1 January 1954 . Edwards was the Station Commander of the RAF base RAF Habbaniya in Iraq during the Suez Crisis of 1956 , and also the critical time of the Iraqi Revolution of 14 July 1958 . He returned to Britain on 21 October 1958 to command the Central Fighter Establishment , West Raynham , with the acting rank of air commodore .
Awarded a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1959 New Year Honours , he was promoted to the substantive rank of air commodore on 1 July 1959 , and appointed as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II in March 1960 . His final appointment with the RAF was as Director of Establishments at the Air Ministry , London , from January 1962 until his retirement on 30 September 1963 .
= = Later life and governorship = =
Returning to Australia , Edwards became the Australian Representative for Selection Trust . In 1966 his wife , Cherry , died ; he married Dorothy Carew Berrick in 1972 . The pair were said to complement each other well , as Dorothy limped on her left leg after being knocked over by a car on a crosswalk in Sydney in 1970 , while Edwards limped with his right after his flying accident in 1938 . In 1974 , Edwards relinquished his position as the Australian Representative for Selection Trust and was appointed Governor of Western Australia . He was sworn in on 7 January 1974 , and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) the following October .
His knighthood involved some controversy , following his wife 's public comment that he was the only Australian state governor without such an honour . As knighthoods were then conferred by the Queen on the recommendation of her Federal and State governments , and the Governor was the Queen 's representative in the state , this was seen as highly inappropriate , especially given the Western Australian ALP State government of the day , led by John Tonkin had a policy of not recommending Imperial Honours . However , the Tonkin Government was defeated in April 1974 and the incoming Liberal Premier , Sir Charles Court , was happy to make the necessary recommendation .
While Governor , Edwards ' first official role was to christen Alan Bond 's America Cup challenger , Southern Cross . One of the couple 's first visitors to the Governor 's estate was a man by the name of Thomas Dunhill , who had consumed ten beers and wanted to see the house . Lady Edwards apparently found him in the pantry ; he was arrested by the police but no charges were laid . Ill health forced Edwards to resign his vice @-@ regal appointment on 2 April 1975 , and he and Lady Edwards went to live in Sydney , where he continued in semi @-@ retirement with commercial interests .
On 5 August 1982 , while on his way to attend a Test match at the Sydney Cricket Ground , Edwards unexpectedly collapsed and died ; his ashes were buried in the Karrakatta Cemetery , Perth , after a State Funeral and cremation at Northern Suburbs Crematorium in Sydney . His Victoria Cross is on display at the Australian War Memorial , Canberra , and on 26 November 2002 a life @-@ size bronze statue depicting Edwards was unveiled by then Governor of Western Australia , John Sanderson , in Kings Square , Fremantle . The Hugh Edwards Ward at Hollywood Private Hospital has been named in his honour .
= Funk ( Glee ) =
" Funk " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the American television series Glee . The episode was written by series creator Ian Brennan and directed by Elodie Keene . It premiered on the Fox network on June 1 , 2010 and was watched by 9 million viewers . In " Funk " , New Directions is intimidated by rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline . Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) defects back to Vocal Adrenaline , and New Directions explores funk music , knowing it is their rival club 's weakness . The episode features cover versions of six songs , all of which were released as singles , available for download , and two of which are included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Lisa Respers France of CNN and Blair Baldwin of Zap2it both received the episode positively . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club , Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack and James Poniewozic of Time highlighted continuity issues with the show , while VanDerWerff and Henrik Batallones of BuddyTV deemed " Funk " a set @-@ up episode for the season finale . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle gave a more positive review , but still found " Funk " lacking compared to previous episodes , a sentiment shared by Aly Semigran of MTV .
= = Plot = =
Jesse ( Jonathan Groff ) returns to rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline , claiming that he was not appreciated in New Directions . In a successful attempt at intimidation ahead of the Regionals competition , Vocal Adrenaline gives a performance of " Another One Bites the Dust " in the McKinley High auditorium , and toilet paper New Directions ' choir room . The New Directions members become depressed , and club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) tries to reinvigorate them by asking them to perform funk numbers . Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) performs " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " to vent her frustration of being an unwed teenage mother . Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) sympathizes with Quinn and invites her to move in with her . Later , Mercedes , Puck ( Mark Salling ) and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) perform " Good Vibrations " as their own " funk " number , based on Marky Mark 's band name being the Funky Bunch .
Will and Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) finalize their divorce . Attempting to deal with his sorrow and cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester 's ( Jane Lynch ) incessant bullying , Will seduces Sue with a performance of " Tell Me Something Good " and asks her out on a date , standing her up to humiliate her . Sue withdraws the cheerleading squad from the upcoming Nationals competition and becomes bed @-@ bound . Will sees the negative impact on the cheerleaders and realizes that some of them might lose their college scholarships . Will knows that hurting his nemesis did not make him feel any better , and encourages her to be there for her girls . Sue reenters and wins Nationals , but later gives Will two options : either house her new trophy inside New Directions ' choir room , or kiss her . As Will is about to kiss her , Sue backs out and decides she prefers that the trophy be set up in the choir room as a reminder of her superiority .
In retaliation to Vocal Adrenaline 's vandalism , Puck and Finn slash the tires of their rivals ' Range Rovers . Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) thinks they should be expelled , but Vocal Adrenaline director Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) disagrees : she decides not to press charges , but she insists they pay for the damages . She then recommends taking the money out of Glee 's budget , but Will says that the club will go bankrupt . Finn then says that he and Puck will get jobs , and Shelby agrees . They begin working with Terri at Sheets @-@ N @-@ Things . Expressing the dissatisfaction in their lives , Puck , Finn , Terri , customer Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , and employee Howard Bamboo ( Kent Avenido ) perform " Loser " in a dream sequence . Terri finds that Finn reminds her of Will , and befriends him , helping him with his funk assignment .
Jesse further breaks Rachel 's ( Lea Michele ) heart when he lures her to the parking lot , where he and the other Vocal Adrenaline members throw eggs at her , which leaves Rachel distraught . The male New Directions members , led by Puck , are talked out of violent retaliation by Will , and instead the group performs " Give Up the Funk " to show Vocal Adrenaline that they have not been defeated by their bullying . The performance intimidates their rivals , who unlike New Directions have never been able to master a funk number .
= = Production = =
" Funk " was originally intended to air on May 25 , 2010 , but was switched in the schedule with the episode " Theatricality " . Series creator Ryan Murphy has stated that there are three relationships which are the cornerstone of Glee : those between Finn and Rachel , Will and Emma ( Jayma Mays ) , and Will and Sue . Murphy explained that Will 's seduction of Sue in " Funk " is an attempt to get her to leave the Glee club alone , expanding : " I think he 's just done getting pushed around by Sue , but they had great fun with that . "
Will 's wife , Terri , returns to the series in " Funk " , giving her first vocal performance . Murphy planned a redemptive storyline for Terri , in which she realizes that Finn is similar to Will . He explained : " She met Will at 16 , so she sees a way to redemption ... a way to redo that relationship in a positive way [ by acting ] almost as Finn 's guardian angel , his fairy godmother . She gives him proper moral advice . " Murphy enjoyed seeing Gilsig and Monteith work together , so much so that he stated their friendship will continue into the show 's second season . On June 2 , 2010 , Megan Masters of E ! Online reported that Gilsig had yet to be officially invited back for the second season , but was confident that she would be . Discussing Terri 's relationship with Finn , Gilsig explained : " She sees in Finn so much of what she saw in Will when she first met him because he 's the same age as Will was . It 's her way of remembering happier times — when she used to be kind to Will . And she realizes , here 's a chance to be supportive of this kid . "
The episode features cover versions of six songs : " Another One Bites the Dust " by Queen , " Tell Me Something Good " by Rufus , " Loser " by Beck , " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " by James Brown , " Good Vibrations " by Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch featuring Loleatta Holloway and " Give Up the Funk ( Tear the Roof off the Sucker ) " by Parliament " . All of the songs performed in the episode were released as singles , available for download . " Loser " is Gilsig 's only vocal performance on the show , and is included on the deluxe edition of the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . " Give Up the Funk " is included on both the deluxe and standard editions of the album .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Funk " was watched by an average of 9 million American viewers . The episode began with a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , rising to 4 @.@ 1 / 11 in the last 30 minutes . It was down 21 % on the previous episode , but was Glee 's best 18 – 49 rating for an episode not following American Idol . It was the third most @-@ watched show of the week in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic ( losing to America 's Got Talent the night of the broadcast ) , the highest scripted show , and the eleventh most @-@ watched program amongst all viewers . " Funk " received mixed reviews from critics . CNN 's Lisa Respers France called it " incredible " , and was pleased to see New Directions performing funk music , although noted that she was " slightly disturbed " by Quinn 's " weird " performance of " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " utilizing pregnant teenagers as backing dancers . In December 2012 , TV Guide named Quinn 's cover one of Glee 's worst performances . Blair Baldwin of Zap2it stated : " While it didn 't have the poignant vocals of previous episodes , it was fresh and fun ... a nice change of pace for the series . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle called it a " pretty good " and " solid " episode , albeit noting that it lacked the " emotional punch " of previous episodes .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " C " , writing that it felt like " a frantic attempt to raise a bunch of potential storylines for season two and an attempt to put things in place for the season finale " . He criticized the show 's lack of continuity , particularly with regard to the Jesse and Rachel storyline . Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack also observed the lack of continuity in the Jesse storyline , calling it " slightly confusing " and " a little half @-@ baked " ; continuity errors in his storyline may have been the result of the change in episode broadcast order . He felt that the episode was " a slight let down " , noting : " There wasn ’ t as much tension as I would have hoped going into the finale but there were still plenty of fun moments to enjoy . " James Poniewozik of Time attributed part of the episode 's problems to it being " an episode that could air easily out of order " , explaining : " Glee is a very serial show , after all , but this episode largely consisted of moments that felt dropped in and random , in a way that undermined even the good moments . "
Henrik Batallones of BuddyTV deemed " Funk " a bridge between " Theatricality " and the season finale , writing : " It feels like the episode got itself in a funk , and when things get close to being awesome , it pulls back . " Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 6 @.@ 8 / 10 for " Passable " , but deemed it the weakest episode of Glee thus far , while Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times called it " just one big funked @-@ up mess . " Broadway World 's Mary Hanrahan felt that : " While " Funk " had some redeeming , even charming , moments , it did nothing to make up for the perplexing episode that preceded it and ultimately left much to be desired . " In contrast , Aly Semigran of MTV had enjoyed the preceding episode , yet still received " Funk " poorly , calling it : " a step down from last week 's strong ' Theatricality ' . " As with Respers France , Semigran noted that Quinn 's performance " felt a little uncomfortable and borderline ' offensive ' . " In contrast , Raymund Flandez of the Wall Street Journal enjoyed Quinn 's song , which he called a " magnificent surprise " , praising the " perfect jazzy – funk choreography " . Flandez criticized the " Good Vibrations " performance , however , deeming it a " song so bad it can 't be saved by irony or nostalgia " , and felt that " Give Up the Funk " was " underdeveloped " asking : " Where 's the soul ? Anger ? Passion ? Emotion ? Isn 't that what this was supposed to be about ? "
= Kepler @-@ 9d =
Kepler @-@ 9d , formerly known as KOI @-@ 377 @.@ 03 , is a planet in orbit around the sunlike star Kepler @-@ 9 . Initially discovered by Kepler spacecraft , a terrestrial planet @-@ searching satellite built and operated by NASA , Kepler @-@ 9d is most likely a Super @-@ Earth , with an estimated radius approximately 60 % larger than that of Earth 's , although its exact mass cannot be determined . Kepler @-@ 9d orbits Kepler @-@ 9 every 1 @.@ 56 days at a distance of .0273 AU from its star , an extremely close distance . Although Kepler @-@ 9d is the closest planet to its star in its system , it is named Kepler @-@ 9d instead of Kepler @-@ 9b because two gas giants , Kepler @-@ 9b and Kepler @-@ 9c , were confirmed first . The original studies into the system first suggested that Kepler @-@ 9d might be a planet , but a follow @-@ up investigation made by the Kepler team later confirmed that it was ; the confirmation of Kepler @-@ 9d as a planet was made public with the team 's paper , which was published in the Astrophysical Journal on January 1 , 2011 . The team used telescopes at the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii to follow up on the Kepler space telescope 's initial discovery .
= = Discovery and name = =
Kepler @-@ 9d 's name comes from it being the third planet discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 9 . Kepler @-@ 9 was named for the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA satellite that aims to discover terrestrial planets in transit around , or crossing in front of , their host stars as seen from Earth . This transit causes a regular interval in which the star briefly and slightly dims as the planet crosses it .
Flagged initially as a transit event by the satellite , Kepler @-@ 9d was given the designation KOI 377 @.@ 03 . It was recognized as a potential planet after a study into the system confirmed Kepler @-@ 9b and Kepler @-@ 9c , but follow @-@ up studies had to be completed to verify that it was indeed a planet , and that the apparent transit event was not due to a background eclipsing binary star in the aperture of Kepler 's photometer . Kepler 's team exhaustively disproved that the small transit event could have been anything but a planet , and their results were published in the Astrophysical Journal on January 1 , 2011 . Follow @-@ up observations were conducted by the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer at the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii , as well as the WIYN Observatory in Arizona and the Palomar Observatory in California .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 9 is a sunlike star in the constellation Lyra that lies some 650 parsecs away from Earth . With a mass of 1 @.@ 07 M ☉ and a radius of 1 @.@ 02 R ☉ , Kepler @-@ 9 is almost exactly the same size and width of the Sun , being only 7 % more massive and 2 % wider . Kepler @-@ 9 has an effective temperature of 5777 ( ± 61 ) K , as compared to the Sun 's at 5778 K , and is approximately 32 % more metal @-@ rich ( in terms of iron ) than the Sun . Kepler @-@ 9 is younger than the Sun , and is estimated to be one billion years old . Kepler @-@ 9 has two planets other than Kepler @-@ 9d : the gas giants Kepler @-@ 9b and Kepler @-@ 9c .
= = Characteristics = =
Based on the size of its light curve , Kepler @-@ 9d is assumed to be a Super @-@ Earth , although its exact mass is not known . It is presumed to be at least 1 @.@ 5 Earth masses . The planet 's radius is inferred to be 1 @.@ 64 RE , or approximately 64 % larger than Earth 's radius . With an equilibrium temperature of 2026 K , it is hotter than all the previous planets discovered by Kepler ( not counting the three previously discovered ones located in its field of view ) . Its density is not known . With an average distance of .0273 AU ( 2 @,@ 537 @,@ 695 @.@ 73 miles ) from its star , which it orbits every 1 @.@ 592851 days , Kepler @-@ 9d is the closest planet to its star in the Kepler @-@ 9 system . To compare , the planet Mercury is .3871 AU away from the Sun , which it orbits every 87 @.@ 97 days .
= Sonic X @-@ treme =
Sonic X @-@ treme is a cancelled platform video game in the Sonic the Hedgehog series . Developed by Sega Technical Institute ( STI ) , X @-@ treme was designed to capitalize on the success of Sega 's mascot character by being the first fully 3D Sonic game and the first original Sonic title developed for the Sega Saturn . During the course of development , several different styles of gameplay were tried and the plot of the game changed several times .
Originally pitched as a two @-@ dimensional platform game for the Sega Genesis , the game was eventually moved to development on the Saturn and for Microsoft Windows , intended for release during the holiday season of 1996 . However , X @-@ treme became stuck in development hell after several incidents , including an unfavorable visit by Sega of Japan executives and issues with acquiring a game engine , made the deadline difficult to achieve . After two of the lead programmers for the project became ill , the game was eventually cancelled . Reviewers and video game journalists have retrospectively considered the possibility of what Sonic X @-@ treme could have done for the Saturn had it been released , including comparisons to competing mascot video games Super Mario 64 and Crash Bandicoot .
= = Premise = =
With the game constantly changing platforms , engines , and development teams , there were many loose storylines in consideration . According to developer Christian Senn , about six or seven story lines were considered during the three @-@ year development timeframe . While originally based on the Saturday morning cartoon series , the main storyline used in promotion of the final game in magazines involved a Professor Gazebo Boobowski and his daughter , Tiara . The two were the guardians of the six magical Rings of Order , as well as the ancient art of ring @-@ smithing . Gazebo and Tiara feared that Dr. Robotnik was after the six Rings of Order , and called on Sonic to get the Rings before Robotnik could . Dr. Robotnik kidnapped Gazebo after he requested Sonic 's help , making it so Sonic had to retrieve both him and the Rings of Order . At one point in the development process , there was a possibility for 4 playable characters : Knuckles the Echidna , Tiara Boobowski , Miles " Tails " Prower , and Sonic the Hedgehog . Other characters intended to be included in the game were Nack the Weasel and Metal Sonic , who would have been a boss character in the final level . Various moves were added to the characters , such as a ring toss move for Sonic , which was left out of development .
To further the traditional " Sonic formula " , every level was designed in a tube @-@ like fashion ; Sonic would be able to walk onto walls , thus changing the direction of gravity and the rotation of the level itself , much like the special stages in Knuckles ' Chaotix . In addition , an unusual , fish @-@ eye lens @-@ styled camera was put into place so players could see more of their surroundings at any given time .
" 3D Sonic is free to move around in a completely open 3D environment . Previously , on the 2D games , things were restricted to a very linear path , whereas now he can run around in the open without any restrictions to his path . The 360 @-@ degree rotation allows for new aspects to the gameplay . It means that Sonic can now do things like run from a wall onto the ceiling and explore lots of new hidden areas . "
Senn has highlighted that the 3D gameplay still kept true to the Sonic series formula of collecting rings and speeding through game levels . Wallis also made mention of the game 's overall layout , consisting of three acts per zone and varying in focuses on speed , exploration , and puzzle solving .
= = Development = =
Following the completion of Sonic & Knuckles in 1994 , Sega began working on the next game in its Sonic the Hedgehog franchise , which was known in development as Sonic X @-@ treme and would have been the first Sonic game to feature fully 3D graphics . Development of the game was started by Sega Technical Institute , a U.S.-based developer that had worked on several previous Sonic games , beginning on the Sega Genesis and subsequently moving to the Sega 32X . In its earliest conception , Sonic X @-@ treme was designed for release on the Sega Genesis as a side @-@ scrolling platform game , much like previous Sonic games for the system . As new consoles and the beginning of the 32 @-@ bit era were on the way , the game was later moved to the Sega 32X and was known at this stage under the development names Sonic 32X and Sonic Mars , after the development name " Project Mars " used for the Sega 32X . Even at this stage , the game 's design changed wildly , including concepts such as an isometric viewpoint side @-@ scroller . Eventually , however , development of the game was settled on a full 3D platform game .
As the game 's design had changed significantly and evolved beyond the capabilities of the struggling Sega 32X , the game was shifted again to the Sega Saturn . The Saturn version of the project was initially developed separately by two teams in parallel starting in the second half of 1995 . One team , led by designer Chris Senn and programmer Ofer Alon , was in charge of developing the main game for PC . The other team , led by Robert Morgan and including programmer Chris Coffin , worked on porting Senn and Alon 's work to the Saturn while developing the " free @-@ roaming , ' arena @-@ style ' " 3D boss engine . Senn and Alon 's " fixed @-@ camera side @-@ scroller " with the ability " to move freely in all directions " was similar to Bug ! , and featured a fish @-@ eye camera system ( called the " Reflex Lens " ) that gave players a wide @-@ angle view of the action . As a result , levels appeared to move around Sonic .
In March 1996 , Sega of Japan representatives , including CEO Hayao Nakayama , visited STI headquarters to evaluate the game 's progress . They were unimpressed by the main game engine 's performance on the Saturn , although Senn and Alon did not have an opportunity to demonstrate the PC version . Therefore , Nakayama requested the entire game be reworked around the boss engine . To achieve this in time for the strict December 1996 deadline , Coffin 's team was moved into a place of isolation from further company politics and worked between sixteen and twenty hours a day . Then , in April , Bernie Stolar approached the STI team and inquired of Wallis what he could do to help the game meet its deadline . Wallis suggested that the game engine from Sonic Team 's Nights into Dreams ... would be helpful . Stolar agreed and acquired the engine . However , the engine 's creator and lead programmer of the original Mega Drive Sonic games , Yuji Naka , reportedly threatened to leave the company if it was used . STI lost two weeks of development time from the loss of the Nights engine . A playable demo of the game was displayed at the May 1996 Electronic Entertainment Expo .
Senn and Alon had initially continued on with their game engine , undeterred by their work 's original rejection , hoping to pitch it to Sega 's PC division . However , it was eventually rejected again , prompting Alon to leave Sega . No part of the STI team worked in unity during development .
" We had artists doing art for levels that hadn 't even been concepted out . We had programmers waiting and waiting and waiting until every minute detail had been concepted out , and we had designers doing whatever the hell they wanted . It was a mess , and because of the internal politics , it was even more difficult to get any work done . "
By August , Chris Senn had become so ill that he was told he had six months to live — though Senn would survive this ordeal — and Chris Coffin came down with a severe case of pneumonia . With both Senn 's team and Coffin 's team crippled , Wallis was left with an incomplete X @-@ treme and only two months before its deadline . At this point , he made the decision to cancel the game . Although Sega initially stated that X @-@ treme had merely been delayed , the project was cancelled in early 1997 .
= = After cancellation = =
With the cancellation of X @-@ treme , Sega instead decided to concentrate on a port of the Genesis title Sonic 3D Blast , and Sonic Team 's Nights into Dreams ... for the 1996 holiday season . Sonic Team started work on an original 3D Sonic title for the Saturn , which eventually became Sonic Adventure for the Dreamcast . According to Naka , remnants of the project can be seen in the compilation game Sonic Jam . STI was officially disbanded in 1996 as a result of changes in management at Sega of America .
For many years , very little content from the game was ever released beyond screenshots that had been released to the media in promotion of the game prior to its cancellation . However , in 2006 a copy of a very early test engine was sold at auction to an anonymous collector who bought it for US $ 2500 . An animated GIF image of the gameplay was initially released , and the disk image itself was leaked on July 17 , 2007 after a fundraising project by the " Assemblergames " website community purchased the disc from the collector . In 2006 , Chris Senn opened the " Sonic X @-@ treme Compendium " web site and began revealing large amounts of the game 's development history to the public , including videos of early footage , a playable character named Tiara , and a large amount of previously unreleased concept music related to the title . He also was given permission by Hirokazu Yasuhara , the level designer for the majority of the original 16 @-@ bit Sonic titles , to post level designs that were going to be put in the game . Senn , along with the community , announced intentions to recreate the game , but ultimately the project was canceled in January 2010 .
In early 2015 , fans from Sonic fansite " Sonic Retro " obtained the game 's source code , polished it up into a playable build , and released it for download on the internet . The first release only features one level , the Jungle @-@ themed level from the 1996 E3 promotional video , and remaining levels and demos were released during 2015 .
= = Legacy = =
The Sonic X @-@ treme debacle has been cited as a reason for the ultimate failure of the Sega Saturn . With the Sonic the Hedgehog series being attributed to much of the success of the company 's prior system , the Genesis , and Sony and Nintendo both having flagship 3D platformers available early in the life cycle of their consoles ( Crash Bandicoot and Super Mario 64 , respectively ) , Sega was expected by fans to follow suit and produce an official 3D Sonic game . With the game 's cancellation , the Saturn never did receive an exclusive Sonic platform game , but rather only the Genesis port of Sonic 3D Blast ; Sonic Jam , a compilation of the 2D Genesis Sonic titles ; and Sonic R , a racing game . Sonic 's debut in a full 3D platform game was not until 1998 , with Sonic Adventure as a Dreamcast launch title , well after the discontinuation of the Saturn .
Following the game 's cancellation , journalists and fans have speculated about the impact a completed X @-@ treme might have had on the market . David Houghton of GamesRadar described the prospect of " a good 3D Sonic game " on the Saturn as " a ' What if ... ' situation on a par with the dinosaurs not becoming extinct . " IGN 's Travis Fahs called X @-@ treme " the turning point not only for SEGA 's mascot and their 32 @-@ bit console , but for the entire company " , although he also noted that the game served as " an empty vessel for SEGA 's ambitions and the hopes of their fans " . Dave Zdyrko , who operated a prominent website for Saturn fans during the system 's lifespan , offered a more nuanced perspective : " I don 't know if [ X @-@ treme ] could 've saved the Saturn , but ... Sonic helped make the Genesis and it made absolutely no sense why there wasn 't a great new Sonic title ready at or near the launch of the [ Saturn ] " . In a 2013 retrospective , producer Mike Wallis maintained that X @-@ treme " definitely would have been competitive " with Nintendo 's Super Mario 64 . Websites such as Destructoid and GamesRadar have speculated the game could have been a source of inspiration for future games such as 2007 's Super Mario Galaxy . Several journalists would also note similarities between X @-@ treme and the 2013 game Sonic Lost World .
= Nydalen ( station ) =
Nydalen is a rapid transit station on the Ring Line of the Oslo Metro . It is located at Nydalen in the Nordre Aker borough of Oslo , Norway . The station opened on 20 August 2003 , as part of the first section of the Ring Line to Storo . The station is served by lines 4 , 5 and 6 of the metro , as well as several local bus services . Artistic effort was put into the construction of the station , and the escalators were built into the Tunnel of Light exhibition . Close by the station is the BI Norwegian Business School ( BI ) campus and several large working places .
= = History = =
The process of establishing a Ring Line to serve the northern parts of Oslo started in the late 1980s . The plans were passed by the city council in 1997 , and financing was secured in 2000 through Oslo Package 2 . Construction started in June 2000 , and Nydalen was opened on 20 August 2003 , at the same time as Storo .
The background for building the rapid transit system to Nydalen , was the urban redevelopment from an industrial to a mixed residential and commercial area during the 1990s and 2000s . About 200 companies have moved to the vicinity of the station , and by 2007 there were 14 @,@ 800 jobs in the area . The area has several large information technology and telecommunication companies , including ErgoGroup , Agresso , EDB Business Partner , Visma , TDC and NetCom . Large cultural institutions in the area include the national touring theater Riksteatret and the national touring concerts Concerts Norway , the publishing companies Hjemmet Mortensen , De Norske Bokklubbene and Schibsted 's printing press . Public offices include the offices of the Nodre Aker Borough and the Norwegian Police Security Service .
In 2005 , BI Norwegian Business School moved into their new campus across the street from Nydalen Station . Seven thousand students plus faculty work at the school , of which 85 % use public transport . From 2011 , the new Nydalen Upper Secondary School will also be located in Nydalen .
= = Facilities = =
Nydalen Station is an underground station located on the tunnel section of the Ring Line between Tåsen and Storo . The 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 43 @,@ 000 sq ft ) station was drawn by architect Kristin Jarmund . The station 's center platform is located 12 metres ( 39 ft ) underground , with an entrance pavilion at street level . The pavilion has a composition of horizontal and vertical levels and planes . Between these , which are dynamically cast in relation to each other , are the modes of descent down to the platform area : i.e. elevators , escalators and staircases . The planes were built of black basalt , supplemented with large glass spaces that opens up the pavilion . A red glass box , that symbolizes the red trains , stands as a " signal " . The platforms is 110 metres ( 360 ft ) long , allowing for six @-@ car trains , and is covered with white granite and a paneled ceiling . The rail area has black concrete walls . There is effect lighting around the columns and recessed spotlights horizontally along the platform . The station is owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon .
The Tunnel of Light is an artistic display of color and sound surrounding the escalator at the station . 1800 fluorescent lamps and 44 speakers are installed behind a layer of glass along the corridor , steadily changing color and mood . The theme is based on different experiences of travel in time and place . There are light and sound combinations for all seasons and all phases of life . The project was initiated by Kristin Jarmund . The light system was developed by Per Åge Lyså at Intravision System , and the software that mixes sound and color was developed by Yngve Sandboe . The music was composed by Bjarne Kvinnsland , mainly based on recorded samples . Among these are text written and performed by Beate Grimsrud .
= = Service = =
Lines 4 , 5 and 6 of the Oslo Metro operate to Nydalen , each with a 15 @-@ minute headway . Lines 4 and 5 operate counterclockwise through the ring via the western part of town into the Common Tunnel , while line 6 operates clockwise via the eastern part into the Common Tunnel . Line 5 continues eastwards only to Storo before stopping ; lines 4 and 6 swap numbers between Nydalen and Storo . Travel time from Nydalen to Stortinget is 13 minutes clockwise and 12 minutes counterclockwise . Therefore , any traveler heading for the city center can get on the first train , independent of its direction ( except line 5 to Storo ) , and can be certain it will be the quickest connection to the downtown area .
There is a railway station on the Gjøvik Line also called Nydalen , that is served by NSB Gjøvikbanen as part of the Oslo Commuter Rail . It is located many hundred meters from the metro station , and the two do not offer interconnections . There is a shorter connection to the Gjøvik Line at Storo ( that connects with Grefsen Station ) . Nydalen also serves several bus routes . Line 37 via the city center to Helsfyr operates from across the street at Nydalen , while additional buses are located somewhat further away . They consist a feeder service to Lillo Terrasse ( line 55 ) as well as lines 30 to Bygdøy , 51 to Maridalen and 58 to Helsfyr .
= New York Jets =
The New York Jets are a professional American football team located in the New York metropolitan area . The team is a member of the Eastern Division of the American Football Conference ( AFC ) in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The team is headquartered in Florham Park , New Jersey . In a unique arrangement for the league , the Jets share MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey with the New York Giants . The franchise is legally and corporately registered as New York Jets , LLC .
The team was founded in 1959 as the Titans of New York , an original member of the American Football League ; later , the franchise joined the NFL in the AFL – NFL merger . The team began to play in 1960 at the Polo Grounds . Under new ownership , the current name was adopted in 1963 and the franchise moved to Shea Stadium in 1964 and then to the Meadowlands Sports Complex in 1984 . The Jets advanced to the playoffs for the first time in 1968 and went on to compete in Super Bowl III where they defeated the Baltimore Colts , becoming the first AFL team to defeat an NFL club in an AFL @-@ NFL World Championship Game . Since 1968 , the Jets have appeared in the playoffs 13 times , and in the AFC Championship Game four times , most recently losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2010 . However , the Jets have never returned to the Super Bowl , making them one of three NFL teams to win their lone Super Bowl appearance , along with the New Orleans Saints and Tampa Bay Buccaneers .
The team 's training facility , Atlantic Health Jets Training Center , which opened in 2008 , is located in Florham Park . The team currently holds their annual training camp sessions on the campus of the State University of New York at Cortland in Cortland , New York while holding occasional sessions at the Florham Park complex .
= = Franchise history = =
The first organizational meeting of the American Football League took place on August 14 , 1959 . Harry Wismer , representing the city of New York at the meeting , proclaimed the state was ready for another professional football team and that he was more than capable of running the daily operations . Wismer was granted the charter franchise later dubbed the Titans of New York as Wismer explained , " Titans are bigger and stronger than Giants . " He secured the Titans ' home field at the decrepit Polo Grounds , where the team struggled financially and on the field during its first three years . By 1962 , the debt continued to mount for Wismer , forcing the AFL to assume the costs of the team until season 's end .
A five @-@ man syndicate , headed by Sonny Werblin , saved the team from certain bankruptcy , purchasing the lowly Titans for $ 1 million . Renamed the Jets , the new owners hired Weeb Ewbank as the general manager and head coach . Ewbank and quarterback Joe Namath led the Jets to prominence in 1969 , when New York defeated the heavily favored Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III and solidified the AFL 's position in the world of professional football .
When the AFL and NFL merged , the team fell into a state of mediocrity along with their star quarterback , Namath , who only had three successful post @-@ merger seasons after injuries hampered much of his career . The Jets continued to spiral downward before enjoying a string of successes in the 1980s , which included an appearance in the 1982 AFC Championship Game , and the emergence of the popular New York Sack Exchange .
The early 1990s saw New York struggling . After firing coach Bruce Coslet , owner Leon Hess hired Pete Carroll who struggled to a 6 – 10 record and was promptly fired at the end of the season . Thereafter , Rich Kotite was selected to lead the team to victory ; instead he led the Jets to a 4 @-@ 28 record over the next two years . Kotite stepped down at the end of his second season forcing the Jets to search for a new head coach .
Hess lured then @-@ disgruntled New England Patriots head coach Bill Parcells to New York in 1997 . Parcells led the team back to relevance and coached them to the AFC Championship Game in 1998 . Hess died in 1999 while the team , plagued by injuries , produced an eight win record , falling short of a playoff berth . At the end of the season , Parcells stepped down as head coach deferring control to his assistant , Bill Belichick ; Belichick resigned the very next day ( leaving a napkin at the stage for his introduction , on which he had written " I resign as HC of the NYJ " ) and went on to accept the head coaching position with the Patriots .
The franchise obtained a new owner in Woody Johnson in 2000 . Additionally , through the 2000s the Jets visited the playoffs five times , a franchise record , under the direction of three different coaches . Rex Ryan was hired in January 2009 . Ryan led the team to back @-@ to @-@ back AFC Championship appearances during his first two years but the team never made the playoffs again during his tenure .
= = Ownership = =
= = = Wismer = = =
Harry Wismer , a businessman , had been interested in sports for much of his life when he was granted a charter franchise in the American Football League . A three @-@ sport letterman , football , particularly , stuck with Wismer who went on to play for the University of Florida and Michigan State before a knee injury ended his playing career . Undeterred , Wismer began his career as a broadcaster originally with Michigan State and became a pioneer of the industry . Later , as the Titans owner , Wismer formulated a league @-@ wide policy which allowed broadcasting rights to be shared equally among the teams .
Wismer , who had previously had a 25 % stake in the Washington Redskins , was interested in the American Football League and was given a franchise to develop in New York . Wismer , whose philosophy was who you knew mattered most , tried to make the team and the league a success . His efforts began to accrue debt as the Titans ' first two seasons were mediocre with attendance dropping in the team 's second year . The franchise was sold for $ 1 million to a five @-@ man syndicate headed by Sonny Werblin of the Gotham Football Club , Inc. in February 1963 .
= = = Werblin syndicate = = =
Sonny Werblin graduated from Rutgers University and was employed by the Music Corporation of America , eventually becoming president of the company 's television division . With a vast knowledge of media , Werblin was determined to put the spotlight on the team . His first order of business , after changing the team 's name and jerseys , was to sign Joe Namath to an unprecedented contract . Werblin 's gamble would later pay off as Namath , who became a public star , led the Jets on to victory in Super Bowl III , though by then Werblin had sold his stake in the team .
Werblin 's partners , Townsend B. Martin , Leon Hess , Donald C. Lillis , and Philip H. Iselin , had a falling out with Werblin over the way the team was run — though the franchise had begun to make a profit , Werblin was making all the policies and decisions himself with little or no input from his partners , much to their dismay . Though Werblin initially resisted their ultimatum to dissolve the partnership , Werblin agreed to be bought out in 1968 . Werblin remained involved in the sports community and became the first chairman and CEO of the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority where he helped to create the Meadowlands Sports Complex , including Giants Stadium .
= = = Hess = = =
Leon Hess became well known for his Hess Corporation gas stations ; however , he also played an instrumental part in the development of the Jets during his tenure as co @-@ owner and eventual sole owner . Hess had often fought for improvements while the team was a tenant at Shea Stadium but generally stayed away from football operations , allowing his coaches and general manager to make football @-@ related decisions .
Becoming the team 's majority stockholder in 1973 , Hess bought Philip H. Iselin 's share upon his death in 1976 after which only two of Hess ' partners remained , Townsend Martin and Helen Dillon , who had inherited the stake from her father Donald Lillis , upon his death . Hess began to buy out the remaining partners in 1981 when he bought Martin 's 25 % stake for $ 5 million . Hess bought Dillon 's stake three years later for another $ 5 million , acquiring sole control of the team .
Hess had a passion for his team and took losses hard . In 1995 , following a mediocre 6 – 10 season under Pete Carroll , despite generally shying away from football operations , Hess announced " I 'm 80 years old , I want results now " during a conference in which Rich Kotite was introduced as the team 's new coach . After two unsuccessful years with Kotite , Hess heavily involved himself in hiring Bill Parcells in hopes to see his team again reach the Super Bowl . He did not live to see his dream realized as he died on May 7 , 1999 .
= = = Woody Johnson = = =
With the team for sale , two potential buyers were found in Cablevision and philanthropist Woody Johnson whose grandfather , Robert Wood Johnson II , expanded Johnson & Johnson . Johnson was unknown among the other NFL owners at the time of his $ 635 million purchase of the franchise . However , Johnson had a passion for sports according to former Knicks general manager Ernie Grunfeld and desired to own his own team . Johnson has been considered to be an enabler who wants the best from his employees .
Much like Hess , Johnson left many of the football related decisions up to his management team and tended to avoid the spotlight . However , upon hiring head coach Rex Ryan , Johnson had an increased presence as he molded the Jets into his team .
= = Stadiums = =
Owner Harry Wismer sought out a place for the team to play their home games but was only able to secure the dilapidated Polo Grounds , which had not had a major tenant since the New York Giants vacated the stadium in 1957 . The Titans played their first four seasons at the stadium — in the final season they were renamed the Jets . The Titans shared the stadium with baseball 's new expansion team , the New York Mets , for two years before both teams moved to the Shea Stadium in Queens in 1964 . The Jets hold the distinction of being the final team to host a game at the Polo Grounds , a 19 – 10 loss to the Buffalo Bills on December 14 , 1963 .
Wismer hoped the Titans could play in what would become known as Shea Stadium beginning in 1961 . However , funding difficulties and legal problems delayed construction of the stadium . Wismer signed a memorandum of understanding in late 1961 to secure the Titans ' new home . That memorandum recognized that the Mets would have exclusive use of the stadium until they had completed their season . As the team moved to Shea under new ownership , they were , in most years , required to open the season with several road games , a problem made worse in 1969 and 1973 when the Mets had long playoff runs .
Feeling that this arrangement put the Jets at a disadvantage , the team announced in 1977 that they would play two home games a year during the month of September at the Giants ' new home in New Jersey , Giants Stadium . Litigation began between New York City and the Jets over the issue , and in the lawsuit 's settlement , the city agreed to allow the Jets to play two September home games a season at Shea beginning in 1978 for the remaining six years in the Jets ' lease . In 1977 , the Jets were to play one September game at Giants Stadium and an October 2 game at Shea .
In spite of these issues , majority owner Leon Hess was interested in renewing the team 's lease at Shea , which was due to expire in 1983 . Hess negotiated with New York mayor Ed Koch . Hess wanted the city to redevelop the stadium to expand its capacity . He also hoped to renegotiate other aspects of the lease — the Jets received no money from ticketholders parking at Shea . Hess 's proposals met resistance from Koch . When negotiations reached an impasse , the Jets announced their intention to depart for New Jersey . On December 10 , 1983 the Jets played their final game at Shea and lost to the Steelers 34 – 7 . As fans pillaged the stadium for mementos , the scoreboard read " N.J. Jets " in reference to the Jets ' departure to the Meadowlands .
When the Jets joined the Giants at the stadium , many Jets fans hoped the name , Giants Stadium , would be changed . However , the Giants , who had the authority to approve the change , refused . In an effort to conceal the fact that they played in a stadium built and decorated for another team , the stadium grounds crew was assigned to make the stadium more Jet @-@ friendly during Jets games by putting up green banners and placing the Jets ' logo over the Giants ' . No change could be made to the blue and red seating bowl . The Jets were featured in the first NFL playoff game in the stadium 's history , falling to the Patriots on December 28 , 1985 .
As the Jets sought to become a stronger franchise and remove themselves from their counterparts ' shadow , the team entered into negotiations with the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in an attempt to build a stadium on the west side of Manhattan , entering a bidding war with TransGas Energy Systems and Cablevision for the rights to the West Side Yard property — Hess , prior to his death , had been approached by former mayor Rudy Giuliani about bringing the team to the West Side when their lease at Giants Stadium expired in 2008 . Cablevision was fixated against the Jets owning the land as Madison Square Garden , located only a few blocks away , would be forced to compete with the stadium . Team owners had voted , 31 – 1 , with the Buffalo Bills the only objectors , to award the 2010 Super Bowl to New York contingent on the Jets winning the bid and completing construction of the stadium prior to 2010 .
The MTA unanimously voted to sell the land to the Jets for approximately $ 210 million as the committee agreed that having the stadium would be beneficial in the long run . An angry Cablevision , community groups and transportation advocates were determined to derail the Jets ' attempts at building the stadium and two lawsuits challenging the construction of the stadium on environmental grounds were filed . Though confident they could secure the stadium , their hopes were dashed when Sheldon Silver and Joseph L. Bruno , both of whom held veto power over the stadium construction , refused to support the project , alleging it would hurt rather than help the development of the West Side .
Defeated , the Jets agreed to enter a 50 – 50 partnership with their rival , the Giants , to build a new stadium effectively agreeing to a 99 @-@ year lease , which the Giants had signed earlier in the year , to remain in New Jersey . The stadium , known as MetLife Stadium , became the first in the history of the NFL to be jointly built by two franchises . The stadium , which is illuminated in different colors depending on which team is hosting a game , opened in April 2010 and saw the Jets and Giants open the stadium together in a preseason exhibition game . The Jets ' first regular season home game at the new stadium was held on September 13 , 2010 and was shown nationwide on Monday Night Football . New York lost to the Ravens 10 – 9 . Team owners voted to have the stadium host Super Bowl XLVIII , held in 2014 .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = New England Patriots = = =
Since the inception of the American Football League , the Jets have maintained what is considered to be a marquee rivalry with the New England Patriots . The rivalry was relatively docile in its early years until 1966 when the Jets removed the Patriots , who had hopes of appearing in Super Bowl I , from playoff contention with a 38 – 28 defeat at Shea Stadium . The Patriots returned the favor in 1985 when the Jets lost to New England 26 – 14 in the wild card round ; the Patriots went on to Super Bowl XX where they were defeated by the Bears .
The rivalry began to escalate and receive increased media attention in 1997 when a disgruntled Bill Parcells vacated his head coaching position with New England to accept the same position with New York . The following year , the Jets signed Pro Bowl running back Curtis Martin from the Patriots . After the Jets declined during Parcells ' third year , Parcells decided to resign as head coach . His assistant , Bill Belichick , resigned the next day in order to become the head coach of the Patriots instead .
A critical turning point of the rivalry took place on September 23 , 2001 when Jets linebacker Mo Lewis tackled Drew Bledsoe , leaving the veteran with internal bleeding . This provided an opportunity for Tom Brady to take over as the starting quarterback and during his tenure , Brady successfully guided New England to four Super Bowl titles . In 2006 , Eric Mangini , an assistant under Belichick , left New England to join the Jets as their head coach . Under Mangini , the famous Spygate incident took place , further escalating tensions between both clubs . When Rex Ryan was hired as the team 's head coach , the rivalry further escalated due to an increased war of words between both teams . In January 2011 , the two met in a Divisional Round playoff game . The visiting Jets pulled a 28 – 21 upset to advance to the AFC Championship Game , which they ultimately lost one week later to the Pittsburgh Steelers .
= = = Buffalo Bills = = =
= = = Miami Dolphins = = =
New York has maintained a rivalry with the Miami Dolphins since the Dolphins ' inception in 1966 . One of the most famous games in Jets history took place in 1994 when the Dolphins ran the Fake Spike play , giving them an improbable victory and halting the Jets ' momentum that season , serving as a precursor to the Jets ' next two unsuccessful years under Rich Kotite . The Jets went on to complete an improbable victory of their own on October 23 , 2000 in what is known as The Monday Night Miracle . The Jets , trailing the Dolphins 30 – 7 at the end of the third quarter , rallied in the fourth quarter scoring 23 unanswered points , eventually winning in overtime with a 40 @-@ yard John Hall kick .
When Rex Ryan became New York 's head coach , there was an increased war of words between the clubs culminating with Ryan flashing an obscene gesture to heckling Dolphins fans in January 2010 . The rivalry continued between both teams when Sal Alosi , then the strength and conditioning coach of the Jets , tripped Dolphins cornerback Nolan Carroll . Carroll was not seriously injured and Alosi resigned nearly two months later .
= = = New York Giants = = =
The New York Jets previously maintained a high tension rivalry against their in @-@ town counterparts , the New York Giants , that has since diminished due to the infrequency with which the teams meet in the regular season . The pinnacle of the rivalry came on August 17 , 1969 when both the Jets and Giants met for the first time , in a preseason game which was viewed as a " turf war " by both opponents . The Giants , considered a mediocre team at the time , were regarded as underdogs and were under much scrutiny by the media and their fans . Ultimately , the Jets bested their rival 37 – 14 ; this would result in the firing of Giants coach Allie Sherman .
The Jets met the Giants in 1988 during the final game of the regular season . The Jets , with a 7 – 7 – 1 record , had little to lose as their hopes for playoff contention had vanished . The Giants , however , were contending for a playoff spot and a victory would have secured their spot and their division title . Although the six point favorites , the Giants were unable to overcome the Jets defense which saw the Jets sack quarterback Phil Simms eight times . With the Jets ' victory and victories by the Rams and Eagles , the Giants were eliminated from playoff contention and the Jets gained respect in the eyes of many .
In spite of the big sibling rivalry that has resulted in trash talk between the players , both teams have formed an unexpected and consequently strong partnership sharing Giants Stadium for 26 years and MetLife Stadium , a venture in which both teams own a 50 % share of the stadium . The rivalry regained much of its tension in the 2011 NFL season when the Jets and Giants met in Week 16 . Both teams needed a victory to keep their playoffs hope alive and there was significant trash talk between Rex Ryan and his players and many of the Giants in the weeks leading up to the game . Ryan and Giants running back Brandon Jacobs reportedly came close to blows after the game , a 29 – 14 win by the Giants .
= = Logos and uniforms = =
The Jets have undergone three significant uniform changes with minor alterations throughout the years . As the Titans of New York , the team wore blue and gold uniforms similar to that of Notre Dame 's . The well @-@ known green and white uniforms came about in 1963 when the team was renamed . The franchise introduced Titans of New York throwback uniforms in 2007 to commemorate their heritage .
= = Cheerleading squad = =
The team originally named the Jets Flag Crew was established in 2006 . In 2007 , the group underwent an expansion and was appropriately renamed the Jets Flight Crew . The squad regularly performs choreographed routines during the team 's home contests . Auditions have been held annually since their inception to attract new members .
The Jets Junior Flight Crew was established in 2010 offering children the opportunity to train with the Flight Crew while improving their " talent and abilities in a non @-@ competitive environment . "
= = Radio and television = =
The Jets ' current flagship radio station is WEPN 98 @.@ 7 ESPN with Bob Wischusen , as the play @-@ by @-@ play announcer and former Jet Marty Lyons of the Sack Exchange , as the color analyst .
Any preseason games not nationally televised are shown on WCBS @-@ TV . SportsNet New York , which serves as the official home of the Jets , airs over 250 hours of " exclusive , in depth " material on the team in high definition .
= = Statistics = =
This is a partial list of the Jets ' last five completed seasons . For the full season @-@ by @-@ season franchise results , see List of New York Jets seasons .
Note : The Finish , Wins , Losses , and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play .
Record as of December 28 , 2014
= = Notable players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Pro Football Hall of Famers = = =
Ewbank , Martin , Maynard , and Namath are recognized based upon their achievements with the Jets . Ewbank is also recognized based upon his achievements with the Baltimore Colts , coaching them to NFL championships in 1958 and 1959 . Riggins is recognized primarily for his seasons with the Washington Redskins ( 1976 – 79 , 81 – 85 ) , as is Monk ( 1980 – 93 ) , who won three Super Bowl championships with Washington . Lott is in the Hall of Fame primarily for his exploits as a member of the San Francisco 49ers . Baugh and Turner are recognized based upon their achievements as players with other teams , rather than their head coaching stints with the Jets . While Parcells reversed the fortunes of the Jets , he had major impact for the New York Giants , coaching them to two Super Bowl victories . Wolf only had a brief stint with the Jets between 1990 and 1991 , while most of his major contributions occurred as an executive and player personnel director with the Oakland Raiders ( 1963 @-@ 1974 , 1979 @-@ 1989 ) , and later as General Manager of the Green Bay Packers ( 1991 @-@ 2001 ) . Favre only played one season as a member of the Jets in 2008 , between most of his career with the Packers ( 1992 @-@ 2007 ) and his last two NFL seasons with the Minnesota Vikings ( 2009 @-@ 2010 ) .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
= = = Ring of Honor = = =
The Jets established a Ring of Honor on July 20 , 2010 , to commemorate former alumni . Each season , players will be nominated by an internal committee and then inducted into the Ring . There is no specific amount of honorees to be selected each year .
= = = American Football League All @-@ Time Team = = =
The following Titans / Jets were selected to the American Football League All @-@ Time Team on January 14 , 1970 . The first and second teams were determined by a panel of members of the AFL 's Hall of Fame Board of Selectors :
= = = All @-@ Time Four Decade Team = = =
New York announced their official All @-@ Time Four Decade team in 2003 which , was determined by the fans of the team .
= = = Notable first @-@ round draft picks = = =
Perhaps the most famous of the Jets ' first round picks came in 1965 when they selected Alabama quarterback Joe Namath who boosted the Jets into the national spotlight with his boisterous personality and lifestyle . His physical talents on the field helped improve the Jets ' fortunes , leading them to victory over the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III . Though injuries hampered the latter part of Namath 's career , he is best remembered , according to former teammate John Dockery , as " a guy that came along and broke a lot of the conventions . " Namath was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1985 .
Perhaps one of the most disappointing players in Jets history was running back Blair Thomas . Thomas , who averaged 5 @.@ 4 yards per carry at Penn State , was an intriguing prospect the Jets were interested in utilizing to help their cumbersome offense . Confident in their decision , the Jets drafted Thomas with the second overall pick in 1990 , expecting him to be a solid player for years to come . Thomas ran for only 620 yards in 1990 , and failed to meet the high expectations . By the time Thomas left the team as an unrestricted free agent in 1993 , he had rushed for 2 @,@ 009 yards and only five touchdowns . The 2008 first round pick , defensive lineman Vernon Gholston , followed a similar path , failing to record a sack during his three @-@ year tenure with the team .
In the 2013 @-@ 14 seasons , one of the Jets ' strongest units has been their defensive line , manned by 1st Round selections Muhammad Wilkerson ( 2011 ) and Sheldon Richardson ( 2013 ) . In 2013 , Wilkerson ended the season with 10 @.@ 5 sacks , matching the last Jets player to have more than 10 sacks in a single season , John Abraham in 2005 . Also that year , Richardson was honored with an award from the AP for Defensive Rookie of the Year . The Jets ' run defense was stout with all three in the line up , finishing fifth as a team in rushing yards allowed in 2014 .
= = Coaches and staff = =
= = = Head coaches = = =
= = = Current staff = = =
= U.S. Route 113 =
U.S. Route 113 ( US 113 ) is a spur of US 13 in the U.S. states of Maryland and Delaware . The U.S. Highway runs 74 @.@ 75 miles ( 120 @.@ 30 km ) from US 13 in Pocomoke City , Maryland north to Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) in Milford , Delaware . In conjunction with DE 1 , US 113 is one of two major north – south highways on the Delmarva Peninsula ( with US 13 ) that connect Dover with Pocomoke City and the Eastern Shore of Virginia . The U.S. Highway is the primary north – south highway in Worcester County , Maryland , where it connects Pocomoke City with Snow Hill and Berlin . US 113 is one of three major north – south highways in Sussex County , Delaware , where it connects Selbyville and Georgetown with Milford . While US 113 does not pass through Ocean City or the Delaware beaches , the U.S. Highway intersects several highways that serve the Atlantic Ocean resorts , including US 50 , Maryland Route 90 ( MD 90 ) , US 9 , and DE 1 . US 113 is a four @-@ lane divided highway for its whole length except for between Snow Hill and Berlin , where it is a two @-@ lane undivided road .
US 113 follows the corridor of a post road established in the late 18th century to connect the aforementioned towns on the Delmarva Peninsula with Wilmington and Philadelphia . The highway was improved as an all @-@ weather road in the 1910s . In Maryland , the post road was designated one of the original state roads established by the Maryland State Roads Commission ( MDSRC ) in 1909 . In Delaware , the highway was the Selbyville – Dover portion of the DuPont Highway , a roadway whose construction was a grand philanthropic measure of Thomas Coleman DuPont . The DuPont Highway , which was started by DuPont 's company and finished by the Delaware State Highway Department ( DSHD ) , spurred economic growth in the tourism and agriculture sectors in southern Delaware . The economic growth resulted in heavy traffic ; US 113 was widened in both states in the early 1930s and again in the late 1940s . Bypasses of Dover and Pocomoke City were built in the mid @-@ 1930s ; the bypassed section of highway in Dover became US 113 Alternate .
Expansion of US 113 to a divided highway began in the 1950s in Dover . Much of the remainder of the U.S. Highway in Delaware was expanded in the 1960s ; the final section of two @-@ lane US 113 in that state was expanded in the mid @-@ 1990s . The Berlin bypass became the first section of US 113 in Maryland to be expanded to a divided highway in the mid @-@ 1950s . In the early 1970s , US 113 between Pocomoke City and Snow Hill was expanded to a divided highway and the Snow Hill bypass was constructed , replacing what would become US 113 Business . The U.S. Highway between Berlin and the Delaware state line was expanded to a divided highway around 2000 . The Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) is upgrading the last remaining two @-@ lane portions of US 113 between Snow Hill and Berlin to a four @-@ lane divided highway . US 113 's northern terminus was moved to Milford in 2004 after the U.S. Highway was superseded by DE 1 from Milford to Dover . The Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) plans to upgrade US 113 to a freeway from Selbyville to Ellendale ; a freeway bypass of Milford was cancelled in 2008 because of community opposition .
= = Route description = =
US 113 has a length of 37 @.@ 49 miles ( 60 @.@ 33 km ) in Maryland . Known as Worcester Highway , the highway runs from its southern terminus in Pocomoke City north to the Delaware state line via Snow Hill and Berlin in Worcester County . In Delaware , US 113 is named Dupont Boulevard and extends 37 @.@ 26 miles ( 59 @.@ 96 km ) from the Maryland state line at Selbyville north to its northern terminus in Milford via Georgetown in Sussex County and a small portion of Kent County . All of US 113 is part of the National Highway System .
= = = Pocomoke City to Snow Hill = = =
US 113 begins in Pocomoke City at an intersection with US 13 ( Ocean Highway ) , the main highway of the Delmarva Peninsula that connects Wilmington and Dover with Salisbury and Norfolk . Old Virginia Road ( unsigned MD 250A ) , a section of old alignment of US 113 , continues west to US 13 Business ( Market Street ) . US 13 Business heads north through the Pocomoke City Historic District , which preserves buildings from Pocomoke City 's late 19th century and early 20th century heyday as a river port and station on the main rail line of the Delmarva Peninsula . Just north of US 13 , US 113 intersects American Legion Drive ( unsigned MD 359B ) , which leads to MD 359 ( Bypass Road ) , another section of the old alignment of the U.S. Highway
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. The U.S. Route leaves the Pocomoke City area after intersecting MD 756 ( Old Snow Hill Road ) , the original alignment of US 113 .
US 113 heads northeast as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The U.S. Highway parallels the east bank of the Pocomoke River at a distance of about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; the highway crosses many streams that drain into the river , including Pilchard Creek , Bachelors Branch , Mataponi Creek , Corkers Creek , and Hardship Branch . US 113 passes through Pocomoke State Forest , which preserves bald cypress swamps and loblolly pine stands along the Maryland Scenic and Wild River , and by the Shad Landing unit of Pocomoke River State Park . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the entrance to the state park , US 113 Business ( Market Street ) splits to the northeast to directly serve the town of Snow Hill , which is the county seat of Worcester County . US 113 Business passes through the Snow Hill Historic District , which contains several museums and preserves colonial era buildings of the river port at the head of navigation of the Pocomoke River . US 113 bypasses the town to the east and intersects MD 12 ( Snow Hill Road ) , which connects Snow Hill with Salisbury and Stockton , and MD 365 ( Public Landing Road ) . After the intersection with MD 365 , the highway turns north , reduces to a two @-@ lane highway , and crosses Purnell Branch of the Pocomoke River . US 113 crosses the Snow Hill Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad at grade and turns northeast again as the highway receives the other end of US 113 Business .
= = = Snow Hill to Berlin = = =
Between Snow Hill and Berlin , US 113 is a two @-@ lane road currently being reconstructed as a four @-@ lane divided highway from the Berlin end . As of October 2010 , the highway is under construction from Massey Branch of Marshall Creek to Goody Hill Road between Newark and Ironshire , where the highway presently expands to a divided highway . The U.S. Highway traverses Five Mile Branch of the Pocomoke River before the highway veers away from that river and passes into the Atlantic Ocean watershed . Further north , US 113 crosses Massey Branch and Poplartown Branch of Beaverdam Creek , which flow into Newport Bay . The U.S. Highway parallels and then intersects the Snow Hill Line at grade and passes by the communities of Newark and Ironshire , which are served by sections of old alignment named Newark Road and Shire Drive , respectively . Newark is home to the Queponco Railway Station , a preserved Pennsylvania Railroad station . Ironshire contains the historic home Simpson 's Grove .
US 113 passes the historic plantation home Merry Sherwood before reaching the intersection with MD 818 ( Main Street ) just south of Berlin . MD 818 , the old alignment of US 113 , heads north through the Berlin Commercial District , which contains several museums and preserves buildings from the late 19th century when Berlin was at the intersection of two railroad lines . US 113 bypasses Berlin to the east , where the highway intersects MD 376 ( Assateague Road ) and MD 346 ( Old Ocean City Boulevard ) , the old alignment of US 50 , and passes the historic home Caleb 's Discovery . The U.S. Route intersects US 50 , which connects Ocean City with Salisbury and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge , at a cloverleaf interchange just south of the northern end of MD 818 , which the highway meets while it parallels the Snow Hill Line .
= = = Berlin to Selbyville = = =
North of Berlin , US 113 is a four @-@ lane divided highway that crosses several creeks that come together to form the St. Martin River , which empties into Isle of Wight Bay , a lagoon on the west side of Ocean City . The first of three sections of old alignment of US 113 north of Berlin , MD 575 ( Worcester Highway ) , splits to the northeast toward Friendship at a right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange with the northbound direction . The U.S. Highway leaves the railroad track and meets MD 90 ( Ocean City Expressway ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange ; MD 90 connects the northern part of Ocean City with US 50 west of Berlin . US 113 continues north to its interchange with the northern end of MD 575 and MD 589 ( Racetrack Road ) , which leads to Ocean Pines and Ocean Downs , a harness racing track with a slot machine casino that opened in January 2011 . The exit ramp from northbound US 113 intersects MD 575 a short distance south of its intersection with MD 589 . Another segment of old alignment serves properties and St. Martin 's Episcopal Church between the exit and entrance ramps from southbound US 113 . A third section of old alignment parallels the southbound side of the divided highway through Showell . US 113 intersects MD 367 ( Bishopville Road ) in Bishop , crosses the Snow Hill Line at grade at an oblique angle , and intersects the east end of MD 610 ( Whaleyville Road ) before the highway enters Delaware .
= = = Selbyville to Georgetown = = =
US 113 enters Sussex County to the east of the Great Cypress Swamp in the town of Selbyville , where the highway intersects DE 54 ( Cemetery Road / Cypress Road ) , which heads east to Fenwick Island . Between Selbyville and Georgetown , the U.S. Highway passes to the west of several towns formed where the original post road crossed streams that flow into the Indian River , such as Frankford on Vines Creek . US 113 intersects DE 26 ( Clayton Street / Nine Foot Road ) , which heads east to Bethany Beach , in Dagsboro , which was settled at the site of a gristmill on Pepper Creek and is home to Prince George 's Chapel . The route crosses several branches of the Indian River before intersecting DE 20 ( Dagsboro Road ) , which joins the U.S. Highway in a concurrency . The two highways parallel Delaware Avenue , the old alignment of DE 20 , as they pass through the fringe of Millsboro , which was founded at the head of navigation of the Indian River . US 113 intersects DE 24 and DE 30 ( Washington Street / Laurel Road ) on the west side of town . After crossing Betts Pond , DE 20 splits to the northwest as Hardscrabble Road as US 113 itself turns northwest toward the hamlet of Stockley .
North of Stockley , US 113 intersects DE 24 Alternate ( Speedway Road ) adjacent to Georgetown Speedway on its way to Georgetown , which was founded as a more central county seat for Sussex County in 1791 . South of the town , the U.S. Highway meets the south end of Bedford Street , which is marked US 9 Truck / DE 404 Truck . The truck routes , which bypass the downtown area of Georgetown , join US 113 in a concurrency . US 9 Truck ends at the intersection with US 9 ( County Seat Highway / Market Street ) on the west side of Georgetown . Along with DE 404 , US 9 heads east toward Delaware Coastal Airport , the original county seat of Lewes , Rehoboth Beach , and Dewey Beach . North of the center of town , US 113 intersects DE 404 and DE 18 ( Seashore Highway ) , which head west toward Bridgeville and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge . At this intersection , DE 404 Truck ends . The U.S. Highway meets the other end of Bedford Street before it leaves the Georgetown area .
= = = Georgetown to Milford = = =
Between Georgetown and Milford , US 113 heads north through a forested area that surrounds the Ellendale Swamp , which forms the eastern edge of the Nanticoke River watershed . The U.S. Highway crosses Gravelly Branch and passes through several units of Redden State Forest , which was established as a hunting preserve by the Pennsylvania Railroad in the early 20th century . North of the swamp area , US 113 passes to the west of Ellendale , which flourished in the late 19th @-@ century as a railroad town at the junction of perpendicular rail lines at its Railroad Square . Ellendale is connected to the U.S. Route by DE 16 ( Beach Highway ) , which passes through Milton , home of the Dogfish Head Brewery , on its way to the Delaware beaches . Just north of DE 16 on the northbound side of the highway is Teddy 's Tavern , which was built in 1923 as the Blue Hen Garage to service travelers on the DuPont Highway . North of Ellendale , US 113 enters the Delaware Bay watershed ; the highway crosses Cedar Creek and passes to the west of Lincoln .
US 113 reaches its northern terminus in Milford , a city founded in the early 19th century at the head of navigation of the Mispillion River that was once a shipbuilding center . The U.S. Highway intersects DE 36 ( Lakeview Avenue ) on the southwest side of town before crossing the river into Kent County between two of its impoundments , Silver Lake to the east and Haven Lake to the west . US 113 meets Norfolk Southern Railway 's Indian River Secondary railroad track at grade and intersects DE 14 ( Front Street / Milford Harrington Highway ) . On the north side of Milford , the U.S. Route intersects DE 1 Business ( Walnut Street ) at an oblique angle . DE 1 Business joins US 113 in a short concurrency that ends when both the state business loop and the U.S. Highway reach their respective northern termini at a partial interchange with DE 1 . There is no direct access from northbound US 113 to southbound DE 1 or from northbound DE 1 to southbound US 113 .
= = History = =
US 113 was included in the original report laying out the U.S. Highway System in 1925 . US 113 was only marked between US 213 in Berlin and US 13 in Dover on the November 1926 map laying out the U.S. Route system . By 1927 , the highway was also marked as US 113 on the Pocomoke City to Berlin portion .
= = = Predecessor roads = = =
The original highway along much of the US 113 corridor was a post road established in the late 18th century that connected Horn Town on the Eastern Shore of Virginia with Snow Hill , Berlin , Selbyville , Georgetown , Milford , and Dover , ultimately leading to Wilmington and Philadelphia . In Maryland , the post road followed what is now MD 12 from the Virginia state line through Stockton to Snow Hill . A separate road connected Pocomoke City and Snow Hill ; that highway , as well as the portion of the post road from Snow Hill through Berlin to Bishop , followed the alignment along which US 113 would be marked in the early 20th century . By 1898 , the dirt road from Pocomoke City to Berlin via Snow Hill was the main thoroughfare of Worcester County . North of Bishop , the post road followed the Old Stage Road north to the Delaware state line .
In Delaware , the Dover – Milford portion of the post road followed the King 's Highway established in the late 17th century to connect Dover with Lewes , the original county seat of Sussex County . South of Milford , the post road followed a stage road from Dover to Dagsboro constructed to connect the new county seat of Georgetown with Dover in the 1790s . A 1796 act of the Delaware General Assembly called for the surveying of a straighter 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide clear path in Sussex County from Milford through Georgetown and Dagsboro to the Maryland state line , a highway that became known as the State Road by the mid @-@ 19th century . The path of the State Road remains as a series of unnumbered highways that generally parallel US 113 to the east through all of the towns from Selbyville to Milford . From Main Street in Selbyville , the highway followed Pepper Road to Frankford 's Main Street , Clayton Avenue to Dagsboro 's Main Street , and Iron Branch Road to State Street in Millsboro . The State Road continued along Fox Run Drive and Bethesda Road to Stockley , then Zoar Road to Georgetown , through which the highway followed Bedford Street . The post road used the present alignment of US 113 to Redden before traversing Old State Road through Ellendale and Lincoln to Milford , where the highway passed through town as Walnut Street . From Milford to Dover , the State Road was mostly overlaid by US 113 . The two exceptions were through Frederica , where the State Road used Market Street , and between Milford and Frederica , where the State Road followed Jenkins Pond Road , Reynolds Road , Pritchett Road , and Milford Neck Road .
= = = Maryland state roads = = =
When MDSRC was established in 1908 , their first major project was to connect all of Maryland 's county seats with all @-@ weather roads . The highway between Pocomoke City and Berlin via Snow Hill was chosen as one of the original state roads in 1909 . Sections of paved highway existed north of Snow Hill , from Ironshire to Berlin , and from Berlin to the northern terminus of present MD 818 by 1910 . The highway was paved from Snow Hill to Newark in 1911 ; the Newark – Berlin section was under construction that year and completed in 1912 . Construction on the Pocomoke City – Snow Hill road was started from the Pocomoke City end in 1911 and completed in 1914 . The highway was paved with a 12 @-@ to @-@ 14 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide macadam surface except for the final section between Betheden Church Road and Hardship Branch , which was paved with 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide concrete . The highway between Berlin and the Delaware state line was constructed as a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide concrete road from the northern end of the existing paved road in Berlin to Showell in 1917 and 1918 . The road from Showell to the Delaware state line was constructed along a new alignment to connect with the southern end of the DuPont Highway by 1921 .
The first improvements to US 113 in Maryland were the widening of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the Snow Hill – Berlin road with the addition of a pair of 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) wide macadam shoulders in 1926 . By the end of 1930 , the widening of the Snow Hill – Berlin road to 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in width was completed . The Berlin – Delaware state line road was widened to a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) width around 1930 . Widening of the Pocomoke City – Snow Hill road began in 1929 . The first bypass of Pocomoke City was completed in 1936 . This bypass , which was built with a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide concrete surface following present day MD 359 and unsigned MD 250A , replaced Old Snow Hill Road , which was redesignated MD 756 . In 1934 , MDSRC recommended widening the entirety of US 113 from 15 to 18 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . However , further widening of US 113 did not occur until after World War II . The U.S. Highway was widened from Snow Hill to the Delaware state line starting in 1947 and from Pocomoke City to Snow Hill beginning in 1949 . Widening was completed on all of US 113 in Maryland by 1953 .
= = = DuPont Highway = = =
The portion of US 113 in Delaware was constructed on a new alignment as the Selbyville – Dover portion of the DuPont Highway . This highway was the brainchild of Thomas Coleman DuPont , who offered to fund and construct a modern highway from Selbyville to Wilmington as a philanthropic measure . Inspired by the great boulevards of Europe and cognizant of the need for a main north – south highway as the backbone of a well laid out system of roads in Delaware , DuPont envisioned a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) right @-@ of @-@ way that contained a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide high @-@ speed automobile highway in the center , surrounded by dual trolley tracks , roadways for heavy vehicle traffic , unpaved roadways for horses above buried utility lines , and sidewalks at the outer edge of the right @-@ of @-@ way . The construction costs of the road would be recovered by trolley franchises and utility line rentals . After sections of the highway were built , they would be turned over without charge to the state , which would maintain the road .
Despite these grand visions , in the end the DuPont Highway was constructed in Sussex County as a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide concrete roadway on the proposed 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) right @-@ of @-@ way . The Delaware General Assembly passed the Boulevard Corporation Act of 1911 , which authorized the formation of Coleman DuPont Road , Inc. to acquire land and construct a highway the length of the state . Construction of the first section of the highway began near Selbyville on September 18 , 1911 . By 1912 , construction was interrupted by litigation challenging both the constitutionality of the law establishing the road building corporation and the need for DuPont to acquire such a large right @-@ of @-@ way . DuPont offered to make concessions , such as agreeing to pay up to five times the assessed value of a farmer 's land five years after the road 's completion and reducing the width of the corridor of land to be acquired to 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Construction on the highway resumed in 1915 after the litigation had taken its course . The first two sections of the highway , from Selbyville to Georgetown and from Georgetown to a point 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south of Milford , were completed on May 24 , 1917 . Despite DuPont 's grand boulevard not coming to fruition , his highway was innovative as one of the earliest roads to be constructed on a new alignment that passed close to towns but did not pass directly through them , a development that was more convenient for through traffic and less disruptive to a town 's residents . Up to that point , the use of bypasses had been limited to the railroads .
On July 20 , 1918 , DuPont reached an agreement with the state of Delaware for the newly formed DSHD to construct the remaining sections of the highway . DuPont would dissolve Coleman DuPont Road , Inc. and finance the remainder of construction up to $ 44 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ mile ( $ 27 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ kilometer ) , $ 690 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ mile ( $ 430 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ kilometer ) in 2016 dollars . The highway department would complete the road to Milford along the lines designed by DuPont 's company . The DuPont Highway north of Milford would be both designed and constructed by DSHD , which decided on a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) wide right @-@ of @-@ way for future sections of the highway . The portions from north of Ellendale to north of Milford , from Frederica to Little Heaven , and through Rising Sun were completed by 1920 . All other portions of the DuPont Highway between Ellendale and Dover were under construction in 1920 and completed by 1923 , the same year the last section of the entire Selbyville – Wilmington highway was completed near Odessa .
The DuPont Highway was a boon to southern Delaware , which had formerly been economically isolated from the large cities of the northeast . In conjunction with the rise of the automobile , the highway spurred the growth of the Delaware beaches by greatly improving access to the coast for tourists from northern Delaware and adjacent portions of the Northeast megalopolis . Southern Delaware also developed into a major truck farming region due to having much greater access to urban markets . No longer fully reliant on the railroads to transport their goods , farmers in Sussex and Kent counties could market their fruits , vegetables , and broiler chickens directly to consumers in the north .
By the end of the 1920s , the 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide roadway was inadequate for traffic , so US 113 was widened to 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in width with the addition of 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide concrete shoulders , then resurfaced with asphalt . The highway was widened from Selbyville to Georgetown in 1930 , Georgetown to Milford in 1931 , and Milford to Dover in 1933 . After World War II , US 113 was widened to 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) with the addition of another 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide concrete shoulder and asphalt resurfacing . The U.S. Highway was expanded between Georgetown and Ellendale starting in 1946 . The sections from Selbyville to Dagsboro , from Dagsboro to Georgetown , and from Milford to Little Heaven were expanded beginning in 1947 . The post @-@ war widening of US 113 from Selbyville to the Dover Bypass in Little Heaven was completed with work on the U.S. Highway 's Ellendale – Milford segment in 1949 .
= = = Dover bypass and expansion = = =
In 1931 , DSHD began construction on the first bypass of Dover . Much of the bypass would use Bay Road , the existing highway from modern DE 8 ( North Little Creek Road ) in Dover to Kitts Hummock on Delaware Bay . Two sections of new highway were planned from DE 8 to State Street north of downtown Dover , and from the DuPont Highway in Little Heaven north to Bay Road at what is now DE 1 's interchange with DE 9 ( Bayside Drive ) at the southern end of Dover Air Force Base . The new highway between Little Heaven and Bay Road would cross the St. Jones River at a site called Barkers Landing . Between December 1931 and the end of 1933 , DSHD constructed a causeway across 3 @,@ 150 feet ( 960 m ) of the marsh on the east bank of the river , a process that required multiple applications of fill dirt and dynamite to create a stable surface for a modern highway . A Scherzer rolling lift bascule bridge was constructed across the St. Jones River in 1934 . Bay Road was widened and the new sections of highway were built with 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide concrete pavement starting in 1934 . US 113 was relocated to the Dover Bypass north to US 13 ( State Street ) when the new highway opened for Memorial Day in 1935 . DuPont Highway between Little Heaven and Dover and State Street in Dover were designated US 113 Alternate .
The first section of US 113 to be expanded to a divided highway was in Dover . The highway from State Street north of downtown Dover to the modern intersection of US 13 and Bay Road was expanded to a divided highway as part of the same project completed in April 1952 to construct a southern bypass of Dover for US 13 between State Street south of Dover and Bay Road . US 113 's course did not change , as it was co @-@ signed with US 13 on the expanded portion of Bay Road . US 113 's northern terminus was rolled back from State Street to where US 13 meets Bay Road in 1966 ; this was approved by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) in 1974 . The Bay Road divided highway was extended south along US 113 to the southern end of Dover Air Force Base in 1959 . US 113 between Little Heaven and Dover Air Force Base was expanded to a divided highway in 1984 and 1985 ; this project included replacing the two @-@ lane drawbridge over the St. Jones River with a four @-@ lane girder bridge .
The first segment of the original DuPont Highway to be expanded to a divided highway was from north of Milford to south of Frederica in 1959 . The divided highway was extended around Milford south to near Lincoln between 1962 and 1964 . The four @-@ lane divided Frederica bypass was constructed in 1965 ; DE 12 was later extended north from Frederica to the bypass along old US 113 ( Frederica Road ) . US 113 was expanded to a divided highway from the Maryland state line to Dagsboro between 1965 and 1967 . The divided highway was extended north to Stockley in 1968 and Georgetown in 1969 . The US 113 – DE 1 interchange in Milford was built concurrent with the completion of the Milford Bypass in 1971 . US 113 between Frederica and Little Heaven was expanded in 1975 . The final stretch of two @-@ lane US 113 in Delaware was eliminated by 1996 when the Georgetown – Ellendale section was widened to a four @-@ lane divided highway .
= = = Maryland expansion = = =
The first portion of divided highway in Maryland was the Berlin bypass , which was constructed between 1954 and 1956 . The divided highway extended from Hayes Landing Road north of Ironshire to Deer Park Drive north of Berlin . The old alignment of the U.S. Highway through Berlin became MD 818 . US 113 also bypassed Newark and Ironshire in 1956 ; the relocated highway was constructed as the first carriageway of a future divided highway . US 113 's interchange with US 50 was built in 1976 . The next section of US 113 to become a divided highway was between Pocomoke City and Snow Hill . The highway was expanded from Pilchard Creek to just west of Hardship Branch in 1971 . The divided highway was extended north to the southern end of the Snow Hill bypass in 1973 . The divided highway was extended south to US 13 in Pocomoke City along a new alignment in 1974 . The two @-@ lane Snow Hill bypass was constructed from south of Snow Hill to MD 12 in 1973 ; the bypass was completed to its northern end in 1975 . The bypassed portion of US 113 in Snow Hill was designated MD 394 in 1977 and then US 113 Business in 1997 .
MDSHA conducted its first study on expanding US 113 north of Berlin to a divided highway in the early 1970s . While US 113 was not expanded at that time , preparations for a future expansion were started , including acquisition of right @-@ of @-@ way along the proposed route and the partial construction of an interchange with MD 90 in 1976 when that two @-@ lane freeway was constructed . A second planning study was conducted in the late 1980s ; this study recommended intersection improvements instead of constructing a divided highway . The local group County Residents Action for Safer Highways ( CRASH ) formed in response to the significantly higher accident rates along the two @-@ lane sections of US 113 compared to the state average . The high accident rate , which included 42 fatal accidents between 1980 and 1997 , led CRASH to rally community support and intensely lobby MDSHA to expand US 113 to four lanes . MDSHA responded in 1995 by initiating the US 113 Planning Study , which recommended expanding US 113 to a divided highway from Berlin to the Delaware state line and from Snow Hill to Berlin .
US 113 was reconstructed from Berlin to the Delaware state line in three sections starting in 1998 . The first section was constructed on a new alignment from north of MD 818 to south of MD 589 to quell objections from residents of Friendship over the divided highway passing through their community . This segment , which included the finishing of the MD 90 interchange 24 years after it was first laid out , was completed in 2000 . The second segment of US 113 reconstruction , from south of MD 589 to Jarvis Road , included two relocations from the old highway to reduce impacts to St. Martin 's Episcopal Church and the community of Showell . The second section , including the interchange with MD 589 , was completed in 2002 . The divided highway was completed to the Delaware state line when the second carriageway was added along the existing alignment north of Jarvis Road in 2003 . Sections of old alignment of US 113 north of Berlin were designated MD 575 .
Following the expansion of US 113 from Berlin to the Delaware state line , MDSHA turned its attention toward the remaining 17 miles ( 27 km ) of two @-@ lane highway in Maryland between the southern end of the Snow Hill Bypass and Hayes Landing Road north of Ironshire . In 2006 , MDSHA began construction on a five @-@ phase , long @-@ term project to expand US 113 between Snow Hill and Berlin to a four @-@ lane divided highway . Phase 1 , which covered 4 @.@ 0 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of the Snow Hill bypass from the southern terminus of US 113 Business to just north of MD 365 , was completed in 2007 . Phase 2 was divided into two sub @-@ phases . Phase 2A covered the 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of US 113 from Goody Hill Road south of Ironshire to Hayes Landing Road and was completed in 2009 . Phase 2B , which covered the 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) of highway between Massey Branch just north of Newark and Goody Hill Road , began in summer 2009 and was complete at the end of 2011 . Phase 3 involves the 4 @.@ 4 miles ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) of roadway between Five Mile Branch Road north of Snow Hill and Massey Branch ; construction began in fall 2015 and is expected to be finished in spring 2017 . Phase 4 includes the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section of US 113 between the north end of Phase 1 near MD 365 north to the south end of Phase 3 at Five Mile Branch Road north of Snow Hill , which will complete US 113 as a four @-@ lane divided highway from Pocomoke City to Milford . Phase 5 will be the construction of an interchange between US 113 and MD 12 in Snow Hill . The interchange will be a dumbbell interchange , a variation on the diamond interchange with roundabouts replacing the two intersections of the ramps with the crossroad . On June 25 , 2015 , Governor Larry Hogan announced that state funding would be allocated to finish widening US 113 in Maryland , among other projects across the state .
= = = Delaware truncation and freeway = = =
DE 1 was assigned to the Milford Bypass and the coastal highway south from Milford to the Maryland state line in Fenwick Island in 1974 . DE 1 was co @-@ signed with DE 14 through the Delaware beach communities until 1977 when DE 14 was truncated at Milford . The DE 1 designation was extended north in 1988 along US 113 from Milford to Dover and continuing north along US 13 toward Christiana to connect the coastal highway portion of DE 1 with the " Relief Route " ( now the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway ) to which DE 1 was to be assigned between Dover Air Force Base and Christiana . The Dover – Smyrna portion of the DE 1 freeway was completed between the east side of Dover and Dover Air Force Base in 1993 . As a result , US 113 traffic had to use Exit 95 , the interchange for DE 10 at the north gate of Dover Air Force Base , to continue north or south on the U.S. Highway . In 2001 , US 113 and DE 1 were upgraded to a freeway from the southern end of Dover Air Force Base to Exit 95 . US 113 was rolled back to Milford in favor of the sole designation of DE 1 between the Milford and Dover areas in 2004 . This was approved by AASHTO in their annual 2003 meeting along with the removal of the US 113 Alternate designation . DelDOT had submitted for the truncation of US 113 at the spring 2003 AASHTO meeting but it was denied because they did not submit for the removal of US 113 Alternate . Bay Road became an unnumbered highway between Exit 95 at Dover Air Force Base and the old northern terminus of US 113 at US 13 in Dover .
In 2001 , the DelDOT conducted a feasibility study for a future north – south limited access highway in Sussex County . The Sussex County North – South Transportation Study explored routes along and between the US 13 , US 113 , and DE 1 corridors . The study took into account local , long distance , and seasonal traffic patterns ; environmental , agricultural , and developmental impacts ; connections with arterial highways ; and the ability to build the limited @-@ access highway in usable sections . The study recommended routing the limited @-@ access highway along the US 113 corridor , using as much of the current US 113 route as possible . For its standing US 113 North / South Study , DelDOT has split the corridor into four areas : Millsboro – South , Georgetown , Ellendale , and Milford .
The Milford area study has been dormant since July 2007 due to community opposition to DelDOT 's proposed alternatives through Lincoln and Milford . After studying various options that included upgrading the current alignment and constructing bypass routes to the west and east of Milford , DelDOT decided to move forward with a pair of eastern bypass alternatives . Both alternatives head east from US 113 's current alignment west of Lincoln to meet DE 1 at an interchange south of the latter highway 's interchange with the south end of DE 1 Business . On June 15 , 2007 , DelDOT announced it would move forward with plans to build the bypass despite the majority of the department 's advisory group of community representatives opposing the bypass , far below the required 75 percent for consensus to have been achieved . On July 1 , 2007 , in response to DelDOT overriding its advisory group , the Delaware General Assembly passed Senate Bill 155 , which prohibited DelDOT from proceeding with the US 113 North / South Improvements Project in the Milford and Lincoln areas and directed DelDOT to continue to work to achieve consensus on an acceptable bypass route . Citing a lack of community consensus , DelDOT abandoned its plans for the US 113 bypass of Milford in January 2008 .
As of March 2012 , the Millsboro – South , Georgetown , and Ellendale area studies are in varying stages of progress . In the Georgetown and Ellendale areas , DelDOT has decided to upgrade the current alignment . The environmental assessments for the Georgetown and Ellendale areas are complete . In addition , the Ellendale assessment has been approved by the Federal Highway Administration , so design work will proceed when funds become available . DelDOT has suggested a preferred alternative for the Millsboro – South area that would follow US 113 's present alignment through Selbyville , then bypass Frankford , Dagsboro , and Millsboro to the east before rejoining the present course north of Millsboro . However , amid growing opposition to the preferred alternative through the Millsboro area and a revelation that DelDOT is paying a pair of developers each month to not build on the path of the proposed bypass , Governor Jack Markell suspended further planning work on US 113 in Sussex County in January 2011 . Markell indicated the project could resume if Sussex County legislators and DelDOT come up with a revised plan for the Millsboro – South area . In May 2011 , Sussex County legislators proposed the U.S. Highway be upgraded fully along its current alignment , with the addition of a northeast bypass of Millsboro to connect US 113 and DE 24 that could be constructed mostly through state @-@ owned land .
= = Junction list = =
= = Special routes = =
= = = Snow Hill business route = = =
U.S. Route 113 Business ( US 113 Business ) is a business route of US 113 in Maryland . Known as Market Street , the highway runs 4 @.@ 16 miles ( 6 @.@ 69 km ) between junctions with US 113 on the south and north sides of Snow Hill . US 113 Business follows the original alignment of US 113 through Snow Hill . This alignment was constructed as part of the state road between Pocomoke City and Berlin in 1911 and 1912 . US 113 's bypass of Snow Hill was completed in 1975 . The old alignment was designated Maryland Route 394 by 1977 . That designation was replaced by US 113 Business in 1997 .
US 113 Business begins at an intersection with US 113 ( Worcester Highway ) south of Snow Hill . The business route heads northeast as two @-@ lane Market Street through farmland before entering downtown Snow Hill . US 113 Business passes the Julia A. Purnell Museum and the Samuel Gunn House shortly before intersecting MD 12 ( Church Street ) . MD 12 joins US 113 Business for a short concurrency , during which the two highways pass All Hallows Episcopal Church , Makemie Memorial Presbyterian Church , and the Worcester County Courthouse . After MD 12 turns north onto Washington Street , the business route passes the George Washington Purnell House , then leaves downtown Snow Hill and meets the west end of MD 365 ( Bay Street ) . US 113 Business crosses Purnell Creek and leaves the town limits of Snow Hill before reaching its northern terminus at US 113 north of Snow Hill .
Junction list
The entire route is in Snow Hill , Worcester County .
= = = Former Delaware alternate route = = =
U.S. Route 113 Alternate ( US 113 Alternate ) was an alternate route of US 113 in Delaware . The highway ran 9 @.@ 10 miles ( 14 @.@ 65 km ) from US 113 and DE 1 in Little Heaven north to the intersection of US 13 and US 113 in Dover . US 113 Alternate followed the original path of the DuPont Highway between Little Heaven and US 13 in Dover . The alternate route was established when US 113 's new alignment along Bay Road was completed in 1936 . The highway followed the same alignment south of Dover for its entire existence . Within Dover , US 113 Alternate originally followed State Street past the Delaware State Capitol to its northern terminus at US 13 ( Governors Avenue ) , which is now US 13 Alternate , just south of Silver Lake on the north side of downtown Dover . US 113 Alternate was moved away from downtown Dover in 1974 when the alternate route was made concurrent with US 13 north to its intersection with US 113 's northern terminus east of the Delaware State Capitol . US 113 Alternate was removed as an alternate in 2004 concurrent with US 113 's northern terminus being rolled back to Milford .
US 113 Alternate began at an intersection with US 113 and DE 1 ( Bay Road ) in Little Heaven . Connections from southbound US 113 Alternate to northbound US 113 and DE 1 and from southbound US 113 and DE 1 to northbound US 113 Alternate were provided by Mulberrie Point Road . The highway headed northwest as two @-@ lane Clapham Road . US 113 Alternate passed through Magnolia , where the highway was known as Main Street and intersected Walnut Street . The highway continued north from Magnolia as State Street through a mix of farmland and residential subdivisions . After Rising Sun Road split to the northwest , US 113 Alternate veered north and intersected DE 10 Alternate ( Sorghum Mill Road ) in Rising Sun . DE 10 Alternate joined US 113 Alternate in a concurrency north across Tidbury Creek to DE 10 Alternate 's eastern terminus at the intersection with DE 10 ( Lebanon Road ) . US 113 Alternate continued north across Isaac Branch at Moores Lake and entered the city of Dover . After passing under the Puncheon Run Connector with no access and crossing Puncheon Run , the highway intersected US 13 ( DuPont Highway ) . While State Street continued north toward the Delaware State Capitol , US 113 Alternate joined US 13 in a concurrency . The U.S. Highways crossed the St. Jones River before meeting Court Street ( now Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard ) , which was used to access the Delaware State Capitol to the west and Bay Road , the old alignment of US 113 , to the east . US 113 Alternate reached its northern terminus at an intersection with Bay Road ; that intersection was also the northern terminus of US 113 .
Junction list
The entire route was in Kent County .
= = Work cited = =
= Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula =
The Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula ( also known as Bridge Formula B and the Federal Bridge Formula ) is a mathematical formula in use in the United States by truck drivers and Department of Transportation ( DOT ) officials to determine the appropriate maximum gross weight for a commercial motor vehicle ( CMV ) based on axle number and spacing . The formula is part of federal weight and size regulations regarding interstate commercial traffic ( intrastate traffic is subject to state limits ) . The formula is necessary to prevent heavy vehicles from damaging roads and bridges . CMVs are most often tractor @-@ trailers or buses , but the formula is of most interest to truck drivers due to the heavy loads their vehicles often carry .
Early 20th @-@ century weight limits were enacted to protect dirt and gravel roads from damage caused by the solid wheels of heavy trucks . As time passed , truck weight limits focused primarily on gross weight limits ( which had no prescribed limits on length ) . By 1974 , bridges received special protection from increasing truck weight limits . The bridge formula law was enacted by the U.S. Congress to limit the weight @-@ to @-@ length ratio of heavy trucks , and to protect roads and bridges from the damage caused by the concentrated weight of shorter trucks . The formula effectively lowers the legal weight limit for shorter trucks , preventing them from causing premature deterioration of bridges and highway infrastructure .
Compliance with the law is checked when vehicles pass through a weigh station , often located at the borders between states or on the outskirts of major cities , where the vehicle may be weighed and measured . The one exception to the formula allows a standard five @-@ axle semi @-@ truck configuration to weigh the maximum legal gross weight . This exception was specifically requested by the American Trucking Associations to allow tank trucks to reach the maximum legal gross weight without violating the bridge formula law .
= = History = =
The first truck weight limits were enacted by four states in 1913 , ranging from 18 @,@ 000 pounds ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) in Maine to 28 @,@ 000 pounds ( 13 @,@ 000 kg ) in Massachusetts . These laws were passed to protect earth and gravel @-@ surfaced roads from damage caused by the steel and solid rubber wheels of early heavy trucks . By 1933 , all states had some form of truck weight regulation . The Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1956 instituted the first federal truck weight regulation ( set at 73 @,@ 280 pounds or 33 @,@ 240 kilograms ) and authorized the construction of the Interstate Highway System .
In the late 1950s , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) conducted a series of extensive field tests of roads and bridges to determine how traffic contributed to the deterioration of pavement materials . In 1964 , the AASHTO recommended to Congress that a bridge formula table be used instead of a single gross weight limit for trucks . The Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act Amendments of 1974 established the bridge formula as law , along with the gross weight limit of 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) . Current applications of the formula allow for up to 7 axles and 86 feet or more length between axle sets , and a maximum load of 105 @,@ 500 lbs .
= = Usage = =
The formula was enacted as law to limit the weight @-@ to @-@ length ratio of a commercial motor vehicle ( CMV ) . The formula is necessary to prevent the concentrated weight on a truck 's axle from producing stress on bridge members ( possibly causing a bridge collapse ) . In simplified form , this is analogous to a person walking on thin ice . When standing upright , a person 's weight is concentrated at the bottom of their feet , funneling all of their weight into a small area . When lying down , a person 's weight is distributed over a much larger area . This difference in weight distribution would allow a person to cross an area of ice while crawling that might otherwise collapse under their body weight while standing up . For an overweight truck to comply with the formula , more axles must be added , the distance between axles must be increased , or weight must be removed .
A division of the DOT , the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration ( FMCSA ) , regulates safety for the U.S. trucking industry . The FMCSA enforces the length , width , and weight limits of CMVs set by the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) for interstate commercial traffic . Interstate commercial traffic is generally limited to a network of Interstate Highways , U.S. Highways , and state highways known as the National Network ( NN ) . Provided the truck remains on the NN , it is not subject to state limits . These limits ( which can be lower or higher than federal limits ) come into effect for intrastate commercial traffic , provided the vehicle is not on the NN .
CMVs are defined by the FMCSA as vehicles engaged in interstate commerce that are used to transport passengers or property : vehicles with a gross vehicle weight of 10 @,@ 001 pounds ( 4 @,@ 536 kg ) or more ; those designed or used to transport more than 8 passengers ( including the driver ) for compensation ; vehicles designed or used to transport more than 15 passengers ( including the driver ) without compensation ; or those used to transport hazardous materials in quantities requiring the vehicle to be marked or placarded under hazardous materials regulations .
The weight and size of CMVs are restricted for practical and safety reasons . CMVs are restricted by gross weight ( total weight of vehicle and cargo ) , and by axle weight ( i.e. , the weight carried by each tire ) . The federal weight limits for CMVs are 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) for gross weight ( unless the bridge formula dictates a lower limit ) , 34 @,@ 000 pounds ( 15 @,@ 000 kg ) for a tandem axle , and 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) for a single axle . A tandem axle is defined as two or more consecutive axles whose centers are spaced more than 40 inches ( 102 cm ) but not more than 96 inches ( 244 cm ) apart . Axles spaced less than 40 inches ( 102 cm ) apart are considered a single axle .
In effect , the formula reduces the legal weight limit for shorter trucks with fewer axles ( see table below ) . For example , a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) three @-@ axle dump truck would have a gross weight limit of 54 @,@ 500 pounds ( 24 @,@ 700 kg ) , instead of 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) , which is the standard weight limit for 63 @-@ foot ( 19 @.@ 2 m ) five @-@ axle tractor @-@ trailer . FHWA regulation § 658 @.@ 17 states : " The maximum gross vehicle weight shall be 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) except where lower gross vehicle weight is dictated by the bridge formula . "
= = Bridge collapse = =
The August 2007 collapse of the Interstate 35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis brought renewed attention to the issue of truck weights and their relation to bridge stress . In November 2008 , the National Transportation Safety Board determined there had been several reasons for the bridge 's collapse , including ( but not limited to ) : faulty gusset plates , inadequate inspections , and the extra weight of heavy construction equipment combined with the weight of rush hour traffic . The I @-@ 35 Trade Corridor Study reported that the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) expressed concern over bridges on the I @-@ 35 corridor due to an expected increase of international truck traffic from Canada and Mexico , with the FHWA listing it as " high @-@ priority " in 2005 .
As of 2007 , federal estimates suggest truck traffic increased 216 % since 1970 , shortly before the federal gross weight limit for trucks was increased by 30 @,@ 000 pounds ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) . This is also the period during which many of the existing interstate bridges were built . Research shows that increased truck traffic ( and therefore , increased stress ) shortens the life of bridges . National Pavement Cost Model ( NAPCOM ) estimates indicate that one 80 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) truck does as much damage to roads as 750 3 @,@ 800 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 700 kg ) cars .
Some smaller bridges have a weight limit ( or gross weight load rating ) indicated by a sign posted in a visible position in front of the bridge ( hence the reference to a " posted bridge " ) . These are necessary when the weight limit of the bridge is lower than the federal or state gross weight limit for trucks . Driving a truck over a bridge that is too weak to support it usually does not result in an immediate collapse . The bridge may develop cracks , which over time can weaken the bridge and cause it to collapse . Most of these cracks are discovered during mandated inspections of bridges . Most bridge collapses occur in rural areas , result in few injuries or deaths , and receive relatively little media attention . While the number varies from year to year , as many as 150 bridges can collapse in a year . About 1 @,@ 500 bridges collapsed between 1966 and 2007 , and most of those were the result of soil erosion around bridge supports . In 1987 , the Schoharie Creek Bridge collapsed in upstate New York , due to erosion of soil around the foundation , which sparked renewed interest in bridge design in inspection procedures .
In special cases involving unusually overweight trucks ( which require special permits ) , not observing a bridge weight limit can lead to disastrous consequences . Fifteen days after the collapse of the Minneapolis bridge , a heavy truck collapsed a small bridge in Oakville , Washington .
= = Formula law = =
CMVs are required to pass through weigh stations at the borders of most states and some large cities . These weigh stations are run by state DOTs , and CMV weight and size enforcement is overseen by the FHWA . Weigh stations check each vehicle 's gross weight and axle weight using a set of in @-@ ground truck scales , and are usually where a truck 's compliance with the formula is checked .
FMCSA regulation § 658 @.@ 17 states :
No vehicle or combination of vehicles shall be moved or operated on any interstate highway when the gross weight on two or more consecutive axles exceeds the limitations prescribed by the following formula :
<formula>
w
= the maximum weight in pounds that can be carried on a group of two or more axles to the nearest 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) .
ℓ =
spacing in feet between the outer axles of any two or more consecutive axles .
n = number of axles being considered .
Two or more consecutive axles may not exceed the weight computed by the bridge formula , even if the gross weight of the truck ( or the weight on one axle ) is below otherwise legal limits . Although this means that any two axles must comply with the formula , experience has shown that axles 1 through 3 , 1 through 5 , and 2 through 5 are critical and must be checked . This means that the axle group which comprises the entire truck ( known as the " outer group " ) and the interior axle groups ( known as the " tractor group " and " trailer group " ) must also comply with the bridge formula . If these combinations are found to be satisfactory , then all of the other axle groups on this type of vehicle will usually be satisfactory .
Penalties for violating weight limits vary between states ( bridge formula weight violations are treated as gross weight violations ) , as the states are responsible for enforcement and collection of fines . Some states , such as Connecticut , issue fines on a percentage basis ( e.g. 20 % overweight at $ 10 per 100 pounds or 45 kilograms ) , which means larger trucks pay higher fines . For example , a truck with a legal gross limit of 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) that violates the limit by 5 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) would pay a fine of $ 500 , while a truck with a legal gross limit of 60 @,@ 000 pounds ( 27 @,@ 000 kg ) that violates the limit by 5 @,@ 000 pounds would pay a fine of $ 250 . Other states , such as New York , issue fines on a per @-@ pound basis ( e.g. , 5 @,@ 000 pounds overweight equals a $ 300 fine ) . Others , such as Massachusetts , impose a less complicated fine schedule whereby a vehicle that violates the limits by less than 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) is fined $ 40 per 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) , while a violation over 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) pays $ 80 per 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) ( e.g. 5 @,@ 000 pounds or 2 @,@ 300 kilograms overweight equals a $ 200 fine ) .
Some states require overweight trucks to offload enough cargo to comply with the limits . In Florida , any vehicle that exceeds the limits by more than 6 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 700 kg ) is required to be unloaded until the vehicle is in compliance . Florida also includes a scale tolerance , which allows for violations of less than 10 % to be forgiven , and no fine issued . Florida also allows for a load to be shifted ( e.g. , moved from the front towards the rear of the vehicle ) for the vehicle to comply with axle weight limits , without penalty .
= = Exception = =
There is one exception to the formula : two consecutive sets of tandem axles may carry 34 @,@ 000 pounds ( 15 @,@ 000 kg ) each if the overall distance between the first and last axles of these tandems is 36 feet ( 11 m ) or more . For example , a five @-@ axle truck may carry 34 @,@ 000 pounds both on the tractor tandem axles ( 2 and 3 ) and the trailer tandem axles ( 4 and 5 ) , provided axles 2 and 5 are spaced at least 36 feet ( 11 m ) apart .
This exception allows for the standard 5 @-@ axle semi @-@ truck configuration to gross up to 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) ( the legal limit ) without being in violation of the bridge formula law . Without it , the bridge formula would allow an actual weight of only 66 @,@ 000 pounds ( 30 @,@ 000 kg ) to 67 @,@ 500 pounds ( 30 @,@ 600 kg ) on tandems spaced 36 feet ( 11 m ) to 38 feet ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) apart ; compared to 68 @,@ 000 pounds ( 31 @,@ 000 kg ) with the exception . This exception was sought by the American Trucking Associations so trucking companies could use 40 @-@ foot ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) trailers and weigh 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) . It was the only way tank truck operators could reach 80 @,@ 000 pounds without adding axles to their fleets of trailers already in operation .
A CMV may exceed the bridge formula limits ( or gross weight and its axle weight limits ) by up to 400 pounds ( 181 kg ) if the vehicle is equipped with an auxiliary power unit ( APU ) or idle reduction technology . According to the FMCSA , this is permitted " in order to promote reduction of fuel use and emissions because of engine idling " . To be eligible , the vehicle 's operator must prove the weight of the APU with written certification , or — by demonstration or certification — that the idle reduction technology is fully functional at all times . Certification of the APU 's weight must be available to law enforcement officers if the vehicle is found in violation of applicable weight laws . The additional weight allowed cannot exceed 400 pounds or the weight certified , whichever is less .
= = Issues = =
The bridge formula ( also referred to as Formula B ) is based on research into single @-@ span bridges , and fails to consider multiple @-@ span bridges . Two @-@ span bridges may not be fully protected by Formula B , depending on the truck length , span length , and other factors . Shorter wheelbase vehicles ( usually specialized trucks such as garbage trucks and water trucks ) have trouble complying with Formula B.
In 1987 , the U.S. Congress passed the Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act , requesting the Transportation Research Board ( TRB ) to conduct a study to develop alternatives to Formula B. The study recommended several that were never implemented . It suggested that Formula B was too strict for trucks with shorter axle lengths . One of the alternative formulas ( later known as the TTI HS @-@ 20 Bridge Formula ) was developed in conjunction with the Texas Transportation Institute . TTI HS @-@ 20 allowed shorter trucks to have higher weight limits than Formula B. For a 3 @-@ axle truck with an axle length of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , the weight limit increased from 46 @,@ 500 pounds ( 21 @,@ 100 kg ) to 54 @,@ 000 pounds ( 24 @,@ 000 kg ) . TTI HS @-@ 20 also failed to address the problem of multiple @-@ span bridges .
= = Bridge formula table = =
1 Calculated values reflect FHWA policy of rounding down when distances fall exactly between 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) increments .
2 Calculated values reflect FHWA policy of rounding down when weights fall exactly between 500 pound increments .
3 Tandem axle by definition .
4 Distances between 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) to 8 feet 11 inches ( 2 @.@ 72 m ) may not be rounded down .
5 _ _ Maximum legal weight limit based on number of axles . Increased axle lengths beyond these do not increase maximum legal weight .
6 _ _ Exception to the formula : when the four axles under consideration are two tandem axles spaced at least 36 feet ( 11 m ) apart , a gross weight of 68 @,@ 000 pounds ( 31 @,@ 000 kg ) is allowed .
_ _ Upper blank areas represent unrealistic configurations .
= The Rite of Spring =
The Rite of Spring ( French : Le Sacre du printemps ; Russian : « Весна священная » , Vesna svyashchennaya , ' sacred spring ' ) is a ballet and orchestral concert work by the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky . It was written for the 1913 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes company ; the original choreography was by Vaslav Nijinsky , with stage designs and costumes by Nicholas Roerich . When first performed , at the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées on 29 May 1913 , the avant @-@ garde nature of the music and choreography caused a sensation and a near @-@ riot in the audience . Although designed as a work for the stage , with specific passages accompanying characters and action , the music achieved equal if not greater recognition as a concert piece , and is widely considered to be one of the most influential musical works of the 20th century .
Stravinsky was a young , virtually unknown composer when Diaghilev recruited him to create works for the Ballets Russes . The Rite was the third such project , after the acclaimed Firebird ( 1910 ) and Petrushka ( 1911 ) . The concept behind The Rite of Spring , developed by Roerich from Stravinsky 's outline idea , is suggested by its subtitle , " Pictures of Pagan Russia in Two Parts " ; in the scenario , after various primitive rituals celebrating the advent of spring , a young girl is chosen as a sacrificial victim and dances herself to death . After a mixed critical reception for its original run and a short London tour , the ballet was not performed again until the 1920s , when a version choreographed by Léonide Massine replaced Nijinsky 's original . Massine 's was the forerunner of many innovative productions directed by the world 's leading ballet @-@ masters , which gained the work worldwide acceptance . In the 1980s , Nijinsky 's original choreography , long believed lost , was reconstructed by the Joffrey Ballet in Los Angeles .
Stravinsky 's score contains many novel features for its time , including experiments in tonality , metre , rhythm , stress and dissonance . Analysts have noted in the score a significant grounding in Russian folk music , a relationship Stravinsky tended to deny . The music has influenced many of the 20th @-@ century 's leading composers and is one of the most recorded works in the classical repertoire .
= = Background = =
Igor Stravinsky was the son of Fyodor Stravinsky , the principal bass at the Imperial Opera , St Petersburg , and Anna , née Kholodovskaya , a competent amateur singer and pianist from an old @-@ established Russian family . Fyodor 's association with many of the leading figures in Russian music , including Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , Borodin and Mussorgsky , meant that Igor grew up in an intensely musical home . In 1901 Stravinsky began to study law at St Petersburg University , while taking private lessons in harmony and counterpoint . Having impressed Rimsky @-@ Korsakov with some of his early compositional efforts , Stravinsky worked under the guidance of the older composer . By the time of his mentor 's death in 1908 Stravinsky had produced several works , among them a Piano Sonata in F @-@ sharp minor ( 1903 – 04 ) , a Symphony in E @-@ flat major ( 1907 ) , which he catalogued as " Opus 1 " , and in 1908 a short orchestral piece , Feu d 'artifice ( " Fireworks " ) .
In 1909 Feu d 'artifice was performed at a concert in St Petersburg . Among those in the audience was the impresario Sergei Diaghilev , who at that time was planning to introduce Russian music and art to western audiences . Like Stravinsky , Diaghilev had initially studied law , but had gravitated via journalism into the theatrical world . In 1907 he began his theatrical career by presenting five concerts in Paris ; in the following year he introduced Mussorgsky 's opera Boris Godunov . In 1909 , still in Paris , he launched the Ballets Russes , initially with Borodin 's Polovtsian Dances from Prince Igor and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Scheherazade . To present these works Diaghilev recruited the choreographer Michel Fokine , the designer Léon Bakst and the dancer Vaslav Nijinsky . Diaghilev 's intention , however , was to produce new works in a distinctively 20th @-@ century style , and he was looking for fresh compositional talent . Having heard Feu d 'artifice he approached Stravinsky , initially with a request for help in orchestrating music by Chopin to create the ballet Les Sylphides . Stravinsky worked on the opening " Nocturne " and the closing " Valse Brillante " ; his reward was a much bigger commission , to write the music for a new ballet , The Firebird ( L 'oiseau de feu ) for the 1910 season .
Stravinsky worked through the winter of 1909 – 10 , in close association with Fokine who was choreographing The Firebird . During this period Stravinsky made the acquaintance of Nijinsky who , although not dancing in the ballet , was a keen observer of its development . Stravinsky was uncomplimentary when recording his first impressions of the dancer , observing that he seemed immature and gauche for his age ( he was 21 ) . On the other hand , Stravinsky found Diaghilev an inspiration , " the very essence of a great personality " . The Firebird was premiered on 25 June 1910 , with Tamara Karsavina in the main role , and was a great public success . This ensured that the Diaghilev – Stravinsky collaboration would continue , in the first instance with Petrushka ( 1911 ) and then The Rite of Spring .
= = Synopsis and structure = =
In a note to the conductor Serge Koussevitzky in February 1914 , Stravinsky described The Rite of Spring as " a musical @-@ choreographic work , [ representing ] pagan Russia ... unified by a single idea : the mystery and great surge of the creative power of Spring " . In his analysis of The Rite , Pieter van den Toorn writes that the work lacks a specific plot or narrative , and should be considered as a succession of choreographed episodes .
The French titles are given in the form given in the four @-@ part piano score published in 1913 . There have been numerous variants of the English translations ; those shown are from the 1967 edition of the score .
= = Creation = =
= = = Conception = = =
Lawrence Morton , in a study of the origins of The Rite , records that in 1907 – 08 Stravinsky set to music two poems from Sergey Gorodetsky 's collection Yar . Another poem in the anthology , which Stravinsky did not set but is likely to have read , is " Yarila " which , Morton observes , contains many of the basic elements from which The Rite of Spring developed , including pagan rites , sage elders , and the propitiatory sacrifice of a young maiden : " The likeness is too close to be coincidental " . Stravinsky himself gave contradictory accounts of the genesis of The Rite . In a 1920 article he stressed that the musical ideas had come first , that the pagan setting had been suggested by the music rather than the other way round . However , in his 1936 autobiography he described the origin of the work thus : " One day [ in 1910 ] , when I was finishing the last pages of L 'Oiseau de Feu in St Petersburg , I had a fleeting vision ... I saw in my imagination a solemn pagan rite : sage elders , seated in a circle , watching a young girl dance herself to death . They were sacrificing her to propitiate the god of Spring . Such was the theme of the Sacre du Printemps " .
By May 1910 Stravinsky was discussing his idea with Nicholas Roerich , the foremost Russian expert on folk art and ancient rituals . Roerich had a reputation as an artist and mystic , and had provided the stage designs for Diaghilev 's 1909 production of the Polovtsian Dances . The pair quickly agreed on a working title , " The Great Sacrifice " ( Russian : Velikaia zhertva ) ; Diaghilev gave his blessing to the work , although the collaboration was put on hold for a year while Stravinsky was occupied with his second major commission for Diaghilev , the ballet Petrushka .
In July 1911 Stravinsky visited Talashkino , near Smolensk , where Roerich was staying with the Princess Maria Tenisheva , a noted patron of the arts and a sponsor of Diaghilev 's magazine World of Art . Here , over several days , Stravinsky and Roerich finalised the structure of the ballet . Thomas F. Kelly , in his history of the Rite premiere , suggests that the two @-@ part pagan scenario that emerged was primarily devised by Roerich . Stravinsky later explained to Nikolai Findeyzen , the editor of the Russian Musical Gazette , that the first part of the work would be called " The Kiss of the Earth " , and would consist of games and ritual dances interrupted by a procession of sages , culminating in a frenzied dance as the people embraced the spring . Part Two , " The Sacrifice " , would have a darker aspect ; secret night games of maidens , leading to the choice of one for sacrifice and her eventual dance to the death before the sages . The original working title was changed to " Holy Spring " ( Russian : Vesna sviashchennaia ) , but the work became generally known by the French translation Le Sacre du printemps , or its English equivalent The Rite of Spring , with the subtitle " Pictures of Pagan Russia " .
= = = Composition = = =
Stravinsky 's sketchbooks show that after returning to his home at Ustilug in Ukraine in September 1911 , he worked on two movements , the " Augurs of Spring " and the " Spring Rounds " . In October he left Ustilug for Clarens in Switzerland , where in a tiny and sparsely @-@ furnished room — an eight @-@ feet @-@ by @-@ eight closet , with only a muted upright piano , a table and two chairs — he worked throughout the 1911 – 12 winter on the score . By March 1912 , according to the sketchbook chronology , Stravinsky had completed Part I and had drafted much of Part II . He also prepared a two @-@ hand piano version , subsequently lost , which he may have used to demonstrate the work to Diaghilev and the Ballet Russes conductor Pierre Monteux in April 1912 . He also made a four @-@ hand piano arrangement which became the first published version of The Rite ; he and the composer Claude Debussy played the first half of this together , in June 1912 .
Following Diaghilev 's decision to delay the premiere until 1913 , Stravinsky put The Rite aside during the summer of 1912 . He enjoyed the Paris season , and accompanied Diaghilev to the Bayreuth Festival to attend a performance of Parsifal . Stravinsky resumed work on The Rite in the autumn ; the sketchbooks indicate that he had finished the outline of the final sacrificial dance on 17 November 1912 . During the remaining months of winter he worked on the full orchestral score , which he signed and dated as " completed in Clarens , March 8 , 1913 " . He showed the manuscript to Maurice Ravel , who was enthusiastic and predicted , in a letter to a friend , that the first performance of the Le Sacre would be as important as the 1902 premiere of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande . After the orchestral rehearsals began in late March , Monteux drew the composer 's attention to several passages which were causing problems : inaudible horns , a flute solo drowned out by brass and strings , and multiple problems with the balance among instruments in the brass section during fortissimo episodes . Stravinsky amended these passages , and as late as April was still revising and rewriting the final bars of the " Sacrificial Dance " . Revision of the score did not end with the version prepared for the 1913 premiere ; rather , Stravinsky continued to make changes for the next 30 years or more . According to Van den Toorn , " [ n ] o other work of Stravinsky 's underwent such a series of post @-@ premiere revisions " .
Stravinsky acknowledged that the work 's opening bassoon melody was derived from an anthology of Lithuanian folk songs , but maintained that this was his only borrowing from such sources ; if other elements sounded like aboriginal folk music , he said , it was due to " some unconscious ' folk ' memory " . However , Morton has identified several more melodies in Part I as having their origins in the Lithuanian collection . More recently Richard Taruskin has discovered in the score an adapted tune from one of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's " One Hundred Russian National Songs " . Taruskin notes the paradox whereby The Rite , generally acknowledged as the most revolutionary of the composer 's early works , is in fact rooted in the traditions of Russian music .
= = = Realisation = = =
Taruskin has listed a number of sources that Roerich consulted when creating his designs . Among these are the Primary Chronicle , a 12th @-@ century compendium of early pagan customs , and Alexander Afanasyev 's study of peasant folklore and pagan prehistory . The Princess Tenisheva 's collection of costumes was an early source of inspiration . When the designs were complete , Stravinsky expressed delight and declared them " a real miracle " .
Stravinsky 's relationship with his other main collaborator , Nijinsky , was more complicated . Diaghilev had decided that Nijinsky 's genius as a dancer would translate into the role of ballet @-@ master ; he was not dissuaded when Nijinsky 's first attempt at choreography , Debussy 's L 'après @-@ midi d 'un faune , caused controversy and near @-@ scandal because of the dancer 's novel stylised movements and his overtly sexual gesture at the work 's end . It is apparent from contemporary correspondence that , at least initially , Stravinsky viewed Nijinsky 's talents as a choreographer with approval ; a letter he sent to Findeyzen praises the dancer 's " passionate zeal and complete self @-@ effacement " . However , in his 1936 memoirs Stravinsky writes that the decision to employ Nijinsky in this role filled him with apprehension ; although he admired Nijinsky as a dancer he had no confidence in him as a choreographer : " ... the poor boy knew nothing of music . He could neither read it nor play any instrument " . Later still , Stravinsky would ridicule Nijinsky 's dancing maidens as " knock @-@ kneed and long @-@ braided Lolitas " .
Stravinsky 's autobiographical account refers to many " painful incidents " between the ballet @-@ master and the dancers during the rehearsal period . By the beginning of 1913 , when Nijinsky was badly behind schedule , Stravinsky was warned by Diaghilev that " unless you come here immediately ... the Sacre will not take place " . The problems were slowly overcome , and when the final rehearsals were held in May 1913 , the dancers appeared to have mastered the work 's difficulties . Even the Ballets Russes 's sceptical stage director , Serge Grigoriev , was full of praise for the originality and dynamism of Nijinsky 's choreography .
The conductor Pierre Monteux had worked with Diaghilev since 1911 and had been in charge of the orchestra at the premiere of Petrushka . Monteux 's first reaction to The Rite , after hearing Stravinsky play a piano version , was to leave the room and find a quiet corner . He drew Diaghilev aside and said he would never conduct music like that ; Diaghilev managed to change his mind . Although he would perform his duties with conscientious professionalism , he never came to enjoy the work ; nearly fifty years after the premiere he told enquirers that he detested it . In old age he said to Sir Thomas Beecham 's biographer Charles Reid : " I did not like Le Sacre then . I have conducted it fifty times since . I do not like it now " . On 30 March Monteux informed Stravinsky of modifications he thought were necessary to the score , all of which the composer implemented . The orchestra , drawn mainly from the Concerts Colonne in Paris , comprised 99 players , much larger than normally employed at the theatre , and had difficulty fitting into the orchestra pit .
After the first part of the ballet received two full orchestral rehearsals in March , Monteux and the company departed to perform in Monte Carlo . Rehearsals resumed when they returned ; the unusually large number of rehearsals — seventeen solely orchestral and five with the dancers — were fit into the fortnight before the opening , after Stravinsky 's arrival in Paris on 13 May . The music contained so many unusual note combinations that Monteux had to ask the musicians to stop interrupting when they thought they had found mistakes in the score , saying he would tell them if something was played incorrectly . According to Doris Monteux , " The musicians thought it absolutely crazy " . At one point — a climactic brass fortissimo — the orchestra broke into nervous laughter at the sound , causing Stravinsky to intervene angrily .
The role of the sacrificial victim was to have been danced by Nijinsky 's sister , Bronislava Nijinska ; when she became pregnant during rehearsals , she was replaced by the then relatively unknown Maria Piltz .
= = Performance history and reception = =
= = = Premiere = = =
Paris 's Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées was a new structure , which had opened on 2 April 1913 with a programme celebrating the works of many of the leading composers of the day . The theatre 's manager , Gabriel Astruc , was determined to house the 1913 Ballets Russes season , and paid Diaghilev the large sum of 25 @,@ 000 francs per performance , double what he had paid the previous year . The programme for 29 May 1913 , as well as the Stravinsky premiere , included Les Sylphides , Weber 's Le Spectre de la Rose and Borodin 's Polovtsian Dances . Ticket sales for the evening , ticket prices being doubled for a premiere , amounted to 35 @,@ 000 francs . Final rehearsals were held on the day before the premiere , in the presence of members of the press and assorted invited guests . According to Stravinsky all went peacefully . However , the critic of L 'Écho de Paris , Adolphe Boschot , foresaw possible trouble ; he wondered how the public would receive the work , and suggested that they might react badly if they thought they were being mocked .
On the evening of 29 May the theatre was packed . Gustav Linor reported , " Never ... has the hall been so full , or so resplendent ; the stairways and the corridors were crowded with spectators eager to see and to hear " . The evening began with Les Sylphides , in which Nijinsky and Karsavina danced the main roles . The Rite followed . Some eyewitnesses and commentators said that the disturbances in the audience began during the Introduction , and grew into a crescendo when the curtain rose on the stamping dancers in " Augurs of Spring " . But music historian Richard Taruskin asserts , " it was not Stravinsky 's music that did the shocking . It was the ugly earthbound lurching and stomping devised by Vaslav Nijinsky . " Marie Rambert , who was working as an assistant to Nijinsky , recalled later that it was soon impossible to hear the music on the stage . In his autobiography , Stravinsky writes that the derisive laughter that greeted the first bars of the Introduction disgusted him , and that he left the auditorium to watch the rest of the performance from the stage wings . The demonstrations , he says , grew into " a terrific uproar " which , along with the on @-@ stage noises , drowned out the voice of Nijinsky who was shouting the step numbers to the dancers . The journalist and photographer Carl Van Vechten recorded that the person behind him got carried away with excitement , and " began to beat rhythmically on top of my head " , though Van Vechten failed to notice this at first , his own emotion being so great .
At that time , a Parisian ballet audience typically consisted of two diverse groups : the wealthy and fashionable set , who would be expecting to see a traditional performance with beautiful music , and a " Bohemian " group who , the poet @-@ philosopher Jean Cocteau asserted , would " acclaim , right or wrong , anything that is new because of their hatred of the boxes " . Monteux believed that the trouble began when the two factions began attacking each other , but their mutual anger was soon diverted towards the orchestra : " Everything available was tossed in our direction , but we continued to play on " . Around forty of the worst offenders were ejected — possibly with the intervention of the police , although this is uncorroborated . Through all the disturbances the performance continued without interruption . Things grew noticeably quieter during Part II , and by some accounts Maria Piltz 's rendering of the final " Sacrificial Dance " was watched in reasonable silence . At the end there were several curtain calls for the dancers , for Monteux and the orchestra , and for Stravinsky and Nijinsky before the evening 's programme continued .
Among the more hostile press reviews was that of Le Figaro 's critic , Henri Quittard , who called the work " a laborious and puerile barbarity " and added " We are sorry to see an artist such as M. Stravinsky involve himself in this disconcerting adventure " . On the other hand , Gustav Linor , writing in the leading theatrical magazine Comoedia , thought the performance was superb , especially that of Maria Piltz ; the disturbances , while deplorable , were merely " a rowdy debate " between two ill @-@ mannered factions . Emile Raudin , of Les Marges , who had barely heard the music , wrote : " Couldn 't we ask M. Astruc ... to set aside one performance for well @-@ intentioned spectators ? ... We could at least propose to evict the female element " . The composer Alfredo Casella thought that the demonstrations were aimed at Nijinsky 's choreography rather than at the music , a view shared by the critic Michel @-@ Dimitri Calvocoressi , who wrote : " The idea was excellent , but was not successfully carried out " . Calvocoressi failed to observe any direct hostility to the composer — unlike , he said , the premiere of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande in 1902 . Of later reports that the veteran composer Camille Saint @-@ Saëns had stormed out of the premiere , Stravinsky observed that this was impossible ; Saint @-@ Saëns did not attend . Stravinsky also rejected Cocteau 's story that , after the performance , Stravinsky , Nijinsky , Diaghilev and Cocteau himself took a cab to the Bois de Boulogne where a tearful Diaghilev recited poems by Pushkin . Stravinsky merely recalled a celebratory dinner with Diaghilev and Nijinsky , at which the impresario expressed his entire satisfaction with the outcome . To Maximilien Steinberg , a former fellow @-@ pupil under Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , Stravinsky wrote that Nijinsky 's choreography had been " incomparable : with the exception of a few places , everything was as I wanted it " .
= = = Initial run and early revivals = = =
The premiere was followed by five further performances of The Rite at the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées , the last on 13 June . Although these occasions were relatively peaceful , something of the mood of the first night remained ; the composer Puccini , who attended the second performance on 2 June , described the choreography as ridiculous and the music cacophonous — " the work of a madman . The public hissed , laughed – and applauded " . Stravinsky , confined to his bed by typhoid fever , did not join the company when it went to London for four performances at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . Reviewing the London production , The Times critic was impressed how different elements of the work came together to form a coherent whole , but was less enthusiastic about the music itself , opining that Stravinsky had entirely sacrificed melody and harmony for rhythm : " If M. Stravinsky had wished to be really primitive , he would have been wise to ... score his ballet for nothing but drums " . The ballet historian Cyril Beaumont commented on the " slow , uncouth movements " of the dancers , finding these " in complete opposition to the traditions of classical ballet " .
After the opening Paris run and the London performances , events conspired to prevent further stagings of the ballet . Nijinsky 's choreography , which Kelly describes as " so striking , so outrageous , so frail as to its preservation " , did not appear again until attempts were made to reconstruct it in the 1980s . On 19 September 1913 Nijinsky married Romola de Pulszky while the Ballets Russes was on tour without Diaghilev in South America . When Diaghilev found out he was distraught and furious that his lover had married , and dismissed Nijinsky . Diaghilev was then obliged to re @-@ hire Fokine , who had resigned in 1912 because Nijinsky had been asked to choreograph Faune . Fokine made it a condition of his re @-@ employment that none of Nijinsky 's choreography would be performed . In a letter to the art critic and historian Alexandre Benois , Stravinsky wrote , " [ T ] he possibility has gone for some time of seeing anything valuable in the field of dance and , still more important , of again seeing this offspring of mine " .
With the disruption following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 and the dispersal of many artistes , Diaghilev was ready to re @-@ engage Nijinsky as both dancer and choreographer , but Nijinsky had been placed under house arrest in Hungary as an enemy Russian citizen . Diaghilev negotiated his release in 1916 for a tour in the United States , but the dancer 's mental health steadily declined and he took no further part in professional ballet after 1917 . In 1920 , when Diaghilev decided to revive The Rite , he found that no one now remembered the choreography . After spending most of the war years in Switzerland , and becoming a permanent exile from his homeland after the 1917 Russian Revolution , Stravinsky resumed his partnership with Diaghilev when the war ended . In December 1920 Ernest Ansermet conducted a new production in Paris , choreographed by Léonide Massine , with the Nicholas Roerich designs retained ; the lead dancer was Lydia Sokolova . In his memoirs , Stravinsky is equivocal about the Massine production ; the young ballet @-@ master , he writes , showed " unquestionable talent " , but there was something " forced and artificial " in his choreography , which lacked the necessary organic relationship with the music . Sokolova , in her later account , recalled some of the tensions surrounding the production , with Stravinsky , " wearing an expression that would have frightened a hundred Chosen Virgins , pranc [ ing ] up and down the centre aisle " while Ansermet rehearsed the orchestra .
= = = Later choreographies = = =
The ballet was first shown in the United States on 11 April 1930 , when Massine 's 1920 version was performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra in Philadelphia under Leopold Stokowski , with Martha Graham dancing the role of the Chosen One . The production moved to New York , where Massine was relieved to find the audiences receptive , a sign , he thought , that New Yorkers were finally beginning to take ballet seriously . The first American @-@ designed production , in 1937 , was that of the Modern Dance exponent Lester Horton , whose version replaced the original pagan Russian setting with a Wild West background and the use of Native American dances .
In 1944 Massine began a new collaboration with Roerich , who before his death in 1947 completed a number of sketches for a new production which Massine brought to fruition at La Scala , Milan in 1948 . This heralded a number of significant postwar European productions . Mary Wigman in Berlin ( 1957 ) followed Horton in highlighting the erotic aspects of virgin sacrifice , as did Maurice Béjart in Brussels ( 1959 ) . Béjart ' s representation replaced the culminating sacrifice with a depiction of what the critic Robert Johnson describes as " ceremonial coitus " . The Royal Ballet 's 1962 production , choreographed by Kenneth MacMillan and designed by Sidney Nolan , was first performed on 3 May and was a critical triumph . It has remained in the company 's repertoire for more than 50 years ; after its revival in May 2011 the Daily Telegraph 's critic Mark Monahan called it one of the Royal Ballet 's greatest achievements . Moscow first saw The Rite in 1965 , in a version choreographed for the Bolshoi Ballet by Natalia Kasatkina and Vladimir Vasiliev . This production was shown in Leningrad four years later , at the Maly Opera Theatre , and introduced a storyline that provided the Chosen One with a lover who wreaks vengeance on the elders after the sacrifice . Johnson describes the production as " a product of state atheism ... Soviet propaganda at its best " .
In 1975 Pina Bausch , who had taken over the Wuppertal ballet company , caused a stir in the ballet world with her stark depiction , played out on an earth @-@ covered stage , in which the Chosen One is sacrificed to gratify the misogyny of the surrounding men . At the end , according to The Guardian 's Luke Jennings , " the cast is sweat @-@ streaked , filthy and audibly panting " . Part of this dance appears in the movie Pina . In America , in 1980 , Paul Taylor used Stravinsky 's four @-@ hand piano version of the score as the background for a scenario based on child murder and gangster film images . In February 1984 Martha Graham , in her 90th year , resumed her association with The Rite by choreographing a new production at New York 's State Theater . The New York Times critic declared the performance " a triumph ... totally elemental , as primal in expression of basic emotion as any tribal ceremony , as hauntingly staged in its deliberate bleakness as it is rich in implication " .
On 30 September 1987 , the Joffrey Ballet in Los Angeles performed The Rite based on a reconstruction of Nijinsky 's 1913 choreography , until then thought lost beyond recall . The performance resulted from years of research , primarily by Millicent Hodson , who pieced the choreography together from the original prompt books , contemporary sketches and photographs , and the recollections of Marie Rambert and other survivors . Hodson 's version has since been performed by the Kirov Ballet , at the Mariinsky Theatre in 2003 and later that year at Covent Garden . In its 2012 – 13 season the Joffrey Ballet gave centennial performances at numerous venues , including the University of Texas on 5 – 6 March 2013 , the University of Massachusetts on 14 March 2013 , and with The Cleveland Orchestra on 17 – 18 August 2013 .
The music publishers Boosey and Hawkes have estimated that since its premiere , the ballet has been the subject of at least 150 productions , many of which have become classics and have been performed worldwide . Among the more radical interpretations is Glen Tetley 's 1974 version , in which the Chosen One is a young male . More recently there have been solo dance versions devised by Molissa Fenley and Javier de Frutos , a punk rock interpretation from Michael Clark , and Rites ( 2008 ) , by The Australian Ballet in conjunction with Bangarra Dance Theatre , which represents Aboriginal perceptions of the elements of earth , air , fire and water .
= = = Concert performances = = =
On 18 February 1914 The Rite received its first concert performance ( the music without the ballet ) , in St Petersburg under Serge Koussevitzky . On 5 April that year , Stravinsky experienced for himself the popular success of The Rite as a concert work , at the Casino de Paris . After the performance , again under Monteux , the composer was carried in triumph from the hall on the shoulders of his admirers . The Rite had its first British concert performance on 7 June 1921 , at the Queen 's Hall in London under Eugene Goossens . Its American premiere occurred on 3 March 1922 , when Stokowski included it in a Philadelphia Orchestra programme . Goossens was also responsible for introducing The Rite to Australia on 23 August 1946 at the Sydney Town Hall , as guest conductor of the Sydney Symphony Orchestra .
Stravinsky first conducted the work in 1926 , in a concert given by the Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam ; two years later he brought it to the Salle Pleyel in Paris for two performances under his baton . Of these occasions he later wrote that " thanks to the experience I had gained with all kinds of orchestras ... I had reached a point where I could obtain exactly what I wanted , as I wanted it " . Commentators have broadly agreed that the work has had a greater impact in the concert hall than it has on the stage ; many of Stravinsky 's revisions to the music were made with the concert hall rather than the theatre in mind . The work has become a staple in the repertoires of all the leading orchestras , and has been cited by Leonard Bernstein as " the most important piece of music of the 20th century " .
In 1963 , 50 years after the premiere , Monteux ( then aged 88 ) agreed to conduct a commemorative performance at London 's Royal Albert Hall . According to Isaiah Berlin , a close friend of the composer , Stravinsky informed him that he had no intention of hearing his music being " murdered by that frightful butcher " . Instead he arranged tickets for that particular evening 's performance of Mozart 's opera The Marriage of Figaro , at Covent Garden . Under pressure from his friends , Stravinsky was persuaded to leave the opera after the first act . He arrived at the Albert Hall just as the performance of The Rite was ending ; composer and conductor shared a warm embrace in front of the unaware , wildly cheering audience . Monteux 's biographer John Canarina provides a different slant on this occasion , recording that by the end of the evening Stravinsky had asserted that " Monteux , almost alone among conductors , never cheapened Rite or looked for his own glory in it , and he continued to play it all his life with the greatest fidelity " .
= = Music = =
= = = General character and instrumentation = = =
Commentators have often described The Rite 's music in vivid terms ; Paul Rosenfeld , in 1920 , wrote of it " pound [ ing ] with the rhythm of engines , whirls and spirals like screws and fly @-@ wheels , grinds and shrieks like laboring metal " . In a more recent analysis , The New York Times critic Donal Henahan refers to " great crunching , snarling chords from the brass and thundering thumps from the timpani " . The composer Julius Harrison acknowledged the uniqueness of the work negatively : it demonstrated Stravinsky 's " abhorrence of everything for which music has stood these many centuries ... all human endeavour and progress are being swept aside to make room for hideous sounds ... "
In The Firebird , Stravinsky had begun to experiment with bitonality ( the use of two different keys simultaneously ) . He took this technique further in Petrushka , but reserved its full effect for The Rite where , as the analyst E.W. White explains , he " pushed [ it ] to its logical conclusion " . White also observes the music 's complex metrical character , with combinations of duple and triple time in which a strong irregular beat is emphasised by powerful percussion . The music critic Alex Ross has described the irregular process whereby Stravinsky adapted and absorbed traditional Russian folk material into the score . He " proceeded to pulverize them into motivic bits , pile them up in layers , and reassemble them in cubistic collages and montages " .
The duration of the work is about 35 minutes . The score calls for one piccolo , three flutes ( third doubling second piccolo ) , one alto flute , four oboes ( fourth doubling second English horn ) , English horn , three clarinets in B ♭ and A ( third doubling second bass clarinet ) , clarinet in E ♭ and D , one bass clarinet , four bassoons ( fourth doubling second contrabassoon ) , one contrabassoon ; eight horns ( seventh and eighth doubling tenor Wagner tubas ) , trumpet in D , four trumpets in C ( fourth doubling bass trumpet in E ♭ ) , two trombones , one bass trombone , two bass tubas ; a percussion section with 5 timpani ( requiring two players ) , bass drum , tam @-@ tam , triangle , tambourine , cymbals , antique cymbals in A ♭ and B ♭ , güiro ; and strings . Despite the large orchestra , much of the score is written chamber @-@ fashion , with individual instruments and small groups having distinct roles .
= = = Part I : The Adoration of the Earth = = =
The opening melody is played by a solo bassoon in a very high register , which renders the instrument almost unidentifiable ; gradually other woodwind instruments are sounded and are eventually joined by strings . The sound builds up before stopping suddenly , Hill says , " just as it is bursting ecstatically into bloom " . There is then a reiteration of the opening bassoon solo , now played a semitone lower .
The first dance , " Augurs of Spring " , is characterised by a repetitive stamping chord in the horns and strings , based on E @-@ flat superimposed on a triad of E , G @-@ sharp and B. White suggests that this bitonal combination , which Stravinsky considered the focal point of the entire work , was devised on the piano , since the constituent chords are comfortable fits for the hands on a keyboard . The rhythm of the stamping is disturbed by Stravinsky 's constant shifting of the accent , on and off the beat , before the dance ends in a collapse , as if from exhaustion . The " Ritual of Abduction " which follows is described by Hill as " the most terrifying of musical hunts " . It concludes in a series of flute trills that usher in the " Spring Rounds " , in which a slow and laborious theme gradually rises to a dissonant fortissimo , a " ghastly caricature " of the episode 's main tune .
Brass and percussion predominate as the " Ritual of the Rival Tribes " begins . A tune emerges on tenor and bass tubas , leading after much repetition to the entry of the Sage 's procession . The music then comes to a virtual halt , " bleached free of colour " ( Hill ) , as the Sage blesses the earth . The " Dance of the Earth " then begins , bringing Part I to a close in a series of phrases of the utmost vigour which are abruptly terminated in what Hill describes as a " blunt , brutal amputation " .
= = = Part II : The Sacrifice = = =
Part II has a greater cohesion than its predecessor . Hill describes the music as following an arc stretching from the beginning of the Introduction to the conclusion of the final dance . Woodwind and muted trumpets are prominent throughout the Introduction , which ends with a number of rising cadences on strings and flutes . The transition into the " Mystic Circles " is almost imperceptible ; the main theme of the section has been prefigured in the Introduction . A loud repeated chord , which Berger likens to a call to order , announces the moment for choosing the sacrificial victim . The " Glorification of the Chosen One " is brief and violent ; in the " Evocation of the Ancestors " that follows , short phrases are interspersed with drum rolls . The " Ritual Action of the Ancestors " begins quietly , but slowly builds to a series of climaxes before subsiding suddenly into the quiet phrases that began the episode .
The final transition introduces the " Sacrificial Dance " . This is written as a more disciplined ritual than the extravagant dance that ended Part I , though it contains some wild moments , with the large percussion section of the orchestra given full voice . Stravinsky had difficulties with this section , especially with the final bars that conclude the work . The abrupt ending displeased several critics , one of whom wrote that the music " suddenly falls over on its side " . Stravinsky himself referred to the final chord disparagingly as " a noise " , but in his various attempts to amend or rewrite the section , was unable to produce a more acceptable solution .
= = Influence and adaptations = =
The music historian Donald Jay Grout has written : " The Sacre is undoubtedly the most famous composition of the early 20th century ... it had the effect of an explosion that so scattered the elements of musical language that they could never again be put together as before " . The academic and critic Jan Smaczny , echoing Bernstein , calls it one of the 20th century 's most influential compositions , providing " endless stimulation for performers and listeners " . According to Kelly the 1913 premiere might be considered " the most important single moment in the history of 20th century music " , and its repercussions continue to reverberate in the 21st century . Ross has described The Rite as a prophetic work , presaging the " second avant @-@ garde " era in classical composition — music of the body rather than of the mind , in which " [ m ] elodies would follow the patterns of speech ; rhythms would match the energy of dance ... sonorities would have the hardness of life as it is really lived " .
Among 20th @-@ century composers most influenced by The Rite is Stravinsky 's near contemporary , Edgard Varèse , who had attended the 1913 premiere . Varèse , according to Ross , was particularly drawn to the " cruel harmonies and stimulating rhythms " of The Rite , which he employed to full effect in his concert work Amériques ( 1921 ) , scored for a massive orchestra with added sound effects including a lion 's roar and a wailing siren . Aaron Copland , to whom Stravinsky was a particular inspiration in the former 's student days , considered The Rite a masterpiece that had created " the decade of the displaced accent and the polytonal chord " . Copland adopted Stravinsky 's technique of composing in small sections which he then shuffled and rearranged , rather than working through from beginning to end . Ross cites the music of Copland 's ballet Billy the Kid as coming directly from the " Spring Rounds " section of The Rite . For Olivier Messiaen The Rite was of special significance ; he constantly analysed and expounded on the work , which gave him an enduring model for rhythmic drive and assembly of material .
After the premiere the writer Leon Vallas opined that Stravinsky had written music 30 years ahead of its time , suitable to be heard in 1940 . Coincidentally , it was in that year that Walt Disney released Fantasia , an animated feature film using music from The Rite and other classical compositions , conducted by Stokowski . The Rite segment of the film depicted the Earth 's prehistory , leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs . Among those impressed by the film was Gunther Schuller , later a composer , conductor and jazz scholar . The Rite of Spring sequence , he says , overwhelmed him and determined his future career in music : " I hope [ Stravinsky ] appreciated that hundreds — perhaps thousands — of musicians were turned onto The Rite of Spring ... through Fantasia , musicians who might otherwise never have heard the work , or at least not until many years later " . In later life Stravinsky claimed distaste for the adaptation , though as Ross remarks , he said nothing critical at the time ; according to Ross , the composer Paul Hindemith observed that " Igor appears to love it " .
= = Recordings = =
Before the first gramophone disc recordings of The Rite were issued in 1929 , Stravinsky had helped to produce a pianola version of the work for the Aeolian Company . He also created a much more comprehensive arrangement for the French player piano company Pleyel , with whom he signed a contract in 1923 under which many of his early works were reproduced on this medium . The Pleyel version of The Rite of Spring was issued in 1921 ; the British pianolist Rex Lawson recorded the work in this form in 1990 .
In 1929 Stravinsky and Monteux vied with each other to conduct the first orchestral gramophone recording of The Rite . While Stravinsky led L 'Orchestre des Concerts Straram in a recording for the Columbia label , at the same time Monteux was recording it for the HMV label . Stokowski 's version followed in 1930 . Stravinsky made two more recordings , in 1940 and 1960 . According to the critic Edward Greenfield , Stravinsky was not technically a great conductor but , Greenfield says , in the 1960 recording with the Columbia Symphony Orchestra the composer inspired a performance with " extraordinary thrust and resilience " . In conversations with Robert Craft , Stravinsky reviewed several recordings of The Rite made in the 1960s . He thought Herbert von Karajan 's 1963 recording with the Berlin Philharmonic , was good , but " the performance is ... too polished , a pet savage rather than a real one " . Stravinsky thought that Pierre Boulez , with the Orchestre National de France ( 1963 ) , was " less good than I had hoped ... very bad tempi and some tasteless alterations " . He praised a 1962 recording by The Moscow State Symphony Orchestra for making the music sound Russian , " which is just right " , but Stravinsky 's concluding judgement was that none of these three performances was worth preserving .
As of 2013 there were well over 100 different recordings of The Rite commercially available , and many more held in library sound archives . It has become one of the most recorded of all 20th century musical works .
= = Editions = =
The first published score was the four @-@ hand piano arrangement ( Edition Russe de Musique , RV196 ) , dated 1913 . Publication of the full orchestral score was prevented by the outbreak of war in August 1914 . After the revival of the work in 1920 Stravinsky , who had not heard the music for seven years , made numerous revisions to the score , which was finally published in 1921 ( Edition Russe de Musique , RV 197 / 197b. large and pocket scores ) .
In 1922 Ansermet , who was preparing to perform the work in Berlin , sent to Stravinsky a list of errors he had found in the published score . In 1926 , as part of his preparation for that year 's performance with the Concertgebouw Orchestra , Stravinsky rewrote the " Evocation of the Ancestors " section and made substantial changes to the " Sacrificial Dance " . The extent of these revisions , together with Ansermet 's recommendations , convinced Stravinsky that a new edition was necessary , and this appeared in large and pocket form in 1929 . It did not , however , incorporate all of Ansermet 's amendments and , confusingly , bore the date and RV code of the 1921 edition , making the new edition hard to identify .
Stravinsky continued to revise the work , and in 1943 rewrote the " Sacrificial Dance " . In 1948 Boosey and Hawkes issued a corrected version of the 1929 score ( B & H 16333 ) , although Stravinsky 's substantial 1943 amendment of the " Sacrificial Dance " was not incorporated into the new version and remained unperformed , to the composer 's disappointment . He considered it " much easier to play ... and superior in balance and sonority " to the earlier versions . A less musical motive for the revisions and corrected editions was copyright law . The composer had left Galaxy Music Corporation ( agents for Editions Russe de la Musique , the original publisher ) for Associated Music Publishers at the time , and orchestras would be reluctant to pay a second rental charge from two publishers to match the full work and the revised Sacrificial Dance ; moreover , the revised dance could only be published in America . The 1948 score provided copyright protection to the work in America , where it had lapsed , but Boosey ( who acquired the Editions Russe catalogue ) did not have the rights to the revised finale .
The 1929 score as revised in 1948 forms the basis of most modern performances of The Rite . Boosey and Hawkes reissued their 1948 edition in 1965 , and produced a newly engraved edition ( B & H 19441 ) in 1967 . The firm also issued an unmodified reprint of the 1913 piano reduction in 1952 ( B & H 17271 ) and a revised piano version , incorporating the 1929 revisions , in 1967 .
The Paul Sacher Foundation , in association with Boosey and Hawkes , announced in May 2013 , as part of The Rite 's centenary celebrations , their intention to publish the 1913 autograph score , as used in early performances . After being kept in Russia for decades , the autograph score was acquired by Boosey and Hawkes in 1947 . The firm presented the score to Stravinsky in 1962 , on his 80th birthday . After the composer 's death in 1971 the manuscript was acquired by the Paul Sacher Foundation . As well as the autograph score , they have published the manuscript piano four @-@ hands score .
In 2000 , Kalmus Music Publishers brought out an edition where former Philadelphia Orchestra librarian Clint Nieweg made over 21 @,@ 000 corrections to the score and parts . Since then a published errata list has added some 310 more corrections , and this is considered to be the most accurate version of the work as of 2013 .
= Milford Haven =
Milford Haven ( / ˈmɪlfəd ˈheɪvən / ; Welsh : Aberdaugleddau , meaning " mouth of the two Rivers Cleddau " ) is a town and community in Pembrokeshire , Wales . It is situated on the north side of the Milford Haven Waterway , an estuary forming a natural harbour that has been used as a port since the Middle Ages . The town was founded in 1790 on the north side of the Waterway , from which it takes its name . Designed to a grid pattern , it was originally intended by the founder , Sir William Hamilton , to be a whaling centre , though by 1800 it was developing as a Royal Navy dockyard which it remained until the dockyard was transferred to Pembroke in 1814 . It then became a commercial dock , with the focus moving in the 1960s , after the construction of an oil refinery built by the Esso Company , to logistics for fuel oil and liquid gas . By 2010 the town 's port has become the fourth largest in the United Kingdom in terms of tonnage , and plays an important role in the United Kingdom 's energy sector with several oil refineries and one of the biggest LNG terminals in the world .
Milford is the second largest settlement in Pembrokeshire , with a population of 12 @,@ 830 ; while the 13 @,@ 086 people in its community boundaries make it the most populous in the county . As a Welsh local government community , Milford takes in the town of Milford itself and its suburbs , including Hakin , Hubberston , Liddeston , and Steynton . The total population of the 6 electoral wards in question was 13 @,@ 907 at the 2011 census .
The natural harbour of the Haven was known as a safe port and was exploited for several historical military operations throughout the second millennium . Campaigns conducted from the Haven included part of Henry II 's Invasion of Ireland in 1171 and Cromwell 's own attack on Ireland in 1649 , while forces which have disembarked at the point include Jean II de Rieux 's 1405 reinforcement of the Glyndŵr Rising . In 1485 , Henry VII landed at the Milford Haven Waterway before marching on to England .
= = History = =
The town of Milford was founded in 1793 , after Sir William Hamilton obtained an Act of Parliament in 1790 to establish the port at Milford , and takes its name from the natural harbour of Milford Haven , which was used for several hundred years as a staging point on sea journeys to Ireland and as a shelter by Vikings . It was known as a safe port and is mentioned in Shakespeare 's Cymbeline as " blessed Milford " . It was used as the base for several military operations , such as Richard de Clare 's invasion of Leinster in 1167 , Henry II 's Invasion of Ireland in 1171 , and Oliver Cromwell 's 1649 invasion of Ireland ; while forces which have disembarked at the point include Jean II de Rieux 's 1405 reinforcement of the Glyndŵr Rising and Henry VII 's 1485 landing at the waterway before marching on England . By the late 18th century the two local creeks were being used to load and unload goods , and surrounding settlements were established , including the medieval chapel , and Summer Hill Farm , the only man @-@ made structures on the future site of Milford .
Sir William Hamilton , the town 's founder , had acquired the land from his wife , Catherine Barlow of Slebech . His nephew , the Hon. Charles Francis Greville , invited seven Quaker families from Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard to settle in the new town and develop a whaling fleet , In 1800 , following the bankruptcy of the shipbuilding contractor Jacobs & Sons , who had established their shipyard there in 1797 , he persuaded the Navy Board 's overseer , Jean @-@ Louis Barralier , to lease the site for the Navy Board and develop a dockyard for building warships . Seven royal vessels were eventually launched from the dockyard , including HMS Surprise and HMS Milford . The town was built on a grid pattern , thought to have been to the design of Jean @-@ Louis Barrallier , who remained in charge of shipbuilding there for the Navy Board . Between 1801 and 1803 , the town and waterway were protected by temporary batteries at Hakin Point and south of St Katherine 's Church , in response to the perceived threat following the Fishguard Invasion .
A church was consecrated in October 1808 and dedicated to St Catherine of Alexandria in the underdeveloped eastern side of the town , it remained a chapel of ease until 1891 when Milford became a parish , until that time competing with St Peter and St Cewydd in Steynton . By the start of the 19th century , a mail coach was operating between London and Hubberston , and in 1800 the short lived Milford and Pembrokeshire Bank was established by Thomas Phillips , operating from a branch in the town . It collapsed in 1810 .
In 1814 the Royal Dockyard was transferred to Pembroke Dock ; though , when Robert Fulke Greville inherited the estate in 1824 , a commercial dock was started which became the home of a successful fishing industry . By 1849 , the district of Hakin was described as a considerable centre of boat building , and by 1906 , Milford had become the sixth largest fishing port in the UK , and its population rose . The Pembrokeshire Herald claimed in 1912 that " the fish trade is Milford 's sole industry .... the population of the town has doubled by means of it " .
In 1863 , the railway network came to Milford , linking it to the Haverfordwest line and beyond . In 1866 , work was completed on
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1938 . The ship participated in an Imperial Fleet Review on 11 October 1940 . She was refitted in early 1941 in preparation for war .
= = = World War II = = =
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto issued the code phrase " Niitaka yama nobore " ( Climb Mount Niitaka ) on 2 December 1941 from Nagato at anchor at Hashirajima to signal the 1st Air Fleet ( Kido Butai ) in the North Pacific to proceed with its attack on Pearl Harbor . When the war started for Japan on 8 December , she sortied for the Bonin Islands , along with Mutsu , the battleships Hyūga , Yamashiro , Fusō , Ise of Battleship Division 2 , and the light carrier Hōshō as distant cover for the withdrawal of the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . Yamamoto transferred his flag to the new battleship Yamato on 12 February 1942 . Nagato was briefly refitted 15 March – 9 April at Kure Naval Arsenal .
In June 1942 Nagato , commanded by Captain Hideo Yano , was assigned to the Main Body of the 1st Fleet during the Battle of Midway , together with Yamato , Mutsu , Hosho , the light cruiser Sendai , nine destroyers and four auxiliary ships . Following the loss of all four carriers of the 1st Air Fleet on 4 June , Yamamoto attempted to lure the American forces west to within range of the Japanese air groups at Wake Island , and into a night engagement with his surface forces , but the American forces withdrew and Nagato saw no action . After rendezvousing with the remnants of the 1st Air Fleet on 6 June , survivors from the aircraft carrier Kaga were transferred to Nagato . On 14 July , the ship was transferred to Battleship Division 2 and she became the flagship of the 1st Fleet . Yano was promoted to Rear Admiral on 1 November and he was replaced by Captain Yonejiro Hisamune nine days later . Nagato remained in Japanese waters training until August 1943 . On 2 August Captain Mikio Hayakawa assumed command of the ship .
That month , Nagato , Yamato , Fusō and the escort carrier Taiyō , escorted by two heavy cruisers and five destroyers transferred to Truk in the Caroline Islands . In response to the carrier raid on Tarawa on 18 September , Nagato and much of the fleet sortied for Eniwetok to search for the American forces before they returned to Truk on 23 September , having failed to locate them . The Japanese had intercepted some American radio traffic that suggested an attack on Wake Island , and on 17 October , Nagato and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack . The fleet arrived on 19 October , departed four days later , and arrived back at Truk on 26 October . Hayakawa was promoted to Rear Admiral on 1 November and he was relieved on 25 December by Captain Yuji Kobe .
On 1 February 1944 , Nagato departed Truk with Fusō to avoid an American air raid , and arrived at Palau on 4 February . They left on 16 February to escape another air raid . The ships arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island , near Singapore , and the ship became the flagship of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki , commander of Battleship Division 1 , on 25 February until he transferred his flag to Yamato on 5 May . Aside from a brief refit at Singapore , the ship remained at Lingga training until 11 May when she was transferred to Tawitawi on 12 May . The division was now assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet , under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa .
On 10 June , Battleship Division 1 departed Tawitawi for Batjan in preparation for Operation Kon , a planned counterattack against the American invasion of Biak . Three days later , when Admiral Soemu Toyoda , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Combined Fleet , was notified of American attacks on Saipan , Operation Kon was canceled and Ugaki 's force was diverted to the Mariana Islands . The battleships rendezvoused with Ozawa 's main force on 16 June . During the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Nagato escorted the aircraft carriers Jun 'yō , Hiyō and the light carrier Ryūhō . She fired 41 cm Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary anti @-@ aircraft shrapnel shells at aircraft from the light carrier Belleau Wood that were attacking Jun 'yō and claimed to have shot down two Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers . The ship was strafed by American aircraft during the battle , but was not damaged and suffered no casualties . During the battle Nagato rescued survivors from Hiyō that were transferred to the carrier Zuikaku once the ship reached Okinawa on 22 June . She continued on to Kure where she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns . Undocked on 8 July , Nagato loaded a regiment of the 28th Infantry Division the following day and delivered them to Okinawa on 11 July . She arrived at Lingga via Manila on 20 July .
= = = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = = =
Kobe was promoted to Rear Admiral on 15 October . Three days later , Nagato sailed for Brunei Bay , Borneo , to join the main Japanese fleet in preparation for " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , the counterattack planned against the American landings at Leyte . The Japanese plan called for Ozawa 's carrier forces to lure the American carrier fleets north of Leyte so that Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita 's 1st Diversion Force ( also known as the Center Force ) could enter Leyte Gulf and destroy American forces landing on the island . Nagato , together with the rest of Kurita 's force , departed Brunei for the Philippines on 22 October .
In the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on 24 October , Nagato was attacked by multiple waves of American dive bombers and fighters . At 14 : 16 she was hit by two bombs dropped by planes from the fleet carrier Franklin and the light carrier Cabot . The first bomb disabled five of her casemate guns , jammed one of her Type 89 gun mounts , and damaged the air intake to No. 1 boiler room , immobilizing one propeller shaft for 24 minutes until the boiler was put back on line . Damage from the second bomb is unknown . The two bombs killed 52 men between them ; the number of wounded is not known .
On the morning of 25 October , the 1st Diversion Force passed through the San Bernardino Strait and headed for Leyte Gulf to attack the American forces supporting the invasion . In the Battle off Samar , Nagato engaged the escort carriers and destroyers of Task Group 77 @.@ 4 @.@ 3 , codenamed " Taffy 3 " . At 06 : 01 she opened fire on three escort carriers , the first time she had ever fired her guns at an enemy ship , but missed . At 06 : 54 the destroyer USS Heermann fired a spread of torpedoes at the fast battleship Haruna ; the torpedoes missed Haruna and headed for Yamato and Nagato which were on a parallel course . The two battleships were forced 10 miles ( 16 km ) away from the engagement before the torpedoes ran out of fuel . Turning back , Nagato engaged the American escort carriers and their screening ships , claiming to have damaged one cruiser with forty @-@ five 410 mm and ninety @-@ two 140 mm shells . The ineffectiveness of her shooting was the result of the poor visibility caused by numerous rain squalls and by smoke screens laid by the defending escorts . At 09 : 10 Kurita ordered his ships to break off the engagement and head north . At 10 : 20 he ordered the fleet south once more , but as they came under increasingly severe air attack he ordered a retreat again at 12 : 36 . At 12 : 43 Nagato was hit in the bow by two bombs , but the damage was not severe . Four gunners were washed overboard at 16 : 56 as the ship made a sharp turn to avoid dive @-@ bomber attacks ; a destroyer was detached to rescue them , but they could not be found . As it retreated back to Brunei on 26 October , the Japanese fleet came under repeated air attacks . Nagato and Yamato used Sankaidan shells against them and claimed to have shot down several bombers . Over the course of the last two days she fired ninety @-@ nine 410 mm and six hundred fifty @-@ three 140 mm shells , suffering 38 crewmen killed and 105 wounded during the same time .
On 15 November the ship was assigned to Battleship Division 3 of the 2nd Fleet . After an aerial attack at Brunei on 16 November , Nagato , Yamato , and the fast battleship Kongō left the following day , bound for Kure . En route , Kongō and one of the escorting destroyers was sunk by USS Sealion on 21 November . On 25 November , she arrived at Yokosuka , Japan for repairs . Lack of fuel and materials meant that she could not be brought back into service and she was turned into a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery . Her funnel and mainmast were removed to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns , which were increased by two Type 89 mounts and nine triple 25 mm gun mounts . Her forward secondary guns were removed in compensation . Captain Kiyomi Shibuya relieved Kobe in command of Nagato on 25 November . Battleship Division 3 was disbanded on 1 January 1945 and the ship was reassigned to Battleship Division 1 . That formation was disbanded on 10 February and she was assigned to the Yokosuka Naval District as a coastal defence ship . Moored alongside a pier , a coal @-@ burning donkey boiler was installed on the pier for heating and cooking purposes and a converted submarine chaser was positioned alongside to provide steam and electricity ; her anti @-@ aircraft guns lacked full power and were only partially operational . On 20 April , Nagato was reduced to reserve and retired Rear Admiral Miki Otsuka assumed command a week later .
In June 1945 , all of her secondary guns and about half of her anti @-@ aircraft armament was moved ashore , together with her rangefinders and searchlights . Her crew was accordingly reduced to less than 1 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men . On 18 July 1945 , the heavily camouflaged ship was attacked by fighter bombers and torpedo bombers from five American carriers as part of Admiral William Halsey , Jr . ' s campaign to destroy the IJN 's last surviving capital ships . Nagato was hit by two bombs , the first 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb struck the bridge and killed Otsuka , the executive officer , and twelve sailors when it detonated upon hitting the roof of the conning tower . The second 500 @-@ pound bomb struck the deck aft of the mainmast and detonated when it hit No. 3 barbette . It failed to damage the barbette or the turret above it , but blew a hole nearly 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in diameter in the deck above the officer 's lounge , killing 21 men and damaging four 25 mm guns on the deck above . A dud rocket of uncertain size hit the ship 's fantail , but failed to do any significant damage . To convince the Americans that Nagato had been badly damaged by the attack , her damage was left unrepaired and some of her ballast tanks were pumped full of seawater to make her sit deeper in the water as if she had sunk to the harbor bottom .
Captain Shuichi Sugino was appointed as Nagato 's new captain on 24 July , but he was unable to take up his appointment until 20 August . Retired Rear Admiral Masamichi Ikeguchi was assigned as the ship 's interim captain until Sugino arrived . The Yokosuka Naval District received an alarm on the night of 1 / 2 August that a large convoy was approaching Sagami Bay and Nagato was ordered to attack immediately . The ship was totally unprepared for any attack , but Ikeguchi began the necessary preparations . The water in the ballast compartments was pumped out and her crew began reloading the propellant charges for her 16 @-@ inch guns . The ship received more fuel from a barge later that morning , but no order to attack ever came because it had been a false alarm . Sailors from the battleship USS Iowa , Underwater Demolition Team 18 , and the high @-@ speed transport USS Horace A. Bass secured the battleship on 30 August after the occupation began and Captain Cornelius Flynn , executive officer of the Iowa , assumed command . Nagato was stricken from the Navy List on 15 September .
= = After the war = =
The ship was selected to participate as a target ship in Operation Crossroads , a series of nuclear weapon tests held at Bikini Atoll in mid @-@ 1946 . In mid @-@ March , Nagato departed Yokosuka for Eniwetok under the command of Captain W. J. Whipple with an American crew of about 180 men supplementing her Japanese crew . The ship was only capable of a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) from her two operating propeller shafts . Her hull had not been repaired from the underwater damage sustained during the attack on 18 July and she leaked enough that her pumps could not keep up . Her consort , the light cruiser Sakawa broke down on 28 March and Nagato attempted to take her in tow , but one of her boilers malfunctioned and the ship ran out of fuel in bad weather . The ship had a list of seven degrees to port by the time tugboats from Eniwetok arrived on 30 March . Towed at a speed of 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) , the ship reached Eniwetok on 4 April where she received temporary repairs . On her trip to Bikini in May , Nagato reached 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
Operation Crossroads began with the first blast ( Test Able ) , an air burst on 1 July 1946 ; she was 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 640 yd ) from ground zero and was only lightly damaged . A skeleton crew boarded Nagato to assess the damage and prepare her for the next test on 25 July . As a test , they operated one of her boilers for 36 hours without any problems . For Test Baker , an underwater explosion , the ship was positioned 870 meters ( 950 yd ) from ground zero . Nagato rode out the tsunami of water from the explosion with little apparent damage ; she had a slight starboard list of two degrees after the tsunami dissipated . A more thorough assessment could not be made because she was dangerously radioactive . Her list gradually increased over the next five days and she capsized and sank during the night of 29 / 30 July .
The wreck is upside down and her most prominent features are her four propellers , at a depth of 33 @.@ 5 meters ( 110 ft ) below the surface . She has become a scuba diving destination in recent years and The Times named Nagato as one of the top ten wreck diving sites in the world in 2007 .
= Renaissance Blackstone Hotel =
The Renaissance Blackstone Hotel ( formerly Blackstone Hotel ) is located on the corner of Michigan Avenue and Balbo Street in the Michigan Boulevard Historic District in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois . This 290 @-@ foot ( 88 m ) 21 @-@ story hotel was built from 1908 to 1910 and designed by Marshall and Fox . On May 29 , 1998 , the Blackstone Hotel was designated as a Chicago Landmark . The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 8 , 1986 . It is also a historic district contributing property for the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District .
The hotel was named for Timothy Blackstone , a notable Chicago business executive and politician , who served as the founding president of the Union Stock Yards , president of the Chicago and Alton Railroad , and mayor of La Salle , Illinois . The hotel is famous for hosting celebrity guests including numerous U.S. presidents , for which it was known as the " Hotel of Presidents " for much of the 20th century . The hotel is known for contributing the term " smoke @-@ filled room " to political parlance . The hotel fell into disrepair that necessitated closure in 2000 and subsequent renovation . It reopened on March 6 , 2008 after a $ 128 @-@ million renovation and is managed by the Renaissance Hotels division of Marriott International .
= = History = =
The hotel and the adjacent Blackstone Theatre were built on the site of Timothy Blackstone 's mansion by John and Tracy Drake , sons of Blackstone 's former business partner , the hotel magnate John Drake . John and Tracy Drake also developed the Drake Hotel . Their father had been a director of Blackstone 's Chicago and Alton Railroad . At the time of the opening , the hotel and theatre were located at the southern edge of the Chicago Theatre District at Michigan Avenue and Hubbard Court ( which was first renamed 7th Street and later Balbo Drive ) .
The original construction was capitalized at $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million today ) , including a $ 600 @,@ 000 to $ 750 @,@ 000 bond issue by the Drake Hotel Company . In the 1920s , the Drake Hotel Company undertook some financing arrangements which included extending their debt to construct the Drake Hotel . They used the Blackstone Hotel as collateral for one loan in 1927 . The Wall Street Crash of 1929 rippled into the hotel industry , leaving the Chicago Title and Trust Company with 30 Chicago hotels in receivership and causing the Drakes to default in 1932 . After going into receivership , the hotel closed and was refurbished , but it was reopened in time for the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition .
= = = Hotel and politics = = =
The Blackstone Hotel has been dubbed " The Hotel of Presidents " . It was once considered one of Chicago 's finest luxury hotels , and a dozen 20th @-@ century U.S. presidents have stayed at the hotel . In addition , the Blackstone has also become part of Chicago 's history as the city that has hosted more United States presidential nominating conventions ( 26 ) than any other two American cities , a history which goes back to the 1860 Republican National Convention hosted at the Wigwam . The hotel has a special room designed for use by presidents which was separated from the rest of the hotel by hollowed out walls in which the Secret Service could operate . In 1911 , Republican businessman and philanthropist Julius Rosenwald — then president of Sears , Roebuck & Company — invited African American educator Booker T. Washington and a few dozen of Chicago 's leading citizens to discuss raising funds for Washington 's Tuskegee Institute . Washington became the hotel 's first African American guest . As a result of the meeting , Rosenwald became a supporter and trustee of Tuskegee , and the following year initiated a campaign to fund the construction and support of schools throughout the South to provide an education to black children , by the time of his death building nearly 5000 schools educating well over half a million African American children .
In 1920 , Warren G. Harding was selected as the Republican candidate for the presidency at the Blackstone . Although the convention was being held at the Chicago Coliseum , a group of Republican leaders met at the Blackstone on the night of June 11 to come to a consensus . When Raymond Clapper of United Press reported on the decision @-@ making process , the reporter stated it had been made " in a smoke @-@ filled room " . The phrase entered American political parlance to denote a political process which is not open to scrutiny .
In addition , the Blackstone is where Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's third @-@ term Democratic presidential nomination was forged in 1940 , where Harry S. Truman stayed when he received the 1944 Democratic vice presidential nomination and where Dwight D. Eisenhower heard the news of his first @-@ ballot 1952 Republican presidential nomination . In all , guests have included at least 12 U.S. presidents : Theodore Roosevelt , William Howard Taft , Woodrow Wilson , Warren Harding , Calvin Coolidge , Herbert Hoover , Franklin Roosevelt , Harry Truman , Dwight Eisenhower , John F. Kennedy , Richard Nixon , and Jimmy Carter . During Kennedy 's visit he was informed of the Cuban Missile Crisis . The hotel was purchased by Sheraton in the 1950s and spent more than twenty years under the name Sheraton @-@ Blackstone Hotel . Despite the hospitality enjoyed by its elite guests , the hotel endured some troubles in the 1960s and 1970s as the neighborhood surrounding the hotel declined .
= = = 21st @-@ century redevelopment = = =
The hotel closed in 2000 after Occupational Safety and Health Administration building inspectors found safety problems during a 1999 inspection . The building 's owner , Heaven on Earth Inns Corp , run by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , looked into several options before selling the property to Rubloff , Inc . , which in 2001 announced plans to convert the building into condominiums priced as high as $ 8 @.@ 5 million . Rubloff 's plans were unsuccessful due to financing difficulties and a lackluster market for buyers of Blackstone condominiums . Even two rounds of price cuts were not enough to spur interest in the condo opportunities and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's non @-@ profit organization was unable to obtain financing .
The years of neglect following the closing of the hotel took a toll on the building 's appearance with both the interior and exterior facade crumbling . In 2005 , it was announced that the hotel would undergo a $ 112 million renovation and acquisition with a planned opening in 2007 in a deal between Marriott International / Renaissance Hotels and Sage Hospitality , a Denver , Colorado @-@ based company . The hotel 's restoration process was quite lengthy because of the extensive interior damage . $ 22 million of the expected $ 112 million was the cost associated with the acquisition . Sage sought $ 22 million in tax increment financing from the Chicago Community Development Commission . They eventually were approved for $ 18 million in tax @-@ increment financing . The final cost of the restoration came to $ 128 million , of which the city of Chicago provided $ 13 @.@ 5 million for street @-@ front improvement , including the restoration and recasting of over 10 @,@ 000 pieces of decorative terra cotta , and federal historical tax credits because the building is a historical landmark . The Chicago Landmark status necessitated renovation oversight by the Commission on Chicago Landmarks .
Sage had been interested in the property long before the condominium conversion was attempted . The newly restored building retains its historic name ; however , it operates as a Marriott brand under the " Renaissance Hotels " label . Sage uses the Renaissance brand " for hotels that are very unique in terms of location , style , design , or historic values " . The other parties involved in the restoration were local architect Lucien Lagrange and hotel interior design , development , and procurement firm Gettys , for design work . James McHugh Construction Co. was responsible for construction . The engineering firm handling the exterior renovation was Illinois @-@ based Wiss , Janney , Elstner Associates , Inc .
The restoration resulted in 332 rooms , 12 suites , and 13 @,@ 230 square feet ( 1 @,@ 229 m2 ) of meeting space . The 21 @-@ story hotel is now equipped with a health club , a business center , and a street @-@ level Starbucks cafe with outdoor seating area . As part of the restorations , sconces and chandeliers were restored . Many of the details , such as brass fittings , several of the statues and the original chandeliers , had been sold off . However , Sage was able to repurchase many of them on eBay and refabricate many others . The primary historic facades were fully restored , including the hotel 's ornate terra cotta @-@ clad exterior . All the guest @-@ room floors were reconfigured and dramatically enlarged . Some have described the restoration as " garish " . The hotel also features a hotel within a hotel called Hubbard Place , in honor of Balbo Drive 's former name . It will be a premium service private lounge located in a rooftop area that formerly housed mechanical equipment .
Only two guest rooms were preserved during the restoration : the famous ninth @-@ floor " smoke @-@ filled room " and the original tenth @-@ floor presidential suite . They both retained their original floors , fireplaces , and structural shapes . However , the Presidential Suite 's famed hidden passage behind the fireplace — which allowed the president to exit through the hotel 's eastern stairwell unnoticed — has been converted into closet space . Notable features that failed to survive the renovation were a barbershop , which has been converted to a rentable meeting room named " the barbershop " , and the theater , which was converted to the Blackstone 's bar and restaurant .
= = Architecture = =
The Blackstone Hotel was designed by architect Benjamin Marshall , of Marshall and Fox , in 1909 . Sources vary as to the precise style in which Marshall designed the building . According to the Landmarks Division of the City of Chicago 's Department of Planning and Development , the hotel 's exterior and interior are considered an excellent example of neoclassical Beaux @-@ Arts architecture ; the nomination form for the building 's listing on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places classifies the structure as distinctly Second Empire . However , the two styles are related , and the Blackstone Hotel demonstrates elements from both schools . The design was influenced by Marshall 's trip to Paris , after which he completed the hotel .
The Blackstone is a 22 @-@ floor rectangular structure and its structural steel frame is cased in tile and plaster fireproofing . On the exterior south and east ( front ) elevations is a one @-@ story base of pink granite , with high arched openings ; it supports the red brick- and terra cotta @-@ trimmed building shaft . Above the granite base are four stories of white , glazed terra cotta . The large windows of the second and third floor , which once poured natural light into the lobby , ballroom , and restaurants , have mostly been covered for a theater . The majority of the building rises as a 12 @-@ story shaft of red brick dotted with white , terra cotta window surrounds ; above this section is a belt course of terra cotta and two stories of red brick . Above this , the original design included an intermediate terra cotta cornice topped by a cast iron railing . This has been removed and replaced with red brick and white glazed brick , flush with the rest of the building . The mansard roof was originally decorated with small spires around the perimeter , and 2 very tall flagpoles .
= = Popular culture = =
In addition to its celebrity guests and its contributions to political parlance , the Blackstone has a place in popular culture . Among its uses in cinema , it hosted the banquet where Al Capone smashes a guest 's head with a baseball bat in the Brian De Palma film The Untouchables , a party in The Hudsucker Proxy , and Tom Cruise 's pre @-@ pool tourney stay in The Color of Money . Also , the 1996 – 2000 television series Early Edition was set in this building , featuring a man ( Kyle Chandler ) who lives in the hotel and receives the newspaper a day in advance . During the 1980s and 1990s , the hotel was the home of Joe Segal 's Jazz Showcase , the premiere Chicago host of international jazz stars including Ahmad Jamal , Dizzy Gillespie , ' Swingin ' Conor McHale , Miles Davis , Jay McShann , and Johnny Griffin , to name only a very few .
= Women 's suffrage in Wales =
Women 's suffrage in Wales has historically been marginalised due to the prominence of societies and political groups in England which led the reform for women throughout the United Kingdom . Due to differing social structures and a heavily industrialised working @-@ class society , the growth of a national movement in Wales grew but then stuttered in the late nineteenth century in comparison with that of England . Nevertheless , distinct Welsh groups and individuals rose to prominence and were vocal in the rise of suffrage in Wales and the rest of Great Britain .
In the early twentieth century , Welsh hopes of advancing the cause of female suffrage centred around the Liberal Party and the Chancellor of the Exchequer , David Lloyd George , one of the most important Welsh politicians of the day . After Liberal success in the 1906 Election failed to materialise into political change , suffragettes and in particular members of the more militant Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) , took a hard line stance towards their Members of Parliament , engaging in direct action against them .
Militant action was not a hallmark of the movements in Wales and Welsh members , who more often identified themselves as suffragists , sought Parliamentary and public support through political and peaceful means . In 1918 , across the United Kingdom , women over the age of 30 gained the right to vote , followed by the Representation of the People ( Equal Franchise ) Act 1928 which saw women gain the same rights to vote as men .
= = The History of Women 's Suffrage in Wales = =
= = = Early Women 's Suffrage in Wales , 1832 – 1884 = = =
Women were not explicitly banned from voting in Great Britain until the 1832 Reform Act and the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act . In England the suffrage movement existed before and after the 1832 act , but did not form a national organisation until the creation of the National Society for Women 's Suffrage in 1872 . Although there were notable exceptions such as the working @-@ class areas of Lancashire , the women 's suffrage movement in England was predominantly a middle @-@ class movement . In Wales there were only two narrow bands of wealthy society in the Anglicised north and south coastal areas . Much of the female population of an emerging 19th century Wales was based in the low @-@ waged , densely @-@ populated , industrialised valleys of the south . At first women found work in metalworking and coal extraction , but then faced mass unemployment after the 1842 Mines and Collieries Act had prohibited them from working underground . The coal mining industry , with its absence of pithead baths , led to unpaid women 's employment as the need to keep both their homes and the family 's menfolk clean became a never ending task . This led to the image of the stoic Welsh Mam , a matriarch of the home , but little could be further from the truth in a society controlled by men .
The increase of wealth created by the mining and metalworking industries saw the creation of new upper @-@ class families who often built their wealthy homes in the centre of the community from which they prospered . Whereas the pit and foundry owners were initially men , many of whom had political ambitions , their wives sought more charitable activities often connected to improving the lives of the women and children of their husband 's workers . In Dowlais , the heart of the ironworking industry of Wales , Rose Mary Crawshay , the well @-@ to @-@ do English @-@ born wife of Robert Thompson Crawshay , passed her time in such charitable work . She set up soup kitchens , gave to the poor and established no less than seven libraries in the area , but apart from this work , for which she would be expected to do , she was also a staunch feminist . Living under the rule of a notoriously tyrannical husband , for whom she bore five children , she showed a strong @-@ will and was known in feminist circles in London from the 1850s . In 1866 she and 25 other signatories , all based in Wales , signed the country 's first women 's Suffrage Petition .
In June 1870 , Rose Crawshay held a public meeting at her home , probably the first in Wales to discuss women 's suffrage , but she was later taken to task by the local newspaper for disturbing the peace and leading Wales ' women astray . The first suffrage tour of Welsh towns was conducted the following year by Jessie Craigen , who travelled the south of the country visiting Pontypool , Pembroke Dock , Neyland , Saundersfoot and Newport . On 4 March 1872 , Mrs. Crawshay held a second meeting , in Merthyr Tydfill , which resulted in a new petition being delivered , the effect of which saw the signing of petitions from Glamorgan , Monmouthshire , Denbighshire and Cardiganshire . Later that year the Bristol & West of England Society for Women 's Suffrage sent two of their members , Caroline Biggs and Lilias Ashworth , on a sponsored speaking tour of south Wales which took in Pontypool , Newport , Cardiff and Haverfordwest . Despite the actions of several prominent Welsh women , such as Lady Amberley and Miss Gertrude Jenner of Wenvoe , no real suffrage movements took hold in the 1870s and the country was reliant on speaking tours from members of English societies , predominantly from Bristol , London and Manchester .
On 25 February 1881 , Gertrude Jenner addressed a meeting held in Cardiff Town Hall to " consider means of promoting interest in Cardiff " towards female voting rights . This was a preliminary to a larger meeting that was held on 9 March which was attended by local dignitaries , Miss Jenner , Helen Blackburn and was chaired by the Mayor of Cardiff . Despite there being a great deal of suffrage activity in the lead up to the The Third Reform Act of 1884 , there was little campaigning in Wales during the early 1880s . One act of significant importance that did occur during this period was the decision in late 1884 by the delegates of the Aberdare , Merthyr and Dowlais District Mine Association to support a series of talks by Jeanette Wilkinson on the right of women 's votes . This is the first recorded instance of interest by Welsh working men supporting female suffrage .
= = = Suffragist societies in Wales , 1884 – 1906 = = =
The publication of the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 , both of which extended suffrage for men in the United Kingdom , led to large @-@ scale political organisation . These combined with the outcome of the Corrupt Practices Act of 1883 , which prevented the payment of canvassers , led to both Conservative and Liberal Parties approaching female supporters to aid them in political campaigning . The Conservatives were first to offer a political role for women in Wales with the opening of branches of the Primrose League , but campaigning for women 's rights was not its priority and merely aimed to ' interest women in politics ' .
In response the Liberal Party launched Women 's Liberal Associations which allowed women more freedom to allocate a role and voice for themselves and were not a mere subsidiary of the national party . The organisation of women in the Liberal Party in Wales began around 1890 supported by prominent members Gwyneth Vaughan , Nora Phillips and Sybil Thomas . In 1891 an Aberdare branch of the Women 's Liberal Foundation was founded and it quickly began advocating votes for women and began leafleting in both English and Welsh . By 1893 there were said to be 7 @,@ 000 members of the Welsh Union of Women 's Liberal Associations which had raised to 9 @,@ 000 by 1895 . At a meeting of the North Wales Liberal Foundation in 1895 it was decided that Women 's Liberal Federation would merge with Cymru Fydd , a political pressure group for home rule , to form a new Welsh Liberal Federation and equal rights for women were written into the objects of the organisation . Despite some early successes Liberal organisation floundered as they headed into the new century and apart from the Cardiff branch which achieved some successes , many of the branches had closed by 1907 .
= = = Pressure groups = = =
1897 saw the foundation of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies ( NUWSS ) under the leadership of Millicent Fawcett . This was a non @-@ political organisation which was formed out of the seventeen strongest societies throughout England . It took until 1907 before the first branch of the NUWSS was formed in Wales . This occurred during a meeting at the Llandudno Cocoa House which saw Mrs. Walton @-@ Evans become the president of the local cell . Other branches soon began forming across Wales , with the creation of the Cardiff and District branch in 1908 followed by Rhyl , Conwy and Bangor in 1909 .
The more militant arm of the suffrage movement , the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) , was not strong in Wales . In 1913 it had five branches in Wales compared to 26 for the NUWSS . That said the WSPU had been active in promoting itself in Wales long before this with Emmeline Pankhurst and Mary Gawthorpe holding meetings throughout Wales in 1906 . In 1908 both the WSPU and the NUWSS were active in Pembrokeshire to campaign at a by @-@ election . Their slogan of ' Keep the Liberals Out ' , would not have resonated with the Welsh voters , as in the election of 1906 not a single Tory had won a seat in Wales . Nonetheless , their main political target was Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith who was vehemently opposed to the enfranchisement of women .
= = = David Lloyd George and the suffrage movement , 1907 – 1912 = = =
Attitudes towards the suffragette movement as a whole were badly affected by militant actions led mostly by members of the WSPU . In July 1908 the Women 's National Anti @-@ Suffrage League ( WNASL ) was inaugurated , with Welsh MP Ivor Guest severing as treasurer . The initial involvement of Ermine Taylor led to a branch of the WNASL being formed in Denbigshire the following year . Undeterred the pro @-@ suffrage groups continued to take direct action . In Bristol in 1908 , Winston Churchill had been threatened by WSPU members , and the widespread anger after the event led to a Cardiff meeting led by Charlotte Despard being abandoned . In Merthyr the speakers were drowned out and herrings and tomatoes thrown at them . Despite being a ' favoured son of Wales ' and outwardly pro @-@ women 's suffrage , Liberal MP , and from 1908 , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , David Lloyd George was often a target of suffragette activity . Although Lloyd George always stated his support to the suffrage movement in public speeches , the failure of the Liberal Government to make any progress on implementing change led Christabel Pankhurst to believe him to be a secret anti @-@ suffragist . Pankhurst was quoted in the Times in November 1911 declaring " ' Lloyd Georgitis ' seemed to be a disease which afflicted men to @-@ day with very few exceptions . But women saw through him . They had always known him as an anti @-@ suffragist , and they must fight him here and now . " Pankhurst 's assumptions had a basis of truth , as a month before Lloyd George had written to the Liberal Party chief whip bemoaning the fact that the forthcoming Conciliation Bill would hand hundreds of thousands of votes to the Tory party .
The year 1912 saw a marked increase in militant action in Wales . Anger at the defeat of the Conciliation Bills saw the WPSU disrupt a speech by Lloyd George at the Pavilion in Caernarfon . The protesters , male and female , were treated harshly with clothes torn and hair ripped out and were beaten by sticks and umbrellas . Later that year Lloyd George was again heckled by suffragettes whilst delivering a speech at the National Eisteddfod . Just two weeks later one of the most notorious events in the history of suffrage in Wales took place , when Lloyd George returned to his home town of Llanystumdwy to open the village hall . No sooner had he started speaking than he was interrupted by the cries of ' Votes for Women ! ' The hecklers were violently assaulted by the crowd . One was stripped to the waist before being rescued and another was almost thrown off a bridge to be dashed on the rocks of the River Dwyfor below . As trouble was anticipated the national press was present and the Daily Mirror and Illustrated London News devoted a full page of photographs to the incident . The local press not only attacked the suffragettes , but poured scorn on the crowd for tarnishing the image of a peaceful , Nonconformist , chapel @-@ going Wales . The event is seen as the most dramatic event in the history of Women 's suffrage in Wales .
= = = March to Victory , 1912 – 1918 = = =
As the 1910s unfolded , attitudes hardened on both sides of the emancipation issue . In 1912 the anti @-@ suffrage WNASL was amalgamated into the newly formed National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage ( NLOWS ) , and that year a branch of the NLOWS was established in Bangor . Of the 286 branches of the organisation , 19 were eventually formed in Wales . Two of the most prolific supporters of the NLOWS in Wales were both Members of Parliament ; Ivor Guest ( Cardiff ) and J. D. Rees ( Montgomery ) .
In the years leading up to the outbreak of the First World War the NUWSS spent its time in north Wales organising educational and propaganda campaigns . In south Wales friction was caused by a shift in political views pushed onto the country from the central office . 1912 saw the NUWSS switch its policy as a non @-@ party organisation to set up the Election Fighting Fund ( EFF ) to support the newly burgeoning Labour Party . Wales had traditionally been a Liberal heartland and the South Wales Federation of Women ’ s Suffrage Societies was opposed to this new policy . There was a sense that there was a disjoint between the central ' English feminist agenda ' pushed by the militant headquarters and the needs of Welsh social , cultural and political views . The strains existed between the two organisation until the EFF was abandoned in 1914 .
In 1913 a Suffrage Pilgrimage was organised , to end with a rally in Hyde Park , London on 26 July . It was an attempt to remind the public of the larger constitutional and non @-@ militant wing of the movement , and routes were planned from 17 British towns and cities , including Wales . Twenty @-@ eight members from Welsh NUWSS branches left from Bangor on 2 July travelling through Wales where they were met with both support and hostility . A further branch left Cardiff on 7 July .
1913 also saw a continuation of more hard @-@ line methods , with the WPSU firebombing a house which was being built for Lloyd George . Between April and September 1913 , hoax bombs were set at both Cardiff and Abergavenny , and at Llantarnam , telegraph wires were cut . This period also saw the actions of one of Wales ' most notable suffragettes , Margaret Haig Mackworth , daughter of MP D. A. Thomas and his activist wife Sybil Thomas . Mackworth had been recruited into the WPSU in 1908 and had been a vocal and active member from that date , later founding the Newport branch of the organisation . In 1913 she was convicted of setting fire to a post box and after refusing to pay the fine was sent to prison at Usk . While imprisoned Mackworth went on hunger strike , but was released under the ' Cat and Mouse Act ' .
By 1914 the non @-@ militant elements of the suffrage movement had built up a steady presence and , although damaged by the bad press violent action brought , they also gained from the publicity . A summer school had been set up by the NUWSS in the Conwy Valley the previous year and now their members were benefitting from the training in public speaking that was given . In south Wales signs of working @-@ class involvement in the suffrage cause took shape through the Women 's Co @-@ operative Guild , with a branch opening in Ton Pentre in the Rhondda in 1914 run by Elizabeth Andrews .
With the outbreak of the First World War , all WSPU activity came to a halt and the NUWSS turned much of their focus to relief work . The WPSU , reformed as the Women 's Party from 1917 , sent members across Wales , no longer to rally for suffrage but to encourage male volunteers to join the British Army . In 1915 Flora Drummond attended a rally in Merthyr to demand that men leave occupations that women could undertake , and to stop ' hiding behind the petticoats ' . Women in Wales took up employment en masse , especially in newly opened munitions factories , and in 1918 the Newport Shell Factory had a female workforce of 83 per cent while the Queensferry factory was 70 per cent .
The militant suffragettes , who were at one point public enemies , were now seen as fierce nationalist and patriots . Old foes became allies and vice @-@ versa . Lloyd George was now referred to as ' that great Welshman ' while Labours ' Kier Hardie , the WSPU 's staunchest defender before the war , was lambasted for his pacifist stance . There were still those in the suffragette movement who wished to keep pushing the agenda of emancipation . Some members of the WSPU broke away to form the Suffragettes of the WSPU ( SWSPU ) , amongst their members were Conway @-@ born Helena Jones , who continued to campaign for women 's votes and was a columnist in the Suffragists News Sheet .
The Representation of the People Act was passed in 1918 which gave women over the age of 30 , who met a property qualification , the right to vote . Several factors led to the passing of the Act , including the efforts of working women , the dilution of anti @-@ suffrage rhetoric and political change in London , where Asquith had been replaced as Prime Minister by Lloyd George . The government believed that six million voters would be added by the 1918 Act , in Wales the electorate rose from 430 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 172 @,@ 000 .
= = = Legacy - After the Peoples Act 1918 = = =
During the First World War , relief work helped keep the women 's societies in Wales active , though membership numbers began to fall . After the People 's act of 1918 , many of the regional branches began to wither . The Llangollen WSS resolved to disband in December 1918 , handing their marching banner to the National Council , believing their work was done . While others , such as the Newport branch , revised their aims to form a Women 's Citizen Association taking an active interest in welfare and social issues . Other branches continued the political vision of equal suffrage , notably Bangor , while the Cardiff WSS busied itself by attempting to secure the election of women to local government posts . The fact that the terms of enfranchisement were not equal to men ensured that the surviving suffragist societies still had a focus , and the first point of order was the bill to admit women as MPs . This was passed in October 1918 and seventeen women stood at the 1918 General Election . There was one female candidacy in Wales , Millicent Mackenzie , a former professor of education from the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire , who unsuccessfully contested the newly formed University of Wales seat . It took until 1929 for Wales to return its first female MP , Megan Lloyd George , the youngest daughter of the former Prime Minister .
In 1921 Margaret Mackworth , now the second Viscountess Rhondda , launched the Six Point Group , an action group that focused heavily on the equality between men and women and the rights of the child . Mackworth continued to strive towards equality for women and emerged as one of the leading feminist campaigners in Britain during the inter @-@ war period . She established a number of women 's organisations , pressure groups and launched the influential feminist journal Time and Tide . She also made an unsuccessful bid to gain entry into the House of Lords , fighting against a 1922 ruling that barred the admission of women .
Equal franchise was eventually won with the passing of the Representation of the People Act 1928 . This was not achieved through a matter of course , but through a constant campaign of organised pressure . The NUWSS reorganised into the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship ( NUSEC ) , taking on a broader range of issues to secure more widespread support . The Women 's Freedom League ( WFL ) , which was formed in 1907 out of schism caused by Emmeline Pankhurst 's desire for a more authoritarian style of leadership within the WSPU , was a vocal advocate of equal rights throughout the 1920s . In 1919 there were four WFL branches in Wales , and , although the Aberdovey and Cardiff branches had disbanded by 1921 , both Montgomery Boroughs and Swansea remained staunchly active throughout the decade .
= = Suffragists vs. Militancy = =
The women 's suffrage movement in Wales has historically been held in poor regard with little research undertaken before the end of the twentieth century . Initial impressions of women 's voting rights in the country can appear to suggest apathy or even hostility towards suffrage , but historians such as Kay Cook and Neil Evans writing in 1991 , and built upon by Dr. Kirsti Bohata , argue specific cultural environments led to a more cautious and considered political ideology . The type of militancy advocated by Emmeline Pankhurst 's Women 's Social and Political Union appears to have been rejected by the majority of Welsh suffrage campaigners , especially in the north of Wales , but Cook claims that the origin of this lies in the 1847 governmental " Reports of the commissioners of enquiry into the state of education in Wales " , commonly known as the Treachery of the Blue Books .
In 1846 , after a Parliamentary speech by radical MP William Williams , concerns were raised regarding the level of education in Wales . This resulted in an enquiry carried out by three English commissioners appointed by the Privy Council , none of whom had any knowledge of the Welsh language , Nonconformity or elementary education . The findings of the report were immensely detailed and were damning towards not only the state of education in Wales but drew a very critical picture of the Welsh as a people , labelling them as immoral and backwards . Within its pages Welsh women were labelled as licentious and " cut off from civilising influences by the impenetrable Welsh language " . The report drew questions over the chastity of the poor and was just as damning to the wealthier women of the country ; claiming that English farmers ’ daughters were respectable ; while their Welsh counterparts Wales were in the " constant habit of being courted in bed " . The result of the report led to a concerted effort to ensure that Welsh women would in future be above rebuke , and several Welsh periodicals were launched in the decades following aimed at improving housekeeping and to improve the morality of the Welsh readership .
One of the first periodicals to launch after the publication , and in direct response to , the ' Blue Books ' was Y Gymraes ( The Welshwoman ) . Its editor Evan Jones ( 1820 @-@ 1852 ) known by his bardic name of " Ieaun Gwynedd " was seen as a champion of Welsh women following his detailed defence of their morality following the controversy surrounding the Report . Y Gymraes , launched in January 1850 , set out to create the ' perfect ' Welshwoman , a virtue of morality , sobriety and thrift , a beacon that would see the Welsh nation above all future criticism . As early as the autumn of 1851 , with the health of its editor failing , Y Gymraes was merged with the monthly penny periodical Y Tywysydd ( The Guide ) , and became Y Tywysydd a 'r Gymraes in early 1852 . Despite its title the majority of the contributors were men , and the publication continued to emphasise the importance of high moral standards rather than give practical advice . Although the publication continued into the 1880s , it eventually made way for Y Frythones ( The Female Briton ) under the editorship of Sarah Jane Rees . Although these periodicals had their roots in the temperance movement , and many of the articles within their pages were frivolous , by the 1880s they began broaching the topic of female emancipation .
Jane Aaron in 1994 described how the desire for Welsh womanhood to be seen as respectable in the eyes of its " colonial " neighbour endured even when their English counterparts had decided to take up an aggressive or ' unwomanly ' mantle to achieve their goals of female emancipation . Bohata builds on this hypothesis stating that the " idealised Welsh woman , inspired by England ’ s middle @-@ class angel of the house , would represent Welsh respectability long after English women had abandoned their haloes in favour of bicycles . "
= = How Welsh was Welsh Suffrage = =
An argument exists that the women 's suffrage movement in Wales was not truly ' Welsh ' , based on the fact that it was organised and orchestrated by an Anglicised , English @-@ speaking , middle @-@ class movement that had little bearing on the true voice of the country . As it has been shown , the first people to embrace the suffrage movement were English @-@ born and wealthy . Rose Mary Crawshay , was born in Berkshire before moving to Wales after her marriage ; Millicent Mackenzie was born in Bristol and University educated . In addition , the societies that sprang up in the wealthier coastal towns of the north and south were run by middle @-@ class women , normally of English background with little or no understanding of the Welsh language . Ceridwen Lloyd @-@ Morgan , writing in 2000 , linked support for women 's suffrage from an earlier campaigning group , the temperance movement , and although the temperance movement reached out through Welsh @-@ language periodicals such as Y Frythones and Y Gymraes , she too concluded that the cross @-@ over was " dominated by immigrant middle @-@ class women " .
Cook and Evans argue that , despite suffrage in Wales being introduced by a new generation of immigrant middle @-@ class women , there was still a definite ' Welshness ' to the ideology fostered by the nation , which was at loggerheads with their English counterparts . Wales had shown an independent resistance to the EFF and David Lloyd George was still a national institution , despite his prominent role in the government making him an obvious target for disruption . In 1911 , after the Women 's Coronation Procession , Edith Mansell Moullin formed the Cymric Suffrage Union , a Welsh society based in London . It attempted to link women 's suffrage with Wales and Welshness , and sought to unite both Welsh men and women living in the capital to their cause . They distributed hand @-@ bills written in Welsh to the Welsh chapels in London and translated pamphlets of the Conciliation Bill . The Union also expressed their nationality through dressing in traditional Welsh costume during parades and unlike many unions in Wales actually addressed their membership in Welsh as well as the English language at meetings . In 1912 after Lloyd George scuppered the third Conciliation Bill , Mansell Moullin quit the organisation and formed the Forward Cymric Suffrage Union , which had a more militant policy . Members wore red dragon badges with the motto ' O Iesu , n 'ad Gamwaith ' ( ' Oh Jesus do not allow unfairness ' ) .
Although the suffrage movement in Wales attempted to show a level of independence , it was always following rather than leading a national agenda . It depended deeply in its embryonic years on celebrated suffragists from outside its borders to bring crowds to town meetings , but still relied on a network of now forgotten non @-@ militant supporters who organised and campaigned on the ground level . And , although failing to significantly draw a rural Welsh @-@ speaking heartland to its cause , it still embraced a national sense of pride and values that contrasted to their neighbours in England .
= = Welsh suffragists = =
Due to her family connections and high @-@ profile militant action , Margaret Mackworth , the 2nd Viscountess Rhondda , is probably the most well @-@ known Welsh suffragette . Her mother Sybil Thomas and Merthyr Ironmaster 's wife , Rose Mary Crawshay , were both well connected suffragists whose work is well documented . Millicent Mackenzie and to a lesser extent Amy Dillwyn are remembered more for connections outside the sphere of women 's suffrage , but were both important Welsh activists for the cause . The majority of suffragists either working in Wales or Welsh suffragists who were active outside the country are many but poorly documented . Alice Abadam , a renowned speaker and activist , was the daughter of the High Sherriff of Carmarthenshire . She later became the chairperson of the Federated Council of Suffrage Movements . Rachel Barrett , a science teacher from south Wales , rose to prominence within the WSPU and was chosen by Annie Kenney to assist in running the WSPU national campaign from 1912 . She was also assistant editor of The Suffragette .
Trade unionists Vernon Hartshorn and George Barker were vocal supporters of the suffrage movement , while James Grant a socialist propagandist and keen seller of the The Suffragette was imprisoned for five days after being arrested for obstruction while lecturing in Treorchy Square . Mary Keating Hill , a forty @-@ year old wife of a Cardiff insurance manager , spent three weeks in jail for resisting the police and disorderly conduct . She had been given a similar conviction days prior but her brother paid the fine ; but she was determined to be imprisoned . On 21 November 1911 , after the failure of the Conciliation Bill , anger spilled over into direct action and 223 suffragettes were arrested during a campaign of window smashing . Among the arrests were seven women with Welsh connections , including Edith Mansell Moullin , Mildred Mansell , the sister of Ivor Guest , MP , and Janet Boyd , sister of Sybil Thomas .
In the period between 1918 and 1928 , the WFL in Swansea produced two prominent activists in Emily Frost Phipps and her close friend Clara Neal , who were founder members of their branch . Phipps and Neal were teachers and activists , both serving as president of the National Union of Women Teachers and used that platform to press for equal franchise . Phipps also used her position as editor of the Woman Teacher to urge her colleagues to support public meetings and demonstrations .
= = Timeline = =
1832 : Great Reform Act – confirmed the exclusion of women from the electorate .
1866 : Wales first women 's Suffrage Petition is signed , among its signatories is Mary Rose Crawshay .
1884 : The Aberdare , Merthyr and Dowlais District Mine Association pass a resolution to support a series of talks by Jeanette Wilkinson on women 's suffrage .
1895 : The Women 's Liberal Federation merges with Cymru Fydd .
1907 : The first branch of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies in Wales opens in Llandudno .
1908 : The Cardiff and District Women 's Suffrage Society is established , the first in south Wales .
1911 : At Llanystumdwy , during the opening of the new town hall , David Lloyd George is heckled by suffragettes who are turned upon by an angry crowd . It is seen as one of the most dramatic suffrage events in Wales .
1911 : The Cymric Suffrage Union is formed in London .
1913 , February : A house being built for David Lloyd George is burned down by members of the WSPU .
1913 , July : Women from NWUSS branches across Wales take part in the Suffragist Pilgrimage , ending in London .
1914 , August : World War declared in Britain . WSPU activity immediately ceased . NUWSS activity continued peacefully .
1916 , December : David Lloyd George replaces Asquith as Prime Minister .
1918 : The Representation of the People Act of 1918 enfranchised women over the age of 30 who were either a member or married to a member of the Local Government Register . About 8 @.@ 4 million women gained the vote .
1918 , November : the Eligibility of Women Act was passed , allowing women to be elected into Parliament .
1921 : Margaret Mackworth , the 2nd Viscountess Rhondda , forms the Six Point Group .
1928 : Women received the vote on the same terms as men ( over the age of 21 ) as a result of the Representation of the People Act 1928 .
= Rachel Berry =
Rachel Barbra Berry is a fictional character and de facto female lead from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Lea Michele , and has appeared in Glee from its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . Rachel was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . She is the glee club star of the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio , where the show is set . Her storylines have seen her suffer peer alienation due to her Broadway ambitions , and develop romantic feelings for Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , a member of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline , but primarily for quarterback and glee club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) , to whom she eventually becomes engaged .
Michele bases Rachel on herself when she was younger , and also draws inspiration for the character variously from films including Election , and television portrayals such as the Gossip Girl character Blair Waldorf . " Rachel will never be popular because her looks aren 't considered beautiful , " said Michele , " and when I was in high school it was the same for me . I didn 't get a nose job , and every single girl around me did . Therefore , I was out . What 's so great about Glee is that it shows you how that kind of stuff hurts , but it doesn 't matter : You can still be who you want to be . "
Rachel is a " strong , driven girl " but somewhat neurotic , and Glee follows Rachel 's journey to become more of a team player as well as fulfil her own aspirations . Michele was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 2010 , and for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy in 2010 and 2011 for her performance in the role . Rachel has received mostly positive reviews from critics : Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune praised Michele for making the character " more than a humorless stereotype " , though The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez has described Rachel as " insufferable " . Several songs performed by Michele as Rachel have been released as singles , available for digital download , and also feature on the show 's soundtrack albums .
Rachel is the most frequently seen character on the series , with " The Role You Were Born to Play , " " Dynamic Duets " and " Shooting Star " ( all in season 4 ) being the only episodes where she does not appear .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Rachel is the daughter of an interracial same @-@ sex couple , and is Jewish . Her fathers named her after Rachel Green from Friends . She joins the newly reconstituted glee club hoping that fame will increase her popularity and help her find a boyfriend . She is bullied by members of the school cheerleading and football teams , but is pleased when quarterback Finn Hudson joins the club , developing a crush on him . The two share a kiss in the episode " Showmance " , although he tells her to forget that it happened and continues dating his girlfriend , cheerleader Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) . Rachel quits the glee club when she is not assigned a solo she wanted , and is awarded the lead role in the school musical , Cabaret . However , she later quits the musical and rejoins the glee club when she realizes that she would rather be in a group in which she has friends . She has a brief relationship with another glee club member , Puck ( Mark Salling ) , who is also Jewish , and is a football player who used to bully her , but she breaks up with him due to her continuing feelings for Finn . She later discovers and reveals to Finn that Quinn 's pregnancy was not caused by him , but that Puck is the father ; furious , Finn attacks Puck , breaks up with Quinn , and drops out of New Directions . He returns the day of the group 's first major competition , the Sectionals , to undo sabotage by cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) ; the group makes up a completely new set list , which Rachel opens with a solo of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , and New Directions wins by unanimous decision .
For a short time Rachel believes that she is dating Finn , but he tells her that he needs to take time out for himself . He changes his mind soon after , but Rachel has already begun dating Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , the lead singer of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline . The rest of the glee club presses Rachel to break off with Jesse , but he transfers to William McKinley and joins New Directions , which defuses their concerns . She tells Jesse that her dream is to find her birth mother , and he offers to help her do so . However , he already knows who it is : Vocal Adrenaline coach Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , who has asked Jesse to befriend Rachel so that she might reconnect with her daughter , whom she is not allowed to contact directly until Rachel is eighteen . When Rachel discovers that Shelby is her mother , they both confess to not feeling an immediate attachment and eventually decide not to pursue a relationship . Jesse betrays Rachel and returns to Vocal Adrenaline , leaving her devastated . In the episode " Journey to Regionals " , as he and Rachel are about to go onstage at Regionals , Finn tells her that he loves her ; although they lose the competition to Vocal Adrenaline , they become a couple .
= = = Season 2 = = =
When the glee club needs to recruit new members to get back up to the minimum twelve required for competitions , Rachel initially encourages transfer student Sunshine Corazon ( Charice ) to try out , but when she realizes just how good Sunshine is , she sabotages the audition , directing her to an inactive crack house instead of the true location ; Sunshine ends up transferring to Carmel High and joining Vocal Adrenaline . Though this and Finn 's temporary ouster from the football team test their relationship , it remains quite strong through the beginning of season two ; the two work together to throw the glee club 's duets competition so newcomer Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) wins instead . Rachel eventually discovers that Finn slept with cheerleader Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) the previous year while Rachel was dating Jesse , and lied about it , though Rachel herself had lied and said she had slept with Jesse when she hadn 't ; hurt , she makes out with Puck to hurt Finn back ; this betrayal causes Finn to break up with her . Rachel tries to win him back , but he instead rekindles his feelings for Quinn and starts dating her . Wounded by Quinn telling her that the two of them are back together , Rachel writes an original song for Regionals , " Get It Right " , and when New Directions wins , is named the club 's competition MVP .
Just before junior prom , Jesse returns , having flunked out of UCLA , and Rachel invites him to the prom with her , Sam and Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) . Jesse and Finn are kicked out of the prom when Finn picks a fight with Jesse over his attentions to Rachel on the dance floor , which effectively ends Finn and Quinn 's campaign for prom king and queen . Finn ultimately breaks up with Quinn when he realizes he has a deeper connection with Rachel , despite the fact that she and Jesse seem to be a couple again . At Nationals , as the New Directions are about to go on stage , Finn begs Rachel to get back together with him , but though she professes her love , she refuses , still torn between her love for New York and Broadway and her love for him . At the end of their duet — " Pretending " , written by Finn — an enthusiastic audience falls silent when Rachel and Finn share an overlong , unscripted kiss ; the glee club comes in twelfth . Back in Ohio , Finn reminds Rachel that she has a year until graduation and any move to New York ; he kisses her , and their relationship resumes .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Rachel , along with Kurt , plans to attend a performing arts school in New York City after graduation . School counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) suggests they consider The New York Academy of Dramatic Arts ( NYADA ) , a highly desirable school . The two attend an Ohio " mixer " for potential applicants , only to discover that their competition is very much like them , and quite talented . Rachel proposes that McKinley do West Side Story as the school musical , since she believes herself to be a shoo @-@ in for the lead role , Maria , and she needs the experience for her NYADA application . However , Mercedes also auditions for Maria , and the directors , unable to decide between the two of them even after head @-@ to @-@ head callbacks , decide to double @-@ cast the role , giving Rachel and Mercedes each a week of the two @-@ week run . Mercedes , believing she did better in the callbacks , refuses to accept the double @-@ casting and withdraws from the show , leaving Rachel to be Maria . She and Finn decide to have sex in the episode " The First Time " . In the episode " Mash Off " , Rachel abruptly withdraws from the race for senior class president in favor of Kurt after she realizes he might not get into NYADA with her if he doesn 't win . She goes even further in the next episode , " I Kissed a Girl " , when she stuffs an election ballot box in Kurt 's favor to keep him from losing . He loses anyway , and she confesses : she is suspended from school for a week and forbidden to compete in Sectionals with New Directions , though the glee club wins without her . At the end of the episode " Yes / No " , Finn asks her to marry him , and after hesitating for several days , she accepts . Their parents find out in " Heart " , and hope to discourage the pair , but their plans backfire and the wedding date is moved up to May . Even that date seems too distant , so Rachel and Finn later decide to marry after Regionals in " On My Way " .
New Directions wins at Regionals , and hours later the ceremony is about to begin at City Hall , with their parents still hoping to prevent it from occurring . Rachel is waiting for Quinn , who had gone home to get her bridesmaid dress , to arrive . Quinn 's car is hit by a truck as the episode ends . The wedding is called off , though the engagement remains on . In the episode " Choke " , Rachel auditions for NYADA in front of formidable judge Carmen Tibideaux ( Whoopi Goldberg ) but forgets the words to a song she has known since she was a child , and the audition abruptly ends . In " Prom @-@ asaurus " Rachel is still upset about her choke and organises an " anti @-@ prom " with Kurt , Blaine , Becky and Puck . She later realizes she is missing one of the best nights of her life and attends the prom with Finn and is voted Prom Queen by secret ballot ( altered by Quinn ) , in a similar situation to Kurt the previous year . Rachel doesn 't give up on her dream and sends Carmen Tibideaux fourteen messages and pesters her to give Rachel another chance at the audition , even driving to one of Tibideaux 's tryouts with Tina . Her persistence ( and Tina 's help ) persuade Ms. Tibideaux to come and see Rachel perform with New Directions at Nationals in Chicago ( unbeknownst to Rachel ) . In " Nationals " Rachel performs Celine Dion 's " It 's All Coming Back To Me Now " and gets a standing ovation from the observing Carmen Tibideaux . New Directions return to McKinley as National Show Choir Champions and Rachel presents Mr. Schuester with the Teacher of the Year award . After Rachel graduates from McKinley , she finds out that she was accepted into NYADA . However , both Finn and Kurt were rejected from their colleges . At first , she decides to defer her acceptance so that she can help them both . However , Finn takes Rachel to the train station and sacrifices their relationship for Rachel 's dreams . She gets off at Grand Central and walks down the streets of New York .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the season premiere " The New Rachel " , Rachel is struggling to accept her separation from Finn . She meets Brody Weston ( Dean Geyer ) , a handsome NYADA junior , who encourages Rachel to move on and embrace college life . Rachel also deals with her overpowering dance instructor Cassandra July ( Kate Hudson ) , who believes that she does not have what it takes to become a star . After Kurt comes to New York , the two decide to move into together while Kurt pursues an internship with Vogue.com and plans to reapply to NYADA for the second semester . In the episode " Makeover " , Rachel gets picked on by a group of female dancers for her childish appearance . With the help of Kurt and his new boss Isabelle Wright ( Sarah Jessica Parker ) , she is convinced to get a makeover . Her new look is met with positive reception from others , including Brody , and she invites him over to dinner . Right after their first kiss , Rachel discover Finn on her doorstep . While visiting , Rachel learns that Finn was medically discharged from the army several weeks ago , and that he no longer wants to live in New York after seeing how happy she was without him . Finn takes off and goes back to Lima where Rachel confronts him , and says that even though she loves him , she can no longer stay in their relationship . She and Brody begin to see each other , and she lets him move in so that they can be closer . When she returns for Will and Emma 's wedding , she and Finn reconnect as friends . When Finn asks about Brody , she says that they are not exclusive . Finn says that the reason she has not committed to Brody is because she still thinks they will end up together . They sleep together after the reception , but Rachel leaves after Finn falls asleep . She is later shown taking a pregnancy test ; Santana , who has recently moved in , snoops and discovers the discarded test , and confronts Rachel , who then bursts into tears . The two go together to get Rachel checked at a clinic , where she is informed that it was a false alarm . She later breaks up with Brody after Santana reveals that he is a male escort and is stunned to find out Finn flew to New York just to beat him up . When Rachel breaks up with Brody , she admits that the relationship never would have worked because she was using it to try to get over her heartache about Finn . Rachel auditions for Funny Girl and sings " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , imagining the original New Directions members singing in the background . She is called back for further auditions for the title role , Fanny Brice . In the finale , Rachel sings " To Love You More " at the final callback before the role is cast .
= = = Season 5 = = =
In " The Quarterback " , Rachel is devastated with the loss of Finn . Michele , who in real life was dating Cory Monteith , had asked to postpone this episode until everyone was ready . Rachel doesn 't appear in this episode until the very end where she states " Before Finn , I used to sing alone , this was one of the songs we would sing when we drove around together . " She sings " Make You Feel My Love " . Later in the episode , she states that Finn was her person and that they were always going to be together . Later in the season , it is revealed that she got a tattoo of Finn 's name ( despite telling Kurt that she chickened out when they went to
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— " the right to petition for redress of grievance , the maintenance and protection of equal civil rights , and the inalienable right to liberty of conscience " .
= = = Informative texts = = =
After 1770 , Johnson began to publish a wider array of books , particularly scientific and medical texts . One of the most important was John Hunter 's A Natural History of the Human Teeth , Part I ( 1771 ) , which " elevated dentistry to the level of surgery " . Johnson also supported doctors when they questioned the efficacy of cures , such as with John Millar in his Observations on Antimony ( 1774 ) , which claimed that Dr James 's Fever Powder was ineffective . This was a risky publication for Johnson , because this patent medicine was quite popular and his fellow bookseller John Newbery had made his fortune from selling it .
In 1777 Johnson published the remarkable Laws Respecting Women , as they Regard Their Natural Rights , which is an explication , for the layperson , of exactly what its title suggests . As Tyson comments , " the ultimate value of this book lies in its arming women with the knowledge of their legal rights in situations where they had traditionally been vulnerable because of ignorance " . Johnson published Laws Respecting Women anonymously , but it is sometimes credited to Elizabeth Chudleigh Bristol , known for her bigamous marriage to the 2nd Duke of Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Hull after having previously privately married Augustus John Hervey , afterwards 3rd Earl of Bristol . This publication foreshadowed Johnson 's efforts to promote works about women 's issues — such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) — and his support of women writers .
= = = = Revolution in children 's literature = = = =
Johnson also contributed significantly to children 's literature . His publication of Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) spawned a revolution in the newly emerging genre . Its plain style , mother @-@ child dialogues , and conversational tone inspired a generation of authors , such as Sarah Trimmer . Johnson encouraged other women to write in this genre , such as Charlotte Smith , but his recommendation always came with a caveat of how difficult it was to write well for children . For example , he wrote to Smith , " perhaps you cannot employ your time and extraordinary talents more usefully for the public & your self [ sic ] , than in composing books for children and young people , but I am very sensible it is extreamly [ sic ] difficult to acquire that simplicity of style which is their great recommendation " . He also advised William Godwin and his second wife , Mary Jane Clairmont , on the publication of their Juvenile Library ( started in 1805 ) . Not only did Johnson encourage the writing of British children 's literature , but he also helped sponsor the translation and publication of popular French works such as Arnaud Berquin 's L 'Ami des Enfans ( 1782 – 83 ) .
In addition to books for children , Johnson published schoolbooks and textbooks for autodidacts , such as John Hewlett 's Introduction to Spelling and Reading ( 1786 ) , William Nicholson 's Introduction to Natural Philosophy ( 1782 ) , and his friend John Bonnycastle 's An Introduction to Mensuration and Practical Mathematics ( 1782 ) . Johnson also published books on education and childrearing , such as Wollstonecraft 's first book , Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) .
By the end of the 1770s , Johnson had become an established publisher . Writers — particularly Dissenters — sought him out , and his home started to become the centre of a radical and stimulating intellectual milieu . Because he was willing to publish multiple opinions on issues , he was respected as a publisher by writers from across the political spectrum . Johnson published many Unitarian works , but he also issued works criticizing them ; although he was an abolitionist , he also published works arguing in favour of the slave trade ; he supported inoculation , but he also published works critical of the practice .
= = 1780s : Success = =
During the 1780s , Johnson achieved success : he did well financially and his firm published more books with other firms . Although Johnson had begun his career as a relatively cautious publisher of religious and scientific tracts , he was now able to take more risks and he encouraged friends to recommend works to him , creating a network of informal reviewers . Yet Johnson 's business was never large ; he usually had only one assistant and never took on an apprentice . Only in the last years of his life did two relatives assist him .
= = = Literature = = =
Once Johnson 's financial situation had become secure , he began to publish literary authors , most famously the poet William Cowper . Johnson issued Cowper 's Poems ( 1782 ) and The Task ( 1784 ) at his own expense ( a generous action at a time when authors were often forced to take on the risk of publication ) , and was rewarded with handsome sales of both volumes . Johnson published many of Cowper 's works , including the anonymous satire Anti @-@ thelyphora ( 1780 ) , which mocked the work of Cowper 's own cousin , the Rev. Martin Madan , who had advocated polygamy as a solution for prostitution . Johnson even edited and critiqued Cowper 's poetry in manuscript , " much to the advantage of the poems " according to Cowper . In 1791 , Johnson published Cowper 's translations of the Homeric epics ( extensively edited and corrected by Fuseli ) and three years after Cowper 's death in 1800 , Johnson published a biography of the poet by William Hayley .
Johnson never published much " creative literature " ; Chard attributes this to " a lingering Calvinistic hostility to ' imaginative ' literature " . Most of the literary works Johnson published were religious or didactic . Some of his most popular productions in this vein were anthologies ; the most famous is probably William Enfield 's The Speaker ( 1774 ) , which went through multiple editions and spawned many imitations , such as Wollstonecraft 's The Female Speaker .
= = = Medical and scientific publications = = =
Johnson continued his interest in publishing practical medical texts in the 1780s and 1790s ; during the 1780s , he brought out some of his most significant works in this area . According to Johnson 's friend , the physician John Aikin , he intentionally established one of his first shops on " the track of the Medical Students resorting to the Hospitals in the Borough " , where they would be sure to see his wares , which helped to establish him in medical publishing . Johnson published the works of the scientist @-@ Dissenters he met through Priestley and Barbauld , such as Thomas Beddoes and Thomas Young . He issued the children 's book on birds produced by the industrialist Samuel Galton and the Lunar Society 's translation of Linnaeus 's System of Vegetables ( 1783 ) . He also published works by James Edward Smith , " the botanist who brought the Linnaean system to England " .
In 1784 , Johnson issued John Haygarth 's An Inquiry How to Prevent Small @-@ Pox , which furthered the understanding and treatment of smallpox . Johnson published several subsequent works by Haygarth that promoted inoculation ( and later vaccination ) for the healthy , as well as quarantining for the sick . He also published the work of James Earle , a prominent surgeon , whose significant book on lithotomy was illustrated by William Blake , and Matthew Baillie 's Morbid Anatomy ( 1793 ) , " the first text of pathology devoted to that science exclusively by systematic arrangement and design " .
Not only did Johnson publish the majority of Priestley 's theological works , but he also published his scientific works , such as Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air ( 1774 – 77 ) in which Priestley announced his discovery of oxygen . Johnson also published the works of Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier , both of whom made their own claims of having discovered oxygen . When Lavoisier began to publish works in France on the " new chemistry " that he had developed ( which included today 's modern notions of element and compound ) , Johnson had these translated and printed immediately , despite his association with Priestley who argued strenuously against Lavoisier 's new system . Johnson was the first to publish an English edition of Lavoisier 's early writings on chemistry and he kept up with the ongoing debate . These works did well for Johnson and increased his visibility among men of science .
= = = Johnson Circle and dinners = = =
With time , Johnson 's home became a nexus for radical thinkers , who appreciated his open @-@ mindedness , generous spirit , and humanitarianism . Although usually separated by geography , such thinkers would meet and debate with one another at Johnson 's house in London , often over dinner . This network not only brought authors into contact with each other , it also brought new writers to Johnson 's business . For example , Priestley introduced John Newton to Johnson , Newton brought John Hewlett , and Hewlett invited Mary Wollstonecraft , who in turn attracted Mary Hays who brought William Godwin . With this broad network of acquaintances and reputation for free @-@ thinking publications , Johnson became the favourite publisher of a generation of writers and thinkers . By bringing inventive , thoughtful people together , he " stood at the very heart of British intellectual life " for over twenty years . Importantly , Johnson 's circle was not made up entirely of either liberals or radicals . Chard emphasizes that it " was held together less by political liberalism than by a common interest in ideas , free enquiry , and creative expression in various fields " .
As Tyson notes , although " Johnson 's circle " is usually used in the singular , there were at least two such " circles " . The first was made up of a group of London associates : Fuseli , Gregory , Bonnycastle , and Geddes . The second consisted of Johnson 's writers from farther afield , such as Priestley , Thomas Henry , Thomas Percival , Barbauld , Aikin , and Enfield . Later , more radicals would join , including Wollstonecraft , Wakefield , John Horne Tooke , and Thomas Christie .
Johnson 's dinners became legendary and it appears , from evidence collected from diaries , that a large number of people attended each one . Although there were few regulars , except perhaps for Johnson 's close London friends ( Fuseli , Bonnycastle and , later , Godwin ) , the large number of luminaries , such as Thomas Paine , who attended attests to the reputation of these dinners . The enjoyment and intellectual stimulation that these dinners provided is evidenced by the numerous references to them in diaries and letters . Barbauld wrote to her brother in 1784 that " our evenings , particularly at Johnson 's , were so truly social and lively , that we protracted them sometimes till — but I am not telling tales . " At one dinner in 1791 , Godwin records that the conversation focused on " monarch , Tooke , [ Samuel ] Johnson , Voltaire , pursuits , and religion " [ emphasis Godwin 's ] . Although the conversation was stimulating , Johnson apparently only served his guests simple meals , such as boiled cod , veal , vegetables , and rice pudding . Many of the people that met at these dinners became fast friends , as did Fuseli and Bonnycastle ; Godwin and Wollstonecraft eventually married .
= = = Friendship with Mary Wollstonecraft = = =
The friendship between Johnson and Mary Wollstonecraft was pivotal in both of their lives , and illustrates the active role that Johnson played in developing writing talent . In 1787 , Wollstonecraft was in financial straits : she had just been dismissed from a governess position in Ireland and had moved back to London . She had resolved to be an author in an era that afforded few professional opportunities to women . After Unitarian schoolteacher John Hewlett suggested to Wollstonecraft that she submit her writings to Johnson , an enduring and mutually supportive relationship blossomed between Johnson and Wollstonecraft . He dealt with her creditors , secured lodgings for her , and advanced payment on her first book , Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) , and her first novel , Mary : A Fiction ( 1788 ) . Johnson included Wollstonecraft in the exalted company of his weekly soirées , where she met famous personages , such as Thomas Paine and her future husband , William Godwin . Wollstonecraft , who is believed to have written some 200 articles for his periodical , the Analytical Review , regarded Johnson as a true friend . After a disagreement , she sent him the following note the next morning :
You made me very low @-@ spirited last night , by your manner of talking — You are my only friend — the only person I am intimate with . — I never had a father , or a brother — you have been both to me , ever since I knew you — yet I have sometimes been very petulant . — I have been thinking of those instances of ill @-@ humour and quickness , and they appeared like crimes . Yours sincerely , Mary .
Johnson offered Wollstonecraft work as a translator , prompting her to learn French and German . More importantly , Johnson provided encouragement at crucial moments during the writing of her seminal political treatises A Vindication of the Rights of Men ( 1790 ) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) .
= = 1790s : Years of radicalism = =
As radicalism took hold in Britain in the 1790s , Johnson became increasingly involved in its causes : he was a member of the Society for Constitutional Information , which was attempting to reform Parliament ; he published works defending Dissenters after the religiously motivated Birmingham Riots in 1791 ; and he testified on behalf of those arrested during the 1794 Treason Trials . Johnson published works championing the rights of slaves , Jews , women , prisoners , Dissenters , chimney sweeps , abused animals , university students forbidden from marrying , victims of press gangs , and those unjustly accused of violating the game laws .
Political literature became Johnson 's mainstay in the 1790s : he published 118 works , which amounted to 57 % of his total political output . As Chard notes , " hardly a year went by without at least one anti @-@ war and one anti @-@ slave trade publication from Johnson " . In particular , Johnson published abolitionist works , such as minister and former slave @-@ ship captain John Newton 's Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade ( 1788 ) , Barbauld 's Epistle to William Wilberforce ( 1791 ) , and Captain John Gabriel Stedman 's Narrative , of a Five Years ' Expedition , Against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam ( 1796 ) ( with illustrations by Blake ) . Most importantly he helped organize the publication of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano ( 1789 ) , the autobiography of former slave Olaudah Equiano .
Later in the decade , Johnson focused on works about the French revolution , concentrating on those from France itself , but he also published commentary from America by Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe . Johnson 's determination to publish political and revolutionary works , however , fractured his Circles : Dissenters were alienated from Anglicans during efforts to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts and moderates split from radicals during the French revolution . Johnson lost customers , friends , and writers , including the children 's author Sarah Trimmer . Braithwaite speculates that Johnson also lost business due to his willingness to put out works that promoted the " challenging new historicist versions of the scriptures " , such as those by Alexander Geddes .
Scholars are , however , careful to note that except for Benjamin Franklin 's works and Joel Barlow 's pamphlets , Johnson did not print anything truly revolutionary . He refused to publish Paine 's Rights of Man and William Blake 's The French Revolution , for example . It is almost impossible to determine Johnson 's own personal political beliefs from the historical record . Marilyn Gaull argues that " if Johnson were radical , indeed if he had any political affiliation ... it was accidental " . Gaull describes Johnson 's " liberalism " as that " of [ a ] generous , open , fair @-@ minded , unbiased defender of causes lost and won " . His real contribution , she contends , was " as a disseminator of contemporary knowledge , especially science , medicine , and pedagogical practice " and as an advocate for a popular style . He encouraged all of his writers to use " plain syntax and colloquial diction " so that " self @-@ educated readers " could understand his publications . Johnson 's association with writers such as Godwin has previously been used to emphasize his radicalism , but Braithwaite points out that Godwin only became a part of Johnson 's Circle late in the 1790s ; Johnson 's closest friends — Priestley , Fuseli , and Bonnycastle — were much more politically moderate . Johnson was not a populist or democratic bookseller : he catered to the self @-@ educating middle class .
= = = Revolution controversy = = =
In 1790 , with the publication of his Reflections on the Revolution in France , philosopher and statesman Edmund Burke launched the first volley of a vicious pamphlet war in what became known as the Revolution Controversy . Because he had supported the American Revolution , friends and enemies alike expected him to support the French Revolution . His book , which decries the French Revolution , therefore came as a shock to nearly everyone . Priced at an expensive five shillings , it still sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies in a few weeks . Reformers , particularly Dissenters , felt compelled to reply . Johnson 's periodical , the Analytical Review , published a summary and review of Burke 's work within a couple of weeks of its publication . Two weeks later , Wollstonecraft responded to Burke with her Vindication of the Rights of Men . In issuing one of the first and cheapest replies to Burke ( Vindication cost only one shilling ) , Johnson put himself at some risk . Thomas Cooper , who had also written a response to Burke , was later informed by the Attorney General that " although there was no exception to be taken to his pamphlet when in the hands of the upper classes , yet the government would not allow it to appear at a price which would insure its circulation among the people " . Many others soon joined in the fray and Johnson remained at the centre of the maelstrom . By Braithwaite 's count , Johnson published or sold roughly a quarter of the works responding to Burke within the following year .
The most notable of all of these responses was Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man . Johnson originally agreed to publish the controversial work , but he backed out later for unknown reasons and J. S. Jordan distributed it ( and was subsequently tried and imprisoned for its publication ) . Braithwaite speculates that Johnson did not agree with Paine 's radical republican statements and was more interested in promoting the rights of Dissenters outlined in the other works he published . After the initial risk was taken by Jordan , however , Johnson published Paine 's work in an expensive edition , which was unlikely to be challenged at law . Yet , when Paine was himself later arrested , Johnson helped raise funds to bail him out and hid him from the authorities . A contemporary satire suggested that Johnson saved Paine from imprisonment :
The time may come when J — n 's aid may fail ;
Nor clubs combin 'd preserve thee from a jail .
Alarmed at the popular appeal of Paine 's Rights of Man , the king issued a proclamation against seditious writings in May 1792 . Booksellers and printers bore the brunt of this law , the effects of which came to a head in the 1794 Treason Trials . Johnson testified , publicly distancing himself from Paine and Barlow , despite the fact that the defendants were received sympathetically by the juries .
= = = Poetry = = =
During the 1790s alone , Johnson published 103 volumes of poetry — 37 % of his entire output in the genre . The bestselling poetical works of Cowper and Erasmus Darwin enriched Johnson 's firm . Darwin 's innovative The Botanic Garden ( 1791 ) was particularly successful : Johnson paid him 1 @,@ 000 guineas before it was ever released and bought the copyright from him for £ 800 , a staggeringly large sum . The poem contains three " interludes " in the form of dialogues between a poet and his bookseller . The bookseller asks the poet what Tyson calls " leading questions " in order to elucidate the poet 's theory of poetry . Tyson comments " that although the flat questions of the practical @-@ minded bookseller may be meant to parody Johnson 's manner , most likely Darwin did not have him or any other particular bookseller in mind " . After the success of The Botanic Garden , Johnson published Darwin 's work on evolution , Zoonomia ( 1794 – 96 ) ; his treatise A Plan on the Conduct of Female Education ( 1797 ) ; Phytologia ; or , the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening ( 1800 ) ; and his poem The Temple of Nature ( 1803 ) . According to Braithwaite , The Temple of Nature was Zoonomia in verse and " horrified reviewers with its warring , factious , overly materialistic view of the universe " .
Johnson continued to publish the poetic works of Aikin and Barbauld as well as those of George Dyer , Joseph Fawcett , James Hurdis , Joel Barlow , Ann Batten Cristall and Edward Williams . Most of the poets that Johnson promoted and published are not remembered today . However , in 1793 , Johnson published William Wordsworth 's An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches ; he remained Wordsworth 's publisher until a disagreement separated them in 1799 . Johnson also put out Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Fears of Solitude ( 1798 ) . They were apparently close enough friends for Coleridge to leave his books at Johnson 's shop when he toured Europe .
Johnson had a working relationship with illustrator William Blake for nearly twenty years : Johnson commissioned around 100 engravings from Blake — more than any other publisher — including the second edition of Wollstonecraft 's Original Stories from Real Life ( 1791 ) and Darwin 's Botanic Garden . Johnson may also have had some connection with Blake as a writer , judging from galley proofs of his French Revolution ( 1791 ) . Yet , in An Island in the Moon , Blake represents Johnson as " a bookseller without aesthetic values whose repetitive questions reveal his ignorance " .
= = = Translations = = =
As part of his endeavour to expose the public to more foreign @-@ language works , Johnson facilitated the translation of educational texts , serious fiction , and philosophy ( he was less interested in translating popular novels ) . In particular , he promoted the translation of the works of persecuted French Girondins , such as Condorcet 's Outlines of an Historical View of the Progress of the Human Mind ( 1795 ) and Madame Roland 's An Appeal to Impartial Posterity ( 1795 ) , which he had released in English within weeks of its debut in France . His publication of a translation of Constanin Volney 's deistic Les Ruines , ou méditations sur les révolutions des empires ( 1791 ) quickly became a bestseller . Johnson also had some of the most prominent French children 's literature translated , such as the works of Madame de Genlis .
Johnson 's most significant contribution in this area was his promotion of German @-@ language literature . Fuseli encouraged him to publish translations of important new German authors , such as Goethe and Schiller . Johnson was one of the few British publishers arranging for the translation of German moral philosophy in the 1790s , and his most important translated publication was arguably Johann Herder 's Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit ( 1776 ) , which introduced many of the historical and anthropological methods of thought already present on the Continent to Britons . Instead of attempting to faithfully reproduce texts , almost all of Johnson 's translators followed the 18th @-@ century practice of freely adapting their texts , for example by substituting " British " counterparts of " German " examples .
= = = Analytical Review and other periodicals = = =
Johnson 's first periodicals , Gospel Magazine ( 1766 – ? ) , The Universal Museum and Complete Magazine ( 1765 – 1770 ) , and The Monthly Record of Literature ( 1767 ) , like many 18th @-@ century journals , lasted only a short while , but his later attempts were much more successful . In 1783 , he financed the first quarterly medical periodical in London , the London Medical Journal , founded by Samuel Foart Simmons , a prominent physician . Explaining the journal 's goals , Simmons wrote that it would provide " an account of new medical books and useful discoveries in physic , and at the same time be a repository for original essays " . The journal lasted until 1790 when it was replaced by another Johnson @-@ Simmons venture , Medical Facts and Observations , which ran until 1797 .
In 1788 , Johnson and Thomas Christie , a Unitarian , liberal , and classicist , founded the Analytical Review . It was a gadfly publication , which offered readers a summary and analysis of the flood of new publications issuing from the presses at the end of the 18th century and provided a forum for radical political and religious ideas . Although it aimed at impartiality , its articles were often critical of the Pitt administration and supportive of the French revolutionaries . Tyson calls it " the most outspoken journal of its day " , but Chard argues that it was " never particularly strident and certainly not radical " . It was also instrumental in promoting scientific , philosophical , and literary foreign @-@ language publications , particularly those in German and French . Compared to Johnson 's earlier periodicals , which were generally " marginal sectarian efforts " , the Analytical Review was quite popular . At 1 @,@ 500 copies per issue , it did not have the circulation of the Gentleman 's Magazine , which averaged around 4 @,@ 550 , but it was influential despite its more limited readership . Its conservative counterpart and nemesis was the Anti @-@ Jacobin Review , established specifically to counteract the effects of the Analytical and other radical media outlets . The Analytical was suspended at the end of 1798 following the deaths of Christie and Wollstonecraft in 1796 and 1797 respectively , and the retirement of other contributing editors .
In 1796 Johnson joined in a venture to start The Monthly Magazine . Founded by his neighbour Richard Phillips and edited by his friend John Aikin , it was associated with Dissenting interests and was responsible for importing much German philosophical thought into England . According to Marilyn Butler , it " combined many of the best features of the periodicals of the century . It was a miscellany , but more intellectual and much more bookish than the [ Gentleman 's Magazine ] ; hospitable to readers , it nevertheless high @-@ mindedly projected an ideal of liberal , middle @-@ class intellectuality that anticipates both the innovative writing and projected readership " of Blackwood 's and Fraser 's .
= = = Changing political winds = = =
With the beginning of the violence of the Reign of Terror ( 1793 – 94 ) , those in Britain who had initially supported the French Revolution began to rethink their position and the government became increasingly concerned about the possibility of a British revolution akin to that of the French . The ardour of radicalism that had prevailed in the early 1790s dissipated . Booksellers were arrested and tried for seditious libel , and many of Johnson 's authors either stopped writing or became more conservative . Only a few , like Paine , veered further left . After being forced to testify at the trial of Paine and Thomas Hardy , Johnson published fewer incendiary works , among them Joel Barlow 's Advice to the Privileged Orders ( 1792 ) . Braithwaite describes it as " without doubt the most extreme that Joseph Johnson ever published ( taking him immoderately close to what he later , jokingly , described as a ' hanging ' offence ) " . However , once it became clear that Barlow , like Paine , was becoming radicalized , Johnson refused to publish any more of his works . In 1794 Johnson even considered emigrating to America with Priestley to escape the increasing pressure he felt from conservatives and the government .
= = = = 1798 : Trial and imprisonment = = = =
Following the publication of Paine 's provocative Rights of Man in 1791 , a sedition law was passed in Britain and , in 1798 , Johnson and several others were put on trial for selling Gilbert Wakefield 's A Reply to Some Parts of the Bishop Llandaff 's Address to the People of Great Britain , a Unitarian work attacking the privileged position of the wealthy . The indictment against Johnson , written on a six @-@ foot parchment roll , read in part :
The said Attorney General of our said Lord the King ... giveth the Court here further to understand and be informed that Joseph Johnson late of London bookseller being a malicious , seditious , and ill @-@ disposed person and being greatly disaffected to our said sovereign Lord the King ... wickedly maliciously and seditiously did publish and cause to be published a certain scandalous malicious and seditious libel .
Braithwaite explains , " an English jury , in effect , was being asked to consider whether Joseph Johnson 's intentions as a bookseller were really as dangerous and radical as those of Thomas Paine " . An issue of the Analytical Review was even offered as evidence against Johnson . Despite having retained Thomas Erskine as his lawyer , who had successfully defended Hardy and Horne Tooke at the 1794 Treason Trials , and character references from George Fordyce , Aikin , and Hewlett , Johnson was fined £ 50 and sentenced to six months imprisonment at King 's Bench Prison in February 1799 . Braithwaite speculates :
If the conduct of the Attorney @-@ General and the Anti @-@ Jacobin are to serve as any kind of barometer of government opinion , then other scores were clearly being settled and it was not merely for [ Johnson 's ] involvement in the sale of Wakefield 's pamphlet but his tenure ... as a stubbornly independent @-@ minded publisher in St Paul 's Churchyard , prominently serving the irreligious and unconstitutional interests of ' rational ' dissent and dangerously sympathetic to the ideas of foreigners ( most visibly through the pages of the Analytical ) that Joseph Johnson was ultimately being brought to book .
Johnson 's friends accused Erskine of using the trial as a political platform and not thinking of the best interests of his client . Johnson 's imprisonment was not harsh ; being relatively wealthy , Johnson rented a home for himself within the prison , where he continued to hold his weekly soirées .
Although Johnson still believed in the free exchange of ideas and was not embittered by his stay in prison , his publishing habits changed dramatically . After he was released , Johnson published very few political works and none were controversial . Other booksellers followed suit , and Johnson 's friend , Unitarian minister Theophilus Lindsey , wrote that " Johnson 's fate deters them all " . Johnson lost authors after the trial and experienced a noticeable decline in business . Furthermore , he gained fewer new authors , his stalwarts like Priestley began to complain that he was not attending to their business , and he was forced to cease publishing the Analytical Review .
= = 1800s : Declining years and death = =
As publishing began to change its form in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , large publishing houses pushed out small , independent booksellers . Johnson did not attempt to form or join one of these new firms . In the late 1790s and early 19th century , Johnson 's business declined , particularly as his relatives , John Miles and Roland Hunter , began to take over the daily operations ; Miles was uninterested in the business , and Hunter did not have Johnson 's commercial sense or his ability to choose successful manuscripts . In January 1806 , Johnson 's premises were wracked by a second fire , destroying the building and all of his stock .
Although not as active in routine business , Johnson still took an interest in political events . For example , he spearheaded the efforts of the booksellers of London and Westminster to appeal a new copyright law in 1808 . Moreover , although Johnson did not publish controversial political works after his imprisonment , he still undertook important publishing ventures . For example , he administered the publication of a forty @-@ five volume work entitled The British Essayists , edited by Alexander Chalmers ; the complete works of Samuel Johnson ; and a ten @-@ volume set of Shakespeare . Johnson published in more congers during the last decade of his life than at any other time . He also occasionally published important new authors , such as the political economist Thomas Malthus , whose Essay on the Principle of Population ( 1798 ) sparked a long debate between idealists and pragmatists . His emphasis on educational books continued or even increased as his interest in publishing contentious political works diminished . He also continued to support his friends , as with Godwin , who needed financial rescue after his play , Faulkener , cost him £ 800 .
Johnson 's authors became increasingly frustrated with him towards the end of his life , Wakefield calling him " heedless , insipid , [ and ] inactive " and Lindsey describing him as " a worthy and most honest man , but incorrigably [ sic ] neglectful often to his own detriment " . Priestley , by then in Pennsylvania , eventually broke off his forty @-@ year relationship with the publisher , when his book orders were delayed several years and Johnson failed to communicate with him regarding the publication of his works . Most of the authors who became upset with Johnson were those writing religious or literary works , the riskiest publishing ventures .
= = = Death = = =
Afflicted by a " chronic respiratory disease " for many years , Johnson died at his home and office on 20 December 1809 , at the age of 71 . The exact nature of his malady is unclear , but his great @-@ nephew Miles wrote to Maria Edgeworth that Johnson was incapacitated with " spasms " and " asthma " near the end of his life . Never having married , he bequeathed his business concerns to his great @-@ nephews , Hunter and Miles ( Hunter took over the business , but could not retain Johnson 's impressive author list and floundered due to his lack of business " acumen " ) . Johnson 's remaining £ 60 @,@ 000 fortune was shared among friends and family : for example , he willed a £ 200 annuity to Fanny Imlay , daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft , and £ 100 to one of Joseph Priestley 's sons . Johnson was buried at Fulham , where he had rented a country home since 1804 , under an epitaph by his life @-@ long friend Henry Fuseli :
Beneficent without ostentation , ever ready to produce merit and to relieve distress ;
Unassuming in prosperity , not appalled by misfortune ;
Inexorable to his own , indulgent to the wants of others ;
Resigned and cheerful under the torture and malady which he saw gradually destroy his life .
According to Chard , Johnson 's obituaries , both those written by his friends and those not , " consistently stress his generosity and his principles " , particularly his integrity . William Godwin 's obituary of 21 December 1809 in the Morning Chronicle was particularly eloquent , calling Johnson an " ornament to his profession " and praising his modesty , his warm heart , and the integrity and clarity of his mind .
= = Legacy = =
Johnson published more books in more fields than any other publisher of his time : " virtually every giant of the second half of the eighteenth century in medicine , science , religion , philosophy , political thought , education , and poetry published at least one work with Johnson " . Johnson 's publications helped to " demystify medicine " for the public and were integral to the scientific revolution . His periodical , the Analytical Review , can be seen as a precursor to the New Statesman . By the end of his career , Johnson had acquired a majority or monopoly share in the ownership of the works of : Shakespeare , Milton , Alexander Pope , Joseph Addison , Richard Steele , Samuel Johnson , and all of the major novelists of the period ( except Samuel Richardson ) .
Johnson was known for fostering the development of new writers without worrying about maximizing profits , and for printing works on principle , even if he knew they would make little money . His risky publication of Joel Barlow 's Advice to the Privileged Orders ( 1792 ) , for example , sold 600 copies and barely broke even . He was also instrumental in the creation of the female professional writer , a role that began opening to women only at the end of the 18th century in Britain . By nurturing the writings of Anna Laetitia Barbauld , Charlotte Smith , Mary Hays , Mary Wollstonecraft , and Maria Edgeworth , he gave women the opportunity to demonstrate that they could be both successful and significant authors . Additionally , he published works promoting women 's equality , such as Hays 's An Appeal to the Men of Great Britain ( 1798 ) , which called for an end to the tyrannical rule of men over women ; Johnson 's Analytical Review reviewed the work extensively and approvingly .
Johnson was remarkably adept at recognizing new writing talent and making innovative works appealing to the public . More importantly , he functioned as a catalyst for experimentation by bringing disparate authors together . While Johnson promoted his authors , he retreated into the background himself . His friend John Aikin explained that he had " a decided aversion to all sorts of puffing and parade " ; Johnson 's unassuming character has left historians and literary critics sparse material from which to reconstruct his life . For 200 years , it was assumed that all of Johnson 's business records and correspondence had been destroyed , but in the early 1990s , one of his " letter books " was discovered in an old desk . It contained copies of letters written to business associates as well as friends from 1795 to 1809 . His letters to other publishers discuss " paper , printing , engraving costs , delivery dates , breaches of copyright , binding charges and accounts " whereas his letters to friends include missives to Priestley , Maria Edgeworth , Erasmus Darwin , Charlotte Smith , and others . This material has allowed scholars to theorize more concretely about Johnson 's life and work .
Johnson 's publications were rarely luxury goods : he priced his merchandise competitively , but always within the reach of the middle class , the audience he most wanted to serve . One way that he reduced costs was by printing texts in the provinces and then importing them to London ; many of Priestley 's works , for example , were printed locally in Birmingham . Johnson did not take great care with the printing of many of his books ; they are full of errors and poorly bound . But as they were often printed extremely quickly to respond to a particular event , this was expected by his contemporaries .
Before Johnson 's generation of booksellers , publishers were not highly respected ; Johnson 's sterling reputation helped publishing to become a more reputable business . His advocacy of cheap books , his desire to foster extensive provincial and foreign connections are all a part of why Johnson has been called " the most important publisher in England from 1770 until 1810 " .
= = Publishing statistics = =
According to Chard , in the 48 years of his career , Johnson published around 2 @,@ 700 imprints , averaging 56 per year . About half of these were pamphlets ( e.g. sermons , religious tracts , political leaflets ) and many were reprints ; therefore he averaged around 20 to 30 new books per year . About 25 % of his publications were of anonymous authors ; these were usually political or religious works . He published more religious works than any other genre ( 1 @,@ 067 titles ) . Johnson made roughly 750 copies for each print run , although many of his political and religious works would have been printed in editions of 250 , as their topics were often ephemeral .
= Beatlemania in the United Kingdom =
The phenomenon known as Beatlemania originated in the United Kingdom , birthplace of the Beatles , when the band first realised enormous popularity there in 1963 . Returning in 1962 from a highly formative two @-@ year residency in Germany , the Beatles achieved a commercial breakthrough with their second UK single release , " Please Please Me " early in 1963 , but gained " Superstar " status with the release of " She Loves You " later that year . There followed an almost non @-@ stop series of concerts and tours , attended with feverish enthusiasm across the UK , for the whole of the following year . The Beatles ' popularity in the UK came to exceed even that of the notable American artists Tommy Roe , Chris Montez and Roy Orbison , whose UK chart success at the time did not keep them from being overshadowed by the Beatles during their 1963 nationwide tours with the lower @-@ billed band — an achievement previously unknown for a UK act .
With intense media interest in the Beatles during 1963 , the year was also taken up with TV shows , press interviews and a weekly radio show . Despite these demands the band found time for many sessions in the recording studio , releasing two albums and four singles during the year . 1963 was also the year when Lennon 's son Julian was born .
By the end of 1963 , Beatlemania would begin to spread internationally . The single " I Want to Hold Your Hand " entered the US charts on 18 January 1964 , selling one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half million copies in under three weeks , and the following month the Beatles made their first visit to America . The great interest in the Beatles brought about a major change in US attitudes to popular music and marked the start of the phenomenon known as the British Invasion .
= = Background = =
= = = Return from Hamburg and the Cavern Club = = =
Following the Beatles ' Hamburg period , the band had returned from Germany to the UK and were playing regularly at the Cavern Club . Their new manager , Brian Epstein , had made efforts to smarten the band up , encouraging them to wear suits instead of jeans and leather jackets , and to refrain from swearing , smoking , drinking or eating onstage , or stopping and starting songs when they felt like it : Epstein had seen the band 's potential and was attempting to transform the Beatles into a serious commercial proposition . He had started to approach record companies , but this had not led to any interest in the band .
= = = Record contract = = =
After failing to impress a number of record companies , most recently at the Decca audition , Epstein went to the HMV store on Oxford Street in London to transfer the Decca tapes to discs . There , recording engineer Jim Foy referred him to Sid Coleman , who ran EMI 's publishing arm . Epstein eventually met with EMI 's George Martin , who signed the group to the Parlophone label on a one @-@ year renewable contract . The Beatles ' first recording session was scheduled for 6 June 1962 at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in north London . Martin had not been particularly impressed by the band 's demo recordings , but he liked the Beatles ' personalities when he met them . He concluded that they had raw musical talent , but stated in later interviews that what made the difference for him was their wit and humour . The Beatles ' recording contract paid the band a penny for each single sold , which was split amongst the four Beatles — one farthing per group member . This royalty rate was reduced for sales outside the UK , for which they received a halfpenny per single ( again split between the whole band ) . Martin said later that it was a " pretty awful " contract .
= = = Change of drummer = = =
Martin was critical of Pete Best who , according to Martin , was not able to keep time . Martin privately suggested to Epstein that the band use another drummer in the studio . There was speculation by some that Best 's popularity with fans was another source of friction . In addition , Epstein became exasperated that Best would not adopt the distinctive Beatle haircut as part of the band 's unified look ( although according to Astrid Kirchherr , who was instrumental in originally creating the hairstyle , he had " really curly hair and it wouldn 't work " ) . Best had also missed a number of engagements because of illness . The three founding members of the band asked Epstein to dismiss Best , which he did on 16 August 1962 . They asked Richard Starkey , known as Ringo Starr , to join the band ; Starr was the drummer for one of the top Merseybeat groups , Rory Storm and the Hurricanes , and had performed occasionally with the Beatles in Hamburg .
The first recordings of Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr together had been made as early as 15 October 1960 in a series of demonstration records privately recorded in Hamburg while the four were acting as the backing group for singer Lu Walters . Starr played on the Beatles ' second EMI recording session on 4 September 1962 , but Martin hired session drummer Andy White for their next session on 11 September . White 's only released performances were recordings of " Love Me Do " and " P.S. I Love You " , found on the Beatles ' first album .
= = = Minor commercial success and first TV appearance = = =
The Beatles ' first EMI session on 6 June 1962 did not yield any recordings considered worthy of release , but " Love Me Do " from the September sessions produced a minor UK hit which peaked on the charts at No. 17 . " Love Me Do " would reach the top of the US singles chart over eighteen months later in May 1964 . The band 's first televised performance was on the People and Places programme , transmitted live from Manchester by Granada Television on 17 October 1962 .
= = Please Please Me : the breakthrough = =
On 26 November 1962 , the Beatles recorded their second single , " Please Please Me " . At the start of the recording session , George Martin attempted to persuade them to record a different song instead ( " How Do You Do It " , subsequently a hit for Gerry & The Pacemakers ) . Martin liked the song and felt the Beatles could have a big hit with it . The Beatles , however , did not like it and , furthermore , they wanted to record their own compositions . They became uncooperative , as they had done at an earlier session when Martin had tried to use the song , so Martin finally abandoned the idea and " Please Please Me " was recorded instead . The single , released in the UK in January 1963 , reached No. 2 on the UK chart of Record Retailer , now considered the most authoritative of the era , and No. 1 on both the NME and Melody Maker charts . Three months after recording " Please Please Me " , the Beatles would record their first album , also titled Please Please Me , which was released in the UK in March 1963 .
= = 1963 : a year of touring = =
With the runaway success of the single " Please Please Me " , the Beatles found themselves in huge demand for the whole of 1963 . They appeared on ABC TV 's Thank Your Lucky Stars show on 11 January ( televised 19 January ) and recorded for the BBCs Here We Go on 16 January and the BBC 's Saturday Club and Talent Spot on 22 January . As well as completing four nationwide tours in 1963 , they performed at a great many one @-@ off shows across the UK throughout the year , often finishing one show only to travel straight to the next show in another location — sometimes even to perform again the same day . Two of the nationwide tours were led by popular American stars , but at every show during both tours , the crowds would not stop screaming for the Beatles , who proved even more popular than the American stars . Souvenir programmes were hastily reprinted in response , to show the Beatles as the tour leaders . While pleased with the positive reception , the Beatles were also embarrassed for the American performers , as it had never before happened that a UK act had topped an American act at a UK concert .
In addition to the four nationwide tours and all the other concerts , what little time remained was taken up with TV shows , press interviews , and recording sessions for the singles and albums released that year . The Beatles also had a weekly radio show . The music papers were full of stories about the Beatles , and magazines for teenage girls regularly contained interviews with the band members , colour posters and other Beatle @-@ related articles . The intense public interest in the Beatles , coupled with Epstein 's demanding schedule , ensured that they had no time for family matters . Lennon 's August 1962 marriage to Cynthia Powell was kept from public view as a closely guarded secret . When Lennon 's son Julian was born on 8 April 1963 , Lennon , visiting the hospital to see his wife and meet his new son for the first time , attempted to disguise himself to prevent people in the hospital from recognising him . Lennon 's attempt to keep the secret was not successful as other patients could see it was him . After the hospital visit , Epstein 's schedule prevailed once more .
From April to October 1963 , when the Beatles starred on Val Parnell 's Sunday Night at the London Palladium , the UK 's top variety show , the band had two further UK hit singles , " From Me to You " and " She Loves You " , each successively building the excitement of Britain 's teenagers . The Beatles ' performance on Sunday Night at the London Palladium was televised live and watched by 15 million viewers . One national paper 's headlines in the days following finally gave the phenomenal and increasingly hysterical nationwide interest in the Beatles a name , one which from that day on would be adopted universally : " Beatlemania " .
On 7 December 1963 , the Beatles appeared on the BBC 's pop show Juke Box Jury , where new pop records were played and commented on by a selected panel of guests . It was filmed on stage at the Liverpool Empire Theatre and hosted by presenter David Jacobs .
= = = February 1963 : first nationwide tour = = =
On 2 February 1963 , The Beatles opened their first nationwide tour at a show in Bradford , featuring Helen Shapiro , Danny Williams , Kenny Lynch , Kestrels , and the Red Price Orchestra . Heading the tour bill was the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Shapiro , followed by the other five acts , the last of which was The Beatles . The band used the nationwide tour as an opportunity to generate further interest in " Please Please Me " , and the song was regularly included in their performances throughout the tour . The Beatles , though lowest on the bill , were immensely popular during the tour , as Gordon Sampson , a journalist with the tour , observed . His report did not include the word " Beatlemania " ; the term would not be coined until some months later , but the phenomenon was evident , with Sampson writing that " a great reception went to the colourfully dressed Beatles , who almost stole the show , for the audience repeatedly called for them while other artists were performing ! " . The first tour had a duration of four weeks , and ended on 3 March 1963 .
= = = March 1963 : second nationwide tour = = =
For The Beatles ' second nationwide tour , which began on 9 March 1963 at the Granada Cinema in London , the group appeared on a bill headed by the American stars Tommy Roe and Chris Montez . Both US artists had already firmly established themselves in the UK singles charts : Montez 's " Let 's Dance " had reached # 2 four months earlier in October 1962 , and another top 10 hit , " Some Kinda Fun " , had recently followed ; likewise Roe 's " Sheila " had reached # 3 five months previously in September 1962 , and his new single , " The Folk Singer " , would enter the charts during the tour , going on to reach # 4 . Throughout the tour , however , the crowds screamed and screamed for The Beatles , and for the first time in UK history , the American stars were less popular than a UK act . While enjoying the overwhelming display of enthusiasm for them , The Beatles also felt embarrassment for the American performers at this unexpected turn of events , which persisted at every show from the first day to the last . The second tour had a duration of three weeks , and ended on 31 March 1963 .
= = = May 1963 : third nationwide tour = = =
The Beatles began their third nationwide tour on 18 May 1963 , the bill this time headed by Roy Orbison . Orbison had established even greater UK chart success than either Montez or Roe , with eight previous chart entries of his own — four of them entering the top 10 , including the # 2 " Dream Baby " and the # 1 " Only the Lonely " — and was about to achieve his next top 10 entry with " Falling " , which entered the charts during the tour . However , at the tour 's opening show , staged at the Adelphi Cinema , Slough , the American star proved less popular than The Beatles , just as had happened with Roe and Montez throughout the previous nationwide tour . As events unfolded it became obvious this was not going to change , and a week into the tour the covers of the souvenir programs were reprinted to place The Beatles above Roy Orbison . Despite The Beatles ' ascent to the top of the bill , Starr was impressed with the response Orbison still commanded . Starr recalled , " We would be backstage , listening to the tremendous applause he was getting . He was just doing it by his voice . Just standing there singing , not moving or anything . " The third tour had a duration of three weeks , and ended on 9 June 1963 .
Publicist Tony Barrow saw Beatlemania as beginning with the band 's TV appearance on Sunday Night at the London Palladium on October 13 , 1963 , at which point he no longer had to contact the press but had the press contacting him instead .
= = = November 1963 : fourth nationwide tour = = =
On 1 November 1963 , The Beatles began their fourth and final nationwide tour of 1963 . Tour stops this time included Dublin and Belfast . Three days before the tour started , the band , returning from a five @-@ day Swedish tour , were greeted at Heathrow Airport in heavy rain by thousands of screaming fans , 50 journalists and photographers , and a BBC TV camera crew . The wild scenes at the airport caused the British Prime Minister , being chauffeured in the vicinity , to be delayed , his car obstructed by the crowds . Meanwhile , the current Miss World , passing through the airport herself , was completely ignored by journalists and public alike , and when the American TV presenter Ed Sullivan , numbered among those held up at Heathrow , was told the reason for the delay , he asked , " Who the hell are The Beatles ? " . Not long after , there would be similar scenes at an airport in Sullivan 's own country , when the Beatles ' arrived there for the first time , and he would himself introduce the band to the American nation on The Ed Sullivan Show , watched by 73 million viewers .
On the tour 's opening night at the Odeon in Cheltenham , the volume of sound created by the screaming crowds was so great that The Beatles ' amplification equipment proved unequal to it , so much so that the band members were unable to hear any sounds they were making themselves , whether speaking , singing , or playing their instruments . As a result , they were unable to count songs in or perform in unison .
The tour produced much the same reaction from those attending as the previous three had done , with a fervent , riotous response from fans everywhere the band went . Police attempting to control the crowds employed high @-@ pressure water hoses , and the safety of the police became a matter of national concern , provoking controversial discussions in Parliament over the thousands of police officers putting themselves at risk to protect the Beatles . During a break in the tour , the Beatles sang before Queen Elizabeth , the Queen Mother at the Royal Variety Performance on 4 November , sharing the bill with Marlene Dietrich and Maurice Chevalier . Harrison said at the time : " I don 't want to sound ungrateful , but why are the Beatles on the same stage as a mass of show business greats ? ... We 're just four normal folk who have had a couple of hit records . " The fourth and final nationwide tour of 1963 had a duration of six weeks , and ended on 13 December 1963 .
= = Reputation and image = =
In 1963 the Beatles were prominent in the public eye with the sweeping phenomenon of Beatlemania but , in addition , the Beatles ' music was beginning to attract the attention of serious critics . On 23 December 1963 , The Times music critic William Mann published an essay extolling the Beatles ' compositions , including their " fresh and euphonious " guitars in " Till There Was You " , their " submediant switches from C major into A flat major " , and the " octave ascent " in " I Want to Hold Your Hand " . The Beatles themselves were perplexed by one analysis by Mann : " ... one gets the impression that they think simultaneously of harmony and melody , so firmly are the major tonic sevenths and ninths built into their tunes , and the flat @-@ submediant key @-@ switches , so natural is the Aeolian cadence at the end of " Not a Second Time " ( the chord progression which ends Mahler 's " Song of the Earth " ) . "
That year , The Beatles ' iconic logo ( referred to as the " drop @-@ T " logo ) made its debut . Epstein and Starr visited Drum City , one of Ivor Arbiter 's stores in Shaftesbury Avenue , to purchase a new drum kit . Epstein asked for the band name to appear on the bass drum . Arbiter designed a logo with an extended " T " emphasising the word " Beat " . Drum City was paid £ 5 for the design , which Arbiter sketched on a scrap of paper to be painted on the drum by a local sign @-@ writer .
= Regents of the University of California v. Bakke =
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke , ( / ˈbɑːkiː / ) 438 U.S. 265 ( 1978 ) was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States . It upheld affirmative action , allowing race to be one of several factors in college admission policy . However , the court ruled that specific racial quotas , such as the 16 out of 100 seats set aside for minority students by the University of California , Davis School of Medicine , were impermissible .
Although the Supreme Court had outlawed segregation in schools , and had even ordered school districts to take steps to assure integration , the question of the legality of voluntary affirmative action programs initiated by universities was unresolved . Proponents deemed such programs necessary to make up for past discrimination , while opponents believed they were illegal and a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . An earlier case that the Supreme Court had taken in an attempt to address the issue , DeFunis v. Odegaard ( 1974 ) , was dismissed on procedural grounds .
Allan P. Bakke , an engineer and former United States Marine Corps officer , sought admission to medical school , but was rejected for admission by several , in part because , in his early thirties , he was considered too old . After twice being rejected by the University of California , Davis , he brought suit in state court . The California Supreme Court struck down the program as violative of the rights of white applicants and ordered Bakke admitted . The U.S. Supreme Court accepted the case amid wide public attention .
The case fractured the court ; the nine justices issued a total of six opinions . The judgment of the court was written by Justice Lewis F. Powell , Jr . ; two different blocs of four justices joined various parts of Powell 's opinion . Finding diversity in the classroom to be a compelling state interest , Powell opined that affirmative action in general was allowed under the Constitution and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Nevertheless , UC Davis 's program went too far for a majority of justices , and it was struck down and Bakke admitted . The practical effect of Bakke was that most affirmative action programs continued without change . Questions about whether the Bakke case was merely a plurality opinion or binding precedent were answered in 2003 when the court upheld Powell 's position in a majority opinion in Grutter v. Bollinger .
= = Background = =
= = = State of the law = = =
In Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) , the Supreme Court of the United States ruled segregation by race in public schools to be unconstitutional . In the following fifteen years , the court issued landmark rulings in cases involving race and civil liberties , but left supervision of the desegregation of Southern schools mostly to lower courts . Among other progressive legislation , Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , Title VI of which forbids racial discrimination in any program or activity receiving federal funding . By 1968 , integration of public schools was well advanced . In that year , the Supreme Court revisited the issue of school desegregation in Green v. County School Board , ruling that it was not enough to eliminate racially discriminatory practices ; state governments were under an obligation to actively work to desegregate schools . The school board in Green had allowed children to attend any school , but few chose to attend those dominated by another race . In 1970 , in Swann v. Charlotte @-@ Mecklenburg Board of Education , the Supreme Court upheld an order for busing of students to desegregate a school system .
Although public universities were integrated by court decree , selective colleges and graduate programs , and the professions which stemmed from them , remained almost all white . Many African @-@ Americans had attended inferior schools and were ill @-@ prepared to compete in the admissions process . This was unsatisfactory to many activists of the late 1960s , who protested that given the African @-@ American 's history of discrimination and poverty , some preference should be given to minorities . This became a commonly held liberal position , and large numbers of public and private universities began affirmative action programs . Among these were the University of California , Davis School of Medicine ( UC Davis or " the university " ) , which was founded in 1968 and had an all @-@ white inaugural class . The faculty was concerned by this , and the school began a special admissions program " to compensate victims of unjust societal discrimination " . The application form contained a question asking if the student wished to be considered disadvantaged , and , if so , these candidates were screened by a special committee , on which more than half the members were from minority groups . Initially , the entering class was 50 students , and eight seats were put aside for minorities ; when the class size doubled in 1971 , there were 16 seats which were to be filled by candidates recommended by the special committee . While nominally open to whites , no one of that race was admitted under the program , which was unusual in that a specific number of seats were to be filled by candidates through this program .
The first case taken by the Supreme Court on the subject of the constitutionality of affirmative action in higher education was DeFunis v. Odegaard ( 1974 ) . Marco DeFunis , a white man , had twice been denied admission to the University of Washington School of Law . The law school maintained an affirmative action program , and DeFunis had been given a higher rating by admissions office staff than some admitted minority candidates . The Washington state trial court ordered DeFunis admitted , and he attended law school while the case was pending . The Washington Supreme Court reversed the trial court , but the order was stayed , and DeFunis remained in school . The U.S. Supreme Court granted review and the case was briefed and argued , but by then , DeFunis was within months of graduation . The law school stated in its briefs that even if it won , it would not dismiss him . After further briefing on the question of mootness , the Supreme Court dismissed the case , 5 @-@ 4 , holding that as DeFunis had almost completed his studies , there was no longer a case or controversy to decide . Justice William Brennan , in an opinion joined by the other three members of the minority , accused the court of " sidestepping " the issues , which " must inevitably return to the federal courts and ultimately again to this court " .
= = = Allan Bakke = = =
Allan Paul Bakke ( born 1940 ) , a 35 @-@ year @-@ old white male , applied to twelve medical schools in 1973 . He had been a National Merit Scholar at Coral Gables Senior High School , in Florida . He was accepted as an undergraduate at the University of Minnesota , deferring tuition costs by joining Naval ROTC . He graduated with a grade @-@ point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 51 . In order to fulfill his ROTC requirements , he joined the Marine Corps and served four years , including a seven @-@ month tour of duty in Vietnam as a commanding officer of an anti @-@ aircraft battery . In 1967 , having achieved the rank of captain , he was granted an honorable discharge . Bakke then worked as an engineer at NASA . He stated that his interest in medicine started in Vietnam , and increased at NASA , as he had to consider the problems of space flight and the human body there . But twelve medical schools rejected his application for admission .
Bakke had applied first to the University of Southern California and Northwestern University , in 1972 , and both rejected him , making a point of his age , with Northwestern writing that it was above their limit . Medical schools at the time openly practiced age discrimination .
Bakke applied late to UC Davis in 1973 because his mother @-@ in @-@ law was ill . This delay may well have cost him admission : although his credentials were outstanding even among applicants not part of the special program , by the time his candidacy was considered under the school 's rolling admissions process , there were few seats left . His application reflected his anxiety about his age , referring to his years of sacrifice for his country as a cause of his interest in medicine .
Bakke received 468 points out of a possible 500 on the admissions committee ’ s rating scale in 1973 . Earlier in the year , a rating of 470 had won automatic admission with some promising applicants being admitted with lower scores . Bakke had a science GPA of 3 @.@ 44 and an overall GPA of 3 @.@ 46 after taking science courses at night to qualify for medical school . On the Medical College Admissions Test ( MCAT ) , Bakke scored in the 97th percentile in scientific knowledge , the 96th percentile in verbal ability , the 94th percentile in quantitative analysis , and the 72nd percentile in general knowledge . Bakke 's MCAT score overall was 72 ; the average applicant to UC Davis scored a 69 and the average applicant under the special program a 33 . In March 1973 , Bakke was invited to UC Davis for an interview . Dr. Theodore West , who met with him , described Bakke as “ a well @-@ qualified candidate for admission whose main hardship is the unavoidable fact that he is now 33 . … On the grounds of motivation , academic records , potential promise , endorsement by persons capable of reasonable judgments , personal appearance and decorum , maturity , and probable contribution to balance in the class , I believe Mr. Bakke must be considered as a very desirable applicant and I shall so recommend him . ” About two months later in May 1973 , Bakke received notice of his rejection .
Bakke complained to Dr. George Lowrey , chairman of the admissions committee at the medical school , about the special admissions program . At Lowrey 's request , Assistant Dean Peter Storandt told Bakke his candidacy had come close and encouraged him to reapply . If he was not accepted the second time , “ he could then research the legal question . He had been a good candidate . I thought he ’ d be accepted and that would end the matter . ” Storandt also gave Bakke the names of two lawyers interested in the issue of affirmative action . The general counsel for the University of California said , “ I don ’ t think Storandt meant to injure the university . It ’ s simply an example of a non @-@ lawyer advising on legal matters . ” Storandt stated , “ I simply gave Allan the response you ’ d give an irate customer , to try and cool his anger . I realized the university might be vulnerable to legal attack because of its quota , and I had the feeling by then that somebody somewhere would sue the school , but I surely didn ’ t know this would be the case . ” Storandt was demoted and later left the university . According to Bernard Schwartz in his account of the Bakke case , Storandt was fired .
Allan Bakke applied to UC Davis medical school again in 1974 . He was interviewed twice : once by a student interviewer , who recommended his admission , and once by Dr. Lowrey , who in his report stated that Bakke " had very definite opinions which were based more on his personal viewpoints than on a study of the whole problem … He was very unsympathetic to the concept of recruiting minority students . " Lowrey gave Bakke a poor evaluation , the only part of his application on which he did not have a high score . He was rejected again , although minorities were admitted in both years with significantly lower academic scores through the special program . Not all minority applicants whose admission was recommended under the program gained entry — some were rejected by the admissions committee . This , however , did not affect the number of minority students to be admitted , sixteen . Although 272 white people between 1971 and 1974 had applied under this program , none had been successful ; in 1974 the special admissions committee summarily rejected all white students who asked for admission under the program . Only one black student and six Latinos were admitted under the regular admissions program in that time period , though significant numbers of Asian students were given entry .
According to a 1976 Los Angeles Times article , the dean of the medical school sometimes intervened on behalf of daughters and sons of the university 's " special friends " in order to improve their chances . Among those who benefitted by Dean C. John Tupper 's interventions ( about five per year ) was the son of an influential state assemblyman , who had not even filed an application . The special picks were ended by order of University of California President David S. Saxon in 1976 . Bakke 's lawyer deemed it impossible to tell if these picks caused Bakke not to be admitted , but according to an attorney who filed an amicus curiae brief on behalf of the National Urban League in support of affirmative action , the practice of dean 's picks made the university reluctant to go into detail about its admission practices at trial , affecting its case negatively .
= = = Lower court history = = =
On June 20 , 1974 , following his second rejection from UC Davis , Bakke brought suit against the university in the Superior Court of California , Yolo County . He sought an order admitting him on the ground that the special admission programs for minorities violated the U.S. and California constitutions , and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act . UC Davis 's counsel filed a request that the judge , F. Leslie Manker , find that the special program was constitutional and legal , and argued that Bakke would not have been admitted even if there had been no seats set aside for minorities . On November 20 , 1974 , Judge Manker found the program unconstitutional and in violation of Title VI , " no race or ethnic group should ever be granted privileges or immunities not given to every other race . " Manker ordered the medical school to disregard race as a factor , and to reconsider Bakke 's application under a race @-@ free system . After Manker entered final judgment in the case on March 7 , 1975 , both parties appealed , the university on March 20 because the program was struck down , and Bakke on April 17 because he was not ordered admitted .
Because of the important issues presented , the Supreme Court of California on June 26 , 1975 ordered the appeal transferred to it , bypassing the intermediate appeals court . On March 19 , 1976 , the case was argued before the state supreme court . Nine amicus curiae briefs were filed by various organizations , the majority in support of the university 's position . The California Supreme Court was considered one of the most liberal appellate courts , and it was widely expected that it would find the program to be legal . Nevertheless , on September 16 , 1976 , the court , in an opinion by Justice Stanley Mosk , upheld the lower @-@ court ruling , 6 – 1 . Mosk wrote that " no applicant may be rejected because of his race , in favor of another who is less qualified , as measured by standards applied without regard to race " . Justice Matthew O. Tobriner dissented , stating that Mosk 's suggestion that the state open more medical schools to accommodate both white and minority was unrealistic due to cost : " It is a cruel hoax to deny minorities participation in the medical profession on the basis of such fanciful speculation . " The court barred the university from using race in the admissions process and ordered it to provide evidence that Bakke would not have been admitted under a race @-@ neutral program . When the university conceded its inability to do so in a petition for rehearing , the court on October 28 , 1976 amended its ruling to order Bakke 's admission and denied the petition .
= = U.S. Supreme Court consideration = =
= = = Acceptance and briefs = = =
The university requested that the U.S. Supreme Court stay the order requiring Bakke 's admission pending its filing a petition asking for review . U.S. Supreme Court Justice William Rehnquist , as circuit justice for the Ninth Circuit ( which includes California ) granted the stay for the court in November 1976 .
The university filed a petition for writ of certiorari in December 1976 . The papers of some of the justices who participated in the Bakke case reveal that the case was three times considered by the court in January and February 1977 . Four votes were needed for the court to grant certiorari , and it had at least that number each time , but was twice put over for reconsideration at the request of one of the justices . A number of civil rights organizations filed a joint brief as amicus curiae , urging the court to deny review , on the grounds that the Bakke trial had failed to fully develop the issues — the university had not introduced evidence of past discrimination , or of bias in the MCAT . Nevertheless , on February 22 , the court granted certiorari , with the case to be argued in its October 1977 term .
The parties duly filed their briefs . The university 's legal team was now headed by former U.S. Solicitor General and Watergate special prosecutor Archibald Cox , who had argued many cases before the Supreme Court . Cox wrote much of the brief , and contended in it that " the outcome of this controversy will decide for future generations whether blacks , Chicanos and other insular minorities are to have meaningful access to higher education and real opportunities to enter the learned professions " . The university also took the position that Bakke had been rejected because he was unqualified . Reynold Colvin , for Bakke , argued that his client 's rights under the Fourteenth Amendment to equal protection of the laws had been violated by the special admission program . Fifty @-@ eight amicus curiae briefs were filed , establishing a record for the Supreme Court that would stand until broken in the 1989 abortion case Webster v. Reproductive Health Services . Future justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg signed the ACLU 's brief ; Marco deFunis , the petitioner in the 1974 case dismissed for mootness , wrote the brief for Young Americans for Freedom .
In addition to the various other amici , the United States filed a brief through the Solicitor General , as it may without leave of court under the Supreme Court 's rules . When consideration of Bakke began in the new administration of President Jimmy Carter , early drafts of the brief both supported affirmative action and indicated that the program should be struck down and Bakke admitted . This stance reflected the mixed support of affirmative action at that time by the Democrats . Minorities and others in that party complained , and in late July 1977 , Carter announced that the government 's brief would firmly support affirmative action . That document , filed October 3 , 1977 ( nine days before oral argument ) , stated that the government supported programs tailored to make up for past discrimination , but opposed rigid set @-@ asides . The United States urged the court to remand the case to allow for further fact @-@ finding ( a position also taken by civil rights groups in their amicus briefs ) .
While the case was awaiting argument , another white student , Rita Clancy , sued for admission to UC Davis Medical School on the same grounds as Bakke had . In September 1977 , she was ordered admitted pending the outcome of the Bakke case . After Bakke was decided , the university dropped efforts to oust her , stating that as she had successfully completed one year of medical school , she should remain .
= = = Argument and deliberation = = =
Oral argument in Bakke took place on October 12 , 1977 . There was intense public interest in the case ; prospective attendees began to line up the afternoon before . The court session took two hours , with Cox arguing for the university , Colvin for Bakke , and Solicitor General Wade H. McCree for the United States . Colvin was admonished by Justice Byron White for arguing the facts , rather than the Constitution . Cox provided one of the few moments of levity during the argument when Justice Harry A. Blackmun wondered whether the set @-@ aside seats could be compared to athletic scholarships . Cox was willing to agree , but noted that he was a Harvard graduate , and as for sporting success , " I don 't know whether it 's our aim , but we don 't do very well . "
Beginning the day after the argument , the justices lobbied each other through written memorandum . At a conference held among justices on October 15 , 1977 , they decided to request further briefing from the parties on the applicability of Title VI . The supplemental brief for the university was filed on November 16 , and argued that Title VI was a statutory version of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and did not allow private plaintiffs , such as Bakke , to pursue a claim under it . Bakke 's brief arrived the following day . Colvin submitted that Bakke did have a private right of action , and that his client did not want the university to suffer the remedy prescribed under Title VI for discriminatory institutions — loss of federal funding — but wanted to be admitted . In November , Justice Blackmun left Washington to have prostate surgery at the Mayo Clinic .
Blackmun 's absence did not stem the flow of memos , notably one on November 22 from Justice Lewis Powell , analyzing the minority admissions program under the strict scrutiny standard often applied when government treats some citizens differently from others based on a suspect classification such as race . Concluding that the program did not meet the standard , and must be struck down , Powell 's memorandum stated that affirmative action was permissible under some circumstances , and eventually formed much of his released opinion .
At the justices ' December 9 conference , with Blackmun still absent , they considered the case . Counting heads , four justices ( Chief Justice Warren E. Burger and Justices Potter Stewart , Rehnquist , and John Paul Stevens ) favored affirming the California Supreme Court 's decision . Three ( Justices Brennan , White , and Thurgood Marshall ) wanted to uphold the program . Justice Blackmun had not yet weighed in . Powell stated his views , after which Brennan , hoping to cobble together a five @-@ justice majority to support the program , or at least to support the general principle of affirmative action , suggested to Powell that applying Powell 's standard meant that the lower court decision would be affirmed in part and reversed in part . Powell agreed .
Even when Blackmun returned in early 1978 , he was slow to make his position on Bakke known . It was not until May 1 that he circulated a memorandum to his colleagues 's chambers , indicating that he would join Brennan 's bloc , in support of affirmative action and the university 's program . This meant that Powell was essential to either side being part of a majority . Over the following eight weeks , Powell fine @-@ tuned his opinion to secure the willingness of each group to join part of it . The other justices began work on opinions that would set forth their views .
= = = Decision = = =
The Supreme Court 's decision in Bakke was announced on June 28 , 1978 . The justices penned six opinions ; none of them , in full , had the support of a majority of the court . In a plurality opinion , Justice Powell delivered the judgment of the court . Four justices ( Burger , Stewart , Rehnquist , and Stevens ) joined with him to strike down the minority admissions program and admit Bakke . The other four justices ( Brennan , White , Marshall , and Blackmun ) dissented from that portion of the decision , but joined with Powell to find affirmative action permissible under some circumstances , though subject to an intermediate scrutiny standard of analysis . They also joined with Powell to reverse that portion of the judgment of the California Supreme Court that forbade the university to consider race in the admissions process .
= = = = Powell 's opinion = = = =
Justice Powell , after setting forth the facts of the case , discussed and found it unnecessary to decide whether Bakke had a private right of action under Title VI , assuming that was so for purposes of the case . He then discussed the scope of Title VI , opining that it barred only those racial classifications forbidden by the Constitution .
Turning to the program itself , Powell determined that it was not simply a goal , as the university had contended , but a racial qualification — assuming that UC Davis could find sixteen minimally qualified minority students , there were only 84 seats in the freshman class open to white students , whereas minorities could compete for any spot in the 100 @-@ member class . He traced the history of the jurisprudence under the Equal Protection Clause , and concluded that it protected all , not merely African Americans or only minorities . Only if it served a compelling interest could the government treat members of different races differently .
Powell noted that the university , in its briefs , had cited decisions where there had been race @-@ conscious remedies , such as in the school desegregation cases , but found them inapposite as there was no history of racial discrimination at the University of California @-@ Davis Medical School to remedy . He cited precedent that when an individual was entirely foreclosed from opportunities or benefits provided by the government and enjoyed by those of a different background or race , this was a suspect classification . Such discrimination was only justifiable when necessary to a compelling governmental interest . He rejected assertions by the university that government had a compelling interest in boosting the number of minority doctors , and deemed too nebulous the argument that the special admissions program would help bring doctors to underserved parts of California — after all , that purpose would also be served by admitting white applicants interested in practicing in minority communities . Nevertheless , Powell opined that government had a compelling interest in a racially diverse student body .
In a part of the opinion concurred in by Chief Justice Burger and his allies , Powell found that the program , with its set @-@ aside of a specific number of seats for minorities , did discriminate against Bakke , as less restrictive programs , such as making race one of several factors in admission , would serve the same purpose . Powell offered the example ( set out in an appendix ) of the admissions program at Harvard University as one he believed would pass constitutional muster — that institution did not set rigid quotas for minorities , but actively recruited them and sought to include them as more than a token part of a racially and culturally diverse student body . Although a white student might still lose out to a minority with lesser academic qualifications , both white and minority students might gain from non @-@ objective factors such as the ability to play sports or a musical instrument . Accordingly , there was no constitutional violation in using race as one of several factors .
Powell opined that because the university had admitted that it could not prove that Bakke would not have been admitted even had there been no special admissions program , the portion of the California Supreme Court 's decision ordering Bakke 's admission was proper , and was upheld . Nevertheless , the state was entitled to consider race as one of several factors , and the portion of the California court 's judgment which had ordered the contrary was overruled .
= = = = Other opinions = = = =
Brennan delivered the joint statement of four justices : Marshall , White , Blackmun and himself . In verbally introducing their opinion in the Supreme Court courtroom , Brennan stated that the " central meaning " of the Bakke decision was that there was a majority of the court in favor of the continuation of affirmative action . In the joint opinion , those four justices wrote , " government may take race into account when it acts not to demean or insult any racial group , but to remedy disadvantages cast on minorities by past racial prejudice " . They suggested that any admissions program with the intention of remedying past race discrimination would be constitutional , whether that involved adding bonus points for race , or setting aside a specific number of places for them .
White issued an opinion expressing his view that there was not a private right of action under Title VI . Thurgood Marshall also wrote separately , recounting at length the history of discrimination against African @-@ Americans , and concluding , " I do not believe that anyone can truly look into America 's past and still find that a remedy for the effects of that past is impermissible . " Blackmun subscribed to the idea of color consciousness , declaring that , " in order to get beyond racism , we must first take account of race . There is no other way . And in order to treat some persons equally , we must treat them differently . We cannot — we dare not — let the Equal Protection Clause perpetuate racial superiority . "
Justice Stevens , joined by Burger , Stewart and Rehnquist , concurring in part and dissenting in part in the judgment , found it unnecessary to determine whether a racial preference was ever allowed under the Constitution . A narrow finding that the university had discriminated against Bakke , violating Title VI , was sufficient , and the court was correct to admit him . " It is therefore perfectly clear that the question whether race can ever be used as a factor in an admissions decision is not an issue in this case , and that discussion of that issue is inappropriate . " According to Stevens , " [ t ] he meaning of the Title VI ban on exclusion is crystal clear : Race cannot be the basis of excluding anyone from a federally funded program " . He concluded , " I concur in the Court 's judgment insofar as it affirms the judgment of the Supreme Court of California . To the extent that it purports to do anything else , I respectfully dissent . "
= = Reaction = =
Newspapers stressed different aspects of Bakke , often reflecting their political ideology . The conservative Chicago Sun @-@ Times bannered Bakke 's admission in its headline , while noting that the court had permitted affirmative action under some circumstances . The Washington Post , a liberal newspaper , began its headline in larger @-@ than @-@ normal type , " Affirmative Action Upheld " before going on to note that the court had admitted Bakke and curbed quotas . The Wall Street Journal , in a headline , deemed Bakke " The Decision Everybody Won " . According to Oxford University Chair of Jurisprudence Ronald Dworkin , the court 's decision " was received by the press and much of the public with great relief , as an act of judicial statesmanship that gave to each party in the national debate what it seemed to want most " .
Attorney General Griffin Bell , after speaking with President Jimmy Carter , stated , " my general view is that affirmative action has been enhanced " , and that such programs in the federal government would continue as planned . Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Chair Eleanor Holmes Norton told the media " that the Bakke case has not left me with any duty to instruct the EEOC staff to do anything different " .
Harvard Law School Professor Laurence Tribe wrote in 1979 , " the Court thus upheld the kind of affirmative action plan used by most American colleges and universities , and disallowed only the unusually mechanical — some would say unusually candid , others would say unusually impolitic — approach taken by the Medical School " of UC Davis . Robert M. O 'Neil wrote in the California Law Review the same year that only rigid quotas were foreclosed to admissions officers and even " relatively subtle changes in the process by which applications were reviewed , or in the resulting minority representation , could well produce a different alignment [ of justices ] " . Law professor and future judge Robert Bork wrote in the pages of The Wall Street Journal that the justices who had voted to uphold affirmative action were " hard @-@ core racists of reverse discrimination " .
Allan Bakke had given few interviews during the pendency of the case , and on the day it was decided , went to work as usual in Palo Alto . He issued a statement through attorney Colvin expressing his pleasure in the result and that he planned to begin his medical studies that fall . Most of the lawyers and university personnel who would have to deal with the aftermath of Bakke doubted the decision would change very much . The large majority of affirmative action programs at universities , unlike that of the UC Davis medical school , did not use rigid numerical quotas for minority admissions and could continue . According to Bernard Schwartz in his account of Bakke , the Supreme Court 's decision " permits admission officers to operate programs which grant racial preferences — provided that they do not do so as blatantly as was done under the sixteen @-@ seat ' quota ' provided at Davis " .
= = Aftermath = =
Allan Bakke , " America 's best known freshman " , enrolled at the UC Davis medical school on September 25 , 1978 . Seemingly oblivious to the questions of the press and the shouts of protesters , he stated only " I am happy to be here " before entering to register . When the university declined to pay his legal fees , Bakke went to court , and on January 15 , 1980 , was awarded $ 183 @,@ 089 . Graduating from the UC Davis medical school in 1982 at age 42 , he went on to a career as an anesthesiologist at the Mayo Clinic and at the Olmsted Medical Group in Rochester , Minnesota .
In 1996 , Californians by initiative banned the state 's use of race as a factor to consider in public schools ' admission policies . The university 's Board of Regents , led by Ward Connerly , voted to end race as a factor in admissions . The regents , to secure a diverse student body , implemented policies such as allowing the top 4 % of students in California high schools guaranteed admission to the University of California System — this , it was felt , would aid minority inner @-@ city students .
Dworkin warned in 1978 that " Powell 's opinion suffers from fundamental weaknesses , and if the Court is to arrive at a coherent position , far more judicial work remains to be done than a relieved public yet realizes " . The Supreme Court has continued to grapple with the question of affirmative action in higher education . In the 2003 case of Grutter v. Bollinger , it reaffirmed Justice Powell 's opinion in Bakke in a majority opinion , thus rendering moot concerns expressed by lower courts that Bakke might not be binding precedent due to the fractured lineup of justices in a plurality opinion . The court 's decision in the 2013 case of Fisher v. University of Texas made alterations to the standards by which courts must judge affirmative action programs , but continued to permit race to be taken into consideration in university admissions , while forbidding outright quotas .
= Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany =
Cosimo III de ' Medici ( 14 August 1642 – 31 October 1723 ) was the penultimate Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany . He reigned from 1670 to 1723 , and was the elder son of Grand Duke Ferdinando II . Cosimo 's 53 @-@ year @-@ long reign , the longest in Tuscan history , was marked by a series of ultra @-@ reactionary laws which regulated prostitution and banned May celebrations . His reign also witnessed Tuscany 's deterioration to previously unknown economic lows . He was succeeded by his elder surviving son , Gian Gastone , when he died , in 1723 .
He married Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , a cousin of Louis XIV . The marriage was solemnized by proxy in the King 's Chapel at the Louvre , on Sunday , 17 April 1661 . It was a marriage fraught with tribulation . Marguerite Louise eventually abandoned Tuscany for the Convent of Montmartre . Together , they had three children : Ferdinando in 1663 , Anna Maria Luisa , Electress Palatine , in 1667 , and Gian Gastone , the last Medicean ruler of Tuscany , in 1671 .
In later life , he attempted to have Anna Maria Luisa recognised as the universal heiress of Tuscany , but Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor , would not allow it because Florence was nominally an imperial fief , and he felt he alone could alter the Tuscan laws of succession . All Cosimo 's efforts to salvage the plan floundered , and in 1737 , upon his younger son 's death , Tuscany passed to the House of Lorraine .
= = Early life = =
= = = Heir to the throne = = =
Cosimo de ' Medici was born on 14 August 1642 , the eldest surviving son of Vittoria della Rovere of Urbino , and Ferdinando II de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany . Their previous two children had died shortly after birth . Grand Duke Ferdinando wished to give his son the finest scientific education available , but the pious Grand Duchess Vittoria opposed . The latter got her way . Volunnio Bandinelli , a Sienese theologian , was appointed Cosimo 's tutor . His character was analogous to the Grand Duchess 's .
As a youth , Cosimo revelled in sports . His uncle Gian Carlo once wrote to another family member with " news that should surprise you .... The young prince [ Cosimo ] has killed a goose in mid @-@ air . " Cosimo , at the age of 11 , killed five pigs with five shots . The Luchese Ambassador praised the young Cosimo to the skies . His successor , however , noticed a somewhat different person , whom he described as " melancholy . "
By 1659 , Cosimo had ceased smiling in public . He frequently visited places of religious worship and surrounded himself with friars and priests , concerning Grand Duke Ferdinando . Cosimo 's only sibling , Francesco Maria de ' Medici , the fruit of his parents ' brief reconciliation , was born the next year .
= = = Marriage = = =
Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , a granddaughter of Henry IV of France , was married to Cosimo by proxy on 17 April 1661 at the Palais du Louvre . She arrived in Tuscany on 12 June , disembarking at Livorno , and made her formal entry to Florence on 20 June to much pageantry . As a wedding gift , Grand Duke Ferdinando presented her with a pearl the " size of a small pigeon 's egg . "
The marriage was unhappy from the start . A few nights following the formal entry , Marguerite Louise demanded the Tuscan crown jewels for her own personal use ; Cosimo refused . The jewels that she did manage to extract from Cosimo were almost smuggled out of Tuscany by her attendants but for the efforts of Ferdinando 's agents . Marguerite Louise 's extravagances perturbed Ferdinando because the Tuscan exchequer was nearly bankrupt ; it was so empty that when the Wars of Castro mercenaries were paid for , the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds . Accordingly , the interest rate was lowered by 0 @.@ 75 % . The economy , too , was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places . In August 1663 Marguerite Louise delivered a boy : Ferdinando . Two more children followed : Anna Maria Luisa in 1667 and Gian Gastone in 1671 .
Ferdinando beseeched Louis XIV to do something about his daughter @-@ in @-@ law 's behaviour ; he sent the Comte de Saint Mêmê . Marguerite Louise wanted to return to France , and Mêmê sympathised with this , as did much of the French court , so he left without finding a solution to the heir 's domestic disharmony , incensing both Ferdinando and Louis XIV . She humiliated Cosimo at every chance she got : she insisted on employing French cooks , as she feared the Medici would poison her . In September 1664 Marguerite Louise abandoned her apartments in the Pitti , the grand ducal palace . Cosimo moved her into Villa Lapeggi . Here , she was watched by forty soldiers , and six courtiers , appointed by Cosimo , had to follow her everywhere . The next year she reconciled with the grand ducal family , and gave birth to Anna Maria Luisa , future Electress Palatine , in August 1667 . The delicate rapprochement that existed between Marguerite Louise and the rest of the family collapsed after Anna Maria Luisa 's birth , when Marguerite Louise caught smallpox and decided to blame Cosimo for all her problems .
= = = European travels = = =
Grand Duke Ferdinando encouraged Cosimo to go on a European tour to distract him from Marguerite Louise 's renewed hostility . On 28 October 1667 he arrived in Tyrol , where he was entertained by his aunt , Anna de ' Medici , Archduchess of Further Austria . He took a barge down the Rhine to Amsterdam , where he was well received by the art community , meeting painter Rembrandt van Rijn . From Amsterdam , he travelled to Hamburg , where awaiting him was the Queen of Sweden . He reached Florence in May 1668 .
The excursion did Cosimo good . His health was better than ever , as was his self @-@ esteem . His wife 's unrelenting enmity towards him , however , undid the aforesaid progressions . Grand Duke Ferdinando , once again , feared for his health , so he sent him on a second tour in September 1668 .
When he went to Spain , the King , Carlos II , received him in a private interview . By January , he had arrived in Portugal , and from there endeavoured to England , where he met Charles II and Samuel Pepys , who described him as " a very jolly and good comely man . " Cosimo was amiably welcomed by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge , for his father 's perceived protection of Galileo from the Inquisition . On the return run , Cosimo visited Louis XIV and his mother @-@ in @-@ law , Marguerite of Lorraine , in Paris . He arrived back in Florence on 1 November 1669 . His travels were described in a detailed journal by his travelling companion Lorenzo , Conte Magalotti ( 1637 @-@ 1712 ) .
= = Reign = =
= = = Departure of Marguerite Louise = = =
Ferdinando II died on 23 May 1670 of apoplexy and dropsy and was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo , the Medicean necropolis . At the time of his death , the population of the grand duchy was 720 @,@ 594 souls ; the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in Pisa , while Siena was virtually abandoned .
Grand Duchess Marguerite Louise and Dowager Grand Duchess Vittoria vied with each other for power . The Dowager , after a protracted battle , triumphed : The Grand Duke assigned his mother the day @-@ to @-@ day administration of the state . Cosimo III commenced his reign with the utmost fervour , attempting to salvage the sinking exchequer and allowing his subjects to petition him for arbitration in disputes . The novelty soon wore off , however . Vittoria , Cosimo having lost his taste for administration , was further empowered by admission to the Grand Duke 's Consulta ( Privy Council ) . Marguerite Louise , deprived of any political influence , went about arranging Prince Ferdinando 's education and aruing with Vittoria over precedence , which only further encamped Cosimo on his mother 's side . In the midst of this , on the first anniversary of Ferdinando II 's death , Gian Gastone was born to the grand ducal couple .
Marguerite Louise feigned illness at the start of 1672 : Louis XIV send Alliot le Vieux , Anne of Austria 's personal physician , to tend to her . Dr. Alliot , unlike Mêmê , did not comply with Marguerite Louise 's plot to be sent to France , ostensibly for the thermal waters to ameliorate her " illness . " In December she went on a pilgrimage to Villa di Pratolino — she never returned . Marguerite Louise , instead of going back to Florence , chose to live in semi @-@ retirement at Poggio a Caiano . The Grand Duke eventually consented , but feared she may abscond , so she was not allowed to go to leave without his permission and when she went riding she was to be escorted by four soldiers . All the doors and windows of the villa had to be secured , too . The saga between them continued until 26 December 1674 , after all attempts at conciliation failed , a beleaguered Cosimo agreed to allow his wife to depart for the Convent of Montemarte , France . The contract signed that day renounced her rights as a Princess of the Blood and with them the dignity Royal Highness . Cosimo granted her a pension of 80 @,@ 000 livres in compensation . She departed the next June , after stripping bare Poggio a Caiano of any valuables .
= = = Persecution of Jews and the Lorrainer succession = = =
Without Marguerite Louise to occupy his attentions , Cosimo turned to persecuting the Jewish population of Tuscany . Sexual Intercourse between Jews and Christians was proscribed and Christians , by a law promulgated on 1 July 1677 , could not work in establishments owned by Jews . If they did regardless , a fine of 50 crowns was incurred ; if the person in question had insufficient funds , he was liable to be tortured on the rack ; and if he was deemed unfit for torture , a four @-@ month prison sentence was substituted . The anti @-@ Semitic roster was supplemented by further declarations on 16 June 1679 and 12 December 1680 banning Jews from visiting Christian prostitutes and co @-@ habitation , respectively .
Meanwhile , in Lorraine , Charles V was without an heir and Marguerite @-@ Louise , as the daughter of a Lorrainer princess , delegated the right to succeed to the duchy to her elder son , Ferdinando . Grand Duke Cosimo tried to get his son international recognition as heir @-@ apparent , to no avail . Leopold I , Holy Roman Emperor , supported Cosimo 's claim , not wanting to see Lorraine revert to France . The Treaties of Nijmegen , which concluded the Franco @-@ Dutch War , did not rubber stamp Cosimo 's ambitions , as he had wished . The Lorrainer question was concluded with the birth of a son to Charles V in 1679 , ending Cosimo 's dream of a Medici cadet branch , dreams which were to be revived in 1697 by Gian Gastone 's marriage to an heiress .
= = = 1679 – 1685 = = =
Cosimo kept himself apprised of his wife 's conduct in France through the Tuscan emissiary , Gondi . Marguerite Louise frequently demanded more money from the Grand Duke , while he was scandalised by her behaviour : she took up with a groom named Gentilly . In January 1680 the Abbess of Montemarte asked Cosimo to pay for the construction of a reservoir , following a scandal at the convent : The Grand Duchess had placed her pet dog 's basket in close proximity to the fire , and the basket burst into flames , but instead of trying to extinguish it , she urged her fellow nuns to flee for their lives . On previous occasions , she had explicitly stated that she would burn down the convent if the Abbess disagreed with her , too , making the Abbess view the accident as an intentional . Cosimo , unable to do much else for fear of upsetting Louis XIV , reproached her in a series of letters . Another scandal erupted that summer , the Grand Duchess bathed nude , as was the custom , in a local river . Cosimo exploded with anger upon hearing of this . Louis XIV , tiring of Florence 's petitions , retorted : " Since Cosimo had consented to the retirement of his wife into France , he had virtually relinquished all right to interfere in her conduct . " Following Louis XIV 's rebuff , Cosimo fell grievously ill , only to be roused by Francesco Redi , his physician , who helped him reform his ways so illness would never strike him again . It was after this event that Cosimo finally stopped bothering with the Grand Duchess 's life . In 1682 Cosimo III appointed his brother , Francesco Maria de ' Medici , Governor of Siena .
The Holy Roman Emperor requested Cosimo 's participation in the Great Turkish War . At first , he resisted , but then sent a consignment of munitions to Trieste , and offered to join the Holy League . They defeated the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in September 1683 . To Cosimo 's dismay , " many scandals and disorders continued to occur in the matter of carnal intercourse between Jews and Christian women , and especially putting their children out to be suckled by Christian nurses . " The Grand Duke , wishing to supplement the " foe of heretics " persona he acquired after Vienna , outlawed the practice of Jews using Christian wet @-@ nurses and declared that if a Christian father wished to have his half @-@ Jewish child suckled by a Christian nurse he must first apply to the government for a permit in writing . In addition , public executions increased to six per day . Gilbert Burnet , Bishop of Salisbury and a famed memorialist , visited this Florence in November 1685 , of which he wrote that " [ Florence ] is much sunk from what it was , for they do not reckon that there are fifty thousand souls in it ; the other states , that were once great republic , such as Siena and Pisa , while they retained their liberty , are now shrunk almost into nothing ... "
= = = Marriage of the Grand Prince Ferdinando = = =
Cosimo went about arranging a marriage for his elder son , Ferdinando , in 1686 . He ushered him into the marriage as the other Tuscan princes , Francesco Maria de ' Medici and Gian Gastone de ' Medici , were sickly and unlikely to produce children . The main suitors were : Violante of Bavaria , a Bavarian princess , Isabel Luisa of Portugal ( the heiress @-@ apparent of Portugal ) , and the Elector Palatine 's daughters .
Negotiations with the Portuguese were intense , but stalled over certain clauses : Ferdinando and Isabel Luisa would live in Lisbon , Ferdinando would renounce his right to the Tuscan throne unless the Infanta 's father , King Peter II , remarried and had male issue , and if Isabel Luisa became Queen of Portugal , and Cosimo III , Gian Gastone and Francesco Maria died without any male heirs , Tuscany would be annexed by Portugal . Ferdinando rejected it outright with the fullest support of Louis XIV , his great @-@ uncle . Cosimo 's eyes now fell upon Violente of Bavaria . Choosing her would strengthen ties between France — where Violente 's sister was the dauphine — and Bavaria . There was only one obstacle in the way , Ferdinando II , Cosimo 's father , impartially advised Violente 's father , Ferdinand Maria , to invest 300 @,@ 000 ugherri worth of gold into a bank . Soon after the Elector deposited the sum , the bank collapsed . Ferdinand Maria still had sore feelings ; Cosimo consented to the reduction of her dowry accordingly to reimburse the Elector . Ferdinando was unimpressed with his wife . Violente , however , electrified the Grand Duke . He wrote , " I have never known , nor do I think the world can produce , a disposition so perfect ... "
= = = Royal Highness = = =
Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy procured the style Royal Highness from Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in June 1689 , infuriating Grand Duke Cosimo , who complained to Vienna that a duke was inferior status to a grand duke , and proclaimed it " unjustly exalted ... since the House of Savoy had not increased to the point of vying with kings , nor had the House of Medici diminished in splendour and possessions , so there was no reason for promoting one and degrading the other . " Cosimo also played upon all the times Tuscany provided financial and military assistance to the Empire . The Emperor , anxious to avoid friction , suggested that Anna Maria Luisa should marry the Elector Palatine to compensate for the affront . The Elector Palatine , two years later , several months before his marriage to Anna Maria Luisa , went about acquiring the aforesaid style for Cosimo and his family , despite the fact that they had no claim to any kingdom . Henceforth , Cosimo was His Royal Highness The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany .
= = = 1691 – 1694 = = =
Louis XIV was angered by Anna Maria Luisa 's marriage to his sworn foe . Cosimo , after much coaxing , persuaded him otherwise . On 9 October 1691 , France , England , Spain , and the United Provinces guaranteed the neutrality of the Tuscan port of Livorno . The Empire , meanwhile , was attempting to extract feudal dues from Cosimo , and ordering him to ally with Austria . The Grand Duke replied that if he did so France would send a naval fleet from Toulon to occupy his state ; the Emperor reluctantly accepted this excuse . Tuscany was not alone in its feudal ties to the Empire : The rest of Italy was also bound to pay the Emperor , but at a much higher magnitude than Cosimo , who merely paid on his few undisputed Imperial fiefs .
Cosimo , not having much else to do , instituted more moral laws . Young men were not allowed to " enter into houses to make love to girls , and let them dally at doors and windows , is a great incentive to rapes , abortions , and infanticides ... " If a man did not comply , he was liable to receive enormous fines . The bigotry coincided with a new wave of taxes that stagnated Tuscany 's already declining economy . Harold Acton recounts that a bale of wool " sent from Leghorn and Cortona had to pass though ten intermediate customs . " The Grand Duke oversaw the establishment of the Office of Public Decency , whose goal was to regulate prostitution , also . Prostitutes were oft thrown into the Stinche , a jail for women of that profession , for years , with scant food , if they could not afford the fines levied on them by the Office of Public Decency . Evening permits and exemptions were available for those willing to pay six crowns per month .
Cosimo resurrected a law from the regency of his father which banned Students from attending college outside Tuscany , thus strengthening the Jesuits ' hold on education . A contemporary wrote that not a single man in Florence could read or write Greek , a stark contrast to those of the old republic . In a letter dated 10 October 1691 , Cosimo 's personal secretary wrote , " By the Serene Master 's express command I must inform Your Excellencies that His Highness will allow no professor in his university at Pisa to read or teach , in public or in private , by writing or voice , the philosophy of Democritus , or of atoms , or any save that of Aristotle . "
Ferdinando and Violante , despite being married for over five years , had not produced any offspring as of 1694 . The Grand Duke responded by declaring special days of devotion , and erecting a " fertility column " in the Cavour district of Florence , an act which attracted popular ridicule . Ferdinando would not attend to Violante , instead lavishing his attentions on his favourite , a castrated Venetian , Cecchino de Castris . The same year , Dowager Grand Duchess Vittoria , who had once exercised great deal of influence over Cosimo , died . Her allodial possessions , the Duchies of Montefeltro and Rovere , inherited from her grandfather , the last Duke of Urbino , were bestowed upon her younger son , Francesco Maria de ' Medici .
= = = Marriage of Gian Gastone = = =
Cosimo became perturbed by the question of the Tuscan Succession following the death of his mother . Ferdinando was lacking any children , as was Anna Maria Luisa . The latter , who was high in her father 's estimation , put forward a German princess to marry Gian Gastone . The lady in question , Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , nominal heiress of the Duchy of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , was extremely wealthy . Cosimo once again dreamed of a Medici cadet branch in a foreign land . They were married on 2 July 1697 . Gian Gastone and herself did not get along ; he eventually abandoned her in 1708 .
= = = Dawn of the 18th century = = =
The 17th century did not end well for the Grand Duke : he still had no grandchildren , France and Spain would not acknowledge his royal status and the Duke of Lorraine declared himself King of Jerusalem without any opposition . In May 1700 Cosimo embarked on a pilgrimage to Rome . Pope Innocent XII , after much persuasion , created Cosimo a Canon of Saint John in the Lateran , in order to allow him to view the Volto Santo , a cloth thought to have been used by Christ before his crucifixion . Delighted by his warm reception from the Roman people , Cosimo left Rome with a fragment of Saint Francis Xavier 's bowels .
Carlos II of Spain died in November 1700 . His death , without any ostensible heir , brought about the War of the Spanish Succession , which involved all of the European powers . Tuscany , however , remained neutral . Cosimo recognised Philip , duc d 'Anjou , as Carlos 's successor , whose administration refused to sanction the Trattamento Reale reserved for the royal family . The Grand Duke , soon after the royal altercation , accepted the investure of the nominal Spanish fief of Siena from Philip , thereby confirming his status as a Spanish vassal .
Gian Gastone was consuming money at a rapid pace in Bohemia , wracking up titanic debts . The Grand Duke , alarmed , sent the Marquis Rinnuci to scrutinise the Prince 's debts . Rinnuci was abhorred to discover that Jan Josef , Count of Breuner and Archbishop of Prague , was among his creditors . In an attempt to salvage Gian Gastone from shipwreck , Rinnuci tried to coerce Anna Maria Franziska to return to Florence , where Gian Gastone longed to be . She blankly refused . Her confessor , hoping to keep her in Bohemia , regaled her with tales of the " poisoned " Eleanor of Toledo and Isabella Orsini , other Medici consorts .
= = = Tuscan succession and later years = = =
Cosimo 's piety had not faded in the slightest since his youth . He visited the Florentine Convent of Saint Mark on a daily basis . A contemporary recounted that " The Grand Duke knows all the monks of Saint Mark at least by sight ... " This , however , did not occupy all his efforts : He was still trying to coax Anna Maria Franziska to Florence , where he believed her caprices would cease . Additionally , in 1719 , he claimed that God asked him to pledge the Grand Duchy to " the governance and absolute dominion of the most glorious Saint Joseph . "
Leopold I , Holy Roman Emperor , died in May 1705 . His successor , Joseph I , took to government with a burst of ebullience . Following the Battle of Turin , a decisive Imperial victory , the Emperor sent an envoy to Florence to collect feudal dues , amounting to 300 @,@ 000 doubloons , an exorbitant sum ; and to force Cosimo to recognise the Archduke Charles as King of Spain . Fearing a Franco @-@ Dutch invasion , Cosimo III refused to recognise Charles 's title , but he did pay a fraction of the dues .
The Grand Prince Ferdinando was grievously ill with syphilis ; he had become prematurely senile , not recognising anybody who came to see him . Cosimo despaired . He successfully requisitioned the assistance of Pope Clement XI with Anna Maria Franziska . He sent the Archbishop of Prague to reproach her . She cited the example of Marguerite @-@ Louise , adding that the Pope did not bother himself to machinate a reconciliation . Cosimo wrote desperate missives to the Electress Palatine : " I can tell you now , in case you are not informed , that we have no money in Florence ... " He added that " two or three quarters of my pension are fallen into arrears . "
Gian Gastone arrived in Tuscany , without his wife , in 1708 . The Emperor , thinking it unlikely that any male heirs were to be born to the Medici , prepared to occupy Tuscany , under the pretext of Medici descent . He intimated that upon the Grand Prince 's death the Tuscans would rebel against Cosimo 's autocratic government . Cosimo , in an act of desperation , had Francesco Maria , the Medici family cardinal , renounce his religious vows and marry Eleanor of Gonzaga , the youngest child of the incumbent Duke of Guastalla . Two years later , Francesco Maria died , taking with him any hope of an heir .
Without any ostensible heir , Cosimo contemplated restoring the Republic of Florence . However , this presented many obstacles . Florence was nominally an Imperial fief , and Siena a Spanish one . The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeaceased the Electress Palatine she should succeed and the republic be re @-@ instituted following her death . The proposal sank , and was ultimately put on hold following the Emperor Joseph 's death .
Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor , agreed to an audience with the Electress Palatine in December 1711 . He concluded that the Electress 's succession brought no quandary , but added that he must succeed her . Cosimo and herself were abhorred by his reply . Realising how unforthcoming he had been , Charles wrote to Florence agreeing to the project , mentioning but one clause : the Tuscan state must not be bequeathed to the enemies of the House of Austria . At the culmination of the War of the Spanish Succession , at the Treaties of Utrecht and Rattstatt , Cosimo did not vie for international assurances for the Electress 's succession . An inaction he would later grow to lament .
The Grand Prince finally succumbed to syphilis on 30 October 1713 . Cosimo deposited a succession bill in the Senate , Tuscany 's nominal legislature , on 26 November . The bill promulgated that if Gian Gastone predeceased the Electress Palatine , she should ascend to all the states of the Grand Duchy . It was greeted with a standing ovation by the senators . Charles VI was furious . He retorted that the Grand Duchy was an Imperial fief , and that he alone had the prerogative to choose who would succeed . Elisabeth Farnese , heiress to the Duchy of Parma and the second wife of Philip V of Spain , as a great @-@ granddaughter of Margherita de ' Medici , exercised a claim to Tuscany .
In May 1716 , the Emperor assured the Electress and the Grand Duke that there was no insurmountable obstacle preventing her accession , but that Austria and Tuscany must soon reach an agreement regarding which royal house which was to succeed the Medici . As an incentive to accelerate Cosimo 's reply , the Emperor hinted that Tuscany would reap territorial advancements . In June 1717 Cosimo declared his wish that the House of Este should succeed . Charles VI 's promises never materialised . In 1718 he repudiated Cosimo 's decision , declaring a union between Tuscany and Modena ( the Este lands ) unacceptable . On 4 April 1718 England , France and the Dutch Republic ( and later Austria ) selected Don Carlos of Spain , the eldest child of Elisabeth Farnese and Philip V of Spain , as the Tuscan heir . By 1722 the Electress was not even acknowledged as heiress , and Cosimo was reduced to spectator at the conferences for Tuscany 's future .
Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine died in June 1717 . Anna Maria Luisa returned home in October 1717 , bringing with her vast treasures . Cosimo created his elder son 's widow , Violante of Bavaria , Governess of Siena as to clearly define her precedence . That did not stop the two ladies from quarrelling , as was his intention . Cosimo discontinued hunting following an accident in January 1717 . He accidentally shot , and killed , a man . He was so distraught , that he wished to be tried by the Knights of the Order of Saint Stephen . The state of the Grand Duchy reflected the decay of its ruler ; in a 1718 military review , the army numbered less than 3000 men , some of whom were infirm , and aged 70 . The navy composed of three galleys , and the crew 198 . In September 1721 , the Grand Duchess died ; instead of willing her possessions to her children , as prescribed by the 1674 agreement ; they went to the Princess of Epinoy .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On 22 September 1723 the Grand Duke experienced a two @-@ hour @-@ long fit of trembling . His condition steadily deteriorated . Cosimo was attended by the Papal nuncio and the Archbishop of Pisa on his death bed . The latter pronounced " that this Prince required little assistance in order to die well , for he had studied and cared for nothing else throughout the long course of his life , but to prepare himself for death . " On 25 October 1723 , six days before his death , Grand Duke Cosimo disseminated a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany shall stay independent ; Anna Maria Luisa shall succeed uninhibited to Tuscany after Gian Gastone ; the Grand Duke reserves the right to choose his successor . Alas , these stanzas were completely ignored . Six days later , on All Hallow 's Eve , he died . He was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo , the Medici necropolis .
Cosimo III left a Tuscany one of the poorest nations in Europe ; the treasury empty and the people weary of religious bigotry , the state itself was reduced to a gaming chip in European affairs . Among his enduring edicts is the establishment of the Chianti wine region . Gian Gastone repealed Cosimo 's Jewish persecution laws , and eased tariffs and customs . Cosimo 's inability to uphold Tuscany 's independence led to the succession of the House of Lorraine upon Gian Gastone 's death in 1737 .
= = Issue = =
Cosimo III had three children with Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , a granddaughter of Henry IV of France :
Ferdinando de ' Medici , Grand Prince of Tuscany ( b.1663 d.1713 ) married Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , no issue ;
Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , Electress Palatine ( b.1667 d.1743 ) married Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine , no issue ;
Gian Gastone de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany ( b.1671 d.1737 ) married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , no issue .
Cosimo did not enjoy a harmonious relationship with his elder son , Ferdinando . They disagreed about Cosimo 's bigoted ideology and his monthly allowance . Cosimo married him to a Bavarian princess , Violante Beatrice . This union was exceedingly discontent , and produced no offspring . Anna Maria Luisa was the Grand Duke 's favourite child . She married Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine , and like her brother , had no issue . Gian Gastone , Cosimo 's eventual successor , despised his father and his court . Anna Maria Luisa arranged for him to marry Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , a union that produced no children .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 August 1642 – 23 May 1670 : His Highness The Grand Prince of Tuscany
23 May 1670 – 5 February 1691 : His Highness The Grand Duke of Tuscany
5 February 1691 – 31 October 1723 : His Royal Highness The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany
Cosimo III 's official style was " Cosimo the Third , By the Grace of God , Grand Duke of Tuscany . "
= = = Honours = = =
23 May 1670 – 31 October 1721 : Grand Master of the Holy Military Order of St. Stephen Pope and Martyr
= = Ancestors = =
= Philip Primrose =
Philip Carteret Hill Primrose ( October 23 , 1864 – March 17 , 1937 ) was a Canadian police officer and the fifth Lieutenant Governor of Alberta .
Primrose was born in 1864 in Nova Scotia . He attended the Pictou Academy before graduating from the Royal Military College in 1885 . Upon his graduation , he took up employment with the North @-@ West Mounted Police ( NWMP ) ( later merged into the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ) . Over the 30 years he spent with the NWMP , he was stationed at many locations throughout the North @-@ West Territories , serving as Superintendent on four separate occasions before his retirement from the force in 1915 .
Primrose then moved to Edmonton and accepted the position of city police magistrate , a position he would hold for 20 years . Amongst other positions , during World War I he commanded the Edmonton Reserve Battalion of the Canadian Army . Although he had never actively participated in politics , in 1936 Primrose was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Alberta , a position he held for only 167 days before he died after a long illness .
= = Early life , education and career = =
Primrose was born in 1864 in Halifax , Nova Scotia , the second of three children of Alexander and Elizabeth Catherine Rebecca Primrose ( née Daly ) . He was named after a good friend of his father , Philip Carteret Hill . His father Alexander came to Nova Scotia from Rothiemay , Scotland and settled in the Pictou area around 1815 . He was a barrister and served a term on the Halifax City Council from 1853 – 1855 . He was a distant cousin to the Earls of Rosebery , including the 5th Earl , who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1894 – 1895 , A cousin , Clarence Primrose served in the Canadian Senate from 1892 until his death in 1902 . He was a descendant of the United Empire Loyalists .
After graduating from the Pictou Academy in 1881 , Primrose was accepted into the Royal Military College , from which he graduated in 1885 . He remained in Canada after graduation , rejecting the option of accepting a commission in the British Army . Primrose was appointed an Inspector of the North @-@ West Mounted Police on August 1 , 1885 , and was sworn in on August 31 of the same year .
= = Police career = =
= = = North @-@ West Mounted Police = = =
During his 13 years as Inspector , Primrose was posted to many locations in the North @-@ West Territories , including Wood Mountain in the District of Assiniboia ( today in Saskatchewan ) , Fort Macleod , and Calgary ( today , both in Alberta ) . In addition to serving as a " Mountie " , he served as Justice of the Peace while stationed at Macleod . In 1898 , at the outbreak of the Klondike Gold Rush , Primrose was assigned to the Yukon , where he was stationed at the H Division in Tagish . He became superintendent of that division in October 1899 , then was transferred to become superintendent of the B Division one month later . In 1901 , he was posted to Dawson , where he assumed responsibility for 43 Mounted Policemen and 4 other men at the Whitehorse station . During his time in the Yukon , the main role of the police was guarding people awaiting trials and prisoners serving sentences .
Primrose supervised the 1900 Yukon census , reporting to the Commissioner that the territory 's population was 16 @,@ 463 . On May 13 , 1900 , he finded 31 " members of the sporting fraternity " $ 55 each , boosting the territorial treasury . Other activities included more community @-@ oriented tasks , such as firefighting when permitted . During his time in Dawson , he befriended a lawyer currently practicing in the area , William L. Walsh . Walsh would be his predecessor to the office of Lieutenant Governor of Alberta . Primrose 's assignment to the Yukon ended in 1902 .
After returning from the Yukon , he assumed command of the A Division of the NWMP in Maple Creek ( today in Saskatchewan ) . After two months at Maple Creek , he took over the NWMP Macleod Department ( today in Alberta ) as Superintendent , serving there until 1913 . He became a prominent landowner during his time in Macleod , owning several lots in town , as well as a section outside . He was appointed a commissioner of police in the new province of Alberta in November 1911 . In 1913 , he was posted to the NWMP Headquarters in Regina to assist in the organization of the Criminal Investigation Branch . In August he was granted a leave of absence when he went to the Mayo Clinic at Rochester to undergo surgery to repair an undisclosed rupture and remove his appendix . After returning to Regina in 1914 , he retired at the rank of Superintendent on April 5 , 1915 .
In 1920 , the RNWMP and Dominion Police would be merged under a new name , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) .
= = = Magistrate = = =
Following his retirement from the NWMP , Primrose was offered the position of a police magistrate in Edmonton . Primrose accepted , as he had always wanted to retire in the city . In 1917 , he was chairman of the three @-@ person Alberta Provincial Police board of commissioners , where he was tasked with supervising the new force . Before his retirement as magistrate in July 1935 , it had been estimated that he had dealt with over 40 @,@ 000 cases .
During World War I , Primrose was the commanding officer of the Edmonton Reserve Battalion of the Canadian Army , with the rank of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel . He was president of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police Veterans ' Association in 1922 ; he lobbied hard for adequate pensions for veterans .
= = Lieutenant Governor of Alberta = =
Although a Liberal by family heritage and disposition , Primrose never sought public office , or ever actively participated in politics . On September 10 , 1936 , on the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , Primrose was appointed to the office of Lieutenant Governor of Alberta by Governor General John Buchan , succeeding William L. Walsh , his old friend . He was sworn in on October 1 , 1936 . During his time as Lieutenant @-@ Governor , Primrose and his wife resided in Government House , however , during this time , he was plagued by illness , therefore making him essentially unable to fulfill his duties of office , remaining in medical care from October 19 , 1937 until his death . Most of his duties were carried out by his wife , Lily , who hosted the 1937 New Year 's Day reception at Government House , and served as an honorary officer of the Royal Alexandra Hospital Women 's Auxiliary . Public functions were also attended by others family members , assisting in the absence of Primrose . On February 25 , 1937 , the Speech from the Throne was read by Horace Harvey , Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Alberta , due to Primrose 's illness .
= = Personal life = =
On January 8 , 1902 , Philip Primrose married Lily Deane ( June 3 , 1877 – March 15 , 1966 ) . She was the daughter of Superintendent Richard Burton Deane of the North @-@ West Mounted Police . Deane had served with the NWMP during the Riel Rebellion of 1885 , tasked with guarding Riel and 50 other participants of the uprising in their prison cells . The Primroses had four children : Phyllis Jessie ( 1902 – 1975 ) , Neil ( 1904 – 1904 ) , Neil Philip ( 1905 – 1991 ) , and Sybil E. ( c . 1909 – 1946 ) . His oldest son , Neil Philip was a lawyer , practicing in Vegreville and Edmonton . After being created a King 's Counsel in 1951 , Neil served as a Judge with the Supreme Court of Alberta in its Trial Division . One of his grandchildren , John Nairn Primrose won trap shooting championships at the Commonwealth Games in 1974 and 1978 respectively , and , in 1981 , was appointed as a member of the Order of Canada .
Primrose Lake was named after him in 1900 , while he was Inspector in charge of the Tagish branch of the NWMP . In 1927 , Primrose was made a life member of the Army , Navy , and Veterans ' Association in Edmonton . He received the RCMP Long Service Medal in 1935 . In 1970 , a subdivision in Edmonton was named in his honour . Philip Primrose was a member of the Presbyterian Church in Canada .
= = Death and state funeral = =
Philip C. H. Primrose died on March 17 , 1937 , in Edmonton , while still occupying the office of Lieutenant Governor , a post he had held for only 167 days . He was the first Lieutenant Governor of Alberta to die in office . He had suffered a heart attack , with pre @-@ existing complications from a long , undisclosed illness . On March 19 , 1937 , he lay in state for two hours in the main chamber of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in what was described as one of the " most impressive ceremonies ever beheld in Edmonton . " His coffin , draped with the Union Flag lay on a table in the chamber in front of the speaker 's rostrum , guarded by four Royal Canadian Mounted Police constables ; members ' desks were draped in purple velvet . At his request , Primrose was dressed in the uniform of a NWMP Inspector .
After lying in state for two hours , his body was taken back to the funeral home , and was taken to Government House the next morning , from where it was brought to the church that afternoon . His state funeral , the first ever in Alberta , was held in Edmonton 's First Presbyterian Church . It was attended by many prominent provincial @-@ level politicians , including Premier William Aberhart , Chief Justices Horace Harvey and Charles Richmond Mitchell , University of Alberta president William A. R. Kerr , Attorney General of Alberta John Hugill , Mayor of Edmonton Joseph Clarke , and Assistant RCMP Commissioner Colonel Henry M. Newson . He was interred at the RNWMP plot at the Edmonton Cemetery . The state funeral was said to have " set the precedent for others in the future . " John C. Bowen was sworn in as Primrose 's successor to Lieutenant Governor on March 23 , 1937 .
= = Legacy = =
Primrose was described as " one of the most colourful , interesting and forceful characters in Edmonton 's civic life for may years . " His NWMP command was described as a " model to the Force " , while his police career had been described to have " won the confidence and respect of the public to an exceptional degree . " Donald E. Cameron , who delivered the eulogy at the funeral remarked of Primrose , " Colonel Primrose never sought for himself or for his men more than that their record of service should be allowed to speak for itself . Somewhat austerely he clung to the tradition of the service that duty faithfully discharged its own reward . " An obituary published shortly after his death described him as " courageous , outspoken and firm in dealing with his criminals . " John W. McDonald , Mayor of Macleod also stated , " Col. Primrose was one of the outstanding officers of the force . … He was a good citizen and a good police officer and a man of many admirable qualities . " On January 12 , 1970 , the Primrose subdivision in Edmonton , Alberta , North of Whitemud Drive to 100 Avenue , west of 178 Street to RDA was named in his honour , although most of this area is now better known as West Edmonton Mall .
= Christopher Tanev =
Christopher " Chris " Tanev ( born December 20 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who is currently playing for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Unselected in the NHL Entry Draft , he was signed by the Canucks as a free agent after his freshman year with the Rochester Institute of Technology Tigers . In his only college season , he was named Atlantic Hockey 's Rookie of the Year , in addition to receiving All @-@ Tournament and Third All @-@ Star Team honours , while helping the Tigers to a conference championship . Prior to college , he played three seasons in the Ontario Provincial Junior Hockey League ( OPJHL ) .
= = Early life = =
Tanev was born in East York , Ontario , to Sophie Meredith and Mike Tanev . He has two brothers , Brandon and Kyle , and is of Macedonian descent . Playing minor hockey within the Greater Toronto Hockey League , he competed with the Toronto Red Wings . After being cut from seven midget @-@ level teams at age 16 due to a lack of size ( he was less than five feet and roughly 120 pounds at the time ) , Tanev resorted to playing for his high school 's team and took up roller hockey in the summer . After graduating from high school at the East York Collegiate Institute , he enrolled in the Rochester Institute of Technology as a finance major while playing college hockey .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and college = = =
Tanev played in the Ontario Provincial Junior Hockey League ( OPJHL ) for three seasons . Starting off with the Durham Fury in 2006 – 07 , he recorded no goals and nine assists over 40 games . He split the following season between Durham , the Stouffville Spirit and the Markham Waxers , combining for 17 points ( 2 goals and 15 assists ) over 49 games between the three teams . Playing the 2008 – 09 campaign with Markham , he led all team defencemen in scoring with 41 points in 50 games , while serving as an alternate captain ; he was named the team 's top defenceman at the end of the season .
In 2009 – 10 , he joined the NCAA Division I ranks with the Rochester Institute of Technology ( RIT ) Tigers of the Atlantic Hockey Conference . Placed on the team 's top defensive pairing with team captain Dan Ringwald , he recorded 10 goals and 28 points over 41 games , while leading his team with a + 33 plus @-@ minus rating . After being named Atlantic Hockey Rookie of the Week on three occasions during the season , he received Rookie of the Year honours and was named to the conference 's All @-@ Rookie and Third All @-@ Star Teams . In the 2010 playoffs , Tanev helped the Tigers to a conference championship , defeating the Sacred Heart Pioneers in the final
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effort is required for this method when working manually .
= = = Duality = = =
Two graphs are dual when the relationship between branches and node pairs in one is the same as the relationship between branches and loops in the other . The dual of a graph can be found entirely by a graphical method .
The dual of a graph is another graph . For a given tree in a graph , the complementary set of branches ( i.e. , the branches not in the tree ) form a tree in the dual graph . The set of current loop equations associated with the tie sets of the original graph and tree are identical to the set of voltage node @-@ pair equations associated with the cut sets of the dual graph .
The following table lists dual concepts in topology related to circuit theory .
The dual of a tree is sometimes called a maze It consists of spaces connected by links in the same way that the tree consists of nodes connected by tree branches .
Duals cannot be formed for every graph . Duality requires that every tie set has a dual cut set in the dual graph . This condition is met if and only if the graph is mappable on to a sphere with no branches crossing . To see this , note that a tie set is required to " tie off " a graph into two portions and its dual , the cut set , is required to cut a graph into two portions . The graph of a finite network which will not map on to a sphere will require an n @-@ fold torus . A tie set that passes through a hole in a torus will fail to tie the graph into two parts . Consequently , the dual graph will not be cut into two parts and will not contain the required cut set . Consequently , only planar graphs have duals .
Duals also cannot be formed for networks containing mutual inductances since there is no corresponding capacitive element . Equivalent circuits can be developed which do have duals , but the dual cannot be formed of a mutual inductance directly .
= = = Node and mesh elimination = = =
Operations on a set of network equations have a topological meaning which can aid visualisation of what is happening . Elimination of a node voltage from a set of network equations corresponds topologically to the elimination of that node from the graph . For a node connected to three other nodes , this corresponds to the well known Y @-@ Δ transform . The transform can be extended to greater numbers of connected nodes and is then known as the star @-@ mesh transform .
The inverse of this transform is the Δ @-@ Y transform which analytically corresponds to the elimination of a mesh current and topologically corresponds to the elimination of a mesh . However , elimination of a mesh current whose mesh has branches in common with an arbitrary number of other meshes will not , in general , result in a realisable graph . This is because the graph of the transform of the general star is a graph which will not map on to a sphere ( it contains star polygons and hence multiple crossovers ) . The dual of such a graph cannot exist , but is the graph required to represent a generalised mesh elimination .
= = = Mutual coupling = = =
In conventional graph representation of circuits , there is no means of explicitly representing mutual inductive couplings , such as occurs in a transformer , and such components may result in a disconnected graph with more than one separate part . For convenience of analysis , a graph with multiple parts can be combined into a single graph by unifying one node in each part into a single node . This makes no difference to the theoretical behaviour of the circuit so analysis carried out on it is still valid . It would , however , make a practical difference if a circuit were to be implemented this way in that it would destroy the isolation between the parts . An example would be a transformer earthed on both the primary and secondary side . The transformer still functions as a transformer with the same voltage ratio but can now no longer be used as an isolation transformer .
More recent techniques in graph theory are able to deal with active components , which are also problematic in conventional theory . These new techniques are also able to deal with mutual couplings .
= = = Active components = = =
There are two basic approaches available for dealing with mutual couplings and active components . In the first of these , Samuel Jefferson Mason in 1953 introduced signal @-@ flow graphs . Signal @-@ flow graphs are weighted , directed graphs . He used these to analyse circuits containing mutual couplings and active networks . The weight of a directed edge in these graphs represents a gain , such as possessed by an amplifier . In general , signal @-@ flow graphs , unlike the regular directed graphs described above , do not correspond to the topology of the physical arrangement of components .
The second approach is to extend the classical method so that it includes mutual couplings and active components . Several methods have been proposed for achieving this . In one of these , two graphs are constructed , one representing the currents in the circuit and the other representing the voltages . Passive components will have identical branches in both trees but active components may not . The method relies on identifying spanning trees that are common to both graphs . An alternative method of extending the classical approach which requires only one graph was proposed by Chen in 1965 . Chen 's method is based on a rooted tree .
= = = = Hypergraphs = = = =
Another way of extending classical graph theory for active components is through the use of hypergraphs . Some electronic components are not represented naturally using graphs . The transistor has three connection points , but a normal graph branch may only connect to two nodes . Modern integrated circuits have many more connections than this . This problem can be overcome by using hypergraphs instead of regular graphs .
In a conventional representation components are represented by edges , each of which connects to two nodes . In a hypergraph , components are represented by hyperedges which can connect to an arbitrary number of nodes . Hyperedges have tentacles which connect the hyperedge to the nodes . The graphical representation of a hyperedge may be a box ( compared to the edge which is a line ) and the representations of its tentacles are lines from the box to the connected nodes . In a directed hypergraph , the tentacles carry labels which are determined by the hyperedge 's label . A conventional directed graph can be thought of as a hypergraph with hyperedges each of which has two tentacles . These two tentacles are labelled source and target and usually indicated by an arrow . In a general hypergraph with more tentacles , more complex labelling will be required .
Hypergraphs can be characterised by their incidence matrices . A regular graph containing only two @-@ terminal components will have exactly two non @-@ zero entries in each row . Any incidence matrix with more than two non @-@ zero entries in any row is a representation of a hypergraph . The number of non @-@ zero entries in a row is the rank of the corresponding branch , and the highest branch rank is the rank of the incidence matrix .
= = = Non @-@ homogeneous variables = = =
Classical network analysis develops a set of network equations whose network variables are homogeneous in either current ( loop analysis ) or voltage ( node analysis ) . The set of network variables so found is not necessarily the minimum necessary to form a set of independent equations . There may be a difference between the number of variables in a loop analysis to a node analysis . In some cases the minimum number possible may be less than either of these if the requirement for homogeneity is relaxed and a mix of current and voltage variables allowed . A result from Kishi and Katajini in 1967 is that the absolute minimum number of variables required to describe the behaviour of the network is given by the maximum distance between any two spanning forests of the network graph .
= = = Network synthesis = = =
Graph theory can be applied to network synthesis . Classical network synthesis realises the required network in one of a number of canonical forms . Examples of canonical forms are the realisation of a driving @-@ point impedance by Cauer 's canonical ladder network or Foster 's canonical form or Brune 's realisation of an immittance from his positive @-@ real functions . Topological methods , on the other hand , do not start from a given canonical form . Rather , the form is a result of the mathematical representation . Some canonical forms require mutual inductances for their realisation . A major aim of topological methods of network synthesis has been to eliminate the need for these mutual inductances . One theorem to come out of topology is that a realisation of a driving @-@ point impedance without mutual couplings is minimal if and only if there are no all @-@ inductor or all @-@ capacitor loops .
Graph theory is at its most powerful in network synthesis when the elements of the network can be represented by real numbers ( one @-@ element @-@ kind networks such as resistive networks ) or binary states ( such as switching networks ) .
= = = Infinite networks = = =
Perhaps , the earliest network with an infinite graph to be studied was the ladder network used to represent transmission lines developed , in its final form , by Oliver Heaviside in 1881 . Certainly all early studies of infinite networks were limited to periodic structures such as ladders or grids with the same elements repeated over and over . It was not until the late 20th century that tools for analysing infinite networks with an arbitrary topology became available .
Infinite networks are largely of only theoretical interest and are the plaything of mathematicians . Infinite networks that are not constrained by real @-@ world restrictions can have some very unphysical properties . For instance Kirchhoff 's laws can fail in some cases and infinite resistor ladders can be defined which have a driving @-@ point impedance which depends on the termination at infinity . Another unphysical property of theoretical infinite networks is that , in general , they will dissipate infinite power unless constraints are placed on them in addition to the usual network laws such as Ohm 's and Kirchhoff 's laws . There are , however , some real @-@ world applications . The transmission line example is one of a class of practical problems that can be modelled by infinitesimal elements ( the distributed element model ) . Other examples are launching waves into a continuous medium , fringing field problems , and measurement of resistance between points of a substrate or down a borehole .
Transfinite networks extend the idea of infinite networks even further . A node at an extremity of an infinite network can have another branch connected to it leading to another network . This new network can itself be infinite . Thus , topologies can be constructed which have pairs of nodes with no finite path between them . Such networks of infinite networks are called transfinite networks .
= From Bakunin to Lacan =
From Bakunin to Lacan : Anti @-@ Authoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power is a book on political philosophy by Saul Newman , published in 2001 . It investigates the essential characteristics of anarchist theory , which holds that government and hierarchy are undesirable forms of social organisation . Newman seeks to move beyond the limitations these characteristics impose on classical anarchism by using concepts from post @-@ structuralist thought .
By applying post @-@ structuralist theory to anarchism , Newman presents an account of post @-@ anarchism . His post @-@ anarchism is more substantive than that of earlier thinkers , and has influenced later approaches to the philosophy . Released in a climate of an anarchist movement hostile to postmodern philosophy , From Bakunin to Lacan was criticised for its poor understanding of and engagement with contemporary anarchism .
= = Background = =
The book was released in the context of the dispute in the newly resurgent anarchist movement between critics of civilisation ( primarily anarcho @-@ primitivists exemplified by John Zerzan ) and its supporters ( notably Murray Bookchin ) . Although sharply disagreeing on the merits of civilisation , technology and language , both Zerzan and Bookchin derided postmodernism as disempowering the individual and reinforcing the existing order . Another significant factor in the intellectual climate of the book 's release was the rediscovery in the 1990s of anarchist theory within academia .
Although foundational work had been done on the philosophy of postanarchism by radical theorists such as Andrew Koch and Todd May , From Bakunin to Lacan introduced a slightly different and more substantive formulation of the theory .
= = Content = =
Philosophy professor Todd May asserts that the overall purpose of the book is " to offer a critique of the way power , and specifically political power , is commonly conceived " . Newman persistently questions how anarchism can refrain from reproducing the forms of oppression that it strives to overcome .
Newman incorporates concepts from post @-@ structuralist thought such as post @-@ humanism and anti @-@ essentialism into classical anarchism . Unlike May , whose post @-@ anarchism is a combination of the two , Newman attempts to move beyond both anarchism and post @-@ structuralism . He proposes that " by using the poststructuralist critique one can theorize the possibility of political resistance without essentialist guarantees : a politics of postanarchism … by incorporating the moral principles of anarchism with the postructuralist critique of essentialism , it may be possible to arrive at an ethically workable , politically valid , and genuinely democratic notion of resistance to domination " .
The book uses the work of French philosophers Michel Foucault , Gilles Deleuze , Félix Guattari , and Jacques Derrida as well as classical anarchist thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin , recognizing " proto @-@ poststructuralist " Max Stirner as an important forerunner of postanarchist thought . Newman focuses particularly on the work of Deleuze , Derrida , and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan .
= = Reception = =
Aimed at an academic rather than anarchist audience , the book was criticised in Anarchy : A Journal of Desire Armed # 57 for its unsophisticated , cursory understanding of and engagement with anarchist theory . While praising that section of the book on post @-@ structuralist philosophers , reviewer sasha k claimed that " Newman uses Kropotkin and Bakunin as his stand @-@ ins for anarchism in general , and , in turn , only a few quotes from each to make his case " . He questioned whether Newman 's attribution of an essentialist conception of human nature to modern anarchists was accurate , concluding that had the book taken " a less one @-@ dimensional view of anarchism " , it would have to give up " most of what makes postanarchism post @-@ anarchism .
New Formulation reviewer Michael Glavin cited Newman 's ignorance of the initiative of anarchists to decentralize power and of anarchist forms of organisation such as trade unions , federations and affinity groups as evidence that he failed to understand power and wrongly conflated it with domination .
Since the publication of From Bakunin to Lacan in 2001 , there have been several attempts to develop an account of postanarchism that , while retaining many of Newman 's specific conceptions of the anarchistic qualities of radical post @-@ structuralist thought , would take postanarchist theory beyond academic discourse and into broader and more diverse environments , as the originator of postanarchism , Hakim Bey , had intended .
= Yeovil =
Yeovil ( / ˈjoʊvɪl / YOH @-@ vil ) is a town and civil parish in south Somerset , England with a population of 45 @,@ 000 . The town lies within the local district of South Somerset and the Yeovil parliamentary constituency , situated at the southern boundary of Somerset , 130 miles ( 210 km ) from London , 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of Bristol and 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Taunton .
It has palaeolithic remains , was on an old Roman road and was recorded in the Domesday Book as the town of Givele or Ivle , and later became a centre for the glove @-@ making industry . During the Middle Ages the population of the town suffered from the Black Death and several serious fires . In the 20th century it developed into a centre of the aircraft and defence industries , which made it a target for bombing in the Second World War , with one of the largest employers being Westland Aircraft . Additionally , the Fleet Air Arm has a station RNAS Yeovilton ( HMS Heron ) , the primary base of the Royal Navy 's Westland Lynx and Sea King helicopters , several miles north of the town and is a major local employer ( Ministry of Defence ) . Several other manufacturing and retail companies also have bases in the town . Plans have been proposed for various regeneration projects in the town .
Yeovil Country Park , which includes Ninesprings , is one of several open spaces in the town . There are a range of educational , cultural and sporting facilities . Religious sites include the 14th @-@ century Church of St John the Baptist . It is on the A30 and A37 roads and has two railway stations on two separate railway lines . Yeovil Pen Mill is on the Bristol to Weymouth line served by First Great Western train operating company services , whilst Yeovil Junction is on the London Waterloo to Exeter line served by South West Trains . There is also a small railway museum .
= = History = =
Archaeological surveys have indicated signs of activity from the palaeolithic period , with burial and occupation sites located principally to the south of the modern town , particularly in Hendford where a Bronze Age golden torc ( twisted collar ) was found . Yeovil is on the main Roman road from Dorchester to the Fosse Way at Ilchester . The route of the old road is aligned with the A37 from Dorchester , Hendford Hill , Rustywell , across the Westland site , to Larkhill Road and Vagg Lane , rejoining the A37 at the Halfway House pub on the Ilchester Road . The Westland site has evidence of a small Roman town . There were several Roman villas ( estates ) in the area , including finds at East Coker , West Coker and Lufton .
Yeovil was first mentioned in a Saxon charter dated 880 as Gifle . The name derives from the Celtic river @-@ name gifl " forked river " , an earlier name of the River Yeo . The town was recorded in the Domesday Book as Givele , a thriving market community . The parish of Yeovil was part of the Stone Hundred . After the Norman Conquest the manor , later known as Hendford , was granted to the Count of Eu and his tenant Hugh Maltravers , whose descendants became Earls of Arundel and held the lordship until 1561 . In 1205 it was granted a charter by King John . By the 14th century , the town had gained the right to elect a portreeve . The Black Death exacted a heavy toll , killing approximately half the population . In 1499 a major fire broke out in the town , destroying many of the wooden , thatched roofed buildings . Yeovil suffered further serious fires , in 1620 and again in 1643 . After the dissolution of the monasteries the lord of the manor was the family of John Horsey of Clifton Maybank from 1538 to 1610 and then by the Phelips family until 1846 when it passed to the Harbins of Newton Surmaville . Babylon Hill across the River Yeo to the south east of the town was the site of a minor skirmish , the Battle of Babylon Hill , during the English Civil War , which resulted in the Earl of Bedford 's Roundheads forcing back Sir Ralph Hopton 's Cavaliers to Sherborne .
During the 1800s Yeovil was a centre of the glove making industry and the population expanded rapidly . In the mid @-@ 19th century it became connected to the rest of Britain by a complex set of railway lines which resulted from competition between the 7 ft ( 2 @,@ 134 mm ) broad gauge lines of the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) and the 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge lines of the London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) . In 1853 the Great Western Railway line was opened between Taunton and Yeovil .
The first railway in the town was a branch line from the Bristol and Exeter Railway near Taunton to a terminus at Hendford on the western side of the town , which opened on 1 October 1853 . As an associated company of the GWR , this was a broad gauge line . The GWR itself opened Yeovil Pen Mill railway station on the east side of the town as part of its route from London on 1 September 1856 ( this was extended to Weymouth on 1 January 1857 ) , and the original line from Taunton was connected to this . The LSWR route from London reached Hendford on 1 June 1860 but a month later the town was by @-@ passed by the extension of the LSWR to Exeter . A new station at Yeovil Junction was provided south of the town from where passengers could catch a connecting service to Hendford . On 1 June 1861 passenger trains were withdrawn from Hendford and transferred to a new , more central , Yeovil Town railway station .
In 1854 , the town gained borough status and had its first mayor . In the early 20th century Yeovil had around 11 @,@ 000 inhabitants and was dominated by the defence industry , making it a target of German raids during World War II . The worst of the bombing was in 1940 and continued until 1942 . During that time 107 high explosive bombs fell on the town . 49 people died , 68 houses were totally destroyed and 2 @,@ 377 damaged .
Industrial businesses developed in the area around the Hendford railway goods station to such a degree that a small Hendford Halt was opened on 2 May 1932 for passengers travelling to and from this district , but the growth of road transport and a desire to rationalise the rail network led to half of the railway stations in Yeovil being closed in 1964 . First to go was Hendford Halt which was closed on 15 June along with the line to Taunton , then Yeovil Town closed on 2 October . Long @-@ distance trains from Pen Mill had been withdrawn on 11 September 1961 leaving only Yeovil Junction with a service to London , but the service between there and Pen Mill , the two remaining stations , was also withdrawn from 5 May 1968 .
In April 2006 Yeovil became the first town in Britain to institute a somewhat controversial system of biometric fingerprint scanning in nightclubs . Individuals wishing to gain access to one of the town 's nightclubs were asked in the first instance to submit their personal details for inclusion in a central system . This included a photograph and index fingerprint . Thereafter , each entry to one of the participating premises required a fingerprint scan . The scheme is no longer in operation . According to Nigel J Marston , Licensing Manager of South Somerset District Council , the scheme was short lived as , " The company that originally supplied went through various changes of ownership and the project became unsupported . This allied to several of the venues closing down lead to the death of the scheme . " In February 2007 , Yeovil Town Council became the first English council to ban the children 's craze Heelys in the centre of the town and High Street . Skateboards , roller skates and roller blades are also illegal in the area . Councillors have stated this is due to " numerous complaints about the activities of youngsters " .
In late July 2007 , South Somerset District Council plans were made public by the Western Gazette to build a £ 21 m ' Yeovil Sports Zone ' on Yeovil Recreation Ground , which has been a popular open green space used by the local community for over seventy years . Residents fought to protect the Rec , leading to rejection of the proposals in 2009 , and further consultations in 2010 .
The free , informal recreational space of Mudford Rec , as it is known colloquially , was frequented by England Cricket great Ian Botham during his childhood stay in Yeovil . Another regeneration project was to have included the demolition of Foundry House , a former glove factory , however a local campaign led to this becoming a listed building and it will now be converted into a restaurant and offices and new shop and houses will be built on the surrounding site .
= = Governance = =
Officially designated as Yeovil Municipal Borough in 1854 , the town continued to lend its name to the area with the creation of the local government district of Yeovil on 1 April 1974 , with the merging several neighbouring rural and urban districts , which is today known as South Somerset . Some of the suburbs fall within the civil parishes of Yeovil Without and Brympton .
Yeovil still has a town council which took over the functions of the Charter Trustees in 1982 . The council has responsibility for the management of recreational and leisure facilities , open spaces and play areas . In 2005 , Yeovil Town Council became the first large council in Somerset to be awarded Quality Town Council status .
There are five electoral wards covering Yeovil .
Yeovil is a county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election . The constituency covers the towns of Yeovil , Chard , Crewkerne and Ilminster in Somerset . Until 1983 Somerset was split into four constituencies and Yeovil constituency also contained the towns of Ilchester , Martock and Somerton but they were moved into the newly created constituency of Somerton and Frome . From the next election , Yeovil constituency will contain Ilchester once again to equalise the populations of the Somerset constituencies . The Boundary Commission for England estimate the electorate of Yeovil constituency after the pending boundary changes to be 77 @,@ 049 . The current MP is Marcus Fysh , a member of the Conservative Party .
Residents of Yeovil also form part of the electorate for the South West England constituency for elections to the European Parliament .
= = = International links = = =
There is , in Johannesburg , South Africa , a suburb called Yeoville which has a link to Yeovil . It was proclaimed in 1890 by one Thomas Yeo Sherwell , a native of Yeovil . He named the streets after his sons , friends and business associates .
= = Geography = =
Yeovil is situated at the southern boundary of Somerset , close to the border with Dorset , 130 miles ( 209 km ) from London , 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of Bristol and 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Taunton . It lies in the centre of the Yeovil Scarplands , a major natural region of England . The suburbs include : Summerlands , Hollands , Houndstone , Preston Plucknett , Penn Mill , New Town , Hendford , Old Town , Forest Hill , Abbey Manor , Great Lyde . Outlying villages include East Coker , West Coker , Hardington , Evershot , Halstock , Stoford , Barwick , Sutton Bingham , Mudford and Yetminster . Other nearby villages include Bradford Abbas , Thornford Corscombe , Montacute ( where one will find Montacute House ) , and Pendomer . The village of Brympton , now almost a suburb of Yeovil , contains the medieval manor of Brympton d 'Evercy . Tintinhull is also a village close to Yeovil featuring the National Trust owned Tintinhull House and Gardens .
Ninesprings Country Park is in the south east near Penn Hill . It is linked to by a cycleway following the route of the old railway to Riverside Walk , Wyndham Hill and Summerhouse Hill forming the 40 @-@ hectare ( 99 @-@ acre ) Yeovil Country Park .
= = = Climate = = =
Along with the rest of South West England , Yeovil has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) and shows a seasonal and a diurnal variation , but due to the modifying effect of the sea the range is less than in most other parts of the UK . January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region with mean daily maxima around 22 ° C ( 71 @.@ 60 ° F ) .
The south @-@ west of England has a favoured location with respect to the Azores high pressure when it extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK , particularly in summer . Convective cloud often forms inland however , especially near hills , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . The average annual sunshine totals around 1 @,@ 700 hours .
Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . The Atlantic depressions are more vigorous in autumn and winter and most of the rain which falls in those seasons in the south @-@ west is from this source . Average rainfall is about 725 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 5 in ) . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , with June to August having the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Demography = =
The Yeovil urban area had a population of 41 @,@ 871 at the 2001 census , although in 2011 the civil parish was home to 30 @,@ 378 . The parish is made up of Yeovil Central Ward which has a population of 7230 , Yeovil East 7300 , Yeovil South 7802 , and Yeovil West 7280 . The urban area also includes Yeovil Without which has a population of 7260 and Brympton with 5268 .
= = Economy = =
AgustaWestland manufactures helicopters in Yeovil , and Normalair Garratt , ( Honeywell ) builder of aircraft oxygen systems , is also based in the town .
Yeovil 's reputation as a centre of the aircraft and defence industries lived on into the 21st century despite attempts at diversification , and the creation of numerous industrial estates , the principal employer is the aviation group AgustaWestland . This firm was created through the acquisition of Westland Helicopters by Agusta in 2000 . In January 1986 the proposed sale of Westland to the American Sikorsky Aircraft group led to the Westland affair , a crisis in the Thatcher government , the resignation of Michael Heseltine as Secretary of State for Defence and the resignation two weeks later of the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry , Leon Brittan , after his admission of leaking of a governmental law officer 's letter which harshly criticised Mr Heseltine .
Yeovil Aerodrome ( ICAO : EGHG ) , sometimes known as Yeovil / Westland ' Judwin ' ( to avoid confusion with nearby RNAS Yeovilton ) , is located 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west of the town centre . British defence giant BAE Systems also operate a site which produces high @-@ integrity networked software solutions primarily for the military .
The Screwfix company is based in Houndstone having started life as the Woodscrew Supply Company in 1979 . However the warehouse was relocated to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent following failure to gain planning permission for building expansion .
The Quedam Shopping Centre is a complex of around 45 shops . As well as the usual array of British high street shops , the centre houses several independent retailers and a multi @-@ storey car park of approximately 650 spaces .
= = Landmarks = =
One of the symbols of Yeovil is " Jack the Treacle Eater " , a folly consisting of a small archway topped by a turret with a statue on top . This is actually located in the village of Barwick , just to the south of the town . The hamstone Abbey Farm House was built around 1420 by John Stourton II , known as Jenkyn , and the associated Abbey Barn dates from the same period .
Hendford Manor in the centre of the town was built around 1720 and has since been converted into offices . It is a Grade II * listed building . Newton Surmaville is a small park and house which is also known as Newton House . It was built between 1608 and 1612 , for Robert Harbin , a Yeovil merchant . It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building .
Yeovil has two theatres ; The Octagon , and The Swan , a ten @-@ screen cinema and 18 @-@ lane ten @-@ pin bowling alley . Yeovil District Hospital NHS Foundation Trust provides local health services . The Yeovil Railway Centre is a small railway museum at Yeovil Junction . It was created in 1993 in response to British Rail 's decision to remove the turntable from Yeovil Junction . Approximately 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 400 m ) of track along the Clifton Maybank spur is used for demonstration trains .
= = Transport = =
The town has two railway stations on two separate railway lines . Yeovil Pen Mill is on the Bristol to Weymouth line served by Great Western Railway train operating company services , whilst Yeovil Junction is on the London Waterloo to Exeter line served by South West Trains . Both stations are situated some distance from the centre of Yeovil , with Pen Mill station being just under 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east and Junction station being just over 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) to the south . Bus services link the town centre with Yeovil Junction operated by South West Coaches except on Sundays and bank holidays when a service is operated by First Avon and Somerset . The latter company also operate a service to Pen Mill ,
Yeovil has bus services provided by First Somerset & Avon , First Hampshire & Dorset , Nippy Bus , NORDCAT ( Door to Dorset ) , South West Coaches , Stagecoach South West and Damory Coaches along with coach services from National Express , Berry 's Coaches and South West Tours . There are around 62 separate bus routes serving Yeovil as at March 2009 , of which four run Wednesday @-@ Saturday nights only , and six of which run on Sundays . Many of the listed services serve Yeovil College . All bus routes except First Somerset & Avon local routes towards the Western side of the town serve Yeovil Bus Station .
= = Education = =
Further education in Yeovil is principally offered by Yeovil College , with land @-@ based studies available through a Yeovil centre of Bridgwater College , and some provision through private providers . It also contains one higher education university centre , University Centre Yeovil . The registered awarding body for the university centre is primarily Bournemouth University with University of the West of England offering some additional courses .
Secondary education in Yeovil is provided by four schools . Westfield Academy is situated on Stiby Road . It has four main buildings on site and over 15 different facilities . Bucklers Mead Academy has specialist Music and Technology Facilities . Past pupils include Sir Ian Botham .
The Park School , situated near to the centre of the town , is Yeovil 's independent school offering co @-@ education for day students and boarders .
= = Religious sites = =
The Anglican Church of St John The Baptist dates from the late 14th century . The tower is 92 feet ( 28 m ) high , in four @-@ stages with set back offset corner buttresses . It is capped by openwork balustrading matching the parapets which are from the 19th century . There are two @-@ light late @-@ 14th @-@ century windows on all sides at bell @-@ ringing and bell @-@ chamber levels , the latter having fine pierced stonework grilles . There is a stair turret to the north @-@ west corner , with a Weather vane termination . The tower contains two bells dating from 1728 and made by Thomas Bilbie of the Bilbie family in Chew Stoke . The " Great Bell " was recast from 4 @,@ 502 pounds ( 2 @,@ 042 kg ; 321 @.@ 6 st ) to 4 @,@ 992 lb ( 2 @,@ 264 kg ; 356 @.@ 6 st ) . It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building .
Yeovil also has a Roman Catholic church ( Holy Ghost Church ) , three Methodist Churches – Preston Road , St Marks ( Chelston Avenue ) & Vicarage Street ( Town Centre ) , Baptist church in South Street , Salvation Army , Elim Pentecostal Church , Yeovil Community Church ( Evangelical , based at " The GateWay " ) , Yeovil Family Church ( New Frontiers ) , and several other Anglican churches .
= = Sport = =
The town 's football team , Yeovil Town F.C. , play in green and white livery at Huish Park , and currently compete in Football League Two . Known as the " Glovers " ( a reference to the town 's glove @-@ making past ) , they were founded in 1895 and won promotion to Division Three as Football Conference champions in 2003 . They had achieved numerous FA Cup victories over Football League sides in the past 50 years , and since joining the league they have won promotion again – as League Two champions in 2005 , and League One play @-@ off winners in 2013 .
Other football teams within the town include Westland 's Sports Football Club who play at Alvington Lane and Pen Mill Football Club .
Yeovil Olympiads Athletics Club was founded in 1969 , and has produced many international athletes since its creation . The first was Eric Berry who came 6th in the 1973 European Juniors in the hammer event . Olympians who started with the club include Max Robertson and Gary Jennings , both 400 metres hurdlers .
Yeovil is home to Ivel Barbarians Rugby Club . Ivel was formed in 1995 by the merger of Yeovil Rugby Club and Westlands Rugby Club .
The Goldenstones Pool and Leisure Centre provides a 25 metres ( 82 ft ) swimming pool , separate teaching pool , refurbished and expanded Springs gym , sauna , steam room , spectator area and work out studio . Preston Sports Centre has undergone a £ 800 @,@ 000 refurbishment , during the development the sports hall was refurbished and built a brand new 25 + station Gym and dance studio . As well as the fitness facilities the centre also offers a number of sport development programmes for toddlers through to teenagers and also hire out the facilities .
= = Cultural references = =
Yeovil is the location for the fictional School of Lifemanship in a series of novels by Stephen Potter : Gamesmanship ( 1947 ) , Lifemanship ( 1950 ) , One @-@ Upmanship ( 1952 ) , Supermanship ( 1958 ) , Anti @-@ Woo ( 1965 ) and The Complete Golf Gamesmanship ( 1968 ) . The books were adapted for the 1960 film School for Scoundrels , starring Alastair Sim , Terry @-@ Thomas , Ian Carmichael and Irene Handl . Later they were adapted by Barry Took into a BBC TV comedy series called One @-@ Upmanship ( 1974 – 78 ) , starring Richard Briers and Peter Jones . Yeovil is also one of the three principal locations in John Cowper Powys 's 1929 novel , Wolf Solent .
Yeovil is known in Thomas Hardy 's Wessex as " Ivell " .
Local band The Chesterfields released a single called " Last train to Yeovil " and the pop band Bubblegum Splash also released a song called " 18 : 10 to Yeovil Junction " . The folk band Show of Hands wrote a song entitled " Yeovil Town " about the violence and crime they experienced after playing a small gig in Yeovil .
= = Notable former and current residents = =
Yeovil has been the home or birthplace to several notable people . Robert Harbin who was born in 1526 , was a mercer by profession , who lived and died in Yeovil . He is buried in St. John the Baptist Church . His house , located at the edge of town and named Newton Surmaville , was completed in 1612 . Harbin was granted his coat of arms in May 1612 and given the title " Gentleman " . He was not knighted . Stukeley Westcott was an early American ( 17th century ) settler. and the co @-@ founder , with Roger Williams and 11 others , of Providence , Rhode Island ( 1636 ) , an early American religious freedom asylum .
Michael T. Davies , a traditionalist Catholic writer and public figure was born in Yeovil in 1936 , while the film historian William K. Everson was born in the town in 1929 .
Sportspeople from the town include : Barnsley defender Martin Cranie , Olympic pentathlete Sam Weale and his twin brother Chris Weale who is a professional goalkeeper for Yeovil Town . Heather Stanning , a rower who won a gold medal in the 2012 Olympic Games , was born in Yeovil .
England Women 's Rugby World Cup winner 2014 , and freedom of the town holder Marlie Packer is from Yeovil .
The arts are represented by Jim Cregan , a guitarist with Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel , the musician John Parish , and his younger sister the actress Sarah Parish . The artist Flora Twort was born in Yeovil in 1893 .
= The Wiggles =
The Wiggles are an Australian children 's music group formed in Sydney , New South Wales , in 1991 . The current members of the group are Anthony Field , Lachlan Gillespie , Simon Pryce , and Emma Watkins . The original members were Field , Phillip Wilcher , Murray Cook , Greg Page , and Jeff Fatt . Wilcher left the group after their first album . Page retired in 2006 due to ill health and was replaced by understudy Sam Moran , but returned in 2012 , replacing Moran . At the end of 2012 , Page , Cook , and Fatt retired , and were replaced by Gillespie , Pryce , and Watkins . Cook and Fatt retained their shareholding in the group and all three continued to have input into its creative and production aspects .
Field and Fatt were members of the Australian pop band The Cockroaches in the 1980s , and Cook was a member of several bands before meeting Field and Page at Macquarie University , where they were studying to become pre @-@ school teachers . In 1991 , Field was inspired to create an album of children 's music based upon concepts of early childhood education , and enlisted Cook , Page , and Fatt to assist him . They began touring to promote the album , and became so successful , they quit their teaching jobs to perform full @-@ time . The group augmented their act with animal characters Dorothy the Dinosaur , Henry the Octopus , and Wags the Dog , as well as the character Captain Feathersword , played by Paul Paddick since 1993 . They travelled with a small group of dancers , which later grew into a larger troupe . The group 's DVDs , CDs , and television programs have been produced independently since their inception . Their high point came in the early 2000s , after they broke into the American market .
The group was formally consolidated in 2005 . They were listed at the top of Business Review Weekly 's top @-@ earning Australian entertainers four years in a row , and earned A $ 45 million in 2009 . In 2011 , the worldwide recession hit The Wiggles , as it had done for many Australian entertainers ; they earned $ 28 million , but they still appeared second on BRW 's list that year . The Wiggles have enjoyed almost universal approval throughout their history , and their music has been played in pre @-@ schools all over the world . They have earned several Platinum , Double Platinum and Multi @-@ Platinum records , as well as sold 23 million DVDs and 7 million CDs , and have performed , on average , to one million people per year . The group has also earned multiple Australasian Performing Rights Association ( APRA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Music Awards .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Anthony Field and Jeff Fatt were members of The Cockroaches , a Sydney pop band known for their " good @-@ time R & B material " and several singles recorded by independent labels during the 1980s . In 1988 , Field 's infant niece , who was the daughter of Cockroaches founder and band member Paul Field , died of SIDS , and the group disbanded . Anthony Field enrolled at Macquarie University in Sydney to complete his degree in early childhood education , and later stated that his niece 's death " ultimately led to the formation of [ The ] Wiggles " . Murray Cook , also " a mature @-@ aged student " , was the guitarist in the pub rock band Bang Shang a Lang before enrolling at Macquarie . Greg Page , who had been a roadie for and sang with The Cockroaches during their final years , had enrolled in Macquarie to study early childhood education on Field 's recommendation . Field , Cook , and Page were among approximately 10 men in a program with 200 students .
In 1991 , while still a student , Field became motivated to use concepts in the field of early childhood education to record an album of music for children . The album was dedicated to Field 's niece . A song he wrote for The Cockroaches , " Get Ready to Wiggle " , inspired the band 's name because they thought that wiggling described the way children dance . Like a university assignment , they produced a folder of essays that explained the educational value of each song on the album . They needed a keyboardist " to bolster the rock 'n'roll feel of the project " , so Field asked his old band mate Fatt for his assistance in what they thought would be a temporary project .
The group received songwriting help from John Field , Anthony 's brother and former band mate , and from Phillip Wilcher , who was working with the early childhood music program at Macquarie . After contributing to their first album , hosting the group 's first recording sessions in his Sydney home , and appearing in a couple of the group 's first videos , Wilcher left the group and went into classical music . The group reworked a few Cockroaches tunes to better fit the genre of children 's music ; for example , The Cockroaches song " Hot Tamale " , written by John Field , was changed to " Hot Potato " . Anthony Field gave copies of their album to his young students to test out the effect of the group 's music on children ; one mother returned it the next day because her child would not stop listening to it .
To promote their first album , The Wiggles filmed two music videos with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) and created a self @-@ produced , forty @-@ minute @-@ long video version . Finances were limited , so there was no post @-@ production editing of the video project . They used Field 's nieces and nephews as additional cast , and hired the band 's girlfriends to perform in character costumes . Cook 's wife made their first costumes . They used two cameras and visually checked the performance of each song ; that way , according to Paul Field , it took them less time to complete a forty @-@ minute video than it took other production companies to complete a three @-@ minute music video .
= = = Early career = = =
The Cockroaches ' former manager , Jeremy Fabinyi , became the group 's first manager . Using their previous connections , he negotiated with the ABC to air their TV show and to help them promote their first recording . The album cost approximately A $ 4 @,@ 000 to produce and it sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in 1991 . Field and Cook got teaching jobs , while Page finished his degree , so they could only perform during school holidays ; finding time to do so was , as Field reported , " challenging " . Fabinyi advised them to tour in unusual settings throughout Sydney and New South Wales . The Wiggles ' debut performance was at a friend 's daycare facility in Randwick , for about a dozen children . They played for crowds at shopping centres like Westfield in Sydney and at small pre @-@ school events and parties , and busked at Circular Quay , then moved on to regional tours and shows for playgroup associations , averaging about 300 people in the audience . They were promoted by local playgroups or nursing mothers ' associations with whom they split their proceeds . They performed at pre @-@ schools with other ABC children 's performers ; when 500 people attended these concerts just to see The Wiggles , they started doing their own shows , and according to Field , " Suddenly people started rolling up to performances in astonishing numbers " .
In 1993 , Field , Cook , and Page decided to give up teaching for a year to focus on performing full @-@ time , along with Fatt , to see if they could make a living out of it . As Fatt reported , " it was very much a cottage industry " . They used many of the business techniques developed by The Cockroaches , choosing to remain as independent and self @-@ contained as possible . John Field , Mike Conway , who later became The Wiggles ' general manager , trumpeter Dominic Lindsay , and Cockroaches saxophonist Daniel Fallon performed with them . Anthony Field , with input from the other members , did most of the production of their music , DVDs , and live shows . Their act was later augmented with supporting characters : the " friendly pirate " Captain Feathersword and the animal characters Dorothy the Dinosaur , Henry the Octopus , and Wags the Dog . These characters were initially performed by the band members themselves : Field played Captain Feathersword and Wags ; Cook played Dorothy ; and Fatt played Henry . In 1993 , actor Paul Paddick , who became known as " the fifth Wiggle " and was as popular as the bandmembers , permanently joined the group to play Captain Feathersword . At first , the group travelled with a small group of dancers hired from a local dance studio to perform with them .
After the production of their second album , The Wiggles , who were called by their first names when they performed , began to wear costumes on stage as Fabinyi suggested and as The Cockroaches had done , and adopted colour @-@ coded shirts : Greg in yellow , Murray in red , Jeff in purple , and Anthony in blue . The coloured shirts also made it easier for their young audience to identify them . As Field reported , the decision to emphasise colour was " a no @-@ brainer , considering our pre @-@ school @-@ age audience " . Cook and Fatt already owned shirts in their colours , but Field and Page " met in a Sydney department store and literally raced to see who got the blue shirt " . Another early development used throughout the group 's history was their signature finger @-@ wagging move , which was created by Cook after seeing professional bowlers do it on television . They used the move when being photographed with children because it was their policy that touching children , no matter how innocently , was inappropriate . It also protected them from possible litigation ; as Paddick has explained , " There is no doubting where their hands are " .
= = = Success at home and abroad = = =
Through the rest of the 1990s , The Wiggles maintained a busy recording and touring schedule , becoming as Field reported and despite his strong dislike of touring , " the hardest @-@ working touring act in the country " . They released multiple albums and home videos and , depending upon the word of mouth of their audience , performed to increasingly large audiences in Australia and New Zealand despite having to re @-@ introduce themselves to a new audience of children every three years . They produced a new album and video each year and toured to promote them . By late 1993 , they " grew bigger than anyone had thought " , and hundreds attended their concerts ; by 1995 they had set records for music and video sales . In 1997 , Twentieth Century Fox produced a feature @-@ length film , The Wiggles Movie , which became the fifth @-@ highest grossing Australian film of 1998 , earning over a million @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half dollars .
In spite of their early success in Australia , Paul Field reported that the band was unable to produce a television program on the ABC , where they felt they would receive the most exposure to the pre @-@ school market . " Around 1996 – 1997 " , they filmed a television pilot for the ABC , but as The Sydney Morning Herald reported in 2002 , " the project never got off the ground due to irreconcilable artistic differences " . As a result , The Wiggles financed a TV program of 13 episodes themselves and sold it to the Disney Channel in Australia and to Channel Seven , where it became a hit . By 1998 , The Wiggles were ready to move on to international markets , despite its members ' health issues , especially Field 's . The reaction of producers in the UK was less positive than the group would have liked , although they were eventually able to make inroads there , but their real success came in the US . Disney arranged for them to perform at Disneyland in California , where they were discovered by Lyrick Studios , the producers of Barney & Friends . Both Anthony and Paul Field reported that Lyrick , despite their initial misgivings about whether American audiences would accept the band 's Australian accents , came to understand The Wiggles and their goals , and after successful tests with American children , enthusiastically promoted them .
The Wiggles used many of the same promotion techniques in the US that they had used in Australia , and chose to keep their concerts simple and maintain the same values that were successful in Australia . The Wiggles performed during the intermission of Barney Live stage shows , which The New York Times likened to " getting the warm @-@ up slot for the Stones " in the pre @-@ school entertainment world . In 2000 , when video sales took off in the US , Lyrick began to distribute Wiggles videos and advertised them by including Wiggles shorts as trailers in their Barney videos , which , as Anthony Field stated , " pushed us over the edge " . At first , the group 's videos were distributed in boutique stores such as FAO Schwarz and Zany Brainy , and on @-@ line . According to Paul Field , they entered the mass media market when their videos became top @-@ sellers at Amazon.com , and their first two videos , Yummy Yummy and Wiggle Time , landed in the top ten at Amazon.com. Stores such as Wal @-@ Mart began to take notice , and began to sell Wiggles videos . The band released nine DVDs in the next three years to keep up with the demand .
As they had done in Australia , The Wiggles chose to tour , but start off small , with simple props and sets instead of hiring a touring company . Some of their first appearances in America were at Blockbuster Video parking lots to small audiences — as Fatt said , " a dozen people " . They performed at small venues such as church halls and 500 @-@ seat theatres in Brooklyn and New Jersey , and upgraded to larger venues as ticket sales increased . Anthony Field reported that one week they would perform to 8 @,@ 000 in Sydney and to 20 people the following week at a parking lot in a small town in the US . One time , they performed for a dozen people at the Mall of America in Minnesota , but half of the audience were hired by Lyrick . Eventually , they moved to larger arenas such as the Beacon Theatre and Madison Square Garden . They performed at SeaWorld in Orlando , Florida , for six weeks . Their audiences began to increase , and they toured Australia , New Zealand , Hong Kong , the US , and the UK .
The Wiggles ' popularity in the US increased " in the shell @-@ shocked weeks after the terrorist attacks on New York City in 2001 " , when the group performed there , even when other acts cancelled their tours , a decision that earned them loyalty and respect . According to Cook , the press proclaimed that they were braver than many Australian sports teams that had cancelled their appearances . Paul Field stated , " New York has really embraced them . It was a kind of watershed . " Strong sales of The Wiggles videos eventually caught the attention of the Disney Channel in the US , who was impressed by their " strong pro @-@ social message " . In January 2002 , Disney began showing Wiggles video clips between their programs . By June of that year , the popularity of the clips prompted the Disney Channel to add both seasons of " The Wiggles " series to their schedule and showed full episodes multiple times per day . Field reported that despite their " modest production values " , the shows were popular with pre @-@ schoolers .
Beginning in 2002 , The Wiggles filmed four seasons ' worth of shows exclusively with the ABC . The network called them " the most successful property that the ABC has represented in the pre @-@ school genre " . By the end of 2002 , according to Field , " we knew we were involved in something extraordinary in the US " . Their concert schedule in North America doubled , seemingly overnight ; they began performing up to 520 shows per year all over the world . They also began to produce other stage shows in places The Wiggles themselves were unable to visit , in Australia , the UK , and US , that featured their characters , a host , and a few dancers . The Age called this time period ( about the mid @-@ 2000s ) the group 's " high point " ; they earned A $ 45 million a year in revenues , and had several licensing deals and an international distribution agreement with Disney .
Despite their success , founding member Anthony Field almost left the group in 2004 , shortly after his marriage and the birth of his first child , due to his serious medical issues , which were worsened by The Wiggles ' demanding tour schedule . After meeting chiropractor James Stoxen in Chicago , Field improved his health to the point that he was able to continue . He began to hire teams of chiropractors for himself , his fellow bandmembers , and castmembers in every city they performed , which he credited with making it possible for them to fulfill their touring requirements .
= = = Page 's retirement = = =
In December 2005 , lead singer and founding member Page , at age 33 , underwent a double hernia operation . He withdrew from The Wiggles ' US tour in June 2006 , after suffering fainting spells , lethargy , nausea , and loss of balance . He returned to Australia , where doctors diagnosed his condition as orthostatic intolerance , a chronic but not life @-@ threatening condition . Page 's final performance with The Wiggles was in Kingston , Rhode Island .
On 30 November 2006 , the Wiggles announced Page 's retirement from the group . " I 'll miss being a part of The Wiggles very much , but this is the right decision because it will allow me to focus on managing my health " , Page said in a video message , which The Sydney Morning Herald called " unsettling " , posted on the group 's web page . Page was replaced by Sam Moran , who had served as an understudy for The Wiggles for five years and had already stood in for Page for 150 shows . Initially , The Wiggles struggled over their decision to replace Page , but after their audience 's positive response to Moran , they decided to continue as a group because they thought that was what their young audience would want . According to Fatt , who called it " a huge decision " and " a teachable moment " for them , they chose to be honest with their young audience as they made the transition from Page to Moran . As part owner of The Wiggles , Page received a payout of about $ 20 million .
= = = Moran era = = =
Although Moran 's transition as The Wiggles ' lead singer was " smooth " for the young children of their audience , it was more difficult for their parents . Moran said that " most children understood " . Field reported that by the group 's 20th anniversary in 2011 , due to the ever @-@ changing nature of their audience , most of their young fans were unfamiliar with Page . Cook stated that Moran 's transition was challenging for the group because since he replaced their lead singer , it changed their sound . Fatt characterised Moran 's singing style as more operatic , so they chose different keys to sing and perform . The Wiggles never publicly disclosed how much Moran was paid , but it was reported that he earned $ 200 @,@ 000 per year . Moran was featured in his first DVD and CD as a member of the group in early 2008 , and a sixth season of The Wiggles ' television series featuring Moran was filmed and began airing in Australia .
At the end of 2007 , The Wiggles donated their complete back catalogue of 27 master tapes to Australia 's National Film and Sound Archive . Their business ventures during these years included opening up " Wiggles World " sections in theme parks in North America and the Arab World , internet offerings , the creation of new television shows , and a five @-@ year @-@ long partnership with the digital cable channel Sprout in 2009 . In December 2010 , Cinemalive beamed a Wiggles concert live from Acer Arena into movie theatres all over Australia , for children and their families unable to attend their shows .
In early July 2011 , founding member Fatt developed arrhythmia and underwent " urgent but routine " heart surgery , when he was fitted with a pacemaker after feeling unwell for several weeks and blacking out . He missed the group 's US tour as a result , after not missing a show in 20 years . Also in mid @-@ 2011 , The Wiggles celebrated their 20th anniversary with circus @-@ themed shows and performances throughout Australia and the outback in a circus tent , as well as a " physically grueling " birthday @-@ themed tour of 90 shows throughout Australia , which Paul Field called " one of the biggest of their careers " . Sydney 's Powerhouse Museum commemorated the group 's anniversary with an exhibit that displayed Wiggles memorabilia .
In 2011 , the worldwide financial crisis hit the group , and they recorded their first drop in revenues in 10 years , at approximately $ 2 @.@ 5 million , a total decrease of 28 percent . Royalties partially offset the difference between their 2010 and 2011 revenues . Their managing director Mike Conway called 2011 their toughest year financially . For the first time , they had negative equity , with more liabilities than assets , and the owners had to provide the funds for them to continue operations . Conway stated that their losses were due to less touring time in the US , difficulties in placing their DVDs in Walmart , and their required investment in a new digital platform .
= = = Reunion with Page = = =
In January 2012 , and amidst a great deal of controversy , The Wiggles announced that Page had regained his health and was returning to The Wiggles . He returned as an employee " exactly on the same level as Sam " , rather than a co @-@ owner , having relinquished his business interest in the group after he left in 2006 . According to The Sydney Morning Herald , interest in Page 's return was sparked when they met during the group 's induction in the ARIA Hall of Fame in November 2011 . Business Review Weekly reported that the presentation of Moran 's departure had been mishandled and had potentially damaged their brand image . Paul Field agreed , stating that they " could have handled the communication and management of the transition better " . Cook later admitted that they were shocked by the backlash in the press and among the parents of their audience .
As part of his severance package , Moran continued to collect song royalties and was granted use of The Wiggles ' studios .
= = = Departure of Page , Cook , and Fatt = = =
In mid @-@ 2012 , The Wiggles announced that Page , Fatt , and Cook would be retiring from touring with the group ; Emma Watkins , the first female member of The Wiggles , replaced Page , Lachlan Gillespie replaced Fatt , and Simon Pryce replaced Cook . Anthony Field remained in the group because he found it too difficult to give up and because he still had a passion for educating children . According to Paul Field , his brother staying in the band " was a vital decision to placate American , British and Canadian business partners " . Page , Fatt , and Cook remained involved with the creative and production aspects of the group . Fatt and Cook had been talking about quitting touring for many years ; Cook announced his intention to retire first , citing a desire to spend more time with his family , and then Fatt announced his own retirement shortly thereafter . Page , who was still struggling with his health issues , followed their lead , stating that his interest was in working with the group 's original line @-@ up . Cook reported that the original members were confident that the new group would be accepted by the fans because they passed on their founding concepts of early childhood education to Watkins , Gillespie , and Pryce . The new members , like Moran , who was not approached to return , were salaried employees .
The group , for their farewell tour , visited 8 countries and 141 cities , for a total of almost 250 shows in over 200 days for 640 @,@ 000 people . Watkins , Gillespie , and Pryce wore " In Training " T @-@ shirts , and debuted the song " Do the Propeller ! " during these concerts . The final televised performance of the original band members , along with the new members , was on 22 December 2012 , during the annual Carols in the Domain in Sydney . Their final performance , after over 7000 shows over the years , was on 23 December at the Sydney Entertainment Centre .
Also by 2012 , The Wiggles performed to audiences whose parents attended their shows in their early years , and they were hiring performers who were part of their audience as young children . The Wiggles began airing a show on Sirius XM satellite radio in late 2012 , featuring the original members and their replacements , and stories and games for young listeners . In December , the group auctioned their famous " Big Red Car " ( called the " iconic Volkswagen Beetle Cabriolet " ) for charity for almost A $ 36 @,@ 000 on the auction site eBay . The money was donated to the Melbourne @-@ based charity SIDS and Kids .
= = = " New Wiggles " era = = =
The new iteration of The Wiggles , with Field and its new members , began touring in early 2013 . Cook became the group 's road manager in mid @-@ 2013 . Pryce reported that since The Wiggles ' audience changed every few years , the transition to the new group was easier for their young audience than it was for their parents . One of their challenges , especially for their early tours , was learning The Wiggles ' catalogue of 1400 songs . In early 2016 , Pryce described The Wiggles ' competitive culture of fitness , especially among the male cast , by citing the group 's grueling performance schedule , saying , " Sometimes it feels like it ’ s an extreme sport " .
After a seven @-@ year absence from Australian television , they filmed a new show , called Ready , Steady , Wiggle , filmed in their spare time at their studio in Sydney between tours and on the road . Watkins , who had a film @-@ making degree , played an important role in its production . The series was picked up by the on @-@ line streaming service Hulu in 2015 . Anthony Field admitted that they found it " hard going " until they returned to television . Merchandise featuring the original group outsold the new group 's products , and they failed to sell @-@ out their concerts .
By 2015 , Paul Field called the new group " an amazing success " . By that time , they produced 8 CDs and DVDs , and 3 new television series . Field reported that the new group went through the same process as the original group in terms of audience acceptance and " benchmarks of success " . They performed to sell @-@ out audiences throughout Australia , had high sales of their DVDs and CDs , and won an ARIA in 2014 . According to Kathy McCabe of News Corp Australia , it took 18 months for the new group to be accepted by their audience . McCabe credited their success to Watkins , who became the group 's stand @-@ out member . According to Field , an American journalist called her young fans , who came to concerts dressed in yellow and wearing bows like her , the " mini Emma army " . She was so popular , she starred in her own TV show , called " Emma " , without the other Wiggles , in 2015 . Field called her " an aspirational role model " for their young audience and reported that she had increased their fan base of girls . Field stated that the audience emulated her fashion choices , opening up new merchandising possibilities for the group .
In 2014 , The Wiggles doubled their ticket sales from the year before and played in sold @-@ out venues all over Australia and the world for 250 @,@ 000 fans . Hyde Park in Sydney had to be closed on Australia Day because fans filled it to see the group perform . They continued to sell @-@ out concerts throughout 2015 . Also in 2015 , the group produced their DVD , Rock and Roll Preschool , featuring musician David Campbell , and it was announced that The Wiggles would produce their second feature film ; comedian Ben Elton was slated to write the script and co @-@ write the soundtrack . In early 2015 , Gillespie and Watkins revealed that they had been dating for two years ; they announced their engagement in May 2015 . They were married on 9 April 2016 at Hopewood House in Bowral in New South Wales , Australia .
The Wiggles celebrated their 25th anniversary with a performance by the new members , published as a free podcast on iTunes , in front of the Apple Store in Sydney in January 2016 . In February , the original group members were to perform a charity concert for their fans over the age of 18 , who were part of their first audiences , at the Dee Why RSL club in Sydney .
= = Band members = =
= = Musical style = =
The Wiggles have written new music each year since their inception ; they sequestered themselves for a month each summer and wrote three albums ' worth of original children 's music based on simple concepts familiar to young children , and using several genres of music and types of instruments . Most of their songs were short and started with the chorus because they felt that young children needed to be presented with a song 's topic in their first few lines . They wrote songs individually at first , but eventually wrote as a group , often with John Field , trumpet player Dominic Lindsay , and Paddick . Fatt , the only member of the original group without a degree in early childhood education , tended to focus on composing music . Fatt told reporter Brian McElhiney , who called the group 's songwriting process " a collaborate affair " , that they wrote repetitive pop songs or jingles , which were appealing to children . Watkins reported that she was invited to write songs for their albums , even though she was primarily a dancer . John Fogerty of Creedence Clearwater Revival , who appeared in a Wiggles video in 2002 , told The New York Times that he was " very impressed " with the group 's songwriting , especially with their drum sound .
According to Field , the transition from writing music for an adult rock band to writing children 's music was not a big one for The Wiggles . " The Wiggles music isn 't all that far removed from what we did in The Cockroaches , just a different subject matter " , Field stated . " The Cockroaches sing about girls and love and stuff like that ; The Wiggles sing about hot potatoes and cold spaghetti . " Moran stated that The Wiggles wrote songs they liked and would listen to , and then made them appropriate for children . They approached simple and relocatable topics , such as food and nutrition , as teachers would in a pre @-@ school setting , with simple melodies that were easy for children to sing and remember . The group sang the same 60s @-@ style pop as The Cockroaches , but with different lyrics , although they were not confined to songs about love and could write about anything that interested and excited young children , which was limitless . The music they chose to write and perform was influenced by nursery rhymes , folk music , and rock songs of the 1950s and 1960s . Page reported , " First and foremost , we 're entertainers " . The Wiggles captured the interest of children by first entertaining them , and then by presenting them with educational messages .
The group wrote and performed children 's music that was different from what had been done previously ; as Cook stated , " we didn 't just go down the route of what people think is kids ' music " . They were not tied to one style or genre of music and often experimented in the studio ; while some of their recordings were orchestral , others had a more live feel . The group was aware that their songs were often children 's first exposure to music . Guitar Magazine speculated that since Cook was one of the first guitarists children were exposed to , he may be the most influential guitarist in the world . Cook was conscious that he was probably the first guitarist children would see , and said , " I always think that if it inspires kids to play guitar later on that would be great . I think it would be really nice if in 15 years I read that somebody got into guitar playing because of [ The ] Wiggles " . In 2013 , after Cook retired from touring with the group and became their touring manager , he reported that newer bands like Regular John approached him and said that The Wiggles were the first band " they got into " .
= = Educational theory = =
The Wiggles ' songwriting and performances were rooted in their professional training as pre @-@ school teachers and in the concepts of early childhood education . Anthony Field reported , as he studied music for young children at university , being " shocked ... at the non @-@ inclusive way music for children was usually performed " . According to Field , children had to sit silently as musicians played " traditional songs often featuring negative or outdated lyrics and dealing with subject matter of no interest to small children " . The lack of songs with themes and topics that interested children inspired Field to record The Wiggles ' first album .
The group 's " golden rule " , according to Field , was to make the content of their songs and shows " developmentally appropriate and fun " . Their music , stage shows , and television and DVD productions were developed , as The New York Times reported , " from the premise that a young child has a short attention span , is curious about a limited number of objects and activities , loves having a job to do and is thrilled by mastering basic movements " . They also respected their audience 's intelligence and insight about entertainment , information , and honesty . As Field said , " Young children identify with relevant concepts , and enjoy being entertained and being part of the entertainment . They are willing to commit to interacting if you are direct , inclusive , and positive " . The group understood that challenging young children to engage in difficult tasks is more effective than simply telling them to do it . They believed that young children were egocentric , so they stared continually into the camera in their videos and TV shows , and explained every action because they believed that young children needed to be told what to expect so that they do not feel left out and in order to feel safe .
The Wiggles ' stage shows were full of action and audience participation . By the group 's " New Wiggles " iteration , The Sydney Morning Herald called their shows slick and fast @-@ paced , with inside jokes for the adult members of their audience . The bandmembers tended to wander throughout the audience , " thrilling toddlers and smartphone wielding guardians alike " . Pryce , as an experienced stage performer , was conscious that their shows were the first live theater young children experienced ; as a result , the group adapted the content of their shows to accommodate their audience 's development and understanding . Paddick 's role as Captain Feathersword became more important in the mid @-@ 1990s , especially in the group 's stage shows , when he was able to incorporate his circus and opera training , as well as impersonations that were popular with their audience 's parents .
They believed in empowering children by practices such as greeting their audience members with " Hello , everyone " , instead of " Hello , boys and girls " because as Paul Field has explained , the second greeting " unnecessarily separates children and has undertones of condescension " . Kathleen Warren , the group 's former professor at Macquarie University , believed that the group 's practice of asking their audience to " Wake Up Jeff " when Fatt pretended to fall asleep was " very much in keeping with the way they work with children " . Warren stated that asking children to interrupt Fatt 's slumber helped them build confidence and to feel more in control of their lives . Fatt was the only original member of The Wiggles without a background in early childhood education ; he explained that was the reason falling asleep was chosen as his gimmick and that " it was a way of getting me involved in the shows without actually having to do anything " . Paul Field reported that children in The Wiggles ' audience felt " great excitement " and were disappointed if not given the opportunity to help Jeff in this way . Anthony Field , who called it " a simple audience participation and interaction gag we 've done since the start of the group " , claimed that it endeared Fatt to their audiences . The group 's members took turns falling asleep in the early days of the group , but it became Fatt 's gimmick because " it was a perfect fit " . When Fatt retired , Gillespie took over the task of falling asleep .
Simple movements were developed by their choreographers , including Leeanne Ashley , to accompany each song because , as The New York Times reported , they believed " in the power of basic movements to enchant young children " . According to reporter Anders Wright , they intentionally made mistakes in their dance moves in order to identify more with their young audience . The group incorporated more dancing into their performances after the birth of Field 's oldest daughter in 2004 . " So [ The ] Wiggles have kind of become a bit more , dare I say , girly . Dorothy ( the Dinosaur ) does ballet now and we dance as well a lot more than we did " , Field reported . In later years , corresponding with Field 's developing interests in acrobatics and gymnastics , they added these elements to their stage shows , including , as Field reported , hiring several world @-@ class athletes such as former trampoline champion Karl Shore . Watkins , whom Paul Field called " a dancer of many disciplines " , was initially hired as a member of their troupe and referred to herself as " mainly a dancer " .
Between 1999 and 2003 , to test the group 's appeal across cultures , Warren used one of The Wiggles ' CDs as an educational tool in a village near Madang , on the north coast of Papua New Guinea . She found that the Madangese children were able to relate to the group 's songs , and that they were able to sing along and participate in their simple choreography . Although The Wiggles ' recorded and performed songs , dances , and musical styles from different cultures and languages , The Wiggles did not find that adapting their music to non @-@ Australian cultures was necessary to reach children in other countries . As Cook stated , " ... Toddlers don 't have the same hang ups as adults " . The Wiggles recognised that as long as they spoke at the same level as their audience , their Australian accents would not matter , and that young children were able to adapt to a variety of contexts and to different pronunciations of common words , no matter where they resided .
= = Brand and finances = =
Despite Anthony Field 's expressed dislike of the term , preferring to refer to it as " preserving the good name of The Wiggles " , the group has stressed the importance of their brand and were protective of it . They remained as independent as possible , and retained full creative control and ownership of every aspect of their business . As Field stated , The Wiggles Pty Ltd was " not your regular ' corporate culture ' " . They made decisions by consensus and made business decisions based upon their experience as performers and their knowledge of early childhood education . They made careful decisions regarding their endorsements of toys and other products , and avoided over @-@ extending their brand by only licensing products that correlated with their image . They had high expectations regarding the behaviour and attitude of everyone associated with the group .
The Wiggles became formally consolidated in 2005 . The group 's board of directors consisted of the original three members , Paul Field , who has been general manager of operations since the group was formed and their manager since the mid @-@ 1990s , and Mike Conway , who had worked for Ernst & Young in England and become their general manager in 2001 . In 2009 , the Australian rock band AC / DC knocked The Wiggles , who earned A $ 45 million , from the top of Business Review Weekly 's ( BRW ) list of top entertainment earners for the first time in four years . In 2011 , the worldwide recession hit The Wiggles , as it had done for many Australian entertainers ; they earned A $ 28 million , but they still appeared second on the BRW 's list that year . By 2012 , founding members Anthony Field , Cook , and Fatt retained 30 % ownership of their brand , and Paul Field and Conway each owned 5 % . It was reported that as part owner of The Wiggles , Page was given a A $ 20 million payout when he left the group in 2006 . Other ventures of The Wiggles Pty Ltd included franchising their concept to South America , Taiwan , and other countries , opening " Wiggles World " sections in theme parks , and online offerings .
= = Reception = =
The Wiggles enjoyed " almost universal approval " throughout their history . Their songs were sung and played in pre @-@ schools all around the world . Between 2000 and 2010 , The Wiggles earned 21 Gold records . According to a 2012 news release published to announce the retirement of Cook , Fatt , and Page , they earned several Platinum , Double Platinum and Multi @-@ Platinum records , as well as sold 23 million DVDs and 7 million CDs . They performed , on average , to one million people per year .
After 2003 , front @-@ row tickets to their sold @-@ out concerts in the US were scalped for US $ 500 . The group responded by reducing the number of seats sold per transaction , in order to keep prices down and avoid further tickets scalping . In 2008 , the group found themselves in the midst of what The Daily Telegraph called a " ticketing scandal " ; scalpers tried to sell a A $ 19 ticket on eBay for almost A $ 2 @,@ 000 and a set of three tickets for A $ 315 for concerts in Melbourne , and a group of three tickets to a Wiggles UNICEF charity concert in Sydney had a price tag of A $ 510 . The tickets were taken off eBay and voided .
In what Paul Field called " one of the highlights of their 15 years of being together " , The Wiggles were awarded an honorary doctorate degree from Australian Catholic University in 2006 . Cook gave an address during the private ceremony honouring them . They were awarded another honorary doctoral degree in 2009 from their alma mater , Macquarie University . The group was named UNICEF goodwill ambassadors in 2008 ; they held a special concert to raise money for the organisation . In 2010 , the four original members of The Wiggles were appointed Members in the Order of Australia for their service to the arts in Australia , especially children 's entertainment , and for their contributions and support of several charities . They called the honour their " biggest recognition yet " . The group has always invited children with special needs and their families to pre @-@ concert " meet and greet " sessions . According to Fatt , many parents of these children have reported that The Wiggles ' music has enhanced their lives , and that children with autism " respond to [ The ] Wiggles and nothing else " . The Wiggles , throughout their history , have visited and performed for patients at the Sydney Children 's Hospital every Christmas morning .
In 2011 , ABC Music released an album titled " Rewiggled – A Tribute To The Wiggles " to celebrate the group 's 20th anniversary . The album features covers of many favourite Wiggles songs performed by notable Australian music artists .
= = = Australasian Performing Rights Association ( APRA ) awards = = =
The APRA Music Awards are award ceremonies that recognise songwriting skills , sales , and airplay performance by its members annually . The Wiggles have won five APRAs and was nominated for another . In 2007 , the group 's members , along with John Field , were awarded APRA 's International Achievement Award .
= = = Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) = = =
The Australian Recording Industry Association Music Awards is an annual series of awards nights celebrating the Australian music industry , put on by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The Wiggles have been nominated for Best Children 's Album 20 times , and have won the award 12 times . In 2003 , the group was awarded ARIA 's Award for Outstanding Achievement , and in 2011 , they were inducted into ARIA 's Hall of Fame .
= Michael Kidd =
Michael Kidd ( August 12 , 1915 – December 23 , 2007 ) was an American film and stage choreographer , dancer and actor , whose career spanned five decades , and staged some of the leading Broadway and film musicals of the 1940s and 1950s . Kidd , who was strongly influenced by Charlie Chaplin and Léonide Massine , was an innovator in what came to be known as the " integrated musical " , in which dance movements are integral to the plot .
He was probably best known for his athletic dance numbers in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers , a 1954 Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer musical , and for choreographing Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse in the " Girl Hunt Ballet " and " Dancing in the Dark " numbers in the 1953 musical film The Band Wagon . Film critic Stephanie Zacharek called the barn @-@ raising sequence in Seven Brides " one of the most rousing dance numbers ever put on screen " . He was the first choreographer to win five Tony Awards , and was awarded an honorary Academy Award in 1996 for advancing dance in film .
= = Early life and dance career = =
Kidd was born Milton Greenwald in New York City on the Lower East Side , the son of Abraham Greenwald , a barber , and his wife Lillian , who were refugees from Czarist Russia . He moved to Brooklyn with his family and attended New Utrecht High School . He became interested in dance after attending a modern dance performance , and went on to study under Blanche Evan , a dancer and choreographer .
He studied chemical engineering at the City College of New York , in 1936 and 1937 , but left after being granted a scholarship to the School of American Ballet . He toured the country as a member of the corps de ballet of Lincoln Kirstein ’ s Ballet Caravan , and performed in roles that included the lead in Billy the Kid , choreographed by Eugene Loring , which featured an orchestral arrangement by Aaron Copland .
He adopted the name " Michael Kidd " in 1942 . At the time he was performing with Ballet Caravan and all the dancers were urged to adopt " American " names . He chose Kidd because it was short , easy to remember , and evocative of the pirate , Captain Kidd .
In 1941 , Kidd became a soloist and assistant to Loring in his Dance Players . He moved on to become a soloist for Ballet Theater , later known as the American Ballet Theater . His performances there included Fancy Free ( 1944 ) choreographed by Jerome Robbins and with music by Leonard Bernstein , in which he played one of the three sailors . While at the ABT , he created his own ballet , On Stage ! ( 1945 ) . Although the play and his performance were well received , and the New York Times observed that Kidd was " hailed as one of the great hopes of postwar American ballet , " he left Loring 's company for Broadway in 1947 and never again worked in ballet .
= = Broadway and Hollywood = =
Kidd 's first choreography on Broadway was for E.Y. Harburg 's Finian 's Rainbow , a lyrical musical that explored racial prejudice . Kidd won his first Tony Award for that play . However , his next Broadway musicals were not successful . They were Hold It , a college musical , and the Kurt Weill / Alan Jay Lerner musical Love Life , directed by Elia Kazan , which both had short runs in 1948 . Next came Arms and the Girl ( 1950 ) , directed by Rouben Mamoulian , with Pearl Bailey and Nanette Fabray , also a flop .
His next play , Frank Loesser ’ s Guys and Dolls ( 1950 ) , cemented his reputation as a Broadway choreographer . It was based on Damon Runyon short stories , with book by Abe Burrows , and earned Kidd his second Tony Award . The play attracted the attention of movie producers , and he was lured to Hollywood .
His first film was a 1952 film adaptation of Frank Loesser 's 1948 Broadway musical , Where 's Charley ? , starring Ray Bolger repeating his Broadway performance in the lead role . His first big film success came the following year , with The Band Wagon , starring Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse .
The Band Wagon , which featured the music and lyrics of Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz , included an extensive dance sequence at the end , the " Girl Hunt Ballet " featuring Astaire and Charisse , which was a spoof of hard @-@ boiled Mickey Spillane novels . Kidd was hired to stage the film 's dances at Astaire 's request , because he was nervous about the ballet . Kidd said that he made Astaire comfortable by pretending that he was just making up the steps spontaneously . The film also featured " Shine on Your Shoes " , set in a 42nd Street penny arcade and featuring Astaire and LeRoy Daniels , a real @-@ life shoe @-@ shiner , and " Dancing in the Dark " with Charisse , set in Central Park .
Kidd 's work for the 1954 film Seven Brides for Seven Brothers brought him acclaim . The film was directed by Stanley Donen , with music by Saul Chaplin and Gene de Paul and lyrics by Johnny Mercer . It was written directly for the screen and based on the short story " The Sobbin ' Women " , by Stephen Vincent Benét , which was based in turn on the ancient Roman legend of The Rape of the Sabine Women . He initially turned down the assignment , recalling in 1997 : " Here are these slobs living off in the woods . They have no schooling , they are uncouth , there 's manure on the floor , the cows come in and out — and they 're gonna get up and dance ? We 'd be laughed out of the house . "
The entire cast , even extras , consisted of a melange of dancers , acrobats and stuntmen , including the ballet dancers Jacques D 'Amboise of the New York City Ballet and Marc Platt , formerly of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo . Except for Howard Keel and Jane Powell , the roles of the brothers and their brides were all played by professional dancers at Kidd 's insistence . Mercer said that the musical numbers were written at Kidd 's behest , as an example " of how a songwriter sometimes has to take his cue from his collaborators " . For example , Kidd explained to Mercer and dePaul his conception of the " Lonesome Polecat " number , the lament of the brothers for the women , and the two worked out the music and lyrics .
By the mid @-@ 1950s Hollywood 's output of movie musicals had begun to wane , and he worked on only two during that decade . He made his movie acting debut in It 's Always Fair Weather ( 1955 ) , directed by Gene Kelly and Donen , in which Kelly , Kidd and Dan Dailey played three ex @-@ GIs meeting ten years after the war , only to discover they had little in common . The film featured an exuberant number in which the three dance with garbage can lids fastened to their feet . The downbeat film was a critical success but was not heavily promoted by the studio , and failed at the box office . The film was originally designed to be a sequel to the 1949 film On the Town , but Frank Sinatra and Jules Munshin were unavailable , and the film lacked chemistry between the three actors . The production was marked by constant strife between Donen and Kelly , with much of it stemming from Donen striving unsuccessfully to include a ten @-@ minute dance solo by Kidd , " Jack and the Space Giants " . Kelly rejected that , which Kidd took as a personal insult , and Donen went further , ending his collaboration with Kelly for the rest of their lives . The " Jack " number appears as a bonus feature on a DVD of the film , and one commentator suggests that Kelly 's judgment was not wrong , as the number was listless and did not advance the plot .
Kidd was both director and choreographer for the musical comedy film Merry Andrew ( 1958 ) , starring Danny Kaye . By the then the era of movie musicals was pretty much over , and Kidd turned his attention to Broadway , where he had continued to work while choreographing movies . At the same time that he was choreographing The Band Wagon he was staging dances for Cole Porter ’ s Broadway musical Can @-@ Can . In that show he created dance numbers for Gwen Verdon which helped make her a Broadway sensation .
His other Broadway shows during the 1950s included Li 'l Abner in 1956 , which he directed as well as choreographed . He won another Tony Award for his choreography , which was adapted for the film version in 1959 . After Merry Andrew , however , he made no other films until Star ! , with Julie Andrews , in 1968 . Neither film was successful .
On Broadway he directed and choreographed Destry Rides Again ( 1959 ) , with Andy Griffith , Wildcat ( 1960 ) , which starred Lucille Ball , Subways Are for Sleeping ( 1961 ) , a musical comedy about homelessness , and Ben Franklin in Paris ( 1964 ) , starring Robert Preston . He also choreographed the famous Broadway flop Breakfast at Tiffany 's ( 1966 ) , a musical version of the Truman Capote novella with Mary Tyler Moore and Richard Chamberlain that never officially opened .
He choreographed the 1969 film adaptation of the hit Broadway play Hello , Dolly ! The film was beset by tension on the unhappy set , with Barbra Streisand clashing with her costar Walter Matthau and director Gene Kelly ; Kidd also had conflicts with costume designer Irene Sharaff and Kelly , to the point that he and Kelly were no longer on speaking terms . The film was not a success as a musical , with Kelly and Kidd making little use of the widescreen format of the film . Critic Tom Santopietro described their approach as " shoveling more and more bodies on screen with no apparent purpose " .
He went on to direct and choreograph the 1970 Broadway musical The Rothschilds , starring Hal Linden , and directed The Goodbye Girl , with Bernadette Peters and Martin Short , a 1993 adaptation of the 1977 Neil Simon film that was his final Broadway play . Although he was nominated for a Tony Award for best director , reviews were mixed . In The New York Times , Frank Rich said that " Kidd , who did much to define slam @-@ bang Broadway and Hollywood musical @-@ comedy style in the 1950s , directs ' The Goodbye Girl ' in a mechanical reduction of that style : everything is fast , furious , loud and downstage center . Not that any director could overcome this musical 's physical production . "
Kidd appeared in supporting roles as a character actor in the 1970s and 1980s , beginning with his performance as the faded , cynical choreographer for a cheesy beauty pageant in the satirical 1975 film Smile , which starred Bruce Dern . Film critic Roger Ebert called Kidd 's portrayal of the pageant choreographer a " finely etched semiautobiographical performance " . He acted in and staged the musical sequences in the 1978 film Movie Movie , which was directed by Stanley Donen , with whom he 'd worked in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers and It 's Always Fair Weather . Kidd directed an episode of the TV comedy Laverne and Shirley ( 1990 ) , as well as scenes for Janet Jackson in two music videos , When I Think of You ( 1986 ) and Alright ( 1990 ) . He conceived and choreographed the television special Baryshnikov in Hollywood , starring Mikhail Baryshnikov , in 1982 , for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = Personal life = =
Kidd died of cancer at the age 92 at his home in Los Angeles , California . His marriage to the dancer Mary Heater in 1945 ended in divorce . At his death he was survived by his wife Shelah Hackett , whom he married in 1969 , two daughters from his first marriage and a son and daughter from his second .
Kidd was the uncle of filmmaker and political activist , Robert Greenwald . His older brother was Harold Greenwald , a prominent psychotherapist and best @-@ selling author of the 1958 book The Call Girl , who was an expert in the study of prostitution .
= = Choreographic style = =
Kidd was unusually well @-@ respected , and his judgment was granted deference by the leading dancers of his era . British critic and biographer Michael Freedland said at the time of his death that " when Gene Kelly danced through the street with a dustbin lid tied to his feet in the 1955 film It 's Always Fair Weather , the man who usually planned his own routines did it to Kidd 's order " .
His realistic approach , designing dances that were inspired by the way ordinary people behaved , led one critic to observe that " Kidd is , in a way , the originator of the fantasy that if only your life shaped up and offered you the right moments , you too would be able to dance like a Hollywood star " .
Kidd believed that dance needed to derive from life , saying that his " dancing is based on naturalistic movement that is abstracted and enlarged " , and that " all my movements relate to some kind of real activity " . He always wanted dance to serve the story , and when beginning a new work he would write a scenario , explaining how the plot drove the characters to dance . His biggest influences were Charlie Chaplin , " because he expressed through movement the aspirations of the little man " , and the dancer and choreographer Léonide Massine , " because he expressed more than just balletic ability — he was always a character on stage , an exaggerated character , which I do all the time : an exaggeration of ordinary movement " .
His distinct style was evident in his early days in ballet . Describing a rare film clip of his performance in On Stage , dance critic Anna Kisselgoff recounted that Kidd in one scene played a handyman consoling ballerina Janet Reed , playing a shy young woman at a ballet audition . " Classical technique was used to expressive purpose as the wonderful Miss Reed grew visibly exuberant and confident as Mr. Kidd , broom in hand , entertained her with his virtuosic performance . "
He once said that " in choreography , ordinary movements from real life are taken and extended , so they become dance movements , yet the relation to reality must always be there . It 's important for me to know who the characters are and what their function is in the script . I must be able to illustrate either their activities , their emotions , or their changes in mood by the way they dance , all the while keeping the dance movements footed in reality and yet making the movements sort of odd and eccentric . " This philosophy was reflected in the early scene from The Band Wagon , when Fred Astaire walks down a railroad platform singing " By Myself . " His walk was not quite a dance , and epitomized Kidd 's style .
In a 2012 appreciation of his work , Dance Teacher said that " Kidd drew from the vocabularies of ballet , modern , social dance and acrobatics . But above all , his choreography stemmed from realistic movements and gestures . Following in the tradition of Agnes de Mille and Jerome Robbins , who developed the integrated musical , Kidd created dances that helped to carry the plot and flesh out the characters . He put the story first , communicating it through dance . " Kidd once said that " every move , every turn should mean something . Dancing should be completely understandable . " In Seven Brides for Seven Brothers he employed leading ballet dancers , but insisted that his dancers avoid ballet dance moves , and instead focus on " work movements like ax wielding " .
In choreographing Seven Brides , Kidd once said that he " had to find a way to have these backwoods men dance without looking ridiculous . I had to base it all around activities you would accept from such people — it couldn 't look like ballet . And it could only have been done by superbly trained dancers . " Yet he was able to integrate into the cast a non @-@ dancer MGM contract player who was assigned to the film , Russ Tamblyn , by utilizing his talents as a gymnast and tumbler in the dance numbers .
Kidd 's personal favorite of the films he choreographed , however , was not Seven Brides or Band Wagon but Guys and Dolls , which he felt was " the best , most inventive and best integrated musical I 've ever seen " .
Although he came from the world of classic ballet , a Los Angeles Times critic noted at his death that he had " a healthy disdain for its pretensions " . He staged a comedic ballet sequence for the 1954 Danny Kaye film Knock on Wood , in which Kaye is chased into a theater and hides on stage during a performance by a Russian ballet company . The sequence allowed Kidd to lampoon the stylistic excesses he 'd observed as a dancer at the American Ballet Theater .
As in his choreography for both the Broadway and 1955 film adaptation of Guys and Dolls , and in the " Girl Hunt Ballet " , Kidd 's choreography in Seven Brides exuded masculinity . One history of the musical theater observes that " Kidd forged dances , and shows , in which men were men , leaping high , stout hearted , and passionate about their dolls " . He choreographed " for the little guy , the working guy , the guy defined by his job and the movement that job entailed " .
Although Kidd drove his dancers hard , partly because he himself was capable of doing all the dance steps that he required of them , his personal style was gentle . Nanette Fabray , who performed in Love Life , could only make dancing turns to the left side because of a hearing problem . Rather than insisting she turn to the right , as many choreographers would do , Kidd " found that fascinating , and he made all the other dancers turn to the left " . Julie Andrews recalled that the " Burlington Bertie From Bow " number in Star ! was physically demanding , and she balked when Kidd asked her for a retake , saying she had a bad back . Andrews recalled that " he looked crestfallen . Then he said , ' I wasn 't trying to be mean . I just knew that when you saw it on film , you wouldn 't be pleased . ' I always thought that was a nice way to say , ' Once more . ' "
= = Awards = =
Kidd was the first choreographer to win five Tony Awards , and received nine Tony nominations . He was awarded an honorary Academy Award in 1997 " in recognition of his services to the art of dance in the art of the screen " .
He was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981 .
= = Film credits = =
Where 's Charley ? ( 1952 ) – choreographer
The Band Wagon ( 1953 ) – choreographer
Knock on Wood ( 1954 ) – choreographer
Seven Brides for Seven Brothers ( 1954 ) – choreographer
Guys and Dolls ( 1955 ) – choreographer
It 's Always Fair Weather ( 1955 ) – actor
Merry Andrew ( 1958 ) – director and choreographer
Li 'l Abner ( 1959 ) – original choreography
Star ! ( 1968 ) – choreographer
Hello , Dolly ! ( 1969 ) – choreographer
Smile ( 1975 ) – actor
Actor ( 1978 ) ( TV movie ) – actor
Movie Movie ( 1978 ) – actor , musical staging
For the Love of It ( TV Movie ) ( 1980 ) – actor
Skin Deep ( 1989 ) – actor
= = Broadway credits = =
Filling Station ( 1939 ) – ballet – dancer in the role of " The Gangster "
Billy the Kid ( 1939 ) – ballet to the music of Aaron Copland – dancer
Pocahontas ( 1939 ) – ballet to the music of Elliott Carter – dancer cast as an " Indian Man "
Billy the Kid ( 1942 revival ) – director and dancer
Interplay ( 1945 ) – ballet to the music of Morton Gould and choreography of Jerome Robbins – dancer
Fancy Free ( 1946 ) – ballet , with music of Leonard Bernstein and choreography of Jerome Robbins – dancer cast as a " Sailor "
Finian 's Rainbow ( 1947 ) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Hold It ! ( 1948 ) – musical – choreographer
Love Life ( 1948 ) – musical – choreographer
Arms and the Girl ( 1950 ) – musical – choreographer
Guys and Dolls ( 1950 ) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Can @-@ Can ( 1953 ) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Li 'l Abner ( 1956 ) – musical – director , choreographer , and co @-@ producer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Destry Rides Again ( 1959 ) – musical – director and choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography and nominated for Best Direction of a Musical
Wildcat ( 1960 ) – musical – director , choreographer , and co @-@ producer
Subways Are For Sleeping ( 1961 ) – musical – director and choreographer – Tony Award Nomination for Best Choreography
Here 's Love ( 1963 ) – musical – choreographer
Ben Franklin in Paris ( 1964 ) – musical – director and choreographer
Skyscraper ( 1965 ) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award Nomination for Best Choreography
Breakfast at Tiffany 's ( 1966 – never officially opened ) – musical – choreographer
The Rothschilds ( 1970 ) – musical – director and choreographer – Tony Award Nominations for Best Direction of a Musical and Best Choreography
Cyrano ( 1973 ) – musical – director and choreographer
The Music Man ( 1980 revival ) – musical – director and choreographer
The Goodbye Girl ( 1993 ) – musical – director – Tony Award Nomination for Best Direction of a Musical
= Copenhagen Metro =
Copenhagen Metro ( Danish : Københavns Metro ) is a rapid transit system serving the cities of Copenhagen , Frederiksberg , and Tårnby in the Capital Region , Denmark .
The 20 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) system opened between 2002 and 2007 , and has two lines , M1 and M2 . The driverless light metro supplements the larger S @-@ train rapid transit system , and is integrated with DSB local trains and Movia buses . Through the city center and west to Vanløse , M1 and M2 share a common line . To the southeast , the system serves Amager , with the 13 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 6 mi ) M1 running through the new neighborhood of Ørestad , and the 14 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 8 mi ) M2 serving the eastern neighborhoods and Copenhagen Airport . The metro has 22 stations , of which nine are underground . In 2013 , the metro carried 55 million passengers .
= = Overview = =
The system is owned by Metroselskabet , which is owned by the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg , and the Ministry of Transport . The 34 trains are of the AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro class and stationed at the Control and Maintenance Center at Vestamager . The trains are 2 @.@ 65 m ( 8 ft 8 in ) wide and three cars long ; their 630 @-@ kilowatt ( 840 hp ) power output is supplied by a 750 @-@ volt third rail . The metro trains were originally planned to be four cars long , but trains were reduced to three cars per set as a savings measure . Platforms are - although shorter than originally planned - built to accommodate train with four cars , and the automatic doors can be modified accordingly should the need arise .
Operation of the system is subcontracted to Metro Service . Trains run continually , twenty @-@ four hours a day , with the headway varying from two to twenty minutes .
Planning of the Metro started in 1992 as part of the redevelopment plans for Ørestad with construction starting in 1996 , and stage 1 , from Nørreport to Vestamager and Lergravsparken , opened in 2002 . Stage 2 , from Nørreport to Vanløse , opened in 2003 , followed by stage 3 , from Lergravsparken to Lufthavnen , in 2007 . Construction of the M3 + M4 City Circle Line is underway . Scheduled to open in 2020 , this line will form a circle around the city center , be entirely underground and not share any track with M1 and M2 . Kongens Nytorv and Frederiksberg will serve as interchanges between M1 , M2 and M3 + M4 . A two @-@ station branch towards Nordhavn is planned to open in 2019 . A planned expansion towards Sydhavn will include a linkup with Ny Ellebjerg on the S @-@ train network . These stations will also be connected to the regional train network following the completion of the new Copenhagen @-@ Ringsted railway . The Sydhavn extension has been approved .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The planning of the metro was spurred by the development of the Ørestad area of Copenhagen . The principle of building a rail transit was passed by the Parliament of Denmark on 24 June 1992 , with the Ørestad Act . The responsibility for developing the area , as well as building and operating the metro , was given to the Ørestad Development Corporation , a joint venture between Copenhagen Municipality ( 45 % ) and the Ministry of Finance ( 55 % ) . Initially , three modes were considered : a tramway , a light rail and a rapid transit . In October 1994 , the Development Corporation chose a light rapid transit .
The tram solution would have been a street tram , without any major infrastructure investments in the city centre , such as a dedicated right @-@ of @-@ way . Through Ørestad it would have had level crossings , except for a grade @-@ separated crossing with the European Route E20 and the Øresund Line . It would have had a driver and have operated at about a 150 @-@ second interval — twice the cycle time of the city 's traffic lights . Power would have been provided with overhead wires . Stops were to be located about every 500 m ( 550 yd ) at street level . The articulated trams would have been about 35 m ( 115 ft ) long and have a capacity for 230 passengers .
The light rail model would have used the same approach as the tram in Ørestad , but would instead have run through a tunnel in the city centre . The tunnel sections would be shorter , but the diameter larger because it would have to accommodate overhead wires . The system would have the same frequency as the tram , but use double trams and would therefore require larger stations . The metro solution was chosen because it combined the highest average speeds , the highest passenger capacity , the lowest visual and noise impact , and the lowest number of accidents . Despite requiring the highest investment , it had the highest net present value .
The decision to build stage 2 , from Nørreport to Vanløse , and stage 3 , to the airport , was taken by Parliament on 21 December 1994 . Stage 2 involved the establishment of the company Frederiksbergbaneselskabet I / S in February 1995 , owned 70 % by the Ørestad Development Corporation and 30 % by Frederiksberg Municipality . The third stage would be built by Østamagerbaneselskabet I / S , established in September 1995 and owned 55 % by the Ørestad Development Corporation and 45 % by Copenhagen County . In October 1996 , a contract was signed with the Copenhagen Metro Construction Group ( COMET ) for building the lines ( Civil Works ) , and with Ansaldo STS for delivery of technological systems and trains , and to operate the system the first five years . COMET was a single @-@ purpose consortium composed of Astaldi , Bachy , SAE , Ilbau , NCC Rasmussen & Schiøtz Anlæg and Tarmac Construction .
= = = Construction of lines M1 and M2 = = =
Construction started in November 1996 , with the moving of underground pipes and wires around the station areas . In August 1997 , work started at the depot , and in September , COMET started the first mainline work . In October and November , the two tunnel boring machines ( TBM ) , christened Liva and Bette , were delivered . They started boring each barrel of the tunnel from Islands Brygge in February 1998 . The same month , the Public Transport Authority gave the necessary permits to operate a driverless metro . The section between Fasanvej and Frederiksberg is a former S @-@ train line , and was last operated as such on 20 June 1998 .
The first section of tunnel was completed in September 1998 , and the TBMs moved to Havnegade . By December 1998 , work had started on the initial nine stations . Plans for M2 were presented to the public in April 1999 , with a debate emerging if the proposed elevated solution was the best . In May , the first trains were delivered , and trial runs began at the depot . In December , the tunnels were completed to Strandlodsvej , and the TBMs were moved to Havnegade , where they started to grind towards Frederiksberg . From 1 January 2000 , the S @-@ train service from Solbjerg to Vanløse was terminated , and work commenced to rebuild the section to metro . The last section of tunnel was completed in February 2001 .
In March 2001 , Copenhagen County Council decided to start construction of stage 3 . On 6 November 2001 , the first train operated through a tunnel section . On 28 November , laying of tracks along stage 1 , and stage 2A from Nørreport to Frederiksberg , was completed . An agreement about financing stage 3 was reached on 12 April . By 22 May , the 18 delivered trains had test @-@ run 100 @,@ 000 km ( 62 @,@ 000 miles ) . The section from Nørreport to Lergravsparken and Vestamager was opened on 19 October 2002 . Initially , the system had a 12 @-@ minute headway on each of the two services . From 3 December this was reduced to 9 minutes , and from 19 December to 6 minutes . Operation of the system was subcontracted to Ansaldo , who again subcontracted it to Metro Service , a subsidiary of Serco . The contract had a duration of five years , with an option for extension for another three .
= = = Opening of lines M1 and M2 = = =
Trial runs on stage 2A began on 24 February 2003 and opened on 29 May . All changes to bus and train schedules in Copenhagen took place on 25 May , but to allow Queen Margrethe II to open the line , the opening needed to be adapted to her calendar . This caused four days without a bus service along the line . Stage 2B , from Frederiksberg to Vanløse , opened on 12 October .
Forum Station was nominated for the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture in 2005 . On 2 December 2005 , the final agreement to build the City Circle Line was made between the local and national governments . The price was estimated at 11 @.@ 5 to 18 @.@ 3 billion Danish krone ( DKK ) , of which DKK 5 @.@ 4 billion will be financed though ticket sales , and the remaining from the state and municipalities . In 2006 , it was announced that the contract with Ansaldo to operate the metro had been prolonged another three years . However , the subcontract between Ansaldo and Serco Group was not extended , and the contract was instead given to Azienda Trasporti Milanesi in joint venture with Ansaldo ; they took over operations from October 2007 . The Ørestad Development Corporation was discontinued in 2007 , and the ownership of the metro was transferred to Metroselskabet I / S.
In January 2007 , the city council decided that a branch was to be built during construction at Nørrebro , to allow a future branch line from the City Circle Line towards Brønshøj . The first part of this line was intended to be constructed at the same time as the City Circle Line , to avoid a multitude @-@ higher construction cost and long interruptions of operations later . This did not involve a final decision , only an option for future construction . The Herlev / Brønshøj line was ultimately dropped as the City of Copenhagen withdrew its share of the cost of the Nørrebro branch chamber in its 2009 budget , and the state refused to continue the project . Any branch to the Herlev / Brønshøj region would now require a shutdown of the City Circle Line for an extended period of time .
In March 2007 , a proposal to establish a station at Valby , where the Carlsberg Group is planning an urban redevelopment , was scrapped . The proposal would have increased construction costs by DKK 900 million and was deemed not economical . The increased cost was , in part , due to an extra TBM being needed to complete the project on time . The City Circle Line was passed by parliament on 1 June 2007 , with only the Red – Green Alliance voting in disfavor .
The 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ) stage 3 opened on 28 September 2007 , from Lergravsparken to the airport . It followed , for the most part , the route of the former Amager Line of the Danish State Railways . With this stage complete , the 34 trains were delivered . However , the line caused a heated debate , with several locals organized themselves into the Amager Metro Group . The group argued that the line should have been built underground , citing concerns that it would create noise pollution and a physical barrier in Amager . In April 2008 , the Copenhagen Metro won the award at MetroRail 2008 for the world 's best metro . The jury noted the system 's high regularity , safety and passenger satisfaction , as well as the efficient transport to the airport . During 2008 , the metro experienced a 16 % passenger growth to 44 million passengers per year .
An agreement made in September 2008 , the Social Democrats , the Conservative People 's Party , the Liberal Party and the Danish People 's Party agreed to not fund an expansion of the metro northwest . Initially , the system operated trains from 01 : 00 to 05 : 00 only on Thursdays through Saturdays , but , starting on 19 March 2009 , night service was extended to the rest of the week . This caused a logistical challenge , because Metro Service used the nights for maintenance . The routes were therefore set up in such a way that the system could be operated on only a single track , leaving the other free for work . In May 2009 , six companies were pre @-@ qualified to bid for the public service obligation to operate the metro . These were Serco @-@ NedRailways , Ansaldo STS , Arriva , S @-@ Bahn Hamburg , Keolis and DSB Metro — a joint venture between DSB and RATP . The process was delayed because of a procedural error by Metroselskabet , who failed to pre @-@ qualify DSB Metro .
= = = Construction of City Circle Line = = =
An expansion of the metro , the City Circle Line , is under @-@ construction and scheduled to open in 2019 . Independent of the existing system , it will circle the city center and connect the areas of Østerbro , Nørrebro and Vesterbro to Frederiksberg and Indre By . The line will be 15 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 6 miles ) long and run entirely in tunnel . The circle will have 17 stations , two of which are interchanges with both the M1 and M2 lines , and it will take 25 minutes to complete a full circle . Archaeological and geological surveys started in 2007 , preferred bidders were announced in November 2010 and contracts were signed in 2011 . Preparations began by moving utilities etc. in 2010 , and construction of work sites and stations began in 2011 . Drilling of tunnels will begin in 2013 . On 7 January 2011 the new project called Cityringen started with the signature by Metroselskabet of new contracts , with Ansaldo Breda and Ansaldo Sts ( Finmeccanica Group ) for the supply of trains and control systems and with an Italian joint @-@ venture led by Salin Construttori ( about 60 % ) and Tecnimont ( about 40 % ) with Seli as third partner for the construction part . In July 2013 , Natur- og Miljøklagenævnet , the environmental appeals board , ruled that the city was wrong to grant Metroselskabet persmission for 24 @-@ hour work days and noise up to 78 db at the Marmorkirken site . The company is now required to stop work 6PM until a final ruling is made , which could take up to half a year , potentially delaying the completion date .
The line will operate as M3 and M4 . The former will run a full circle , while M4 will only operate on the eastern half from Copenhagen Central Station ( København H ) via Østerport to Nørrebro . This solution is temporary , once the metro network has been extended to Nordhavn , the M4 will start at Copenhagen Central Station but leave the City Circle Line at Østerport and service the Nordhavn branch . Later , when the Sydhavn extension has been completed , the M4 will have Ny Ellebjerg as its southern terminus . Trains will operate both ways through the circle . The line will have transfer to M1 and M2 at Frederiksberg and Kongens Nytorv . The line is estimated to carry 240 @,@ 000 daily passengers , bringing the metro 's total daily ridership to 460 @,@ 000 .
A northwestern expansion of the City Circle Line was planned , where M4 would divert at Nørrebro and run to the suburbs of Brønshøj and Gladsaxe . This project was abandoned , as the interchange chamber between any such line and the City Circle Line was scrapped as part of the City of Copenhagen 's 2009 budget . In subsequent plans , the northern extension of the M4 has instead been relocated as a Nordhavn branch which will connect with the City Circle Line at Østerport . A Nordhavn line with two stations has been approved by the Danish parliament , and is planned to open in 2019 . The southern extension of the M4 will run from Copenhagen Central Station through Sydhavn to Ny Ellebjerg , where the M4 will link up with the S @-@ train and regional train system . The Danish Transport Authority ( Trafikstyrelsen ) has suggested to convert the F @-@ line of the S @-@ train network to metro standard as an M5 line , but as the only linkup between the M5 and the existing network would be at Flintholm Station ( interchange with M1 and M2 ) , this plan is dependent on the approval of a southern extension of the M4 , also providing the M5 with an interchange with the M4 at Ny Ellebjerg Station .
The City of Copenhagen has suggested two additional lines M6 and M7 , and a western extension of the M1 or M2 to Brøndbyøster has also been suggested .
In September 2011 , the local governments in Copenhagen and neighbouring Malmö in Sweden announced that they were seeking European Union funding to study a potential metro line under the Øresund to the neighbourhood of Malmö Central Station , providing faster trips and additional capacity beyond that of the existing Øresund Bridge . The study , for which the EU granted funding in the following December , will consider both a simple shuttle between the two stations and a continuous line integrated with the local transport networks on each side , and they anticipate a travel time of 15 minutes between the two city centers .
= = Route = =
The metro consists of two lines , M1 and M2 . They share a common 7 @.@ 69 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 78 mi ) section from Vanløse to Christianshavn , where they split along two lines : M1 follows the Ørestad Line to Vestamager , while M2 follows the Østamager Line to the airport . The metro consists of a total route length of 20 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) , and 22 stations , 9 of which are on the section shared by both lines . M1 is 13 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 6 mi ) long and serves 15 stations , while M2 is 14 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 8 mi ) long and serves 16 stations . About 10 km ( 6 miles ) of the lines and 9 stations are in tunnel , located at 20 to 30 m ( 70 to 100 ft ) below ground level . The remaining sections are on embankments , viaducts or at ground level .
The section from Vanløse to Frederiksberg follows the Frederiksberg Line , a former S @-@ train line which runs on an embankment . Between Solbjerg and Frederiksberg , the line runs underground , and continues through the city center . After Christianshavn , the line splits in two . M1 reaches ground level at Islands Brygge , and continues on a viaduct through the Vestamager area . M2 continues in tunnel until after Lergravsparken , where it starts to follow the former Amager Line .
The tunnels consist of two parallel barrels ; they run through stable limestone at about 30 m ( 100 ft ) depth , but are elevated slightly at stations . There are emergency exits every 600 m ( 660 yd ) , so that no train is ever further than 300 m ( 330 yd ) away from one . The outer tunnel diameter is 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) , while the inner diameter is 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) . The tunnels were excavated by the cut @-@ and @-@ cover method , the New Austrian Tunnelling method and by tunnel boring machines ( TBM ) . Along the elevated sections , the tracks run on alternating sections of separate reinforced concrete viaducts and joint embankments made of reinforced earth .
= = Service = =
The system operates continually ( 24 / 7 ) with a varying headway throughout the day . During rush hour ( 07 : 00 – 10 : 00 and 15 : 00 – 18 : 00 ) , there is a two @-@ minute headway on the common section and a four @-@ minute headway on the single @-@ service sections . During Thursday through Saturday night ( 0 : 00 – 05 : 00 ) , the headway is fifteen minutes , and other nights it is twenty minutes on all sections of the metro . At all other times , there is a three @-@ minute headway on the common section and a six @-@ minute on the split sections . Travel time from Nørreport to Vestamager on M1 is 14 minutes , to the airport on M2 is 15 minutes , and to Vanløse on M1 and M2 is 9 minutes . In 2009 , the metro transported 50 million passengers , or 137 @,@ 000 per day ; by 2013 , the metro 's ridership increased to 55 million .
The metro operates with a proof @-@ of @-@ payment system , so riders must have a valid ticket before entering the station platforms . The system is divided into zones , and the fare structure is integrated with other public transport in Copenhagen , including the buses managed by Movia , local DSB trains and the S @-@ train . The system lies within four different zones . Ticket machines are available at all stations , where special tickets for dogs and bicycles can also be purchased . A two @-@ zone ticket costs DKK 24 , and a three @-@ zone ticket DKK 36 , and tickets are good for 60 minutes . Holders of the Copenhagen Card museum pass ride free of charge , as do up to two children under twelve years of age accompanied by an adult . As of 2012 , the metro has fully adapted to the national electronic fare card system Rejsekort .
The system is integrated with other public transport in Copenhagen . There is transfer to the S @-@ train at Vanløse , Flintholm and Nørreport , to DSB 's local trains at Nørreport , Ørestad and Lufthavnen , and to Copenhagen Airport at Lufthavnen . There are transfers to Movia bus services at all but four stations .
The system is owned by Metroselskabet , who is also responsible for building the City Circle Line . The company is owned by Copenhagen Municipality ( 50 @.@ 0 % ) , the Ministry of Transport ( 41 @.@ 7 % ) and Frederiksberg Municipality ( 8 @.@ 3 % ) . The company is organized with as few employees as possible . Construction and operation is subcontracted through public tenders , while consultants are used for planning . The contract to operate the system was made with Ansaldo STS , who has subcontracted it to Metro Service , a joint venture between them and Azienda Trasporti Milanesi ( ATM ) , the public transport company of the city of Milan , Italy . The company has about 200 employees , the majority of whom work as stewards .
= = Stations = =
There are twenty @-@ two stations on the network , of which nine are underground and six are deep @-@ level . They were all designed by KHR Arkitekter , who created open stations with daylight . Stations have an information column in front , marked with a large ' M ' and featuring information screens . All stations have a vestibule at ground level , which has ticket and local information , ticket machines and validators . The stations are built with island platforms and are fully accessible for people with disabilities .
The six deep @-@ level stations are built as rectangular , open boxes 60 m ( 200 ft ) long , 20 m ( 66 ft ) wide and 20 m ( 66 ft ) deep . The platforms are located 18 m ( 59 ft ) below the surface . Access to the surface is reached via escalators and elevators . The design allows the stations to be located below streets and squares , allowing the stations to be built without expropriation . Access to the track is blocked by platform screen doors . The underground stations were built as cut @-@ and @-@ cover from the top down ( except Christianshavn , which was excavated as a large hole and the station built bottom @-@ up ) , and the first part of construction was building a water @-@ tight wall on all sides . There are glass pyramids on the roof of the stations permitting daylight to enter . Inside the pyramids , there are prisms reflecting and splitting the light , sometimes resulting in rainbows on the walls . The light in the stations is automatically regulated to make best use of the daylight and maintain a constant level of illumination of the stations at all times .
The elevated stations are built in glass , concrete and steel to minimize their visual impact . Outside , there is parking for bicycles , cars , buses and taxis . The platforms are open , but have sheds , and automatic sensors that halt trains if obstacles are detected on the tracks .
= = Trains = =
The system uses 34 driverless electric multiple units built by AnsaldoBreda and designed by Giugiaro Design of Italy called the AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro .
The trains are 39 m ( 128 ft ) long , 2 @.@ 65 m ( 8 ft 8 in ) wide , and weigh 52 tonnes ( 51 long tons ; 57 short tons ) . Each train consists of three articulated cars with a total of six automated , 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 ft 3 in ) wide doors , holding up to 96 seated and 204 standing passengers ( 300 in total ) . There are four large ' flex areas ' in each train with folding seats providing space for wheelchairs , strollers and bicycles .
Each car is equipped with two three @-@ phase asynchronous 105 @-@ kilowatt ( 141 hp ) motors , giving each train a power output of 630 kilowatts ( 840 hp ) . In each car , the two motors are fed by the car 's own insulated @-@ gate bipolar transistor . They transform the 750 @-@ volt direct current collected from the third rail shoe to the three @-@ phase alternating current used in the motors . The trains ' top speed are 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , while the average service speed is 40 km / h ( 25 mph ) , with an acceleration and deceleration capacity of 1 @.@ 3 m / s2 ( 4 @.@ 3 ft / s2 ) along the standard @-@ gauge track .
The entire metro system and the trains are run by a fully automated computer system , located at the Control and Maintenance Center south of Vestamager Station . The automatic train control ( ATC ) consists of three subsystems : automatic train protection ( ATP ) , automatic train operation ( ATO ) and automatic train supervisory ( ATS ) . The ATP is responsible for keeping the trains ' speed , ensuring that doors are closed before departure and switches are correctly set . The system uses fixed block signaling , except around stations , where moving block signaling is used .
The ATO is the autopilot that runs the trains on a predefined schedule , ensures that the trains stop at the station and open the doors . The ATS keeps track of all the components in the network , including the rails and all of the trains in the system , and displays a live schematic at the control center . The ATC is designed so that the ATP is the only safety @-@ critical system , as it would halt the trains if the other systems fail . The safety and signaling specifications are based on the German BOStrab , and controlled by TÜV Rheinland and Det Norske Veritas under supervision of the Public Transport Authority . Other aspects of the system , such as power supply , ventilation , security alarms , cameras and pumps , are controlled by a system called " control , regulating and surveillance " .
The Control and Maintenance Center is a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ hectare ( 2 @.@ 7 @-@ acre ) facility located at the south end of M1 . It consists of a storage area for trains not in use , a maintenance area and the control facility . Trains operate automatically through the system , and can also automatically be washed on the exterior . The facility has 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of track , of which 800 m ( 870 yd ) is a test track for use after maintenance . The most common repairs are wheel grinding ; more complicated repairs are made by replacing entire components that are sent to the manufacturer . By having components in reserve , trains can have shorter maintenance time . The depot also has several maintenance trains , including diesel locomotives that are able to retrieve broken down or disabled trains .
At any time , there are four people working at the control center : two monitor the ATC system , one monitors passenger information , and one is responsible for secondary systems , such as power supply . In case of technical problems , there is always a team of linemen that can be dispatched to perform repairs . Although the trains are not equipped with drivers , there are stewards at stations and on some trains that help passengers , perform ticket controls and assist in emergency situations .
= Variable and Full of Perturbation =
" Variable and Full of Perturbation " is the eighth episode of the second season , and the eighteenth episode overall , of the Canadian science fiction television series Orphan Black . It first aired in Canada on Space and the United States on BBC America on 7 June 2014 . The episode was written by Karen Walton and directed by the series ' co @-@ creator John Fawcett .
The series focuses on a number of identical human clones , all of whom are played by Tatiana Maslany : Sarah Manning , Alison Hendrix , Cosima Niehaus and Rachel Duncan . This episode introduces a new clone , Tony Sawicki ( Maslany ) , a transgender man whose search for another clone leads him to Sarah 's foster brother Felix Dawkins ( Jordan Gavaris ) . Meanwhile , the founder of the cloning program , Professor Ethan Duncan ( Andrew Gillies ) , meets with his adoptive daughter Rachel and attempts to find a cure for Cosima 's illness , while Alison and her husband Donnie ( Kristian Bruun ) attempt to hide a dead body .
The show 's co @-
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specifically his criticism of the recording industry at large , elicited considerable media attention . In September 2007 , Reznor continued his attack on UMG at a concert in Australia , urging fans there to " steal " his music online instead of purchasing it legally . Reznor went on to encourage the crowd to " steal and steal and steal some more and give it to all your friends and keep on stealin ' . "
Reznor announced on October 8 , 2007 , that Nine Inch Nails had fulfilled its contractual commitments to Interscope Records and was now free to proceed as a " totally free agent , free of any recording contract with any label " . Reznor also speculated that he would release the next Nine Inch Nails album online in a similar fashion to The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust ! , which he produced . Reznor later released the first nine tracks of Ghosts I – IV and the entirety of The Slip in 2008 for free download .
In another post on his website , Reznor again openly criticized Universal Music Group for preventing him from launching an official interactive fan remix website . Universal declined to host the site just days before its scheduled launch , citing the potential " accusation " , in Reznor 's words , " that they are sponsoring the same technical violation of copyright they are suing [ other media companies ] for " . Reznor wrote in response that he was " challenged at the last second to find a way of bringing this idea to life without getting splashed by the urine as these media companies piss all over each other 's feet " . Despite these obstacles , the remix website was launched in November 2007 .
= = = Other corporations = = =
Nine Inch Nails was scheduled to perform at the 2005 MTV Movie Awards , but withdrew from the show due to a disagreement with the network over the use of an unaltered image of George W. Bush as a backdrop to the band 's performance of " The Hand That Feeds " . Soon afterwards , Reznor wrote on his official website : " apparently , the image of our president is as offensive to MTV as it is to me . " MTV replied that it respected Reznor 's point of view , but was " uncomfortable " with the performance being " built around partisan political statements . " A performance by Foo Fighters replaced Nine Inch Nails ' time slot on the show . During the Lights in the Sky tour in 2008 , some performances of " The Hand that Feeds " had the image of Bush on a video screen behind the band . At some gigs leading up to the election , the face of Bush slowly morphed during the song into the face of John McCain .
In 2006 , after being alerted by a fan website , Reznor issued a cease and desist to Fox News Channel for using three songs from The Fragile on air without permission . The songs " La Mer " , " The Great Below " , and " The Mark Has Been Made " appeared in an episode of War Stories with Oliver North detailing the battle of Iwo Jima . A post appeared on Reznor 's blog , which read : " Thanks for the Fox News heads @-@ up . A cease and desist has been issued . FUCK Fox Fucking News . "
As part of the alternate reality game which accompanied the release of Year Zero , three tracks from the album were intentionally " leaked " prior to their official release at a number of Nine Inch Nails concerts on USB flash drives . The high @-@ quality audio files quickly circulated the internet , and owners of websites hosting the files soon received cease and desist orders from the Recording Industry Association of America , despite the fact that the viral campaign , and the use of USB drives , was sanctioned by Nine Inch Nails ' record label . The source that broke the story was quoted as saying , " These fucking idiots are going after a campaign that the label signed off on . "
The music of Nine Inch Nails has reportedly been used by the U.S. military as music torture to break down the resolve of detainees . Reznor objected to the use of his music in this way with the following message on the front page of the Nine Inch Nails website : " It 's difficult for me to imagine anything more profoundly insulting , demeaning and enraging than discovering music you 've put your heart and soul into creating has been used for purposes of torture . If there are any legal options that can be realistically taken they will be aggressively pursued , with any potential monetary gains donated to human rights charities . Thank GOD this country has appeared to side with reason and we can put the Bush administration 's reign of power , greed , lawlessness and madness behind us . "
Aside from disagreements over the usage of Nine Inch Nails material , some corporations have dismissed content due to perceived obscenity . In 2009 , Apple rejected an update to Nine Inch Nails ' iPhone application , NIN : Access , because it found The Downward Spiral to contain " offensive or obscene content " , referring to the lyrical content . Reznor criticized their decision , citing the audio was also available through the iTunes application .
A similar incident involving digital content distribution occurred in 2013 when Nine Inch Nails re @-@ released the original 1993 film Broken on Vimeo . Within hours of launch , the video was removed due to a terms of service violation on material that " harass , incite hatred or depict excessive violence . "
= = Band members = =
Trent Reznor – lead vocals , guitars , bass , keyboards , synthesizers , piano , programming ( 1988 – present , the only official member )
Robin Finck – guitar , synthesizers , backing vocals ( 1994 – 2000 , 2008 – 2009 , 2013 – present )
Alessandro Cortini – keyboards , synthesizers , guitar , backing vocals ( 2004 – 2008 , 2013 – present )
Ilan Rubin – drums , percussion ( 2009 , 2013 – present )
= = Discography = =
Pretty Hate Machine ( 1989 )
Broken ( EP , 1992 )
The Downward Spiral ( 1994 )
The Fragile ( 1999 )
With Teeth ( 2005 )
Year Zero ( 2007 )
Ghosts I – IV ( 2008 )
The Slip ( 2008 )
Hesitation Marks ( 2013 )
= = Concert tours = =
Pretty Hate Machine Tour Series ( 1988 – 1991 )
Self Destruct Tour ( 1994 – 1996 )
Fragility Tour ( 1999 – 2000 )
Live : With Teeth Tour ( 2005 – 2006 )
Performance 2007 Tour ( 2007 )
Lights in the Sky Tour ( 2008 )
Wave Goodbye Tour ( 2009 )
Twenty Thirteen Tour ( 2013 – 2014 )
= = Awards = =
Nine Inch Nails has been nominated for 13 Grammy Awards and has won awards on two occasions — for " Wish " in 1992 and " Happiness in Slavery " in 1995 :
" Wish " – Best Metal Performance , 1992 ( recipient )
The Downward Spiral – Best Alternative Music Performance , 1995 ( nomination )
" Happiness in Slavery " ( from Woodstock ' 94 compilation ) – Best Metal Performance , 1995 ( recipient )
" Hurt " – Best Rock Song , 1996 ( nomination )
" The Perfect Drug " – Best Hard Rock Performance , 1997 ( nomination )
The Fragile – Best Alternative Music Performance , 1999 ( nomination )
" Starfuckers , Inc . " – Best Metal Performance , 1999 ( nomination )
" Into the Void " – Best Male Rock Vocal Performance , 2000 ( nomination )
" The Hand That Feeds " – Best Hard Rock Performance , 2005 ( nomination )
" Every Day Is Exactly the Same " – Best Hard Rock Performance , 2006 ( nomination )
" 34 Ghosts IV " – Best Rock Instrumental Performance , 2009 ( nomination )
Ghosts I – IV – Best Boxed Set or Limited Edition Package , 2009 ( nomination )
Hesitation Marks – Best Alternative Music Album , 2013 ( nomination )
= Beyoncé =
Beyoncé Giselle Knowles @-@ Carter ( / biːˈjɒnseɪ / ; born September 4 , 1981 ) is an American singer , songwriter , record producer and actress . Born and raised in Houston , Texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of R & B girl @-@ group Destiny 's Child . Managed by her father , Mathew Knowles , the group became one of the world 's best @-@ selling girl groups of all time . Their hiatus saw the release of Beyoncé 's debut album , Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five Grammy Awards and featured the Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one singles " Crazy in Love " and " Baby Boy " .
Following the disbandment of Destiny 's Child in June 2005 , she released her second solo album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) , which contained hits " Déjà Vu " , " Irreplaceable " , and " Beautiful Liar " . Beyoncé also ventured into acting , with a Golden Globe @-@ nominated performance in Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) and starring roles in The Pink Panther ( 2006 ) and Obsessed ( 2009 ) . Her marriage to rapper Jay Z and portrayal of Etta James in Cadillac Records ( 2008 ) influenced her third album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) , which saw the birth of her alter @-@ ego Sasha Fierce and earned a record @-@ setting six Grammy Awards in 2010 , including Song of the Year for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . Beyoncé took a hiatus from music in 2010 and took over management of her career ; her fourth album 4 ( 2011 ) was subsequently mellower in tone , exploring 1970s funk , 1980s pop , and 1990s soul . Her critically acclaimed fifth album , Beyoncé ( 2013 ) , was distinguished from previous releases by its experimental production and exploration of darker themes . Her sixth album , Lemonade ( 2016 ) , was released in conjunction with a short film of the same name .
Her performances have led some critics to consider her one of the greatest entertainers in contemporary popular music . She has sold over 100 million records as a solo artist , and a further 60 million with Destiny 's Child , making her one of the best @-@ selling music artists of all time . She has won 20 Grammy Awards and is the most nominated woman in the award 's history . The Recording Industry Association of America recognized her as the Top Certified Artist in America during the 2000s ( decade ) . In 2009 , Billboard named her the Top Radio Songs Artist of the Decade , the Top Female Artist of the 2000s ( decade ) and handed their Millennium Award in 2011 . Time listed her among the 100 most influential people in the world in 2013 and 2014 . Forbes also listed her as the most powerful female in entertainment of 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Beyoncé Giselle Knowles was born in Houston , Texas , to Celestine " Tina " Knowles ( née Beyincé ) , a hairdresser and salon owner , and Mathew Knowles , a Xerox sales manager . Beyoncé 's name is a tribute to her mother 's maiden name . Beyoncé 's younger sister Solange is also a singer and a former member of Destiny 's Child . Mathew is African American , while Tina is of Louisiana Creole descent ( African , Native American , and French ) . Through her mother , Beyoncé is a descendant of Acadian leader Joseph Broussard .
Beyoncé attended St. Mary 's Montessori School in Houston , where she enrolled in dance classes . Her singing talent was discovered when dance instructor Darlette Johnson began humming a song and she finished it , able to hit the high @-@ pitched notes . Beyoncé 's interest in music and performing continued after winning a school talent show at age seven , singing John Lennon 's " Imagine " to beat 15 / 16 @-@ year @-@ olds . In fall of 1990 , Beyoncé enrolled in Parker Elementary School , a music magnet school in Houston , where she would perform with the school 's choir . She also attended the High School for the Performing and Visual Arts and later Alief Elsik High School . Beyoncé was also a member of the choir at St. John 's United Methodist Church as a soloist for two years .
When Beyoncé was eight , she and childhood friend Kelly Rowland met LaTavia Roberson while in an audition for an all @-@ girl entertainment group . They were placed into a group with three other girls as Girl 's Tyme , and rapped and danced on the talent show circuit in Houston . After seeing the group , R & B producer Arne Frager brought them to his Northern California studio and placed them in Star Search , the largest talent show on national TV at the time . Girl 's Tyme failed to win , and Beyoncé later said the song they performed was not good .
In 1995 Beyoncé 's father resigned from his job to manage the group . The move reduced Beyoncé 's family 's income by half , and her parents were forced to move into separated apartments . Mathew cut the original line @-@ up to four and the group continued performing as an opening act for other established R & B girl groups . The girls auditioned before record labels and were finally signed to Elektra Records , moving to Atlanta Records briefly to work on their first recording , only to be cut by the company . This put further strain on the family , and Beyoncé 's parents separated . On October 5 , 1995 , Dwayne Wiggins 's Grass Roots Entertainment signed the group . In 1996 , the girls began recording their debut album under an agreement with Sony Music , the Knowles family reunited , and shortly after , the group got a contract with Columbia Records .
= = Career = =
= = = 1997 – 2001 : Destiny 's Child = = =
The group changed their name to Destiny 's Child in 1996 , based upon a passage in the Book of Isaiah . In 1997 , Destiny 's Child released their major label debut song " Killing Time " on the soundtrack to the 1997 film , Men in Black . The following year , the group released their self @-@ titled debut album , scoring their first major hit " No , No , No " . The album established the group as a viable act in the music industry , with moderate sales and winning the group three Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards for Best R & B / Soul Album of the Year , Best R & B / Soul or Rap New Artist , and Best R & B / Soul Single for " No , No , No " . The group released their multi @-@ platinum second album The Writing 's on the Wall in 1999 . The record features some of the group 's most widely known songs such as " Bills , Bills , Bills " , the group 's first number @-@ one single , " Jumpin ' Jumpin ' " and " Say My Name " , which became their most successful song at the time , and would remain one of their signature songs . " Say My Name " won the Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and the Best R & B Song at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards . The Writing 's on the Wall sold more than eight million copies worldwide . During this time , Beyoncé recorded a duet with Marc Nelson , an original member of Boyz II Men , on the song " After All Is Said and Done " for the soundtrack to the 1999 film , The Best Man .
LeToya Luckett and Roberson became unhappy with Mathew 's managing of the band and eventually were replaced by Farrah Franklin and Michelle Williams . Beyoncé experienced depression following the split with Luckett and Roberson after being publicly blamed by the media , critics , and blogs for its cause . Her long @-@ standing boyfriend left her at this time . The depression was so severe it lasted for a couple of years , during which she occasionally kept herself in her bedroom for days and refused to eat anything . Beyoncé stated that she struggled to speak about her depression because Destiny 's Child had just won their first Grammy Award and she feared no one would take her seriously . Beyoncé would later speak of her mother as the person who helped her fight it . Franklin was dismissed , leaving just Beyoncé , Rowland , and Williams .
The remaining band members recorded " Independent Women Part I " , which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film Charlie 's Angels . It became their best @-@ charting single , topping the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart for eleven consecutive weeks . In early 2001 , while Destiny 's Child was completing their third album , Beyoncé landed a major role in the MTV made @-@ for @-@ television film , Carmen : A Hip Hopera , starring alongside American actor Mekhi Phifer . Set in Philadelphia , the film is a modern interpretation of the 19th @-@ century opera Carmen by French composer Georges Bizet . When the third album Survivor was released in May 2001 , Luckett and Roberson filed a lawsuit claiming that the songs were aimed at them . The album debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 663 @,@ 000 copies sold . The album spawned other number @-@ one hits , " Bootylicious " and the title track , " Survivor " , the latter of which earned the group a Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals . After releasing their holiday album 8 Days of Christmas in October 2001 , the group announced a hiatus to further pursue solo careers .
= = = 2001 – 07 : Dangerously in Love , B 'Day , and Dreamgirls = = =
In July 2002 , Beyoncé continued her acting career playing Foxxy Cleopatra alongside Mike Myers in the comedy film Austin Powers in Goldmember , which spent its first weekend atop the US box office and grossed $ 73 million . Beyoncé released " Work It Out " as the lead single from its soundtrack album which entered the top ten in the UK , Norway , and Belgium . In 2003 , Beyoncé starred opposite Cuba Gooding , Jr . , in the musical comedy The Fighting Temptations as Lilly , a single mother with whom Gooding 's character falls in love . The film received mixed reviews from critics but grossed $ 30 million in the U.S. Beyoncé released " Fighting Temptation " as the lead single from the film 's soundtrack album , with Missy Elliott , MC Lyte , and Free which was also used to promote the film . Another of Beyoncé 's contributions to the soundtrack , " Summertime " , fared better on the US charts .
Beyoncé 's first solo recording was a feature on Jay Z 's " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " that was released in October 2002 , peaking at number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart . Her first solo album Dangerously in Love was released on June 24 , 2003 , after Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland had released their solo efforts . The album sold 317 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuted atop the Billboard 200 , and has since sold 11 million copies worldwide . The album 's lead single , " Crazy in Love " , featuring Jay Z , became Beyoncé 's first number @-@ one single as a solo artist in the US . The single " Baby Boy " also reached number one , and singles , " Me , Myself and I " and " Naughty Girl " , both reached the top @-@ five . The album earned Beyoncé a then record @-@ tying five awards at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards ; Best Contemporary R & B Album , Best Female R & B Vocal Performance for " Dangerously in Love 2 " , Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Crazy in Love " , and Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for " The Closer I Get to You " with Luther Vandross .
In November 2003 , she embarked on the Dangerously in Love Tour in Europe and later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys for the Verizon Ladies First Tour in North America . On February 1 , 2004 , Beyoncé performed the American national anthem at Super Bowl XXXVIII , at the Reliant Stadium in Houston , Texas . After the release of Dangerously in Love , Beyoncé had planned to produce a follow @-@ up album using several of the left @-@ over tracks . However , this was put on hold so she could concentrate on recording Destiny Fulfilled , the final studio album by Destiny 's Child . Released on November 15 , 2004 , in the US and peaking at number two on the Billboard 200 , Destiny Fulfilled included the singles " Lose My Breath " and " Soldier " , which reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Destiny 's Child embarked on a worldwide concert tour , Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It and during the last stop of their European tour , in Barcelona on June 11 , 2005 , Rowland announced that Destiny 's Child would disband following the North American leg of the tour . The group released their first compilation album Number 1 's on October 25 , 2005 , in the US and accepted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in March 2006 .
Beyoncé 's second solo album B 'Day was released on September 4 , 2006 , in the US , to coincide with her twenty @-@ fifth birthday . It sold 541 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the Billboard 200 , becoming Beyoncé 's second consecutive number @-@ one album in the United States . The album 's lead single " Déjà Vu " , featuring Jay Z , reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The second international single " Irreplaceable " was a commercial success worldwide , reaching number one in Australia , Hungary , Ireland , New Zealand and the United States . B 'Day also produced three other singles ; " Ring the Alarm " , " Get Me Bodied " , and " Green Light " ( released in the United Kingdom only ) .
Her first acting role of 2006 was in the comedy film The Pink Panther starring opposite Steve Martin , grossing $ 158 @.@ 8 million at the box office worldwide . Her second film Dreamgirls , the film version of the 1981 Broadway musical loosely based on The Supremes , received acclaim from critics and grossed $ 154 million internationally . In it , she starred opposite Jennifer Hudson , Jamie Foxx , and Eddie Murphy playing a pop singer based on Diana Ross . To promote the film , Beyoncé released " Listen " as the lead single from the soundtrack album . In April 2007 , Beyoncé embarked on The Beyoncé Experience , her first worldwide concert tour , visiting 97 venues and grossed over $ 24 million . Beyoncé conducted pre @-@ concert food donation drives during six major stops in conjunction with her pastor at St. John 's and America 's Second Harvest . At the same time , B 'Day was re @-@ released with five additional songs , including her duet with Shakira " Beautiful Liar " .
= = = 2008 – 10 : Marriage , I Am ... Sasha Fierce , and Cadillac Records = = =
On April 4 , 2008 , Beyoncé married Jay Z. She publicly revealed their marriage in a video montage at the listening party for her third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce , in Manhattan 's Sony Club on October 22 , 2008 . I Am ... Sasha Fierce was released on November 18 , 2008 , in the United States . The album formally introduces Beyoncé 's alter ego Sasha Fierce , conceived during the making of her 2003 single " Crazy in Love " , selling 482 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting atop the Billboard 200 , and giving Beyoncé her third consecutive number @-@ one album in the US . The album featured the number @-@ one song " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " and the top @-@ five songs " If I Were a Boy " and " Halo " . Achieving the accomplishment of becoming her longest @-@ running Hot 100 single in her career , " Halo " ' s success in the US helped Beyoncé attain more top @-@ ten singles on the list than any other woman during the 2000s . It also included the successful " Sweet Dreams " , and singles " Diva " , " Ego " , " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and " Video Phone " . The music video for " Single Ladies " has been parodied and imitated around the world , spawning the " first major dance craze " of the Internet age according to the Toronto Star . The video has won several awards , including Best Video at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards , the 2009 Scottish MOBO Awards , and the 2009 BET Awards . At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for nine awards , ultimately winning three including Video of the Year . Its failure to win the Best Female Video category , which went to American country pop singer Taylor Swift 's " You Belong with Me " , led to Kanye West interrupting the ceremony and Beyoncé improvising a re @-@ presentation of Swift 's award during her own acceptance speech . In March 2009 , Beyoncé embarked on the I Am ... World Tour , her second headlining worldwide concert tour , consisting of 108 shows , grossing $ 119 @.@ 5 million .
Beyoncé further expanded her acting career , starring as blues singer Etta James in the 2008 musical biopic Cadillac Records . Her performance in the film received praise from critics , and she garnered several nominations for her portrayal of James , including a Satellite Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress , and a NAACP Image Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress . Beyoncé donated her entire salary from the film to Phoenix House , an organization of rehabilitation centers for heroin addicts around the country . On January 20 , 2009 , Beyoncé performed James ' " At Last " at the First Couple 's first inaugural ball . Beyoncé starred opposite Ali Larter and Idris Elba in the thriller , Obsessed . She played Sharon Charles , a mother and wife who learns of a woman 's obsessive behavior over her husband . Although the film received negative reviews from critics , the movie did well at the US box office , grossing $ 68 million — $ 60 million more than Cadillac Records — on a budget of $ 20 million . The fight scene finale between Sharon and the character played by Ali Larter also won the 2010 MTV Movie Award for Best Fight .
At the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards , Beyoncé received ten nominations , including Album of the Year for I Am ... Sasha Fierce , Record of the Year for " Halo " , and Song of the Year for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , among others . She tied with Lauryn Hill for most Grammy nominations in a single year by a female artist . In 2010 , Beyoncé was featured on Lady Gaga 's single " Telephone " and appeared in its music video . The song topped the US Pop Songs chart , becoming the sixth number @-@ one for both Beyoncé and Gaga , tying them with Mariah Carey for most number @-@ ones since the Nielsen Top 40 airplay chart launched in 1992 . " Telephone " received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals .
Beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in January 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , " to live life , to be inspired by things again " . During the break she and her father parted ways as business partners . Beyoncé 's musical break lasted nine months and saw her visit multiple European cities , the Great Wall of China , the Egyptian pyramids , Australia , English music festivals and various museums and ballet performances .
= = = 2011 – 15 : 4 and Beyoncé = = =
On June 26 , 2011 , she became the first solo female artist to headline the main Pyramid stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival in over twenty years . Her fourth studio album 4 was released two days later in the US . 4 sold 310 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart , giving Beyoncé her fourth consecutive number @-@ one album in the US . The album was preceded by two of its singles " Run the World ( Girls ) " and " Best Thing I Never Had " , which both attained moderate success . The fourth single " Love on Top " was a commercial success in the US . 4 also produced four other singles ; " Party " , " Countdown " , " I Care " and " End of Time " . " Eat , Play , Love " , a cover story written by Beyoncé for Essence that detailed her 2010 career break , won her a writing award from the New York Association of Black Journalists . In late 2011 , she took the stage at New York 's Roseland Ballroom for four nights of special performances : the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé concerts saw the performance of her 4 album to a standing room only .
On January 7 , 2012 , Beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , Blue Ivy Carter , at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York . Five months later , she performed for four nights at Revel Atlantic City 's Ovation Hall to celebrate the resort 's opening , her first performances since giving birth to Blue Ivy .
In January 2013 , Destiny 's Child released Love Songs , a compilation album of the romance @-@ themed songs from their previous albums and a newly recorded track , " Nuclear " . Beyoncé performed the American national anthem singing along with a pre @-@ recorded track at President Obama 's second inauguration in Washington , D.C. The following month , Beyoncé performed at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show , held at the Mercedes @-@ Benz Superdome in New Orleans . The performance stands as the second most tweeted about moment in history at 268 @,@ 000 tweets per minute . At the 55th Annual Grammy Awards , Beyoncé won for Best Traditional R & B Performance for " Love on Top " . Her feature @-@ length documentary film , Life Is But a Dream , first aired on HBO on February 16 , 2013 .
Beyoncé embarked on The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour on April 15 in Belgrade , Serbia ; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to March 2014 . It became the most successful tour of her career and one of the most successful tours of all time . In May , Beyoncé 's cover of Amy Winehouse 's " Back to Black " with André 3000 on The Great Gatsby soundtrack was released . Beyoncé voiced Queen Tara in the 3D CGI animated film , Epic , released by 20th Century Fox on May 24 , and recorded an original song for the film , " Rise Up " , co @-@ written with Sia .
On December 13 , 2013 , Beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the iTunes Store without any prior announcement or promotion . The album debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart , giving Beyoncé her fifth consecutive number @-@ one album in the US . This made her the first woman in the chart 's history to have her first five studio albums debut at number one . Beyoncé received critical acclaim and commercial success , selling one million digital copies worldwide in six days ; Musically an electro @-@ R & B album , it concerns darker themes previously unexplored in her work , such as " bulimia , postnatal depression [ and ] the fears and insecurities of marriage and motherhood " . The single " Drunk in Love " , featuring Jay Z , peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . In April 2014 , after much speculation , Beyoncé and Jay Z officially announced their On the Run Tour . It served as the couple 's first co @-@ headlining stadium tour together . On August 24 , 2014 , she received the Video Vanguard Award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . Knowles also won home three competitive awards : Best Video with a Social Message and Best Cinematography for " Pretty Hurts " , as well as best collaboration for " Drunk in Love " . In November , Forbes reported that Beyoncé was the top @-@ earning woman in music for the second year in a row — earning $ 115 million in the year , more than double her earnings in 2013 . Beyoncé was reissued with new material in three forms : as an extended play , a box set , as well as a full platinum edition .
At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015 , Beyoncé was nominated for six awards , ultimately winning three : Best R & B Performance and Best R & B Song for " Drunk in Love " , and Best Surround Sound Album for Beyoncé . She was nominated for Album of the Year , but the award went to Beck for his album Morning Phase .
= = = 2016 : Lemonade = = =
On February 6 , 2016 , Beyoncé released " Formation " and its accompanying music video exclusively on the music streaming platform Tidal ; the song was made available to download for free . She performed " Formation " live for the first time during the NFL Super Bowl 50 halftime show . The appearance was considered controversial as it appeared to reference the 50th anniversary of the Black Panther Party and the NFL forbids political statements in its performances . Immediately following the performance , Beyoncé announced The Formation World Tour , which highlighted stops in both North America , and Europe .
On April 16 , 2016 , Beyoncé released a teaser clip for a project called Lemonade . It turned out to be a one @-@ hour movie which aired on HBO exactly a week later , April 23 at 10 : 00 pm EST ; a corresponding album with the same title was released on the same day exclusively on the streaming platform Tidal . Lemonade debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , making Beyoncé the first act in Billboard history to have her first six studio albums debut atop the chart , breaking a record she previously tied with DMX in 2013 . The album is Beyoncé 's most critically acclaimed work to date , receiving universal acclaim according to Metacritic , a website collecting reviews from professional music critics . It is the 23rd album to receive a five @-@ star rating from Rolling Stone . The albums visuals were subsequently nominated for 11 MTV Video Music Awards in 2016 , the most ever received by Beyoncé in a single year .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Beyoncé is believed to have started a relationship with Jay Z after a collaboration on " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " , which appeared on his seventh album The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & The Curse ( 2002 ) . Beyoncé appeared as Jay Z 's girlfriend in the music video for the song , fuelling speculation about their relationship . On April 4 , 2008 , Beyoncé and Jay Z married without publicity . As of April 2014 , the couple had sold a combined 300 million records together . They are known for their private relationship , although they have appeared to become more relaxed in recent years . Beyoncé suffered a miscarriage in 2010 or 2011 , describing it as " the saddest thing " she had ever endured . She returned to the studio and wrote music in order to cope with the loss . In April 2011 , Beyoncé and Jay Z traveled to Paris in order to shoot the album cover for 4 , and unexpectedly became pregnant in Paris .
In August , the couple attended the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards , at which Beyoncé performed " Love on Top " and started the performance saying " Tonight I want you to stand up on your feet , I want you to feel the love that 's growing inside of me " . At the end of the performance , she dropped her microphone , unbuttoned her blazer and rubbed her stomach , confirming her pregnancy she had alluded to earlier in the evening . Her appearance helped that year 's MTV Video Music Awards become the most @-@ watched broadcast in MTV history , pulling in 12 @.@ 4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in Guinness World Records for " most tweets per second recorded for a single event " on Twitter , receiving 8 @,@ 868 tweets per second and " Beyonce pregnant " was the most Googled term the week of August 29 , 2011 .
On January 7 , 2012 , Beyoncé gave birth to a daughter , Blue Ivy Carter , at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York under heavy security . Two days later , Jay Z released " Glory " , a song dedicated to their child , on his website Lifeandtimes.com. The song detailed the couple 's pregnancy struggles , including a miscarriage Beyoncé suffered before becoming pregnant with Blue Ivy . Blue Ivy 's cries are included at the end of the song , and she was officially credited as " B.I.C. " on it . At two days old , she became the youngest person ever to appear on a Billboard chart when " Glory " debuted on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
In May 2016 , she reunited with her estranged father as her mother posted an instagram photo of Matthew with her on her Formation World Tour stop in Houston .
= = = Politics = = =
Beyoncé and husband Jay Z are friends with President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama . She performed " America the Beautiful " at the 2009 presidential inauguration , as well as " At Last " during the first inaugural dance at the Neighborhood Ball two days later . Beyoncé and Jay Z held a fundraiser at the latter 's 40 / 40 Club in Manhattan for Obama 's 2012 presidential campaign which raised $ 4 million . Beyoncé uploaded pictures of her paper ballot on Tumblr , confirming she had voted in support for the Democratic Party and to encourage others to do so . She also performed the American national anthem at his second inauguration , singing along with a pre @-@ recorded track . She publicly endorsed same sex marriage on March 26 , 2013 , after the Supreme Court debate on California 's Proposition 8 .
In an interview published by Vogue in April 2013 , Beyoncé was asked if she considers herself a feminist , to which she said , " that word can be very extreme ... But I guess I am a modern @-@ day feminist . I do believe in equality " . She would later align herself more publicly with the movement , sampling " We should all be feminists " , a speech delivered by Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie at a TEDxEuston conference in April 2013 , in her song " Flawless " , released later that year . She has also contributed to the Ban Bossy campaign , which uses television and social media to encourage leadership in girls .
In 2015 , Beyoncé signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini @-@ Zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation .
The Washington Post reported in May 2015 , that Mrs. Knowles @-@ Carter attended a major celebrity fundraiser for presidential nominee Hillary Clinton .
In July 2013 , Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z attended a rally in response to the acquittal of George Zimmerman for the shooting of Trayvon Martin . In Beyoncé 's 2016 album Lemonade , Beyoncé included the mothers of Trayvon Martin , Michael Brown and Eric Garner , holding pictures of their murdered sons in the music video for " Freedom " . During a concert in Glasgow , Beyoncé held a minutes silence and pursued to perform " Freedom " a cappella , with a list of names of victims of police brutality displayed on the stages background , following the shooting of Alton Sterling and the shooting of Philando Castile . In a 2016 interview with Elle magazine , Beyoncé responded to the controversy surrounding her song " Formation " which was perceived to be anti @-@ police . Beyoncé stated " I am against police brutality and injustice . Those are two separate things . If celebrating my roots and culture during Black History Month made anyone uncomfortable , those feelings were there long before a video and long before me " .
= = = Net worth = = =
Forbes magazine began reporting on Beyoncé 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that the $ 80 million earned between June 2007 to June 2008 , for her music , tour , films and clothing line made her the world 's best @-@ paid music personality at the time , above Madonna and Celine Dion . They placed her fourth on the Celebrity 100 list in 2009 and ninth on the " Most Powerful Women in the World " list in 2010 . The following year , Forbes placed her eighth on the " Best @-@ Paid Celebrities Under 30 " list , having earned $ 35 million in the past year for her clothing line and endorsement deals . In 2012 , Forbes placed Beyoncé at number 16 on the Celebrity 100 list , twelve places lower than three years ago yet still having earned $ 40 million in the past year for her album 4 , clothing line and endorsement deals . In the same year , Beyoncé and Jay Z placed at number one on the " World 's Highest @-@ Paid Celebrity Couples " , for collectively earning $ 78 million . The couple made it into the previous year 's Guinness World Records as the " highest @-@ earning power couple " for collectively earning $ 122 million in 2009 . For the years 2009 to 2011 , Beyoncé earned an average of $ 70 million per year , and earned $ 40 million in 2012 . In 2013 , Beyoncé 's endorsements of Pepsi and H & M made her and Jay Z the world 's first billion dollar couple in the music industry . That year , Beyoncé was published as the fourth most @-@ powerful celebrity in the Forbes rankings . MTV estimated that by the end of 2014 , Beyoncé would become the highest @-@ paid black musician in history ; she succeeded to do so in April 2014 . In June 2014 , Beyoncé ranked at # 1 on the Forbes Celebrity 100 list , earning an estimated $ 115 million throughout June 2013 – June 2014 . This in turn was the first time she had topped the Celebrity 100 list as well as being her highest yearly earnings to date . In 2016 , Beyoncé ranked at # 34 on the Celebrity 100 list with earnings of $ 54M . Herself and Jay Z also topped the highest paid celebrity couple list , with combined earnings of $ 107.5M. As of June 2016 , Forbes calculated her net worth to be $ 265 million while other sources estimate it to be as high as $ 450 million .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Voice and songwriting = = =
Beyoncé 's vocal range spans four octaves . Jody Rosen highlights her tone and timbre as particularly distinctive , describing her voice as " one of the most compelling instruments in popular music " . While another critic says she is a " Vocal acrobat , being able to sing long and complex melismas and vocal runs effortlessly , and in key " . Her vocal abilities mean she is identified as the centerpiece of Destiny 's Child . Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that her voice is " velvety yet tart , with an insistent flutter and reserves of soul belting " . Rosen notes that the hip hop era highly influenced Beyoncé 's unique rhythmic vocal style , but also finds her quite traditionalist in her use of balladry , gospel and falsetto . Other critics praise her range and power , with Chris Richards of The Washington Post saying she was " capable of punctuating any beat with goose @-@ bump @-@ inducing whispers or full @-@ bore diva @-@ roars . "
Beyoncé 's music is generally R & B , but she also incorporates pop , soul and funk into her songs . 4 demonstrated Beyoncé 's exploration of 1990s @-@ style R & B , as well as further use of soul and hip hop than compared to previous releases . While she almost exclusively releases English songs , Beyoncé recorded several Spanish songs for Irreemplazable ( re @-@ recordings of songs from B 'Day for a Spanish @-@ language audience ) , and the re @-@ release of B 'Day . To record these , Beyoncé was coached phonetically by American record producer Rudy Perez .
She has received co @-@ writing credits for most of the songs recorded with Destiny 's Child and her solo efforts . Her early songs were personally driven and female @-@ empowerment themed compositions like " Independent Women " and " Survivor " , but after the start of her relationship with Jay Z , she transitioned to more man @-@ tending anthems such as " Cater 2 U " . Beyoncé has also received co @-@ producing credits for most of the records in which she has been involved , especially during her solo efforts . However , she does not formulate beats herself , but typically comes up with melodies and ideas during production , sharing them with producers .
In 2001 , she became the first African @-@ American woman and second woman songwriter to win the Pop Songwriter of the Year award at the American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers Pop Music Awards . Beyoncé was the third woman to have writing credits on three number one songs ( " Irreplaceable " , " Grillz " and " Check on It " ) in the same year , after Carole King in 1971 and Mariah Carey in 1991 . She is tied with American songwriter Diane Warren at third with nine songwriting credits on number @-@ one singles . ( The latter wrote her 9 / 11 @-@ motivated song " I Was Here " for 4 . ) In May 2011 , Billboard magazine listed Beyoncé at number 17 on their list of the " Top 20 Hot 100 Songwriters " , for having co @-@ written eight singles that hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . She was one of only three women on that list .
= = = Influences = = =
Beyoncé names Michael Jackson as her major musical influence . Aged five , Beyoncé attended her first ever concert where Jackson performed and she claims to have realized her purpose . When she presented him with a tribute award at the World Music Awards in 2006 , Beyoncé said , " if it wasn 't for Michael Jackson , I would never ever have performed . " She admires Diana Ross as an " all @-@ around entertainer " and Whitney Houston , who she said " inspired me to get up there and do what she did . " She credits Mariah Carey 's singing and her song " Vision of Love " as influencing her to begin practicing vocal runs as a child . Her other musical influences include Aaliyah , Prince , Lauryn Hill , Sade Adu , Donna Summer , Mary J. Blige , Janet Jackson , Anita Baker and Rachelle Ferrell .
The feminism and female empowerment themes on Beyoncé 's second solo album B 'Day were inspired by her role in Dreamgirls and by singer Josephine Baker . Beyoncé paid homage to Baker by performing " Déjà Vu " at the 2006 Fashion Rocks concert wearing Baker 's trademark mini @-@ hula skirt embellished with fake bananas . Beyoncé 's third solo album I Am ... Sasha Fierce was inspired by Jay Z and especially by Etta James , whose " boldness " inspired Beyoncé to explore other musical genres and styles . Her fourth solo album , 4 , was inspired by Fela Kuti , 1990s R & B , Earth , Wind & Fire , DeBarge , Lionel Richie , Teena Marie , The Jackson 5 , New Edition , Adele , Florence and the Machine , and Prince .
Beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by US First Lady Michelle Obama , saying " She proves you can do it all " and she has described Oprah Winfrey as " the definition of inspiration and a strong woman " . She has also discussed how Jay Z is a continuing inspiration to her , both with what she describes as his lyrical genius and in the obstacles he has overcome in his life . Beyoncé has expressed admiration for the artist Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat , posting in a letter " what I find in the work of Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat , I search for in every day in music ... he is lyrical and raw " . In February 2013 , Beyoncé said that Madonna inspired her to take control of her own career . She commented : " I think about Madonna and how she took all of the great things she achieved and started the label and developed other artists . But there are not enough of those women . " .
= = = Stage and alter ego = = =
In 2006 , Beyoncé introduced her all @-@ female tour band Suga Mama ( also the name of a song in B 'Day ) which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . Her background singers , The Mamas , consist of Montina Cooper @-@ Donnell , Crystal Collins and Tiffany Moniqué Riddick . They made their debut appearance at the 2006 BET Awards and re @-@ appeared in the music videos for " Irreplaceable " and " Green Light " . The band have supported Beyoncé in most subsequent live performances , including her 2007 concert tour The Beyoncé Experience , 2009 – 2010 I Am ... World Tour and 2013 – 2014 The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .
Beyoncé has received praise for her stage presence and voice during live performances . Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post placed her at number one on her list of the Five Best Singer / Dancers . According to Barbara Ellen of The Guardian Beyoncé is the most in @-@ charge female artist she 's seen onstage , while Alice Jones of The Independent wrote she " takes her role as entertainer so seriously she 's almost too good . " The ex @-@ President of Def Jam L.A. Reid has described Beyoncé as the greatest entertainer alive . Jim Farber of the Daily News and Stephanie Classen of Star Phoenix both praised her strong voice and her stage presence .
Described as being " sexy , seductive and provocative " when performing on stage , Beyoncé has said that she originally created the alter ego " Sasha Fierce " to keep that stage persona separate from who she really is . She described Sasha as being " too aggressive , too strong , too sassy [ and ] too sexy " , stating , " I 'm not like her in real life at all . " Sasha was conceived during the making of " Crazy in Love " , and Beyoncé introduced her with the release of her 2008 album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . In February 2010 , she announced in an interview with Allure magazine that she was comfortable enough with herself to no longer need Sasha Fierce . However , Beyoncé announced in May 2012 that she would bring her back for her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live shows later that month .
= = Public image = =
Beyoncé has been described as having a wide @-@ ranging sex appeal , with music journalist Touré writing that since the release of Dangerously in Love , she has " become a crossover sex symbol " . Offstage Beyoncé says that while she likes to dress sexily , her onstage dress " is absolutely for the stage . " Due to her curves and the term 's catchiness , in the 2000s ( decade ) , the media often used the term " Bootylicious " ( a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious ) to describe Beyoncé , the term popularized by Destiny 's Child 's single of the same name . In 2006 , it was added to the Oxford English Dictionary .
In September 2010 , Beyoncé made her runway modelling debut at Tom Ford 's Spring / Summer 2011 fashion show . She was named " World 's Most Beautiful Woman " by People and the " Hottest Female Singer of All Time " by Complex in 2012 . In January 2013 , GQ placed her on its cover , featuring her atop its " 100 Sexiest Women of the 21st Century " list . VH1 listed her at number 1 on its 100 Sexiest Artists list . Several wax figures of Beyoncé are found at Madame Tussauds Wax Museums in major cities around the world , including New York , Washington , D.C. , Amsterdam , Bangkok , Hollywood and Sydney .
According to Italian fashion designer Roberto Cavalli , Beyoncé uses different fashion styles to work with her music while performing . Her mother co @-@ wrote a book , published in 2002 , titled Destiny 's Style an account of how fashion had an impact on the trio 's success . The B 'Day Anthology Video Album showed many instances of fashion @-@ oriented footage , depicting classic to contemporary wardrobe styles . In 2007 , Beyoncé was featured on the cover of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , becoming the second African American woman after Tyra Banks , and People magazine recognized Beyoncé as the best @-@ dressed celebrity .
The Bey Hive is the name given to Beyoncé 's fan base . Fans were previously titled " The Beyontourage " , ( a portmanteau of Beyoncé and entourage ) . The name Bey Hive derives from the word beehive , purposely misspelled to resemble her first name , and was penned by fans after petitions on the online social networking service Twitter and online news reports during competitions .
In 2006 , the animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , criticized Beyoncé for wearing and using fur in her clothing line House of Deréon . In 2011 , she appeared on the cover of French fashion magazine L 'Officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . A statement released from a spokesperson for the magazine said that Beyoncé 's look was " far from the glamorous Sasha Fierce " and that it was " a return to her African roots " .
Beyoncé 's lighter skin color and costuming has drawn criticism from some in the African @-@ American community . Emmett Price , a professor of music at Northeastern University , wrote in 2007 , that he thinks race plays a role in many of these criticisms , saying white celebrities who dress similarly do not attract as many comments . In 2008 , L 'Oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their Feria hair color advertisements , responding that " it is categorically untrue " , and in 2013 , Beyoncé herself criticized H & M for their proposed " retouching " of promotional images of her , and according to Vogue requested that only " natural pictures be used " .
= = Legacy = =
In The New Yorker music critic Jody Rosen described Beyoncé as " the most important and compelling popular musician of the twenty @-@ first century ..... the result , the logical end point , of a century @-@ plus of pop . " When The Guardian named her Artist of the Decade , Llewyn @-@ Smith wrote , " Why Beyoncé ? [ ... ] Because she made not one but two of the decade 's greatest singles , with Crazy in Love and Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) , not to mention her hits with Destiny 's Child ; and this was the decade when singles – particularly R & B singles – regained their status as pop 's favourite medium . [ ... ] [ She ] and not any superannuated rock star was arguably the greatest live performer of the past 10 years . " In 2013 , Beyoncé made the Time 100 list , with Baz Luhrmann writing " no one has that voice , no one moves the way she moves , no one can hold an audience the way she does ... When Beyoncé does an album , when Beyoncé sings a song , when Beyoncé does anything , it 's an event , and it 's broadly influential . Right now , she is the heir @-@ apparent diva of the USA — the reigning national voice . " In 2014 , Beyoncé was listed again on the Time 100 and also featured on the cover of the issue .
Beyoncé 's work has influenced numerous artists including Adele , Ariana Grande , Lady Gaga , Ellie Goulding , Bridgit Mendler , Rihanna , Kelly Rowland , Sam Smith , Meghan Trainor , Nicole Scherzinger , Rita Ora , Zendaya , Cheryl , JoJo , Alexis Jordan , Jessica Sanchez , and Azealia Banks . American indie rock band White Rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album Milk Famous ( 2012 ) , friend Gwyneth Paltrow studied Beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film Country Strong . Nicki Minaj has stated that seeing Beyoncé 's Pepsi commercial influenced her decision to appear in the company 's 2012 global campaign .
Her debut single , " Crazy in Love " was named VH1 's " Greatest Song of the 2000s " , NME 's " Best Track of the 00s " and " Pop Song of the Century " , considered by Rolling Stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two Grammy Awards and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . The music video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , which achieved fame for its intricate choreography and its deployment of jazz hands , was credited by the Toronto Star as having started the " first major dance craze of both the new millennium and the Internet " , triggering a number of parodies of the dance choreography and a legion of amateur imitators on YouTube . In 2013 , Drake released a single titled " Girls Love Beyoncé " , which featured an interpolation from Destiny Child 's " Say My Name " and discussed his relationship with women . In January 2012 , research scientist Bryan Lessard named Scaptia beyonceae , a species of horse fly found in Northern Queensland , Australia after Beyoncé due to the fly 's unique golden hairs on its abdomen . In July 2014 , a Beyoncé exhibit was introduced into the " Legends of Rock " section of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . The black leotard from the " Single Ladies " video and her outfit from the Super Bowl half time performance are among several pieces housed at the museum .
= = Honors and awards = =
Beyoncé has received numerous awards . As a solo artist she has sold over 16 million albums in the US , and over 100 million records worldwide ( a further 60 million additionally with Destiny 's Child ) , making her one of the best @-@ selling music artists of all time . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) listed Beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s ( decade ) , with a total of 64 certifications . Her songs " Crazy in Love " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , " Halo " , and " Irreplaceable " are some of the best @-@ selling singles of all time worldwide . In 2009 , The Observer named her the Artist of the Decade and Billboard named her the Top Female Artist and Top Radio Songs Artist of the Decade . In 2010 , Billboard named her in their " Top 50 R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years " list at number 15 . In 2012 VH1 ranked her third on their list of the " 100 Greatest Women in Music " . Beyoncé was the first female artist to be honored with the International Artist Award at the American Music Awards . She has also received the Legend Award at the 2008 World Music Awards and the Billboard Millennium Award at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .
Beyoncé has won 20 Grammy Awards , both as a solo artist and member of Destiny 's Child , making her the second most honored female artist by the Grammys , behind Alison Krauss and the most nominated woman in Grammy Award history with 52 nominations . " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " won Song of the Year in 2010 while " Say My Name " and " Crazy in Love " had previously won Best R & B Song . Dangerously in Love , B 'Day and I Am ... Sasha Fierce have all won Best Contemporary R & B Album . Beyoncé set the record for the most Grammy awards won by a female artist in one night in 2010 when she won six awards , breaking the tie she previously held with Alicia Keys , Norah Jones , Alison Krauss , and Amy Winehouse , with Adele equaling this in 2012 . Following her role in Dreamgirls she was nominated for Best Original Song for " Listen " and Best Actress at the Golden Globe Awards , and Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture at the NAACP Image Awards . Beyoncé won two awards at the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards 2006 ; Best Song for " Listen " and Best Original Soundtrack for Dreamgirls : Music from the Motion Picture .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Endorsements = = =
Beyoncé has worked with Pepsi since 2002 , and in 2004 appeared in a Gladiator @-@ themed commercial with Britney Spears , Pink , and Enrique Iglesias . In 2012 , Beyoncé signed a $ 50 million deal to endorse Pepsi . The Center for Science in the Public Interest ( CSPINET ) wrote Beyoncé an open letter asking her to reconsider the deal because of the unhealthiness of the product and to donate the proceeds to a medical organisation . Nevertheless , NetBase found that Beyoncé 's campaign was the most talked about endorsement in April 2013 , with a 70 per cent positive audience response to the commercial and print ads .
Beyoncé has worked with Tommy Hilfiger for the fragrances True Star ( singing a cover version of " Wishing on a Star " ) and True Star Gold ; she also promoted Emporio Armani 's Diamonds fragrance in 2007 . Beyoncé launched her first official fragrance , Heat in 2010 . The commercial , which featured the 1956 song " Fever " , was shown after the water shed in the United Kingdom as it begins with an image of Beyoncé appearing to lie naked in a room . In February 2011 , Beyoncé launched her second fragrance , Heat Rush . Beyoncé 's third fragrance , Pulse , was launched in September 2011 . In 2013 , The Mrs. Carter Show Limited Edition version of Heat was released . The six editions of Heat are the world 's best @-@ selling celebrity fragrance line , with sales of over $ 400 million .
The release of a video @-@ game Starpower : Beyoncé was cancelled after Beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with GateFive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . It was settled out of court by her lawyers in June 2013 who said that they had cancelled because GateFive had lost its financial backers . Beyoncé also has had deals with American Express , Nintendo DS and L 'Oréal since the age of 18 .
In October 2014 , Beyoncé partnered with British fashion retailer Topshop in a 50 / 50 split subsidiary business named Parkwood Topshop Athletic Ltd . The new division was created for Topshop to break into the activewear market . The company and collection is set to launch and hit stores in the fall of 2015 .
In March 2015 , Beyoncé became a co @-@ owner , with other artists , of the music streaming service Tidal . The service specializes in lossless audio and high definition music videos . Beyoncé 's husband Jay Z acquired the parent company of Tidal , Aspiro , in the first quarter of 2015 . Including Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z , sixteen artist stakeholders ( such as Kanye West , Rihanna , Madonna , Chris Martin , Nicki Minaj and more ) co @-@ own Tidal , with the majority owning a 3 % equity stake . The idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry ; " The challenge is to get everyone to respect music again , to recognize its value " , stated Jay @-@ Z on the release of Tidal .
= = = Fashion lines = = =
Beyoncé and her mother introduced House of Deréon , a contemporary women 's fashion line , in 2005 . The concept is inspired by three generations of women in their family , the name paying tribute to Beyoncé 's grandmother , Agnèz Deréon , a respected seamstress . According to Tina , the overall style of the line best reflects her and Beyoncé 's taste and style . Beyoncé and her mother founded their family 's company Beyond Productions , which provides the licensing and brand management for House of Deréon , and its junior collection , Deréon . House of Deréon pieces were exhibited in Destiny 's Child 's shows and tours , during their Destiny Fulfilled era . The collection features sportswear , denim offerings with fur , outerwear and accessories that include handbags and footwear , and are available at department and specialty stores across the US and Canada .
In 2005 , Beyoncé teamed up with House of Brands , a shoe company , to produce a range of footwear for House of Deréon . In January 2008 , Starwave Mobile launched Beyoncé Fashion Diva , a " high @-@ style " mobile game with a social networking component , featuring the House of Deréon collection . In July 2009 , Beyoncé and her mother launched a new junior apparel label , Sasha Fierce for Deréon , for back @-@ to @-@ school selling . The collection included sportswear , outerwear , handbags , footwear , eyewear , lingerie and jewelry . It was available at department stores including Macy 's and Dillard 's , and specialty stores Jimmy Jazz and Against All Odds . On May 27 , 2010 , Beyoncé teamed up with clothing store C & A to launch Deréon by Beyoncé at their stores in Brazil . The collection included tailored blazers with padded shoulders , little black dresses , embroidered tops and shirts and bandage dresses .
In October 2014 , Beyoncé signed a deal to launch an activewear line of clothing with British fashion retailer Topshop . The 50 @-@ 50 venture is called Parkwood Topshop Athletic Ltd and is scheduled to launch its first dance , fitness and sports ranges in autumn 2015 . The line will launch in April 2016 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
After Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , Beyoncé and Rowland founded the Survivor Foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the Houston area , to which Beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250 @,@ 000 . The foundation has since expanded to work with other charities in the city , and also provided relief following Hurricane Ike three years later .
Beyoncé participated in George Clooney and Wyclef Jean 's Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief telethon and was named the official face of the limited edition CFDA " Fashion For Haiti " T @-@ shirt , made by Theory which raised a total of $ 1 million . On March 5 , 2010 , Beyoncé and her mother Tina opened the Beyoncé Cosmetology Center at the Brooklyn Phoenix House , offering a seven @-@ month cosmetology training course for men and women . In April 2011 , Beyoncé joined forces with US First Lady Michelle Obama and the National Association of Broadcasters Education Foundation , to help boost the latter 's campaign against child obesity by reworking her single " Get Me Bodied " . Following the death of Osama bin Laden , Beyoncé released her cover of the Lee Greenwood song " God Bless the USA " , as a charity single to help raise funds for the New York Police and Fire Widows ' and Children 's Benefit Fund .
In December , Beyoncé along with a variety of other celebrities teamed up and produced a video campaign for " Demand A Plan " , a bipartisan effort by a group of 950 US mayors and others designed to influence the federal government into rethinking its gun control laws , following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting . Beyoncé became an ambassador for the 2012 World Humanitarian Day campaign donating her song " I Was Here " and its music video , shot in the UN , to the campaign . In 2013 , it was announced that Beyoncé would work with Salma Hayek and Frida Giannini on a Gucci " Chime for Change " campaign that aims to spread female empowerment . The campaign , which aired on February 28 , was set to her new music . A concert for the cause took place on June 1 , 2013 in London and included other acts like Ellie Goulding , Florence and the Machine , and Rita Ora . In advance of the concert , she appeared in a campaign video released on May 15 , 2013 , where she , along with Cameron Diaz , John Legend and Kylie Minogue , described inspiration from their mothers , while a number of other artists celebrated personal inspiration from other women , leading to a call for submission of photos of women of viewers ' inspiration from which a selection was shown at the concert . Beyoncé said about her mother Tina Knowles that her gift was " finding the best qualities in every human being . " With help of the crowdfunding platform Catapult , visitors of the concert could choose between several projects promoting education of women and girls . Beyoncé is also taking part in " Miss a Meal " , a food @-@ donation campaign , and supporting Goodwill charity through online charity auctions at Charitybuzz that support job creation throughout Europe and the U.S.
= = Discography = =
Dangerously in Love ( 2003 )
B 'Day ( 2006 )
I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 )
4 ( 2011 )
Beyoncé ( 2013 )
Lemonade ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
Carmen : A Hip Hopera ( 2001 )
Austin Powers in Goldmember ( 2002 )
The Fighting Temptations ( 2003 )
The Pink Panther ( 2006 )
Dreamgirls ( 2006 )
Cadillac Records ( 2008 )
Wow ! Wow ! Wubbzy ! : Wubb Idol ( 2009 )
Obsessed ( 2009 )
Life Is But a Dream ( 2013 )
Epic ( 2013 )
= = Tours and residency shows = =
Headlining tours
Dangerously in Love Tour ( 2003 )
The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 )
I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 )
The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2013 – 14 )
The Formation World Tour ( 2016 )
Co @-@ headlining tours
Verizon Ladies First Tour ( with Alicia Keys and Missy Elliott ) ( 2004 )
On the Run Tour ( with Jay Z ) ( 2014 )
Residency shows
I Am ... Yours ( 2009 )
4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé ( 2011 )
Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live ( 2012 )
= Secrets That I Never Want to Know =
" Secrets That I Never Want to Know " is the eighth @-@ season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Desperate Housewives , and the 158th overall episode of the series . It was originally broadcast in the United States on September 25 , 2011 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode focuses on the aftermath and cover @-@ up of an accidental killing .
The episode was written by executive producer Bob Daily and directed by David Grossman . In the episode , Bree ( Marcia Cross ) and Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) work together to conceal the death of Gabrielle 's stepfather ( Tony Plana ) while Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) and Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) struggle with their guilt over the cover @-@ up . Meanwhile , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) and Tom ( Doug Savant ) deal with their separation .
" Secrets That I Never Want to Know " received generally positive reviews from critics , most of whom agreed the episode provided a satisfactory opening to the show 's final season . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew 9 @.@ 93 million viewers , making it the least @-@ watched season premiere in the series ' history .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of residents in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane , as narrated by their deceased neighbor , Mary Alice Young ( Brenda Strong ) , who kills herself in the pilot episode after receiving a blackmail note . In recent episodes , Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) begins dating a detective named Chuck Vance ( Jonathan Cake ) . Meanwhile , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) and Tom Scavo ( Doug Savant ) decide to separate after experiencing problems in their marriage . Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) accidentally kills his wife Gabrielle 's ( Eva Longoria ) stepfather , Alejandro Perez ( Tony Plana ) , who raped her in her childhood and returns to inflict more harm . Gabrielle 's friends , Bree , Lynette , and Susan Delfino ( Teri Hatcher ) , agree to help cover up the killing .
= = = Episode = = =
Carlos and the women bury Alejandro 's body in the nearby woods and , at Bree and Gabrielle 's urging , make a pact to keep his death a secret . One month later , Carlos 's guilt has left him irritable and depressed . He confesses to having committed an unspecified crime to Father Dugan ( Sam McMurray ) , who tells him that he will only be forgiven if he turns himself in ; however , Carlos decides not to follow his advice in order to protect the other people involved in the cover @-@ up .
Meanwhile , Susan 's guilt over the cover @-@ up causes her to withdraw from her friends and family . Her husband , Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , suspects that she is unhappy in their marriage . Susan wants to tell Mike about the cover @-@ up , but Bree and Gabrielle discourage her , warning her that Mike could be implicated if they are ever caught .
Lynette and Tom have decided not to tell their children about their separation . After Lynette has a nightmare about Alejandro , she seeks Tom 's company and they sleep together . The next morning , Tom assumes that they are getting back together , but Lynette tells him she still wants to separate . Meanwhile , Renee Perry ( Vanessa Williams ) attempts to seduce new neighbor Ben Faulkner ( Charles Mesure ) , but he rejects her .
Elsewhere , Bree struggles with dating a detective and covering up Alejandro 's death . While trying to dispose of Alejandro 's car , Bree and Gabrielle inadvertently attract Chuck 's attention and have to create a series of elaborate lies to avoid him finding out the truth . Later , Bree receives a note reading , " I know what you did . It makes me sick . I 'm going to tell . " This is the same as the letter Mary Alice received before killing herself .
= = Production = =
" Secrets That I Never Want to Know " was written by executive producer Bob Daily and directed by David Grossman . Filming for the episode began on July 11 , 2011 . The episode is only one of two season premieres Cherry did not write himself , as he took on a reduced production role for the eighth season in order to develop several new series while Daily was given more creative authority . According to Daily , the series ' ending allowed the writers more artistic freedom while developing storylines . " You get to do story lines that you wouldn 't otherwise do because you don 't have to worry about the ramifications , " he explained . " So people can move , people can die , people can have babies and you don 't have to worry about the babies growing up . " The episode introduced Bree 's blackmail storyline , which recalls the first season 's mystery storyline surrounding series narrator Mary Alice 's suicide . Daily stated that the similarity between the storylines was intentional : " We ’ re kind of just diving into the DNA of the series a little bit . Are there any unanswered questions floating around out there ? Any characters we need to check in with one more time ? " Cherry noted that the " mystery hearkens back to the first season , going back to the roots of Mary Alice [ Brenda Strong ] . This feels right for that mystery to take us out this year . " Brenda Strong commented that " It ’ s the smartest way to end the series , to finish where you began . I think it really cements it in the psyche of the audience and gives them a sense of completion . "
The episode further develops the relationship between Bree and Chuck , which is complicated by her involvement in the cover @-@ up . " Bree ’ s dilemma is the fact that she ’ s falling for a cop and trying to cover up this crime that she was sort of the ringleader on , " Daily explained . " So her thing is instead of balancing work and pleasure , it ’ s balancing crime and pleasure . " Cross stated , " I think we ’ ll figure out if that ’ s really a big love for her or if she ’ s able to let it go . " Jonathan Cake , who appeared as Chuck in four episodes during the seventh season , was promoted to series regular with this episode . On the relationship between Bree and Chuck , Cake stated : " As a detective , he 's sort of drawn to this woman who seems both quite proper and conservative and yet can 't seem to stop herself from being drawn into these sort of crazy , lurid scenarios . There 's a sort of wild streak in Bree somewhere that he thinks is really interesting . " To prepare for the role , Cake watched key episodes of the series focusing on Bree 's previous relationships .
The episode also continues the storyline of Tom and Lynette 's separation . Huffman enjoyed her character 's storyline , stating : " I 'm sure there are things that they knew the viewers want , which is for Tom and Lynette to get back together . But I do like that it 's kind of up in the air and maybe they won 't . " Doug Savant commented , " For many years on this show , we knew that Tom and Lynette were the grounding force on the street . They were the couple that most resembled most couples in America . It just got to a point after so many years when [ the writers ] really wanted to explore the things that made this relationship work by first pulling it apart . " Both actors expressed their desire for the couple to reunite by the series ' end . Charles Mesure made his debut as new neighbor Ben Faulkner , a self @-@ made contractor and Renee 's new love interest . According to Vanessa Williams , " She ’ s working hard to make it happen and it ’ s not happening easily for her . And she ’ s not used to that and that ’ s where the comedy ensues and it gives her something to pursue . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to Nielsen ratings , " Secrets That I Never Want to Know " was watched by 9 @.@ 93 million viewers and held a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 7 share among viewers between 18 and 49 years of age . The episode is the least @-@ watched season premiere in the series ' history , indicating a 28 percent decrease in viewership from the seventh season premiere one year earlier . The episode was outperformed by Sunday Night Football on NBC , which averaged 20 @.@ 36 million viewers and an 8 @.@ 3 rating / 21 share , and The Good Wife on CBS , which was watched by 10 @.@ 66 million viewers but held a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 5 share , 45 percent lower than Desperate Housewives . The episode was also outperformed by its lead @-@ out program , the series premiere of Pan Am . It averaged 1 @.@ 2 million viewers more than " Secrets That I Never Want to Know " , becoming the first lead @-@ out program to outperform Desperate Housewives since Grey 's Anatomy in May 2006 . The final minute of " Secrets That I Never Want to Know " drew 12 @.@ 188 million viewers and received a 7 @.@ 9 rating / 12 share overall with 4 @.@ 1 rating / 9 share in the 18 to 49 demographic . The episode gained an additional 2 million viewers and 0 @.@ 9 rating in the week following the original broadcast due to DVR recordings .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Secrets That I Never Want to Know " received mixed critical reviews . TV Guide 's Kate Stanhope gave a mixed review of the episode , opining that " the episode moved a little slow for what was the last season premiere . " She praised the sequence in which Bree and Gabrielle attempt to get rid of Alejandro 's car , writing , " I always love the Bree @-@ Gaby scenes because they contradict each other in such an interesting way . " She enjoyed that the Bree character was " turning back into the controlling perfectionist we grew to love rather than the carefree woman she became " in the seventh season . Stanhope was critical of the Lynette and Tom storyline , opining : " it 's annoying that their relationship has been reduced to this gimmick ... I was never on board with the whole Tom and Lynette split simply because it felt less honest and more of a last @-@ ditch effort to cause conflict . But if they 're going to go through with separating the formerly stable couple , at least go through with it all the way and show Lynette really and truly on her own . " She also believed the Renee storyline to be a waste of Vanessa Williams 's talents . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly called the episode 's overall storyline " too juicy a landmine to not have the repercussions play out deliciously on this , the show ’ s last season . "
TV Fanatic 's Christina Tran gave the episode a positive review , awarding it 4 out of 5 stars . She picked Susan 's hamster burial scene and the scene in which Gabrielle eases Carlos ' conscience her favorite scenes in the episode . Tran also appreciated the writers ' decision not to prolong Tom and Lynette 's attempts to hide their separation , opining : " Last season , their fights were relentless and exhausting . I was glad that this storyline wasn ’ t dragged out too much , as Tom and Lynette were both able to rip off the band @-@ aid and let their children know of their new status . " She also enjoyed the addition of the Ben character and hoped that the Renee character would receive her own storyline this season . John Griffiths of Us Weekly awarded the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , writing , " After last season 's silly antics , the venerable dramedy pulls itself together for a clever final round . " He opined that Carlos and Susan 's guilt helped keep the cover @-@ up storyline compelling . The Hollywood Reporter 's Jethro Nededog was positive in his review of the episode , writing : " It was a strong return , because it relied on the series ’ strength , which is the bond these women have with each other . " Jamie Heller of The A.V. Club noted that " there ’ s almost no other plot development " in the episode apart from the cover @-@ up and Lynette and Tom 's separation .
= Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale =
Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale ( Albert Victor Christian Edward ; 8 January 1864 – 14 January 1892 ) , was the eldest child of Albert Edward , Prince of Wales ( later King Edward VII ) , and the grandson of the reigning British monarch , Queen Victoria . From the time of his birth , he was second in the line of succession to the British throne , but never became king : he died before his father and his grandmother , the Queen .
Albert Victor was known to his family , and many later biographers , as " Eddy " . When young , he travelled the world extensively as a naval cadet , and as an adult he joined the British Army , but did not undertake any active military duties . After two unsuccessful courtships , he was engaged to be married to Princess Mary of Teck in late 1891 . A few weeks later , he died during an influenza pandemic . Mary later married his younger brother Prince George , who became King George V in 1910 .
Albert Victor 's intellect , sexuality and mental health have been the subject of speculation . Rumours linked him with the Cleveland Street scandal , which involved a homosexual brothel , but there is no conclusive evidence that he ever went there or was even homosexual . Some authors have argued that he was the serial killer known as Jack the Ripper , but contemporary documents show that Albert Victor could not have been in London at the time of the murders , and the claim is widely dismissed .
= = Early life = =
Albert Victor was born two months prematurely on 8 January 1864 at Frogmore House , Windsor , Berkshire . He was the first child of Albert Edward , Prince of Wales , and Alexandra , Princess of Wales ( formerly Alexandra of Denmark ) . Following his grandmother Queen Victoria 's wishes , he was named Albert Victor , after herself and her late husband Albert . As a grandchild of the reigning British monarch in the male line , and a son of the Prince of Wales , he was formally styled His Royal Highness Prince Albert Victor of Wales from birth .
He was christened Albert Victor Christian Edward in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 10 March 1864 by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Charles Longley , but was known informally as " Eddy " . His godparents were Queen Victoria ( his paternal grandmother ) , King Christian IX of Denmark ( his maternal grandfather , represented by his brother Prince John of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg ) , King Leopold I of Belgium ( his great great @-@ uncle ) , the Dowager Duchess of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg ( his maternal great @-@ grandmother , for whom the Duchess of Cambridge stood proxy ) , the Duchess of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ( his great @-@ aunt by marriage , for whom the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz stood proxy ) , the Landgrave of Hesse ( his maternal great @-@ grandfather , for whom Prince George , Duke of Cambridge , stood proxy ) , the Crown Princess of Prussia ( his paternal aunt , for whom Princess Helena , her sister , stood proxy ) and Prince Alfred ( his paternal uncle ) .
= = = Education = = =
When Albert Victor was just short of seventeen months old , his brother , Prince George of Wales , was born on 3 June 1865 . Given the closeness in age of the two royal brothers , they were educated together . In 1871 , the Queen appointed John Neale Dalton as their tutor . The two princes were given a strict programme of study , which included games and military drills as well as academic subjects . Dalton complained that Albert Victor 's mind was " abnormally dormant " . Though he learned to speak Danish , progress in other languages and subjects was slow . Sir Henry Ponsonby thought that Albert Victor might have inherited his mother 's deafness . Albert Victor never excelled intellectually . Possible physical explanations for Albert Victor 's inattention or indolence in class include absence seizures or his premature birth , which can be associated with learning difficulties , but Lady Geraldine Somerset blamed Albert Victor 's poor education on Dalton , whom she considered uninspiring .
Separating the brothers for the remainder of their education was considered , but Dalton advised the Prince of Wales against splitting them up as " Prince Albert Victor requires the stimulus of Prince George 's company to
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weeks , and reduces uric acid levels . It is likely useful for tophi but has a high rate of side effects .
= = = Prophylaxis = = =
A number of medications are useful for preventing further episodes of gout , including xanthine oxidase inhibitors ( including allopurinol and febuxostat ) and uricosurics ( including probenecid and sulfinpyrazone ) . They are not usually started until one to two weeks after an acute flare has resolved , due to theoretical concerns of worsening the attack . They are often used in combination with either an NSAID or colchicine for the first three to six months . They are not recommended until a person has had two attacks of gout , unless destructive joint changes , tophi , or urate nephropathy exist , because the medications have not been found to be cost @-@ effective . Urate @-@ lowering measures should be increased until serum uric acid levels are below 300 – 360 µmol / l ( 5 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 0 mg / dl ) and continue indefinitely . If these medications are in chronic use at the time of an attack , discontinuation is recommended . Levels that cannot be brought below 6 @.@ 0 mg / dl while attacks continue indicates treatment failure or refractory gout . Overall , probenecid appears to be less effective than allopurinol .
Uricosuric medications are typically preferred if undersecretion of uric acid , as indicated by a 24 @-@ hour collection of urine results in a uric acid amount of less than 800 mg , is found . They are , however , not recommended if a person has a history of kidney stones . A 24 @-@ hour urine excretion of more than 800 mg , which indicates overproduction , is an indication for a xanthine oxidase inhibitor .
Xanthine oxidase inhibitors block uric acid production . Long @-@ term therapy is safe and well tolerated and can be used in people with decreased kidney function or urate stones , although allopurinol has caused hypersensitivity in a small number of individuals . In such cases febuxostat is recommended .
= = Prognosis = =
Without treatment , an acute attack of gout usually resolves in five to seven days ; however , 60 % of people have a second attack within one year . Those with gout are at increased risk of hypertension , diabetes mellitus , metabolic syndrome and kidney and cardiovascular disease and thus are at increased risk of death . This may be partly due to its association with insulin resistance and obesity , but some of the increased risk appears to be independent .
Without treatment , episodes of acute gout may develop into chronic gout with destruction of joint surfaces , joint deformity and painless tophi . These tophi occur in 30 % of those who are untreated for five years , often in the helix of the ear , over the olecranon processes , or on the Achilles tendons . With aggressive treatment , they may dissolve . Kidney stones also frequently complicate gout , affecting between 10 and 40 % of people and occur due to low urine pH promoting the precipitation of uric acid . Other forms of chronic kidney dysfunction may occur .
= = Epidemiology = =
Gout affects around 1 – 2 % of the Western population at some point in their lifetimes and is becoming more common . Some 5 @.@ 8 million people were affected in 2013 . Rates of gout approximately doubled between 1990 and 2010 . This rise is believed to be due to increasing life expectancy , changes in diet and an increase in diseases associated with gout , such as metabolic syndrome and high blood pressure . Factors that influence rates of gout , include age , race and the season of the year . In men over 30 and women over 50 , rates are 2 % .
In the United States , gout is twice as likely in males of African descent than those of European descent . Rates are high among Pacific Islanders and the Māori , but rare in aboriginal Australians , despite a higher mean uric acid serum concentration in the latter group . It has become common in China , Polynesia and urban sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Some studies found that attacks of gout occur more frequently in the spring . This has been attributed to seasonal changes in diet , alcohol consumption , physical activity and temperature .
= = History = =
The term " gout " was initially used by Randolphus of Bocking , around 1200 AD . It is derived from the Latin word gutta , meaning " a drop " ( of liquid ) . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , this is derived from humorism and " the notion of the ' dropping ' of a morbid material from the blood in and around the joints " .
Gout has been known since antiquity . Historically , it was referred to as " the king of diseases and the disease of kings " or " rich man 's disease " . The first documentation of the disease is from Egypt in 2 @,@ 600 BC in a description of arthritis of the big toe . Greek physician Hippocrates around 400 BC commented on it in his Aphorisms , noting its absence in eunuchs and premenopausal women . Aulus Cornelius Celsus ( 30 AD ) described the linkage with alcohol , later onset in women and associated kidney problems :
Again thick urine , the sediment from which is white , indicates that pain and disease are to be apprehended in the region of joints or viscera ... Joint troubles in the hands and feet are very frequent and persistent , such as occur in cases of podagra and cheiragra . These seldom attack eunuchs or boys before coition with a woman , or women except those in whom the menses have become suppressed ... some have obtained lifelong security by refraining from wine , mead and venery .
In 1683 , Thomas Sydenham , an English physician , described its occurrence in the early hours of the morning and its predilection for older males :
Gouty patients are , generally , either old men , or men who have so worn themselves out in youth as to have brought on a premature old age — of such dissolute habits none being more common than the premature and excessive indulgence in venery and the like exhausting passions . The victim goes to bed and sleeps in good health . About two o 'clock in the morning he is awakened by a severe pain in the great toe ; more rarely in the heel , ankle or instep . The pain is like that of a dislocation and yet parts feel as if cold water were poured over them . Then follows chills and shivers and a little fever ... The night is passed in torture , sleeplessness , turning the part affected and perpetual change of posture ; the tossing about of body being as incessant as the pain of the tortured joint and being worse as the fit comes on .
The Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek first described the microscopic appearance of urate crystals in 1679 . In 1848 , English physician Alfred Baring Garrod identified excess uric acid in the blood as the cause of gout .
= = Other animals = =
Gout is rare in most other animals due to their ability to produce uricase , which breaks down uric acid . Humans and other great apes do not have this ability , thus gout is common . Other animals with uricase include fish , amphibians and most non primate mammals . The Tyrannosaurus rex specimen known as " Sue " , however , is believed to have suffered from gout .
= = Research = =
A number of new medications are under study for treating gout , including anakinra , canakinumab and rilonacept . Canakinumab may result in better outcomes than a low dose of a steroid but costs five thousand times more . A recombinant uricase enzyme ( rasburicase ) is available ; its use , however , is limited , as it triggers an autoimmune response . Less antigenic versions are in development .
= New Jersey Route 440 =
Route 440 is a state highway in New Jersey , United States . It comprises two segments , a 5 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 29 km ) freeway in Middlesex County linking Interstate 287 and the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) in Edison to the Outerbridge Crossing in Perth Amboy and a 8 @.@ 18 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 16 km ) four @-@ lane divided highway in Hudson County running from the Bayonne Bridge in Bayonne to U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck in Jersey City . These two segments are connected by New York State Route 440 , which runs across Staten Island . The freeway portion in Middlesex County is six lanes wide and interchanges with the Garden State Parkway and U.S. Route 9 in Woodbridge .
What is now Route 440 was designated as two different routes in 1927 : the Middlesex County portion between Route 4 ( now Route 35 ) and the proposed Outerbridge Crossing was designated Route S4 ( a spur of Route 4 ) while the Hudson County portion was designated as a part of Route 1 . In 1953 , Route 440 replaced Route S4 as well as Route 1 south of Communipaw Avenue ; the number was chosen to match NY 440 . A freeway was built for the route in Middlesex County between 1967 and finished in 1972 . A freeway was also proposed for the route in Hudson County to fill in the gap between the Bayonne Bridge and 63rd Street ; however , it was never built . In 2001 , Route 440 replaced Route 169 along the Bayonne waterfront .
= = Route description = =
= = = Middlesex County = = =
The Route 440 freeway begins in Edison Township at an interchange with the southern terminus of Interstate 287 and the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) ; from Route 440 ’ s southern terminus , the road becomes northbound Interstate 287 . Within this interchange , Route 440 also has access to County Route 514 . It continues to the east as a six @-@ lane road through wooded surroundings and enters Woodbridge Township at the underpass of King Georges Post Road . Here , the route interchanges with County Route 656 ( Smith Street ) before intersecting the Garden State Parkway and U.S. Route 9 at a large interchange . From here , the freeway turns northeast and enters Perth Amboy at the point where it crosses under County Route 616 ( New Brunswick Avenue ) . Route 440 passes near homes before coming to the next interchange for County Route 501 and Route 184 . At this point , County Route 501 joins the Route 440 freeway for a concurrency , and the road comes to an interchange with Route 35 a short distance later . The road continues east @-@ southeast , with an exit for County Route 653 ( Amboy Avenue ) before it passes through more residential neighborhoods . The final exit on the Middlesex County portion of Route 440 serves County Route 611 ( State Street ) . Past this interchange , Route 440 becomes the Outerbridge Crossing , a four @-@ lane bridge maintained by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . It passes over New Jersey Transit ’ s North Jersey Coast Line and State Street before crossing over the Arthur Kill onto Staten Island . At the New Jersey @-@ New York state line on the middle of the bridge , the southern segments of Route 440 and County Route 501 end and become New York State Route 440 . An extension of Route 440 also intersects with Route 35 right after the Victory Bridge crossing in Perth Amboy ( around Shoprite )
= = = Hudson County = = =
After New York State Route 440 runs 12 @.@ 73 mi ( 20 @.@ 49 km ) through Staten Island , it enters New Jersey again via the Bayonne Bridge , a four @-@ lane undivided bridge over Kill Van Kull that is also maintained by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . Upon entering Bayonne in Hudson County , the road becomes the northern segment of Route 440 and County Route 501 and continues north into residential sections of the city . After widening into a divided highway maintained by the NJDOT , County Route 501 splits from the route by heading north on Kennedy Boulevard at an interchange . Meanwhile , Route 440 turns to the east before heading northeast and passing through industrial areas as a surface road . It heads north @-@ northeast as it passes between neighborhoods and New Jersey Transit ’ s Hudson – Bergen Light Rail to the west and port areas to the east , including the former Military Ocean Terminal .
The route crosses into Jersey City , where it comes to an interchange with Route 185 . Here , the mainline becomes Route 185 and Route 440 exits onto another four @-@ lane divided highway , coming to an interchange with the Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 78 ) that provides access to the Jersey City and Hoboken waterfronts and the Holland Tunnel . From here , Route 440 continues northwest , closely paralleling the north side of Interstate 78 . The route interchanges with Avenue C before becoming an undivided road that reenters Bayonne and crossing over County Route 501 ( Kennedy Boulevard ) without an interchange . Past this intersection , Route 440 makes a sharp turn to the south and passes under the Newark Bay Bridge ( Interstate 78 ) . After making a hairpin turn back to the north , it passes under the Newark Bay Bridge another time and runs along the eastern shore of Newark Bay . The route interchanges with West 63rd Street before crossing back into Jersey City and passing residences to the east . It intersects County Route 602 ( Danforth Avenue ) as the road heads into business sectors farther to the east of Newark Bay . The road heads past industrial establishments before running through commercial areas again , passing to the east of the Hudson Mall . Route 440 ends at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck and County Route 612 ( Communipaw Avenue ) , where the road continues north as part of U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck .
= = History = =
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , what is now Route 440 was defined as two separate routes . The Middlesex County portion from Route 4 ( now Route 35 ) to the present location of the Outerbridge Crossing was legislated as Route S4 , a spur of Route 4 . Meanwhile , the Hudson County portion of the route was legislated as a part of Route 1 , a route that was to run from Bayonne to the New York border in Rockleigh . Route S4 was eventually extended west to the Garden State Parkway . This route followed Pfeiffer Boulevard and the one @-@ way pair of Lawrence Avenue and Grove Street . Meanwhile , Route 1 only existed as a state @-@ maintained highway north of 63rd Street in Bayonne ; south of there , traffic used Hudson Boulevard to access the Bayonne Bridge . A road carrying Route 1 was proposed to be built on landfill in the Passaic River ; however , it was never constructed . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , both Route S4 between the Garden State Parkway and the Outerbridge Crossing as well as Route 1 between 63rd Street and Communipaw Avenue became Route 440 in order to match New York State Route 440 .
In 1959 , an additional piece of Route 440 was legislated to run from the Bayonne Bridge to 63rd Street to complete the route , running over the waters of the Newark Bay ; this was never built . In the mid @-@ 1950s , a freeway alignment was proposed for Route 440 in Middlesex County . This route , to be called the Middlesex Freeway , was to connect the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate 287 to the Outerbridge Crossing . Construction began on the freeway in 1967 and it was completed in 1974 . The old alignment of Route 440 along Pfeiffer Boulevard between the Garden State Parkway and Route 35 became Route 184 . A freeway was also proposed in the 1960s for Route 440 in Hudson County connecting the Bayonne Bridge to Interstate 78 and filling in the gap in the route . In 1976 , Route 440 was proposed along with Route 169 in a plan to redevelop the waterfront area of Bayonne . However , the NJDOT shelved the project a year later due to low traffic volumes and feared environmental impact to the Newark Bay . Route 169 was later constructed as a four @-@ lane arterial completed in 1992 . In 2001 , Route 169 was redesignated as Route 440 in order to complete the gap in the route .
On January 8 , 2008 , Gov. Jon Corzine announced plans for a new 35 @-@ cent toll on the Middlesex County portion of Route 440 , in addition to increases on existing toll roads , to help raise funds to reduce New Jersey 's outstanding debt . However , he dropped the idea to toll Route 440 a month later after mounting opposition to the idea .
In anticipation of a general increase of activity in Port of New York and New Jersey and new development on West Side and Hackensack Riverfront in Jersey City studies are being conducted to transform the roadway into a multi @-@ use urban boulevard that includes possible grade separations , medians , and a new traffic circle at its northern terminus .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= Final Fantasy Mystic Quest =
Final Fantasy Mystic Quest , released as Mystic Quest Legend in PAL regions and as Final Fantasy USA : Mystic Quest ( ファイナルファンタジーUSA ミスティッククエスト , Fainaru Fantajī Yū Esu Ē Misutikku Kuesuto ) in Japan , is a role @-@ playing video game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . The game was released as a spin @-@ off to Square 's popular Final Fantasy series of video games . Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was first released in North America in 1992 and marketed as a " simplified role @-@ playing game ... designed for the entry @-@ level player " in an attempt to broaden the genre 's appeal . The game 's presentation and battle system is broadly similar to that of the main series , but it differed in its inclusion of action @-@ adventure game elements . Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was the first Final Fantasy game to be released in Europe .
In the game , the player controls a youth named Benjamin in his quest to save the world . His goal is to reclaim a set of stolen crystals that determine the state of the world 's four elemental powers . The gameplay takes a departure from the main series in a variety of ways . Many series staples are eliminated , such as random battles , save points , manual equipment , and the party system . The game received middling reviews and sales in North America and Japan , citing its simplified gameplay and lack of depth in the game 's story . Over time , the game has kept the reputation for being a " beginner 's Final Fantasy " and has been praised for its music .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Exploration = = =
Like previous games in the series , Final Fantasy Mystic Quest is presented in a top @-@ down perspective ( or bird 's eye view ) , with players directly navigating the main character around the world to interact with objects and people . The game features a unique way of traveling the world map . Unlike past Final Fantasy games , players cannot freely roam the world map . Instead , they travel along set paths from one " icon " ( pictorial image on the world map ) to the next . Some routes are blocked off ( restriction is indicated by a gray arrow ) , but become accessible when the player succeeds in a specific task , such as completing a dungeon . Once its path is open , the player can enter an icon ; the game 's plot and action takes place within these icons , which include towns , dungeons , and battlefields . The game is characterized by featuring action @-@ adventure game elements ; besides jumping , players can use weapons outside of battle , which play an active role in exploration . Players can chop down trees with an axe , detonate bombs to open sealed doorways , or use a grappling hook to clear wide gaps . The game also has more puzzles than earlier Final Fantasy games . In the Falls Basin , for example , players must move pillars of ice across the ground level in such a fashion that they can be used as platforms to jump across on the second level . Final Fantasy Mystic Quest also does away with save points ; players can save their progress at any time during exploration .
= = = Battle system = = =
Final Fantasy Mystic Quest eliminates the system of random enemy encounters , a trademark of the main series . Instead , battles are represented in dungeons as stationary enemy sprites , and the player is given the option of approaching the enemy and engaging a battle . Once engaged in battle , the player is thrust into the battle screen , which presents a window @-@ based menu with three commands to choose from : battle , run , or control . Running from battle transports the player back to the field screen , while choosing " control " toggles between the ally 's battle mode , where the player can manually control the main character 's ally or opt for a computer @-@ controlled ally . If players choose to battle , they are presented with a submenu of four more options : physically attack the enemy , cast a spell , use a curative item ( such as a Cure potion ) , or defend . The game 's battle system relies on conditional turn @-@ based combat , where the characters and enemies cycle through " rounds " in battling each other , with the most turns awarded to the fastest character . Character health is represented by an incremental life bar , although the player may choose to have it displayed in numerical fractions as in most role @-@ playing games . If all character life bars reach zero , the game is over , but the player is given the option of continuing and restarting the battle . If the player chooses this option , however , the main character 's attack power may suffer temporarily as a penalty . A character 's performance in battle is determined by numerical figures ( called statistics ) for vitality , attacking power , defensive capabilities , speed , magical prowess , accuracy , and evasion . Character statistics are driven by experience points ( EXP ) gained from winning battles , which accumulate until players achieve milestones known as " experience levels . " Besides awarding experience points , battling enemies also earns the player Gold Pieces ( GP ) , which can be used to buy weapons , armor , and curative items . In the absence of random enemy encounters , battlefields are scattered across the world map . Players are immediately thrust into a battle when entering a battlefield , and must win ten enemy battles to " clean out " the battlefield . Once a battlefield is cleaned out , players are awarded either a large amount of experience , a large amount of GP , a piece of armor , or a magic spell .
= = = Customization = = =
Unlike all other Final Fantasy games , players cannot manually equip characters with armor . Instead , newly acquired armor replaces the main character 's current equipment , or upgrades a current version of a weapon , e.g. obtaining the knight sword will replace the steel sword . Using the L and R buttons allows the user to cycle through the weapons that have been collected so far . Benjamin uses four types of weapons : swords , axes , bombs , and claws . Although the weapons share a similar function in battle , all have different purposes when exploring the field map . The Dragon Claw , for example , doubles as a grappling hook . The weapon arsenal in Final Fantasy Mystic Quest is considerably smaller than most role @-@ playing games .
Magic in Final Fantasy Mystic Quest is not learned by designated spellcasters through experience . Instead , the main character acquires magic spells through treasure chests or as a reward for clearing out battlefields . The system of spellcasting is similar to that of the original Final Fantasy ; rather than using magic points to draw upon for supplying magic , spells are used according to a set number for their type , i.e. , white magic , black magic , or wizard magic . The allotted number for each type increases as a character levels up . A spell 's effectiveness is also proportional to a character 's experience level . The higher the character 's level , the more powerful the Cure spell , for example . The spell catalog in Final Fantasy Mystic Quest is limited compared to most other Final Fantasy games . Items in the game are analogous to the spells : their potency increases as the character levels up . In addition , the Heal potion acts as a cure @-@ all for status ailments , eliminating the need for status recovery items .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The fictional events of Final Fantasy Mystic Quest take place on a single continent of an unnamed world , which is divided into four distinct regions : Foresta , Aquaria , Fireburg , and Windia . The welfare of each region is determined by the state of one of four shining crystals : earth , water , fire , and wind , respectively . For centuries the Focus Tower had stood at the heart of the world . It had been a center for trade and knowledge , and the world 's people met there to peacefully settle their differences . But on one warm summer day , powerful monsters stormed the Tower , stole the four crystals , and then took off with the magical coins that kept the Tower 's doors unlocked . The monsters began consuming the power of the crystals ; they grew in strength while the world began to decay . An old prophecy tells that at the time the " vile four " steal the power and divide the world behind four doors , a knight will appear to vanquish the darkness .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with an adventurous youth named Benjamin climbing the Hill of Destiny . While exploring , his village is destroyed in an earthquake . As Benjamin is climbing the Hill , he meets a mysterious old man who charges Benjamin with fulfilling the knight 's prophecy . Although initially in disbelief , Benjamin accepts the role and the Old Man shows him the Focus Tower ( supposedly the center of the World ) . After defeating a monster at the top of the hill , Benjamin follows the Old Man to the Level Forest , where he is tasked with recovering the Crystal of Earth . Proceeding to Foresta , he meets with an axe @-@ wielding girl named Kaeli , who agrees to help Benjamin if he can help her rid the Level Forest of monsters . Kaeli is ambushed and poisoned in the process , and her mother informs Benjamin of the Elixir and where it can be found . Benjamin 's search for Elixir to heal Kaeli brings him to Bone Dungeon , where he 's aided by a treasure hunter named Tristam in succeeding dual purposes : not only does Benjamin get Elixir from Tristam to heal Kaeli , but he defeats one of the four Vile Evils , Flamerous Rex , to free the Crystal of Earth and in turn restore life to the dying village of Foresta . Tristam leaves and Benjamin heals Kaeli .
Benjamin is then told that Aquaria is in danger , and is in need of help . He is told ( by the Old Man and various others ) that he should see Spencer . He is also told that a girl named Phoebe can help him as well . After proceeding through the first stage of the Focus Tower , and arriving in the province of Aquaria , Benjamin locates Phoebe , and learns that Spencer is trapped underground by thick ice floes . Phoebe needs the " wakewater , " which is said to be able to help free Aquaria . Benjamin and Phoebe head to the ( aptly named ) Wintry Cave and defeat a monster to obtain the Libra Crest . Using this crest to enter the Libra Temple , they find that the source of the " wakewater " has dried up . Finding the Old Man in the back of the Libra Temple , they find that he holds the only bag ( water skin , actually ) of wakewater , and to use it on the plant in the center of town . Back in Aquaria , they find that the wakewater doesn 't work , and reviving the crystal is the only thing that will save the town and Spencer . They head off for the Ice Pyramid and defeat the second of the Vile Evils , the Ice Golem . The Ice Crystal is saved , and Benjamin and Phoebe head back to Aquaria . They find the town is now like Foresta ( after the crystal is revived there ) and Spencer is back and digging his tunnel to save Captain Mac ( Kaeli 's Father ) . Upon leaving , Spencer hands the Venus Key to Benjamin , and tells him to head for Fireburg .
Benjamin arrives in the Focus Tower to find the Old Man again , who tells him to find Reuben , and disappears . Benjamin then heads for Fireburg , and finds Reuben . Reuben joins when Benjamin promises to help free Reuben 's dad , Arion . Upon finding Tristam in the Inn ( who gives Benjamin the Multi @-@ Key ) , they find the coward who left Arion in the mine in a locked house . He teaches Benjamin how to throw the bombs and says that it will free Arion . Benjamin and Reuben then proceed to the Mine and free Arion . Arion tells some tales of how the Fire Crystal has gone berserk , and Reuben goes off with Benjamin to the Volcano to stop the Vile Evil from stealing the crystal 's power . After defeating the Dualhead Hydra , Benjamin and Reuben find the Fire Crystal returning to power . They decide to head to Windia , and Reuben is ambushed by monsters and falls off the rope bridge . Tristam comes along and helps Benjamin cross the bridge , but they are stymied by a tree who won 't talk to them . Tristam says that there is a gal in Foresta who can talk to tree spirits , and the two drop in on Aquaria where Kaeli was trying to find Spencer . Benjamin and Tristam go down into the tunnel and find Spencer , who tells Tristam of a great treasure . They leave , and Phoebe plants a bomb that collapses a tunnel Spencer was building . She leaves to tell Spencer what happened , and Benjamin takes Kaeli to the Alive Forest to talk to the dormant tree spirit . He tells them that he will take them to Windia if they kill the monsters dwelling within him . They do , and he takes them to Windia .
Upon arriving in Windia , Benjamin and Kaeli find Otto , whose daughter was caught in Pazuzu 's Tower when the winds from nearby Mount Gale knocked out his Rainbow Road . The only way the road works is when there is no wind , so Benjamin and Kaeli proceed to Mount Gale and stop the wind by defeating a powerful monster at the top . After returning to Windia , Otto powers up the Rainbow Road and the two adventurers proceed to Pazuzu 's Tower . After giving chase , they corner Pazuzu and defeat the fourth Vile Evil and restore the Wind Crystal . Norma is reunited with Otto , and Kaeli stays to take care of her . Reuben shows up and after a series of long events Captain Mac is rescued . Reuben falls down because of the injury sustained on the Rope Bridge , and Phoebe joins Benjamin instead .
The Old Man tells Benjamin an ominous addendum to the prophecy : " the one behind the four is darker than the night , and rises midst the land . " It becomes known that the Dark King is the true source of evil . Benjamin thus sails to Doom Castle to confront the Dark King , who threatens to enslave Benjamin along with the rest of mankind . The Dark King claims that he wrote and spread the prophecy Benjamin had followed throughout his quest . Once the Dark King is defeated , the old man congratulates Benjamin and reveals that he is the Fifth Crystal , The Crystal of Light in the guise of a human . At the end of the game , Benjamin is seen still craving adventure , and he borrows the ship from Captain Mac as his friends gather to wish him off . While sailing , Tristam makes a surprise appearance .
= = Development = =
Although designed by one of Square 's development teams in Japan , Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was specifically geared for the U.S. market . At the time , console role @-@ playing games were not a major genre in North America ; Square thus attempted to broaden the genre 's appeal through Final Fantasy Mystic Quest . Square had already released several Final Fantasy spinoffs in North America , including the first three titles in the SaGa series as Final Fantasy Legend , and the first Mana series game as Final Fantasy Adventure , and wished to further break into the popular American consciousness . Square 's executives cited the alleged difficulty of RPGs as the reason Americans shied away from them , and eased the difficulty level by tweaking various aspects of the main series ' gameplay . The American release of Final Fantasy IV was altered to make the game simpler , for example . Mystic Quest was to take this one step further , and the Japanese developers worked with the American offices to make sure the game was accessible to children .
Mystic Quest was developed in a graphic and gameplay style similar to Final Fantasy Legend III ( part of the aforementioned SaGa series ) . The gameplay shares numerous similarities with that title , featuring a very similar battle system , graphical interface , and dungeon system . Even the " jump " feature from Final Fantasy Legend III has been reproduced , and almost all of the icons - from caves to the enemy sprites - are a color @-@ upgraded version of Final Fantasy Legend III 's character set . Besides allowing for computer @-@ controlled allies , the game did away with random battles , complicated storylines , and text @-@ based menus . To appeal to the perceived tastes of North American audiences , which gravitated towards fast @-@ paced games , Square included action @-@ adventure game elements ; players could now brandish weapons outside of battle , jump , use a grappling hook , and set bombs to open new paths . North American translator Ted Woolsey explained that " The action / adventure players ... are larger in numbers and the demographic is different . They tend to be younger and like the idea of jumping straight into the action with a sword in their hands ; it 's an empowerment issue - you get to go out there , start whacking things and it feels good ! With the more traditional RPGs , it takes a good 15 or 20 hours of playing before you 're finally hooked . " Woolsey stated that Mystic Quest was one of the easiest games he had to translate , due to the game 's small size . Because the game was marketed towards a younger demographic , the game sold for US $ 39 @.@ 99 . Mystic Quest also came with an Official Strategy Guide that helped inexperienced and new RPG players complete it .
= = = Release = = =
After its U.S. debut , Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was released in Japan under the title Final Fantasy USA : Mystic Quest . The European release of the game was released in English , German and French , and had the title changed to Mystic Quest Legend to avoid confusion with Final Fantasy Adventure , which had been released in Europe as Mystic Quest . Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was first unveiled in June at the 1992 Summer Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago , where it was a popular venue , and the game was later presented in more detail in the Fall 1992 issue of the Ogopogo Examiner .
= = = Audio = = =
Final Fantasy Mystic Quest 's soundtrack was composed by Ryuji Sasai and Yasuhiro Kawakami . It was one of the first games in the Final Fantasy series not to be composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu , after Final Fantasy Adventure ( known in Japan as Final Fantasy Gaiden ) and the Final Fantasy Legend games ( only called Final Fantasy games in North America ) . The album was first released on one Compact Disc by NTT Publishing on September 10 , 1993 . ROM capacity limits and hardware limitations made the composition process difficult . After the game was completed , Sasai recorded two remixes on his days off for the game 's album , and personally played the guitar parts . “ Mountain Range of Whirlwinds ” was built off of Sasai 's liking of the sound of the french horn , and its ability to go the length of the song and convey a sense of mountains . The track " Last Castle " was written in a short time , and was used to create imagery of a field , but its length left very little space for the " Battle 3 " song.'
= = Reception = =
According to Square 's publicity department , Final Fantasy Mystic Quest sold a total of 800 @,@ 000 units , with roughly half of these sold in Japan .
On its original North American release , it scored a 3 @.@ 725 / 5 in the November 1992 issue of Nintendo Power , a 29 / 40 in Electronic Gaming Monthly , and 86 % in Electronic Games . The game did not generate much excitement in either America or Japan , although it is thought to have appealed to younger fans . The game ultimately failed in its bid to bring mainstream North American popularity to console RPGs ( a feat that wouldn 't be accomplished until Final Fantasy VII five years later ) , and simultaneously alienated fans of the series anticipating another epic following Final Fantasy IV . It has also been described as " Final Fantasy with an identity crisis " due to the inherent flaw of creating a game that didn 't appeal to the masses or the hard @-@ core gaming audience .
Years later , reviewers have not looked favorably on Mystic Quest , including Kotaku calling it the " worst Final Fantasy " , and Games Radar calling it a " franchise embarrassment for its enemies that stand still and wait for players to attack . IGN rated the Wii Virtual Console release a 6 @.@ 0 , or " Okay " , citing an extremely repetitive and simple battle system , and very little character development . 1UP.com rated the game a " Not Worth It ! " , calling " handholding " and " insubstantial " .
It was , however , praised for its music , including 1UP.com praising its " sweet sampled metal guitar licks " , and listed the final boss battle music as one of the must download songs for the Final Fantasy music game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy . It was also praised by Games Radar for its music , mentioning the boss battle in their " Game Music of the Day " column , and also mentioning the rest of the game music as smooth and easy listening . On April 1 , 2006 , GameSpot included Mystic Quest in an April 's Fools list entitled " Top 10 Final Fantasy Games " , which mostly consisted of spin @-@ offs from the main series and unrelated games . Mystic Quest was " praised " for being easy and having simplistic graphics and plot . In October 2010 , the game was released on Nintendo 's Virtual Console . Famitsu has also reported that Square was preparing the game for release on the Android mobile platform in 2012 .
The main character Benjamin and two songs appear in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy : Curtain Call .
= S & Man =
S & Man ( pronounced as Sandman ) is a 2006 pseudo @-@ documentary film that examines the underground subculture of horror films . It contains interviews with indie horror filmmakers and other horror experts , including Erik Marcisak , Bill Zebub , Fred Vogel , Carol J. Clover , and Debbie D. , as well as a scripted plot that comes into focus in the film 's second half .
The film discusses why some people enjoy underground horror films involving fetishes . Although the film is classified as a documentary , there is a fictional subplot which helps advance the film 's theme by showing what some people really think about the genre .
S & Man was shown at the reRun Gastropub Theater in New York City , film festivals , and released on home video . The film has received praise and criticism ; although some reviews are strongly against the nature of the film , most reviews were positive .
= = Summary = =
S & Man is about voyeurism as it relates to underground films . Interviews with horror film directors and Carol J. Clover , a writer on the horror genre , are weaved between clips from horror films . In the beginning of the film , clips show the directors and Clover commenting on a horror film that is not shown onscreen and with the title not mentioned . The film then moves on to Petty 's meetings with Eric Rost ( Erik Marcisak ) , Bill Zebub , and Fred Vogel . He interviews these men and actress Debbie D. , while clips from horror films and facts and opinions provided by Clover about the genre are interspersed .
The film has a fictional subplot , which questions whether or not Rost 's works are actual snuff films . Petty 's real life friendship with Marcisak takes a fictional turn in the film ; Petty gets close to discovering Rost 's secret . At this point , Petty is a performer in his own film , and tension arises between him and Rost . During filming , Petty begins to suspect that Rost 's work , in which women are " bound , gagged , tortured , and eventually butchered " shows actual snuff .
As Petty gets further into his investigation , Rost 's answers become more evasive . Petty suspects that Eric actually kills women for his snuff films , a suspicion further exacerbated when Rost says that he will relay Petty 's contact information to the women instead of giving their contact information to Petty . It is not clear at the film 's end whether Rost 's films are actual snuff in the fictional subplot 's context . However , it is known that he spies on them for a long period of time before asking them to participate .
= = Analysis = =
Some context is added about sexual deviancy and about the role of gender in horror films . To demonstrate the motivations of people involved with these types of films , Petty shows gory clips that Nick Schager of The Village Voice described as " repulsive " and " absorbing " . Opinions from experts in the field say that horror films are both sadistic and masochistic while discussing paraphilias ; they state that most voyeurs may seem creepy , but are not dangerous .
= = Cast = =
J. T. Petty is a film director , producer , editor , and screenwriter . His films include Soft for Digging and he wrote the books Clemency Pogue : Fairy Killer and The Squampkin Patch .
Bill Zebub , one of the interviewees in the film , is the director of low @-@ budget fetish exploitation films such as Jesus Christ : Serial Rapist . He has directed twelve films and acted in two . Bill Zebub is shown saying , " I don 't shoot movies to make art ; I shoot movies so perverts will give me money . "
Fred Vogel , another interviewee , is the head of Toetag Pictures . He began his career as a special effects artist and later directed August Underground and August Underground 's Mordum .
Erik Marcisak plays the part of Eric Rost , one of the main characters and interviewees . In the film , Rost is the director of the fictional S & MAN video series . The actual Marcisak is an actor , comedian , game designer , writer , and producer .
Debbie D. is an actress who stars in low @-@ budget fetish exploitation films ; she is interviewed along with a sexologist and her husband , a forensic psychologist .
Carol J. Clover , the author of Men , Women , and Chainsaws : Gender in Modern Horror , is featured providing facts about horror filmmaking . Clover is a professor of rhetoric , film , and Scandinavian history . Her books include The People 's Plot : Film , Narrative , and the Adversarial Imagination , Old Norse @-@ Icelandic Literature : A Critical Guide , and The Medieval Saga .
= = Production = =
S & Man 's director J. T. Petty originally intended the film to focus on a man who lived near his childhood home ; the man often spied on , and filmed , his neighbors . The footage led to an indictment towards " the peeper " , who recorded 191 videotapes of Petty 's childhood neighborhood . The indictment implied the footage should be viewed in court , but the people in the neighborhood opposed this owing to privacy concerns . Petty said of the 191 videotapes , " I admired the peeping tom ; he had made movies that were frightening and titillating and real . " The idea of using a camera to record his neighbor 's house for hours fascinated him so much that he decided to direct a film about it . Although he had already secured funding , Petty was left without a subject since " the peeper " wanted nothing to do with the film . Petty decided to focus on three directors , who did not direct films aimed at the general public ; they directed simulated snuff films , involving murder and sexual assault . Petty found the directors — Zebub , Vogel , and Marcisak , Petty 's friend who played the fictional director Rost — at the Chiller Convention , an underground horror event .
The film 's title comes from the fictional S & Man video series directed by Rost . In the videos , Rost stalks women for a long time and , after learning about them , he asks them if they want to be a part of his films . All of the videos are first person with no dialogue . The film references other films , including Peeping Tom , The Texas Chain Saw Massacre , Henry : Portrait of a Serial Killer , Kill the Scream Queen , and The Crucifier .
= = Release = =
= = = Film festivals and theater = = =
S & Man premiered in the Toronto International Film Festival 's " Midnight Madness " , a section which features a variety of films from new directors , in 2006 . Although Twitch Film reported that the film 's release at the Toronto International Film Festival caused controversy both offline and online , TMZ reported that the film was popular at the film festival . It was shown again at South by Southwest in Austin , Texas , in 2006 , and UnionDocs in Brooklyn , New York , in 2009 . S & Man had a theatrical release at the reRun Gastropub Theater in New York City in 2010 .
= = = Home video = = =
The DVD and Blu @-@ ray of the film were released on October 12 , 2010 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray release each include two commentary tracks , one with a conversation between J. T. Petty and Erik Marcisak and the other with Bill Zebub . There are also deleted scenes , extended scenes , The Complete S & Man – Episode 11 – a fictional film partially incorporated in S & Man – in its entirety , a clip from the underground horror film August Underground 's Mordum , and film trailers .
= = = Reception = = =
Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times called the film " a queasy glimpse into bargain @-@ basement sleaze . " DVD Talk critic Adam Tyner was indifferent about the film while watching it , but later concluded that the film is " pretty brilliant " . Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict thought that the film is ambitious and offers " interesting insights into the modern consumption of horror . " Joe Leydon of Variety described the film as an " uncomfortably close look at underground horror " , and speculated that it may gain a cult following . David Harley of Bloody Disgusting called S & Man a " must @-@ watch " for anyone that has been scared while watching a horror film without being able to describe why . In response to the film , Richard Corliss of Time questioned whether we can always believe what we see .
Allan Dart 's review of S & Man for Fangoria was mixed . Although he described the film as " thought @-@ provoking " , he did not like the focus on whether Eric Rost 's films are actual snuff . Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com also disliked the fictional portion , but said that " S & Man delivers an occasionally insightful dialectic about the psychological nature of horror .
Meg Hewings from Hour Community described the film as " a doc that flails in a dark , nihilistic pool " and deemed its fans " geeky " , " twisted " , " unstable " , or " delusional " . A TMZ article stated that S & Man " impolitely asked horror genre aficionados to question just why they so enjoy watching human suffering so much . "
= Northrop F @-@ 20 Tigershark =
The Northrop F @-@ 20 Tigershark ( initially F @-@ 5G ) was a privately financed light fighter , designed and built by Northrop . Its development began in 1975 as a further evolution of Northrop 's F @-@ 5E Tiger II , featuring a new engine that greatly improved overall performance , and a modern avionics suite including a powerful and flexible radar . Compared with the F @-@ 5E , the F @-@ 20 was much faster , gained beyond @-@ visual @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air capability , and had a full suite of air @-@ to @-@ ground modes capable of firing most U.S. weapons . With these improved capabilities , the F @-@ 20 became competitive with contemporary fighter designs such as the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , but was much less expensive to purchase and operate .
Much of the F @-@ 20 's development was carried out under a US Department of Defense ( DoD ) project called " FX " . FX sought to develop fighters that would be capable in combat with the latest Soviet aircraft , but excluding sensitive front @-@ line technologies used by the United States Air Force 's own aircraft . FX was a product of the Carter administration 's military export policies , which aimed to provide foreign nations with high quality equipment without the risk of US front @-@ line technology falling into Soviet hands . Northrop had high hopes for the F @-@ 20 in the international market , but policy changes following Ronald Reagan 's election meant the F @-@ 20 had to compete for sales against aircraft like the F @-@ 16 , the USAF 's latest fighter design . The development program was abandoned in 1986 after three prototypes had been built and a fourth partially completed .
= = Development = =
= = = F @-@ 5E = = =
When the Kennedy administration entered office in 1961 , the U.S. Department of Defense was instructed to find an inexpensive fighter aircraft that the United States could offer to its allies through the Mutual Defense Assistance Act . A number of designs were studied , including stripped @-@ down versions of the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter and Vought F @-@ 8 Crusader , and the newly designed Northrop N @-@ 156F . On 23 April 1962 , the United States Air Force ( USAF ) informed the United States Secretary of Defense that the N @-@ 156F had been selected , under the designation F @-@ 5 and given the name " Freedom Fighter . " 847 F @-@ 5 's of various early marks would be produced .
As the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 became more common , the U.S. Air Force initiated the International Fighter Aircraft ( IFA ) program to provide an equivalent to allies . The USAF desired a light weight fighter with competitive performance to the MiG , inexpensive when purchased in large numbers , and with reasonable operating costs for prospective customer nations . Although numerous companies entered designs , Northrop 's existing F @-@ 5 put them in a leading position . They submitted an upgrade , the F @-@ 5E Tiger II , with the AN / APQ @-@ 153 radar and other changes to allow the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missile to be fired from wing @-@ tip rails . On 20 November 1970 , Northrop 's entry was announced as the IFA winner . Northrop produced a total of 1 @,@ 399 F @-@ 5E / F Tiger IIs by the time manufacturing ended in 1986 .
= = = F @-@ 5G and export limitations = = =
In the late 1970s , the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) Air Force started looking for a fighter aircraft to match improvements made in mainland People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) ' s air force . In particular , they wanted a platform capable of firing the AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow long @-@ range missile . At the time , the US was in the process of opening up ties with the People 's Republic of China after President Nixon 's famous visit in 1972 . China considered US support of Taiwan against their interests , and the US State Department wanted to tread carefully . They blocked export of all of the AIM @-@ 7 capable aircraft , even otherwise outdated early models of the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II . The State Department suggested the Israeli IAI Kfir instead ; however , it was rejected . Taiwan was already producing the F @-@ 5E under license , so the Department of Defense asked Northrop to study adding an AIM @-@ 7 capable radar to the Tiger II as an alternative . This effort became the first of several F @-@ 5G studies .
In the spring of 1977 , Jimmy Carter 's administration had announced a new military export policy that limited sales of front line designs to countries within NATO , along with Australia and Japan . Carter stated at the time that the U.S. could not be " both the world 's champion of peace and the world 's leading supplier of the weapons of war . " Previously , there was no coherent export policy , fueling concerns that the US 's latest technologies might quickly end up in Soviet hands .
Numerous exceptions were made ; Israel and Egypt could buy advanced designs under the Camp David Agreements , Israel was even allowed to buy McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15 Eagles , a key component in U.S. air @-@ defense technology . Iran was already receiving the Grumman F @-@ 14 Tomcat , and this demonstrated the problem with advanced exports in February 1979 when reports emerged that Iran had sold an AIM @-@ 54 Phoenix missile to the Soviets . South Korea 's F @-@ 16 order was initially blocked under this policy , but later allowed in the context of strengthening relations . Despite exceptions , the export policy was implemented , covering many potential and current customers . As the F @-@ 5G was a relatively modest upgrade to the F @-@ 5E , the F @-@ 5G appeared to be in a strong position for sales given the limitations placed on rival designs , however Carter personally blocked the sales of the F @-@ 5G to Taiwan .
= = = FX = = =
In 1979 , problems with the export policy were becoming apparent . The Soviets continued to sell newer aircraft designs to their clients , placing allies of the U.S. at a disadvantage . Denied by the U.S. , countries were turning to other vendors for modern fighters , notably France 's Dassault Mirage 2000 . Barry N. Blechman , Assistant Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , testified that the US reductions in foreign arms transfers had actually encouraged other nations and increased worldwide arms sales . At the same time , there was considerable pressure to provide a suitable aircraft for Taiwan .
The State Department argued that the U.S. needed a modern counterpart for the role the F @-@ 5E had occupied in the 1960s and 1970s . In light of Carter 's concerns , they suggested that a new aircraft be designed for the role , based on technology that would not pose a threat to the U.S. After a lengthy study , in January 1980 , President Carter allowed the development of a new export fighter : " FX . " The FX would have to outperform the F @-@ 5E ; however , it could not use any advanced avionics systems that were also used in US aircraft . Unlike the Mutual Defense Assistance Act programs that led to the F @-@ 5E , FX would be entirely privately financed . Moreover , the companies could not market the aircraft directly ; all sales would be handled by the Secretary of Defense .
Both Northrop and General Dynamics ( GD ) responded to the FX requirement . GD 's F @-@ 16 / 79 was a variant of the F @-@ 16A , replacing the Pratt & Whitney F100 engine with the J79 and equipping it with downgraded avionics ; Northrop responded with the F @-@ 5G .
= = = FX stumbles and F @-@ 20 emerges = = =
When Ronald Reagan 's administration took power in 1981 , the export restrictions put in place by the Carter administration were slowly relaxed . At first , the FX program continued as normal , but a number of events eroded the value of the program and limit the F @-@ 5G 's potential sales . The signing of the 1982 US @-@ PRC Joint Communiqué was a major agreement on arms sales , which continued blocking sales of the F @-@ 5G to Taiwan . By this point the Taiwanese had started their own light @-@ fighter project , the AIDC F @-@ CK @-@ 1 Ching @-@ kuo . In signing the Communiqué , the U.S. was signaling that Taiwan would not receive modern aircraft , therefore the Ching @-@ kuo became Taiwan 's primary focus . As a result , the F @-@ 5G 's sales potential remained unestablished .
In the summer of 1982 , Deputy Secretary of Defense Frank Carlucci sent a memorandum to the Air Force and Navy , encouraging them to seek out potential foreign customers to procure FX aircraft . However , four months later Carlucci sent a classified memo to the same services to abandon the FX , and green @-@ lighting the exporting of front @-@ line fighters overseas . In December , after prompting from the White House , Carlucci reversed his position again , and directed the Air Force to fund a small number of F @-@ 20s in the fiscal year 1984 budget .
The future of the FX program seemed doubtful . Following an agreement to sell F @-@ 16s to Pakistan , Northrop felt that the F @-@ 5G needed to match the performance of F @-@ 16 . This would require not only better performance from the engine , but a new and comparable avionics suite as well . Northrop saw that the F @-@ 5G was still being viewed as the " FX fighter " , a low @-@ cost option for second @-@ tier air forces . To combat this perception , Northrop requested the designation " F @-@ 20 " ; the USAF approved in late 1982 , and of the name Tigershark in March 1983 .
= = Design = =
The primary design change between the earlier F @-@ 5E and the F @-@ 5G was the use of a single General Electric F404 engine that was originally designed for the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet . The new engine provided 60 % more thrust compared to the combined output of the F @-@ 5E 's paired General Electric J85s . This improved the aircraft 's thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio to 1 @.@ 13 from 1 @.@ 0 . The new engine gave speed of over Mach 2 @.@ 0 , a ceiling over 55 @,@ 000 ft ( 16 @,@ 800 m ) , an initial climb rate of 52 @,@ 800 ft per minute ( 16,100m / min ) .
The wing profile remained the same as the F @-@ 5E , but had modified leading edge extensions ( LEX ) , which improved the maximum lift coefficient of the wing by about 12 % with an increase in wing area of only 1 @.@ 6 % . The original aircraft was fairly sluggish in pitch , so the horizontal stabilizer was increased in size by 30 % and a new dual @-@ channel fly @-@ by @-@ wire control system was added . Destabilizing the aircraft in pitch and modifying the LEX improved the instantaneous turn rate by 7 % to 20 ° / sec . Sustained turn rate at Mach 0 @.@ 8 and 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 572 m ) rose to 11 @.@ 5 ° / sec , which compared well with the F @-@ 16 's 12 @.@ 8 ° / sec . Supersonic turn rates were 47 % higher than those of the F @-@ 5E .
The F @-@ 20 would also make greater usage of composite materials in its construction . During its development , several areas using metal were re @-@ designed to use fiberglass , and there were numerous upgrades to various mechanical parts .
The F @-@ 20 's avionics suite was all @-@ new and greatly improved over the earlier designs . The General Electric AN / APG @-@ 67 multi @-@ mode radar was the heart of the sensor suite , offering a wide range of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground modes . The F @-@ 5 's electro @-@ mechanical navigation system was replaced with an all @-@ electronic version based on a ring laser gyroscope . Time from power @-@ on to being able to launch was greatly reduced as a result , to about 22 seconds , and Northrop boasted the aircraft had the shortest scramble time of any contemporary aircraft . The cockpit of the F @-@ 5 was completely re @-@ worked with a large heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) and two monochrome multi @-@ function displays set high on the control panel , and the addition of a complete hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) control system . Many of the avionics promised to have reliability beyond that of any competing aircraft then in service .
The F @-@ 20 would have been able to utilize most of the common weapons in U.S. ' s inventory , including the entire range of Mark 80 series bombs , the AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ ground missile , and the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder and AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . Like the earlier F @-@ 5s , the test F @-@ 20s were equipped with two M39 cannon mounted in the nose . Production F @-@ 20s may have substituted two Ford Aerospace Tigerclaw cannons instead of the M39s ; while the Tigerclaw was based on the M39 , it was lighter and had a higher rate of fire than the M39A2 .
The F @-@ 20 did , however , have several problems inherent to its small size . The low @-@ mounted wing meant that there was limited ground clearance , and the position of the landing gear meant loads had to be positioned towards the outer ends of the wings . This limited hard point weights to 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 454 kg ) . A single hard point under the fuselage could carry more , a single Mk 84 2 @,@ 000 lbs bomb or up to five Mk 82 500 lbs bombs . Additionally , although the wing profiling improved lift at higher angles of attack ( AoA ) while maneuvering , it did not improve cruise lift performance at normal AoA . This did not present a problem in the fighter role , but did severely reduce its payload / range figures compared to similar aircraft like the F @-@ 16 .
Offered as a low @-@ cost option , the F @-@ 20 was significantly more expensive than the F @-@ 5E , but much less expensive than other designs like the $ 30 million F @-@ 15 Eagle , or $ 15 million F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . The F @-@ 20 was projected to consume 53 % less fuel , require 52 % less maintenance manpower , had 63 % lower operating and maintenance costs and had four times the reliability of average front @-@ line designs of the era . The F @-@ 20 also offer the ability to fire the beyond @-@ visual @-@ range AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow missile , a capability that the F @-@ 16 lacked at that time , and did not gain until the Block 15 ADF version in February 1989 .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Testing = = =
On 30 August 1982 , the original engine @-@ change @-@ only F @-@ 5G ( serial 82 @-@ 0062 , c / n GG1001 , registered N4416T ) made its maiden flight piloted by Russ Scott . During the 40 @-@ minute flight , the prototype climbed to 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) and reached Mach 1 @.@ 04 . GG1001 demonstrated outstanding reliability ; by the end of April 1983 240 flights had been accumulated , including evaluation flights with 10 potential customer nations . The second prototype ( serial number 82 @-@ 0063 , registered N3986B , c / n GI1001 ) , featuring the complete avionics suite , made its first flight on 26 August 1983 . The F @-@ 20 would fly a total of 1 @,@ 500 flights prior to its termination ; although these were exclusively flown in ideal conditions . Note : " ... Northrup did not take a prototype approach with the F @-@ 20 ... The First F @-@ 20 was intended to be a production quality aircraft ... " page 5 Rand Corporation report A Case Study of the F @-@ 20 Tigershark June 1987 .
During the test program , the F @-@ 20 fired the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder and , in February 1985 the AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow . In air @-@ to @-@ ground testing , it fired the AGM @-@ 65 Maverick , 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) folding fin aerial rockets , dropped Mk . 82 bombs , and fired rounds from a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) gun pod ( GPU @-@ 5 / A , four @-@ barrel GAU @-@ 13 / A ) in addition to the two internal 20 mm ( .79 in ) M39 cannon . One of the F @-@ 20 's flight characteristics was the ability to fly at only 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) at 35 ° AoA ( angle of attack ) , while the F @-@ 16 was limited to 30 ° ; acceleration from Mach 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 2 in 29 seconds ( at 9 @,@ 150 m ) ; climb to 12 @,@ 200 m ( or 40 @,@ 000 ft ) in 2 @.@ 3 minutes ( including 55 sec for the start and 22 for the INS set @-@ up ) .
Northrop signed a Memorandum of Agreement with the Air Force in May 1983 that made the Air Force responsible for certifying the F @-@ 20 's performance , air worthiness and fixed @-@ price program . Aerospace legend Chuck Yeager , employed as a spokesperson for Northrop , touted the aircraft as " magnificent " and was featured in advertising .
In November 1982 , Bahrain became the first customer . South Korea also explored local production of the F @-@ 20 , and in support improvements were implemented . These included avionics upgrades , an expanded fuel tank , and the use of fibreglass composites . The changes were so extensive that a fourth prototype was built to test them . By 1983 , Northrop was involved in a number of simultaneous negotiations for the F @-@ 20 , and its prospects appeared positive .
On 10 October 1984 , GG1001 crashed in South Korea on a demonstration flight , killing Northrop pilot Darrell Cornell . An investigation cleared the F @-@ 20 of mechanical or design faults ; it concluded Cornell had blacked out due to excessive g @-@ forces . GI1001 crashed in May 1985 at Goose Bay , Labrador , killing Northrop pilot Dave Barnes . Again the crash was blamed on G @-@ LOC ; Barnes had been practicing his aerobatic routine for the Paris Air Show .
= = = Battle for sales = = =
In December 1981 , President Reagan , reacting to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , signed a major economic and military aid package for Pakistan that included 40 F @-@ 16As . The offer was in keeping with U.S. policy towards the Soviet Union , and the idea of " containment " within a ring of U.S.-friendly countries . The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was initially viewed as an attempt to break out of the arranged containment system , thus the U.S. placed a priority on quickly building up a new layer of defense . However , other U.S. allies saw this as a potential break in the FX policy , and began requesting only " the very best . "
Such approval was increasingly granted starting in 1982 . In May , Venezuela , who had long examined the FX project , agreed to buy 18 F @-@ 16As and six F @-@ 16Bs , replacing a fleet of Mirage III interceptors and Mirage 5 ground @-@ attack aircraft . Sweden decided to develop their own design , the JAS 39 Gripen . In September 1983 , Turkey announced plans to buy 132 F @-@ 16Cs and 28 F @-@ 16Ds to replace their Lockheed F @-@ 104G / S Starfighter and Northrop F @-@ 5A / B. Greece , stung by its long @-@ time rival receiving the F @-@ 16 , purchased 34 F @-@ 16C and six F @-@ 16Ds in November 1984 , giving a firm pledge of secrecy .
Then , late in 1983 , the U.S. government made a financial commitment to help Israel develop its own new fighter , the IAI Lavi . Northrop objected to this , as the Lavi would be a potential competitor to the F @-@ 20 in the export market ; while Northrop had to privately fund the F @-@ 5G , the government was directly subsidizing a foreign competitor . Congressional support for Israel overruled Northrop 's complaints along with complaints from other branches of the government .
While other companies marketed directly to foreign air forces , as part of the FX program , the F @-@ 5G could only be marketed by the State Department . Under this policy umbrella , Northrop had to submit every piece of marketing material to government review , which could take months . The State Department had no interest in selling the FX , from their perspective it was one aircraft among many , leading to a lackadaisical approach , and led to complaints from Northrop that the government was not promoting the F @-@ 20 enough .
= = = Congressional investigation and Air Force collusion = = =
Starting in March 1984 , Congress chaired a series of hearings into FX . William Schneider , Jr . , the Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance , Science and Technology , testified that FX policy might not result in any sales , in spite of any government support . He stated that the sales of arms such as FX was primarily a matter of foreign policy , secondarily a commercial venture . Thomas V. Jones , Northrop 's CEO , argued that there was little point independently developing aircraft if companies were reliant on the government to sell them . He suggested the FX concept be dropped , and F @-@ 20 allowed to be sold by the vendor . Additionally , Brigadier General Thomas Baker , USAF Director of International Programs , testified that the Air Force was not actively marketing FX . He observed that over four years the US had sold 100 fighters to 29 countries , none were FX . He also compared France 's aircraft exports , showing a market for a low @-@ cost fighter existed . In the Committee 's concluding remarks , the State Department and DOD were accused of rhetoric , and lacking support , on FX .
In April 1984 , after the Congressional hearings , the USAF was directed to promote FX actively . Several potential customers were briefed during May and June 1984 on the performance and cost of both the F @-@ 20 and F @-@ 16 / 79 . The Air Force published an internal report on FX in late June 1984 . The F @-@ 20 was characterized as having outstanding performance against viable threats ; and seen as a candidate for the Air Force 's aggressor requirement . The report additionally stated that the F @-@ 20 had been contractor @-@ funded , totaling over $ 750 million , compared to $ 60 million on the F @-@ 16 / 79 . However , the report concluded that it had little or no market to sell to . The USAF had a vested interest to encourage F @-@ 16 sales ; larger production numbers would drive down the cost per unit . Gregg Easterbrook noted that F @-@ 20 may have cast the Air Force in a bad light , as an aircraft developed independent of their input , authors such as Donald Pattillo shared this conclusion . In contrast , the F @-@ 16 was heavily involved in the USAF hierarchy , originating from a group of officers known as the " fighter mafia " . By March 1985 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of State were reconsidering the policy . Despite some calls to support Northrop , FX was abandoned .
= = = Aggressor and ANG roles = = =
A possibility for a U.S. purchase opened in 1984 , for a small number of " aggressor aircraft " for dissimilar air combat training . This style of training had been introduced by the United States Navy at their TOPGUN school , using the F @-@ 5 to simulate the MiG @-@ 21 . In November 1984 , Congress directed the Navy and Air Force to study the use of a single aircraft type to fill similar aggressor roles for both services . In January 1985 the Navy announced they had selected a specially configured version of the F @-@ 16 . It was rumored that the aircraft was sold at a loss to keep Northrop 's F @-@ 20 out of the market .
Another chance for the F @-@ 20 was as an upgrade for the Air National Guard ( ANG ) . Northrop claimed that the F @-@ 20 's fast scramble time made it a natural fit for this role , its lower cost would allow the ANG to operate larger aircraft numbers , and that it supported the AIM @-@ 7 while the F @-@ 16 did not . Additionally , the ANG would not be competing with the Air Force for production quotas , they would be able to replace their aircraft more quickly . However , the Air Force 's requirements had priorities favoring the F @-@ 16 for the role ; if the ANG flew the F @-@ 16 , they would further lower unit costs , maintain commonality between the ANG and USAF , and better equip ANG units to perform front line combat roles . The Congressional Budget Office had also disputed Northrop 's lower cost claim in their own research . On 31 October 1986 , the Air Force announced that the F @-@ 16C had been selected , which had been upgraded to support the AIM @-@ 7 . As several nations had suggested they would accept the F @-@ 20 on the condition that it was inducted into the USAF , the selection was a heavy blow to Northrop .
= = = Cancellation = = =
After six years with no buyers , in late 1986 Northrop cancelled the $ 1 @.@ 2 billion project . Northrop was reluctant to protest perceived favoritism of the F @-@ 16 in fear of losing support for the project for the Northrop Grumman B @-@ 2 Spirit stealth bomber . Ongoing negotiations with the Royal Moroccan Air Force for 20 F @-@ 20s were canceled ; along with the small order by Bahrain . Later on , a bribery scandal would emerge from the attempts to market the F @-@ 20 to South Korea , leading to several Northrop managers resigning and the reprimanding of chief executive Thomas V. Jones , who retired in 1989 .
In the late 1980s , local production of the F @-@ 20 was discussed with India . A move was also made in the 1980s to market the aircraft to the Pakistan Air Force with a license production manufacture of the aircraft . It was evaluated by a Pakistani contingent in the United States , with the F @-@ 20 being flown by Abbas Mirza , a senior Pakistani air force fighter pilot . Of the components of the F @-@ 20 , the radar would end up being the most successful ; Taiwan selected it for the Ching @-@ kuo , South Korea also adopted it for the KAI T @-@ 50 Golden Eagle trainer aircraft , and the radar was used in the multinational FMA IA 63 Pampa . As sales prospects were not apparent early on , GE sold their radar division , which was eventually acquired by Lockheed @-@ Martin .
Aviation author Steve Pace wrote of the F @-@ 20 as " one of the best fighters that never went into production . " While discussing military procurement , Thomas McNaugher stated that competition between the F @-@ 20 and the F @-@ 16 served to lower prices and generate " massive savings " for the U.S. government . Writing prior to cancellation , Ralph Nader and William Taylor noted that the F @-@ 20 had been commonly described as " the first privately funded U.S. combat aircraft in recent history . " Mazher A. Hameed commented in 1986 that the F @-@ 20 was a " logical choice " for the Gulf States and Saudi Arabia ; however , it had " scant chance of being selected " due to political factors , as well as competition from other candidates such as the Mirage 2000 and Panavia Tornado ADV .
= = Aircraft disposition = =
82 @-@ 0062 ( Northrop serial number GG.1001 ) - crashed at Suwon Air Base , South Korea on 10 October 1984 . Pilot killed .
82 @-@ 0063 ( Northrop serial number GI.1001 ) - crashed at CFB Goose Bay , Canada on 14 May 1985 . Pilot killed .
82 @-@ 0064 ( Northrop serial number GI.1002 ) - California Science Center in Exposition Park , Los Angeles , California .
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 20 ) = =
Data from Northrop F @-@ 5 / F @-@ 20 / T @-@ 38 , Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 1 pilot
Length : 47 ft 4 in ( 14 @.@ 4 m )
Wingspan : 27 ft 11 @.@ 9 in / 8 @.@ 53 m ; with wingtip missiles ( 26 ft 8 in / 8 @.@ 13 m ; without wingtip missiles )
Height : 13 ft 10 in ( 4 @.@ 20 m )
Wing area : 200 ft ² ( 18 @.@ 6 m ² )
Empty weight : 13 @,@ 150 lb ( 5 @,@ 964 kg )
Loaded weight : 15 @,@ 480 lb ( 7 @,@ 021 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 27 @,@ 500 lb ( 12 @,@ 474 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × General Electric F404 @-@ GE @-@ 100 turbofan , 17 @,@ 000 lbf ( 76 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 2 ( 1 @,@ 319 miles , 2 @,@ 123 km per hour )
Combat radius : 300 nmi ( 345 mi , 556 km ) ; for hi @-@ lo @-@ hi mission with 2 × 330 US gal ( 1 @,@ 250 L ) drop tanks
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 490 nmi ( 1715 mi , 2759 km ) ; with 3 × 330 US gal ( 1 @,@ 250 L ) drop tanks
Service ceiling : 55 @,@ 000 ft ( 16 @,@ 800 m )
Rate of climb : 52 @,@ 800 ft / min ( 255 m / s )
Wing loading : 81 @.@ 0 lb / ft ² ( 395 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 1
Armament
Guns : 2 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Pontiac M39A2 cannons in the nose , 280 rounds each
Hardpoints : 5 external hardpoints with a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) of bombs , missiles , rockets and up to 3 drop tanks for extended range
Rockets : 2 × CRV7 rocket pods Or
2 × LAU @-@ 10 rocket pods with 4 × Zuni 5 in ( 127 mm ) rockets each Or
2 × Matra rocket pods with 18 × SNEB 68 mm rockets each
Missiles : 2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders on wingtip launch rails ( similar to F @-@ 16 and F / A @-@ 18 )
Up to 4 x AIM @-@ 7 Sparrows on underwing launch railsAGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles on hardpoints
Bombs : Various air @-@ to @-@ ground ordnance such as Mark 80 series of unguided iron bombs ( including 3 kg and 14 kg practice bombs ) , CBU @-@ 24 / 49 / 52 / 58 cluster bomb munitions , M129 Leaflet bomb
Avionics
General Electric AN / APG @-@ 67
= Leviathan ( roller coaster ) =
Leviathan / lᵻˈvaɪ.əθən / is a steel roller coaster in the Medieval Faire section of the park at Canada 's Wonderland in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada . It is the first roller coaster made by Swiss manufacturer Bolliger & Mabillard to exceed a height of 300 feet ( 91 m ) , putting it in a class of roller coasters commonly referred to as giga . At 5 @,@ 486 feet ( 1 @,@ 672 m ) long , 306 feet ( 93 m ) tall , and with a top speed of 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) , Leviathan is the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada . As of 2015 , Leviathan is ranked as the eighth @-@ tallest , and the eighth @-@ fastest roller coaster in the world , and the third @-@ tallest traditional lift @-@ style coaster in the world . It was the 16th roller coaster to be built at Canada 's Wonderland , and the ride 's track was completed in February 2012 , with the first test run being completed on 15 March 2012 . The coaster opened to season pass holders on 27 April 2012 , and to the general public on 6 May 2012 .
= = History = =
In the early planning stages of Leviathan , had Bolliger & Mabillard declined to make a roller coaster over 300 feet ( 91 m ) , the park would have gotten another manufacturer to design the roller coaster . Walter Bolliger admitted that he " owed " the park , as an inverted roller coaster could not be built several years earlier because of an exclusivity clause .
Speculation about a new roller coaster at Canada 's Wonderland began in early 2011 , when construction work started around the Dragon Fire ride and the Go Karts . On 3 July 2011 , Canada 's Wonderland launched a teaser website featuring a countdown clock to 18 August 2011 , 7 : 00 am. accessible through the park 's Facebook page . The website also featured quotations from online theme park reporters and Cedar Fair 's CEO .
= = = Announcement and construction = = =
Canada 's Wonderland announced Leviathan at 7 : 00 am on 18 August 2011 , and the ride was also announced live on Breakfast Television Toronto . Erection of the track began during the week of 11 September 2011 ; the brake @-@ run and station portions of track were completed by the end of September .
On 18 October 2011 , the coaster 's longest and heaviest lift hill track piece , standing at 120 feet ( 37 m ) long , was installed . By mid – November the lift hill and drop were finished and the overbank turn was nearing completion . Construction continued through December and January , and the track was completed on 7 February 2012 . The first test run was completed on 15 March 2012 , and on 18 April 2012 , Canada 's Wonderland announced on its Facebook account that a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) tunnel would be placed at the bottom of the ride 's first drop .
= = = First rider auction = = =
On 19 January 2012 , Canada 's Wonderland launched an auction in which bidders around the world competed to be one of the first ninety @-@ six public riders on Leviathan on 27 April 2012 , a week before the park officially opened . The auction raised over CA $ 40 @,@ 000 , which was donated to the Hospital for Sick Children . The highest bid in the auction for a single seat was $ 1 @,@ 000 . When bidders got to ride the roller coster , the tunnel at the bottom of the first drop was not yet installed .
= = Ride experience = =
As of 2016 , Leviathan is Bolliger & Mabillard 's second tallest roller coaster and the company 's first giga coaster – a class of roller coasters with a height or drop that exceeds 300 feet ( 91 m ) . One cycle of the ride lasts about 3 minutes and 28 seconds .
= = = Layout = = =
After leaving the station , the train turns 180 degrees to the right , then begins to climb the chain lift hill . Once at the top of the 306 @-@ foot ( 93 m ) lift , it drops to the ground at an 80 @-@ degree angle , reaching 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) . Following the first drop , the train goes through a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) tunnel , then curves upwards into a 164 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 50 m ) overbanked banked turn to the right before dropping again and turning at high speed turn to the left at approximately 76 miles per hour ( 122 km / h ) . The exit of the first high speed turn leads directly into a 183 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 56 m ) camelback , followed by a 147 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 45 m ) , 115 @-@ degree hammerhead turn . Both of these elements are located above the guest parking lot and in front of the park 's main entrance . After leaving the hammerhead turn , the train enters a second high @-@ speed curve at approximately 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . The train then traverses a smaller , 124 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 38 m ) camelback , leading to a third high @-@ speed turn which bends to the left and leads into the brake run and into the station .
= = = Trains = = =
Leviathan operates with three open @-@ air steel and fibreglass trains coloured red , orange and yellow , respectively . The face of Leviathan , a theme element , covers the front of the trains . Each train has eight cars with four seats per car , which are styled after Bolliger & Mabillard 's traditional hyper coaster cars , as opposed to the staggered seating used on Behemoth . Each train seats 32 riders , who are restrained using lapbars and seatbelts .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Leviathan is over
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Very Long
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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a mile long at 5 @,@ 486 feet ( 1 @,@ 672 m ) , the height of the lift hill is 306 feet ( 93 m ) , and the angle of the first descent is approximately 80 degrees . The color of the track is cyan , and its supports are blue . Unlike the two Intamin giga coasters ( Millennium Force at Cedar Point and Intimidator 305 at Kings Dominion ) , Leviathan only uses a single chain for the lift hill .
= = = Station and plaza = = =
Leviathan 's station has an elevator near the exit , wooden guard rails with slanted railings and two queues , one of which is the Fast Lane queue for pass holders . In front of the station is a rock fountain with a sculpture of a Leviathan on top . To the right of the sculpture , there is an arcade building that was renovated during the construction of the roller coaster . Unlike most of the park 's attractions , Leviathan has its own gift shop .
= = Gallery = =
= = Awards = =
= The Boat Race 1890 =
The 47th Boat Race took place in 1890 . Held annually , it is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race , umpired by former Oxford rower Frank Willan ) was won by Oxford . They passed the finishing post one length ahead of Cambridge in a time of 22 minutes 3 seconds , and took their overall lead in the event to 24 – 22 .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Oxford by seven lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford held the overall lead , with 23 victories to Cambridge 's 22 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were F. P. Bully , F. Fenner , William Grenfell ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1877 and 1878 races , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president in the 1879 race ) and Frederick Smith , 2nd Viscount Hambleden . There is no record of who coached Cambridge . The Light Blues began their practice on 9 January , nearly two weeks ahead of Oxford , but it was not until 4 March that Cambridge persuaded James Cardwell Gardner to return as stroke . They improved and were considered by author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater to be " by no means a bad crew , though deficient in length and watermanship " . Despite William Fletcher being considered " one of the greatest sixes " , and although " no greater worker has ever rowed " , he was positioned at stroke .
The umpire for the race for the second year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
Both crews weighed an average of 12 st 1 @.@ 5 lb ( 76 @.@ 7 kg ) . Cambridge saw three former Blues return , including Stanley Muttlebury who was rowing in his fifth consecutive Boat Race . Oxford 's crew contained five rowers with experience of the event , including W. F. C. Holland in his fourth race , along with the cox John Pemberton Heywood @-@ Lonsdale who had steered the Dark Blues in 1889 .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were considered slight favourites for the race , and won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . While the weather was fine , a westerly wind made for rough conditions between Hammersmith Bridge and Barnes Bridge . Commencing at 4.44pm , Cambridge made the faster start , outrating the Dark Blues by two strokes per minute , and held a quarter @-@ of @-@ a @-@ length lead after two minutes . Despite the bend of the river favouring Oxford , the Light Blues held their lead and at the Crab Tree pub , began to pull further ahead as the course favoured them .
By Hammersmith Bridge , the lead was half @-@ a @-@ length but the wind appeared to affect Oxford and by The Doves pub , Cambridge were nearly clear . Oxford reduced the deficit along Chiswick Reach and by Chiswick Steps were nearly level . In more sheltered water , the Dark Blues pushed ahead and were almost clear by Barnes Bridge but Cambridge kept in touch . Oxford passed the finishing post with a lead of one length in a time of 22 minutes 3 seconds . It was Oxford 's first victory since the 1885 race , their narrowest winning margin for 23 years and the slowest winning time for either university since the 1878 race .
= Interstate 196 =
Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway that runs for 80 @.@ 594 miles ( 129 @.@ 703 km ) in the US state of Michigan . It is a state trunkline highway that links Benton Harbor , South Haven , Holland , and Grand Rapids together . In Kent , Ottawa , and Allegan counties , I @-@ 196 is known as the Gerald R. Ford Freeway , or simply the Ford Freeway , after the 38th President of the United States , Gerald Ford , who was raised in Grand Rapids and served Michigan in the House of Representatives . This name generally refers only to the section between Holland and Grand Rapids . I @-@ 196 changes direction ; it is signed as a north – south highway from its southern terminus to the junction with US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) just south of Holland , and as an east – west trunkline from this point to its eastern terminus at an interchange with I @-@ 96 , its parent highway . There are currently three business routes related to the main freeway . There are two business loops ( BL I @-@ 196 ) and one business spur ( BS I @-@ 196 ) that serve South Haven , Holland and the Grand Rapids areas . Another business spur for Muskegon had been designated relative to the I @-@ 196 number .
The current freeway numbered I @-@ 196 is the second in the state to bear the number . Originally to be numbered as part of the I @-@ 94 corridor in the state , the Benton Harbor – Grand Rapids freeway was given the I @-@ 96 number in the 1950s while another Interstate between Muskegon and Grand Rapids was numbered I @-@ 196 . That I @-@ 196 was built in the late 1950s and completed in the early 1960s . The first segment of the current I @-@ 196 was opened as I @-@ 96 near Benton Harbor in 1962 . Michigan officials requested a change in 1963 , which reversed the two numbers and the subsequent segments of freeway opened northward to Holland and from Grand Rapids westward under the current number . The gap between Holland and Grandville was filled in the 1970s , and a section of freeway that runs through downtown Grand Rapids was rebuilt as a wider freeway in 2010 .
= = Route description = =
Like other state highways in Michigan , I @-@ 196 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 77 @,@ 500 vehicles used the highway daily between Lane Avenue and US 131 in Grand Rapids and 12 @,@ 778 vehicles did so each day north of the split with US 31 near Holland . These are the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . As an Interstate Highway , all of I @-@ 196 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In addition , the highway has been named by the Michigan Legislature the Gerald R. Ford Freeway to honor the 38th President of the United States . The original legislation from 1974 extended that name to the full length of the freeway , but when the various memorial highway names were re @-@ codified in 2001 , the name was not applied to the Berrien County segment . From the junction with M @-@ 63 north to the split with US 31 except for the section that connects the ends of the South Haven business loop , the freeway is also a part of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) , a tourist route that follows Lake Michigan .
= = = Benton Harbor to Holland = = =
The freeway starts northeast of Benton Harbor at exit 34 on I @-@ 94 in Benton Charter Township in Berrien County . At the trumpet interchange , I @-@ 196 runs north from I @-@ 94 and passes to the west of the Point O 'Woods Golf & Country Club . US 31 joins I @-@ 196 from the southwest and runs concurrently with I @-@ 196 as the freeway passes through farm fields in southwestern Michigan . The trunkline turns northwesterly near the Lake Michigan Hills Golf Course and crosses the Paw Paw River . Past the river , the freeway turns northeasterly and runs roughly parallel to the Lake Michigan shoreline several miles inland . At the community of Lake Michigan Beach , I @-@ 196 / US 31 meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 63 at exit 7 , and the LMCT joins the freeway for the first time . North of this interchange , the freeway parallels A @-@ 2 , a county road that follows the Blue Star Highway , the former route of US 31 .
A bit further north , I @-@ 196 / US 31 crosses into Van Buren County and assumes the Gerald R. Ford Freeway name . The inland side of the freeway is forested while the lakeward side is predominantly either forest or fields . As it approaches South Haven , the freeway passes near the Palisades Nuclear Generating Station and Van Buren State Park . North of the power plant and park , the freeway turns farther inland to bypass the city of South Haven . There is an interchange on the south side of town that provides access to Business Loop I @-@ 196 ( BL I @-@ 196 ) and M @-@ 140 . The freeway crosses over M @-@ 43 without an interchange and then intersects the other end of the business loop about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later . It crosses the Black River near the Van Buren – Allegan county line .
In Allegan County , I @-@ 196 / US 31 passes a pair of golf courses and continues northward through farm fields . Near the community of Glenn , A @-@ 2 crosses over the freeway and runs parallel to it on the east . They trade places again when I @-@ 196 / US 31 turns northeasterly on the south side of the twin cities of Saugatuck and Douglas . The freeway crosses over a section of Kalamazoo Lake , a wider section of the Kalamazoo River that flows between the two towns . A @-@ 2 crosses back to the eastern side of the freeway north of Saugatuck , and I @-@ 196 / US 31 continues north @-@ northeasterly toward Holland .
= = = Holland to Grand Rapids = = =
On the south side of Holland , the two highways split apart ; US 31 separates from I @-@ 196 at a partial interchange near the West Michigan Regional Airport ( formerly the Tulip City Airport ) . At this interchange , northbound traffic may follow a left exit to continue on the BL I @-@ 196 / US 31 freeway or continue along I @-@ 196 which turns more eastward ; the LMCT departs I @-@ 196 at this point as well . Signage along I @-@ 196 changes after this interchange . Up to this point , it had been signed north – south , but from the US 31 split onward , the directions are now signed east – west . The freeway passes to the south side of the airport , and it crosses a rail line owned by CSX Transportation and used by Amtrak 's Pere Marquette train before curving northeasterly through the interchange with M @-@ 40 . The freeway crosses into Ottawa County south of the Macatawa River before meeting the other two interchanges for Holland , the second of which is the northern end of the business loop in Zeeland .
Continuing past Zeeland , I @-@ 196 runs more east @-@ northeasterly as it parallels M @-@ 121 ( Chicago Drive ) . The freeway passes to the south side of Hudsonville and intersects A @-@ 37 . About two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) past Hudsonville , the trunkline has an interchange with M @-@ 6 , a freeway that runs along the south side of the Grand Rapids area . Just past this interchange , the freeway crosses into Kent County at the Kenowa Avenue overpass . Now in the city of Grandville , I @-@ 196 turns northward to run parallel to the county line . The freeway has an interchange for 44th Street , which provides access to the RiverTown Crossings mall and other retail and restaurant establishments in the area . At exit 69 , I @-@ 196 crosses Chicago Drive and the rail line and turns northeasterly next to Jenison , an unincorporated community opposite the Kent – Ottawa county line . The Ford Freeway name is now prominently used on the freeway signage as I @-@ 196 follows a section of the Grand River . Past the interchange for M @-@ 11 ( 28th Street ) , the freeway crosses into the suburb of Wyoming .
In Wyoming , the freeway runs along the river , passing Millennium Park on the opposite banks in Walker and Hopewell Indian Mounds Park on the near banks . To the south of the freeway , the business spur for Wyoming and Grand Rapids departs to follow Chicago Drive near an industrial area . After the interchange for Market Avenue , I @-@ 196 crosses the Grand River and enters the city of Grand Rapids . The freeway meanders northward past the transmission antennas for radio stations WJRW and WFUR and around the west side of the John Ball Zoological Garden . The trunkline has an interchange with M @-@ 45 ( Lake Michigan Drive ) on the north side of the zoo before I @-@ 196 runs downhill turning eastward .
At the bottom of the hill , I @-@ 196 enters the urban core of Grand Rapids . The freeway runs eastward through residential neighborhoods on the city 's west side as it approaches the interchange with US 131 . This complex structure is adjacent to the Grand River north of the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum . The carriageways for I @-@ 196 run through the interchange on different levels , with the eastbound traffic carried down near river level and the westbound lanes above the criss @-@ crossing carriageways of US 131 's freeway . I @-@ 196 crosses the river on the opposite side of the interchange and both directions return to the same level . The freeway picks up an additional lane at this point as the median is replaced by a concrete barrier .
As the freeway runs eastward , it passes the area of Grand Rapids known as the " Medical Mile " , a district anchored by the Van Andel Institute , Helen DeVos Children 's Hospital , a campus of the Michigan State University College of Human Medicine and the Butterworth Hospital campus of Spectrum Health . The Ford Freeway jogs slightly to the northeast as it crosses a line of the Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad between College and Eastern avenues . It then passes to the south of the offices buildings that house the Kent County Health Department , the Sheriff 's Department and the animal shelter . A little over a mile and a quarter ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) east of those offices , I @-@ 196 meets its parent highway , I @-@ 96 on the east side of the city . This interchange marks the eastern terminus of the Ford Freeway and I @-@ 196 .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
In the first tentative Interstate numbering plans , the freeways in Michigan now numbered I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 were supposed to be part of the I @-@ 94 corridor , and the freeway between Muskegon and Grand Rapids was to be I @-@ 94N . Later , the initial approvals by the federal government routed I @-@ 96 from Benton Harbor north to Grand Rapids and then east to Detroit , and I @-@ 196 was the spur route from Grand Rapids to Muskegon . The first segment of freeway built was a relocated section of US 16 near Coopersville and Marne . The freeway opened at the end of 1957 or in early 1958 , and the first markers for I @-@ 196 were erected in 1959 . The full Grand Rapids – Muskegon I @-@ 196 freeway was completed and opened to traffic in December 1962 , connecting to an I @-@ 96 freeway that led east toward Lansing ; the US 16 corridor was a continuous freeway with two different Interstate designations . Before the Grand Rapids – Benton Harbor segment was completed , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) , predecessor to the modern MDOT , petitioned federal highway officials to switch the Interstate designations west of Grand Rapids . Permission for this switch was granted in 1963 . Consideration was also made to name the Grand Rapids – Benton Harbor freeway I @-@ 67 . The previously completed I @-@ 196 was redesignated as an extension of I @-@ 96 , and the completed freeway segments southwest of Grand Rapids were redesignated I @-@ 196 ; I @-@ 67 was rejected by the American Association of State Highway Officials .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1962 , a section of freeway along US 31 was opened between I @-@ 94 and the Berrien – Van Buren county line . This section was originally designated as part of I @-@ 96 / US 31 . After the designation switch in 1963 , an additional 35 miles ( 56 km ) was opened from the northern end of I @-@ 196 near Benton Harbon to Holland as I @-@ 196 . An additional section of freeway was opened between Grandville through downtown Grand Rapids to meet I @-@ 96 at the end of 1964 . M @-@ 21 was moved to the freeway from its previous surface @-@ street routing . The final link in the freeway was completed in November 1974 along the Holland – Grandville segment , completing I @-@ 196 for a second time . At the same time , M @-@ 21 was removed from the freeway , truncating that highway designation to end in Grand Rapids .
In 2009 , access to Jenison was improved by the addition of a partial interchange with Baldwin Street . The section through downtown Grand Rapids east of the Grand River was rebuilt during 2010 in a project MDOT dubbed the " Fix on I @-@ 196 " . The project added a third travel lane in each direction with weave @-@ merge lanes between interchanges and rebuilt several of the overpasses in the area .
= = Exit list = =
= = Business routes = =
There are currently two business loops ( BL I @-@ 196 ) and one business spur ( BS I @-@ 196 ) along I @-@ 196 . A BS I @-@ 196 in Muskegon was designated along what is now Bus . US 31 before the Muskegon – Grand Rapids freeway was redesignated I @-@ 96 .
= = = South Haven = = =
Business Loop I @-@ 196 ( BL I @-@ 196 ) is a loop that runs in South Haven for 3 @.@ 572 miles ( 5 @.@ 749 km ) . The loop begins at exit 18 on I @-@ 196 / US 31 and runs due north along La Grange Street . It then turns onto Phillips Street and merges into Broadway Street . BL I @-@ 196 follows Phoenix Street eastward where the trunkline ends at exit 20 on I @-@ 196 . The entire length is a part of the LMCT . A bypass of downtown was built during World War II ; the former route of US 31 through downtown was designated Bus . US 31 at that time . When I @-@ 196 was built outside of South Haven in 1963 , the former US 31 bypass was redesignated BL I @-@ 196 . In 1972 , the loop was shifted to follow the pre @-@ war routing through downtown .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Van Buren County .
= = = Holland = = =
Business Loop I @-@ 196 ( BL I @-@ 196 ) is a loop that runs for 11 @.@ 649 miles ( 18 @.@ 747 km ) in Holland and Zeeland . The loop starts at a connection with I @-@ 196 / US 31 at exit 44 and continues concurrently along the freeway into Holland . BL I @-@ 196 / US 31 has an interchange for A @-@ 2 ( Blue Star Highway ) and Washington Avenue before the freeway ends in the southern reaches of Holland . The trunkline then runs as a divided highway northward , bypassing downtown Holland to the east and intersecting M @-@ 40 . Northeast of downtown , BL I @-@ 196 leaves US 31 and the LMCT at an interchange to follow an expressway along the route of Chicago Drive . The loop follows this expressway through Zeeland and back out to I @-@ 196 at exit 55 .
The loop was created in 1974 when I @-@ 196 was completed south of the city of Holland . From that point , the old route of M @-@ 21 inside the cities to US 31 was redesignated as a business loop of I @-@ 196 with the state taking control of Washington Avenue to the downtown area . Then from downtown looping back up to Chicago Drive , the business loop used the old M @-@ 21 . Along Washington Avenue and Chicago Drive between junctions with US 31 , the highway bore a concurrent Bus . US 31 designation . The concurrent trunkline inside the downtown area of Holland was transferred to the City of Holland in 2005 , and BL I @-@ 196 was rerouted to follow US 31 .
Major intersections
All exits are unnumbered .
= = = Grand Rapids = = =
Business Spur I @-@ 196 ( BS I @-@ 196 ) is a spur that serves the Godfrey – Lee area of Wyoming and the Roosevelt Park neighborhood of Grand Rapids . It starts at the partial interchange for exit 72 on I @-@ 196 and then moves onto the surface street Chicago Drive for the majority of the distance in Wyoming , running through an industrial area . After about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , the highway runs through residential areas . Upon crossing the Grand Rapids city limits , it turns northerly onto Grandville Avenue where it runs until turning onto Franklin Street . The spur then ends at the interchange with US 131 . Its total length is 3 @.@ 631 miles ( 5 @.@ 844 km ) . It can only be accessed from eastbound I @-@ 196 on the western end .
In 1953 , the state highway department completed enough of the Grand Rapids beltline to reroute M @-@ 21 to it . The former routing of M @-@ 21 was then redesignated Bus . M @-@ 21 . With the completion of I @-@ 196 from Holland to Grand Rapids in 1974 , the highway was truncated to its current format and renamed BS I @-@ 196 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Kent County .
= John Warne Gates =
John Warne Gates ( May 18 , 1855 – August 9 , 1911 ) , also known as " Bet @-@ a @-@ Million " Gates , was an American Gilded Age industrialist , who was a pioneer promoter of barbed wire . He was born and raised in what is now West Chicago , Illinois . He did not enjoy farm life and began offering neighbors various business propositions at an early age , including the sale of firewood to homes and to the local railroad . When he started a local grain brokerage that failed , Gates began spending time at the local railroad station and became reacquainted with the men he previously sold firewood to . He was invited to join their poker games and through this , Gates ' aptitude for cards and other games of chance was developed .
After studying penmanship , bookkeeping and business law in North Central College ( by then Northwestern College ) , he failed as an owner of a local hardware store . Gates became interested in barbed wire and became a salesman for the Washburn @-@ Moen Company . When he was assigned to the Texas sales territory , he learned that ranchers were adamant about not buying his product . Gates staged a demonstration of the wire in San Antonio 's Military Plaza with charging cattle failing to break the barbed wire fences he had set up . He then proved very successful in selling the company 's product , and went on to start his own barbed wire manufacturing business , which eventually led to the production of steel . In the process , his company was purchased by J. P. Morgan 's U. S. Steel . Gates was not invited to become part of the company , and he fought back at Morgan for many years through a series of business acquisitions and sales ; both men were key figures in the Panic of 1907 .
Gates was the president of Republic Steel and of the Texas Company , later known as Texaco . He was instrumental in changing the steel industry 's production methods from the Bessemer process to the open hearth process and in building the city of Port Arthur , Texas .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Gates was born in West Chicago , Illinois ( then known as Turner Junction ) on May 18 , 1855 . He was the son of Asel A. and Mary Warne Gates . Gates had two older brothers , George and Gilbert , but both had died by the time he was 15 years old . While Gates was raised in a religious household , his mother , Mary , became more religious after the deaths of her two older sons . Because he had been involved in some harmless childhood mischief in both grammar and Sunday School , he was accused of stealing a collection at the Sunday School . He was barred from attending church as a result .
Gates was raised on the family 's farm , but did not care for farm life . At an early age , he entered into his first business proposition : to husk a neighbor 's corn . His next business venture was to clear some land of timber for another neighbor . Gates earned US $ 1 @,@ 000 for this job , selling the timber as firewood to homes and to the railroad . Gates then took the money from this labor and bought a half interest in a threshing machine . As this type of equipment was very new at the time , few farms owned one , so Gates and his partner hired themselves out to work with it at various local farms . After one season , Gates tired of this type of work and he sold his interest in the threshing machine to his partner and another friend . Gates then set himself up as a local grain broker , doing business from the family 's home . This business venture was a failure ; in an effort to escape farm work , he took to spending time at the railroad depot where he had previously sold firewood . The railroad men remembered him and now asked him to join their poker games . Gates found he had an aptitude for the game and for anticipating the cards men held and how they would play them . With the grain brokerage now forgotten , he was able to make up the losses at the card table .
While attending a house party near St. Charles , he met and fell in love with a farmer 's daughter , Dellora Baker . Gates proposed to her at one of the house parties . Dellora was willing to accept Gates ' proposal , but wondered how he would be able to provide for a wife , as his only income came from winning at the railroad poker games . When his father discovered Gates in a poker game with some railroad men in the family 's barn , Asel told his son he was no good and would never be any good . Only Mary 's mediation stopped her son from leaving home . With the realization that he needed more education than grammar school had provided , he announced to his parents that he would be enrolling in some local college classes . Gates attended some courses at nearby Wheaton College and graduated from North Central College in 1876 . He had little opportunity to put his new business education to work , as the financial Panic of 1873 began just as he was completing his college work . In order to be able to marry Dellora , Gates accepted every type of job he could get for the next year ; most of them were for farm work . Gates and Dellora were married on February 25 , 1874 .
= = = Marriage and early business ventures = = =
Gates tried to revive to his grain brokerage business but lost all his savings through it . When the couple 's first child was stillborn , Gates returned to his old pattern of playing poker and thought seriously about leaving town with Dellora . With this knowledge , Mary Gates told her husband he needed to help his son financially so he could start a new business . Gates ' father in law , Ed Baker , had already offered to help his daughter and son in law in this way . Asel purchased a two @-@ story brick building and Ed Baker provided the capital for stock to open a hardware store in Turner Junction . At first the business went well ; Gates and Dellora were able to move into their own home . Gates began taking time away from the hardware store and while his partner tried to handle all the business , he was not able to . A son , Charles Gilbert Gates , was born to Gates and Dellora on May 21 , 1876 . Gates began to complain of various ailments soon after the baby 's birth ; at times , he would take to his bed for some days with them . Business at the hardware store had become so bad , Gates was not able to afford the rent on the family 's home . They had to move into two rooms above the hardware store , with Gates saying he was too ill to help with the moving and packing .
While at the hardware store , Gates met a salesman who was in the barbed wire business . As a result , Gates became interested in the relatively new product . When he announced his intentions to sell his interest in the hardware store and become a traveling salesman for the product , his wife and mother were both in favor of the plan . He made a trip to San Antonio , Texas in 1876 where Isaac Ellwood hired him as a salesman for the Washburn @-@ Moen barbed wire company . After being assigned to work in Texas , Gates quickly learned that while he found friends and poker playing companions , when it came to selling barbed wire , ranchers were not buying . After watching a medicine show proprietor stage an elaborate presentation for his wares and noting that people fought to buy the products sold , Gates decided to have a similar production to demonstrate the merits of barbed wire . In San Antonio 's Military Plaza , Gates provoked cattle into charging into a barbed wire fence which did not break . Gates went from not being able to sell his product to not being able to fill orders quickly enough after the demonstration .
= = = The barbed wire and steel business = = =
Upon Ellwood 's refusal to grant him a partnership in the company . Gates traveled to St. Louis , Missouri , where in partnership with Alfred Clifford , he started the Southern Wire Company to compete with Washburn @-@ Moen . Clifford 's equipment to manufacture barbed wire had come from George C. Baker , who had invented a machine for producing barbed wire which was similar but not identical to the one made by Isaac Ellwood . Baker had resisted all attempts by Ellwood and Washburn @-@ Moen to buy him out . Gates and Clifford sold their product at a cheaper price than Washburn @-@ Moen . Before long , Washburn @-@ Moen was losing substantial business to Gates and Clifford 's Southern Wire Company .
In an effort to stop the success of the former company salesman , Ellwood and Washburn @-@ Moen filed for an injunction to stop the business of Southern Wire Company . The suit , filed in U. S. District Court , claimed the machines Gates and Clifford used in the production of their product were a direct copy of those used by Washburn @-@ Moen . The suit also called for Gates and Clifford to pay US $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages to the company . As they avoided process servers , Gates and Clifford made a plan to save their company . They were able to rent a building in East St. Louis , Illinois and moved their equipment out of the factory and onto a ferryboat after dark . After they crossed the Mississippi River , the machines were out of the jurisdiction of the St. Louis U. S. District Court and were back in business the next day . When Clifford and Gates hired an attorney to answer the charges made against them in court , the judge ruled that the manufacturing process used by Southern Wire Company was not an infringement on any patents or machinery owned by Ellwood and Washburn @-@ Moen .
After a fire destroyed the Southern Wire Company , Gates gambled on the idea that William Edenborn had not heard the news and approached him for a merger with the idea that Southern Wire would manufacture in Edenborn 's now idle barbed wire plant . The new company was known as St. Louis Wire Mill Company . They continued to buy other wire companies and had strong sales . Washburn @-@ Moen went back into court , this time in Des Moines , Iowa , where a federal judge ruled that the machinery created by Baker was an infringement of Washburn @-@ Moen 's patents . By this time , Gates had created a syndicate of barbed wire manufacturers who did not produce their wares using Washburn @-@ Moen 's methods ; the ruling in favor of Washburn @-@ Moen only applied to areas in the jurisdiction of the U. S. Federal Court in Des Moines . Washburn @-@ Moen continued to falter ; Isaac Ellwood sent word asking for a meeting with Gates . Ellwood and another key figure with Washburn @-@ Moen , John Lambert , now accepted offers from Gates . The barbed wire legal issues ended with Washburn @-@ Moen selling their patent rights to Gates and his syndicate of wire manufacturers .
Through a series of mergers and acquisitions the company went through various name changes , finally settling on American Steel and Wire Company . Gates and his family moved to Chicago , where they lived for a period of ten years . Chicago attorney Elbert Henry Gary had helped Gates form the syndicate which led to the defeat of Washburn @-@ Moen . Gary was called on again in 1901 to negotiate a merger with J. P. Morgan 's U. S. Steel . Though he had provided Gates with some loans and advice in the past , Morgan did not want Gates to be a part of the merged company , saying that there was only a deal without Gates . Morgan made an offer to Gates for the American Steel and Wire Company , telling him that he was not welcome to take part in the business of U. S. Steel @-@ either as part of management or on the company 's board of directors . Morgan continued by saying that if Gates did not accept his offer , U. S. Steel intended to build its own wire production plant .
= = = Railroads , oil and Port Arthur , Texas = = =
Gates never forgot J. P. Morgan 's snub at the U. S. Steel merger . One month after the deal was completed , he became involved in a struggle between E. H. Harriman of the Union Pacific Railroad and James J. Hill of the Northern Pacific Railway . Both men sought control of the Chicago , Burlington and Quincy Railroad . Hill , who was financed by J. P. Morgan , needed access to Chicago ; Harriman was interested in stopping Hill from obtaining it . Gates saw this as an opportunity to get back at Morgan for his refusal to seat him on the board of U. S. Steel . Along with Harriman , he began buying shares of Northern Pacific stock . When James Hill noted a sudden rise in Northern Pacific stock prices , he traveled to New York to consult with Morgan . Morgan and Hill stopped the sales of the Northern Pacific stock , which remained high while other stocks took steep drops . Those who had been selling short could not obtain enough stock to cover themselves and were faced with large financial losses . It was rumored that Gates was short 60 @,@ 000 shares of Northern Pacific stock . Gates did not confirm or deny any of the rumors about the railroad stock and would only say that he was doing well .
As Gates continued to search for a way to get back at Morgan for cutting him out of U. S. Steel , he found a vulnerability in Morgan 's railroad holdings in 1902 and began buying large numbers of shares in Morgan 's Louisville and Nashville Railroad . When it was decided to add another short line to the L & N system , its board of directors voted to issue 50 @,@ 000 new shares of stock to finance the new line . A clerical error offered the stock for sale before it could be listed on the New York Stock Exchange . Gates saw the offering and purchased the shares prior to their listing ; he also continued buying all the Louisville and Nashville stock he was able to . Gates had enough shares of the railroad to duplicate the panic that ensued the year before with the Great Northern Railway shares . J. P. Morgan learned of the events in April 1902 and found that Gates now owned more than 51 percent of the Louisville and Nashville 's stock . Morgan decided to act to stop another Wall Street panic , and asked what Gates ' terms of sale would be . Gates wanted US $ 150 per share of stock , an offer which Morgan initially rejected . He then dispatched his aide , George Walbridge Perkins , to talk to Gates and make the best possible arrangements . Perkins called on Gates in his Waldorf @-@ Astoria suite at 1 : 30 am . The deal for the Louisville and Nashville cost Morgan US $ 43 million , with Gates making a more than US $ 15 million profit from the transaction .
After the Louisville and Nashville Railroad incident , Gates found that public opinion had turned against him as a result of it . Gates talked some associates into submitting his son 's name for membership in the New York Yacht Club and New York 's Union League Club . The application for Charlie Gates went from one desk to another for a number of weeks . When young Gates ' name was brought up for a vote , the members of the admissions committee were unanimous in their " no " decision . Gates threatened to sue the club and the members denied his charges of Morgan being behind Charlie Gates ' refusal . Gates withdrew Charlie 's Yacht Club and Union League Club applications , apparently resigned that his son would not be a member of either society . When he and Dellora traveled to England , the couple wanted to stay at Claridge 's , as they had done in 1900 . Claridge 's refused to accept their registration as Gates was now on the hotel 's list of undesirables .
Pattillo Higgins had begun a well on Spindletop in 1900 , but ran out of money to continue drilling for oil . Higgins went to Gates for funds to continue ; Gates obliged and founded The Texas Company , later known as Texaco . His investment entitled Gates to 46 percent of the company 's stock . When Spindletop came in the next year , Gates was already in control of Port Arthur 's docks , its refinery and the railroad needed to get the oil to market .
= = = = Port Arthur = = = =
Gates became influential in the development of the city of Port Arthur , Texas when he took over the Kansas City , Pittsburg and Gulf Railroad in December 1899 after he forced it into bankruptcy along with its previous owner and Port Arthur founder Arthur Edward Stilwell . Gates built a winter home in the city and contributed much to its development . After Gates became the owner of the Port Arthur Canal and Dock Company , he held the asset for a time ; in 1906 he gave the canal to the US government under the condition that Port Arthur would be named an international port of entry . Gates founded the first bank , built a rice mill and established the Port Arthur Light , Power and Ice Company . When he decided to make Port Arthur his permanent residence in 1908 , the town held a celebration . After Mary Gates died while on a visit to her son and his family in December 1908 , Gates built Mary Gates Hospital to honor her memory . He was also a large contributor to Port Arthur Business College , and built a model farm to give the city a source of fresh dairy products .
After Port Arthur 's Hotel Sabine burned to the ground in 1904 , Gates decided that the city needed a good hotel to replace it . In 1909 , he proposed to build another , called the Plaza , on the site the Hotel Sabine had once occupied . Gates could have easily afforded to finance the entire cost of the new hotel , but he wanted Port Arthur 's residents to have an equal share in the venture . Gates held local meetings and was happy to discuss the project or take pledges for the building fund at any time . After the pledges of local businessmen had reached US $ 150 @,@ 000 , Gates donated the remaining US $ 150 @,@ 000 , and the project began to be built by United States Realty Company .
Gates took great pleasure in watching the Plaza Hotel take shape . He was a daily visitor to the construction site as the Spanish mission style building was erected . When the hotel was opened , Gates held a special " billion dollar banquet " on November 15 , 1909 ; his guests were men who owned railroads , Texas Company board members , and other successful men in business . Port Arthur had never seen so many wealthy and powerful men and residents were impressed by the sight of them . Gates served as the hotel 's manager in the first few weeks it was in operation . He hired African @-@ Americans as waiters ; this was considered to be very bold , as African @-@ Americans were barred from living and working in the city at the time .
= = = The steel industry and dashed hopes = = =
Gates continued to have hopes of being able to take on J. P. Morgan again @-@ this time with a rival steel trust . After the sale of his Louisville and Nashville Railroad stocks to Morgan in 1902 , Gates quietly began buying shares of Colorado Fuel and Iron Company . He and his associates easily owned more than 50 percent of the company 's stock shares , but the company 's owner and founder , John C. Osgood , claimed the shares were not valid . Osgood said that while the company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange , any transfer of the shares without his signature and approval , made them invalid . He went on to say that because of their invalidity , those who held shares of the company 's stock without them , were not eligible to attend the annual stockholders ' meeting . Osgood was upheld in this opinion by the company 's board of directors .
Determined to attend the meeting , Gates hired a special train to get to the meeting in Denver . John Osgood was prepared for Gates ' arrival . He had obtained a Circuit Court injunction barring Gates and his associates from attending the meeting ; the doors of Colorado Fuel and Iron were guarded by sheriff 's deputies armed with shotguns . Gates was angry about being refused entry to the meeting , but he became enraged when he learned he was described in the local Circuit Court as a " high roller and a gambler " . Gates returned to New York to try utilizing the Federal Court system there . As the legal wrangles continued , the stock of the company began dropping in value ; during this time Gates lost US $ 3 million , but still was unsure of his legal status with Colorado Fuel and Iron . Osgood announced he was willing to meet Gates halfway , but Gates declined the offer . He accused Osgood of tampering with the courts and claimed that he would receive the legal ownership of the company he was due . Apparently feeling that a long battle was not worth it , Gates gave up the fight some weeks later and sold the shares , which eventually wound up with the Rockefeller family .
Once more , Gates planned to get back into the steel industry . In 1903 , he began buying shares of Republic Steel . Its two main competitors were in the US South @-@ Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company , and the Sloss @-@ Sheffield Iron and Steel Company in Alabama . All three were able to use inexpensive Southern iron ore to produce quality steel with the open hearth process , making the price of the steel produced with it cheaper . The minerals needed for the open hearth process were readily found in Alabama . Gates envisioned bringing Republic , Tennessee Coal and Iron and Sloss @-@ Sheffield together into a steel trust to challenge J. P. Morgan 's U. S. Steel . When August Belmont , Jr. resigned his seat on Republic 's board to concentrate on consolidating the New York transit system , Gates was elected to fill Belmont 's seat .
Gates found two like @-@ minded members of the board when he began talking about consolidating the three steel companies . One was L. C. Hanna , the brother of Mark Hanna ; the other was Grant Schley , who had a Wall Street brokerage . Gates now began purchasing shares of Tennessee Coal and Iron in preparation of the consolidation . In January 1905 he was ready to outline his plan to potential members of the trust , with the exception of Republic 's president , A. W. Thompson . When Thompson was advised of the scheme , he declared there would be no such trust with Republic as a member ; when put to a formal vote , Republic 's board members voted down the idea of joining a trust . During this time , Gates was able to purchase enough shares of Tennessee Coal and Iron to give him a controlling interest in the company .
Gates was riding high with both Republic and Tennessee Coal and Iron doing well with more orders that both could fill . His assessment of the open @-@ hearth process for steel production was confirmed by a report from the US Bureau of Corporations . The report stated that an agent for U. S. Steel and a large railroad affiliated with J. P. Morgan pronounced the rails produced by the open @-@ hearth process to be twice as good at those made by the Bessemer process , which was used by U. S. Steel . The report went on to praise Gates and his competitiveness .
= = = = The Panic of 1907 = = = =
In 1907 , Gates took his usual summer holiday in Europe . Upon arriving in Paris , he was met with an urgent cablegram from Grant Schley . Schley , the owner of a brokerage and a board member of Republic Steel and Tennessee Coal and Iron , advised Gates of serious business trouble and asked him to return to the US at once . As the Panic of 1907 began , Schley 's brokerage had become short of money and it was necessary for him to obtain large loans to try to keep the brokerage solvent . Schley offered some US $ 6 million shares of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company as part of the collateral for the loans . Oakleigh Thorne was the president of the Trust Company of America bank and also a member of the Gates coalition . Thorne believed his bank was in sound financial condition until a New York Times article stated otherwise . Thorne told reporters that if he paid off every depositor , he would still have US $ 4 million in assets . When the clearing house run by J. P. Morgan audited the bank 's books , they found the bank was sound , but were quite interested in the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company stock they found and indicated that the stock was not acceptable to them as security .
Morgan proposed to buy Tennessee Coal and Iron to " rescue " all involved with the company . He outlined a plan whereby U. S. Steel would change its second mortgage bonds for Tennessee Coal and Iron stock . Because the U. S. Steel bonds were acceptable to the clearing house , they would be able to be used for the debts . It was suggested that President Theodore Roosevelt be consulted before such action was taken . Roosevelt was given only an outline of the issue ; he was never told which institution would fail without U. S. Steel 's takeover of Tennessee Coal and Iron . Roosevelt wrote a note to his Attorney General stating he had not learned the name of the troubled business , but felt that he should not object to this occurrence .
The New York Times , however , printed its amazement that Tennessee Coal and Iron stocks were not acceptable to the clearing house and that the Trust Company of America was deemed insolvent when it had more than enough assets to cover all deposits . The newspaper concluded that U. S. Steel wanted to take over a serious business competitor and the company was only worried about the Sherman Antitrust Act . All of this had taken place before Gates was able to return to New York ; when he was briefed on the situation , he was told that all other members of the coalition had agreed to Morgan 's terms . While Gates realized he had no choice but to submit his shares of stock , he insisted that all stockholders were to be treated equally with regard to the rate of exchange of their shares . Though this was promised , those holding smaller amounts of stock were said to have received less compensation for them .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
Gates involved himself in bettering Port Arthur after losing Tennessee Coal and Iron . He was suffering from a kidney ailment and diabetes and needed to take time away from the town 's business when either flared up . He still had control of the Texas Company and was able to successfully battle Rockefeller 's Standard Oil , who would have liked to take over his company 's land . In 1909 , he was taking his usual summer holiday in Europe when members of the Republican party from the Eastern District of Texas nominated him for Congress . He wired the convention to refuse the nomination , saying that he preferred to participate through his financial contributions . Gates had purchased an animal show and a stable of performing horses with the idea of creating a circus for himself and Port Arthur , when in early 1911 , he found a growth in his throat . The growth was malignant and there were times Gates was hardly able to speak .
The US Congress was beset with requests to deal with the U. S. Steel Trust as they had done with the Tobacco Trust and Standard Oil . The House of Representatives formed a committee to examine the dealings of Morgan 's company . Congressman Augustus Owsley Stanley of Kentucky , was named chairman of the committee ; in his long list of persons to subpoena for their testimony the first was John Gates . Gates appeared to give his testimony on May 28 , 1911 ; he was seriously ill and this was evident by how thin and pale he had become . He planned a trip to Paris to consult with doctors there after his testimony . Gates spoke of all of his dealings with J. P. Morgan , from the American Steel and Wire Company to the Louisville and Nashville Railroad and to the time when control of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company was wrested from him forcibly . He left for Paris while the committee was still in session . The result of the hearings was an investigation of U. S. Steel and its practices which would last for almost ten years . J. P. Morgan , who held the belief that he had " saved " the country from the Panic of 1907 , was disgusted at the " ingratitude " of both the government and the nation 's citizens .
= = Bet A Million = =
Gates maintained a suite at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria of New City from 1894 onwards . Though he paid US $ 30 @,@ 000 yearly for it , his visits pained the hotel 's manager , George Boldt , at times . Gates and his guests were often loud and boisterous . He had a private entrance and elevator , but Gates had a habit of banging on the elevator doors and shouting for service . Boldt instructed his elevator operators to take their time when serving his floor , as it allowed Gates to make as much noise as he wished for a few minutes . Gates ' suite was often home to high @-@ stakes poker parties and Baccarat games . Many poker games began on the train from Chicago to New York and were continued at the Waldorf . One poker game lasted for five days and nights ; when it was done at least US $ 2 million had changed hands . Dellora Gates had long since resigned herself to her husband 's all @-@ night poker games , but many times became upset about them . Gates made it a practice to keep some unset diamonds in his vest pocket for the times when Dellora became angry about the late hours at cards . He would then present a gem to his wife , who would suddenly forget her anger with him . Dellora would take the diamond to Tiffany & Co. to be set in a piece of jewelry of her choice .
In 1900 , Gates won $ 600 @,@ 000 on a $ 70 @,@ 000 bet on a horse race in England , exaggerated at over $ 1 million , which conferred on him the nickname " Bet @-@ A @-@ Million " . The Waldorf 's Oscar Tschirky recalled that Gates did not like the nickname , but did little to repudiate the claims as he would bet on practically everything . Oscar recalled a rainy afternoon in the Waldorf 's Oak Room as Gates and two associates watched raindrops trickle down the windows . Gates remarked that the drops did not move down the window at the same speed . One of Gates ' associates spotted two raindrops that were moving at the same rate and pointed them out to him . Gates selected a raindrop and bet his associate that it would reach the bottom of the window first . His associate took him up on the bet and before Gates ' raindrop had won the race , the bets had changed from hundreds of dollars to thousands . Gates believed that all life was a gamble ; a farmer gambled that he would have a successful harvest when planting crops , a merchant gambled that customers would buy items when ordering stock and a traveler gambled on arriving safely when setting out on a journey .
Gates continued his heavy betting on horse races when in the United States . In 1902 , he attended the American Derby at Chicago 's Washington Park Race Track , favoring Wyeth , the horse of an associate . When Wyeth won , Gates had profited close to US $ 100 @,@ 000 . At yet another race , Gates won US $ 650 @,@ 000 from his large bets . The Jockey Club president , August Belmont , Jr . , asked Gates to limit his bets to US $ 10 @,@ 000 , as such large wagers gave the impression that the races were not honest ones . Outside of his own hotel suite , Gates ' favorite spot in New York City was the gambling establishment opened by Richard Canfield in 1898 . The club was at 5 East 44th Street . Delmonico 's was next door and provided catering to the club 's guests . When there or at Canfield 's Saratoga clubhouse , Gates ' favored game was faro which he had learned while selling barbed wire in Texas .
Gates set up a brokerage office in the hotel 's main lobby for his son , Charlie , and an experienced stockbroker . He speculated on Wall Street from there . In early 1907 , when Gates realized that the market would be headed for a sharp downturn , he closed the offices of Charles G. Gates and Company , announcing he was done with Wall Street for good . Gates also changed his New York residence in May of the same year . He had purchased a substantial number of shares in the United States Realty Company , which had built New York 's Plaza Hotel and was able to design his own 16 room apartment at the Plaza .
= = Death and legacy = =
Gates died in Paris , France on August 9 , 1911 , following an unsuccessful operation to remove a throat tumor . His funeral was held on August 23 , 1911 in the ballroom of the Plaza Hotel in New York ; Gates had provided the funding for the construction of the hotel . Gates ' mourners had come from all parts of the country ; three floors of the Plaza Hotel were reserved for those attending his services . A large delegation arrived from Texas , where Gates had done much for the city of Port Arthur .
The city of Port Arthur held its own memorial service on the same day Gates was buried . Flags were lowered to half staff and from noon until 6pm all businesses in Port Arthur were closed ; the city 's docks and refineries also stopped their operations during this time to honor Port Arthur 's benefactor . While Gates left the bulk of his estate to his wife and son , he inserted a clause in his will that prohibited his family from selling any of his securities until ten years after his death . Gates is said to have included the clause in his will to protect friends who had invested with him from these securities being sold soon after his death . Gates ' estate was valued at between US $ 40 and US $ 50 million . He was buried in the family mausoleum at Woodlawn Cemetery .
The Gates Memorial Library in Port Arthur was funded by his widow and donated to the city in 1918 . Originally the city 's public library , Gates Memorial now serves as the campus library for Lamar State College – Port Arthur . It was entered into the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 . In 1971 , Gates was honored with a state historical marker at the site of his Military Plaza barbed wire demonstration in San Antonio .
= Kepler @-@ 5 =
Kepler @-@ 5 is a star located in the constellation Cygnus in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA project aimed at detecting planets in transit of , or passing in front of , their host stars as seen from Earth . One closely orbiting , Jupiter @-@ like planet , named Kepler @-@ 5b , has been detected around Kepler @-@ 5 . Kepler @-@ 5 's planet was one of the first five planets to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; its discovery was announced on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society after being verified by a variety of observatories . Kepler @-@ 5 is larger and more massive than the Sun , but has a similar metallicity , a major factor in planet formation .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 5 is named so because it was the fifth planet @-@ bearing star discovered during the course of the Kepler Mission , a NASA operation that seeks to discover Earth @-@ like planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars with respect to Earth . The star 's planet , Kepler @-@ 5b , was the second of the first five planets to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets found by Kepler were used as tests , and had already been discovered . Kepler @-@ 5b was presented to the public on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. , along with planets around Kepler @-@ 4 , Kepler @-@ 6 , Kepler @-@ 7 , and Kepler @-@ 8 .
Kepler @-@ 5b 's initial discovery by Kepler was re @-@ examined by scientists at the W.M. Keck Observatory at Mauna Kea , Hawaii ; the McDonald Observatory in west Texas ; the Palomar and Lick Observatories in California ; the MMT , WIYN , and Whipple Observatories in Arizona ; and the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in the Canary Islands .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 5 is a sunlike star that is 1 @.@ 374 ( ± 0 @.@ 056 ) Msun and 1 @.@ 793 ( ± 0 @.@ 053 ) Rsun , and is 137 % the mass of and 179 % the radius of the Sun . The star has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] 0 @.@ 04 ( ± 0 @.@ 06 ) , making it approximately as metal @-@ rich as the Sun , therefore increasing the star 's likelihood to have planets in orbit . Kepler @-@ 5 has an effective temperature of 6297 ( ± 60 ) K , which is hotter than the Sun 's effective temperature of 5778 K. Kepler @-@ 5 has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 4 , and cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 5b is 2 @.@ 114 MJ and 1 @.@ 431 RJ . It is , thus , more than twice the mass of Jupiter , and slightly less than three halves of Jupiter 's radius . Kepler @-@ 5b orbits its star every 3 @.@ 5485 days , lying at approximately .05064 AU from Kepler @-@ 5 . It is , thus , a Hot Jupiter , or a gas giant that orbits near to its host star . To compare , Mercury orbits the sun at .3871 AU every 87 @.@ 97 days . The planet 's eccentricity is assumed to be 0 , which is the eccentricity for a circular orbit .
= Polyclonal B cell response =
Polyclonal B cell response is a natural mode of immune response exhibited by the adaptive immune system of mammals . It ensures that a single antigen is recognized and attacked through its overlapping parts , called epitopes , by multiple clones of B cell .
In the course of normal immune response , parts of pathogens ( e.g. bacteria ) are recognized by the immune system as foreign ( non @-@ self ) , and eliminated or effectively neutralized to reduce their potential damage . Such a recognizable substance is called an antigen . The immune system may respond in multiple ways to an antigen ; a key feature of this response is the production of antibodies by B cells ( or B lymphocytes ) involving an arm of the immune system known as humoral immunity . The antibodies are soluble and do not require direct cell @-@ to @-@ cell contact between the pathogen and the B @-@ cell to function .
Antigens can be large and complex substances , and any single antibody can only bind to a small , specific area on the antigen . Consequently , an effective immune response often involves the production of many different antibodies by many different B cells against the same antigen . Hence the term " polyclonal " , which derives from the words poly , meaning many , and clones ( " Klon " = Greek for sprout or twig ) ; a clone is a group of cells arising from a common " mother " cell . The antibodies thus produced in a polyclonal response are known as polyclonal antibodies . The heterogeneous polyclonal antibodies are distinct from monoclonal antibody molecules , which are identical and react against a single epitope only , i.e. , are more specific .
Although the polyclonal response confers advantages on the immune system , in particular , greater probability of reacting against pathogens , it also increases chances of developing certain autoimmune diseases resulting from the reaction of the immune system against native molecules produced within the host .
= = Humoral response to infection = =
Diseases which can be transmitted from one organism to another are known as infectious diseases , and the causative biological agent involved is known as a pathogen . The process by which the pathogen is introduced into the body is known as inoculation , and the organism it affects is known as a biological host . When the pathogen establishes itself in a step known as colonization , it can result in an infection , consequently harming the host directly or through the harmful substances called toxins it can produce . This results in the various symptoms and signs characteristic of an infectious disease like pneumonia or diphtheria .
Countering the various infectious diseases is very important for the survival of the susceptible organism , in particular , and the species , in general . This is achieved by the host by eliminating the pathogen and its toxins or rendering them nonfunctional . The collection of various cells , tissues and organs that specializes in protecting the body against infections is known as the immune system . The immune system accomplishes this through direct contact of certain white blood cells with the invading pathogen involving an arm of the immune system known as the cell @-@ mediated immunity , or by producing substances that move to sites distant from where they are produced , " seek " the disease @-@ causing cells and toxins by specifically binding with them , and neutralize them in the process – known as the humoral arm of the immune system . Such substances are known as soluble antibodies and perform important functions in countering infections .
Types of White blood cells ( WBCs )
= = B cell response = =
Antibodies serve various functions in protecting the host against the pathogen . Their soluble forms which carry out these functions are produced by plasma B cells , a type of white blood cell . This production is tightly regulated and requires the activation of B cells by activated T cells ( another type of white blood cell ) , which is a sequential procedure . The major steps involved are :
Specific or nonspecific recognition of the pathogen ( because of its antigens ) with its subsequent engulfing by B cells or macrophages . This activates the B cell only partially .
Antigen processing .
Antigen presentation .
Activation of the T helper cells by antigen @-@ presenting cells .
Costimulation of the B cell by activated T cell resulting in its complete activation .
Proliferation of B cells with resultant production of soluble antibodies .
= = = Recognition of pathogens = = =
Pathogens synthesize proteins that can serve as " recognizable " antigens ; they may express the molecules on their surface or release them into the surroundings ( body fluids ) . What makes these substances recognizable is that they bind very specifically and somewhat strongly to certain host proteins called antibodies . The same antibodies can be anchored to the surface of cells of the immune system , in which case they serve as receptors , or they can be secreted in the blood , known as soluble antibodies . On a molecular scale , the proteins are relatively large , so they cannot be recognized as a whole ; instead , their segments , called epitopes , can be recognized . An epitope comes in contact with a very small region ( of 15 – 22 amino acids ) of the antibody molecule ; this region is known as the paratope . In the immune system , membrane @-@ bound antibodies are the B cell receptor ( BCR ) . Also , while the T cell receptor is not biochemically classified as an antibody , it serves a similar function in that it specifically binds to epitopes complexed with major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) molecules . The binding between a paratope and its corresponding antigen is very specific , owing to its structure , and is guided by various noncovalent bonds , not unlike the pairing of other types of ligands ( any atom , ion or molecule that binds with any receptor with at least some degree of specificity and strength ) . The specificity of binding does not arise out of a rigid lock and key type of interaction , but rather requires both the paratope and the epitope to undergo slight conformational changes in each other 's presence .
= = = = Specific recognition of epitope by B cells = = = =
In figure at left , the various segments that form the epitope have been shown to be continuously collinear , meaning that they have been shown as sequential ; however , for the situation being discussed here ( i.e. , the antigen recognition by the B cell ) , this explanation is too simplistic . Such epitopes are known as sequential or linear epitopes , as all the amino acids on them are in the same sequence ( line ) . This mode of recognition is possible only when the peptide is small ( about six to eight amino acids long ) , and is employed by the T cells ( T lymphocytes ) .
However , the B memory / naive cells recognize intact proteins present on the pathogen surface . In this situation , the protein in its tertiary structure is so greatly folded that some loops of amino acids come to lie in the interior of the protein , and the segments that flank them may lie on the surface . The paratope on the B cell receptor comes in contact only with those amino acids that lie on the surface of the protein . The surface amino acids may actually be discontinuous in the protein 's primary structure , but get juxtaposed owing to the complex protein folding patterns ( as in the adjoining figure ) . Such epitopes are known as conformational epitopes and tend to be longer ( 15 – 22 amino acid residues ) than the linear epitopes . Likewise , the antibodies produced by the plasma cells belonging to the same clone would bind to the same conformational epitopes on the pathogen proteins .
The binding of a specific antigen with corresponding BCR molecules results in increased production of the MHC @-@ II molecules . This assumes significance as the same does not happen when the same antigen would be internalized by a relatively nonspecific process called pinocytosis , in which the antigen with the surrounding fluid is " drunk " as a small vesicle by the B cell . Hence , such an antigen is known as a nonspecific antigen and does not lead to activation of the B cell , or subsequent production of antibodies against it .
= = = = Nonspecific recognition by macrophages = = = =
Macrophages and related cells employ a different mechanism to recognize the pathogen . Their receptors recognize certain motifs present on the invading pathogen that are very unlikely to be present on a host cell . Such repeating motifs are recognized by pattern recognition receptors ( PRRs ) like the Toll @-@ like receptors ( TLRs ) expressed by the macrophages . Since the same receptor could bind to a given motif present on surfaces of widely disparate microorganisms , this mode of recognition is relatively nonspecific , and constitutes an innate immune response .
= = = Antigen processing = = =
After recognizing an antigen , an antigen presenting cell such as the macrophage or B lymphocyte engulfs it completely by a process called phagocytosis . The engulfed particle , along with some material surrounding it , forms the endocytic vesicle ( the phagosome ) , which fuses with lysosomes . Within the lysosome , the antigen is broken down into smaller pieces called peptides by proteases ( enzymes that degrade larger proteins ) . The individual peptides are then complexed with major histocompatibility complex class II ( MHC class II ) molecules located in the lysosome – this method of " handling " the antigen is known as the exogenous or endocytic pathway of antigen processing in contrast to the endogenous or cytosolic pathway , which complexes the abnormal proteins produced within the cell ( e.g. under the influence of a viral infection or in a tumor cell ) with MHC class I molecules .
An alternate pathway of endocytic processing had also been demonstrated wherein certain proteins like fibrinogen and myoglobin can bind as a whole to MHC @-@ II molecules after they are denatured and their disulfide bonds are reduced ( breaking the bond by adding hydrogen atoms across it ) . The proteases then degrade the exposed regions of the protein @-@ MHC II @-@ complex .
= = = Antigen presentation = = =
After the processed antigen ( peptide ) is complexed to the MHC molecule , they both migrate together to the cell membrane , where they are exhibited ( elaborated ) as a complex that can be recognized by the CD 4 + ( T helper cell ) – a type of white blood cell . This is known as antigen presentation . However , the epitopes ( conformational epitopes ) that are recognized by the B cell prior to their digestion may not be the same as that presented to the T helper cell . Additionally , a B cell may present different peptides complexed to different MHC @-@ II molecules .
= = = T helper cell stimulation = = =
The CD 4 + cells through their T cell receptor @-@ CD3 complex recognize the epitope @-@ bound MHC II molecules on the surface of the antigen presenting cells , and get ' activated ' . Upon this activation , these T cells proliferate and differentiate into Th2 cells . This makes them produce soluble chemical signals that promote their own survival . However , another important function that they carry out is the stimulation of B cell by establishing direct physical contact with them .
= = = Costimulation of B cell by activated T helper cell = = =
Complete stimulation of T helper cells requires the B7 molecule present on the antigen presenting cell to bind with CD28 molecule present on the T cell surface ( in close proximity with the T cell receptor ) . Likewise , a second interaction between the CD40 ligand or CD154 ( CD40L ) present on T cell surface and CD40 present on B cell surface , is also necessary . The same interactions that stimulate the T helper cell also stimulate the B cell , hence the term costimulation . The entire mechanism ensures that an activated T cell only stimulates a B cell that recognizes the antigen containing the same epitope as recognized by the T cell receptor of the " costimulating " T helper cell . The B cell gets stimulated , apart from the direct costimulation , by certain growth factors , viz . , interleukins 2 , 4 , 5 , and 6 in a paracrine fashion . These factors are usually produced by the newly activated T helper cell . However , this activation occurs only after the B cell receptor present on a memory or a naive B cell itself would have bound to the corresponding epitope , without which the initiating steps of phagocytosis and antigen processing would not have occurred .
= = = Proliferation and differentiation of B cell = = =
A naive ( or inexperienced ) B cell is one which belongs to a clone which has never encountered the epitope to which it is specific . In contrast , a memory B cell is one which derives from an activated naive or memory B cell . The activation of a naive or a memory B cell is followed by a manifold proliferation of that particular B cell , most of the progeny of which terminally differentiate into plasma B cells ; the rest survive as memory B cells . So , when the naive cells belonging to a particular clone encounter their specific antigen to give rise to the plasma cells , and also leave a few memory cells , this is known as the primary immune response . In the course of proliferation of this clone , the B cell receptor genes can undergo frequent ( one in every two cell divisions ) mutations in the genes coding for paratopes of antibodies . These frequent mutations are termed somatic hypermutation . Each such mutation alters the epitope @-@ binding ability of the paratope slightly , creating new clones of B cells in the process . Some of the newly created paratopes bind more strongly to the same epitope ( leading to the selection of the clones possessing them ) , which is known as affinity maturation . Other paratopes bind better to epitopes that are slightly different from the original epitope that had stimulated proliferation . Variations in the epitope structure are also usually produced by mutations in the genes of pathogen coding for their antigen . Somatic hypermutation , thus , makes the B cell receptors and the soluble antibodies in subsequent encounters with antigens , more inclusive in their antigen recognition potential of altered epitopes , apart from bestowing greater specificity for the antigen that induced proliferation in the first place . When the memory cells get stimulated by the antigen to produce plasma cells ( just like in the clone 's primary response ) , and leave even more memory cells in the process , this is known as a secondary immune response , which translates into greater numbers of plasma cells and faster rate of antibody production lasting for longer periods . The memory B cells produced as a part of secondary response recognize the corresponding antigen faster and bind more strongly with it ( i.e. , greater affinity of binding ) owing to affinity maturation . The soluble antibodies produced by the clone show a similar enhancement in antigen binding .
= = Basis of polyclonality = =
Responses are polyclonal in nature as each clone somewhat specializes in producing antibodies against a given epitope , and because , each antigen contains multiple epitopes , each of which in turn can be recognized by more than one clone of B cells . To be able to react to innumerable antigens , as well as multiple constituent epitopes , the immune system requires the ability to recognize a very great number of epitopes in all , i.e. , there should be a great diversity of B cell clones .
= = = Clonality of B cells = = =
Memory and naïve B cells normally exist in relatively small numbers . As the body needs to be able to respond to a large number of potential
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despite the price . He was , however , disappointed in the restaurant 's use of out @-@ of @-@ season produce . " What you will not get ... [ is ] enough local food " , he wrote , adding that the out @-@ of @-@ season " pea dish was the worst of the offerings . "
In 2009 , Schwa made Frommer 's international list of 500 exceptional restaurants . Frommer 's author Holly Hughes described Schwa 's dishes as " miniature works of art " and Carlson 's cooking as " innovative " . She continued , " Carlson 's food just plain tastes good " and " sometimes rises to the level of sheer poetry . " That same year , Mobil Travel Guide awarded Schwa three stars ( out of five ) calling the menu " remarkably innovative " and " knockout " good . The Mobil reviewer did , however , conclude that the food was " a little pricey " .
Schwa made Citysearch 's " Top 10 New Restaurants " of 2006 , placing fourth nationwide , and was named best new restaurant by Newcity . Also in 2006 , Schwa was listed as one of Chicago 's hottest eating spots by Nation 's Restaurant News . In January 2010 , Schwa 's caramelized sweetbreads made Alan Richman 's top five desserts of the year .
In 2008 , The New York Times profiled Schwa as one of a handful of restaurants employing an innovative chef @-@ client relationship . The next year , New York magazine 's Grub Street blog ranked Schwa among the country 's five toughest reservations .
= King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime =
King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime is the fifth studio album by San Francisco @-@ based band Faith No More , released on March 28 , 1995 . It was their first album recorded without longtime guitarist Jim Martin . The album showcased a greater variety than the band 's usual heavy metal leanings , with Rolling Stone calling the result a " genre shuffle " . The album spawned three singles — " Digging the Grave " , " Ricochet " and " Evidence " .
Following Martin 's departure , Trey Spruance was brought on to perform on the album , having also been in Mr. Bungle with singer Mike Patton . Production of the album was further marred by the band suffering a car accident , and by the absence of keyboard player Roddy Bottum , who had been affected by the deaths of both his father and Kurt Cobain , whose wife was Bottum 's close friend . Spruance was replaced on the supporting tour by the band 's former roadie Dean Menta . However , Spruance did play live with Faith No More for the first time in November 2011 , playing the entire album during a show in Chile .
Critical reception to the album has been mixed , with its varied genres being cited as a detraction by several reviewers . The album earned the band two Bay Area Music award nominations . The album 's first two singles showed more of the typical heavy metal style while " Evidence " was a departure from the band 's typical sound , incorporating jazz and funk elements .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
After releasing Angel Dust in 1992 , Faith No More 's next project was a collaboration with Boo @-@ Yaa T.R.I.B.E. , contributing the single " Another Body Murdered " to the soundtrack for the 1993 film Judgment Night . This recording would be the first the band released without guitarist Jim Martin , with bassist Billy Gould recording the guitar parts instead . Martin had already begun skipping practice sessions with the band during the Angel Dust recording sessions , having grown dissatisfied with their new musical directions ; he had also reportedly stopped writing new music at this time .
Martin was fired from the band later that year due to musical differences , via a fax from keyboard player Roddy Bottum ; and Mr. Bungle guitarist Trey Spruance was brought in to record their next album . However , Spruance left the band before the subsequent tour , and was replaced by the band 's keyboard roadie , Dean Menta . Reasons given for the change differ — the band claim Spruance was unwilling to commit to a long touring schedule in support of the album , whilst Spruance claims he was never meant to be a permanent member in the first place . Roddy Bottum also claims to have been mostly absent during this period , owing to the deaths of his father and Kurt Cobain , whose wife Courtney Love was a close friend of Bottum 's and one of the temporary lead singers of the band before Chuck Mosely joined . Bottum 's absence led to the album being written largely without keyboards .
= = = Recording = = =
King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime was recorded in Bearsville Studios , in Woodstock , New York . Gould has described the remote location of the studio as a form of " sensory deprivation " . Writing and rehearsing the songs for the album took eight to nine months , although half of this time was also spent finding a replacement for Martin . Recording the album took an additional three months , for which the band hired producer Andy Wallace . Wallace — unconnected to their previous producer Matt Wallace — had previously worked with Sonic Youth , Nirvana and Slayer . Bottum claimed that the combination of Wallace and Spruance as two new influences helped to create " a real up @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air , what the fuck is gonna happen kind of feel " while recording .
According to singer Mike Patton , the band were involved in a car accident during the recording sessions for the album , while Patton was driving . Spruance and drummer Mike Bordin were also involved , and Patton claimed to have " had to look at a lot of things in the face " as a result . The band used art from the graphic novel Flood by Eric Drooker for the album 's cover and those of its singles .
= = Singles = =
Before the album 's release , the song " Digging the Grave " was released as a single on February 28 , 1995 . That March , the band appeared on the British television program Top of the Pops to promote the single , later performing it on MTV Europe , Canal + ' s Nulle Part Ailleurs and The Jon Stewart Show . The single reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart , and number 12 on the Australian ARIA Charts . It featured on an episode of Beavis and Butt @-@ head in August 1995 , and was included on the soundtrack of the 1996 Italian film Jack Frusciante è uscito dal gruppo . A video for the song was recorded , directed by Marcus Raboy , and filmed in San Francisco. and was later included on the collection Who Cares a Lot ? : The Greatest Videos .
" Ricochet " was released as the album 's second single on May 1 , 1995 ; and was promoted with an appearance on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . The song peaked at number 27 on the UK charts and number 58 in Australia . The song was also included on the soundtrack to the 1996 PlayStation game Fox Hunt . A video for " Ricochet " was filmed in Paris and directed by Alex Hemmings . It does not appear on the video collection , Who Cares a Lot ? : The Greatest Videos .
The album 's third and final single was the jazz @-@ funk number " Evidence " , released on May 8 , 1995 . The band had made an appearance the previous month on the Australian variety show Hey Hey It 's Saturday to perform the song , which eventually peaked at number 32 in the UK and number 27 in Australia . A video was made for the song , directed by Walter A. Stern .
= = = Other songs = = =
A total of twenty tracks were recorded for the album , with only fourteen making the final listing . Cut tracks " I Won 't Forget You " and " Hippie Jam Song " both appeared on the later compilations Who Cares a Lot ? and The Very Best Definitive Ultimate Greatest Hits Collection ; whilst covers of " I Started a Joke " and " Greenfields " were included as B @-@ sides to the single " Digging the Grave " ; and covers of " I Wanna Fuck Myself " and " Spanish Eyes " were both included as B @-@ sides to the singles " Ricochet " and " Evidence " .
" Just A Man " was influenced by Chinese classical music , Patton 's vocal track being based on the style of Anthony Newley . " Star A.D. " makes an appearance on the 2008 compilation The Works . When asked if the song was a reference to Kurt Cobain , Mike Patton stated " God no ! It 's about a phenomenon . And if that guy happened to be one , I don 't know . It 's one of those things that happen ; it 's a Vegas thing . What could be more shameful than having to change your colostomy bag on stage ? ! Vegas is great , though . I love it . Welcome to America " . The song " What a Day " includes the line " Kill the body and the head will die " , which was taken from Hunter S. Thompson 's 1971 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas . In a late 1994 interview , Bottum described the penultimate track " The Last to Know " as " Pearl Jam on mushrooms " .
= = Reception = =
Unlike Faith No More 's previous albums , initial reception to King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime was mixed . Entertainment Weekly gave the album a grade of C − and called it an " archaic progressive @-@ rock fusion , oddly out of step with the times " . Al Wiesel of Rolling Stone gave it a rating of two stars out of five , saying " one hopes that that last song 's moving chorus – ' Don 't let me die with this silly look in my eyes ' – doesn 't prove to be Faith No More 's epitaph " . Metal Hammer acknowledges that the album was met with " crushing disappointment " , but praised its diversity . Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle , however , was more favourable , calling it " an utter triumph " , adding that it was " enigmatic , sarcastic , provocative and incisive " . Spin magazine 's Jonathan Gold rated the album 6 out of 10 , praising its " deftness " and its " burnished , jackhammer @-@ sheathed @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lubricated @-@ condom presence " , but feeling that its multiple genres were a distraction .
Writing for Allmusic , Greg Prato gave it a more positive rating of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , while calling it one of the band 's " underrated releases " . New York magazine described the album as " baroquely , nightmarishly weird " , praising Mike Patton 's vocals . Writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , Bruce Warren rated the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , writing that the band " sounds more accomplished than ever " , and singling Bottum 's keyboards out as particularly noteworthy . Jan Brady of The Buffalo News gave the album a rating of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , noting that " Patton still acts wild but has matured as a singer " , and describing " Digging the Grave " as a " power pop masterpiece " .
King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime was nominated for a Bay Area Music Award in 1995 , in the category " Hard Music Album or EP " . Bassist Billy Gould also received a nomination for Best Bassist at the same event . However , neither nomination was won ; Gould lost out to Les Claypool of Primus , while the album itself was beaten by Green Day 's Insomniac . In 2005 , Germany 's Visions magazine ranked King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime 37 in their list of " 150 Albums for Eternity " and in 2014 , it placed fourth on the Alternative Nation site 's " Top 10 Underrated 90 ’ s Alternative Rock Albums " list .
= = Release history = =
King for a Day ... Fool for a Lifetime was pre @-@ released as a limited @-@ edition two @-@ record vinyl album , limited to 10 @,@ 000 copies , two weeks before the album went on general sale . It was also released in a limited run of 7 x 7 inch records packaged in a hard card box , with bonus tracks and audio interviews with all the band members included . In November 2011 , Faith No More reunited with Trey Spruance for a performance at the Maquinaria festival , during which the album was played in its entirety .
= = Track listing = =
7 x 7 " box set track listing
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= SMS Babenberg =
SMS Babenberg was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1899 . She was launched on 4 October 1902 as the last of three Habsburg @-@ class battleships . Along with her sister ships , she participated at the bombardment of Ancona during World War I. At the end of the war , she was ceded to Great Britain as a war prize . She was scrapped in Italy in 1921 .
= = Construction and layout = =
Babenberg was the last of three battleships of her class . Her keel was laid down on 19 January 1901 at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste . Following about a year and a half of construction , she was launched on 4 October 1902 . After final fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet on 15 April 1904 .
Like all ships of her class , Babenberg was 113 @.@ 11 meters ( 371 ft 1 in ) long at the waterline and was 114 @.@ 55 m ( 375 ft 10 in ) in overall length . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 24 ft 7 in ) . Freeboard was approximately 5 @.@ 8 m ( 19 ft 0 in ) forward and about 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft 1 in ) aft . The ship also displaced 8 @,@ 364 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 232 long tons ) . Once construction was finished , she was commissioned into the Navy with a crew of 638 officers and enlisted men .
Babenberg was powered by 2 @-@ shaft , 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines , which were supplied with steam by 16 Belleville boilers . Babenberg 's power output was rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 85 knots ( 36 @.@ 76 km / h ; 22 @.@ 84 mph ) .
The hull for the ship was constructed from longitudinal and transverse steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted into place . The hull incorporated a double bottom that ran for 63 % of the ship 's length . A series of watertight bulkheads also extended from the keel to the gun deck . All in all , there was a total of 174 watertight compartments in the ship . Babenberg had a metacentric height of between .82 m ( 2 @.@ 7 ft ) and 1 @.@ 02 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Bilge keels were mounted on either side of the hull to reduce rolling and prevent her from capsizing . Babenberg had a flush main deck that was planked with wood , while the upper decks were covered with linoleum or corticine .
Babenberg had three 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 40 guns , two mounted in a twin turret forward and one mounted in a single turret aft of the main superstructure . The C 97 @-@ type guns were manufactured by Krupp in Germany . The main guns fired at a rate of between three and four 215 kg ( 474 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells per minute . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in casemates . These guns could fire at 4 – 5 shells per minute . Babenberg was built with face @-@ hardened chrome @-@ nickel steel . The main armored belt was 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) in the central portion of the ship , where the ammunition magazines , machinery spaces , and other critical areas were located . The belt tapered slightly to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section .
= = Service history = =
= = = Peacetime = = =
When Babenberg was commissioned in 1904 , she began participation in fleet drills with her sister ships SMS Árpád and SMS Habsburg . Following a series of simulated wargames against the three Monarch @-@ class battleships , Babenberg and the other two Habsburg @-@ class ships became the I Battleship Division . With the commissioning of the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships in 1906 and 1907 , the Habsburg @-@ class battleships were transferred from the I to the II Battleship Division , and the three Monarch @-@ class battleships were moved from the II to the III Battleship Division .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , Babenberg served with the IV Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's battleships and along with her sister ships Habsburg and Árpád and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Babenberg was mobilized on the eve of World War I to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops and vessels and make their way to the Ottoman Empire . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy . Babenberg and her sister ships also participated in the Bombardment of Ancona after the Italian declaration of war on the Central Powers . Towards the end of the war , the ship was decommissioned and was retained as a harbor defense ship . Following the end of the war , the ship was awarded to Great Britain as a war prize , but was instead sold and broken up for scrapping in Italy in 1921 .
= Flag of India =
The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of deep saffron , white and India green ; with the Ashoka Chakra , a 24 @-@ spoke wheel , in navy blue at its centre . It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947 , when it became the official flag of the Dominion of India . The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India . In India , the term " tricolour " ( Hindi : तिरंगा , Tiraṅgā ) almost always refers to the Indian national flag . The flag is based on the Swaraj flag , a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya .
The flag , by law , is to be made of khadi , a special type of hand @-@ spun cloth , or silk , made popular by Mahatma Gandhi . The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards . The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission , who allocate it to the regional groups . As of 2009 , the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag .
Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India and other laws relating to the national emblems . The original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day . In 2002 , on hearing an appeal from a private citizen , Naveen Jindal , the Supreme Court of India directed the Government of India to amend the code to allow flag usage by private citizens . Subsequently , the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage . The code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing . The flag code also governs the protocol of flying the flag and its use in conjunction with other national and non @-@ national flags .
= = Design and construction details = =
According to the Flag code of India , the Indian flag has a ratio of two by three ( where the length of the flag is 1 @.@ 5 times that of the width ) . All three stripes of the flag ( saffron , white and green ) are to be equal in width and length . The size of the Ashoka Chakra is not specified in the Flag code , but it has twenty @-@ four spokes that are evenly spaced . In section 4 @.@ 3 @.@ 1 of " IS1 : Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag " , there is a chart that details the size of the Ashoka Chakra on the nine specific sizes of the national flag . In both the Flag code and IS1 , they call for the Ashoka Chakra to be printed or painted on both sides of the flag in navy blue . Below is the list of specified shades for all colours used on the national flag , with the exception of Navy Blue , from " IS1 : Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag " as defined in the 1931 CIE Colour Specifications . The navy blue colour can be found in the standard IS : 1803 @-@ 1973 .
Note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE 1931 color space
= = Symbolism = =
Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921 . The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya . In the centre was a traditional spinning wheel , symbolising Gandhi 's goal of making Indians self @-@ reliant by fabricating their own clothing . The design was then modified to include a white stripe in the centre for other religious communities , and provide a background for the spinning wheel . Subsequently , to avoid sectarian associations with the colour scheme , saffron , white and green were chosen for the three bands , representing courage and sacrifice , peace and truth , and faith and chivalry respectively .
A few days before India became independent on 15 August 1947 , the specially constituted Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities . A modified version of the Swaraj flag was chosen ; the tricolour remained the same saffron , white and green . However , the charkha was replaced by the Ashoka Chakra representing the eternal wheel of law . The philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , who later became India 's first Vice President and second President , clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows :
= = History = =
A number of flags with varying designs were used in the period preceding the Indian Independence Movement by the rulers of different princely states ; the idea of a single Indian flag was first raised by the British rulers of India after the rebellion of 1857 , which resulted in the establishment of direct imperial rule . The first flag , whose design was based on western heraldic standards , were similar to the flags of other British colonies , including Canada and Australia ; its blue field included the Union Flag in the upper @-@ left quadrant and a Star of India capped by the royal crown in the middle of the right half . To address the question of how the star conveyed " Indianness " , Queen Victoria created the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India to honour services to the empire by her Indian subjects . Subsequently , all the Indian princely states received flags with symbols based on the heraldic criteria of Europe including the right to fly defaced British red ensigns .
In the early twentieth century , around the coronation of Edward VII , a discussion started on the need for a heraldic symbol that was representative of the Indian empire . William Coldstream , a British member of the Indian Civil Service , campaigned the government to change the heraldic symbol from a star , which he considered to be a common choice , to something more appropriate . His proposal was not well received by the government ; Lord Curzon rejected it for practical reasons including the multiplication of flags . Around this time , nationalist opinion within the dominion was leading to a representation through religious tradition . The symbols that were in vogue included the Ganesha , advocated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak , and Kali , advocated by Aurobindo Ghosh and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay . Another symbol was the cow , or Gau Mata ( cow mother ) . However , all these symbols were Hindu @-@ centric and did not suggest unity with India 's Muslim population .
The partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) resulted in the introduction of a new flag representing the Indian independence movement that sought to unite the multitude of castes and races within the country . The Vande Mataram flag , part of the Swadeshi movement against the British , comprised Indian religious symbols represented in western heraldic fashion . The tricolour flag included eight white lotuses on the upper green band representing the eight provinces , a sun and a crescent on the bottom red band , and the Vande Mataram slogan in Hindi on the central yellow band . The flag was launched in Calcutta bereft of any ceremony and the launch was only briefly covered by newspapers . The flag was not covered in contemporary governmental or political reports either , but was used at the annual session of the Indian National Congress . A slightly modified version was subsequently used by Madam Bhikaji Cama at the Second Socialist International Meeting in Stuttgart . Despite the multiple uses of the flag , it failed to generate enthusiasm amongst Indian nationalists .
Around the same time , another proposal for the flag was initiated by Sister Nivedita , a Hindu reformist and disciple of Swami Vivekananda . The flag consisted of a thunderbolt in the centre and a hundred and eight oil lamps for the border , with the Vande Mataram caption split around the thunderbolt . It was also presented at the Indian National Congress meeting in 1906 . Soon , many other proposals were initiated , but none of them gained attention from the nationalist movement .
In 1909 , Lord Ampthill , former Governor of the Madras Presidency , wrote to The Times of London in the run up to Empire Day pointing out that there existed " no flag representative of India as a whole or any Indian province ... Surely this is strange , seeing that but for India there would be no Empire . "
In 1916 , Pingali Venkayya submitted thirty new designs , in the form of a booklet funded by members of the High Court of Madras . These many proposals and recommendations did little more than keep the flag movement alive . The same year , Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement . The flag included the Union Jack in the upper left corner , a star and crescent in the upper right , and seven stars displayed diagonally from the lower right , on a background of five red and four green alternating bands . The flag resulted in the first governmental initiative against any nationalistic flag , as a magistrate in Coimbatore banned its use . The ban was followed by a public debate on the function and importance of a national flag .
In the early 1920s , national flag discussions gained prominence across most British dominions following the peace treaty between Britain and Ireland . In November 1920 , the Indian delegation to the League of Nations wanted to use an Indian flag , and this prompted the British Indian government to place renewed emphasis on the flag as a national symbol .
In April 1921 , Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wrote in his journal Young India about the need for an Indian flag , proposing a flag with the charkha or spinning wheel at the centre . The idea of the spinning wheel was put forth by Lala Hansraj , and Gandhi commissioned Pingali Venkayya to design a flag with the spinning wheel on a red and green banner , the red colour signifying Hindus and the green standing for Muslims . Gandhi wanted the flag to be presented at the Congress session of 1921 , but it was not delivered on time , and another flag was proposed at the session . Gandhi later wrote that the delay was fortuitous since it allowed him to realise that other religions were not represented ; he then added white to the banner colours , to represent all the other religions . Finally , owing to the religious @-@ political sensibilities , in 1929 , Gandhi moved towards a more secular interpretation of the flag colours , stating that red stood for the sacrifices of the people , white for purity , and green for hope .
On 13 April 1923 , during a procession by local Congress volunteers in Nagpur commemorating the Jallianwala Bagh massacre , the Swaraj flag with the spinning wheel , designed by Pingali Venkayya , was hoisted . This event resulted in a confrontation between the Congressmen and the police , after which five people were imprisoned . Over a hundred other protesters continued the flag procession after a meeting . Subsequently , on the first of May , Jamnalal Bajaj , the secretary of the Nagpur Congress Committee , started the Flag Satyagraha , gaining national attention and marking a significant point in the flag movement . The satyagraha , promoted nationally by the Congress , started creating cracks within the organisation in which the Gandhians were highly enthused while the other group , the Swarajists , called it inconsequential .
Finally , at the All India Congress Committee meeting in July , 1923 , at the insistence of Jawaharlal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu , Congress closed ranks and the flag movement was endorsed . The flag movement was managed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel with the idea of public processions and flag displays by common people . By the end of the movement , over 1500 people had been arrested across all of British India . The Bombay Chronicle reported that the movement drew from diverse groups of society including farmers , students , merchants , labourers and " national servants " . While Muslim participation was moderate , the movement enthused women , who had hitherto rarely participated in the independence movement .
While the flag agitation got its impetus from Gandhi 's writings and discourses , the movement received political acceptance following the Nagpur incident . News reports , editorials and letters to editors published in various journals and newspapers of the time attest to the subsequent development of a bond between the flag and the nation . Soon , the concept of preserving the honour of the national flag became an integral component of the independence struggle . While Muslims were still wary of the Swaraj flag , it gained acceptance among Muslim leaders of the Congress and the Khilafat Movement as the national flag .
Detractors of the flag movement , including Motilal Nehru , soon hailed the Swaraj flag as a symbol of national unity . Thus , the flag became a significant structural component of the institution of India . In contrast to the subdued responses of the past , the British Indian government took greater cognisance of the new flag , and began to define a policy of response . The British parliament discussed public use of the flag , and based on directives from England , the British Indian government threatened to withdraw funds from municipalities and local governments that did not prevent the display of the Swaraj flag . The Swaraj flag became the official flag of Congress at the 1931 meeting . However , by then , the flag had already become the symbol of the independence movement .
A few days before India gained its independence in August 1947 , the Constituent Assembly was formed . To select a flag for independent India , on 23 June 1947 , the assembly set up an ad hoc committee headed by Rajendra Prasad and including Maulana Abul Kalam Azad , Sarojini Naidu , C. Rajagopalachari , K. M. Munshi and B. R. Ambedkar as its members .
On 14 July 1947 , the committee recommended that the flag of the Indian National Congress be adopted as the National Flag of India with suitable modifications , so as to make it acceptable to all parties and communities . It was also resolved that the flag should not have any communal undertones . The spinning wheel of the Congress flag was replaced by the Chakra ( wheel ) from the Lion Capital of Ashoka . According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , the chakra was chosen as it was representative of dharma and law . However , Nehru explained that the change was more practical in nature , as unlike the flag with the spinning wheel , this design would appear symmetrical . Gandhi was not very pleased by the change , but eventually came around to accepting it .
The flag was proposed by Nehru at the Constituent Assembly on 22 July 1947 as a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron , white and dark green in equal proportions , with the Ashoka wheel in blue in the centre of the white band . Nehru also presented two flags , one in Khadi @-@ silk and the other in Khadi @-@ cotton , to the assembly . The resolution was approved unanimously . It served as the national flag of the Dominion of India between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950 , and has served as the flag of the Republic of India since then .
= = Manufacturing process = =
The design and manufacturing process for the national flag is regulated by three documents issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS ) . All of the flags are made out of khadi cloth of silk or cotton . The standards were created in 1968 and were updated in 2008 . Nine standard sizes of the flag are specified by law .
In 1951 , after India became a republic , the Indian Standards Institute ( now the BIS ) brought out the first official specifications for the flag . These were revised in 1964 to conform to the metric system which was adopted in India . The specifications were further amended on 17 August 1968 . The specifications cover all the essential requirements of the manufacture of the Indian flag including sizes , dye colour , chromatic values , brightness , thread count and hemp cordage . The guidelines are covered under civil and criminal laws and defects in the manufacturing process can result in punishments that include fines or jail terms .
Khadi or hand @-@ spun cloth is the only material allowed to be used for the flag , and flying a flag made of any other material is punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years , besides a fine . Raw materials for khadi are restricted to cotton , silk and wool . There are two kinds of khadi used : The first is the khadi @-@ bunting which makes up the body of the flag , and the second is the khadi @-@ duck , which is a beige @-@ coloured cloth that holds the flag to the pole . The khadi @-@ duck is an unconventional type of weave that meshes three threads into a weave , compared to the two threads used in conventional weaving . This type of weaving is extremely rare , and there are fewer than twenty weavers in India professing this skill . The guidelines also state that there should be exactly 150 threads per square centimetre , four threads per stitch , and one square foot should weigh exactly 205 grams ( 7 @.@ 2 oz ) .
The woven khadi is obtained from two handloom units in the Dharwad and Bagalkot districts of northern Karnataka . Currently , Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha based in Hubli is the only licensed flag production and supply unit in India . Permission for setting up flag manufacturing units in India is allotted by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission , though the BIS has the power to cancel the licences of units that flout guidelines . The hand @-@ woven khadi for the National Flag was initially manufactured at Garag , a small village in the Dharwad district . A Centre was established at Garag in 1954 by a few freedom fighters under the banner of Dharwad Taluk Kshetriya Seva Sangh and obtained the Centre 's licence to make flags .
Once woven , the material is sent to the BIS laboratories for testing . After quality testing , the material , if approved , is returned to the factory . It is then separated into three lots which are dyed saffron , white and green . The Ashoka Chakra is screen printed , stencilled or suitably embroidered onto each side of the white cloth . Care also has to be taken that the chakra is completely visible and synchronised on both sides . Three pieces of the required dimension , one of each colour , are then stitched together according to specifications and the final product is ironed and packed . The BIS then checks the colours and only then can the flag be sold .
= = Protocol = =
Display and usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India , 2002 ( successor to the Flag Code – India , the original flag code ) ; the Emblems and Names ( Prevention of Improper Use ) Act , 1950 ; and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act , 1971 . Insults to the national flag , including gross affronts or indignities to it , as well as using it in a manner so as to violate the provisions of the Flag Code , are punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years , or a fine , or both .
Official regulation states that the flag must never touch the ground or water , or be used as a drapery in any form . The flag may not be intentionally placed upside down , dipped in anything , or hold any objects other than flower petals before unfurling . No sort of lettering may be inscribed on the flag . When out in the open , the flag should always be flown between sunrise and sunset , irrespective of the weather conditions . Prior to 2009 , the flag could be flown on a public building at night under special circumstances ; currently , Indian citizens can fly the flag even at night , subject to the restriction that the flag should be hoisted on a tall flagpole and be well @-@ illuminated .
The flag should never be depicted , displayed or flown upside down . Tradition also states that when draped vertically , the flag should not merely be rotated 90 degrees , but also reversed . One " reads " a flag like the pages of a book , from top to bottom and from left to right , and after rotation the results should be the same . It is considered insulting to display the flag in a frayed or dirty state , and the same rule applies to the flagpoles and halyards used to hoist the flag , which should always be in a proper state of maintenance .
The original flag code of India did not allow private citizens to fly the national flag except on national days such as Independence Day or Republic Day . In 2001 , Naveen Jindal , an industrialist used to the more egalitarian use of the flag in the United States where he studied , flew the Indian flag on his office building . The flag was confiscated and he was warned of prosecution . Jindal filed a public interest litigation petition in the High Court of Delhi ; he sought to strike down the restriction on the use of the flag by private citizens , arguing that hoisting the national flag with due decorum and honour was his right as a citizen , and a way of expressing his love for the country .
At the end of the appeals process , the case was heard by the Supreme Court of India ; the court ruled in Jindal 's favour , asking the Government of India to consider the matter . The Union Cabinet of India then amended the Indian Flag Code with effect from 26 January 2002 , allowing private citizens to hoist the flag on any day of the year , subject to their safeguarding the dignity , honour and respect of the flag . It is also held that the code was not a statute and restrictions under the code ought to be followed ; also , the right to fly the flag is a qualified right , unlike the absolute rights guaranteed to citizens , and should be interpreted in the context of Article 19 of the Constitution of India .
The original flag code also forbade use of the flag on uniforms , costumes and other clothing . In July 2005 , the Government of India amended the code to allow some forms of usage . The amended code forbids usage in clothing below the waist and on undergarments , and forbids embroidering onto pillowcases , handkerchiefs or other dress material .
Disposal of damaged flags is also covered by the flag code . Damaged or soiled flags may not be cast aside or disrespectfully destroyed ; they have to be destroyed as a whole in private , preferably by burning or by any other method consistent with the dignity of the flag .
= = = Display = = =
The rules regarding the correct methods to display the flag state that when two flags are fully spread out horizontally on a wall behind a podium , their hoists should be towards each other with the saffron stripes uppermost . If the flag is displayed on a short flagpole , this should be mounted at an angle to the wall with the flag draped tastefully from it . If two national flags are displayed on crossed staffs , the hoists must be towards each other and the flags must be fully spread out . The flag should never be used as a cloth to cover tables , lecterns , podiums or buildings , or be draped from railings .
Whenever the flag is displayed indoors in halls at public meetings or gatherings of any kind , it should always be on the right ( observers ' left ) , as this is the position of authority . So when the flag is displayed next to a speaker in the hall or other meeting place , it must be placed on the speaker 's right hand . When it is displayed elsewhere in the hall , it should be to the right of the audience . The flag should be displayed completely spread out with the saffron stripe on top . If hung vertically on the wall behind the podium , the saffron stripe should be to the left of the onlookers facing the flag with the hoist cord at the top .
The flag , when carried in a procession or parade or with another flag or flags , should be on the marching right or alone in the centre at the front . The flag may form a distinctive feature of the unveiling of a statue , monument , or plaque , but should never be used as the covering for the object . As a mark of respect to the flag , it should never be dipped to a person or thing , as opposed to regimental colours , organisational or institutional flags , which may be dipped as a mark of honour . During the ceremony of hoisting or lowering the flag , or when the flag is passing in a parade or in a review , all persons present should face the flag and stand at attention . Those present in uniform should render the appropriate salute . When the flag is in a moving column , persons present will stand at attention or salute as the flag passes them . A dignitary may take the salute without a head dress . The flag salutation should be followed by the playing of the national anthem .
The privilege of flying the national flag on vehicles is restricted to the President , the Vice @-@ President or the Prime Minister , Governors and Lieutenant Governors of states , Chief Ministers , Union Ministers , members of the Parliament of India and state legislatures of the Indian states ( Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad ) , judges of the Supreme Court of India and High Courts , and flag officers of the Army , Navy and Air Force . The flag has to be flown from a staff affixed firmly either on the middle front or to the front right side of the car . When a foreign dignitary travels in a car provided by government , the flag should be flown on the right side of the car while the flag of the foreign country should be flown on the left side .
The flag should be flown on the aircraft carrying the President , the Vice @-@ President or the Prime Minister on a visit to a foreign country . Alongside the National Flag , the flag of the country visited should also be flown ; however , when the aircraft lands in countries en route , the national flags of the respective countries would be flown instead . When carrying the president within India , aircraft display the flag on the side the president embarks or disembarks ; the flag is similarly flown on trains , but only when the train is stationary or approaching a railway station .
When the Indian flag is flown on Indian territory along with other national flags , the general rule is that the Indian flag should be the starting point of all flags . When flags are placed in a straight line , the rightmost flag ( leftmost to the observer facing the flag ) is the Indian flag , followed by other national flags in alphabetical order . When placed in a circle , the Indian flag is the first point and is followed by other flags alphabetically . In such placement , all other flags should be of approximately the same size with no other flag being larger than the Indian flag . Each national flag should also be flown from its own pole and no flag should be placed higher than another . In addition to being the first flag , the Indian flag may also be placed within the row or circle alphabetically . When placed on crossed poles , the Indian flag should be in front of the other flag , and to the right ( observer 's left ) of the other flag . The only exception to the preceding rule is when it is flown along with the flag of the United Nations , which may be placed to the right of the Indian flag .
When the Indian flag is displayed with non @-@ national flags , including corporate flags and advertising banners , the rules state that if the flags are on separate staffs , the flag of India should be in the middle , or the furthest left from the viewpoint of the onlookers , or at least one flag 's breadth higher than the other flags in the group . Its flagpole must be in front of the other poles in the group , but if they are on the same staff , it must be the uppermost flag . If the flag is carried in procession with other flags , it must be at the head of the marching procession , or if carried with a row of flags in line abreast , it must be carried to the marching right of the procession .
= = = Half @-@ mast = = =
The flag should be flown at half @-@ mast as a sign of mourning . The decision to do so lies with the President of India , who also decides the period of such mourning . When the flag is to be flown at half mast , it must first be raised to the top of the mast and then slowly lowered . Only the Indian flag is flown half mast ; all other flags remain at normal height .
The flag is flown half @-@ mast nationwide on the death of the president , Vice @-@ president or prime minister . It is flown half @-@ mast in New Delhi and the state of origin for the Speaker of the Lok Sabha , Chief Justice of the Supreme Court , and Union Ministers . On deaths of Governors , Lt. Governors and Chief Ministers , the flag is flown at half @-@ mast in the respective states and union territories .
The Indian flag cannot be flown at half @-@ mast on Republic Day ( 26 January ) , Independence day ( 15 August ) , Gandhi Jayanti ( 2 October ) , National Week ( 6 – 13 April ) or state formation anniversaries , except over buildings housing the body of the deceased dignitary . However , even in such cases , the flag must be raised to full @-@ mast when the body is moved from the building .
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs in individual cases . However , in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country , the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag at half @-@ mast .
On occasions of state , military , central para @-@ military forces funerals , the flag shall be draped over the bier or coffin with the saffron towards the head of the bier or coffin . The flag should not be lowered into the grave or burnt in the pyre .
= Genesis ( band ) =
Genesis are an English rock band formed at Charterhouse School , Godalming , Surrey in 1967 . The most commercially successful and long @-@ lasting line @-@ up includes keyboardist Tony Banks , bassist / guitarist Mike Rutherford and drummer / singer Phil Collins . Other important members were the original lead singer Peter Gabriel and guitarist Steve Hackett . The band underwent many changes in musical style over its career , from folk music to progressive rock in the 1970s , before moving towards pop at the end of the decade . They have sold 21 @.@ 5 million RIAA @-@ certified albums in the US and their worldwide sales are estimated to be between 100 million and 130 million .
Formed by five Charterhouse pupils including Banks , Rutherford , Gabriel , and Anthony Phillips , Genesis was named by former pupil Jonathan King who arranged them to record several unsuccessful singles and an album . After splitting with King , the group began touring professionally , signing with Charisma Records . Following the departure of Phillips , Genesis recruited Collins and Hackett and recorded several progressive rock style albums , with live shows centred around Gabriel 's theatrical costumes and performances . The group were initially commercially successful in Europe , before entering the UK charts with Foxtrot ( 1972 ) . They followed this with Selling England by the Pound ( 1973 ) and The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway ( 1974 ) before Gabriel decided to leave the group .
After an unsuccessful search for a replacement , Collins took over as lead singer , while the group gained popularity in the UK and the US . Following A Trick of the Tail and Wind & Wuthering ( both 1976 ) , Hackett left the band , reducing it to a core of Banks , Rutherford , and Collins . Genesis had their first UK top ten and US top 30 single in 1978 with " Follow You Follow Me " and the group continued to gain commercial success with Duke ( 1980 ) , Abacab ( 1981 ) , and Genesis ( 1983 ) , reaching a peak with Invisible Touch ( 1986 ) , which featured five US top five singles . Its title track reached number one in the US . After the follow up , We Can 't Dance ( 1991 ) and related tour , Collins left Genesis in 1996 to focus on his solo career . Banks and Rutherford recruited Ray Wilson for Calling All Stations ( 1997 ) , but a lack of success in the US led to a group hiatus . Banks , Rutherford and Collins reunited for the Turn It On Again Tour in 2007 , and together with Gabriel and Hackett were interviewed for the BBC documentary Genesis : Together and Apart in 2014 .
Their discography includes fifteen studio and six live albums , six of which topped the UK chart . They have won numerous awards and nominations , including a Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video with " Land of Confusion " , and inspired a number of tribute bands recreating Genesis shows from various stages of the band 's career . In 2010 , Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
= = History = =
= = = 1967 – 69 : Formation , early demos , and From Genesis to Revelation = = =
The founding members of Genesis , singer Peter Gabriel , keyboardist Tony Banks , guitarist Anthony Phillips , bassist and guitarist Mike Rutherford , and drummer Chris Stewart , met at Charterhouse School , a private school in Godalming , Surrey . Banks and Gabriel arrived at the school in September 1963 , Rutherford in September 1964 , and Phillips in April 1965 . The five were members in one of the school 's two bands ; Phillips and Rutherford were in The Anon with singer Richard MacPhail , bassist Rivers Jobe , and drummer Rob Tyrell , while Gabriel , Banks , and Stewart made up Garden Wall .
In January 1967 , after both groups had split , Phillips and Rutherford continued to write together and proceeded to make a demo tape at a friend 's home @-@ made studio , inviting Banks , Gabriel , and Stewart to record with them in the process . The five recorded six songs : " Don 't Want You Back " , " Try a Little Sadness " , " She 's Beautiful " , " That 's Me " , " Listen on Five " , and " Patricia " , an instrumental . When they wished to have them professionally recorded they sought Charterhouse alumnus Jonathan King , who seemed a natural choice as their publisher and producer following the success of his 1965 UK top five single , " Everyone 's Gone to the Moon " . A group friend gave the tape to King who was immediately enthusiastic . Under King 's direction , the group , aged between 15 and 17 , signed a one @-@ year recording contract with Decca Records .
From August to December 1967 , the five recorded a selection of potential singles at Regent Sound Studios on Denmark Street , London where they attempted longer and more complex compositions , but King advised them to stick to more straightforward pop . In response Banks and Gabriel wrote " The Silent Sun " , a pastiche of the Bee Gees , one of King 's favourite bands , which was recorded with orchestral arrangements added by Arthur Greenslade . The group exchanged various names for the band , including King 's suggestion of Gabriel 's Angels and Champagne Meadow from Phillips , before taking King 's suggestion of Genesis , indicating the start of his production career . King chose " The Silent Sun " as their first single , with " That 's Me " on the B @-@ side , released in February 1968 . It achieved some airplay on BBC Radio One and Radio Caroline but it failed to sell . A second single , " A Winter 's Tale " / " One @-@ Eyed Hound " , followed in May 1968 which also sold little . Three months later , Stewart left the group to continue with his studies . He was replaced by fellow Charterhouse pupil John Silver .
King felt the group would achieve greater success with an album . The result , From Genesis to Revelation , was produced at Regent Sound in ten days during their school 's summer break in August 1968 . King assembled the tracks as a concept album which he produced , while Greenslade added further orchestral arrangements to the songs , something the band were not informed of until the album was released . Phillips was particularly upset about Greenslade 's additions . When Decca found an American band already named Genesis , King refused to change his group 's name . He reached a compromise by removing their name from the album cover , resulting in a minimalist design with the album title printed on a plain black background . When the album was released in March 1969 it became a commercial failure , because record shops put the album in the " Religious " section upon seeing the cover . Banks recalled the album " after a year or so , had sold 649 copies " . A third single , " Where the Sour Turns to Sweet " / " In Hiding " , was released in June 1969 . None of the releases were commercially successful and led to the band 's split with King and Decca . King continues to hold the rights to the album which has seen numerous reissues . In 1974 , it peaked the US chart at No. 170 .
When the album was recorded , the band went their separate ways for a year ; Gabriel and Phillips stayed at Charterhouse to finish exams , Banks enrolled at Sussex University , and Rutherford studied at Farnborough College of Technology . They regrouped in mid @-@ 1969 to discuss their future as their offers in further education would result in the group splitting up . Phillips and Rutherford decided to make music a full @-@ time career as they were starting to write more complex music than their earlier songs with King . After Banks and Gabriel decided to follow suit , the four returned to Regent Sound in August 1969 and recorded four more demos with Silver : " Family " ( later known as " Dusk " ) , " White Mountain " , " Going Out to Get You " , and " Pacidy " . The tape was rejected by each record label that heard it . Silver then left the group to study leisure management in America . His replacement , drummer and carpenter John Mayhew , was found when Mayhew looked for work and left his phone number " with people all over London " .
= = = 1969 – 70 : First gigs , signing with Charisma , and Trespass = = =
In late 1969 , Genesis retreated to a cottage that MacPhail 's parents owned in Wotton , Surrey to write , rehearse , and develop their stage performance . They adopted a strong working ethic , playing together for as much as eleven hours a day . Their first live gig as Genesis followed in September 1969 at a teenager 's birthday . It was the start of a series of live shows in small venues across the UK which included a radio appearance on BBC 's Night Ride show , on 22 February 1970 and a spot at the Atomic Sunrise Festival held at the Roundhouse in Chalk Farm a month later . During this time , the band met with various record labels regarding contract offers . Initial discussions with Chris Blackwell of Island and Chris Wright of Chrysalis were unsuccessful . In March 1970 , during the band 's six @-@ week Tuesday night residency at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in Soho , members of Rare Bird , who Genesis had supported earlier , recommended the band to producer and A & R man John Anthony of Charisma Records . Anthony attended one of their shows and enjoyed them enough to convince his boss , label owner Tony Stratton @-@ Smith , to watch their next appearance . Stratton @-@ Smith recalled , " Their potential was immediately apparent ... the material was good and their performance was good ... It was a long shot , because they needed time to find their strength ... but I was prepared to make that commitment " . Stratton @-@ Smith agreed to a record and management deal within two weeks , paying Genesis an initial sum of £ 10 a week .
Genesis stayed at Wotton until April 1970 , by which time they had enough new material for a second album . Recording for Trespass began in June at Trident Studios , London with Anthony as producer and David Hentschel hired as assistant engineer . The album included longer and more complex songs than their first with folk and progressive rock elements with various time signature changes , as in the nine @-@ minute song " The Knife " . Trespass is the first in a series of three Genesis album covers designed by Paul Whitehead . He had completed the cover before the band decided to include " The Knife " on the album . Feeling the cover no longer reflected the album 's overall mood , the band persuaded Whitehead to slash a knife across the canvas and have the result photographed . Released in October 1970 , Trespass reached No. 1 in Belgium in 1971 and No. 98 in the UK in 1984 . " The Knife " was released as a single in May 1971 . Rolling Stone briefly mentioned the album with a negative view following its 1974 reissue : " It 's spotty , poorly defined , at times innately boring " .
After Trespass was recorded , ill health and developing stage fright caused Phillips to leave Genesis . His last show with the band took place in Haywards Heath on 18 July 1970 . He felt the increased number of gigs affected the group 's creativity and that several songs he wrote were not recorded or performed live . He had contracted bronchial pneumonia and became isolated from the rest of the band , feeling that it had too many songwriters in it . Banks , Gabriel , and Rutherford saw Phillips as an important member , being the most instrumental in encouraging them to turn professional . They regarded his exit as the band 's greatest threat and the most difficult to overcome . Gabriel and Rutherford decided they would continue ; Banks agreed on the condition that they find a new drummer that was of equal stature to the rest of the group . Mayhew was therefore fired , though Phillips later thought Mayhew 's working @-@ class background clashed with the rest of the band which affected his confidence .
= = = 1970 – 72 : Collins and Hackett join and Nursery Cryme = = =
The search for a new guitarist and drummer began with advertisements placed in copies of Melody Maker . The invitation was spotted by drummer Phil Collins , formerly of Flaming Youth who already knew Stratton @-@ Smith . He recalled , " My only knowledge of Genesis was through seeing the ads for their gigs . It seemed like they were constantly working . ... I thought ' At least I 'm going to be working if I get the gig ' . " Roger Taylor , subsequently of Queen , turned down an invitation to audition . Collins went to the audition at Gabriel 's parents ' house in Chobham , Surrey with his Flaming Youth band mate , guitarist Ronnie Caryl . As they arrived early , Collins took a swim in the pool and heard what the other drummers were playing . " They put on ' Trespass ' , and my initial impression of a very soft and round music , not edgy , with vocal harmonies and I came away thinking Crosby , Stills and Nash " . Gabriel and Rutherford noticed the confident way Collins approached and sat at his drum kit and knew he would be the right replacement . Banks said , " It was a combination of things . He could make it swing a little bit ... he could also tell good jokes and make us laugh ... And he could sing , which was an advantage because Mike and I were not very good at back @-@ up vocals " . In August 1970 , Collins became the new drummer for Genesis . Caryl 's audition was unsuccessful ; Rutherford thought he was not the player the group were looking for .
After a short holiday , Genesis began to write and rehearse as a four piece band in Farnham , Surrey . The now empty guitar sections in their songs allowed Banks and Rutherford to expand their sound and play what Gabriel described as " interesting chords " . As they had not found a new guitarist , Genesis resumed as a live act with Rutherford adding bass pedals and Banks playing lead guitar lines on a Pianet through a distorted fuzz box amplifier in addition to his keyboard parts , something that he credits in helping him develop his technique . In November 1970 , after a second audition with Caryl fell through , Dave Stopps , owner of Friars club in Aylesbury , suggested they use Mick Barnard of The Farm , who joined the band for their gigs which included Genesis 's television debut on BBC 's Disco 2 . After two months of performances , the band found Barnard lacked in expertise and wished to try someone else . In December , Gabriel spotted a Melody Maker advert from Steve Hackett , formerly of Quiet World , who wanted to join a band of " receptive musicians , determined to drive beyond existing stagnant music forms " . Gabriel advised Hackett to become familiar with Trespass and attend their upcoming gig at the Lyceum Theatre in London . Hackett auditioned with the group in a flat in Earls Court and formed an instant rapport with Rutherford through a common interest in inversion chords . After Hackett joined in January 1971 , Stratton @-@ Smith organised a UK tour with Genesis opening for fellow Charisma acts Lindisfarne and Van der Graaf Generator . Their first overseas dates took place in March with gigs in Belgium followed by their first of three consecutive appearances at the annual Reading Festival on 26 June .
Rehearsals for the band 's third album , Nursery Cryme , took place at Luxford House near Crowborough , East Sussex that Stratton @-@ Smith had owned . Recording began at Trident Studios in August 1971 with Anthony and Hentschel reprising their respective roles as producer and assistant engineer . The band 's sound evolved with Hackett 's more aggressive electric guitar work and Banks adding a Mellotron to his set of keyboards that King Crimson previously owned . The opening track , " The Musical Box " , originated when Phillips and Mayhew were in the group . The band developed the piece further including the addition of new guitar parts from Hackett . The album marks the first instance of Hackett using the tapping technique which is featured on " The Musical Box " and " The Return of the Giant Hogweed " . Hackett and Collins wrote " For Absent Friends " and marks the first Genesis track with Collins on lead vocals . Whitehead depicted scenes and characters from the lyrics to " The Musical Box " and a Victorian manor house based on Gabriel 's parent 's home on the album 's cover .
Nursery Cryme was released in November 1971 and went on to reach No. 39 in the UK in 1974 . Though the group still had a minor cult following at home , they started to achieve commercial and critical success in mainland Europe , with the album reaching No. 4 in the Italian charts . From November 1971 to August 1972 , Genesis toured to support the album which included further visits to Belgium , and Italy for the first time where they played to enthusiastic crowds . They recorded radio sessions for BBC 's Sounds of the Seventies program in January and March and performed at the Reading Festival that was praised by numerous critics who attended . During the tour Genesis recorded " Happy the Man " , a non @-@ album single , with " Seven Stones " from Nursery Cryme on its B @-@ side .
= = = 1972 – 74 : Foxtrot and Selling England by the Pound = = =
Following rehearsals in a dance school in Shepherd 's Bush , Genesis recorded Foxtrot at Island Studios between August and September 1972 . During the initial sessions , disagreements among Charisma and Anthony contributed to the end of his association with Genesis . After two replacement engineers were tried out , the band settled with John Burns and a new producer , Dave Hitchcock . The album features the 23 @-@ minute track " Supper 's Ready " , a suite of various musical segments . The track included an opening acoustic piece , a Gabriel @-@ penned song called " Willow Farm " and a piece derived from a jam by Banks , Rutherford and Collins called " Apocalypse in 9 / 8 " . Other songs were the science @-@ fiction themed " Watcher of the Skies " and the property development @-@ themed " Get ' Em Out By Friday " . Foxtrot was released in October 1972 and reached No. 12 in the UK . It fared even better in Italy where it went to No. 1 . Foxtrot was well received from critics . Chris Welch of Melody Maker thought Foxtrot was " a milestone in the group 's career " , " an important point of development in British group music " , and that Genesis had reached " a creative peak " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought Foxtrot marked the first time " Genesis attacked like a rock band , playing with a visceral power " .
The Foxtrot tour covered Europe and North America from September 1972 to August 1973 . The show at the National Stadium in Dublin on 28 September 1972 marked the debut of Gabriel wearing a costume on stage , something that surprised the other band members as they were kept uninformed . Originally suggested by Charisma booking agent Paul Conroy , Gabriel went off stage during an instrumental section in " The Musical Box " and reappeared in his wife 's red dress and a fox 's head . The incident resulted in front cover reports in the music press , allowing the band to double their performance fee . In December 1972 , Stratton @-@ Smith organised the band 's first gigs in the US with a show at Brandeis University in Waltham , Massachusetts and Philharmonic Hall in New York City with openers String Driven Thing , in aid of the United Cerebral Palsy Fund . They were well received despite the band complaining of technical issues . Gabriel 's costumes expanded in the following months to include fluorescent face paint and a cape fitted with bat wings for " Watcher of the Skies " , several guises throughout " Supper 's Ready " , and a mask of an old man for " The Musical Box " . An album of recordings from the following UK leg , initially recorded for the American radio program King Biscuit Flower Hour , was released as Genesis Live in July 1973 . It reached No. 9 in the UK and No. 105 in the US .
Selling England by the Pound was recorded at Island Studios in August 1973 , the second Genesis album that Burns co @-@ produced . Much of it was written at Una Billings School of Dance and Chessington . Gabriel contributed lyrics based on the idea of commercialism and the decline of English culture and the rise in American influences . Its title refers to a UK Labour Party slogan to make it clear to music critics who may thought Genesis were beginning to " sell out " to America . The lyrics " Firth of Fifth " features an extended electric guitar solo from Hackett . The album 's cover is a modified version of a painting named The Dream by Betty Swanwick who added a lawn mower to tie the image to the lyrics of " I Know What I Like ( In Your Wardrobe ) " .
Selling England by the Pound was released in October 1973 to a positive critical reception , though slightly more muted than Foxtrot . The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 70 in the US . By this time , Genesis had made little effort to organise their finances and were £ 150 @,@ 000 in debt . They hired promoter Tony Smith as their new manager to improve their fortunes and published the band 's subsequent music though his company , Hit & Run Music Publishing . The Selling England by the Pound tour visited Europe and North America between September 1973 and May 1974 . Their six shows in three days at The Roxy in Los Angeles were well received by audiences and critics . The success of the tour earned the group the " Top Stage Band " title by readers of NME . At its conclusion , MacPhail resigned as their tour manager as he wished to pursue other interests . " I Know What I Like ( In Your Wardrobe ) " was released as a UK single with " Twilight Alehouse " , a non @-@ album track recorded in 1972 , that reached No. 21 following its release in February 1974 . Its success led to an offer for Genesis to appear on BBC 's national show Top of the Pops ; they declined as the group thought it would not suit their image .
= = = 1974 – 75 : The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway and Gabriel 's departure = = =
In June 1974 , Genesis started work on their double concept album , The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway . It marked the start of Gabriel 's increasingly strained relationship on the rest of the group which contributed to his departure . The album was written at Headley Grange in East Hampshire where upon their arrival , the building was in a state left by the previous band with excrement on the floor and rat infestations . Gabriel objected to Rutherford 's idea of an album based on The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint @-@ Exupéry , thinking the idea was " too twee " . He persuaded the band with a less fantastical and more complicated story involving Rael , a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City who embarks on a spiritual quest to establish his freedom and identity while meeting several bizarre characters on the way . Gabriel wrote the story with influences from West Side Story , " a kind of punk " twist to Pilgrim 's Progress , author Carl Jung , and the film El Topo by Alejandro Jodorowsky . Most of the album 's lyrics were written by Gabriel , leaving much of its music to the rest of the group . His absence from a considerable amount of writing sessions due to difficulties with his wife 's first birth was something Rutherford and Banks " were horribly unsupportive " of . Gabriel also left the group when director William Friedkin asked him to write a screenplay , but returned after the project was shelved . In August 1974 , production moved to Glaspant Manor in Carmarthenshire , Wales with Burns , as co @-@ producer , operating Island Studios ' mobile equipment . Further work and mixing took place at Island where Brian Eno contributed synthesizers and effects that the album 's sleeve credits as " Enossification " . When Gabriel asked Eno how the band could repay him , Eno said he needed a drummer for his track " Mother Whale Eyeless " . Collins said , " I got sent upstairs as payment " . Gabriel was pleased with Eno 's work but Banks was less enthusiastic .
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway was released in November 1974 and reached No. 10 in the UK and No. 41 in the US . " Counting Out Time " and " The Carpet Crawlers " were released as singles in 1974 and 1975 , respectively . Its sleeve is the first of four Genesis albums designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis . From November 1974 to May 1975 , Genesis completed 102 dates across North America and Europe as part of The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway tour . Their set included The Lamb ... performed in its entirety with an encore , a decision that was not supported by the entire band considering most of the audience were not yet familiar with the large amount of new material . The stage show involved new , more elaborate costumes worn by Gabriel , three backdrop screens that displayed 1 @,@ 450 slides from eight projectors , and a laser lighting display . Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel 's theatrics and took the band 's musical performance as secondary which irritated the rest of the band .
During their stay in Cleveland during the tour , Gabriel told the band he would leave at its conclusion . He wrote a statement regarding his departure to the English press that was published in August 1975 titled " Out , Angels Out " , explaining he had become disillusioned with the music industry and wanted to spend extended time with his family . Banks later stated , " Pete was also getting too big for the group . He was being portrayed as if he was ' the man ' and it really wasn 't like that . It was a very difficult thing to accommodate . So it was actually a bit of a relief . "
= = = 1975 – 77 : Collins on lead vocals , A Trick of the Tail , Wind & Wuthering and Hackett 's departure = = =
Following the Lamb tour , Hackett recorded his first solo album Voyage of the Acolyte as he felt unsure that Genesis would survive following Gabriel 's departure . He reconvened with the remaining group members in London in July 1975 . Collins ' idea of continuing as an instrumental group was quickly rejected by the group as they thought it would become boring . Rehearsals for A Trick of the Tail took place in Acton where material was quickly written and with little effort ; most of " Dance on a Volcano " and " Squonk " was put together in the first three days . Recording began in October 1975 at Trident Studios with Hentschel as producer . As a replacement singer had not been found , the band decided to record the album without vocals and audition singers as they went . They placed an anonymous advertisement in Melody Maker for " a singer for a Genesis @-@ type group " which received around 400 replies . Collins proceeded to teach selected applicants the songs ; Mick Strickland was invited into the studio to sing , but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range and the band decided not to work with him . Having failed to find a suitable vocalist , Collins went in the studio and attempted to sing " Squonk " . His performance was well received by the band , and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist . Collins then sang on the remaining tracks .
A Trick of the Tail was released in February 1976 and was a commercial and critical success for the band . The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 31 in the US . The title track was released as a single , though it did not chart . In June , the album was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Institute for selling over 100 @,@ 000 copies which helped the band clear the £ 400 @,@ 000 of debt they owed when Gabriel left . For the first time in their career Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs , including " A Trick of the Tail " and " Robbery , Assault and Battery " . Before the upcoming tour , Collins sought a drummer he felt comfortable about playing drums while he sang ; he chose Bill Bruford who offered to do the job . From March to July 1976 , Genesis performed across North America and Europe with the A Trick of the Tail tour , to enthusiastic crowds . Collins adopted a more humorous rapport with the audience , unlike Gabriel 's theatrical approach , which was successful . The shows in Glasgow and Stafford were filmed for their concert film Genesis : In Concert , released in cinemas in February 1977 as a double bill with White Rock .
In September 1976 , Genesis relocated to Relight Studios in Hilvarenbeek , The Netherlands with Hentschel to record Wind & Wuthering . It was put together in a short amount of time and a considerable amount of material was written beforehand , of which the most suitable songs were picked for development . Rutherford spoke of the band 's conscious effort to distance themselves from songs inspired by fantasy , something that their past albums " were full of " . The band spent roughly six weeks writing the album with a basic form of each track put down in twelve days . Additional recording and production work was done at Trident Studios that October . Hackett , having already released a solo album , enjoyed the greater amount of control over the recording process that working within a group could not provide . He felt his songs , including " Please Don 't Touch " which he later released on his second album Please Don 't Touch ! , were rejected from the final track order in favour of material that Banks , in particular , had put forward . Collins spoke of the situation , " We just wanted to use what we agreed was the strongest material , irrespective of who wrote it " . Wind & Wuthering was released in December 1976 and reached No. 6 the UK and No. 26 in the US . Rutherford 's track , " Your Own Special Way " , became the its sole single and went to No. 43 in the UK . Its B @-@ Side is " It 's Yourself " , originally intended for A Trick of the Tail .
Prior to the 1977 tour Bruford declined an offer to return as second drummer , leaving Collins searching for a replacement . He heard American drummer Chester Thompson , of Frank Zappa 's band and Weather Report , play a drum passage on " More Trouble Every Day " from Zappa 's live album Roxy & Elsewhere . Collins said , " It floored me completely ... I had never met him . I rang him up and said , ' Hi Chester , I 've heard your stuff , would you like to play with Genesis ? ' ... He didn 't even audition ! " Genesis toured Wind & Wuthering from January to July 1977 across Europe , North America , and for the first time , Brazil . The stage show cost £ 400 @,@ 000 which featured a new PA system , lasers and smoke , and lighting supplied from two rows of Boeing 747 aircraft landing lights . Touring began on 1 January with three sold out shows at the Rainbow Theatre in London where 80 @,@ 000 applications were made for the 8 @,@ 000 available tickets . They returned to London for three nights at Earls Court , then the largest arena in Britain , supported by Richie Havens . The band 's growing popularity in North America led to television appearances and concerts organised in larger venues than previous tours , including Madison Square Garden in New York City . Their Brazilian dates were attended by over 150 @,@ 000 people and a proposed 100 @,@ 000 @-@ person gig was cancelled over rioting fears . An armed bodyguard accompanied each member throughout their stay .
In May 1977 Genesis released Spot the Pigeon , an extended play of three tracks left off Wind & Wuthering . It peaked at No. 14 on the UK singles chart . It was the final Genesis release before Hackett left the group . He had been writing more material on his own and found it increasingly difficult to contribute more of his ideas within a group context . He wished to embark on a solo career and " take the risk in order to find out just how good I was on my own " . News of Hackett 's departure coincided with the band 's double live album Seconds Out , recorded in Paris on the A Trick of the Tail and Wind & Wuthering tours and released in October 1977 . It reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 47 in the US .
= = = 1977 – 79 : ... And Then There Were Three ... and band inactivity = = =
By the time Seconds Out was released , Banks , Rutherford , and Collins had already recorded ... And Then There Were Three ... , the first Genesis album recorded as a trio , in September 1977 at Relight Studios with Hentschel as producer . It was then mixed at Trident Studios in London . The album is a collection of shorter songs in order to put across more musical ideas . Most of its eleven songs were written individually with Banks contributing four , Rutherford three , Collins and Banks one , and the remaining three written collectively . Their new material signalled a change in the band 's sound with songs becoming more pop @-@ oriented and commercially accessible , including the group @-@ written track " Follow You Follow Me " . Collins recalled it was the only song on the album written from scratch during rehearsals . Rutherford felt comfortable taking on lead guitar duties in addition to his usual rhythm and bass roles . Collins later saw the album as " a very vocal , solid album " that lacked more rhythmic tracks like " Los Endos " or songs from Wind & Wuthering , as coming up with ideas on the drums while living in his flat in Ealing with his family was difficult .
... And Then There Were Three ... was released in March 1978 . It received some mixed reviews from critics at the time owing to the album only containing short songs , which excited new fans but disillusioned those who had been used to the band 's previous work . Chris Welch wrote a positive review in Melody Maker , citing a " remarkably powerful " album . It was a commercial success and peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 14 in the US . " Follow You Follow Me " was released as its lead single and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 23 in the US , their highest charting single in both countries since their formation . Its success introduced the band to a new audience , including a larger female interest , helped by its music video airing on Top of the Pops . Its success caused some fans to accuse the group of selling out to more commercial music . A follow up single , " Many Too Many " , was less successful as it had already appeared on the album .
In the search for a new touring guitarist , Rutherford tried out Alphonso Johnson of Weather Report but he was a primarily a bassist and could not play Hackett 's lead guitar parts comfortably . Johnson then suggested American guitarist Daryl Stuermer of Jean @-@ Luc Ponty 's jazz fusion group who was more comfortable with various guitar styles . During Stuermer 's rehearsal in New York City , Rutherford was satisfied with his performance after they played through " Down and Out " and " Squonk " . When Stuermer was chosen , he familiarised himself with a list of 26 songs he was asked to learn by going through five per day . The ... And Then There Were Three ... tour ran from March to December 1978 and visited North America , Europe , and for the first time , Japan . It cost an estimated £ 2 million to stage which included the sound system , light and laser displays , and additional effects from six computer controlled mirrors , all of which took eight hours to set up and five to dismantle . One of their shows featured a guest appearance from Gabriel , who sang " I Know What I Like ( In Your Wardrobe ) " . In June , Genesis headlined the year 's Knebworth Festival , their only UK show that year , which disappointed some British fans .
In December 1978 , Genesis began a period of inactivity as Collins 's marriage was at risk of collapse after touring had made him frequently absent from his wife and children . Following a meeting with Banks , Rutherford and Smith , Collins went to Vancouver , Canada to try and rebuild the family . He explained : " I was never going to leave the band . It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we 'd have had to organise ourselves differently . " Banks and Rutherford decided to put Genesis on an extended break and make their respective debut solo albums , A Curious Feeling and Smallcreep 's Day , at Polar Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . In April 1979 , Collins returned to the UK after his attempt to save his marriage failed . With time to spare before working on a new Genesis album , Collins performed with Brand X and started writing his first solo album , Face Value , at his home in Shalford , Surrey .
= = = 1979 – 83 : Duke , Abacab , and Three Sides Live = = =
In 1979 , Banks and Rutherford moved into Collins 's home in Shalford to write and rehearse material for Duke . The three found the writing process easier and less complicated than ... And Then There Were Three .... Rutherford reasoned this as they were " getting back to the basic stage of ideas being worked on jointly " . Banks put it down to their break in activity , resulting in " good ideas ... which hasn 't happened for some time " . Duke continued the band 's transition into writing shorter songs with each member contributing two songs for the group to develop . Banks put forward " Heathaze " and " Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac " , Rutherford used " Man of Our Times " and " Alone Tonight " , and Collins had " Misunderstanding " and " Please Don 't Ask " . All three wrote the remaining five tracks including " Duchess " , the first Genesis song that uses a drum machine , specifically a Roland CR @-@ 78 imported from Japan . In its original form , the album was to contain a 30 @-@ minute track based on a fictional character named Albert , but the idea was cancelled to avoid comparisons to " Supper 's Ready " from Foxtrot . In November , the band recorded Duke at Polar Studios with Hentschel reprising his role as producer , and included a cover from French illustrator Lionel Koechlin , featuring the character Albert .
Released in March 1980 , Duke was the band 's biggest commercial success at the time of release , spending two weeks at No. 1 in the UK and peaking at No. 11 in the US . The album spawned three singles ; " Turn It On Again " went to No. 8 in the UK , " Misunderstanding " reached No. 14 in the US , and " Duchess " peaked at No. 46 in the UK . Duke was supported with a UK and North American tour from April to June 1980 which began with a 40 @-@ date tour of the UK where all 106 @,@ 000 tickets were sold within hours of going on sale .
In November 1980 Genesis bought Fisher Lane Farm , a farmhouse with an adjoining cowshed near Chiddingfold , Surrey , as their new rehearsal and recording facility . The building was remodelled into a studio in four months before recording for Abacab began in March 1981 . The new environment had a productive effect on the writing process as the band wrote enough for a double album , but they discarded one hour 's worth of songs that sounded too similar to their past albums . Banks said a conscious effort was made to keep melodies as simple as possible which signalled further changes in their direction . The shift was underlined in its production when Hentschel , their producer and engineer since 1975 , was replaced by Hugh Padgham after Collins liked his production on Face Value and Gabriel 's third solo album . Production duties were solely credited the band for the first time with Padgham as their engineer . The album is formed of group written material with an individual song from each member . " No Reply at All " features the Phenix Horns , the horn section of American band Earth , Wind & Fire .
Abacab was released in September 1981 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 7 in the US . Three singles from the album entered the top forty in both countries ; " Abacab " reached No. 9 in the UK and No. 26 in the US , " No Reply at All " reached No. 29 in the US , and " Keep It Dark " , a European only single , went to No. 33 in the UK . Abacab was supported with a tour of Europe and North America from September to December 1981 , ending with shows at Wembley Arena and the NEC Birmingham . The tour marked the band 's first use of the Vari @-@ Lite , a computer controlled intelligent lighting system . Following a demonstration at The Farm , the band and Smith showed an immediate interest in the technology and became shareholders of the company . In May 1982 , three tracks recorded during the Abacab sessions – " Paperlate " , " You Might Recall " , and " Me and Virgil " – were released as an extended play in Europe titled 3 × 3 which peaked at No. 10 in the UK . Its cover is a homage to the Twist and Shout EP by The Beatles with sleeve notes written by their former publicist Tony Barrow .
In June 1982 , Genesis released the double live album Three Sides Live in two different versions . The North American edition contains three sides of live recordings with the fourth comprising the 3 × 3 tracks and two from the Duke sessions . The European release contains a fourth side of extra live tracks . The album coincided with the home video release of the Three Sides Live concert film recorded in 1981 . A tour of North America and Europe followed that ran from August to September 1982 , featuring guest appearances from Bill Bruford and the Phenix Horns . On 2 October , Genesis headlined a one @-@ off concert with Gabriel at the Milton Keynes Bowl under the name Six of the Best . The concert was organised to raise money for Gabriel 's World of Music , Arts and Dance project which was , by that point , in considerable debt . Hackett , who flew in from abroad , arrived in time to perform the last two songs .
= = = 1983 – 96 : Genesis , Invisible Touch , We Can 't Dance , and Collins 's departure = = =
Work on the twelfth Genesis album , Genesis , began in March 1983 with Padgham returning as engineer . It is the first album written , recorded , and mixed at the remodelled studio at The Farm . Banks remembered the band were scarce for new musical ideas which " felt at times as though we were stretching the material as far as we could " . " Mama " concerns a man 's obsession with a prostitute at a Cuban brothel . It originated from a beat Rutherford came up with on a LinnDrum machine that was fed through his guitar amplifier and an echo gate . Collins 's laugh on the track originated from " The Message " by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five . Released in October 1983 , Genesis went to No. 1 in the UK and peaked at No. 9 in the US , where it reached Platinum by December that year and went on to sell over four million copies . Three tracks were released as singles ; " Mama " reached No. 4 in the UK , their highest charting UK single to date , and " That 's All " reached No. 6 in the U.S. The Mama Tour ran from late 1983 through to 1984 , covering North America and five UK shows in Birmingham . The latter shows were filmed and released as Genesis Live – The Mama Tour .
In February 1984 , Genesis took a break in activity to allow each member to continue with their solo careers . Rutherford formed his group Mike + The Mechanics , Banks worked on his solo album Soundtracks , and Collins released No Jacket Required which achieved worldwide success and increased his popularity as a result . The music press took note that Collins ' success as a solo artist made him more popular than Genesis . Before the release of No Jacket Required , Collins insisted that he would not leave the band . " The next one to leave the band will finish it , " Collins told Rolling Stone magazine in May 1985 . " I feel happier with what we 're doing now , because I feel it 's closer to me . I won 't be the one . " Collins added , " Poor old Genesis does get in the way sometimes . I still won 't leave the group , but I imagine it will end by mutual consent . " In June , Collins spoke of the band 's intention to start work on a new album that year , ending rumours to a false announcement that aired on BBC Radio 1 suggesting Genesis had split .
Genesis reconvened at The Farm in October 1985 to start work on Invisible Touch which lasted for six months . They continued their method of song writing used on Genesis by developing material from group improvisations . Banks remembered the time as a strong period creatively for the band , with ideas " flowing out of us " . " Invisible Touch " was developed in such a way , when the group were working on " The Last Domino " , the second part of " Domino " . During the session , Rutherford began to play an improvised guitar riff to which Collins replied with an off @-@ the @-@ cuff lyric – " She seems to have an invisible touch " – which became the song 's chorus hook .
Following its release in June 1986 , the album spent three weeks at No. 1 in the UK and reached No. 3 in the US . Despite the mixed reviews , Invisible Touch was a commercial success , becoming the best selling Genesis album in the US , selling over 6 million copies there . The album 's five singles – " Invisible Touch " , " Throwing It All Away " , " Land of Confusion " , " In Too Deep " , and " Tonight , Tonight , Tonight " – entered the top five on the US singles chart between 1986 and 1987 with " Invisible Touch " topping the chart for one week . Genesis became the first group and foreign act to achieve this feat , equalling the five singles record set by Michael Jackson , Janet Jackson , and Madonna . Genesis commissioned the creators of the satirical British television show Spitting Image , Peter Fluck and Roger Law , to make puppets of them in the style of the show for the video of " Land of Confusion " .
The Invisible Touch Tour was the band 's largest world tour in its history which included 112 dates from September 1986 to July 1987 . Genesis received some criticism in their decision to have Michelob beer as a sponsor . The tour concluded with four consecutive sold out shows at Wembley Stadium in London . The shows were released in 1988 as The Invisible Touch Tour . When the tour ended , Genesis took a five @-@ year break while each member committed to their solo projects . They performed twice during this time ; on 14 May 1988 , they performed a 20 @-@ minute set at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert at Madison Square Garden . This was followed by a set at a charity gig at the 1990 Knebworth Festival in June , headlined by Pink Floyd .
In 1991 Genesis recorded their fourteenth album , We Can 't Dance , from March to September with their new engineer and co @-@ producer , Nick Davis . The band took advantage of the increased capacity the CD offered and released over 71 minutes of new music across 12 tracks . Collins wrote the lyrics to " Since I Lost You " for his friend Eric Clapton following the death of Clapton 's four @-@ year @-@ old son Conor . Following the release of We Can 't Dance in November 1991 , the album went to No. 1 in the UK for one week and No. 4 in the US , where it went on to sell over 4 million copies . The album spawned several hit singles ; " No Son of Mine " went to No. 6 in the UK and " I Can 't Dance " reached No. 7 in the UK and the US . In 1993 , We Can 't Dance was nominated for a Brit Award for Best British Album .
The We Can 't Dance tour visited North America and Europe from May to November 1992 with each concert attended by an average of 56 @,@ 000 people . The tour spawned two live albums ; The Way We Walk , Volume One : The Shorts reached No. 3 in the UK and The Way We Walk , Volume Two : The Longs went to No. 1 in the UK . Following the tour , the band took a break in activity . Banks , Rutherford , and Collins performed at Cowdray Castle , Midhurst in September 1993 for a money raising event with Pink Floyd touring guitarist Tim Renwick and drummer Gary Wallis and Queen drummer Roger Taylor . Rutherford also played bass on Pink Floyd 's set at the same concert .
In March 1996 , Collins announced his departure from Genesis . He " felt it time to change direction in my musical life . For me now , it will be music for movies , some jazz projects , and of course my solo career . "
= = = 1996 – 2006 : Wilson on lead vocals , Calling All Stations , and hiatus = = =
Shortly after Banks and Rutherford decided to continue Genesis in 1996 , they went to The Farm to start writing Calling All Stations . Rutherford initially found the sessions difficult as he saw Collins as " the guy in the middle " who made Banks and himself work better . Their best ideas developed in this period were put forward while they auditioned new singers , including Francis Dunnery and Nick Van Eede . The two main contenders , David Longdon and Scottish singer Ray Wilson of Stiltskin , auditioned throughout 1996 which involved singing along to Genesis tracks with the lead vocals removed . Wilson was announced as the new Genesis singer in June 1997 . Though much of the album was already written by the time he joined , Banks was pleased with his contributions to album which included writing the lyrics to " Small Talk " and riffs on " Not About Us " and " There Must Be Some Other Way " . Banks and Rutherford opted for two drummers on Calling All Stations – Israeli session musician Nir Zidkyahu and Nick D 'Virgilio of Spock 's Beard .
Calling All Stations was released in September 1997 . It was a success in Europe , where it reached No. 2 in the UK , but the album peaked at No. 54 in the US , their lowest charting album there since Selling England by the Pound . A single from the album , " Congo " reached the top 30 in the UK and Genesis completed a European tour from January to May 1998 , adding Zidkyahu on drums and Irish guitarist Anthony Drennan . A North American tour was planned but was cancelled following its poor commercial response and lack of ticket sales , which led to Banks and Rutherford announcing in 2000 that the group would no longer be recording and touring .
In 1998 , Banks , Collins , Gabriel , Hackett , Phillips , Rutherford , and Silver gathered for a photo session and dinner to celebrate the release of the four @-@ disc box set , Genesis Archive 1967 – 75 . The set features " Supper 's Ready " and " It " with new overdubs by Gabriel and Hackett . In 1999 , Banks , Collins , Rutherford , Hackett , and Gabriel released a new version of " The Carpet Crawlers " for the compilation album Turn It On Again : The Hits . On 21 September 2000 , Collins , Banks , Rutherford reunited at the Music Managers Forum , in honour of their manager Tony Smith . Gabriel attended the ceremony but chose not to perform . In 2004 , Genesis released Platinum Collection , a three @-@ disc box set of songs covering the band 's career that reached No. 21 in the UK .
= = = 2006 – present : 2007 tour , reunion speculations , and BBC documentary = = =
In a press conference held in London in November 2006 , Banks , Rutherford , and Collins announced their reunion for the Turn It On Again Tour , their first with Collins in fifteen years . They revealed the initial plan of touring The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway with Gabriel and Hackett . The five met in Glasgow in November 2004 to discuss the idea further , but it never developed further as Gabriel was unable to commit due to other projects . Instead , Banks , Rutherford and Collins decided to proceed with Thompson and Stuermer returning on drums and guitar , respectively . In March 2007 , a press conference was held in New York City to announce the North American leg .
The Turn It On Again Tour featured a stage designed by architect Mark Fisher with a lighting display by Patrick Woodroffe , included a 55 @-@ metre long LED backdrop formed of 9 million LED lights . The European leg saw close to 400 @,@ 000 tickets sold in 40 minutes for shows in Germany and the Netherlands . On 7 July , the band played at the Live Earth concert in London at Wembley Stadium . The European leg ended with a free concert on 14 July at the Circus Maximus in Rome in front of around half a million people . It was filmed for DVD that was released the following year as When in Rome 2007 . A live album formed of recordings from various European dates was released in 2007 as Live over Europe 2007 .
In 2007 , the band 's studio albums from Trespass to Calling All Stations were digitally remastered by Nick Davis across three box sets : Genesis 1976 – 1982 , Genesis 1983 – 1998 , and Genesis 1970 – 1975 . Each album is presented as a two @-@ disc set containing a CD / Super Audio CD of a new stereo mix and a DVD with a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix and bonus features including previously unreleased live performances , interviews , and concert programs . Two DVD box sets followed , Genesis Live 1973 – 2007 and Genesis Movie Box 1981 – 2007 , in 2009 .
Since 2011 , Genesis have expressed mixed opinions about a reunion . Collins retired from the music industry as an active musician that year in favour of family commitments and has stated he can no longer play the drums due to medical issues . Hackett has said " I would say it 's possible , but highly improbable . I 've always been open to it . I 'm not the guy who says no . " Gabriel addressed the possibility of a reunion : " I never say never . It really didn 't happen last time . I think there 's a small chance , but I don 't think it 's very high . " In 2014 , Collins reiterated , " Have people thought it through ? It ’ s not as if you ’ re going to get Peter as the singer , me as the drummer . I can ’ t play any more , so it ’ s never going to happen , " adding it would not be likely for Gabriel to perform songs Collins originally sang lead on . Collins subsequently announced an end to his retirement , and speculated a reunion with Banks and Rutherford would be possible , which Banks endorsed .
In 2014 Gabriel , Banks , Rutherford , Collins and Hackett reunited for Genesis : Together and Apart , a BBC documentary about the band 's history and the various solo albums the members have released . Although he participated in the documentary and promoted it , Hackett was critical following its broadcast , claiming that it was biased and did not give him editorial involvement , adding that it ignored his solo work despite him speaking at length about it . The documentary does not feature Wilson 's time in Genesis . Hackett remains cynical about a Genesis reunion , saying : " Look at the documentary and you 'll get an idea of the priorities that come across . "
= = Musical style = =
Genesis identify first and foremost as songwriters . Any instruments featured on any of the recordings were used because they helped serve the song . Rutherford later said " We 're much more concerned with feel . " Though styles changed dramatically over the group 's career , they were always built on musical contrasts and the willingness to experiment .
Members of the original line @-@ up were exposed to classical and church music as well as rock artists of the 1960s , particularly the Beatles . Gabriel 's vocal style was influenced by Otis Redding and other Stax artists . In their early years , Genesis ' music combined elements of the pop , folk , and psychedelic genres . Several songs developed during Phillips ' time in the band originated on 12 @-@ string guitars , often with unconventional tunings . By the 1970s , the group began to include fantasy and surreal elements in their lyrics , such as the " The Musical Box " . Nursery Cryme marks the first time electric instruments were used more extensively . A Trick of the Tail marked a return to the band 's roots with acoustic passages and songs inspired by fantasy .
Early lyrics drew from psychedelia , fantasy , mythological figures , and fairytale themes . Gabriel emerged as one of the band 's main lyricists who often incorporated puns and double entendres in his lines and track titles and addressed various themes including social commentary . Selling England by the Pound contains references to English culture of the time including " Aisle of Plenty " , where four British supermarket chains are referenced to reflect the album 's theme of commercialism . Literary sources are used as inspiration for many Genesis tracks ; " The Cinema Show " is based on T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , and Arthur C. Clarke 's novel Childhood 's End inspired the lyrics to " Watcher of the Skies " .
By the time the group had slimmed down to the trio of Banks , Rutherford and Collins , they had decided to change lyrical styles , dealing more with everyday matters which connected with female fans . Collins ' songs , in particular , were personal in nature . However , the group still featured humour in songs such as " Illegal Alien " , and dealt with serious themes such as politics on " Land of Confusion " and commercialisation on " I Can 't Dance " .
Banks has said that a common way of developing songs throughout the band 's career was for Collins to play the rhythm , Rutherford to set up a groove and riffs , and for him to add the harmonies and melodies on top . He cites the " Apocalypse in 9 / 8 " section of " Supper 's Ready " , " The Cinema Show " and " Domino " as examples of this , and says the restrictions it gave him allowed the group to produce straightforward pop songs such as " Invisible Touch " and " Land of Confusion " in later years .
Banks used a number of keyboards during Genesis ' career , continually trying out new models , though he used the piano regularly throughout the group 's lifetime . In the 1970s , he frequently used the Hammond organ , Hohner Pianet , Mellotron , RMI Electronic Piano and ARP Pro Soloist . In the 1980s , he used the Sequential Circuits Prophet 5 and Prophet 10 , the ARP Quadra and various Korg synthesizers . For the Turn It On Again tour in 2007 , his main board was a Korg Oasys . As both a guitarist and bassist , Rutherford regularly swapped between the two roles , and his trademark instrument with Genesis , particularly through the 1970s , was a double neck guitar . In the 1980s and beyond , he favoured the Eric Clapton Stratocaster .
= = Legacy = =
Genesis have been estimated to have sold between 100 – 130 million worldwide . Their total certified album sales include 21 @.@ 5 million in the US , 7 @.@ 2 million in the UK , 5 @.@ 6 million in Germany , and 3 @.@ 4 million in France . Genesis have been awarded with eleven Gold and four Multi @-@ Platinum albums in the UK , while in the US they have seven Gold , two Platinum , and four Multi @-@ Platinum albums .
In March 2010 , Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Phish guitarist Trey Anastasio . The band 's awards include a Silver Clef Award for outstanding contributions to British music at its second annual ceremony in 1977 . In 1988 , the band received one of the only two Grammy Awards issued for the short @-@ lived Best Concept Music Video category for " Land of Confusion " . In September 2012 , a Lifetime Achievement Award was given to the band at the inaugural Progressive Music Awards . In 2004 , Q ranked Genesis as the seventeenth @-@ biggest band in a list compiled based on album sales , time spent on the UK charts , and largest audience for a headlining show . Genesis were honoured at the second VH1 Rock Honors in May 2007 , which featured Banks , Rutherford and Collins . In 2008 , the band received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the MOJO Awards in 2008 .
Genesis were targets for criticism throughout the 1970s from those who disliked progressive rock . Influential BBC DJ John Peel championed the band in their early years and they performed three sessions for him between 1970 and 1972 , but he " grew disillusioned with their later excesses " . Some regarded the group as overtly middle class , paying particular attention to the founding members ' private education , and claimed rock music was being taken away from the working class , whom they regarded as its core audience . Likening his background to that of the punk artist Joe Strummer , who had become a " people 's hero " musician , Gabriel stated in 2013 , " To this day , we 've never outgrown the snotty rich @-@ kid thing ... we were always very straight about where we came from , and we were middle @-@ class , not aristocratic " . Gabriel 's theatrics were unpalatable to some of the mainstream rock audience , resulting in a cult following rather than that of a mainstream rock band .
At their commercial peak in the 1980s , the music of Genesis faced the accusation of being " flabbergastingly insignificant " by leading American music critic Robert Hilburn , and it has been described as " barely distinguishable " from Collins 's solo work . According to Rolling Stone 's Erik Hedegaard , Collins in particular was blamed by those who accused the band of selling out . Retrospectively , The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic J. D. Considine documented how the band had been " largely ignored " by the music press and public in their earliest years , before being " derided as middlebrow throwbacks still in thrall to the pomposities of art rock " in the late 1970s and then dismissed as " easy @-@ listening lightweights " in the 1980s . He argued this was unfair , as the band had made their " share of mediocre albums " but no bad ones . Q reviewer Andy Fyfe wrote in 2007 that " little of the band 's output has aged well " and " transcends in the way real classics do " , suggesting they would " remain perennial whipping boys for decades to come . " However , The Daily Telegraph chief rock music critic Neil McCormick has said that Genesis were " a daring and groundbreaking band ( certainly in their early career ) " , described Collins as " an outstanding drummer " and stated that " after Gabriel left , he stepped up to prove himself a charismatic frontman with a very distinctive vocal character " .
Journalists have reported that fans preferring one era of the band strongly dislike others . Rock author Colin McGuire has described the arguments from fans of the Gabriel era as " they sold out and became too corporate when Collins stepped into the spotlight " , while fans of the Collins era argue " the Gabriel years were boring and hard to stomach " . He concluded both eras of the band should be judged on their own merits . The band themselves have been aware of these divides ; press interviews for Abacab explicitly stated that fans of Foxtrot might not like the album , but should keep an open mind .
= = = Influence = = =
Genesis have been cited as a principal influence on the neo @-@ progressive rock subgenre that emerged in the 1980s , featuring bands including Marillion , and Pallas . Steve Hackett 's work in Genesis influenced guitarists such as Brian May of Queen , Alex Lifeson of Rush , and Eddie Van Halen of Van Halen . Genesis were also an influence on post @-@ punk artists such as Simple Minds and Will Sergeant , guitarist of Echo & the Bunnymen , as well as the electronic new wave band The Human League . Trey Anastasio of Phish said " It 's impossible to overstate what impact this band and musical philosophy had on me as a young musician . I 'm forever in their debt . " Mostly Autumn " fuse the music of Genesis and Pink Floyd " in their sound . The alternative rock band Elbow acknowledge Genesis as an influence , such as on their breakthrough song " Newborn " .
There are a number of Genesis tribute bands , including ReGenesis who focus on the group 's 1970s repertoire , and Mama , who cover all eras of the band . The most successful act has been the Canadian @-@ French band The Musical Box that have been officially endorsed by the band and had Hackett and Collins perform as guests with them . Gabriel has taken his children to see the Musical Box , so " they could see what their father did back then " , while Hackett has said " They not only manage to sound , but look virtually identical " .
= = Timeline = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
From Genesis to Revelation ( 1969 )
Trespass ( 1970 )
Nursery Cryme ( 1971 )
Foxtrot ( 1972 )
Selling England by the Pound ( 1973 )
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway ( 1974 )
A Trick of the Tail ( 1976 )
Wind & Wuthering ( 1976 )
... And Then There Were Three ... ( 1978 )
Duke ( 1980 )
Abacab ( 1981 )
Genesis ( 1983 )
Invisible Touch ( 1986 )
We Can 't Dance ( 1991 )
Calling All Stations ( 1997 )
= Love Sex Magic =
" Love Sex Magic " is a song recorded by American singer Ciara for her third studio album , Fantasy Ride ( 2009 ) . Featuring fellow American recording artist Justin Timberlake , the song was written by Timberlake and his production team The Y 's and Mike Elizondo . The Y 's and Elizondo also produced the track . The song was released from Fantasy Ride as the lead single internationally , and was the second single from that album released in the United States .
The song reveals a complete departure from Ciara 's previous style , neither a sensual ballad nor incorporating Crunk & B influences . It embraces a dance @-@ pop sound , while including R & B and funk via a retro 1970s @-@ style guitar which is present in the piece . Many critics noted the similarities between the song and music on Timberlake 's album FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . Critics gave the song mixed reviews , complimenting the song 's funk and retro feel and the chemistry present between Ciara and Timberlake . The song would later go on to be nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 52nd Grammy Awards .
" Love Sex Magic " peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Ciara 's fifth top ten hit as a lead artist , her eighth including features , and her first since " Get Up " in 2006 . Internationally , the song peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia , Canada , France Germany , New Zealand , the Republic of Ireland , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The music video also exhibits a retro feel inspired by the Crazy Horse cabaret show , and features Timberlake , Ciara , and several different kinds of foreplay , as well as Ciara dancing . For its routines it was nominated for Best Choreography at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . Ciara has performed the song on television a number of times , including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and with Timberlake on Saturday Night Live .
= = Background = =
A song entitled " Magic , " performed by Justin Timberlake , leaked online in November 2008 . In February 2009 , Rap @-@ Up reported that Ciara and Timberlake had recorded a new duet for her then @-@ upcoming album , Fantasy Ride . The final version of the song , initially titled " Love and Sex and Magic , " featured Timberlake dueting with Ciara . Eventually known as " Love Sex Magic , " the song was written by Timberlake , Mike Elizondo , and Timberlake 's production team The Y 's — James Fauntleroy II , Timberlake , and Robin Tadross . Timberlake wanted to create a song that both genders could relate to . The Y 's and Elizondo produced the song . Ciara said that her collaboration with Timberlake was one of the best of her career , because they actually collaborated in the studio , rather than him being added as a guest feature after the initial recording . She explained , " I actually went into the studio to make the record from scratch , or he had the record there for me , but us being together was a very rare case I 've had over the years . " Ciara enjoyed her time with Timberlake , and valued the opportunity to work with him as an " artist and producer . " She also noted how passionate Timberlake was about his work , and mentioned his humbleness and positive attitude .
= = Composition = =
With " Love Sex Magic , " Ciara moved in a more pop direction than her past music . Jordan Sargent of PopMatters noted that while a pop fan might see the singer " back in her mind creatively , " a Ciara fan would see the song as " signal [ ing ] the end of the singer 's career as it once was . " Sargent stated that the song " sounds nothing like the chrome @-@ plated crunk & b nor the moonlit balladry that Ciara has staked her name on . " Musically , the song is a dance @-@ pop @-@ R & B number which makes use of electro and funk music , as well as displaying disco and soul influences . The song has a minimalistic dance beat , with a " funky , retro 70s style R & B guitar " as the backdrop . Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald said that the song is influenced by Timberlake 's disco @-@ funk work on FutureSex / LoveSounds , stating that " it sounds like a reworked version of his bass @-@ heavy dance number " Sexy Ladies . " Carter commented that Timberlake was " ushering Ciara away from her typically crunk @-@ laced stylings in favor of JT ’ s electro @-@ slide . " Ann Powers of The Los Angeles Times said that the song was " Madonna @-@ esque . " Both Ciara and Timberlake provide verses , accompanied by vocal whims and falsetto .
= = Critical reception = =
Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said that with the track , Ciara " lucked into the sexiest thing to happen to pop since Timberlake 's own FutureSex / LoveSounds , " calling the song one of the " biggest anthems of the year . " Gennoe went on to call the song the " highlight " and " saving grace " of Fantasy Ride . Nick Levine of Digital Spy said that " the track itself is nearly as sexy as the promo clip " , commenting " Ciara purrs , and Timberlake , if you 'll pardon the pun , more than rises to the occasion . All in all , ' Love Sex Magic ' is pretty much spot on . " Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald said " It ’ s not quite magic , but it grows on you . " Jeremy Medina of Entertainment Weekly said , " Hooking up with Timberlake essentially guarantees a one @-@ way ticket back to chart supremacy , so nice work there , Ciara . " Medina went on to call the song an early candidate for " song of the summer . "
Jon Caramanica welcomed the " female aggression " presented by Ciara on the track . Caramanica called it an unexpected twist , calling Ciara " still curiously anonymous " . He noted that Timberlake , not a " vocal powerhouse " himself , out @-@ sings Ciara on the track . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media said that the song was not bad and complimented the song 's disco feel . He said that it gained Ciara a " radio foothold that had been hers to lose a couple of years ago " , and commented that it seemed like " a bargain @-@ basement Justin Timberlake track , the sort of thing he could 've had lying around in a closet somewhere nearly three years after FutureSex / LoveSounds . " Breihan pointed out that " Timberlake 's nerdy swagger really highlights Ciara 's total lack of presence . " Jordan Sargent of PopMatters criticized the song for being generic , calling it " a formulaic FutureSex / LoveSounds disco retread " , commenting " The song probably could ’ ve been given to any struggling female singer and become a hit , and the fact that Ciara had to use it as her parachute is as puzzling as it is unfortunate . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic called the song a " hobbling flop " and said that it was " easily forgettable . "
At the 52nd Grammy Awards , " Love Sex Magic " was nominated for the award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals . It lost to Jason Mraz and Colbie Caillat 's " Lucky . "
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted at number eighty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 , and the next week jumped to number twenty @-@ seven . In its third week , the song rose to number ten , becoming Ciara 's fifth top ten single . It was her first top ten entry since " Get Up " in 2006 . It was her highest @-@ charting song on the Hot 100 since " Like a Boy " in 2007 . " Love Sex Magic " appeared on multiple Billboard component charts , reaching number fourteen on the Pop Songs chart , number eighteen Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and eighty @-@ three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song debuted at number nine , and would later peak at number six .
Although the single did not rank among Ciara 's most successful singles in the United States , it performed well overall in international markets . In Australia , the song debuted at number six on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , peaking at number five the next week . It spent fourteen weeks on the chart , and was eventually certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments totalling 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number fourteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It remained stagnant the next week until it peaked at six on the chart the following week . Having spent thirteen weeks on the chart , the song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , for shipments totalling 7 @,@ 500 copies .
Across Europe , the single charted in the top ten of seven charts , and the top twenty of four others . Due to its numerous chartings in Europe , the song peaked at number six on the European Hot 100 chart . In the United Kingdom , " Love Sex Magic " debuted at number six on the UK Singles Chart , peaking at number five the following week . The song spent seventeen non @-@ consecutive weeks on the chart , as well as topping the UK R & B Chart for two weeks . In the Republic of Ireland , the song peaked at number four on the Irish Singles Chart , climbing from number seven the previous week .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The Diane Martel @-@ directed music video for " Love Sex Magic " premiered on March 22 , 2009 . In an interview with MTV News , Ciara said : " It 's all about showing another side of me with this video . I 'm basically giving you a show you 'd see in Vegas — and it 's my love , sex and magic show . He 's the voyeur and I play with him a little bit . I got my inspiration from the Crazy Horse show and just from the shows [ in Vegas ] , period . It 's giving you the elements of love and sex and magic . " In a later interview about the video , Ciara stated that she had to lick Timberlake 's ear , and at one point , he was licking her neck and they were " freestyling . " Martel wanted them to do something " edgy , " so they found a " cool way to do it . " Ciara noted the different pauses in cuts in between the tapings , commenting " so it 's licking on the neck , again , then his biting on my neck , again . It was really funny . " The singer would later elaborate on the Crazy Horse show reference in an interview with Blues & Soul , explaining that she had so much respect for the show that it became her reference . On working with Timberlake , she said , " Justin is one of the most easy @-@ going , down @-@ to @-@ earth , hard @-@ working and passionate artists you could ever work with . And , with both me and him , our goal was just to make the best video we could possibly make together , and to give the fans something a little fun and a little unexpected . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with Ciara and Timberlake face to face , caressing seductively . The camera cuts to Ciara who appears almost impervious to gravity . Dressed in lingerie , she maneuvers around a horizontal dance pole ; background dancers are veiled in vibrant color schemes and alternating strobe lights . The video then cuts to Ciara in a leotard , posing in abstract and flexible poses . Ciara is then seen dressed in a tiger @-@ striped catsuit performing solo dance moves on a stage . Timberlake performs his verse seated onstage while Ciara performs intricate tricks , such as snaking under his legs . Then the two begin to lightly move to the track before Ciara forms her body as an armrest as he leans on her . Ciara and the dancers perform choreography and cabaret @-@ style moves on the pole . The bridge of the song puts Timberlake on the ground and Ciara , standing over him , turns and performs her signature " Matrix " over him as he guides her body toward his with his right hand . The two perform and as Ciara gets up , Timberlake smacks her side as she pops to the beat . The video then cuts to a scene with Ciara in the catsuit portraying a tiger in a cage . In the final scene , Ciara and the dancers perform , dressed in 1970s @-@ inspired tuxedos and colored afros . The video ends with clips of Ciara 's multiple performance scenes from throughout the video .
= = = Reception = = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the video a positive review : " The video that accompanies this track is one of the year 's best so far — and certainly the sexiest : Ciara licks Justin 's ear , Justin reciprocates by slapping her bum , and , well , Ciara 's flexibility would put many a poledancer to shame . Quite frankly , the whole thing could make a nun have impure thoughts . " At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for " Best Choreography ; " it lost to Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) . " The video ranked at number thirty @-@ nine on BET 's Notarized : Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
= = Live performances = =
On May 9 , 2009 , Ciara performed the song on Saturday Night Live with Timberlake , that night 's host . Accompanied by live instruments , Ciara performed choreography with backup dancers , while Timberlake played the keyboard . Timberlake and Ciara danced provocatively after he came from behind the keyboard to perform his verse . During the set , Ciara also performed " Never Ever . " A writer for BET 's Sound Off Blog said , " aside from the fact that her grunts were live and her stage humps were unreal , Ciara ’ s set was pretty decent . Not that I expected any less from the A @-@ Town princess , but that was a pretty tasty performance . " The writer pointed out that Timberlake was not even noted on the set until he began his verse . In an interview with MTV News , Ciara went into detail about the setup of the performance , stating :
" I just kind of felt cool , ' cause Justin can play [ piano ] real well and he really gets into the music and it was , like , ' Hey , let 's make you part of the band . ' Having Justin in the background for the live performance was very different from the music video for the song , where the two dance quite provocatively with one another . [ We wanted to ] do something different and make it fun . It was awesome to see him pick up the keys . "
On May 13 , 2009 , Ciara performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , accompanied by background dancers . Ciara and the dancers performed choreography similar to that of the video and wore the 1970s @-@ inspired suits and afros . The same day , she performed the song with " Never Ever " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! Ciara performed the song at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards Japan on May 30 , 2009 .
= = Track listing and versions = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Ciara Harris – vocals
Justin Timberlake – vocals , producer , writer , instruments , music programming
James Fauntleroy – producer , writer , music programming
Robin Tadross – producer , writer , instruments , music programming
Mike Elizondo – producer , writer , instruments
Spike Stent – audio mixing
Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles , CA - recording studio
Source
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= A New Day Has Come =
A New Day Has Come is the seventh English @-@ language studio album by Canadian singer Celine Dion , released by Sony Music Entertainment on March 22 , 2002 . It was her first new studio album since 1997 's Let 's Talk About Love . Dion returned to the music scene after a two @-@ year hiatus when she gave birth to her first child . She collaborated on A New Day Has Come with various producers , including Anders Bagge and Peer Åström for the first time . Dion 's long @-@ time producer and friend , David Foster , did not appear on this album . A New Day Has Come garnered mostly positive reviews from the music critics , who noticed that Dion explores a " broader , more adventurous " range of pop music and " dips its toe " into modern music , particularly dance ( " Sorry for Love " ) . However , the album also contains the usual adult contemporary songs , including power ballads like " I Surrender " and " Have You Ever Been in Love , " or the title track . Critics also praised " Ten Days , " " Goodbye 's ( The Saddest Word ) , " " I 'm Alive , " " When the Wrong One Loves You Right , " " The Greatest Reward , " and two covers : " Nature Boy " and " At Last . "
A New Day Has Come became a commercial success throughout the world and entered number one in more than seventeen countries . It has sold 3 @.@ 3 million units in the United States and was certified three @-@ times Platinum by the RIAA . In Canada , after shipping 600 @,@ 000 copies , the album was certified six @-@ times Platinum . The IFPI certified it three @-@ times Platinum for selling three million units in Europe . Overall , A New Day Has Come has sold twelve million copies worldwide . The first single , " A New Day Has Come " was released in March 2002 and peaked inside the top ten in Canada and Europe . In the United States , it reached number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 and broke the record for most weeks at number one on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart , staying on top for twenty @-@ one weeks . The next single , " I 'm Alive " was issued in August 2002 and also peaked inside the top ten in numerous European countries . The last commercial single , " Goodbye 's ( The Saddest Word ) " was released in November 2002 and performed moderately on the charts , reaching the top forty in Europe .
= = Background = =
After the farewell millennium concert on December 31 , 1999 in Montreal , Dion decided to take a break from the public scene for two years to focus on her family . On January 25 , 2001 , she gave birth to René @-@ Charles Angelil , her first son . Since then , she had performed publicly only a handful of times , including September 21 , 2001 , when she sang a live rendition of " God Bless America " at the America : A Tribute to Heroes telethon honoring victims of the September 11 attacks , and September 28 for Montreal 's companion fund @-@ raiser , A Show for Life , singing " L 'amour existe encore . "
According to Dion , the album 's title , A New Day Has Come , acknowledged a new chapter in her life and career . However , she was also deeply affected by the events of September 11 and wanted the words to serve as a reminder of the tragedy . " It represents my child , because I gave life , " Dion said . " Obviously , it also marks my return with a new album . But a new day has also come in the lives of other people because something bad has happened , because we 've lost lives , because there 's a scar on our world now . " Dion struggled over an appropriate image for the cover of the album , feeling that a portrait reflecting her good fortune was in poor taste . She suggested to Sony Music Entertainment that the album cover not include her picture . However , after much discussion , the photo shoot for A New Day Has Come took place in Montreal in late December 2001 with well @-@ renowned photographer Melvin Sokolsky . On January 30 and 31 , 2002 an additional photo session for the album took place in Florida , on a beach near Dion 's home by the French photographer Patrick Demarchelier . The album cover for A New Day Has Come by Demarchelier was released on February 28 , 2002 .
René Angélil , Dion , and the Sony family began selecting prospective songs at the beginning of 2001 , and on August 28 , 2001 she started recording vocal tracks for nearly two dozen songs at Montreal 's Piccolo Studios . Because of Dion 's unwillingness to leave her seven @-@ month @-@ old baby , the album 's collaborators traveled to Montreal . " I didn 't feel the pressure to try and outdo anything , " Dion said of her time in the studio . " I proved myself before , so now I can enjoy . I was relaxed , I just let go . It was such a pleasure . " The album was scheduled for release internationally on March 25 , 2002 and in North America on March 26 , 2002 . However , it was first released in Australia , on March 22 , 2002 .
= = Content = =
Most of the producers of the album had worked with Dion before : Walter Afanasieff , Kristian Lundin , Andreas Carlsson , Christopher Neil , Guy Roche , Robert John " Mutt " Lange , Ric Wake , Aldo Nova , Simon Franglen and Humberto Gatica . The new ones included Swedish musicians Anders Bagge , Peer Åström and Arnthor Birgisson , French singer Gérald de Palmas and the US producer Steve Morales . A New Day Has Come showcases Dion 's traditional themes of love and hope . She sings ballads alongside several uptempo pop tracks and a pair of standards . The album contains sixteen tracks on the North American version and seventeen on the international editions , including " Super Love . "
It features " A New Day Has Come , " the title track , which for Dion represents the birth of her child but " it can mean different things for anyone who has to find strength again ; " I 'm Alive " , " fun " and " fresh " song from the team that wrote " That 's the Way It Is ; " " I Surrender , " the album 's " bombastic , heart @-@ pounding " ballad which has become a popular song choice for contestants on reality television singing competitions like American Idol ; " Sorry for Love , " a dance number written and produced by the Swedish team , co @-@ written by Kara DioGuardi ; " Have You Ever Been in Love , " a power ballad also written and produced by Bagge and Åström ; " Goodbye 's ( The Saddest Word ) , " an emotional ballad about the death of one 's mother which Dion first heard three years prior but turned it down at that time ; " Nature Boy , " a 1947 song made popular by Nat King Cole that features Dion accompanied only by piano as originally foreseen symphonic orchestration was not added ; " At Last , " a gospel @-@ tinged number first recorded by Glenn Miller in 1941 ; " Ten Days , " a rock @-@ oriented adaptation of " Tomber " ( 2000 ) by Gérald de Palmas which was recorded at the last minute after Dion heard the original French version ; " The Greatest Reward , " an adaptation of " L 'envie d 'aimer " ( 2000 ) from the French musical Les Dix Commandements , performed originally by Daniel Lévi ; and " Aun Existe Amor , " a Spanish @-@ language version of Dion 's French song " L 'amour existe encore . "
= = = Special editions = = =
On November 11 , 2002 in Europe and November 19 , 2002 in North America , Sony Music Entertainment released a Limited Edition of A New Day Has Come , which includes the original album , as well as a bonus DVD featuring the " I 'm Alive " video , a preview of Dion 's Las Vegas show A New Day ... as well as two previously unreleased tracks , " Coulda Woulda Shoulda " and " All Because of You . " The North American Limited Edition includes longer version of " The Greatest Reward " lasting 4 : 04 , instead of original 3 : 28 . On January 29 , 2008 , Legacy Recordings released a Collector 's Edition of A New Day Has Come with bonus DVD . The CD contains sixteen tracks from the North American version of the album , including extended version of " The Greatest Reward , " and the DVD features four music videos , and behind the scenes footage from making of the album and the " A New Day Has Come " video .
= = Promotion = =
Dion actively promoted the album , including various television show appearances and concerts . Her A New Day Has Come television special was taped on March 3 , 2002 at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles and aired on CBS on April 7 , 2002 . During the show Dion performed " A New Day Has Come , " " I 'm Alive , " " At Last , " " Have You Ever Been in Love , " " Nature Boy " and a movie medley with the songs " Because You Loved Me " , " " Beauty and the Beast " " in duet with Brian McKnight and " My Heart Will Go On . " She also sang " Aun Existe Amor " and " Goodbye 's ( The Saddest Word ) , " but both songs were not broadcast . Destiny 's Child joined her to perform together the " Emotion / When the Wrong One Loves You Right " medley . On March 17 , 2002 Dion taped La spéciale Céline Dion in Paris , France to promote the album in Francophone countries . This television special was broadcast on March 30 , 2002 on TF1 . During the show she performed " A New Day Has Come , " " Pour que tu m 'aimes encore " in duet with Jean @-@ Jacques Goldman , " Sous le vent " in duet with Garou , " Au bout de mes rêves " with Garou , Pascal Obispo , Gérald de Palmas and Jean @-@ Jacques Goldman , " Ten Days " in duet with Gérald de Palmas , " I 'm Alive , " " On ne change pas " and " The Greatest Reward . "
Dion along with Cher , Mary J. Blige , Shakira and the Dixie Chicks headlined the VH1 Divas Las Vegas , which was hosted by Ellen DeGeneres and held in the MGM Grand Las Vegas . The concert was broadcast live on VH1 on May 23 , 2002 to benefit the VH1 Save The Music Foundation , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to promoting music and education programs in schools . Other special guest performers included : Anastacia , Stevie Nicks , Cyndi Lauper and Whitney Houston . Dion opened the show performing the AC / DC 's hit " You Shook Me All Night Long " in duet with Anastacia . Later , she sang " A New Day Has Come " and " I 'm Alive . " For the finale , the divas performed a special Elvis Presley medley which included " Can 't Help Falling in Love " sung by Dion . The concert was released on CD and DVD in October 2002 .
On September 14 , 2002 Dion performed at the charity Concert for World Children 's Day , which took place at the Arie Crown Theater in Chicago and was under the supervision of David Foster . It was broadcast on ABC on November 14 , 2002 . She sang " That 's the Way It Is , " " My Heart Will Go On , " " The Prayer " in duet with Josh Groban and " Goodbye 's ( The Saddest Word ) . " For the finale , Dion joined other artists to perform with them " Aren 't They All Our Children . " The concert was released on DVD in December 2002 . On October 10 , 2002 , Dion taped in Paris her second television special for Francophone viewers , entitled Céline Dion à tout prix . She performed " I 'm Alive , " " Pour que tu m 'aimes encore , " " L 'envie d 'aimer " in duet with Daniel Lévi and " Ten Days / Tomber " medley with Gérald de Palmas . Dion also performed " Woman in Love " in duet with Natasha St @-@ Pier and joined Lââm to sing Stayin ' Alive . " The special was broadcast on November 22 , 2002 on M6 .
= = Singles = =
The first single , " A New Day Has Come " premiered on the radio on February 6 , 2002 . The music video was shot in mid @-@ February 2002 in West Palm Beach , Florida and directed by Dave Meyers . It premiered on March 13 , 2002 and the CD single was released outside the United States at the same time . " A New Day Has Come " became a top ten hit in Canada and Europe , including number seven in the United Kingdom . In the United States , it was released as an airplay @-@ only track , which led to its peak position on the Billboard Hot 100 at number twenty @-@ two . However , on the U.S. Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks , the song broke the record for most weeks at number one , staying on top for twenty @-@ one weeks . Also directed by Meyers , the music video for next single , " I 'm Alive " was filmed in late May 2002 in Los Angeles and the song was serviced to radio stations on June 7 , 2002 . At the same time , two remixes of " I 'm Alive " premiered : Humberto Gatica Mix and The Wake Up Mix . The music video debuted on June 27 , 2002 . "
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toads franchise . A spin @-@ off for the Game Boy , titled Battletoads , was first released in November 1991 . Two direct sequels , Battletoads in Battlemaniacs and Battletoads & Double Dragon , were both released for various consoles in 1993 , with the latter being placed number 76 on IGN 's " Top 100 NES Games of All Time " list . Battletoads Arcade was released in 1994 to mediocre sales , and was the last instalment of the series . A TV pilot was also produced by Canadian DIC Entertainment , that originally aired in syndication in the United States on the weekend of Thanksgiving , 1992 . The TV series , titled Battletoads , was conceived as an attempt to capitalise on the popularity of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , however it was never picked up as a full series .
= Agaricus deserticola =
Agaricus deserticola , commonly known as the gasteroid agaricus , is a species of fungus in the Agaricaceae family . Found only in southwestern and western North America , A. deserticola is adapted for growth in dry or semi @-@ arid habitats . The fruit bodies are secotioid , meaning the spores are not forcibly discharged , and the cap does not fully expand . Unlike other Agaricus species , A. deserticola does not develop true gills , but rather a convoluted and networked system of spore @-@ producing tissue called a gleba . When the partial veil breaks or pulls away from the stem or the cap splits radially , the blackish @-@ brown gleba is exposed , which allows the spores to be dispersed .
The fruit bodies can reach heights of 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) tall with caps that are up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) wide . The tough woody stems are 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , thickening towards the base . Fruit bodies grow singly or scattered on the ground in fields , grasslands , or arid ecosystems . Other mushrooms with which A. deserticola might be confused include the desert fungus species Podaxis pistillaris and Montagnea arenaria . The edibility of Agaricus deserticola mushrooms is not known definitively .
Formerly named Longula texensis ( among several other synonyms ) , the fungus was transferred to the genus Agaricus in 2004 after molecular analysis showed it to be evolutionary related to species in that genus . In 2010 , its specific epithet was changed to deserticola after it was discovered that the name Agaricus texensis was illegitimate , having been previously published for a different species .
= = Taxonomic history = =
The species was first described scientifically as Secotium texense by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1873 , based on specimens sent to them from western Texas . George Edward Massee transferred it to the genus Gyrophragmium in 1891 , because of its resemblance to the species Gyrophragmium delilei , and because he felt that the structure of the volva as well as the internal morphology of the gleba excluded it from Secotium . In 1916 , William Murrill listed the species in Gymnopus , but did not explain the reason for the generic transfer . In a 1943 publication , Sanford Zeller compared a number of similar secotioid genera : Galeropsis , Gyrophragmium and Montagnea . He concluded that the species did not fit in the limits set for the genus Gyrophragmium and so created the new genus Longia with Longia texensis as the type species . The generic name was to honor William Henry Long , an American mycologist noted for his work in describing Gasteromycetes . Zeller also mentioned two additional synonyms : Secotium decipiens ( Peck , 1895 ) , and Podaxon strobilaceous ( Copeland , 1904 ) .
Two years later in 1945 , Zeller pointed out that the use of the name Longia was untenable , as it had already been used for a genus of rusts described by Hans Sydow in 1921 , so he proposed the name Longula and introduced the new combination Longula texensis in addition to L. texensis var. major . The species was known by this name for about 60 years , until a 2004 phylogenetic study revealed the taxon 's close evolutionary relationship with Agaricus , a possibility insinuated by Curtis Gates Lloyd a century before . This resulted in a new name in that genus , but it soon came to light that the name Agaricus texensis had already been used , ironically enough , by Berkeley and Curtis themselves in 1853 , for a taxon now treated as a synonym of Flammulina velutipes . Since this made the new Agaricus texensis an unusable homonym , Gabriel Moreno and colleagues published the new name Agaricus deserticola in 2010 . The mushroom is commonly known as the gasteroid Agaricus .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
The classification of Agaricus deserticola has been under debate since the taxon was first described . It was thought by some mycologists to be a member of the Gasteromycetes , a grouping of fungi in the basidiomycota that do not actively discharge their spores . The Gasteromycetes are now known to be an artificial assemblage of morphologically similar fungi without any unifying evolutionary relationship . When the species was known as a Gyrophragmium , Fischer thought it to be close to Montagnites , a genus he considered a member of the Agaricaceae family . Conrad suggested a relationship with Secotium , which he believed to be close to Agaricus . Curtis Gates Lloyd said of Gyrophragmium : " [ it ] has no place in the Gasteromycetes . Its relations are more close to the Agarics . It is the connecting link between the two passing on one hand through Secotium to the true Gasteromycetes . " Morse believed that Gyrophragmium and the secotioid genus Endoptychum formed a transition between the Gasteromycetes and the Hymenomycetes ( the gilled fungi ) .
The species is now thought to have evolved from an Agaricus ancestor , and adapted for survival in dry habitats . These adaptations include : a cap that does not expand ( thus conserving moisture ) ; dark @-@ colored gills that do not forcibly eject spores ( a mechanism known to depend on turgor pressure achievable only in sufficiently hydrated environments ) ; and a partial veil that remains on the fruit body long after it has matured . This form of growth is called secotioid development , and is typical of other desert @-@ dwelling fungi like Battarrea phalloides , Podaxis pistillaris , and Montagnea arenaria . Molecular analysis based on the sequences of the partial large subunit of ribosomal DNA and of the internal transcribed spacers shows that A. deserticola is closely related to but distinct from A. aridicola . A separate analysis showed A. deserticola to be closely related to A. arvensis and A. abruptibulbus .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Agaricus deserticola can grow up to 5 to 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) in height . Fresh specimens are usually white , but will age to a pale tan ; dried fruit bodies are light gray or tan mixed with some yellow . The cap is 4 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , initially conic , later becoming convex to broadly convex as it matures . The cap is composed of three distinct tissue layers : an outer volval layer , a middle cuticular layer ( cutis ) , and an inner ( tramal ) layer which supports the gleba . The surface of the cap is white with yellow @-@ brown to brown @-@ tipped raised small scales ; these scales result from the breakup of the volva and the cutis .
Initially , the caps are covered by a peridium — an outer covering layer of tissue . After the fruit body matures and begins to dry out , the lower part of the peridium begin to rip , usually starting from small longitudinal slits near where the peridium attaches to the top of the stem . However , the pattern of tearing is variable ; in some instances the slits may appear higher up on the peridium , in others the peridium rips more irregularly . The peridium may also rip in such a way that it appears as if there is a ring at the top of the stem . The torn peridium exposes the internal gleba . The gleba is divided into wavy plates or lamellae , some of which are fused together to form irregular chambers . The gleba is a drab brown to blackish @-@ brown color , and it becomes tough and brittle as it dries out . The flesh is firm when young , white , and will stain light to bright yellow when it is bruised .
The stem is cylindrical , 4 to 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . It is shaped like a narrow club , and the base may reach widths up to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) . It is typically white , staining yellow to orange @-@ yellow or pink when bruised , and becomes woody with age . Mature specimens develop longitudinal grooves in maturity . Numerous white rhizoids are present at the base of the stem ; these root @-@ like outgrowths of fungal mycelium help the mushroom attach to its substrate . The apex of the stem extends into the gleba to form a columella that reaches the top of the cap . The internal gills are free from attachment to the stem , but are attached full @-@ length to the inside of the cap . The partial veil is thick , white , and often sloughs off as the cap expands .
A larger variety of the mushroom has been described by Zeller , A. deserticola var. major ( originally Longula texensis var. major ) , whose range overlaps that of the typical variety . Its caps are scalier than the typical variety , and range from 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) or more in diameter , with a stem 10 to 25 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 8 in ) and up to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
In deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores appear almost black , tinged with purple . The spores are spherical in shape or nearly so , smooth , thick @-@ walled , and lack a germ pore . They are nonamyloid ( not absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , black @-@ brown , and have dimensions of 4 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm . There is a prominent scar where the spore was once attached to the basidium ( the spore @-@ bearing cell ) through the sterigma . The basidia are broadly club @-@ shaped , and mostly four @-@ spored , with long , slender sterigmata . Unlike other Agaricus species , the spores of A. deserticola are not shot off , but are instead dispersed when they sift out of the dried , mature fruit bodies after the peridium breaks open .
Schaeffer 's chemical test is often used to help identify and differentiate Agaricus species . In this test , aniline plus nitric acid are applied to the surface of the fruit body , and if positive , a red or orange color forms . Agaricus deserticola has a positive Schaeffer 's reaction , similar to species in section Arvensis in the genus Agaricus .
= = = Similar species = = =
Species that resemble A. deserticola include the desert fungi Montagnea arenaria and Podaxis pistillaris . Montagnea arenaria is a whitish stalked puffball with a hollow , woody stalk and a loose sac @-@ like volva at the base of the stem . It is topped by a thin disc @-@ like cap with blackish gill plates suspended around the margin . Podaxis pistillaris has a cylindrical to oval white to brownish cap with a paper @-@ thin wall atop a slender stem . When mature , the cap contains powdery , dark brown spores .
= = = Edibility = = =
The edibility of the fruit bodies of Agaricus deserticola is not known definitively , and there are conflicting opinions in the literature . One popular field guide to North American mushrooms suggests they are edible when they are young , and have a pleasant odor and mild taste . However , other sources claim that the edibility is unknown , and consumption should be avoided .
= = Fruit body development = =
In one early study of the mushroom 's development , the fruit bodies appeared above the surface of the ground two or three days after rainfall or an irrigation , and required between five and eight days to mature . Slender and fragile rhizomorphs — dense masses of hyphae that form root @-@ like structures — grow horizontally 2 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) below the soil surface . Fruit bodies start as enlarged tips on the rhizomorphs , and manifest as numerous small , almost @-@ spherical protuberances just beneath the surface of the soil . When the fruit bodies reach a diameter of about 4 to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) , the stem and peridial regions begin to be distinguishable ; the peridial region first appears as a small swelling at the apex of the much larger stem regions .
The fruit bodies push upward through the soil when they are about 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) tall . As growth progresses , the stem elongates and the peridium becomes more rounded , increasing in size until maturity . At about the time the peridium reaches 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) or slightly more in diameter , the columella exerts an upward tension on the tissue of the partial veil , and it begins to pull away from the stem . Typically , the veil tissue is weakest near the attachment to the stem , rather than to the attachment at the edge of the peridium , and the veil separates from the stem . The lower edge of the peridium is further stretched as it is pulled upward and outward . Usually , the arid environment causes the gleba to dry out rapidly . If the veil tissue at the base of the stem is stronger than that attached to the edge of the peridium , the veil can rip so it remains attached to the stem as a ring . Scales begin to appear on the surface of the peridium of some specimens at about this time .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like other Agaricus species , A. deserticola is saprobic — feeding off dead or decaying organic matter . The fruit bodies are found growing singly to sometimes more numerous , at low elevations , and typically in sandy soil . Its usual habitats include dry lands , coastal sage scrub , and desert ecosystems . It also grows in lawns and fields . The range of the fungus is restricted to southwestern and western North America , where it fruits throughout the year , typically during or following cool , wet weather . Zeller gives a range that includes as its eastern border central Texas , and extends westward to San Diego County , California and north to Josephine County , Oregon . The mushroom used to be common in the San Francisco Bay area before land development reduced its preferred habitats . A. deserticola has been collected in several states in northwestern Mexico , including Sonora , Chihuahua , and Baja California .
= Angkor I =
Angkor I is an outdoor stainless steel sculpture by Lee Kelly , located at Millennium Plaza Park in Lake Oswego , Oregon , in the United States . The 1994 sculpture stands 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) tall and weighs 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) , and was influenced by his visit to Southeast Asia one year prior . In 2010 , Angkor I appeared in an exhibition of Kelly 's work at the Portland Art Museum . In 2011 , it was installed at Millennium Plaza Park on loan from the Portland @-@ based Elizabeth Leach Gallery . The Arts Council of Lake Oswego began soliciting donations in 2013 in an attempt to keep the sculpture as part of the city 's permanent public art collection , Gallery Without Walls . The fundraising campaign was successful ; donations from more than 40 patrons , including major contributions from the Ford Family Foundation and the Oregon Arts Commission , made purchase of the sculpture possible . Angkor I has been called a " recognizable icon " and a " gateway " to the park 's lake .
= = Description and history = =
Angkor I was designed by Lee Kelly , an Idaho @-@ born Oregon sculptor whose works are influenced by modernism and abstract impressionism . Created in 1994 , Angkor I is a large @-@ scale stainless steel sculpture with a surface that is " gesturally and roughly finished " . It stands 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) tall and weighs 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) . In Living in Sculpture : The Studio Work of Lee Kelly , Paul Sutinen writes that Angkor I , along with Angkor II and Phi Mai , were influenced by Kelly 's 1993 visit to Cambodia , Indonesia and Thailand . His visit to the temple complex Angkor Wat inspired the sculpture , as evidenced by its plaque .
In October 2010 , Kelly moved the sculpture to the Portland Art Museum for his summation exhibit , which was open through January 2011 . Later that year , the sculpture was installed at Millennium Plaza Park in Lake Oswego , on loan from Elizabeth Leach Gallery , the Portland @-@ based company which represents Kelly . A board member for the Arts Council of Lake Oswego had initiated the loan proposal to Kelly and the gallery for this public display . According to Nancy Nye , executive director of the council , the sculpture is prominent in the park and " provides a gateway to the lake " .
= = = Permanent installation = = =
In October 2013 , Nye began soliciting donations for the purchase of Angkor I , which was scheduled to return to the gallery unless $ 55 @,@ 000 could be raised by 5pm on November 1 , 2013 . Two weeks prior to this deadline , the council had raised $ 31 @,@ 750 , more than $ 20 @,@ 000 short of the asking price . In an interview published by The Oregonian , Nye said , " Lee Kelly is a living legend and the pride of Oregon 's artistic community . And his studio is right here in Clackamas County . He 's a local treasure . " She also wrote in a press release , " It would be a terrible loss to the community to have this sculpture removed , but it 's fast becoming a reality " . The council 's board chair , Shari Newman , also stressed the urgent need for financial assistance , saying " We ’ re more than halfway there , but what we really need is a handful of lead donors to step forward and make this important work a permanent part of the City ’ s collection . And we need them now . " During the final two weeks of the fundraising campaign , the council draped a black parachute over the sculpture and posted signs requesting financial assistance , such as " Unless someone like you cares a whole awful lot , this sculpture is leaving ... Let 's hope it 's not . "
On November 1 , The Oregonian reported that the council 's director was certain enough money had been raised to keep Angkor I in Lake Oswego permanently , as part of its Gallery Without Walls public art program , though the exact amount of funds raised was uncertain . The Arts Council of Lake Oswego confirmed the purchase via social media on November 5 . Kelly and the Elizabeth Leach Gallery each donated $ 5 @,@ 000 , and the Ford Family Foundation and the Oregon Arts Commission had awarded a $ 10 @,@ 000 matching grant in May 2013 . All funding was provided by private businesses , foundations and individuals ; none came from city or state funds . Portland Tribune and The Oregonian both published comments from Nye , in which she expressed delight about the addition to Lake Oswego 's public art collection and providing access to the " fine " and " magnificent " work for future generations . The council planned a commemoration ceremony at the sculpture 's permanent location ; expected attendees were Kelly , Mayor Kent Studebaker , and members of the Ford Family Foundation and the Oregon Arts Commission . On November 7 , sister publications Lake Oswego Review and Portland Tribune published a " reader 's letter " written by Nye , in which she thanked the more than 40 funders who helped purchase Angkor I.
= = Reception = =
art ltd. magazine said Angkor I 's " reflective surfaces , ground in sweeping gestures , are as important as its form . " According to Nye , the sculpture " has become a recognizable icon " . In her press release , which was published during her fundraising campaign , she wrote : " People often comment that its placement creates a gateway , or window to the lake . If Angkor I is removed , it will leave a real void in the landscape . "
= The Crepes of Wrath =
" The Crepes of Wrath " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 15 , 1990 . The episode was written by George Meyer , Sam Simon , John Swartzwelder and Jon Vitti , and was directed by Wes Archer and Milton Gray . In the episode , Bart is sent to France on a student exchange trip , where his hosts treat him as a slave . Meanwhile , an Albanian student takes Bart 's place in the Simpsons family , and shows great interest in Homer 's work at the nuclear power plant .
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics , and in 1997 , David Bauder from TV Guide named this episode the greatest episode of The Simpsons , and the 17th greatest episode of any television show of all time .
= = Plot = =
Homer trips over Bart 's skateboard and falls down the stairs , hurting his back , and is confined to the couch for several days . Marge sends Bart to clean his room and while doing so , he discovers an old cherry bomb among his things . At school the next day , he decides to flush it down the toilet in the boys ' restroom with friends , Milhouse , Richard and Lewis . On the same day , Principal Skinner 's mother is visiting the school and Bart ends up pulling his prank the same time Principal Skinner 's mother is using the facilities in an adjacent girls ' restroom . The resulting explosion blows her off of her seat and enrages Skinner . In order to punish him , Skinner proposes deportation to Homer and Marge , by having Bart participate in a foreign exchange program . They decide to send Bart to France , while the Simpsons host a student from the Socialist People 's Republic of Albania , named Adil Hoxha . Bart is shown a picture of a lovely château in the heart of France and he immediately agrees to go , much to Homer and Skinner 's delight .
In France , Bart arrives at " Château Maison " , which is actually a dilapidated farmhouse on a run @-@ down vineyard . He is greeted by two unscrupulous , abusive winemakers , César and his nephew Ugolin , who proceed to treat him like a slave . Bart is starved while being made to carry buckets of water , collect and crush grapes , sleep on the floor , and test wine contaminated with antifreeze .
Meanwhile , in Springfield , Adil arrives and turns out to be very friendly , helping out Marge with the family chores . Homer immediately takes a shine to him , and it is noticeable that he is a better son and role model than Bart ever was . However , Marge challenges Homer that while she appreciates Adil 's good behavior , part of being good parents is that they have the same respect for their natural children , in that is Homer being concerned for Bart while he is abroad . Unbeknown to the family , Adil is actually a spy sent by his government to obtain blueprints of the Springfield nuclear plant 's reactor . Homer unwittingly takes him on a tour of the power plant and thinks nothing of the many photographs Adil takes , which Adil sends home by a secret fax machine in Bart 's tree house .
When Bart is sent by his captors into town to buy a case of antifreeze , he sees a gendarme and tries to ask for help , but the gendarme does not understand English and only gives Bart a piece of candy . Bart walks away , despairing over his own stupidity , then suddenly begins speaking French to himself . Realizing he has become fluent in the language , he runs back to the gendarme and tells him about the winemakers . The winemakers are swiftly arrested and Bart finishes his stay in France being hailed as a hero . He is awarded a medal for his bravery and he is kissed by a French beauty queen . Back in Springfield , Adil is caught by the FBI , forcing him to be sent back to Albania in exchange for their own child spy . Bart returns to his family , bringing them gifts from France . Back at home trying out the gifts , Homer has difficulty opening a wine bottle , but is pleased to hear Bart speak French , oblivious that Bart has just called him a buffoon .
= = Production = =
" The Crepes of Wrath " was the first episode of The Simpsons for which George Meyer was credited as a writer , and he wrote it together with Sam Simon , John Swartzwelder and Jon Vitti . The episode was inspired by the French movie Manon of the Spring . The writers were trying to figure out which country the foreign exchange student should come from when they came up with Albania . They had not seen many uses of the country on television and decided to make the episode a tribute to actor John Belushi , who has Albanian roots . The writers did not know much about the country and could not think of a good name for the boy so they gave him the surname Hoxha after the former leader of Albania , Enver Hoxha . They used real Albanian in the scene where Adil says goodbye to his family , and they tried to get the actual language right at Sam Simon 's instigation . They also used real French in the scenes of Bart in France . The writers did some research on a certain airport in France for the shots of Bart at the airport in Paris . Principal Skinner 's mother , Agnes Skinner , made her first appearance on The Simpsons in this episode , although her voice was a bit different from what the viewers are used to in the later episodes of the show .
César and Ugolin are named after the peasants from the 1986 French films Jean de Florette and Manon des Sources . Bart 's French gift to Maggie is a reference to Le Ballon Rouge , a short French children 's film . On the way to the chateau , Bart and Ugolin cycle past scenes depicted in several famous paintings , notably Bassin aux nymphéas by Claude Monet , Champ de blé aux corbeaux by Vincent van Gogh , Le rêve by Henri Rousseau and Déjeuner sur l 'herbe by Édouard Manet . The choice of antifreeze as an adulterant is a nod to the 1985 diethylene glycol wine scandal . The episode 's title in an obvious reference to John Steinbeck 's novel , The Grapes of Wrath .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Crepes of Wrath " finished 29th place in the weekly ratings for the week of April 9 – 15 , 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 9 . It was the second highest rated show on the Fox Network that week .
" The Crepes of Wrath " received generally positive reviews from critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said the episode was a " Tour de Force " and that this was " perhaps the first episode to make the viewer 's jaw drop at the audacity and invention of the series ' makers " . In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 2 @.@ 5 / 5 , adding : " While the laughs are a bit dry in this episode , the over the top plot is indicative of zaniness to come . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that " it ’ s clear that the writers had started to find their groove by the time this episode was produced . From start to finish , ' Crepes ' offered a solid experience , as the show began to feature more style and subtlety . " Scott Collura at Hollywood Video praised the episode in a review , saying " it is one of the best of the first season . " In 1997 , David Bauder from TV Guide named this episode the greatest episode of The Simpsons , and the 17th greatest episode of any television show of all time . In 2006 , IGN listed " The Crepes of Wrath " as the best episode of the first season , saying it " features a strong central storyline , with Bart being shipped off to France as an exchange student and being forced to work for two unscrupulous winemakers that mix antifreeze in their wine . " The episode 's reference to Le Ballon Rouge was named the third greatest film reference in the history of the show by Nathan Ditum of Total Film .
In Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner notes that many of the episode 's French characters and settings are derived largely from American stereotypes of France , writing " [ Caeser and Ugolin ] are perfect embodiments of the stereotypical Frenchman so loathed in the United States . " The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . "
= Oryzomys couesi =
Oryzomys couesi , also known as Coues ' rice rat , is a semiaquatic rodent in the family Cricetidae occurring from southernmost Texas through Mexico and Central America into northwestern Colombia . It is usually found in wet habitats , such as marshes , but also lives in drier forests and shrublands . Weighing about 43 to 82 g ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 9 oz ) , O. couesi is a medium @-@ sized to large rat . The coarse fur is buff to reddish above and white to buff below . The hindfeet show some specializations for life in the water , such as reduced ungual tufts of hair around the digits . It has 56 chromosomes . There is much geographic variation in size , proportions , color , and skull features . Oryzomys couesi is active during the night and builds nests of vegetation that are suspended among reeds about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above the ground . It is an excellent swimmer and dives well , but can also climb in vegetation . An omnivore , it eats both plant and animal food , including seeds and insects . It breeds throughout the year ; females give birth to about four young after a pregnancy of 21 to 28 days . The species may be infected by several different parasites and by two hantaviruses .
The species was first described in 1877 , the first of many related species from the region described until the 1910s . In 1918 , Edward Alphonso Goldman consolidated most into the single species Oryzomys couesi and in 1960 Raymond Hall united this taxon with its United States relative , the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) , into a single widespread species ; subsequently , many related , localized species retained by Goldman were also included in this taxon . After studies of the contact zone in Texas , where O. couesi and the marsh rice rat meet , were published in 1979 and underscored the distinctness of the two , they were again regarded as separate . Since then , some of the peripheral forms of the group , such as Oryzomys antillarum from Jamaica and Oryzomys peninsulae from the Baja California Peninsula , have been reinstated as species . Nevertheless , O. couesi as currently constituted is likely a composite of several species ; a 2010 study , using DNA sequence data , found evidence to recognize separate species from the Pacific and eastern sides of the distribution of O. couesi and two additional species from Panama and Costa Rica . Generally , Oryzomys couesi is common and of no conservation concern , and it is even considered a plague species in places , but some populations are threatened .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys couesi and at least six more narrowly distributed species with peripheral distributions together form the O. couesi group within the genus Oryzomys . The eighth species of the genus , the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) is the only member of its own group ( unless western populations are classified as a separate species , O. texensis ) . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were reclassified in various studies culminating in contributions by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than forty species from the genus . All are placed in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of the family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = = History = = =
Edward Alston first described Oryzomys couesi in 1877 , using three specimens from Mexico and Guatemala . He named the animal Hesperomys couesi , placing it in the now @-@ defunct genus Hesperomys , and noted similarities to the marsh rice rat ( then called Hesperomys palustris ) and two species now placed in Tylomys . The specific name , couesi , honors American naturalist Elliott Coues , who had done much work on North American rodents . In 1893 , Oldfield Thomas wrote that the species , by then placed in the genus Oryzomys as Oryzomys couesi , had caused much confusion about its identity , because the three specimens ( one from Cobán , Guatemala , and two from Mexico ) used by Alston in fact belonged to two or three different species . He restricted the name couesi to the animal from Guatemala , and introduced the new name Oryzomys fulgens for one of the Mexican animals . Several other related species were described from the early 1890s onwards and in 1901 Clinton Hart Merriam united many of those into a palustris @-@ mexicanus group of species , which also included the marsh rice rat .
Edward Alphonso Goldman revised North American Oryzomys in 1918 and consolidated many forms into a single species Oryzomys couesi , with ten subspecies distributed from southern Texas and western Mexico south to Costa Rica . He placed it in an Oryzomys palustris group with the marsh rice rat and several species with more limited distributions , which he regarded as related to O. couesi but distinctive enough to be classified as separate species . In the 1930s , a few more forms related to O. couesi were described . As then recognized , the ranges of the marsh rice rat , a United States species , and Oryzomys couesi meet in southern Texas . In 1960 , Raymond Hall reviewed specimens from this contact zone and found no grounds on which to separate the two species ; thus , he reduced O. couesi to a subspecies of the marsh rice rat . Other workers continued this lumping and by 1971 all other species Goldman had placed in the O. palustris group were classified under the marsh rice rat , together with Oryzomys azuerensis from Panama , described as a species in 1937 .
Additional studies of the palustris – couesi contact zone in Texas published in 1979 , using more specimens and characters , indicated that the two species are in fact easily distinguishable there ; therefore , O. couesi has since been regarded as a species distinct from the marsh rice rat . Afterward , some of the other forms synonymized under O. couesi or O. palustris were resurrected as separate species — Oryzomys nelsoni from the Marías Islands , western Mexico , and Oryzomys antillarum from Jamaica . In 2009 , Michael Carleton and Joaquin Arroyo @-@ Cabrales reviewed western Mexican Oryzomys , reaffirmed the distinctness of O. nelsoni , and reinstated O. peninsulae from the tip of the Baja California Peninsula and O. albiventer from interior Mexico as species . Still , O. couesi included 22 synonyms , and Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales wrote that further research on O. couesi and related species would certainly result in the recognition of additional species .
A 2010 study by Delton Hanson and colleagues used DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b ( Cytb ) and two nuclear markers , exon 1 of the interphotoreceptor retinoid @-@ binding protein gene ( Rbp3 ) and intron 2 of alcohol dehydrogenase gene 1 ( Adh1 @-@ I2 ) to study relationships among populations of the marsh rice rat and O. couesi . The Cytb data placed all studied specimens of O. couesi in a clade sister to the marsh rice rat ; the mean genetic distance between the two groups was 11 @.@ 30 % , much larger than the distance between sister species in the related genera Melanomys and Nectomys ( 7 @.@ 48 % and 7 @.@ 52 % , respectively ) . Within the O. couesi clade , two populations from Panama and Costa Rica were successively basal to the other specimens , which fell into two large subclades — one containing animals from the Pacific seaboard from western Mexico to El Salvador and the other containing rats from the eastern seaboard from Texas to Nicaragua . The Panamanian and Costa Rican populations differed by 6 @.@ 53 % to 11 @.@ 93 % from the others and the western and eastern subclades differed by 4 @.@ 41 % on average . Data from both of the slower @-@ evolving nuclear markers Rbp3 and Adh1 @-@ I2 also placed examples of Oryzomys in two main clades , but did not recover the western and eastern groups of O. couesi as separate clades . In addition , Adh1 @-@ I2 placed the Costa Rican population within the marsh rice rat clade and placed some western O. couesi specimens closer to the marsh rice rat than to the O. couesi group . The combined dataset supported the western and eastern clades within O. couesi and placed the Costa Rican population marginally closer to the marsh rice rat than to O. couesi . Using the genetic species concept , the authors suggested that the four groups they found within O. couesi should be recognized as distinct species . If this suggestion is followed , the eastern subclade would retain the name Oryzomys couesi , the western group would be named Oryzomys mexicanus , and the appropriate names for the Panamanian and Costa Rican species remain unclear .
= = = Western Mexico to El Salvador = = =
Populations of Oryzomys couesi from Jalisco , western Mexico , east to El Salvador form a single Cytb clade , which Hanson and colleagues proposed to recognize as the species Oryzomys mexicanus . These animals differ by 4 @.@ 4 % from Oryzomys couesi in the strict sense , which occurs to the north and east , are separated by mountain ranges from the latter , harbor different species of hantavirus , and according to Merriam ( 1901 ) have more robust skulls , with larger molars , stronger zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) , and better developed ridges along the margins of the interorbital region of the skull ( between the eyes ) . Within the " Oryzomys mexicanus " clade , Cytb sequence differences average 2 @.@ 06 % and western ( Jalisco to Oaxaca ) and eastern ( Chiapas and El Salvador ) groups form distinct subclades ; Hanson and colleagues recognized these as different subspecies , mexicanus in the west and zygomaticus in the east .
As defined by Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales in 2009 , the subspecies Oryzomys couesi mexicanus occurs along the Pacific coast from central Sonora to southeastern Oaxaca and inland along rivers into central Michoacán , southern Morelos , southern Puebla , and northwestern Oaxaca . It usually lives below 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) altitude , but has been found at 1 @,@ 525 m ( 5 @,@ 003 ft ) in Jalisco . This distributional pattern is similar to that of other western Mexican rodents such as Sigmodon mascotensis , Hodomys alleni , Peromyscus perfulvus , and Osgoodomys banderanus and has been recognized as a distinct biogeographic zone in some reviews . O. c. mexicanus occurs close to three other Oryzomys species — O. albiventer , O. peninsulae , and O. nelsoni — which are larger and different in some proportions and details of coloration .
Joel Asaph Allen first described Oryzomys mexicanus as a full species in 1897 from specimens from Jalisco . In the same publication , he also described Oryzomys bulleri from nearby Nayarit , but he did not compare the two with each other . Merriam added a second species from Nayarit , Oryzomys rufus , in 1901 , noting that it was smaller and more reddish than mexicanus . Goldman synonymized the three as O. couesi mexicanus in 1918 and in 2009 Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales concurred , arguing that the differences between rufus and mexicanus were age @-@ related and within the normal range of variation of the animal . Another subspecies , Oryzomys couesi lambi , was described by Burt in 1934 from central coastal Sonora , which extended the range of the species by 400 mi ( 640 km ) at the time . This form is dark gray @-@ brown , much darker than mexicanus , and has a shorter tail and weaker jugals . Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales wrote that it is similar to mexicanus , but that further research is needed to determine whether it should be recognized as a subspecies . Large O. couesi from northern Sinaloa may also belong to this form . Goldman wrote that mexicanus was very similar to nominate couesi , but usually with paler fur ; the upperparts are more buffy than in couesi and the underparts are usually white , but may be buffy , the normal color in couesi .
Oryzomys zygomaticus was first described by Merriam in 1901 as a separate species similar to mexicanus , but with the zygomatic arches broadly spreading and curved downward . Goldman , who reduced it to a subspecies of couesi , recorded it from southwestern Guatemala and nearby Chiapas and described it as slightly paler than O. c. couesi but darker than O. c. mexicanus . Three specimens from central El Salvador have Cytb sequences similar to those of zygomaticus , but in The Mammals of El Salvador ( 1961 ) , Burt and Stirton recorded only the subspecies couesi from the country , while noting that specimens from some localities were slightly paler than others .
= = = Interior Mexico = = =
Goldman grouped four subspecies of couesi from the interior plateaus of central Mexico together — albiventer , crinitus , aztecus , and regillus . Three of those ( albiventer from Jalisco , crinitus from the Distrito Federal , and aztecus from Morelos ) were described by Merriam in 1901 , and Goldman had himself described regillus from Michoacán in 1915 . According to Goldman , aztecus is pale and large @-@ toothed , crinitus is large , dark and large @-@ toothed , regillus is large and dark , and albiventer is large and relatively pale .
In their 2009 review of western Mexican Oryzomys , Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales classified Oryzomys albiventer as a separate species from lowland mexicanus on the basis of clear morphometric differentiation and offered some comments on the status of crinitus , regillus , and aztecus , including the holotypes of the three forms in their morphometric analyses . The holotypes of regillus and aztecus were at the upper end of the range of variation in their large series of mexicanus from the western lowlands , and crinitus clustered with specimens of O. peninsulae from the tip of the Baja California Peninsula . They suggested that regillus and aztecus may represent no more than robust upland populations of mexicanus , but could not exclude the possibility that they represent a different species . That crinitus , which occurs at over 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Valley of Mexico , was the same species as peninsulae from the lowlands of the Baja California Peninsula they could not accept and they recommended further research to determine the relationships of crinitus . A specimen from inland Michoacán has Cytb data characteristic of mexicanus , but Hanson and colleagues did not have data for other interior Mexican Oryzomys .
The holotype of the species Oryzomys fulgens , which Thomas had described in 1893 , has no more precise locality than " Mexico " , but the Valley of Mexico has been suggested as its origin . It is a large , coarse @-@ furred , bright reddish , long @-@ tailed species with a broad skull with widely spreading zygomatic arches . Goldman wrote that it was similar to crinitus , but more intensely colored , and differed in the form of the interorbital region ; he retained it as a separate species pending further investigations . Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales noted that archival research may yet uncover the precise origin of O. fulgens , which could establish it as an older name for one of the other central Mexican Oryzomys .
= = = Texas to Nicaragua = = =
Oryzomys populations from Texas to Nicaragua form a single Cytb clade , within which the average sequence divergence is 1 @.@ 28 % , and Hanson and colleagues proposed that the name Oryzomys couesi be restricted to this clade . These populations correspond to two subspecies recognized by Goldman ( O. c. aquaticus and O. c. couesi ) and an island form he retained as a species ( O. cozumelae ) . Two other subspecies Goldman recognized , O. c. richmondi and O. c. peragrus , and a third , O. c. pinicola , that was described after Goldman 's paper occur in the same region , but have not been studied genetically .
The northernmost populations of Oryzomys couesi , those in southernmost Texas and nearby Tamaulipas , Mexico , are classified as the subspecies aquaticus , which was described as a separate species , Oryzomys aquaticus , in 1891 . Here the range of O. couesi meets that of the marsh rice rat ; in parts of Kenedy , Willacy and Cameron counties , Texas , and in far northeastern Tamaulipas , the two are sympatric ( occur in the same places ) . In the contact zone , couesi occurs further inland , while the marsh rice rat lives along the coast . In experimental conditions , the two fail to interbreed and genetic analysis yields no evidence of gene flow or hybridization in the wild . Compared to populations further to the south , aquaticus is larger and paler and has a more robust skull . Specimens from Tamaulipas are slightly darker than those from Texas . The Cytb sequences of specimens of aquaticus form a separate group , but cluster among specimens of O. c. couesi from further south .
The form peragrus is known from further south in Mexico , in the Río Verde basin of San Luis Potosi , the state of Hidalgo , and far northern Veracruz . Late Pleistocene fossils of this form have been found in Cueva de Abre , Tamaulipas . According to Goldman , it is intermediate in color between O. c. aquaticus and O. c. couesi , but has a skull similar to that of aquaticus .
Goldman united populations ranging from northern Veracruz through eastern Mexico , Guatemala , Honduras , and Nicaragua south to far northwestern Costa Rica in the nominate subspecies , Oryzomys couesi couesi . He placed six other names as full synonyms of this form , which has its type locality in Guatemala — Oryzomys jalapae Allen and Chapman , 1897 , from Veracruz ; Oryzomys jalapae rufinus Merriam , 1901 , from Veracruz ; Oryzomys teapensis Merriam , 1901 , from Tabasco ; Oryzomys goldmani Merriam , 1901 , from Veracruz ; Oryzomys jalapae apatelius Eliot , 1904 , from Veracruz ; and Oryzomys richardsoni Allen , 1910 , from Nicaragua . According to Goldman , individual variation within the subspecies is large , which has led to the large number of published synonyms , but populations from all parts of its range are essentially similar .
The subspecies Oryzomys couesi pinicola was described in 1932 from a pine ridge in western British Honduras ( now Belize ) ; it is smaller and darker than nominate couesi , which also occurs in Belize , and has a more delicate skull . In 1901 , Merriam described the Oryzomys of the island of Cozumel as a separate species , Oryzomys cozumelae , and Goldman kept it as such because of its large size , dark fur , and long tail . In 1965 , however , Knox Jones and Timothy Lawlor judged the differences between cozumelae and mainland couesi trivial and found that cozumelae was inside the range of variation of mainland Oryzomys populations ; accordingly , they demoted the island form to a subspecies . Mark Engstrom and colleagues , writing in 1989 , reaffirmed this conclusion . For an island form , this population is highly genetically variable . In its Cytb sequence data , it falls among populations of nominate couesi . Oryzomys couesi is also found on Turneffe Atoll off the coast of Belize and Roatán off Honduras .
The Oryzomys of the eastern lowlands of Nicaragua was described as a separate species , Oryzomys richmondi , by Merriam in 1901 , and Goldman retained it as a subspecies of O. couesi on the basis of its distinctly dark fur . In reviewing Nicaraguan Oryzomys in 1986 , Jones and Engstrom did not keep richmondi as separate , because they thought the difference in color too small for the recognition of subspecies . Oryzomys dimidiatus , a small , dark Oryzomys with gray underparts , occurs with O. couesi in southeastern Nicaragua . According to Jones and Engstrom , rice rats from the island of Ometepe in Lake Nicaragua are distinctive in their large skull and small external measurements , with an especially short tail , soft fur that is orange @-@ brown above and buffish below , and lack of sphenopalatine vacuities ( openings in the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the bony palate ) . They considered that this population probably represented a separate subspecies , but declined to propose a new name because they had only one adult specimen . In Nicaragua , O. couesi occurs up to an altitude of 1 @,@ 250 m ( 4 @,@ 100 ft ) .
= = = Costa Rica , Panama , and Colombia = = =
Oryzomys from Costa Rica have historically been referred to O. c. couesi , but Hanson and colleagues found that two specimens from Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Mixto Maquenque , northeastern Costa Rica , differed as much from other O. couesi ( 11 @.@ 93 % Cytb sequence divergence ) as O. couesi differed from the marsh rice rat ( 11 @.@ 30 % ) . They suggested that these animals represented a species distinct from O. couesi , but were unable to resolve the correct name for the species because they could not examine samples of dimidiatus or richmondi .
Oryzomys is rare in Panama . Panamanian Oryzomys were first described by Goldman in 1912 , who introduced the name Oryzomys gatunensis for a specimen from Gatún in the Canal Zone . In 1918 , Goldman kept the animal as a separate species , remarking that it was similar to richmondi , but distinctive in the well @-@ developed ridges along the margins of the interorbital region , the short interparietal bone ( part of the roof of the braincase ) , and the long nasal bones . In 1937 , Bole described another species of Panamanian Oryzomys , Oryzomys azuerensis from Paracoté , Veraguas Province . It is a brown form , lacking the reddish tones of nearby populations , and has a broad skull with a short rostrum ( front part ) and ridges on the interorbital region like those of gatunensis . Although Goldman recommended to him that gatunensis and azuerensis both be treated as subspecies of couesi , Bole described azuerensis as a species because it did not seem intermediate between the geographically closest forms , gatunensis and couesi , and was separated by a large gap from the nearest known populations of O. couesi in northwestern Costa Rica and southeastern Nicaragua . In a 1966 review of Panamanian mammals , Charles Handley reduced both gatunensis and azuerensis to subspecies of the marsh rice rat ( in which O. couesi was included at the time ) , and when O. couesi was reinstated as a separate species these forms went with it . Specimens from near the type locality of azuerensis differ by about 7 % in their Cytb sequences from other O. couesi , which suggests that they may represent a separate species . However , Hanson and colleagues did not reinstate azuerensis as a species , because they could not examine samples of gatunensis .
Oryzomys couesi was first reported from Colombia in 1987 , when Philip Hershkovitz reported on its occurrence at Montería in Córdoba Department , northwestern Colombia . The Colombian specimen is ochraceous in color throughout and according to Hershkovitz almost identical to specimens from Guatemala , but distinctive in that the upper lip is white . He suggested that O. couesi may also be discovered in the Pacific lowlands of the Chocó in western Colombia .
= = = Common names = = =
Several common names have been proposed for Oryzomys couesi and the synonyms currently associated with it . Eliot in 1905 and Goldman in 1918 gave separate common names for each of the species and subspecies they recognized . Many authors have used " Coues ' Rice Rat " or some variation thereof for O. couesi , but " Coues ' Oryzomys " has also been used .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys couesi is a medium @-@ sized to large rat with coarse fur that is buff to reddish above , becoming paler towards the sides and cheeks and darker on the rump and face . The underparts are white to buff . The fur is shorter , brighter , and more intense in color than in the marsh rice rat . The snout ends bluntly and the moderately large eyes show reddish eyeshine . The small ears are black on the outside and the inside is covered with short , gray to buff or red hairs . The long tail is dark brown above and white to light brown below . The feet are long and stout . On the forefeet , the ungual tufts ( tufts of hair on the digits ) are present . Many of the pads on the hindfeet are reduced , as are the ungual tufts , and small interdigital webs may be present in at least some specimens . Some of these traits are common adaptations to life in the water in oryzomyines . As in most other oryzomyines , females have eight mammae . Head and body length is 98 to 142 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 6 in ) , tail length is 107 to 152 mm ( 4 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) , hindfoot length is 27 to 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) , ear length is 13 to 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and body mass is 43 to 82 g ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 9 oz ) . Studies in Texas and El Salvador found that males are slightly larger than females .
The stomach has the characteristic pattern of sigmodontines ( unilocular @-@ hemiglandular ) : it is not split in two chambers by an incisura angularis and the front part ( antrum ) is covered by a glandular epithelium . The gall bladder is absent , a synapomorphy ( shared @-@ derived character ) of Oryzomyini . The karyotype includes 56 chromosomes and a fundamental number of 56 autosomal arms ( 2n
= 56 , FNa =
56 ) . The autosomes include 26 pairs of acrocentric chromosomes , with a long and a very short arm , and one medium @-@ sized submetacentric pair , with one arm shorter than the other . The X chromosome is either acrocentric , with a long and a short arm , or subtelocentric , with a long and a vestigial arm . The form of the sex chromosomes has been used to distinguish the marsh rice rat from Oryzomys couesi , but there are no consistent differences between the two .
As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae , Oryzomys couesi has a complex penis , with the baculum ( penis bone ) ending in three cartilaginous digits at its tip . The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines , but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue . The papilla ( nipple @-@ like projection ) on the dorsal ( upper ) side of the penis is covered with small spines , a character Oryzomys couesi shares only with Oligoryzomys and the marsh rice rat among oryzomyines examined . On the urethral process , located in the crater at the end of the penis , a fleshy process ( the subapical lobule ) is present ; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except the marsh rice rat and Holochilus brasiliensis .
= = = Skull = = =
The nasal and premaxillary bones do not extend back beyond the point where the lacrimal , frontal , and maxillary bones meet . The zygomatic plate , the flattened front part of the zygomatic arch , is broad and develops a notch at its front end . The plate 's back margin is located before the first upper molar . The jugal bone , part of the zygomatic arch , is reduced , as usual in oryzomyines . The sphenopalatine foramen , a foramen ( opening ) at the side of the skull above the molars , is small ; it is much larger in the marsh rice rat . The narrowest part of the interorbital region is towards the front and the edges are lined by prominent shelves . The parietal bones extend to the sides of the braincase . The interparietal bone is narrow and wedge @-@ shaped , so that the parietal and squamosal bones meet extensively .
The incisive foramina , openings in the front part of the palate , reach backward between the molars . The palate is long , extending substantially beyond the third molars , the usual condition in oryzomyines . The back part , near the third molars , is usually perforated by prominent posterolateral palatal pits , which are recessed into fossae ( depressions ) . Sphenopalatine vacuities are usually absent , but have been reported in some populations . There is no alisphenoid strut , an extension of the alisphenoid bone that in some oryzomyines separates two foramina in the skull . The condition of the arteries in the head is highly derived . The subsquamosal fenestra , an opening in the back part of the skull determined by the shape of the squamosal bone , is present . The squamosal lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines . There are some openings in the mastoid bone .
In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the mental foramen , an opening just before the first molar , opens sidewards , not upwards as in a few other oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , join at a point below the first molar and do not extend forward beyond that point . The capsular process , a raising of the bone of the back of the mandible that houses the back end of the incisor , is large .
= = = Teeth = = =
The dental formula is 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 × 2 = 16 ( one upper and one lower incisor and three upper and three lower molars on each side of the jaws ) , as usual in muroid rodents . The upper incisors are opisthodont , with the chewing edge located behind the vertical plane of the teeth . The molars are bunodont , with the cusps higher than the connecting crests , and brachydont , low @-@ crowned , as in most other oryzomyines . Many accessory crests , including the mesoloph on the upper molars and the mesolophid on the lower molars , are present , another trait O. couesi shares with most but not all other oryzomyines . The flexi and flexids ( valleys between the cusps and crests ) at the labial ( outer ) side of the molars are closed by cingula ( ridges ) .
On the first and second upper molars , the flexi do not extend to the midline of the molars . The anterocone , the front cusp of the upper first molar , is not divided in two by an indentation at its front ( anteromedian flexus ) . A crest , the anteroloph , is present behind the labial cuspule . As in most oryzomyines , the upper molars all have one root on the inner ( lingual ) side and two on the outer ( labial ) side ; in addition , the first upper molar usually has another small labial root .
On the first lower molar , the labial and lingual conules of the anteroconid , the frontmost cusp , are separated by an anteromedian fossette . The second lower molar bears a crest , the anterolophid , before the two cusps , the protoconid and metaconid , that form the front edge of the molar in some other oryzomyines . There is a distinct ridge ( anterolabial cingulum ) at the outer front ( anterolabial ) edge of the molar , before the protoconid . The third lower molar also bears an anterolophid and an anterolabial cingulum . The first lower molar has large roots at the front and back of the tooth and two smaller ones in between , at the labial and lingual side . The second and third lowers molars have two large roots , one at the front and one at the back .
= = = Postcranial skeleton = = =
As usual in oryzomyines , there are twelve ribs . The first rib articulates with both the last cervical ( neck ) and first thoracic ( chest ) vertebrae , a synapomorphy of the Sigmodontinae . Anapophyses , processes at the back of a vertebra , are absent from the fifth lumbar . Between the second and third caudal vertebrae , hemal arches ( small bones ) are present with a spinous back border . The entepicondylar foramen is absent , as in all members of the Sigmodontinae ; if present , as in some other rodents , this foramen perforates the distal ( far ) end of the humerus ( upper arm bone ) .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The distribution of Oryzomys couesi extends from southern Texas and central Sonora , but not the central plateau of Mexico , through Central America south and east to northwestern Colombia ; see under " Taxonomy " for details . The species has also been found in late Pleistocene cave deposits in Mexico and Honduras . It is common in watery habitats , such as marshes and small streams , but also occurs in forests and shrublands with sufficient cover . In addition , it is found in sugarcane and rice fields . In Texas , it occurs in marsh vegetation along resacas ( oxbow lakes ) and in Veracruz , it has even been found on the dry coastal plain among shrubs . It occurs from 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) altitude down to sea level . On Cozumel , the proportion of juveniles and females is higher near roads that function as habitat edges . Cozumel rice rats rarely cross roads , which may isolate subpopulations on the island .
Oryzomys couesi lives on the ground and is semiaquatic , spending much time in the water , as Alston in his original description already recognized , but is also a good climber . A study in Costa Rica found that O. couesi is an excellent swimmer , diving well and using its tail to propel itself . It is probably able to forage underwater , which may help differentiate its niche from that of the ecologically similar cotton rat Sigmodon hirsutus , which also swims well , but does not dive . When disturbed , O. couesi will enter the water and swim away . It is primarily active during the night . Oryzomys couesi builds globular nests of woven vegetation suspended among reeds , about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above the water or the ground ; in Texas , larger individuals make larger nests . It does not usually make its own runways in vegetation , but may use those of other rodents , such as cotton rats .
Population densities range from 5 to 30 per ha ( 2 to 12 per acre ) . On Cozumel , density is around 14 @.@ 5 to 16 @.@ 5 per ha ( 5 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 7 per acre ) , but shows large seasonal variation . In western Mexico , one study found densities of 3 per ha ( 1 @.@ 2 per acre ) in cloud forest and 1 per ha ( 0 @.@ 4 per acre ) in a disturbed area . In 24 hours , male Texas O. couesi move up to 153 m ( 502 ft ) and females up to 126 m ( 413 ft ) . The diet includes both plant material , including seeds and green parts , and animals , including small fish , crustaceans , snails , insects like ants and beetles , and other invertebrates . It probably breeds around the year and after a pregnancy of 21 to 28 days , the female produces litters of two to seven young , with an average of 3 @.@ 8 , according to Reid 's Mammals of Central America & Southeast Mexico . In 28 pregnant females from Nicaragua , litter size varied from one to eight , averaging 4 @.@ 4 . The young become reproductively active when seven weeks old and the life cycle is short .
The introduced snake Boa constrictor preys on O. couesi on Cozumel . Parasites recorded on O. couesi in Veracruz include unidentified ticks , mites , fleas , and fly larvae . The flea Polygenis odiosus was found on an Oryzomys couesi from Cozumel . Out of ten O. couesi in San Luis Potosí , five each were infected by the nematode worms Hassalstrongylus musculi and H. bocqueti , with about 25 worms per rat , and two were infected by one or two cestodes of the genus Raillietina . The mites Eubrachylaelaps circularis and Gigantolaelaps boneti have been found on Oryzomys couesi in Oaxaca , the sucking louse Hoplopleura oryzomydis in Nicaragua , the mites Laelaps oryzomydis , Echinonyssus microchelae , Ornithonyssus bacoti , Prolistrophorus frontalis , and Prolistrophorus bakeri in Colima , and the apicomplexan Eimeria couesii in Mexico . The species is infected by two hantaviruses — Catacamas virus in Honduras and Playa de Oro virus in western Mexico — which are related to the Bayou virus infecting the marsh rice rat , a common cause of hantavirus infections in the United States . No hantavirus infections in humans have been linked to O. couesi hantaviruses , however . Chiapas O. couesi easily survive experimental infection with several arboviruses , including the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus , suggesting that the species may serve as a reservoir for that virus .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN lists Oryzomys couesi as " Least Concern " , because it is a widely distributed , common species with broad habitat tolerance that occurs in many protected areas . Habitat destruction , such as drainage of wetlands , may threaten some populations . In many areas , it is so common that it is considered a plague species . Populations even persist in the Valley of Mexico , as evidenced by a photograph published in 2006 . However , it is listed as threatened in Texas , where its distribution is very limited , because of habitat loss . In 1979 , Benson and Gehlbach estimated the size of the Texas population to be about 15 @,@ 000 . A 2001 study predicted that climate change would drive the Texas population to extinction , because no suitable habitats would continue to exist . The Cozumel population has declined substantially since the mid @-@ 1980s , perhaps due to habitat disturbance and predation by introduced species .
= 2013 Cotton Bowl Classic =
The 2013 AT & T Cotton Bowl Classic was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game held on January 4 , 2013 at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington , Texas in the United States . The 77th edition of the Cotton Bowl Classic began at 7 : 00 p.m. CST and aired on Fox Sports . It featured the Texas A & M Aggies from the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) against the Big 12 Conference co @-@ champion Oklahoma Sooners and was the final game of the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season for both teams . Both the Aggies and the Sooners accepted their invitations after finishing the regular season 10 – 2 .
The pre @-@ game buildup was primarily focused on the two high @-@ powered offenses , both of whom were led by strong passing attacks led by quarterbacks Johnny Manziel and Landry Jones respectively . Both teams also had several quality wide receivers , but both were average to below average defensively . Experts were split in their prognostications , but most predicted a high @-@ scoring game .
Texas A & M defeated Oklahoma 41 – 13 to win the Cotton Bowl Classic and to finish the season with an 11 – 2 record . Manziel rushed for 229 yards during the game , a bowl record , rushing for two touchdowns and throwing for two more . Though the halftime score was 14 – 13 Texas A & M , the Aggies went on to score 27 unanswered second half points to win the game .
= = Teams = =
= = = Oklahoma = = =
With an 8 – 1 conference record , the Sooners once again won a share of the Big 12 Championship ; however , their loss to the Kansas State Wildcats prevented them from reaching the 2013 Fiesta Bowl spot . In addition , the non @-@ AQ Northern Illinois Huskies completed the qualifications to go to the 2013 Orange Bowl , leaving the Sooners out of the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) .
This was the Sooners ' second Cotton Bowl ; they had won the 2002 game , defeating the Arkansas Razorbacks by a score of 10 – 3 . The Sooners were the first team since Florida in 1993 to play against the teams with the top 3 Heisman vote @-@ getters for that season ( having played against 3rd @-@ place finisher Collin Klein from Kansas State , runner @-@ up Manti Te 'o from Notre Dame , and Heisman winner Manziel from Texas A & M ) ; they lost to all three .
= = = Texas A & M = = =
The Aggies ' first season as members of the SEC was led by freshman quarterback and 2012 Heisman Trophy winner Manziel , the Aggies posted a 6 – 2 conference record ( 10 – 2 overall ) , good for a second @-@ place tie in the SEC West Division ( tied with the LSU Tigers ) . In perhaps their biggest game of the season , the Aggies defeated defending national champions and 2013 BCS National Championship Game participants the Alabama Crimson Tide in Tuscaloosa , 29 – 24 .
This was the Aggies ' thirteenth Cotton Bowl appearance ; with the win they hold a 5 – 8 record in the game . With the appearance the Aggies became the first program to participate in the Cotton Bowl as members of three different conferences with automatic Cotton Bowl tie @-@ ins ( the Southwest Conference , the Big 12 , and the SEC ) .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
Coming into the game , much of the buildup surrounded the matchup of two top @-@ flight quarterbacks , senior Landry Jones for Oklahoma and Heisman Trophy winner freshman Johnny Manziel for Texas A & M , both of whom ranked in the top @-@ 15 nationally in passing yards . In the all @-@ time series between the two schools , Oklahoma had won 19 games to Texas A & M 's 11 . This was the teams ' first meeting since Texas A & M left the Big 12 for the SEC . Aggies coach Kevin Sumlin had been an assistant under Bob Stoops ; coming into the game Stoops was 13 – 4 against his former assistants .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
Oklahoma compiled a 10 win , 2 loss record during the regular season and was left out of the BCS for the second consecutive year .
= = = = Offense = = = =
Oklahoma 's offense was led by their senior quarterback Jones who was primarily responsible for the Sooners ' 224 passing first downs , which was best in the country , and their 52 @.@ 2 third down conversion success rate , which was fourth @-@ best in the country . Jones , a senior who was ranked by ESPN as the number five quarterback prospect for the 2013 NFL Draft , completed 66 % of his 555 passes totaling 4267 yards , which was second @-@ best in the country , and 30 touchdowns . Jones threw primarily to a trio of upperclassmen wide receivers each of whom ended the season with more than 800 receiving yards , junior Kenny Stills , junior Jalen Saunders , who transferred in the offseason from Fresno State , and senior Justin Brown , who transferred to the Sooners in the offseason amid sanctions from the NCAA in wake of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal . Oklahoma 's rushing attack , which was second @-@ worst in the Big 12 in terms of total yards , was led by juniors Damien Williams and Brennan Clay , who amassed 946 yards and 11 touchdowns and 555 yards and 6 touchdowns respectively .
= = = = Defense = = = =
Oklahoma 's defense improved after head coach Bob Stoops ' brother , former Sooners co @-@ defensive coordinator and defensive backs coach Mike Stoops , returned to Oklahoma as the defensive coordinator after having served the previous seven and a half seasons as head coach of the Arizona Wildcats where he totaled 41 wins and 50 losses and was fired mid way through the 2011 season . Oklahoma 's defense was led in tackles by safety Tony Jefferson , who recorded 113 becoming just the sixth Sooner defensive back ever to amass more than 100 . In addition to Jefferson , Oklahoma was represented by defensive back Aaron Colvin on the All @-@ Big 12 first team and defensive lineman David King and defensive back Demontre Hurst on the second team .
= = = Texas A & M = = =
It was announced on December 12 , 2012 that Texas A & M 's offensive coordinator Kliff Kingsbury had left the university for the head coaching position at his alma mater , Texas Tech . Consequently , coach Kevin Sumlin announced that running backs coach and recruiting coordinator Clarence McKinney would call plays during the bowl .
= = = = Offense = = = =
The Aggies ' offense averaged 44 @.@ 8 points per game , third in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) . A & M 's offense was led in both passing and rushing by Heisman Trophy winning quarterback Johnny Manziel . Manziel threw primarily to two receivers , fellow redshirt freshman Mike Evans , who totaled 82 receptions for 1105 yards and 5 touchdowns , and senior Ryan Swope , who totaled 72 receptions for 913 yards and 8 touchdowns . Together , the duo combined for 45 percent of the Aggies ' targets , catching 139 of 199 passes for 1 @,@ 845 yards and 12 touchdowns . Aside from Manziel , junior Ben Malena amassed 808 rushing yards and 8 touchdowns , while senior Christine Michael scored 8 rushing touchdowns to go along with 417 rushing yards . The Aggies also had two projected first @-@ round draft picks on their offensive line , junior tackles Luke Joeckel and Jake Matthews .
= = = = Defense = = = =
The Aggies ' defense was led by first @-@ year defensive coordinator Mark Snyder , who had been a head coach at Marshall and defensive coordinator for Ohio State . Their leading tackler was junior defensive lineman Damontre Moore , who achieved first @-@ team All @-@ SEC accolades during the regular season and declared early to enter the 2013 NFL Draft , where he is considered one of the top prospects , and was the second overall pick in Todd McShay 's initial mock draft .
= = Game summary = =
= = = First quarter = = =
Texas A & M got the ball to start the game and marched down the field on an 8 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that culminated in the first of Manziel 's two rushing touchdowns , the first of which went for 23 yards . Oklahoma took over at their own 25 yardline after a touchback on the kickoff . Jones was 6 / 8 for 43 yards passing on the drive . The Sooners got as far as second and goal at the one yardline prior to two failed plays and a false start penalty that set up a 23 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 7 – 3 Texas A & M. The drive totaled 16 plays and 69 yards in 5 : 43 . On the ensuing drive , Texas A & M was forced to punt after achieving only one first down .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Oklahoma 's next drive ran 18 plays and 87 yards taking up 7 : 26 . Once again , the Sooners stalled in the red zone and were again forced to settle for a field goal , this time a 24 @-@ yarder by Michael Hunnicutt . The next two drives by Texas A & M and Oklahoma both ended in interceptions thrown by Manziel and Jones respectively . Texas A & M took over at the Oklahoma 48 yardline following Jones ' interception . A trick play to start the drive resulted in senior wide receiver Kenric McNeal throwing a 20 @-@ yard pass to Mike Evans . On the next play , running back Ben Malena running the ball 23 yards to the five yardline . Manziel ran for a 5 @-@ yard touchdown on the next play to make the score 14 – 6 . Oklahoma 's next drive lasted 13 plays and 83 yards that culminated in a 6 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Jones to Justin Brown .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Oklahoma 's first second @-@ half drive resulted in a quick three @-@ and @-@ out . After a 58 @-@ yard punt by Tress Way which was downed at the Texas A & M 9 @-@ yard line . Despite the poor field position , the Aggies put together a 7 @-@ play , 91 @-@ yard drive highlighted by a 35 @-@ yard pass from Manziel to Uzoma Nwachukwu and finished with a 7 @-@ yard touchdown run by Malena . Oklahoma had another three @-@ and @-@ out on their next drive . Texas A & M subsequently established a 7 @-@ play , 89 @-@ yard drive that featured three consecutive completed passes from Manziel to Malcome Kennedy and concluded with a 30 @-@ yard rushing touchdown by Trey Williams . Oklahoma 's next drive was their third consecutive three @-@ and @-@ out . Texas A & M then scored their third consecutive touchdown , this time on a 33 @-@ yard pass from Manziel to Ryan Swope making the score 34 – 13 . Oklahoma then ran a 7 @-@ play , 31 @-@ yard drive before punting to end the quarter .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Texas A & M had their first three @-@ and @-@ out of the game to begin the fourth quarter . Oklahoma achieved one first down on their subsequent drive before turning the ball over on downs . Texas A & M scored for the final time of the game on their ensuing drive via a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Manziel to Nwachukwu to make the score 41 – 13 . Oklahoma and Texas A & M then exchanged punts before the final drive of the game by Oklahoma which lasted four plays prior to time running out .
= = Scoring summary = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = = = Team statistics = = = =
= = = = Individual statistics = = = =
= = = = = Passing = = = = =
= = = = = Rushing = = = = =
Manziel 's 229 @-@ yard performance set an FBS record for most rushing yards in a bowl game .
= = = = = Receiving = = = = =
= New York State Route 187 =
New York State Route 187 ( NY 187 ) is a short state highway located entirely in Erie County , New York , in the United States . It serves as the southern end of the busy Transit Road in the town of Elma . Its southern terminus is at Quaker Road ( U.S. Route 20A or US 20A ) and its northern terminus at US 20 where that highway becomes Transit Road . Unlike much of the rest of Transit , which is mostly designated as part of NY 78 , the NY 187 portion is lightly trafficked , two @-@ lane and largely undeveloped . NY 187 was assigned in the early 1940s and was previously part of NY 78 .
= = Route description = =
NY 187 begins at an intersection with US 20A ( Quaker Road ) as a continuation of County Route 553 ( CR 553 ) . It takes on CR 553 's name , Transit Road , and progresses northward as a two @-@ lane road . The highway serves the nearby Bob @-@ O @-@ Link Golf Course prior to entering a stretch of fields in Orchard Park , where it intersects with CR 460 ( Milestrip Road ) , the eastward continuation of NY 179 . The route continues on , loosely paralleling Cazenovia Creek and intersecting Michael and Willardshire roads ( CR 365 and CR 377 , respectively ) before passing the Harvest Hill Golf Course in Elma . NY 187 soon intersects with Reserve Road , an east – west connection from US 20 eastbound , before turning to the northwest and terminating at its own junction with US 20 . The Transit Road designation continues north onto US 20 .
= = History = =
When NY 78 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it initially bypassed the southeastern Buffalo suburbs on a routing that passed through the village of East Aurora , the hamlet of Elma , and the village of Lancaster . It was rerouted c . 1932 to head west from East Aurora instead by way of an overlap with US 20 ( now US 20A ) , then head north on Transit Road to rejoin its former routing in Depew . NY 78 was realigned again c . 1939 to overlap NY 16 northwest from East Aurora , bypassing the southernmost portion of Transit Road . The former routing of NY 78 between US 20A and US 20 was redesignated as NY 187 in the early 1940s .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Erie County .
= My Kind of Christmas =
My Kind of Christmas is the third studio album and first Christmas album by American singer Christina Aguilera . It was released on October 24 , 2000 , by RCA Records . The album was recorded from late @-@ 1999 to late @-@ 2000 , while Aguilera was touring to promote her first two studio albums : Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) and Mi Reflejo ( 2000 ) . My Kind of Christmas contains cover versions of Christmas standards , such as " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and " Angels We Have Heard on High " , as well as several original recordings , which incorporate dance @-@ pop elements . The album was produced by Ron Fair , The Matrix , Robbie Buchanan , Barry Harris and Chris Cox .
My Kind of Christmas received generally mixed to negative reviews from music critics , who criticized its musical style , as well as Aguilera 's vocal delivery . The album peaked at number 28 on the U.S. Billboard 200 and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , having sold 1 @,@ 015 @,@ 000 copies there . Aguilera appeared on several television shows , such as The Early Show and The David Letterman Show , to promote the album , and also performed a special concert for ABC , which was released on DVD in June 2001 , as My Reflection .
= = Background and composition = =
Aguilera achieved her early success following the release of the two first studio albums , Christina Aguilera in 1999 and Mi Reflejo in mid @-@ 2000 , both of which were certified multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . My Kind of Christmas was recorded from late @-@ 1999 to mid @-@ 2000 , when Aguilera was touring to support her two debut recordings . Originally , Aguilera 's idol Etta James was planned to be included as a featured performer on the track " Merry Christmas , Baby " . However the idea was later canceled , and Dr. John was chosen as her replacement afterwards . It is a Christmas and dance @-@ pop album , which contains mainly cover versions of Christmas standards and several new tracks , including " Christmas Time " , " This Year " and " Xtina 's Xmas " . " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and " Merry Christmas , Baby " are the two " soulful " ballads from the album , backed by a 70 @-@ piece orchestra . " Christmas Time " and a cover of Celine Dion 's " These Are the Special Times " , meanwhile , are the two " painful " tracks . " Christmas Time " and " This Year " are the two " hip hop influenced " pop tracks . " The Christmas Song ( Holiday Remix ) " was remade as a dance @-@ styled number , which is set to " a kicking dance beat " . " The Christmas Song ( Chestnut Roasting on an Open Fire ) " released as a single in late @-@ 1999 was included in the album .
= = Promotion = =
The album was released on October 24 , 2000 , by RCA Records as Aguilera 's third studio album in the United States , following her two first albums Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) and Mi Reflejo ( 2000 ) . It was released as two formats : CD and cassette . In order to promote the album , Aguilera promoted the album on a number of shows , including The Rosie O 'Donnell Show , The Early Show , and David Letterman Show . On December 10 , 2000 , Aguilera performed " The Christmas Song " , " Genie in a Bottle " and " What a Girl Wants " during a concert at Franklin High in Milwaukee , being watched by 1 @,@ 300 students . She also performed during an ABC special concert later in December ; the set list included songs from her three first studio albums , including a song from My Kind of Christmas , " Have Yourself A Little Merry Christmas " . There , she performed the track with Brian McKnight . The concert was filmed and released as a DVD entitled My Reflection ( 2001 ) .
= = Reception = =
The album garnered mixed to negative reviews from music critics , some of them criticized her vocals . AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that " none of the new songs are knockouts " but " it does suggest that she may not be a mere one @-@ album wonder " . Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly thought that " Aguilera oversings so wildly that there wouldn 't have been enough oxygen in the booth to sustain another life form " . Jaan Uhelszki from Rolling Stone criticized the album as being " chilly , forced and overdone " , while The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution was not impressed toward Aguilera 's vocal ability on the album , giving it a mixed review .
My Kind of Christmas debuted at number 38 on the Billboard 200 , and later climbed to number 28 , its peak . It eventually peaked atop the Billboard Holiday Albums . Due to its chart success , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album platinum , having sold more than 1 @,@ 015 @,@ 000 copies in the country . " The Christmas Song " became Aguilera 's third top @-@ twenty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 18 on the chart . It also charted at number 22 in Canada . By the end of 2000 , My Kind of Christmas was the second best selling holiday album of the year , making Aguilera one of the four female artists to have the second best selling holiday album of a calendar year , among Amy Grant ( 1992 ) , Mariah Carey ( 1994 ) , and Jackie Evancho ( 2010 ) . In November 2013 , the album entered the International Albums chart in South Korea at number 37 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of My Kind of Christmas .
Recording places
Recorded at Royaltone Studios ; Ocean Way Nashville and Signet Sound Studios
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Oregon Route 120 =
Oregon Route 120 ( OR 120 ) is a 2 @.@ 71 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 36 km ) unsigned state highway in the U.S. state of Oregon . The highway is internally known by the Oregon Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) as Swift Highway No. 120 . OR 120 runs from a Union Pacific railroad crossing near North Columbia Boulevard to an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and OR 99E . The Swift Highway No. 120 was created in 1931 , while the OR 120 designation was created in 2002 .
= = Route description = =
OR 120 begins at a Union Pacific railroad crossing north of an interchange with North Columbia Boulevard . The road continues northeast as North Portland Road and follows BNSF Railway tracks . About half of a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from where the highway begins , OR 120 crosses the Columbia Slough Bridge . OR 120 continues to follow BNSF Railway tracks and passes through wetlands before having a T @-@ intersection with North Marine Drive . The road continues southeast as North Marine Drive , following the Columbia River shoreline . After the highway turns southeast , the road goes under the Oregon Slough Railroad Bridge . The highway ends at an intersection with OR 99E and the ramps for exit 307 on I @-@ 5 . The Portland Expo Center is located near this interchange . The highway is entirely within the city limits of Portland . OR 120 is unsigned for its entire length .
OR 120 is internally known by ODOT as Swift Highway No. 120 . The entire length of OR 120 is part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The Swift Highway No. 120 was established as a secondary highway by the Oregon State Highway Commission on December 3 , 1931 . On November 22 , 1966 , a section of the Swift Highway between North Columbia Boulevard and an Oregon – Washington Railroad and Navigation Company railroad crossing was truncated . During the Oregon Transportation Commission meeting in July 24 , 2002 , the commission approved the OR 120 designation to be placed on the Swift Highway . On July 22 , 2008 , maintenance for portions of the highway were transferred from ODOT to the city of Portland . The sections that were transferred are from the highway 's western terminus to the southeastern end of the Columbia Slough bridge , and the northeastern end of the Columbia Slough Bridge to the end of concrete pavement near the Portland Expo Center .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Portland , Multnomah County .
= Battle of the Malta Convoy ( 1800 ) =
The Battle of the Malta Convoy was a naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars fought on 18 February 1800 during the Siege of Malta . The French garrison at the city of Valletta in Malta had been under siege for eighteen months , blockaded on the landward side by a combined force of British , Portuguese and irregular Maltese forces and from the sea by a Royal Navy squadron under the overall command of Lord Nelson from his base at Palermo on Sicily . In February 1800 , the Neapolitan government replaced the Portuguese troops with their own forces and the soldiers were convoyed to Malta by Nelson and Lord Keith , arriving on the 17 February . The French garrison was by early 1800 suffering from severe food shortages , and in a desperate effort to retain the garrison 's effectiveness a convoy was arranged at Toulon , carrying food , armaments and reinforcements for Valletta under Contre @-@ amiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Perrée . On 17 February , the French convoy approached Malta from the southeast , hoping to pass along the shoreline and evade the British blockade squadron .
On 18 February 1800 lookouts on the British ship HMS Alexander sighted the French and gave chase , followed by the rest of Nelson 's squadron while Keith remained off Valletta . Although most of the French ships outdistanced the British pursuit , one transport was overhauled and forced to surrender , while Perrée 's flagship Généreux was intercepted by the much smaller frigate HMS Success . In the opening exchange of fire , Success was badly damaged but Perrée was mortally wounded . The delay caused by the engagement allowed the main body of the British squadron to catch up the French ship and , badly outnumbered , Généreux surrendered . Perrée died shortly after receiving his wound , and none of the supplies reached Malta , which held out for another seven months against increasing odds before surrendering on 4 September 1800 .
= = Background = =
In May 1798 , during the French Revolutionary Wars , a French expeditionary force sailed from Toulon under General Napoleon Bonaparte . Crossing the Mediterranean , the force captured Malta in early June and continued southeastwards , making landfall in Egypt on 31 June . Landing near Alexandria , Bonaparte captured the city and advanced inland , completing the first stage of a projected campaign in Asia . The French fleet , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers was directed to anchor in Aboukir Bay , 20 mi ( 32 km ) northeast of Alexandria and support the army ashore . On 1 August 1798 , the anchored fleet was surprised and attacked by a British fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson . In the ensuing Battle of the Nile , eleven of the thirteen French ships of the line , and two of the four frigates were captured or destroyed . Brueys was killed , and the survivors of the French fleet struggled out of the bay on 2 August , splitting up near Crete . Généreux sailed north to Corfu , encountering and capturing the British fourth rate ship HMS Leander on route . The other ships , Guillaume Tell and two frigates under Contre @-@ amirals Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve and Denis Decrès , sailed westwards to Malta , arriving just as the island came under siege .
On Malta , the dissolution of the Roman Catholic Church under French rule had been extremely unpopular among the native Maltese population . During an auction of church property on 2 September 1798 , an armed uprising had begun that had forced the French garrison , commanded by General Claude @-@ Henri Belgrand de Vaubois , to retreat into the capital Valletta by the end of the month . The garrison , which numbered approximately 3 @,@ 000 men , had limited food stocks , and efforts to bring supplies in by sea were restricted by a squadron of British and Portuguese ships stationed off the harbour . The blockade was under the command of Nelson , now Lord Nelson , based in Palermo on Sicily , and directly managed by Captain Alexander Ball on the ship of the line HMS Alexander . During 1799 a number of factors , including inadequate food production on Malta , lack of resources and troops caused by commitments elsewhere in the Mediterranean and the appearance of a French fleet under Admiral Etienne Eustache Bruix in the Western Mediterranean all contributed to lapses in the blockade . However , despite the trickle of supplies that reached the garrison , Vaubois ' troops were beginning to suffer the effects of starvation and disease . Late in the year Ball went ashore assist the Maltese troops conducting the siege and was replaced in command of Alexander by his first lieutenant , William Harrington .
In January 1800 , recognising that Valletta was in danger of surrendering if it could not be resupplied , the French Navy prepared a convoy at Toulon , consisting of Généreux , under Captain Cyprien Renaudin , the 20 @-@ gun corvettes Badine , Fauvette and 16 @-@ gun Sans Pareille and two or three transport ships . The force was under the command of Contre @-@ amiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Perrée , recently exchanged under parole after being captured off Acre the previous year , and was instructed to approach Valletta along the Maltese coast from the southwest with the intention of passing between the blockade squadron and the shore and entering Malta before the British could discover and intercept them . The convoy sailed on 7 February . In addition to the supplies , the convoy carried nearly 3 @,@ 000 French soldiers to reinforce the garrison , an unnecessary measure that would completely counteract the replenishment of the garrison 's food stocks .
While the French planned their reinforcement , the Royal Navy was preparing to replace the 500 Portuguese marines stationed on Malta with 1 @,@ 200 Neapolitan troops supplied by King Ferdinand . Nelson , who had recently been neglecting his blockade duties in favour of the politics of the Neapolitan court and in particular Emma , Lady Hamilton , the wife of the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton , was instructed to accompany the Neapolitan convoy . The reinforcement effort was led by Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Keith , Nelson 's superior and overall Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in the Mediterranean , in his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte .
= = Battle = =
Keith 's convoy arrived off Malta in the first week of February 1800 and disembarked the Neapolitan troops at Marsa Sirocco . While stationed off Valletta on 17 February , Keith received word from the frigate HMS Success that a French convoy was approaching the island from the direction of Sicily . Success , commanded by Captain Shuldham Peard , had been ordered to watch the waters off Trapani . After discovering the French ships , which were Perrée 's convoy from Toulon , Peard shadowed their approach to Malta . On receiving the message , Keith issued rapid orders for HMS Lion to cover the channel between Malta and the offshore island of Gozo while Nelson 's flagship HMS Foudroyant , HMS Audacious and HMS Northumberland joined Alexander off the southeastern coast of Malta . Keith himself remained off Valletta in Queen Charlotte , observing the squadron in the harbour .
At daylight on 18 February , lookouts on Alexander sighted the French convoy sailing along the Maltese coast towards Valletta and gave chase , with Nelson 's three ships visible to seawards . At 08 : 00 the transport Ville de Marseille was overhauled , and surrendered to Lieutenant Harrington 's ship , but the other smaller vessels hauled up at 13 : 30 and made out to sea , led by Badine . Généreux was unable to follow as to do so would bring the French ship into action with Alexander , and instead bore up , holding position . This station prevented Alexander from easily coming into action , but gave Captain Peard on Success an opportunity to close with the French ship , bringing his small vessel across the ship of the line 's bow and opening a heavy fire . Peard was able to get off several broadsides against Perrée 's ship before the French officers managed to turn their vessel to fire on the frigate , inflicting severe damage to Peard 's rigging and masts . By this stage however , Perrée was no longer in command : a shot from the first broadside had thrown splinters into his left eye , temporarily blinding him . Remaining on deck , he called to his crew " Ce n 'est rien , mes amis , continuons notre besogne " ( " It is nothing , my friends , continue with your work " ) and gave orders for the ship to be turned , when a cannonball from the second broadside from Success tore his right leg off at the thigh . Perrée collapsed uncounscious on the deck .
Although Success was badly damaged and drifting , the delay had allowed Nelson 's flagship Foudroyant under Captain Sir Edward Berry and Northumberland under Captain George Martin to come up to Généreux by 16 : 30 . Foudroyant fired two shots at the French warship , at which point the demoralised French officers fired a single broadside at the approaching British ships and then surrendered , at 5 : 30 . The remaining French ships had escaped seawards and eventually reached Toulon , while the British squadron consolidated their prizes and returned to Keith off Toulon . British losses in the engagement were one man killed and nine wounded , all on Success , while French losses were confined to Perrée alone , who died of his wounds in the evening . Perrée 's death was met by a mixed response in the British squadron : some regretted his death as " a gallant and capable man " , while others considered him " lucky to have redeemed his honour " for violating his parole after being captured the previous year .
= = Aftermath = =
The French surrender was taken by Sir Edward Berry , who had last been aboard the ship as a prisoner of war following the capture of Leander in 1798 . Nelson in particular was pleased with the capture of Généreux , one of the two French ships of the line to have escaped the Battle of the Nile two years earlier . The French ship was only lightly damaged , and was sent to Minorca for repairs under Lieutenant Lord Cochrane and his brother Midshipman Archibald Cochrane from Queen Charlotte . During the passage , the ship was caught in a severe storm , and it was only though the leadership and personal example set by the brothers that the ship survived to reach Port Mahon . The ship was taken into British service shortly afterwards as HMS Genereux . Nelson was credited with the victory by Keith , although Nelson himself praised Harrington and Peard for their efforts in discovering the French convoy and bringing it to battle . The presence of the British squadron off Malta at the time of the arrival of the French convoy was largely due to luck , a factor that Ball attributed to Nelson in a letter written to Emma Hamilton shortly after the battle :
" We may truly call him a heaven @-@ born Admiral , upon whom fortune smiles wherever he goes . We have been carrying on the blockade of Malta sixteen months , during which time the enemy never attempted to throw in succours until this month . His Lordship arrived here the day they were within a few leagues of the island , captured the principal ships , so that not one has reached the port . "
Although pleased with the result of the engagement , Lord Keith issued strict instructions that Nelson was to remain in active command of the blockade and on no account to return to Palermo . If he had to go to port in Sicily , then he was to use Syracuse instead . Keith then sailed to Livorno , where his flagship was destroyed in a sudden fire that killed over 700 of the crew , although Keith himself was not on board at the time . By early March , Nelson had tired of the blockade and in defiance of Keith 's instructions returned to Palermo again , leaving Captain Thomas Troubridge of HMS Culloden in command of the blockade squadron . In March , while Nelson was absent at Palermo , the ship of the line Guillaume Tell , the last survivor of the Nile , attempted to break out of Malta but was chased down and defeated by a British squadron led by Berry in Foudroyant . Although Nelson briefly returned in April , both of the Hamiltons were aboard his ship and most of his time was spent at Marsa Sirocco in the company of Emma , with whom he was now romantically attached .
Captain Renaudin , of Généreux , and Joseph Allemand , of Ville de Marseille , were both honourably acquitted during the automatic court @-@ martial for the loss of their ships . The French Navy made no further efforts to reach Malta , and all subsequent efforts by French warships to break out the port were met by the blockade , only one frigate breaking through and reaching France . Without the supplies carried on Perrée 's convoy , starvation and disease spread throughout the garrison and by the end of August 1800 , French soldiers were dying at a rate of 100 a day . On 4 September , Vaubois finally capitulated , turning the island over to the British , who retained it for the next 164 years .
= Fredonian Rebellion =
The Fredonian Rebellion ( December 21 , 1826 – January 23 , 1827 ) was the first attempt by Anglo settlers in Texas to secede from Mexico . The settlers , led by Empresario Haden Edwards , declared independence from Mexican Texas and created the Republic of Fredonia near Nacogdoches . The short @-@ lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled . Edwards 's actions soon alienated these established residents , and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led Victor Blanco of the Mexican government to revoke Edwards 's contract .
In late December 1826 , a group of Edwards 's supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated with the established residents . Supporters declared their independence from Mexico . Although the nearby Cherokee tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic because a prior agreement with the Mexican government negotiated by Chief Richard Fields was ignored , overtures from Mexican authorities and respected Empresario Stephen F. Austin convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion . On January 31 , 1827 , a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 militiamen from Austin 's colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order . Haden Edwards and his brother Benjamin fled to the United States . Chief Richard Fields was killed by his own tribe . A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death , but later paroled .
The rebellion led Mexican President Guadalupe Victoria to increase the military presence in the area . As a result , several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty . The Comanche abided by this treaty for many years . Fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas , the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to the region from the US . This new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule . Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the Texas Revolution . In the words of one historian , the rebellion was " premature , but it sparked the powder for later success . "
= = Background = =
After winning independence in 1821 , several of Spain 's colonies in the New World joined together to create a new country , Mexico . The country divided itself into several states , and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state Coahuila y Tejas . To assist in governing the large area , the state created several departments ; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar . This department was further subdivided into municipalities , which were governed by alcalde , similar to a modern @-@ day mayor . A large portion of East Texas , ranging from the Sabine to the Trinity Rivers and from the Gulf Coast to the Red River , became part of the municipality of Nacogdoches . Most residents of the municipality were Spanish @-@ speaking families who had occupied their land for generations . An increasing number were English @-@ speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the Mexican War of Independence . Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military filibustering groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule .
To better control the sparsely populated border region , in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the General Colonization Law to allow legal immigration into Texas . Under the law , each state would set its own requirements for immigration . After some debate , on March 24 , 1825 , Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to empresario , who would recruit settlers for their particular colony . During the state government 's deliberations , many would @-@ be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants . Among these was Haden Edwards , an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness . Despite his abrasiveness , Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14 allowing him to settle 800 families in East Texas . The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre @-@ existing Spanish and Mexican land titles in his grant area , to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the area , and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded .
Edwards 's colony encompassed the land from the Navasota River to 20 leagues west of the Sabine River , and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches . To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled by several native tribes which had recently been driven out of the United States . The southern boundary was a colony overseen by Stephen F. Austin , the son of the first empresario in Texas . East of Edwards 's grant was the former Sabine Free State , a neutral zone which had been essentially lawless for several decades . The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped , leading to uncertainty over who had jurisdiction over which function . The majority of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony .
= = Prelude = =
Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in August 1825 . Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims , Edwards , in September , demanded written proof of ownership , or their land would be forfeited and sold at auction . His action was at least partially driven by prejudice ; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race than himself . By removing less @-@ prosperous settlers , he could assign their lands to wealthy planters , like himself , from the southern United States .
Very few of the English @-@ speaking residents had valid titles . Those who had not arrived as filibusters had been duped by fraudulent land speculators . Most of the Spanish @-@ speaking landowners lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork . Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long @-@ time residents of the area , the acting alcalde of the municipality , Luis Procela , and the municipality clerk , Jose Antonio Sepulveda , began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles , a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner . In response , Edwards accused the men of forging deeds , further angering the residents .
By December 1825 , Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States . As required under his contract , Edwards organized a local militia open to his colonists and established residents . When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain , Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia . Following this debacle , Edwards , acting outside his authority , called for elections for a new alcalde . Two men were nominated for the position — Edwards 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Chichester Chaplin , seen as the representative for the newly arrived immigrants , and Samuel Norris , an American who had married the daughter of a long @-@ time resident and was sympathetic to the more established residents . After Chaplin 's victory , many settlers alleged vote @-@ stacking in an appeal to Juan Antonio Saucedo , the political chief of the Department of Bexar . In March , Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner . Edwards refused to recognize Norris 's authority .
Shortly after Saucedo 's ruling , Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States , leaving his younger brother Benjamin in charge of the colony . Benjamin could not maintain stability in the colony , and the situation deteriorated rapidly . A vigilante group of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers , and Benjamin Edwards made several complaints to state authorities . Unhappy with Benjamin 's tone and the increasing tension , Mexican authorities revoked the land grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico . Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an army and not just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government action . Unwilling to abandon his $ 50 @,@ 000 ( about $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) investment in the colony , Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogodoches in late October , continuing their business affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract .
= = Conflict = =
In October , Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant . Norris evicted the immigrant , angering many of the colonists . Later that month , another new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the country after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes . On November 22 , 1826 , local militia colonel Martin Parmer and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris , Sepulveda , and the commander of the small Mexican garrison , charging them with oppression and corruption . Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled , possibly as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot . A kangaroo court found the other men guilty , removed them from their positions , and banned them from ever holding another public office . The court disbanded after appointing a temporary alcalde . These actions benefitted Parmer personally ; several weeks before , after Parmer killed a man in a dispute , Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer 's arrest . With Norris removed from office , the arrest warrant was voided .
Throughout the fall , Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican authority . Largely unsuccessful , he approached the nearby Cherokee tribe for assistance . Several years previously , the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas . They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities . Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas north of Nacogdoches in exchange for armed support for his plans .
On December 16 , the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers , seizing one building in town , the Old Stone Fort . On December 21 , they declared the former Edwards colony to be a new republic named Fredonia . Within hours of the announcement , the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee , represented by Chief Richard Fields and John Dunn Hunter . Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an additional 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors . In recognition of the agreement , above the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing two stripes – one red , one white – representing the two races . Inscribed on the banner was the motto , " Independence , Liberty , and Justice " . Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the United States military , which refused to intervene . Another emissary sent to invite Austin and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke , " You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you . "
Edwards 's actions disturbed many of his colonists due to either their loyalty to their adopted country or fear of his alliance with the Cherokee . Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance , and both Peter Ellis Bean , the Mexican Indian agent , and Saucedo , the political chief , began negotiations with Fields . They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to attain a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels the Mexican government would honor their land request . These arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate the treaty with Edwards .
On news of the November arrest of the alcalde , the Mexican government began preparing to retaliate . On December 11 , Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada , the military commander in Texas , marched from San Antonio de Béxar with 110 infantry , and initially stopped in Austin 's colony to assess the loyalty of his settlers . On January 1 , Austin announced to his colonists that " infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches have declared independence . " Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion . When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22 , they were joined by 250 militiamen from Austin 's colony .
Impatient with the army response time , Norris led 80 men to retake the Old Stone Fort . Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him , his men routed Norris 's force in less than ten minutes . On January 31 , Bean , accompanied by 70 militiamen from Austin 's colony , rode into Nacogdoches . By this time , Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned any intention of waging war against Mexico . When not a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt , Edwards and his supporters fled . Bean pursued them to the Sabine River , but most , including both Edwards brothers , safely crossed into the United States . Ahumada and his soldiers , accompanied by political chief Saucedo , entered Nacogdoches on February 8 to restore order .
Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against Mexico , their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe 's loyalty . To demonstrate their loyalty to Mexico , the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed . Under tribal law , certain offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death . By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for this reason , the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies . Both men fled , but were soon captured and executed . When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28 , the commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces , Anastasio Bustamante , praised the Cherokee for their prompt action .
Bustamante ultimately offered a general amnesty for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards , Martin Parmer , and Adolphus Sterne , a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force . Like the Edwards brothers , Parmer escaped into Louisiana . Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled on the condition that he swear allegiance to Mexico and never again take up arms against the Mexican government .
= = Aftermath = =
The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes . Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion , their initial support caused many settlers to distrust the tribe . The rebellion , and subsequent Mexican army response , also changed the settlers ' relationships with other tribes . In preceding years , the Tawakoni and Waco tribes , allied with various Comanche bands , had regularly raided Texas settlements . Fearing that these tribes , like the Cherokee , could ally with other groups against Mexican control , Bustamante began preparations to attack and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas . On learning of the imminent invasion , in April 1827 the Towakoni and Waco sued for peace . In June , the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico , promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers . The Towakoni then assisted their allies , the Penateka Comanche , in reaching a treaty with Mexico . When Bustamante 's troops left Texas later that year , the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding . The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen by the other tribes .
The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United States . Even before the revolt , many Mexican officials had worried that the United States was plotting to gain control of Texas . Once the rebellion came to light , officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the United States . To help protect the region , a new , larger , garrison was established in Nacogdoches , to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras . As a direct result of Edwards 's actions , the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition , conducted by General Manuel de Mier y Terán , to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action . Mier y Teran 's reports led to the Law of April 6 , 1830 , which severely restricted immigration into Texas . Within Texas , the laws were widely denounced by both recent immigrants and native @-@ born Mexicans and led to further armed conflict between Mexican soldiers and Texas residents .
Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion as the beginning of the Texas Revolution . Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was " premature , but it sparked the powder for later success " . The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the next few years ; in 1832 they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches , and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution .
= Right whale =
Right whales are three species of large baleen whales of the genus Eubalaena : the North Atlantic right whale ( E. glacialis ) , the North Pacific right whale ( E. japonica ) and the Southern right whale ( E. australis ) . They are classified in the family Balaenidae with the bowhead whale . Right whales have rotund bodies with arching rostrums , V @-@ shaped blowholes and dark gray or black skin . The most distinguishing feature of a right whale is the rough patches of skin on its head which appear white due to parasitism by whale lice . Right whales can grow up to more than 18 m ( 59 ft ) long with the maximum record of 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft ) and weigh up to 100 short tons ( 91 t ; 89 long tons ) or more ; 20 @.@ 7 m ( 68 ft ) with 135 @,@ 000 kg ( 298 @,@ 000 lb ) or 21 @.@ 3 m ( 70 ft ) with uncertainty , being significantly larger than other coastal species such as humpbacks , grays , or eden 's and omura 's , but smaller than blues . Right whales were named by whalers who identified them as the " right " whale to kill on a hunt due to the plentiful oil and baleen they could provide .
All three species are migratory , moving seasonally to feed or give birth . The warm equatorial waters form a barrier that isolates the northern and southern species from one another . In the Northern Hemisphere , Right whales tend to avoid open waters and stay close to peninsulas and bays and on continental shelves , as these areas offer greater shelter and an abundance of their preferred foods . In the Southern Hemisphere , right whales feed far offshore in summer , but a large portion of the population occur in near shore waters in winter . Right whales feed mainly on copepods but also consume krill and pteropods . They may forage the surface , underwater or even on the ocean bottom . During courtship , males gather into large groups to compete for a single female , suggesting that sperm competition appears to be an important factor in mating behavior . Although the blue whale is the largest animal on the planet , the testes of the right whale are actually ten times larger than those of the blue whale – with each weighing up to 525 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 157 lb ) , they are by far the largest of any animal on Earth . Gestation tends to last a year , and calves are born at 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ; 0 @.@ 89 long tons ) in weight and 4 – 6 m ( 13 – 20 ft ) in length . Weaning occurs after eight months .
Right whales were a preferred target for whalers because of their docile nature , their slow surface @-@ skimming feeding behaviors , their tendencies to stay close to the coast , and their high blubber content ( which makes them float when they are killed , and which produced high yields of whale oil ) . Today , the North Atlantic and North Pacific right whales are among the most endangered whales in the world , and both species are protected in the United States by the Endangered Species Act . The western populations of both are currently endangered , with their total populations numbering in the hundreds . The eastern North Pacific population , on the other hand , with fewer than 50 individuals remaining , is critically endangered – further still , the eastern North Atlantic population , which numbers in the low teens at best , may already be functionally extinct . Although no longer facing a threat from whaling , mankind remains by far the greatest threat to these species : the two leading causes of death are from being struck by ships and from entanglement in fishing gear . Regarding the North Atlantic right whale , for example , these two anthropogenic factors alone account for 48 % of all known right whale deaths since 1970 .
= = Naming = =
A popular explanation for the name " right whales " is that they were the " right " ones to hunt , as they float when killed and often swim within sight of shore . They are quite docile , and do not tend to shy away from approaching boats . As such , they were hunted nearly to extinction during the active years of the whaling industry . This origin is apocryphal . In his history of American whaling , Eric Jay Dolin writes :
Despite this highly plausible rationale , nobody actually knows how the right whale got its name . The earliest references to the right whale offer no indication why it was called that , and some who have studied the issue point out that the word " right " in this context might just as likely be intended " to connote ' true ' or ' proper , ' meaning typical of the group . "
= = Taxonomy = =
The right whales were first classified in the genus Balaena in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus , who at the time considered all of the right whales ( including the bowhead ) as a single species . Through the 1800s and 1900s , in fact , the family Balaenidae has been the subject of great taxonometric debate . Authorities have repeatedly recategorized the three populations of right whale plus the bowhead whale , as one , two , three or four species , either in a single genus or in two separate genera . In the early whaling days , they were all thought to be a single species , Balaena mysticetus . Eventually , it was recognized that bowheads and right whales were in fact different , and John Edward Gray proposed the genus Eubalaena for the right whale in 1864 . Later , morphological factors such as differences in the skull shape of northern and southern right whales indicated at least two species of right whale — one in the Northern Hemisphere , the other in the Southern Ocean . As recently as 1998 , Rice , in his comprehensive and otherwise authoritative classification , Marine mammals of the world : systematics and distribution , listed just two species : Balaena glacialis ( the right whales ) and Balaena mysticetus ( the bowheads ) .
In 2000 , two studies of DNA samples from each of the whale populations concluded the northern and southern populations of right whale should be considered separate species . What some scientists found more surprising was the discovery that the North Pacific and North Atlantic populations are also distinct , and that the North Pacific species is more closely related to the southern right whale than to the North Atlantic right whale . The authors of one of these studies concluded that these species have not interbred for between 3 million and 12 million years .
In 2001 , Brownell et al. reevaluated the conservation status of the North Pacific right whale as a distinct species , and in 2002 , the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) accepted Rosenbaum 's findings , and recommended that the Eubalaena nomenclature be retained for this genus . A 2007 study by Churchill provided further evidence to conclude the three living right whale species do comprise a phylogenetic lineage , distinct from the bowhead , and are rightly classified into two separate genera .
The cladogram is a tool for visualizing and comparing the evolutionary relationships between taxa ; the point where each node branches is analogous to an evolutionary branching – the diagram can be read left @-@ to @-@ right , much like a timeline . The following cladogram of the family Balaenidae serves to illustrate the current scientific consensus as to the relationships between the three right whales and the bowhead whale .
Whale lice , parasitic cyamid crustaceans that live off skin debris , offer further information through their own genetics . Because these lice reproduce much more quickly than whales , their genetic diversity is greater . Marine biologists at the University of Utah examined these louse genes and determined their hosts split into three species 5 – 6 million years ago , and these species were all equally abundant before whaling began in the 11th century . The communities first split because of the joining of North and South America . The rising temperatures of the equator then created a second split , into northern and southern groups , preventing them from interbreeding . " This puts an end to the long debate about whether there are three [ Eubalaena ] species of right whale . They really are separate beyond a doubt " , Jon Seger , the project 's leader , told BBC News .
= = = Others = = =
The pygmy right whale ( Caperea marginata ) , a much smaller whale of the Southern Hemisphere , was until recently considered a member of the Family Balaenidae . However , they are not right whales at all , and their taxonomy is presently in doubt . Most recent authors place this species into the monotypic Family Neobalaenidae , but a 2012 study suggests that it is instead the last living member of the Family Cetotheriidae , a family previously considered extinct .
Yet another species of right whale was proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg in the 18th century - the so @-@ called Swedenborg whale . The description of this species was based on a collection of fossil bones unearthed at Norra Vånga , Sweden , in 1705 and believed to be those of giants . The bones were examined by Swedenborg , who realized they belong to a species of whale . The existence of this species has been debated , and further evidence for this species was discovered during the construction of a motorway in Strömstad , Sweden in 2009 . To date , however , scientific consensus still considers Hunterius swedenborgii to be a North Atlantic right whale . According to a DNA analysis conducted by scientists , it was later confirmed that the fossil bones are actually from a bowhead whale .
= = = Synonyms and common names = = =
Due to their familiarity to whalers over a number of centuries , the right whales have had many names . These names were used throughout the world , reflecting the fact that only one species was recognized at the time . In his novel Moby @-@ Dick , Herman Melville writes :
" Among the fishermen , the whale regularly hunted for oil is indiscriminately designated by all the following titles : The Whale ; the Greenland whale ; the black whale ; the great whale ; the true whale ; the right whale . There is a deal of obscurity concerning the identity of the species thus multitudinously baptised . ... Some pretend to see a difference between the Greenland whale of the English and the Right whale of the Americans . "
In fact , there was indeed a difference between the two – Melville 's " Greenland whale " , or " Greenland right whale " , was in fact the modern @-@ day bowhead whale , Balaena mysticetus .
The following are junior synonyms for the genus Eubalaena :
Baloena Robineau , 1989
Halibalaena Gray , 1873
Hunterius Gray , 1866
Hunterus Gray , 1864
Macleayanus Marschall , 1873
Macleayius Gray , 1865
Although the right whale is now officially in the Eubalaena genus , the type species for a genus remains as it was first described – in the case of Eubalaena the type species is Balaena australis Desmoulins , 1822 .
Some of the species @-@ level synonyms are :
For E. australis : B. antarctica Lesson , 1828
B. mysticetus antarctica Schlegel , 1841
B. antipodarum Gray , 1843
B. glacialis Mueller , 1776
B. glacialis australis Scheffer & Rice , 1963
E. capensis Gray , 1866
E. glacialis australis Tomilin , 1962
Halibalaena britannica Gray , 1873
Hunterus temminckii Gray , 1864
Macleayius australiensis Gray , 1865
For E. glacialis : B. biscayensis Eschricht , 1860
B. glacialis glacialis Scheffer & Rice , 1963
B. mysticetus islandica Kerr , 1792
B. nordcaper Lacépède , 1804
Baloena glacialis Robineau , 1989
E. glacialis glacialis Tomilin , 1957
Hunterius swedenborgii Lilljeborg , 1867
Macleayius britannicus Gray , 1870
For E. japonica : B. japonica Lacépède , 1804 ( basionym )
B. sieboldii Gray , 1864
Balaenoptera antarctica Temminck , 1841 ( lapsus for Balaena )
E. glacialis japonica Imaizumi , 1958
E. sieboldii Gray , 1868
= = Description = =
Unlike other whales , a right whale has distinctive callosities ( roughened patches of skin ) on its head , along with a broad back without a dorsal fin , occasionally with white belly patches , and a long , arching rostrum , or upper jaw , that begins above the eye . The callosities appear white due to large colonies of cyamids ( whale lice ) . Each individual has a unique callosities pattern . In 2016 , a competitive effort resulted in the use of facial recognition software to derive a process to uniquely identify right whales with about 87 % accuracy based on their callosities . The primary role of callosities has been considered to be protection against predators . Right whale declines
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' VFL side . There , Hawkins helped the Cats ' reach the VFL Grand Final for the second successive year , booting 3 goals as the Cats defeated the Coburg Tigers to claim their first VFL Premiership since 2002 .
Hawkins participated in the 2009 AFL Grand Final alongside other father / son selections Gary Ablett , Matthew Scarlett and Mark Blake . Hawkins scored 2 goals in the game to help Geelong defeat St Kilda by 12 points and capture the 2009 AFL premiership . ( One of those goals was notably controversial , as it was ruled as such after it had bounced off a goal post ; under the rules of Australian football , such a kick should have been ruled a behind . )
Hawkins played in the 2011 AFL Grand Final , finishing the day with 19 disposals , 9 marks and three goals to win his second premiership medallion . Hawkins played a prominent role in Geelong 's victory and was awarded five votes for the Norm Smith Medal , coming third behind Jimmy Bartel ( 13 votes ) and Joel Selwood ( 9 votes ) .
In 2012 , Hawkins had a break out year , kicking 62 goals to finish equal second in the Coleman Medal , and became perhaps Geelong 's most valuable player . Undoubtedly the highlight of his year was a match in Round 19 when he kicked a goal after the siren ( one of six for the night ) to deliver the Cats a memorable two @-@ point win over their rivals , Hawthorn . The win was Geelong 's ninth straight victory over the Hawks since losing to them in the 2008 AFL Grand Final . His emergence was rewarded with selection in the 2012 All @-@ Australian side , and the 2012 Carji Greeves Medal for being Geelong 's " best and fairest " player over the 2012 season .
In 2013 , a back injury hampered Hawkins ' start to the year , forcing him to miss one match and limiting his usually dominant form in others . However , he still managed to regularly kick goals , accumulating 15 by the end of Round 7 .
= = Statistics = =
Statistics are correct to the end of the 2015 season
= = Personal life = =
As well as his father , Hawkins ' uncles , Michael Hawkins and Robb Hawkins , and his maternal grandfather , Fred Le Deux , all played football for Geelong .
= = = Nickname = = =
Hawkins ' famous nickname ' Tomahawk ' , is a play on his first name and surname , with references to a tomahawk axe or tomahawk missile , and has proven a popular calling card within the league .
= Emmy Noether =
Amalie Emmy Noether ( German : [ ˈnøːtɐ ] ; 23 March 1882 – 14 April 1935 ) was a German Jewish mathematician known for her landmark contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics .
She was described by Pavel Alexandrov , Albert Einstein , Jean Dieudonné , Hermann Weyl , and Norbert Wiener as the most important woman in the history of mathematics . As one of the leading mathematicians of her time , she developed the theories of rings , fields , and algebras . In physics , Noether 's theorem explains the connection between symmetry and conservation laws .
= = Introduction = =
Noether was born to a Jewish family in the Franconian town of Erlangen ; her father was a mathematician , Max Noether . She originally planned to teach French and English after passing the required examinations , but instead studied mathematics at the University of Erlangen , where her father lectured . After completing her dissertation in 1907 under the supervision of Paul Gordan , she worked at the Mathematical Institute of Erlangen without pay for seven years . At the time , women were largely excluded from academic positions . In 1915 , she was invited by David Hilbert and Felix Klein to join the mathematics department at the University of Göttingen , a world @-@ renowned center of mathematical research . The philosophical faculty objected , however , and she spent four years lecturing under Hilbert 's name . Her habilitation was approved in 1919 , allowing her to obtain the rank of Privatdozent .
Noether remained a leading member of the Göttingen mathematics department until 1933 ; her students were sometimes called the " Noether boys " . In 1924 , Dutch mathematician B. L. van der Waerden joined her circle and soon became the leading expositor of Noether 's ideas : her work was the foundation for the second volume of his influential 1931 textbook , Moderne Algebra . By the time of her plenary address at the 1932 International Congress of Mathematicians in Zürich , her algebraic acumen was recognized around the world . The following year , Germany 's Nazi government dismissed Jews from university positions , and Noether moved to the United States to take up a position at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania . In 1935 she underwent surgery for an ovarian cyst and , despite signs of a recovery , died four days later at the age of 53 .
Noether 's mathematical work has been divided into three " epochs " . In the first ( 1908 – 19 ) , she made contributions to the theories of algebraic invariants and number fields . Her work on differential invariants in the calculus of variations , Noether 's theorem , has been called " one of the most important mathematical theorems ever proved in guiding the development of modern physics " . In the second epoch ( 1920 – 26 ) , she began work that " changed the face of [ abstract ] algebra " . In her classic paper Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen ( Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains , 1921 ) Noether developed the theory of ideals in commutative rings into a tool with wide @-@ ranging applications . She made elegant use of the ascending chain condition , and objects satisfying it are named Noetherian in her honor . In the third epoch ( 1927 – 35 ) , she published works on noncommutative algebras and hypercomplex numbers and united the representation theory of groups with the theory of modules and ideals . In addition to her own publications , Noether was generous with her ideas and is credited with several lines of research published by other mathematicians , even in fields far removed from her main work , such as algebraic topology .
= = Private life = =
Emmy 's father , Max Noether , was descended from a family of wholesale traders in Germany . At 14 , he had been paralyzed by polio . He regained mobility , but one leg remained affected . Largely self @-@ taught , he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Heidelberg in 1868 . After teaching there for seven years , he took a position in the Bavarian city of Erlangen , where he met and married Ida Amalia Kaufmann , the daughter of a prosperous merchant . Max Noether 's mathematical contributions were to algebraic geometry mainly , following in the footsteps of Alfred Clebsch . His best known results are the Brill – Noether theorem and the residue , or AF + BG theorem ; several other theorems are associated with him ; See Max Noether 's theorem .
Emmy Noether was born on 23 March 1882 , the first of four children . Her first name was " Amalie " , after her mother and paternal grandmother , but she began using her middle name at a young age . As a girl , Noether was well liked . She did not stand out academically although she was known for being clever and friendly . She was near @-@ sighted and talked with a minor lisp during childhood . A family friend recounted a story years later about young Noether quickly solving a brain teaser at a children 's party , showing logical acumen at that early age . She was taught to cook and clean , as were most girls of the time , and she took piano lessons . She pursued none of these activities with passion , although she loved to dance .
She had three younger brothers . The eldest , Alfred , was born in 1883 , was awarded a doctorate in chemistry from Erlangen in 1909 , but died nine years later . Fritz Noether , born in 1884 , is remembered for his academic accomplishments : after studying in Munich he made a reputation for himself in applied mathematics . The youngest , Gustav Robert , was born in 1889 . Very little is known about his life ; he suffered from chronic illness and died in 1928 .
= = Teaching = =
= = = University of Erlangen = = =
Noether showed early proficiency in French and English . In the spring of 1900 she took the examination for teachers of these languages and received an overall score of sehr gut ( very good ) . Her performance qualified her to teach languages at schools reserved for girls , but she chose instead to continue her studies at the University of Erlangen .
This was an unconventional decision ; two years earlier , the Academic Senate of the university had declared that allowing mixed @-@ sex education would " overthrow all academic order " . One of only two women students in a university of 986 , Noether was only allowed to audit classes rather than participate fully , and required the permission of individual professors whose lectures she wished to attend . Despite these obstacles , on 14 July 1903 she passed the graduation exam at a Realgymnasium in Nuremberg .
During the 1903 – 04 winter semester , she studied at the University of Göttingen , attending lectures given by astronomer Karl Schwarzschild and mathematicians Hermann Minkowski , Otto Blumenthal , Felix Klein , and David Hilbert . Soon thereafter , restrictions on women 's participation in that university were rescinded .
Noether returned to Erlangen . She officially reentered the university on 24 October 1904 , and declared her intention to focus solely on mathematics . Under the supervision of Paul Gordan she wrote her dissertation , Über die Bildung des Formensystems der ternären biquadratischen Form ( On Complete Systems of Invariants for Ternary Biquadratic Forms , 1907 ) . Although it had been well received , Noether later described her thesis as " crap " .
For the next seven years ( 1908 – 15 ) she taught at the University of Erlangen 's Mathematical Institute without pay , occasionally substituting for her father when he was too ill to lecture . In 1910 and 1911 she published an extension of her thesis work from three variables to n variables .
Gordan retired in the spring of 1910 , but continued to teach occasionally with his successor , Erhard Schmidt , who left shortly afterward for a position in Breslau . Gordan retired from teaching altogether in 1911 with the arrival of Schmidt 's successor Ernst Fischer , and died in December 1912 .
According to Hermann Weyl , Fischer was an important influence on Noether , in particular by introducing her to the work of David Hilbert . From 1913 to 1916 Noether published several papers extending and applying Hilbert 's methods to mathematical objects such as fields of rational functions and the invariants of finite groups . This phase marks the beginning of her engagement with abstract algebra , the field of mathematics to which she would make groundbreaking contributions .
Noether and Fischer shared lively enjoyment of mathematics and would often discuss lectures long after they were over ; Noether is known to have sent postcards to Fischer continuing her train of mathematical thoughts .
= = = University of Göttingen = = =
In the spring of 1915 , Noether was invited to return to the University of Göttingen by David Hilbert and Felix Klein . Their effort to recruit her , however , was blocked by the philologists and historians among the philosophical faculty : women , they insisted , should not become privatdozent . One faculty member protested : " What will our soldiers think when they return to the university and find that they are required to learn at the feet of a woman ? " Hilbert responded with indignation , stating , " I do not see that the sex of the candidate is an argument against her admission as privatdozent . After all , we are a university , not a bath house . "
Noether left for Göttingen in late April ; two weeks later her mother died suddenly in Erlangen . She had previously received medical care for an eye condition , but its nature and impact on her death is unknown . At about the same time Noether 's father retired and her brother joined the German Army to serve in World War I. She returned to Erlangen for several weeks , mostly to care for her aging father .
During her first years teaching at Göttingen she did not have an official position and was not paid ; her family paid for her room and board and supported her academic work . Her lectures often were advertised under Hilbert 's name , and Noether would provide " assistance " .
Soon after arriving at Göttingen , however , she demonstrated her capabilities by proving the theorem now known as Noether 's theorem , which shows that a conservation law is associated with any differentiable symmetry of a physical system . American physicists Leon M. Lederman and Christopher T. Hill argue in their book Symmetry and the Beautiful Universe that Noether 's theorem is " certainly one of the most important mathematical theorems ever proved in guiding the development of modern physics , possibly on a par with the Pythagorean theorem " .
When World War I ended , the German Revolution of 1918 – 19 brought a significant change in social attitudes , including more rights for women . In 1919 the University of Göttingen allowed Noether to proceed with her habilitation ( eligibility for tenure ) . Her oral examination was held in late May , and she successfully delivered her habilitation lecture in June .
Three years later she received a letter from the Prussian Minister for Science , Art , and Public Education , in which he conferred on her the title of nicht beamteter ausserordentlicher Professor ( an untenured professor with limited internal administrative rights and functions ) . This was an unpaid " extraordinary " professorship , not the higher " ordinary " professorship , which was a civil @-@ service position . Although it recognized the importance of her work , the position still provided no salary . Noether was not paid for her lectures until she was appointed to the special position of Lehrbeauftragte für Algebra a year later .
= = = Seminal work in abstract algebra = = =
Although Noether 's theorem had a profound effect upon physics , among mathematicians she is best remembered for her seminal contributions to abstract algebra . In his Introduction to Noether 's Collected Papers , Nathan Jacobson wrote that " The development of abstract algebra , which is one of the most distinctive innovations of twentieth century mathematics , is largely due to her – in published papers , in lectures , and in personal influence on her contemporaries . "
Noether 's groundbreaking work in algebra began in 1920 . In collaboration with W. Schmeidler , she then published a paper about the theory of ideals in which they defined left and right ideals in a ring . The following year she published a landmark paper called Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen , analyzing ascending chain conditions with regard to ( mathematical ) ideals . Noted algebraist Irving Kaplansky called this work " revolutionary " ; the publication gave rise to the term " Noetherian ring " and the naming of several other mathematical objects as Noetherian .
In 1924 a young Dutch mathematician , B. L. van der Waerden , arrived at the University of Göttingen . He immediately began working with Noether , who provided invaluable methods of abstract conceptualization . Van der Waerden later said that her originality was " absolute beyond comparison " . In 1931 he published Moderne Algebra , a central text in the field ; its second volume borrowed heavily from Noether 's work . Although Noether did not seek recognition , he included as a note in the seventh edition " based in part on lectures by E. Artin and E. Noether " . She sometimes allowed her colleagues and students to receive credit for her ideas , helping them develop their careers at the expense of her own .
Van der Waerden 's visit was part of a convergence of mathematicians from all over the world to Göttingen , which became a major hub of mathematical and physical research . From 1926 to 1930 Russian topologist Pavel Alexandrov lectured at the university , and he and Noether quickly became good friends . He began referring to her as der Noether , using the masculine German article as a term of endearment to show his respect . She tried to arrange for him to obtain a position at Göttingen as a regular professor , but was only able to help him secure a scholarship from the Rockefeller Foundation . They met regularly and enjoyed discussions about the intersections of algebra and topology . In his 1935 memorial address , Alexandrov named Emmy Noether " the greatest woman mathematician of all time " .
= = = Lecturing and students = = =
In Göttingen , Noether supervised more than a dozen doctoral students ; her first was Grete Hermann , who defended her dissertation in February 1925 . She later spoke reverently of her " dissertation @-@ mother " . Noether also supervised Max Deuring , who distinguished himself as an undergraduate and went on to contribute significantly to the field of arithmetic geometry ; Hans Fitting , remembered for Fitting 's theorem and the Fitting lemma ; and Zeng Jiongzhi ( also rendered " Chiungtze C. Tsen " in English ) , who proved Tsen 's theorem . She also worked closely with Wolfgang Krull , who greatly advanced commutative algebra with his Hauptidealsatz and his dimension theory for commutative rings .
In addition to her mathematical insight , Noether was respected for her consideration of others . Although she sometimes acted rudely toward those who disagreed with her , she nevertheless gained a reputation for constant helpfulness and patient guidance of new students . Her loyalty to mathematical precision caused one colleague to name her " a severe critic " , but she combined this demand for accuracy with a nurturing attitude . A colleague later described her this way : " Completely unegotistical and free of vanity , she never claimed anything for herself , but promoted the works of her students above all . "
Her frugal lifestyle at first was due to being denied pay for her work ; however , even after the university began paying her a small salary in 1923 , she continued to live a simple and modest life . She was paid more generously later in her life , but saved half of her salary to bequeath to her nephew , Gottfried E. Noether .
Mostly unconcerned about appearance and manners , biographers suggest she focused on her studies . A distinguished algebraist Olga Taussky @-@ Todd described a luncheon , during which Noether , wholly engrossed in a discussion of mathematics , " gesticulated wildly " as she ate and " spilled her food constantly and wiped it off from her dress , completely unperturbed " . Appearance @-@ conscious students cringed as she retrieved the handkerchief from her blouse and ignored the increasing disarray of her hair during a lecture . Two female students once approached her during a break in a two @-@ hour class to express their concern , but they were unable to break through the energetic mathematics discussion she was having with other students .
According to van der Waerden 's obituary of Emmy Noether , she did not follow a lesson plan for her lectures , which frustrated some students . Instead , she used her lectures as a spontaneous discussion time with her students , to think through and clarify important cutting @-@ edge problems in mathematics . Some of her most important results were developed in these lectures , and the lecture notes of her students formed the basis for several important textbooks , such as those of van der Waerden and Deuring .
Several of her colleagues attended her lectures , and she allowed some of her ideas , such as the crossed product ( verschränktes Produkt in German ) of associative algebras , to be published by others . Noether was recorded as having given at least five semester @-@ long courses at Göttingen :
Winter 1924 / 25 : Gruppentheorie und hyperkomplexe Zahlen ( Group Theory and Hypercomplex Numbers )
Winter 1927 / 28 : Hyperkomplexe Grössen und Darstellungstheorie ( Hypercomplex Quantities and Representation Theory )
Summer 1928 : Nichtkommutative Algebra ( Noncommutative Algebra )
Summer 1929 : Nichtkommutative Arithmetik ( Noncommutative Arithmetic )
Winter 1929 / 30 : Algebra der hyperkomplexen Grössen ( Algebra of Hypercomplex Quantities ) .
These courses often preceded major publications in these areas .
Noether spoke quickly — reflecting the speed of her thoughts , many said — and demanded great concentration from her students . Students who disliked her style often felt alienated . Some pupils felt that she relied too much on spontaneous discussions . Her most dedicated students , however , relished the enthusiasm with which she approached mathematics , especially since her lectures often built on earlier work they had done together .
She developed a close circle of colleagues and students who thought along similar lines and tended to exclude those who did not . " Outsiders " who occasionally visited Noether 's lectures usually spent only 30 minutes in the room before leaving in frustration or confusion . A regular student said of one such instance : " The enemy has been defeated ; he has cleared out . "
Noether showed a devotion to her subject and her students that extended beyond the academic day . Once , when the building was closed for a state holiday , she gathered the class on the steps outside , led them through the woods , and lectured at a local coffee house . Later , after she had been dismissed by the Third Reich , she invited students into her home to discuss their plans for the future and mathematical concepts .
= = = Moscow = = =
In the winter of 1928 – 29 Noether accepted an invitation to Moscow State University , where she continued working with P. S. Alexandrov . In addition to carrying on with her research , she taught classes in abstract algebra and algebraic geometry . She worked with the topologists , Lev Pontryagin and Nikolai Chebotaryov , who later praised her contributions to the development of Galois theory .
Although politics was not central to her life , Noether took a keen interest in political matters and , according to Alexandrov , showed considerable support for the Russian Revolution ( 1917 ) . She was especially happy to see Soviet advancements in the fields of science and mathematics , which she considered indicative of new opportunities made possible by the Bolshevik project . This attitude caused her problems in Germany , culminating in her eviction from a pension lodging building , after student leaders complained of living with " a Marxist @-@ leaning Jewess " .
Noether planned to return to Moscow , an effort for which she received support from Alexandrov . After she left Germany in 1933 he tried to help her gain a chair at Moscow State University through the Soviet Education Ministry . Although this effort proved unsuccessful , they corresponded frequently during the 1930s , and in 1935 she made plans for a return to the Soviet Union . Meanwhile , her brother , Fritz accepted a position at the Research Institute for Mathematics and Mechanics in Tomsk , in the Siberian Federal District of Russia , after losing his job in Germany .
= = = Recognition = = =
In 1932 Emmy Noether and Emil Artin received the Ackermann – Teubner Memorial Award for their contributions to mathematics . The prize carried a monetary reward of 500 Reichsmarks and was seen as a long @-@ overdue official recognition of her considerable work in the field . Nevertheless , her colleagues expressed frustration at the fact that she was not elected to the Göttingen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften ( academy of sciences ) and was never promoted to the position of Ordentlicher Professor ( full professor ) .
Noether 's colleagues celebrated her fiftieth birthday in 1932 , in typical mathematicians ' style . Helmut Hasse dedicated an article to her in the Mathematische Annalen , wherein he confirmed her suspicion that some aspects of noncommutative algebra are simpler than those of commutative algebra , by proving a noncommutative reciprocity law . This pleased her immensely . He also sent her a mathematical riddle , the " mμν @-@ riddle of syllables " , which she solved immediately ; the riddle has been lost .
In November of the same year , Noether delivered a plenary address ( großer Vortrag ) on " Hyper @-@ complex systems in their relations to commutative algebra and to number theory " at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Zürich . The congress was attended by 800 people , including Noether 's colleagues Hermann Weyl , Edmund Landau , and Wolfgang Krull . There were 420 official participants and twenty @-@ one plenary addresses presented . Apparently , Noether 's prominent speaking position was a recognition of the importance of her contributions to mathematics . The 1932 congress is sometimes described as the high point of her career .
= = = Expulsion from Göttingen = = =
When Adolf Hitler became the German Reichskanzler in January 1933 , Nazi activity around the country increased dramatically . At the University of Göttingen the German Student Association led the attack on the " un @-@ German spirit " attributed to Jews and was aided by a privatdozent named Werner Weber , a former student of Noether . Antisemitic attitudes created a climate hostile to Jewish professors . One young protester reportedly demanded : " Aryan students want Aryan mathematics and not Jewish mathematics . "
One of the first actions of Hitler 's administration was the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service which removed Jews and politically suspect government employees ( including university professors ) from their jobs unless they had " demonstrated their loyalty to Germany " by serving in World War I. In April 1933 Noether received a notice from the Prussian Ministry for Sciences , Art , and Public Education which read : " On the basis of paragraph 3 of the Civil Service Code of 7 April 1933 , I hereby withdraw from you the right to teach at the University of Göttingen . " Several of Noether 's colleagues , including Max Born and Richard Courant , also had their positions revoked . Noether accepted the decision calmly , providing support for others during this difficult time . Hermann Weyl later wrote that " Emmy Noether — her courage , her frankness , her unconcern about her own fate , her conciliatory spirit — was in the midst of all the hatred and meanness , despair and sorrow surrounding us , a moral solace . " Typically , Noether remained focused on mathematics , gathering students in her apartment to discuss class field theory . When one of her students appeared in the uniform of the Nazi paramilitary organization Sturmabteilung ( SA ) , she showed no sign of agitation and , reportedly , even laughed about it later .
= = = Bryn Mawr = = =
As dozens of newly unemployed professors began searching for positions outside of Germany , their colleagues in the United States sought to provide assistance and job opportunities for them . Albert Einstein and Hermann Weyl were appointed by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , while others worked to find a sponsor required for legal immigration . Noether was contacted by representatives of two educational institutions , Bryn Mawr College in the United States and Somerville College at the University of Oxford in England . After a series of negotiations with the Rockefeller Foundation , a grant to Bryn Mawr was approved for Noether and she took a position there , starting in late 1933 .
At Bryn Mawr , Noether met and befriended Anna Wheeler , who had studied at Göttingen just before Noether arrived there . Another source of support at the college was the Bryn Mawr president , Marion Edwards Park , who enthusiastically invited mathematicians in the area to " see Dr. Noether in action ! " Noether and a small team of students worked quickly through van der Waerden 's 1930 book Moderne Algebra I and parts of Erich Hecke 's Theorie der algebraischen Zahlen ( Theory of algebraic numbers ) .
In 1934 , Noether began lecturing at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton upon the invitation of Abraham Flexner and Oswald Veblen . She also worked with and supervised Abraham Albert and Harry Vandiver . However , she remarked about Princeton University that she was not welcome at the " men 's university , where nothing female is admitted " .
Her time in the United States was pleasant , surrounded as she was by supportive colleagues and absorbed in her favorite subjects . In the summer of 1934 she briefly returned to Germany to see Emil Artin and her brother Fritz before he left for Tomsk . Although many of her former colleagues had been forced out of the universities , she was able to use the library as a " foreign scholar " .
= = Death = =
In April 1935 doctors discovered a tumor in Noether 's pelvis . Worried about complications from surgery , they ordered two days of bed rest first . During the operation they discovered an ovarian cyst " the size of a large cantaloupe " . Two smaller tumors in her uterus appeared to be benign and were not removed , to avoid prolonging surgery . For three days she appeared to convalesce normally , and she recovered quickly from a circulatory collapse on the fourth . On 14 April she fell unconscious , her temperature soared to 109 ° F ( 42 @.@ 8 ° C ) , and she died . " [ I ] t is not easy to say what had occurred in Dr. Noether " , one of the physicians wrote . " It is possible that there was some form of unusual and virulent infection , which struck the base of the brain where the heat centers are supposed to be located . "
A few days after Noether 's death her friends and associates at Bryn Mawr held a small memorial service at College President Park 's house . Hermann Weyl and Richard Brauer traveled from Princeton and spoke with Wheeler and Taussky about their departed colleague . In the months that followed , written tributes began to appear around the globe : Albert Einstein joined van der Waerden , Weyl , and Pavel Alexandrov in paying their respects . Her body was cremated and the ashes interred under the walkway around the cloisters of the M. Carey Thomas Library at Bryn Mawr .
= = Contributions to mathematics and physics = =
Noether 's work in abstract algebra and topology was influential in mathematics , while in physics , Noether 's theorem has far @-@ ranging consequences for theoretical physics and dynamic systems . She showed an acute propensity for abstract thought , which allowed her to approach problems of mathematics in fresh and original ways . Her friend and colleague Hermann Weyl described her scholarly output in three epochs :
Emmy Noether 's scientific production fell into three clearly distinct epochs :
( 1 ) the period of relative dependence , 1907 – 1919 ;
( 2 ) the investigations grouped around the general theory of ideals 1920 – 1926 ;
( 3 ) the study of the non @-@ commutative algebras , their representations by linear transformations , and their application to the study of commutative number fields and their arithmetics .
In the first epoch ( 1907 – 19 ) , Noether dealt primarily with differential and algebraic invariants , beginning with her dissertation under Paul Gordan . Her mathematical horizons broadened , and her work became more general and abstract , as she became acquainted with the work of David Hilbert , through close interactions with a successor to Gordan , Ernst Sigismund Fischer . After moving to Göttingen in 1915 , she produced her seminal work for physics , the two Noether 's theorems .
In the second epoch ( 1920 – 26 ) , Noether devoted herself to developing the theory of mathematical rings .
In the third epoch ( 1927 – 35 ) , Noether focused on noncommutative algebra , linear transformations , and commutative number fields .
= = = Historical context = = =
In the century from 1832 to Noether 's death in 1935 , the field of mathematics — specifically algebra — underwent a profound revolution , whose reverberations are still being felt . Mathematicians of previous centuries had worked on practical methods for solving specific types of equations , e.g. , cubic , quartic , and quintic equations , as well as on the related problem of constructing regular polygons using compass and straightedge . Beginning with Carl Friedrich Gauss 's 1832 proof that prime numbers such as five can be factored in Gaussian integers , Évariste Galois 's introduction of permutation groups in 1832 ( although , because of his death , his papers were only published in 1846 by Liouville ) , William Rowan Hamilton 's discovery of quaternions in 1843 , and Arthur Cayley 's more modern definition of groups in 1854 , research turned to determining the properties of ever @-@ more @-@ abstract systems defined by ever @-@ more @-@ universal rules . Noether 's most important contributions to mathematics were to the development of this new field , abstract algebra .
= = = = Abstract algebra and begriffliche Mathematik ( conceptual mathematics ) = = = =
Two of the most basic objects in abstract algebra are groups and rings .
A group consists of a set of elements and a single operation which combines a first and a second element and returns a third . The operation must satisfy certain constraints for it to determine a group : It must be closed ( when applied to any pair of elements of the associated set , the generated element must also be a member of that set ) , it must be associative , there must be an identity element ( an element which , when combined with another element using the operation , results in the original element , such as adding zero to a number or multiplying it by one ) , and for every element there must be an inverse element .
A ring likewise , has a set of elements , but now has two operations . The first operation must make the set a group , and the second operation is associative and distributive with respect to the first operation . It may or may not be commutative ; this means that the result of applying the operation to a first and a second element is the same as to the second and first — the order of the elements does not matter . If every non @-@ zero element has a multiplicative inverse ( an element x such that ax
= xa =
1 ) , the ring is called a division ring . A field is defined as a commutative division ring .
Groups are frequently studied through group representations . In their most general form , these consist of a choice of group , a set , and an action of the group on the set , that is , an operation which takes an element of the group and an element of the set and returns an element of the set . Most often , the set is a vector space , and the group represents symmetries of the vector space . For example , there is a group which represents the rigid rotations of space . This is a type of symmetry of space , because space itself does not change when it is rotated even though the positions of objects in it do . Noether used these sorts of symmetries in her work on invariants in physics .
A powerful way of studying rings is through their modules . A module consists of a choice of ring , another set , usually distinct from the underlying set of the ring and called the underlying set of the module , an operation on pairs of elements of the underlying set of the module , and an operation which takes an element of the ring and an element of the module and returns an element of the module . The underlying set of the module and its operation must form a group . A module is a ring @-@ theoretic version of a group representation : Ignoring the second ring operation and the operation on pairs of module elements determines a group representation . The real utility of modules is that the kinds of modules that exist and their interactions , reveal the structure of the ring in ways that are not apparent from the ring itself . An important special case of this is an algebra . ( The word algebra means both a subject within mathematics as well as an object studied in the subject of algebra . ) An algebra consists of a choice of two rings and an operation which takes an element from each ring and returns an element of the second ring . This operation makes the second ring into a module over the first . Often the first ring is a field .
Words such as " element " and " combining operation " are very general , and can be applied to many real @-@ world and abstract situations . Any set of things that obeys all the rules for one ( or two ) operation ( s ) is , by definition , a group ( or ring ) , and obeys all theorems about groups ( or rings ) . Integer numbers , and the operations of addition and multiplication , are just one example . For example , the elements might be computer data words , where the first combining operation is exclusive or and the second is logical conjunction . Theorems of abstract algebra are powerful because they are general ; they govern many systems . It might be imagined that little could be concluded about objects defined with so few properties , but precisely therein lay Noether 's gift : to discover the maximum that could be concluded from a given set of properties , or conversely , to identify the minimum set , the essential properties responsible for a particular observation . Unlike most mathematicians , she did not make abstractions by generalizing from known examples ; rather , she worked directly with the abstractions . As van der Waerden recalled in his obituary of her ,
The maxim by which Emmy Noether was guided throughout her work might be formulated as follows : " Any relationships between numbers , functions , and operations become transparent , generally applicable , and fully productive only after they have been isolated from their particular objects and been formulated as universally valid concepts . "
This is the begriffliche Mathematik ( purely conceptual mathematics ) that was characteristic of Noether . This style of mathematics was consequently adopted by other mathematicians , especially in the ( then new ) field of abstract algebra .
= = = = = Integers as an example of a ring = = = = =
The integers form a commutative ring whose elements are the integers , and the combining operations are addition and multiplication . Any pair of integers can be added or multiplied , always resulting in another integer , and the first operation , addition , is commutative , i.e. , for any elements a and b in the ring , a + b
= b + a . The second operation , multiplication , also is commutative , but that need not be true for other rings , meaning that a combined with b might be different from b combined with a . Examples of noncommutative rings include matrices and quaternions . The integers do not form a division ring , because the second operation cannot always be inverted ; there is no integer a such that 3 × a =
1 .
The integers have additional properties which do not generalize to all commutative rings . An important example is the fundamental theorem of arithmetic , which says that every positive integer can be factored uniquely into prime numbers . Unique factorizations do not always exist in other rings , but Noether found a unique factorization theorem , now called the Lasker – Noether theorem , for the ideals of many rings . Much of Noether 's work lay in determining what properties do hold for all rings , in devising novel analogs of the old integer theorems , and in determining the minimal set of assumptions required to yield certain properties of rings .
= = = First epoch ( 1908 – 19 ) = = =
= = = = Algebraic invariant theory = = = =
Much of Noether 's work in the first epoch of her career was associated with invariant theory , principally algebraic invariant theory . Invariant theory is concerned with expressions that remain constant ( invariant ) under a group of transformations . As an everyday example , if a rigid yardstick is rotated , the coordinates ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) of its endpoints change , but its length L given by the formula L2
= Δx2 + Δy2 + Δz2 remains the same . Invariant theory was an active area of research in the later nineteenth century , prompted in part by Felix Klein 's Erlangen program , according to which different types of geometry should be characterized by their invariants under transformations , e.g. , the cross @-@ ratio of projective geometry . The archetypal example of an invariant is the discriminant B2 − 4AC of a binary quadratic form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 . This is called an invariant because it is unchanged by linear substitutions x → ax + by , y → cx + dy with determinant ad − bc =
1 . These substitutions form the special linear group SL2 . ( There are no invariants under the general linear group of all invertible linear transformations because these transformations can be multiplication by a scaling factor . To remedy this , classical invariant theory also considered relative invariants , which were forms invariant up to a scale factor . ) One can ask for all polynomials in A , B , and C that are unchanged by the action of SL2 ; these are called the invariants of binary quadratic forms , and turn out to be the polynomials in the discriminant . More generally , one can ask for the invariants of homogeneous polynomials A0xry0 + ... + Arx0yr of higher degree , which will be certain polynomials in the coefficients A0 , ... , Ar , and more generally still , one can ask the similar question for homogeneous polynomials in more than two variables .
One of the main goals of invariant theory was to solve the " finite basis problem " . The sum or product of any two invariants is invariant , and the finite basis problem asked whether it was possible to get all the invariants by starting with a finite list of invariants , called generators , and then , adding or multiplying the generators together . For example , the discriminant gives a finite basis ( with one element ) for the invariants of binary quadratic forms . Noether 's advisor , Paul Gordan , was known as the " king of invariant theory " , and his chief contribution to mathematics was his 1870 solution of the finite basis problem for invariants of homogeneous polynomials in two variables . He proved this by giving a constructive method for finding all of the invariants and their generators , but was not able to carry out this constructive approach for invariants in three or more variables . In 1890 , David Hilbert proved a similar statement for the invariants of homogeneous polynomials in any number of variables . Furthermore , his method worked , not only for the special linear group , but also for some of its subgroups such as the special orthogonal group . His first proof caused some controversy because it did not give a method for constructing the generators , although in later work he made his method constructive . For her thesis , Noether extended Gordan 's computational proof to homogeneous polynomials in three variables . Noether 's constructive approach made it possible to study the relationships among the invariants . Later , after she had turned to more abstract methods , Noether called her thesis Mist ( crap ) and Formelngestrüpp ( a jungle of equations ) .
= = = = Galois theory = = = =
Galois theory concerns transformations of number fields that permute the roots of an equation . Consider a polynomial equation of a variable x of degree n , in which the coefficients are drawn from some ground field , which might be , for example , the field of real numbers , rational numbers , or the integers modulo 7 . There may or may not be choices of x , which make this polynomial evaluate to zero . Such choices , if they exist , are called roots . If the polynomial is x2 + 1 and the field is the real numbers , then the polynomial has no roots , because any choice of x makes the polynomial greater than or equal to one . If the field is extended , however , then the polynomial may gain roots , and if it is extended enough , then it always has a number of roots equal to its degree . Continuing the previous example , if the field is enlarged to the complex numbers , then the polynomial gains two roots , i and − i , where i is the imaginary unit , that is , i 2
= − 1 . More generally , the extension field in which a polynomial can be factored into its roots is known as the splitting field of the polynomial .
The Galois group of a polynomial is the set of all ways of transforming the splitting field , while preserving the ground field and the roots of the polynomial . ( In mathematical jargon , these transformations are called automorphisms . ) The Galois group of x2 + 1 consists of two elements : The identity transformation , which sends every complex number to itself , and complex conjugation , which sends i to − i . Since the Galois group does not change the ground field , it leaves the coefficients of the polynomial unchanged , so it must leave the set of all roots unchanged . Each root can move to another root , however , so transformation determines a permutation of the n roots among themselves . The significance of the Galois group derives from the fundamental theorem of Galois theory , which proves that the fields lying between the ground field and the splitting field are in one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence with the subgroups of the Galois group .
In 1918 , Noether published a seminal paper on the inverse Galois problem . Instead of determining the Galois group of transformations of a given field and its extension , Noether asked whether , given a field and a group , it always is possible to find an extension of the field that has the given group as its Galois group . She reduced this to " Noether 's problem " , which asks whether the fixed field of a subgroup G of the permutation group Sn acting on the field k ( x1 , ... , xn ) always is a pure transcendental extension of the field k . ( She first mentioned this problem in a 1913 paper , where she attributed the problem to her colleague Fischer . ) She showed this was true for n =
2 , 3 , or 4 . In 1969 , R. G. Swan found a counter @-@ example to Noether 's problem , with n = 47 and G a cyclic group of order 47 ( although this group can be realized as a Galois group over the rationals in other ways ) . The inverse Galois problem remains unsolved .
= = = = Physics = = = =
Noether was brought to Göttingen in 1915 by David Hilbert and Felix Klein , who wanted her expertise in invariant theory to help them in understanding general relativity , a geometrical theory of gravitation developed mainly by Albert Einstein . Hilbert had observed that the conservation of energy seemed to be violated in general relativity , because gravitational energy could itself gravitate . Noether provided the resolution of this paradox , and a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics , with Noether 's first theorem , which she proved in 1915 , but did not publish until 1918 . She not only solved the problem for general relativity , but also determined the conserved quantities for every system of physical laws that possesses some continuous symmetry .
Upon receiving her work , Einstein wrote to Hilbert : " Yesterday I received from Miss Noether a very interesting paper on invariants . I 'm impressed that such things can be understood in such a general way . The old guard at Göttingen should take some lessons from Miss Noether ! She seems to know her stuff . "
For illustration , if a physical system behaves the same , regardless of how it is oriented in space , the physical laws that govern it are rotationally symmetric ; from this symmetry , Noether 's theorem shows the angular momentum of the system must be conserved . The physical system itself need not be symmetric ; a jagged asteroid tumbling in space conserves angular momentum despite its asymmetry . Rather , the symmetry of the physical laws governing the system is responsible for the conservation law . As another example , if a physical experiment has the same outcome at any place and at any time , then its laws are symmetric under continuous translations in space and time ; by Noether 's theorem , these symmetries account for the conservation laws of linear momentum and energy within this system , respectively .
Noether 's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics , both because of the insight it gives into conservation laws , and also , as a practical calculation tool . Her theorem allows researchers to determine the conserved quantities from the observed symmetries of a physical system . Conversely , it facilitates the description of a physical system based on classes of hypothetical physical laws . For illustration , suppose that a new physical phenomenon is discovered . Noether 's theorem provides a test for theoretical models of the phenomenon : if the theory has a continuous symmetry , then Noether 's theorem guarantees that the theory has a conserved quantity , and for the theory to be correct , this conservation must be observable in experiments .
= = = Second epoch ( 1920 – 26 ) = = =
Although the results of Noether 's first epoch were impressive and useful , her fame as a mathematician rests more on the groundbreaking work she did in her second and third epochs , as noted by Hermann Weyl and B. L. van der Waerden in their obituaries of her .
In these epochs , she was not merely applying ideas and methods of earlier mathematicians ; rather , she was crafting new systems of mathematical definitions that would be used by future mathematicians . In particular , she developed a completely new theory of ideals in rings , generalizing earlier work of Richard Dedekind . She is also renowned for developing ascending chain conditions , a simple finiteness condition that yielded powerful results in her hands . Such conditions and the theory of ideals enabled Noether to generalize many older results and to treat old problems from a new perspective , such as elimination theory and the algebraic varieties that had been studied by her father .
= = = = Ascending and descending chain conditions = = = =
In this epoch , Noether became famous for her deft use of ascending ( Teilerkettensatz ) or descending ( Vielfachenkettensatz ) chain conditions . A sequence of non @-@ empty subsets A1 , A2 , A3 , etc. of a set S is usually said to be ascending , if each is a subset of the next
<formula>
Conversely , a sequence of subsets of S is called descending if each contains the next subset :
<formula>
A chain becomes constant after a finite number of steps if there is an n such that <formula> for all m ≥ n . A collection of subsets of a given set satisfies the ascending chain condition if any ascending sequence becomes constant after a finite number of steps . It satisfies the descending chain condition if any descending sequence becomes constant after a finite number of steps .
Ascending and descending chain conditions are general , meaning that they can be applied to many types of mathematical objects — and , on the surface , they might not seem very powerful . Noether showed how to exploit such conditions , however , to maximum advantage : for example , how to use them to show that every set of sub @-@ objects has a maximal / minimal element or that a complex object can be generated by a smaller number of elements . These conclusions often are crucial steps in a proof .
Many types of objects in abstract algebra can satisfy chain conditions , and usually if they satisfy an ascending chain condition , they are called Noetherian in her honor . By definition , a Noetherian ring satisfies an ascending chain condition on its left and right ideals , whereas a Noetherian group is defined as a group in which every strictly ascending chain of subgroups is finite . A Noetherian module is a module in which every strictly ascending chain of submodules becomes constant after a finite number of steps . A Noetherian space is a topological space in which every strictly ascending chain of open subspaces becomes constant after a finite number of steps ; this definition makes the spectrum of a Noetherian ring a Noetherian topological space .
The chain condition often is " inherited " by sub @-@ objects . For example , all subspaces of a Noetherian space , are Noetherian themselves ; all subgroups and quotient groups of a Noetherian group are likewise , Noetherian ; and , mutatis mutandis , the same holds for submodules and quotient modules of a Noetherian module . All quotient rings of a Noetherian ring are Noetherian , but that does not necessarily hold for its subrings . The chain condition also may be inherited by combinations or extensions of a Noetherian object . For example , finite direct sums of Noetherian rings are Noetherian , as is the ring of formal power series over a Noetherian ring .
Another application of such chain conditions is in Noetherian induction — also known as well @-@ founded induction — which is a generalization of mathematical induction . It frequently is used to reduce general statements about collections of objects to statements about specific objects in that collection . Suppose that S is a partially ordered set . One way of proving a statement about the objects of S is to assume the existence of a counterexample and deduce a contradiction , thereby proving the contrapositive of the original statement . The basic premise of Noetherian induction is that every non @-@ empty subset of S contains a minimal element . In particular , the set of all counterexamples contains a minimal element , the minimal counterexample . In order to prove the original statement , therefore , it suffices to prove something seemingly much weaker : For any counterexample , there is a smaller counterexample .
= = = = Commutative rings , ideals , and modules = = = =
Noether 's paper , Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen ( Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains , 1921 ) , is the foundation of general commutative ring theory , and gives one of the first general definitions of a commutative ring . Before her paper , most results in commutative algebra were restricted to special examples of commutative rings , such as polynomial rings over fields or rings of algebraic integers . Noether proved that in a ring which satisfies the ascending chain condition on ideals , every ideal is finitely generated . In 1943 , French mathematician Claude Chevalley coined the term , Noetherian ring , to describe this property . A major result in Noether 's 1921 paper is the Lasker – Noether theorem , which extends Lasker 's theorem on the primary decomposition of ideals of polynomial rings to all Noetherian rings . The Lasker – Noether theorem can be viewed as a generalization of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic which states that any positive integer can be expressed as a product of prime numbers , and that this decomposition is unique .
Noether 's work Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpern ( Abstract Structure of the Theory of Ideals in Algebraic Number and Function Fields , 1927 ) characterized the rings in which the ideals have unique factorization into prime ideals as the Dedekind domains : integral domains that are Noetherian , 0 or 1 @-@ dimensional , and integrally closed in their quotient fields . This paper also contains what now are called the isomorphism theorems , which describe some fundamental natural isomorphisms , and some other basic results on Noetherian and Artinian modules .
= = = = Elimination theory = = = =
In 1923 – 24 , Noether applied her ideal theory to elimination theory — in a formulation that she attributed to her student , Kurt Hentzelt — showing that fundamental theorems about the factorization of polynomials could be carried over directly . Traditionally , elimination theory is concerned with eliminating one or more variables from a system of polynomial equations , usually by the method of resultants . For illustration , a system of equations often can be written in the form of a matrix M ( missing the variable x ) times a vector v ( having only different powers of x ) equaling the zero vector , M • v = 0 . Hence , the determinant of the matrix M must be zero , providing a new equation in which the variable x has been eliminated .
= = = = Invariant theory of finite groups = = = =
Techniques such as Hilbert 's original non @-@ constructive solution to the finite basis problem could not be used to get quantitative information about the invariants of a group action , and furthermore , they did not apply to all group actions . In her 1915 paper , Noether found a solution to the finite basis problem for a finite group of transformations G acting on a finite @-@ dimensional vector space over a field of characteristic zero . Her solution shows that the ring of invariants is generated by homogeneous invariants whose degree is less than , or equal to , the order of the finite group ; this is called Noether 's bound . Her paper gave two proofs of Noether 's bound , both of which also work when the characteristic of the field is coprime to | G | ! , the factorial of the order | G | of the group G. The degrees of generators need not satisfy Noether 's bound when the characteristic of the field divides the | G | , but Noether was not able to determine whether this bound was correct when the characteristic of the field divides | G | ! but not | G | . For many years , determining the truth or falsehood of this bound for this particular case was an open problem , called " Noether 's gap " . It was finally solved independently by Fleischmann in 2000 and Fogarty in 2001 , who both showed that the bound remains true .
In her 1926 paper , Noether extended Hilbert 's theorem to representations of a finite group over any field ; the new case that did not follow from Hilbert 's work is when the characteristic of the field divides the order of the group . Noether 's result was later extended by William Haboush to all reductive groups by his proof of the Mumford conjecture . In this paper Noether also introduced the Noether normalization lemma , showing that a finitely generated domain A over a field k has a set x1 , ... , xn of algebraically independent elements such that A is integral over k [ x1 , ... , xn ] .
= = = = Contributions to topology = = = =
As noted by Pavel Alexandrov and Hermann Weyl in their obituaries , Noether 's contributions to topology illustrate her generosity with ideas and how her insights could transform entire fields of mathematics . In topology , mathematicians study the properties of objects that remain invariant even under deformation , properties such as their connectedness . A common joke is that a topologist cannot distinguish a donut from a coffee mug , since they can be continuously deformed into one another .
Noether is credited with fundamental ideas that led to the development of algebraic topology from the earlier combinatorial topology , specifically , the idea of homology groups . According to the account of Alexandrov , Noether attended lectures given by Heinz Hopf and by him in the summers of 1926 and 1927 , where " she continually made observations which were often deep and subtle " and he continues that ,
When ... she first became acquainted with a systematic construction of combinatorial topology , she immediately observed that it would be worthwhile to study directly the groups of algebraic complexes and cycles of a given polyhedron and the subgroup of the cycle group consisting of cycles homologous to zero ; instead of the usual definition of Betti numbers , she suggested immediately defining the Betti group as the complementary ( quotient ) group of the group of all cycles by the subgroup of cycles homologous to zero . This observation now seems self @-@ evident . But in those years ( 1925 – 28 ) this was a completely new point of view .
Noether 's suggestion that topology be studied algebraically was adopted immediately by Hopf , Alexandrov , and others , and it became a frequent topic of discussion among the mathematicians of Göttingen . Noether observed that her idea of a Betti group makes the Euler – Poincaré formula simpler to understand , and Hopf 's own work on this subject " bears the imprint of these remarks of Emmy Noether " . Noether mentions her own topology ideas only as an aside in a 1926 publication , where she cites it as an application of group theory .
This algebraic approach to topology was also developed independently in Austria . In a 1926 – 27 course given in Vienna , Leopold Vietoris defined a homology group , which was developed by Walther Mayer , into an axiomatic definition in 1928 .
= = = Third epoch ( 1927 – 35 ) = = =
= = = = Hypercomplex numbers and representation theory = = = =
Much work on hypercomplex numbers and group representations was carried out in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , but remained disparate . Noether united these results and gave the first general representation theory of groups and algebras . Briefly , Noether subsumed the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions . This single work by Noether was of fundamental importance for the development of modern algebra .
= = = = Noncommutative algebra = = = =
Noether also was responsible for a number of other advancements in the field of algebra . With Emil Artin , Richard Brauer , and Helmut Hasse , she founded the theory of central simple algebras .
A seminal paper by Noether , Helmut Hasse , and Richard Brauer pertains to division algebras , which are algebraic systems in which division is possible . They proved two important theorems : a local @-@ global theorem stating that if a finite @-@ dimensional central division algebra over a number field splits locally everywhere then it splits globally ( so is trivial ) , and from this , deduced their Hauptsatz ( " main theorem " ) : every finite dimensional central division algebra over an algebraic number field F splits over a cyclic cyclotomic extension . These theorems allow one to classify all finite @-@ dimensional central division algebras over a given number field . A subsequent paper by Noether showed , as a special case of a more general theorem , that all maximal subfields of a division algebra D are splitting fields . This paper also contains the Skolem – Noether theorem which states that any two embeddings of an extension of a field k into a finite @-@ dimensional central simple algebra over k , are conjugate . The Brauer – Noether theorem gives a characterization of the splitting fields of a central division algebra over a field .
= = Assessment , recognition , and memorials = =
Noether 's work continues to be relevant for the development of theoretical physics and mathematics and she is consistently ranked as one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century . In his obituary , fellow algebraist BL van der Waerden says that her mathematical originality was " absolute beyond comparison " , and Hermann Weyl said that Noether " changed the face of algebra by her work " . During her lifetime and even until today , Noether has been characterized as the greatest woman mathematician in recorded history by mathematicians such as Pavel Alexandrov , Hermann Weyl , and Jean Dieudonné .
In a letter to The New York Times , Albert Einstein wrote :
In the judgment of the most competent living mathematicians , Fräulein Noether was the most significant creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the higher education of women began . In the realm of algebra , in which the most gifted mathematicians have been busy for centuries , she discovered methods which have proved of enormous importance in the development of the present @-@ day younger generation of mathematicians .
On 2 January 1935 , a few months before her death , mathematician Norbert Wiener wrote that
Miss Noether is ... the greatest woman mathematician who has ever lived ; and the greatest woman scientist of any sort now living , and a scholar at least on the plane of Madame Curie .
At an exhibition at the 1964 World 's Fair devoted to Modern Mathematicians , Noether was the only woman represented among the notable mathematicians of the modern world .
Noether has been honored in several memorials ,
The Association for Women in Mathematics holds a Noether Lecture to honor women in mathematics every year ; in its 2005 pamphlet for the event , the Association characterizes Noether as " one of the great mathematicians of her time , someone who worked and struggled for what she loved and believed in . Her life and work remain a tremendous inspiration " .
Consistent with her dedication to her students , the University of Siegen houses its mathematics and physics departments in buildings on the Emmy Noether Campus .
The German Research Foundation ( Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ) operates the Emmy Noether Programme , providing funding to early @-@ career researchers to rapidly qualify for a leading position in science and research by leading an independent junior research group .
A street in her hometown , Erlangen , has been named after Emmy Noether and her father , Max Noether .
The successor to the secondary school she attended in Erlangen has been renamed as the Emmy Noether School .
A series of high school workshops and competitions are held in her honor in May of each year since 2001 , originally hosted by a subsequent woman mathematics Privatdozent of the University of Göttingen .
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics annually awards Emmy Noether Visiting Fellowships to outstanding female theoretical physicists . Perimeter Institute is also home to the Emmy Noether Council , a group of volunteers made up of international community , corporate and philanthropic leaders work together to increase the number of women in physics and mathematical physics at Perimeter Institute .
The Emmy Noether Mathematics Institute in Algebra , Geometry and Function Theory in the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science , Bar @-@ Ilan University , Ramat Gan , Israel was jointly founded in 1992 by the university , the German government and the Minerva Foundation with the aim to stimulate research in the above fields and to encourage collaborations with Germany . Its main topics are Algebraic Geometry , Group theory and Complex Function Theory . Its activities includes local research projects , conferences , short @-@ term visitors , post @-@ doc fellowships , and the Emmy Noether lectures ( an annual series of distinguished lectures ) . ENI is a member of ERCOM : " European Research Centers of Mathematics " .
In fiction , Emmy Nutter , the physics professor in " The God Patent " by Ransom Stephens , is based on Emmy Noether .
Farther from home ,
The crater Nöther on the far side of the Moon is named after her .
The 7001 Noether asteroid also is named for Emmy Noether .
Google put a memorial doodle on Google 's homepage in many countries on 23 March 2015 to celebrate Emmy Noether 's 133rd birthday .
= = List of doctoral students = =
= = Eponymous mathematical topics = =
= = = Selected works by Emmy Noether ( in German ) = = =
Noether , Emmy ( 1908 ) , " Über die Bildung des Formensystems der ternären biquadratischen Form " [ On Complete Systems of Invariants for Ternary Biquadratic Forms ] , Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik ( in German ) ( DE : Uni Göttingen ) 134 : 23 – 90 and two tables , doi : 10 @.@ 1515 / crll.1908.134.23 .
— — — ( 1913 ) , " Rationale Funktionenkörper " [ Rational Function Fields ] , J. Ber . D. DMV ( in German ) ( DE : Uni Göttingen ) 22 : 316 – 19 .
— — — ( 1915 ) , " Der Endlichkeitssatz der Invarianten endlicher Gruppen " [ The Finiteness Theorem for Invariants of Finite Groups ] ( PDF ) , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) ( DE : Digizeitschriften ) 77 : 89 – 92 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01456821
— — — ( 1918 ) , " Gleichungen mit vorgeschriebener Gruppe " [ Equations with Prescribed Group ] , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 78 : 221 – 29 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01457099 .
— — — ( 1918b ) , " Invariante Variationsprobleme " [ Invariant Variation Problems ] , Nachr . D. König . Gesellsch . D. Wiss . ( in German ) ( Göttingen : Math @-@ phys . Klasse ) 1918 : 235 – 257 . English translation by M. A. Tavel ( 1918 ) , arXiv : physics / 0503066 .
— — — ( 1921 ) , " Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen " [ The Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains ] ( PDF ) , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) ( Metapress ) 83 ( 1 ) , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / bf01464225 , ISSN 0025 @-@ 5831 .
— — — ( 1923 ) , " Zur Theorie der Polynomideale und Resultanten " ( PDF ) , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) ( DE : Digizeitschriften ) 88 : 53 – 79 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01448441 .
— — — ( 1923b ) , " Eliminationstheorie und allgemeine Idealtheorie " ( PDF ) , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) ( DE : Digizeitschriften ) 90 ( 3 – 4 ) : 229 – 61 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01455443 .
— — — ( 1924 ) , " Eliminationstheorie und Idealtheorie " , Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker @-@ Vereinigung ( in German ) ( DE : Uni Göttingen ) 33 : 116 – 20 .
— — — ( 1926 ) , " Der Endlichkeitsatz der Invarianten endlicher linearer Gruppen der Charakteristik p " [ Proof of the Finiteness of the Invariants of Finite Linear Groups of Characteristic p ] , Nachr . Ges . Wiss ( in German ) ( DE : Uni Göttingen ) : 28 – 35 .
— — — ( 1926b ) , " Ableitung der Elementarteilertheorie aus der Gruppentheorie " [ Derivation of the Theory of Elementary Divisor from Group Theory ] , Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker @-@ Vereinigung ( in German ) ( DE : Digizeitschriften ) , 34 ( Abt . 2 ) : 104 .
— — — ( 1927 ) , " Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpern " [ Abstract Structure of the Theory of Ideals in Algebraic Number Fields ] ( PDF ) , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 96 ( 1 ) : 26 – 61 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01209152 .
Brauer , Richard ; Noether , Emmy ( 1927 ) , " Über minimale Zerfällungskörper irreduzibler Darstellungen " [ On the Minimum Splitting Fields of Irreducible Representations ] , Sitz . Ber . D. Preuss . Akad . D. Wiss . ( in German ) : 221 – 28 .
Noether , Emmy ( 1929 ) , " Hyperkomplexe Größen und Darstellungstheorie " [ Hypercomplex Quantities and the Theory of Representations ] , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 30 : 641 – 92 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01187794 .
Brauer , Richard ; Hasse , Helmut ; Noether , Emmy ( 1932 ) , " Beweis eines Hauptsatzes in der Theorie der Algebren " [ Proof of a Main Theorem in the Theory of Algebras ] , Journal für Math . ( in German ) ( DE : Uni Göttingen ) 167 : 399 – 404 .
Noether , Emmy ( 1933 ) , " Nichtkommutative Algebren " [ Noncommutative Algebras ] , Mathematische Zeitschrift ( in German ) 37 : 514 – 41 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01474591 .
— — — ( 1983 ) , Jacobson , Nathan , ed . , Gesammelte Abhandlungen [ Collected papers ] ( in German ) , Berlin , New York : Springer @-@ Verlag , pp. viii , 777 , ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 11504 @-@ 8 , MR 0703862 .
= = = Additional sources = = =
Phillips , Lee ( May 2015 ) , The female mathematician who changed the course of physics — but couldn ’ t get a job , Ars Technica .
Alexandrov , Pavel S. ( 1981 ) , " In Memory of Emmy Noether " , in Brewer , James W ; Smith , Martha K , Emmy Noether : A Tribute to Her Life and Work , New York : Marcel Dekker , pp. 99 – 111 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 1550 @-@ 0 .
Blue , Meredith ( 2001 ) , Galois Theory and Noether 's Problem ( PDF ) , Thirty @-@ Fourth Annual Meeting : Florida Section of The Mathematical Association of America .
Byers , Nina ( December 1996 ) , " E. Noether 's Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws " , Proceedings of a Symposium on the Heritage of Emmy Noether , IL : Bar @-@ Ilan University , arXiv : physics / 9807044 .
Byers , Nina ( 2006 ) , " Emmy Noether " , in Byers , Nina ; Williams , Gary , Out of the Shadows : Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 82197 @-@ 5 .
Dick , Auguste ( 1981 ) , Emmy Noether : 1882 – 1935 , Boston : Birkhäuser , ISBN 3 @-@ 7643 @-@ 3019 @-@ 8 . Trans . H. I. Blocher .
Fleischmann , Peter ( 2000 ) , " The Noether bound in invariant theory of finite groups " , Advances in Mathematics 156 ( 1 ) : 23 – 32 , doi : 10 @.@ 1006 / aima.2000.1952 , MR 1800251 .
Fogarty , John ( 2001 ) , " On Noether 's bound for polynomial invariants of a finite group " , Electronic Research Announcements of the American Mathematical Society 7 ( 2 ) : 5 – 7 , doi : 10 @.@ 1090 / S1079 @-@ 6762 @-@ 01 @-@ 00088 @-@ 9 , MR 1826990 , retrieved 16 June 2008
Gilmer , Robert ( 1981 ) , " Commutative Ring Theory " , in Brewer , James W ; Smith , Martha K , Emmy Noether : A Tribute to Her Life and Work , New York : Marcel Dekker , pp. 131 – 43 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 1550 @-@ 0 .
Gordan , Paul ( 1870 ) , " Die simultanen Systeme binärer Formen " , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 2 ( 2 ) : 227 – 280 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01444021 .
Haboush , WJ ( 1975 ) , " Reductive groups are geometrically reductive " , Ann . Math . ( The Annals of Mathematics , Vol . 102 , No. 1 ) 102 ( 1 ) : 67 – 83 , doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1970974 , JSTOR 1970974 .
Hasse , Helmut ( 1933 ) , " Die Struktur der R. Brauerschen Algebrenklassengruppe über einem algebraischen Zahlkörper " , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 107 : 731 – 760 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01448916 .
Hilbert , David ( December 1890 ) , " Ueber die Theorie der algebraischen Formen " , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 36 ( 4 ) : 473 – 534 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01208503 .
Hilton , Peter ( 1988 ) , " A Brief , Subjective History of Homology and Homotopy Theory in This Century " , Mathematics Magazine 60 ( 5 ) : 282 – 91 , JSTOR 2689545 ?
Hopf , Heinz ( 1928 ) , " Eine Verallgemeinerung der Euler @-@ Poincaréschen Formel " , Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen . Mathematisch @-@ Physikalische Klasse ( in German ) 2 : 127 – 36 .
James , Ioan ( 2002 ) , Remarkable Mathematicians from Euler to von Neumann , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 81777 @-@ 3 .
Kimberling , Clark ( 1981 ) , " Emmy Noether and Her Influence " , in Brewer , James W ; Smith , Martha K , Emmy Noether : A Tribute to Her Life and Work , New York : Marcel Dekker , pp. 3 – 61 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 1550 @-@ 0 .
Lam , Tsit Yuen ( 1981 ) , " Representation Theory " , in Brewer , James W ; Smith , Martha K , Emmy Noether : A Tribute to Her Life and Work , New York : Marcel Dekker , pp. 145 – 56 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 1550 @-@ 0 .
Lederman , Leon M. ; Hill , Christopher T ( 2004 ) , Symmetry and the Beautiful Universe , Amherst : Prometheus Books , ISBN 1 @-@ 59102 @-@ 242 @-@ 8 .
Mac Lane , Saunders ( 1981 ) , " Mathematics at the University of Göttingen 1831 – 1933 " , in Brewer , James W ; Smith , Martha K , Emmy Noether : A Tribute to Her Life and Work , New York : Marcel Dekker , pp. 65 – 78 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 1550 @-@ 0 .
Malle , Gunter ; Matzat , Bernd Heinrich ( 1999 ) , Inverse Galois theory , Springer Monographs in Mathematics , Berlin , New York : Springer @-@ Verlag , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 62890 @-@ 3 , MR 1711577 .
Noether , Gottfried E ( 1987 ) , Grinstein , LS ; Campbell , PJ , eds . , Women of Mathematics , New York : Greenwood press , ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 24849 @-@ 4 .
Noether , Max ( 1914 ) , " Paul Gordan " , Mathematische Annalen 75 ( 1 ) : 1 – 41 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01564521 .
Osen , Lynn M. ( 1974 ) , " Emmy ( Amalie ) Noether " , Women in Mathematics , MIT Press , pp. 141 – 52 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 15014 @-@ X .
Schmadel , Lutz D ( 2003 ) , Dictionary of Minor Planet Names ( 5th revised and enlarged ed . ) , Berlin : Springer @-@ Verlag , ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 00238 @-@ 3 .
Swan , Richard G ( 1969 ) , " Invariant rational functions and a problem of Steenrod " , Inventiones Mathematicae 7 ( 2 ) : 148 – 158 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01389798 .
Taussky , Olga ( 1981 ) , " My Personal Recollections of Emmy Noether " , in Brewer , James W ; Smith , Martha K , Emmy Noether : A Tribute to Her Life and Work , New York : Marcel Dekker , pp. 79 – 92 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8247 @-@ 1550 @-@ 0 .
Teicher , M. ( ed . ) ( 1999 ) , The Heritage of Emmy Noether , Israel Mathematical Conference Proceedings , Bar @-@ Ilan University , American Mathematical Society , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 851045 @-@ 1 , OCLC 223099225
van der Waerden , B.L. ( 1935 ) , " Nachruf auf Emmy Noether " [ obituary of Emmy Noether ] , Mathematische Annalen ( in German ) 111 : 469 – 74 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01472233 . Reprinted in Dick 1981 .
— — — ( 1985 ) , A History of Algebra : from al @-@ Khwārizmī to Emmy Noether , Berlin : Springer @-@ Verlag , ISBN 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 13610 @-@ X .
Weyl , Hermann ( 1935 ) , " Emmy Noether " , Scripta Mathematica 3 ( 3 ) : 201 – 220 , reprinted as an appendix to Dick ( 1981 ) .
Weyl , Hermann ( 1944 ) , " David Hilbert and his mathematical work " , Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 50 ( 9 ) : 612 – 654 , doi : 10 @.@ 1090 / S0002 @-@ 9904 @-@ 1944 @-@ 08178 @-@ 0 , MR 0011274 .
= W. R. van Hoëvell =
Wolter Robert van Hoëvell ( 14 July 1812 – 10 February 1879 ) was a Dutch minister , politician , reformer , and writer . Born into nobility and trained in the Dutch Reformed Church , he worked for eleven years as a minister in the Dutch East Indies . He led a Malay @-@ speaking congregation , engaged in scholarly research and cultural activities , and became an outspoken critic of Dutch colonialism . His activism culminated when he acted as one of the leaders of a short @-@ lived protest in 1848 . During the event , a multi @-@ ethnic group of Batavian inhabitants presented their grievances to the local government . As a result of his leadership in the protest , van Hoëvell was forced to resign his position in the Indies .
After his return to the Netherlands , he served as a member of parliament for the Dutch Liberal party from 1849 to 1862 , and from 1862 until his death he was a member of the State Council . He used his political position to continue critiquing the Dutch colonial system ; nicknamed " chief of the colonial opposition " , he was the first Dutch politician to do so eloquently and knowledgeably , and inspired writers such as Multatuli .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Van Hoëvell was born in Deventer to one of the last of the old noble families in the Netherlands . His parents were Gerrit Willem Wolter Carel , Baron van Höevell ( born Deventer , 21 April 1778 ) , and Emerentia Luthera Isabella , Baroness van der Capellen ( born Haarlem , 31 August 1787 ) ; he grew up with six brothers and sisters . While van Hoëvell was still young , the family moved to Groningen where he attended Latin school . Van Hoëvell enrolled in the University of Groningen in 1829 and studied theology . In 1830 , he saw military action in Belgium during the abortive attempt by the North @-@ Netherlands to maintain the unity of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands . He returned from the war gravely ill , but recovered and then returned to the university . He graduated summa cum laude with a dissertation on Irenaeus in 1836 , and in that same year married Abrahamina Johanna Trip , with whom he would have two daughters and four sons ; one daughter and one son died young .
= = = Ministry and activism in Dutch East Indies = = =
Van Hoëvell left the Netherlands to become a minister in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies , where he led a Malay and Dutch @-@ speaking congregation . In 1838 , he received an additional appointment , as historian for the local government , and began traveling throughout the area . He worked in the East Indies until 1848 , when he received an official reprimand from the Dutch government for publicizing his views critical of colonialism ; consequently he was forced to resign .
= = = = 1848 protest = = = =
Van Hoëvell played an important part in the short @-@ lived protest in Batavia that has been called the " 1848 Batavian Revolution " . Partly inspired by the February 1848 uprising in Paris , Batavian citizens began to challenge the authorities ; one of their grievances was an 1842 decree that dictated that positions in the upper echelons of the Dutch administration could be held only by those who had received the appropriate certificate from the Royal Academy in Delft . The measure discriminated against both " Dutch @-@ born and creole Dutch " who could not or did not want to send their children to the Netherlands for a decade of education . The measure also discriminated against the class referred to as Indo @-@ Europeans , who were thus barred from promotion above the level of " the lowliest civil service jobs . " As a consequence of this discrimination across racial barriers , the May 1848 protest could draw a mixed group of citizens , " identified as ' Europeans , ' ' creoles , ' and ' colored ' " by the authorities .
Van Hoëvell emerged as one of the " principal organizers " in the protest and called a meeting , with official approval , to discuss " better access to government jobs for locally born colonizers through expanded educational offerings " . Starting on 17 May , van Hoëvell and others met many times with Governor @-@ General Jan Jacob Rochussen to discuss what kind of meeting was to be held and what demands would be made . During this time , van Hoëvell was able to move the proposed meeting place from a private residence to the central hall of De Harmonie , the club house of the Batavian citizen 's society , and he organized transportation for whoever wished to come , including his own congregation .
The organizers received permission from Rochussen for their meeting since they had argued that their grievances were social matters , not " matters of state , " and that they did not form a political threat to the government . However , on 20 May van Hoëvell printed the kind of anti @-@ government rhetoric he had been asked to refrain from in a journal he published . There were also signals at other public events of growing unease among the locally born Dutch population as well as the large Indo @-@ European population , who had held protests of their own and delivered a petition to Rochussen . Taking all these developments in consideration , Rochussen concluded that the meeting in De Harmonie should be considered subversive and a danger to the state ; he let it be known that armed troops were ready to take control of the situation if need be . At 6 PM on 22 May , people were flocking to the club house , and by 7 PM it was packed . Van Hoëvell was quickly proclaimed to be president of the assembly . Soon after , though , the meeting became unruly and the shouts of a few led to a riot . In an increasingly unruly atmosphere , the protestors ousted van Hoëvell from his presidency as quickly as they had raised him to the position , after which he and others left the building . The protest fizzled out soon afterward .
= = = = Resignation = = = =
By mid @-@ 1848 , van Hoëvell had become too controversial and perhaps too important to those who disagreed with the local government , and under pressure from the Governor @-@ General he resigned his post on 19 July 1848 . After a packed final service in the Willemskerk in August , he was sent off by " half the population of Batavia " ; his final sermon , based on Epistle to the Hebrews 13 : 18 – 19 , suggested that he hoped to return to the Indies . Later , he characterized the Governor @-@ General as more powerful than the Dutch king : " he is the sun , at which all eyes are aimed ; when he laughs , everyone laughs ; if he looks serious , then the entire multitude frowns its face . "
= = = = Scholarship and other activities in the Indies = = = =
In Batavia , he was an active scholar , publishing on linguistics , language , and history . In 1838 he founded a journal , Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch @-@ Indië ( " Journal for the Dutch East Indies " ) , which he edited until 1862 , and he edited and translated a fourteenth @-@ century romantic poem written in the Jawi alphabet , the Syair Bidasari . He was chairman of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences and its president after 1845 , and published a book on the colony 's arts and sciences and one on the colony 's history . Van Hoëvell traveled widely , studied languages and artifacts , and visited local Muslim rulers ; he judged the threat of Islam to be much less insidious than the restrictions from the Dutch government or the danger posed by domestic Catholics . He was awarded with knighthood in the Order of the Netherlands Lion in 1847 .
He became a friend and correspondent of Eduard Douwes Dekker , who under the pseudonym Multatuli published Max Havelaar , the 1860 satire that exposed colonial corruption in Java ; Dekker was one of the first subscribers to Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch @-@ Indië . Another acquaintance was W. Bosch , chief of the public health services in the colony , who had written critically on the effects of the colonial system on the health of the population , arguing to his superiors that they should help combat poverty , malnourishment , and communicable diseases . Bosch had provided logistical assistance during the events of May 1848 , and they remained friends even after van Hoëvell returned to the Netherlands .
= = = Return to the Netherlands : political career = = =
While Rochussen had been glad to see him go , back in the Netherlands van Hoëvell fared better politically . He was vindicated when the government canceled the acceptance of his forced resignation , and he was cleared of any wrongdoing in the events of May 1848 . The publication of the Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch @-@ Indië , which had stopped at his expulsion from Batavia , was resumed in 1849 , now in a less repressive environment . For some pamphlets , he used the pseudonym Jeronymus . In September 1849 , he was elected to the House of Representatives of the Netherlands for the Liberal party and he remained a member of parliament until 1862 . He was one of only a handful of Dutch parliamentarians who had actually been to the East Indies , and often spoke eloquently on colonial matters in parliament . He became " one of the most ferocious critics " of the Cultivation System , the government @-@ run system ( already criticized by W. Bosch and others ) that demanded that the local peasantry set aside a significant portion of their land to grow crops for the Dutch to export . Van Hoëvell was a proponent of private ownership , and argued that the system , besides being immoral , was also economically ineffective . His criticism of Dutch colonial practices extended to the Dutch West India Company ; he was a supporter of abolitionism at a time when Dutch colonists owned tens of thousands of slaves , mainly on plantations in Surinam .
In parliament , he continued what had become his mission : to educate the Dutch citizenry on the nature of Dutch colonialism . In his speeches , he occasionally used confidential government information sent to him from the Indies by his friend Bosch . With great expertise and sometimes " disturbing eloquence " he criticized the Dutch government for generating millions from the colonies while denying the locals " education , Christianity , and the blessings of progress " .
In 1860 , he was one of those politicians who forced Prime Minister and Minister of Colonial Affairs Jan Jacob Rochussen , his former Governor @-@ General , to resign his post , in part because a corruption scandal in the East Indies came to light . In that same year he promoted his friend Multatuli 's Max Havelaar , announcing in parliament that the book had sent tremors through the country . On 1 July 1862 , he was appointed to the Council of State of the Netherlands , where he served until his death in The Hague on 10 February 1879 . His wife died on 9 January 1888 .
= = Legacy = =
Van Hoëvell , deemed a " radical " for his opinions , stands alongside Dirk van Hogendorp as one of the most important and best @-@ known Dutch anti @-@ colonialists of the nineteenth century before Multatuli — he is regarded as one of Multatuli 's predecessors . He was a passionate man , who felt it his duty to inform the Dutch citizenry of the arrogance of the Dutch colonial rulers , the widespread corruption among the native ruling classes , and the imposition of backbreaking labor on the local peasantry . Moreover , according to van Hoëvell , the colonial system harmed relationships between peoples . These were themes that were also discussed by Multatuli in his Max Havelaar . Van Hoëvell 's efforts to abolish slavery , especially his 1854 book Slaves and free people under Dutch law , are credited with having hastened the emancipation of Dutch @-@ owned slaves in the East Indies in 1859 and in the West Indies in 1863 . The book is included in the Canon of Dutch Literature .
= = Publications = =
Geschiedkundig overzicht van de beoefening van kunsten en wetenschappen in Nederlands @-@ Indië ( " History of the practice of arts and sciences in the Dutch East Indies " ) . 1839 .
Episode uit de geschiedenis van Neerlands @-@ Indië ( " Episode from the history of the Dutch East Indies " ) . 1840 .
Sjaïr Bidasari . Oorspronkelijk Maleisch gedicht met een vertaling en aanteekeningen ( " Originally Malay poem with translation and notes " ) . Batavia , 1844 .
Beschuldiging en veroordeling in Indië en rechtvaardiging in Nederland ( " Accusation and condemnation in the Indies and justification in the Netherlands " ) . 1850
De drukpers en de Javanen ( " The printing press and the Javanese " ) . 1851 .
Slaven en vrijen onder de Nederlandsche wet ( " Slaves and free people under Dutch law " ) . 1854 .
Reis over Java , Madura en Bali in het midden van 1847 ( " A journey across Java , Madura , and Bali in mid @-@ 1847 " ) . 1850 .
Uit het Indische leven ( " From life in the Indies " ) . 1860 . Second edition printed in 1865 .
= Paper Airplane ( The Office ) =
" Paper Airplane " is the twentieth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It originally aired on NBC on April 25 , 2013 . The episode features guest appearances from Roseanne Barr as Andy 's agent Carla Fern . In addition , it was also the final half @-@ hour episode of the series , being the fourth @-@ to @-@ last episode aired .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , the office staff compete against each other in a paper airplane contest . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) prepares for a potential acting job , and Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) utilize new skills that they learned in couples ' counseling .
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics ; some felt that the episode was humorous , whereas others were critical of the main plot involving Pam and Jim . The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 25 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 7 / 5 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , giving it the lowest viewership rating of any episode of The Office . " Paper Airplane " ranked fourth in its timselot , but was nevertheless the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
A paper airplane contest is being hosted at Dunder Mifflin by a new paper supplier . All of the office workers compete against each other for a $ 2 @,@ 000 prize . Erin Hannon in particular is fiercely competitive , and even as she realizes that she is showing an ugly side of herself to her boyfriend Pete Miller , she cannot hold back from smashing a box of packing peanuts when she loses in the semi @-@ finals . After several intense rounds , it comes down to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) . Dwight , who is dating Esther ( Nora Kirkpatrick ) , tries to throw the contest . Angela is flattered by the gesture . However , when Esther expresses her condolences to Angela about her financial situation since her husband separated from her , she realizes that Dwight is letting her win out of pity , not love . Angered , she rebuffs Dwight 's pity and lets him win the contest .
Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) prepares for an acting job in a laboratory safety video that was arranged by his talent agent , Carla Fern ( Roseanne Barr ) . The directors continuously have to talk him out of overacting , and he backs down from shooting a scene using an eye wash , since he has an aversion towards anything being shot into his eye . However , Carla threatens to have him blacklisted if he doesn 't go through with the scene . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , who came along as friendly support , gives Andy the confidence to shoot the scene , and in the end Andy even insists on doing two takes .
In couples ' counseling , Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) have been told to express appreciation for the things their spouse does for them , be frank about things that make them unhappy , and refer to anything they don 't want to do but must as an opportunity . Their exercising of these three habits is stiff and formal to begin with , and becomes increasingly snarky as the day goes on . Despite this , as Jim leaves the office to return to his business , he confesses to Pam that he thinks the three habits are helping and that they should keep them up . After he leaves , Pam runs after him to give him an umbrella . Jim takes the umbrella , and then embraces his wife , who finds that she lacks the emotional conviction to hug him back . However , she remembers that by marrying Jim she promised to love him in spite of any hardships , and she lovingly embraces him and kisses him .
= = Production = =
" Paper Airplane " was written by co @-@ executive producers Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein , marking their first writing credit for the season , as well as their first writing credit since season eight 's " Turf War " . It was directed by first @-@ time Office director , Jesse Peretz . Comedian Roseanne Barr guest stars in this episode . It was announced on January 31 , 2013 that she would be doing a two episode arc and would play a talent agent named Carla Fern . Barr began filming her scenes the week following January 31 . She first appeared in the previous episode , " Stairmageddon " .
The episode features both archival footage — as well as new footage — of Pam and Jim 's wedding from the sixth season episode " Niagara " . In order to get a shot of Pam and Jim looking into the camera , Greg Daniels restaged the scene four years after " Niagara " had been filmed . Daniels noted , " To get Jim and Pam 's eye line right for the camera , I stepped in as the minister [ when the camera was facing them ] so they were both looking at me with the full actor @-@ power of all the emotions they were supposed to be feeling at their own wedding , just blasting in my face . I got chills and a fever . "
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight refers to the new paper as the " Cadillac of paper " . Andy notes that if he is successful in his industrial film , he could potentially land a role in the movie Moneyballs 2 , a sequel to the 2011 film Moneyball starring Brad Pitt . When told to act like he is doing a newscast , Andy does a Tom Brokaw impersonation . Andy also says that if necessary he will go all @-@ nude for the role in a " full @-@ on Lena Dunham " , a reference to her skit at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards . Darryl tells Andy that he was in a production of The Wiz in high school . Kevin mistakes Orville and Wilbur Wright — the credited inventors of the airplane — for " Wilbur and Orville Redenbacher " — a brand of popcorn . In the last scene , when Jim and Pam resolve their differences , the cut @-@ scene shows the minister reading 1 Corinthians 13 : 7 – 13 from the Bible .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Paper Airplane " originally aired on April 25 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 25 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 7 rating / 5 percent share . At 3 @.@ 25 million viewers , it is the lowest rated episode of the series to ever air . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " Stairmageddon " . The Office ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which scored a 2 @.@ 7 / 7 rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which garnered a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating , and installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 rating . When DVR numbers were included , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 956 million viewers and increased its ratings up 65 percent to a 2 @.@ 8 , meaning it was seen by , in total , 2 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds .
= = = Reviews = = =
Roth Cornet of IGN awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , denoting a " great " episode . She praised the final scene , and said that Pam 's decision was " a gorgeously simple emotional shift " . She was complimentary towards the balance between characters and felt that " the rest of the episode was entertaining and well constructed , if not earth shatteringly hilarious . " Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars , summarizing that " An otherwise funny episode of The Office , highlighted by Toby 's awkwardness , Dwight 's craziness and Kevin 's pride , was held back by yet another trip down Pam and Jim 's boring avenue of problems . "
Nick Campbell of TV.com gave the episode a more moderate review , writing that " The Jam story was probably the only bright spot for me in an episode generally devoid of chuckles " , and that it was " not a terrible episode , but basic and a little boring . " He was complimentary towards the conclusion of the Jim @-@ Pam plot , noting that the final scene was " a warm moment " , although he was surprised by the scene 's placement in the season as a whole . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote positively of the finale scene , noting that " it really worked " , and that Krasinski and Fischer were " terrific " during the sequence . However , he said that the " comedy parts of ' Paper Airplane ' were so dire I 'm not going to dwell on them at all " .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " and felt that the finale scene , while set up to be emotional , was " hollow " . He argued that the tension does not feel as threatening as it should ; he compared it to the second season episode " Casino Night " , which had invoked real fears about the future of Jim and Pam . He summed up : " I wish the final scene of “ Paper Airplane ” made me feel something deeper . " Adams also was not impressed with the Dwight @-@ Angela storyline , but was " enjoying Andy ’ s day on the industrial @-@ safety film — much more so than [ he ] anticipated " due to the " unintentional hilarity " that ensued .
Roseanne Bar 's performance was later submitted by the producers of The Office for an " Outstanding Guest Actor in Comedy Series " Emmy consideration .
= Château de Chinon =
Château de Chinon is a castle located on the bank of the Vienne river in Chinon , France . It was founded by Theobald I , Count of Blois . In the 11th century the castle became the property of the counts of Anjou . In 1156 Henry II of England , a member of the House of Anjou , took the castle from his brother Geoffrey after he had rebelled for a second time . Henry favoured the Château de Chinon as a residence : most of the standing structure can be attributed to his reign and he died there in 1189 .
Early in the 13th century , King Philip II of France harassed the English lands in France and in 1205 he captured Chinon after a siege that lasted several months , after which the castle remained under French control . When King Philip IV accused the Knights Templar of heresy during the first decade of the 14th century , several leading members of the order were imprisoned there .
Used by Charles VII in the 15th century , the Château de Chinon became a prison in the second half of the 16th century , but then fell out of use and was left to decay . It has been recognised as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture since 1840 . The castle , which contains a museum , is now owned and managed by the Indre @-@ et @-@ Loire General Council and is a major tourist attraction . In the early 21st century it was restored at a cost of 14 @.@ 5 million euros .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The settlement of Chinon is on the bank of the Vienne river about 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) from where it joins the Loire . From prehistoric times , when the settlement of Chinon originated , rivers formed the major trade routes , and the
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Vienne joins the fertile southern plains of the Poitou and the city of Limoges to the thoroughfare of the Loire . The site was fortified early on , and by the 5th century a Gallo @-@ Roman castrum had been established . Theobald I , Count of Blois built the earliest known castle on the mount of Chinon in the 10th century . He fortified it for use as a stronghold . After Odo II , Count of Blois died in battle in 1037 , Fulk III , Count of Anjou marched into Touraine to capture Château de Langeais and then Chinon , some 22 km ( 14 mi ) away . When Fulk arrived at Chinon the castle 's garrison immediately sought terms and surrendered . In 1044 , Geoffrey ( the count of Anjou ) captured Theobald of Blois @-@ Chartres . In exchange for his release , Theobald agreed to recognise Geoffrey 's ownership of Chinon , Langeais , and Tours . From then until the early 13th century , Château de Chinon descended through his heirs .
= = = Counts of Anjou = = =
According to contemporaneous chronicler Robert of Torigni , on the death of Geoffrey Plantagenet , Count of Anjou in 1151 his second son , who was also called Geoffrey , inherited four castles . Robert did not specify which these were , but historian W. L. Warren speculated that Chinon , Loudun , and Mirebeau numbered amongst these castles as they were in the territory which may have been traditionally the inheritance of the second oldest son . Geoffrey rebelled against his older brother , Henry , in 1152 . Henry negotiated with the castellans of the castles of Chinon , Loudun , and Mirebeau to surrender before laying siege to Château de Montsoreau . Following the loss of Montsoreau , Geoffrey surrendered to his brother . By 1156 Chinon , Loudun , and Mirebeau were back under Geoffrey 's control . That year he readied them for war as he rebelled against Henry a second time . In the intervening years , his brother had been crowned King Henry II of England at the end of a long @-@ running civil war . Henry besieged and captured Geoffrey 's castles in the summer of 1156 and kept them under his control , giving Geoffrey an annuity of £ 1 @,@ 500 in compensation . The presence of a treasury and one of Henry II 's main arsenals marked Chinon as a particularly important castle in the 12th century . It was a primary residence of Henry II who was responsible for construction of almost all of the massive castle .
In 1173 Henry II betrothed his youngest son , Prince John , to the daughter of Count Humbert , an influential lord in Provence . John had no land , but as part of the arrangement Henry promised him the castles of Chinon , Loudun , and Mirebeau . Henry II 's eldest son , also called Henry , had been crowned King of England alongside his father but had no land of his own and was angered by the situation . His discontent grew and Henry the Young King demanded some of the land promised to him be handed over , claiming to have the support of the English barons and his father @-@ in @-@ law , King Louis VII of France . While the king was at Limoges he was informed of a conspiracy involving his wife and sons to overthrow him . Choosing to keep his eldest son by his side , Henry II set off north to Normandy , ensuring along the way that his castles in Aquitaine were prepared for war . En route they stayed at Chinon ; under the cover of darkness Henry the Young King escaped and set off to Paris to join the court of Louis VII . Two of Henry the Young King 's brothers , Richard and Geoffrey , joined him in rebellion along with the barons of France and some in England . War followed , lasting until 1174 , and Chinon , Loudun , and Châtellerault were key to Henry II 's defence .
After the revolt ended in 1174 , relations between Henry II and his sons continued to be strained . By 1187 Henry the Young King was dead , Richard was in line to inherit , and Henry II was on the brink of war with Philip II . In June that year Richard travelled to Paris with Philip II and struck up a friendship with the French king . Concerned his son might turn against him , Henry II asked him to return . Richard went to Chinon and raided the castle 's treasury so he could fund the repair of his own castles in Aquitaine . In 1189 Richard and Philip were wreaking havoc in Maine and Toulouse , capturing Henry II 's castles ; the king was ill and went to Château de Chinon . He left briefly in July to meet with Richard and Philip II and agree a truce , and died at Chinon on 6 July . The king 's body was taken to Fontevraud Abbey and Richard became king .
In 1199 , John succeeded his brother as King of England . By 1202 his lands in France were under threat from Philip II of France , threatening the east , and the barons of Brittany . In January 1203 John sent a band of mercenaries to retrieve Queen Isabelle from Chinon as it was under threat from rebels . In the spring Hubert de Burgh , 1st Earl of Kent , took over as commander of Chinon 's garrison ; the war was not going in John 's favour and in August that year he ordered the demolition of several castles , including Château de Montrésor , to prevent them from being used by the enemy . By 1205 , Chinon was one of the last castles in the Loire Valley . Château de Chinon fell to French force in the Easter of 1205 after a siege of several months ; damage to the castle meant the garrison was no longer able to hold out so sallied to meet the French outside the castle walls . Hubert de Burgh was injured and taken prisoner in the event , and would remain in captivity until 1207 . Soon after Château de Chinon was captured , Philip II took Normandy from the England crown . The French king was a prolific castle @-@ builder and was responsible for building the cylindrical keep at Chinon , the Tour du Coudray . The round keep was typical of French design the period , a departure from usually square keeps , and was repeated by Philip II at the castles of Dourdan , Falaise , Gisors , Laon , and Lillebonne .
= = = French rule = = =
Though it was not the reason they were built , castles could often be used as prisons . One such instance from the 14th century illustrates this aspect of Château de Chinon 's history . Founded in the Holy Land as a crusading military order in the early 12th century , the Knights Templar had , by the close of the 13th century , gained swathes of lands in Europe , particularly France . King Philip IV of France had the members of the order in his kingdom arrested , accusing them of heretical practices . The leaders of the order , including the Grand Master Jacques de Molay , were imprisoned at Château de Chinon , in the Tour du Coudray built by Philip II one century earlier . Graffiti carved by the imprisoned knights can be seen on the walls of the tower . In August 1308 , Pope Clement V sent three cardinals to hear the leaders ' confessions . The outcome was that in 1312 the pope issued a bull , the Vox in excelso , suppressing the order and its property was given to the Knights Hospitaller . The leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment , apart from Jacques de Molay and Geoffrey de Charney who were burnt at the stake .
The Hundred Years ' War in the 14th and 15th centuries was fought between the kings of England and France over the succession to the French throne . The war ended in 1453 when the English were finally ejected from France , but in the early 15th century the English under King Henry V made significant territorial gains . The Treaty of Troyes in 1420 made Henry V the heir apparent to the French throne but when the French king , Charles VI , and Henry V died in the space of two months in 1422 the issue of succession was again uncertain . The English supported Henry V 's son , Henry VI who was still a child , while the French supported recognised Charles VII , the Dauphin of France . Between 1427 and 1450 Château de Chinon was the residence of Charles , when Touraine was virtually the only territory left to him in France , the rest being occupied by the Burgundians or the English .
On 6 March 1429 Joan of Arc arrived at Château de Chinon . She claimed to hear heavenly voices that said Charles would grant her an army to relieve the siege of Orléans . While staying at the castle she resided in the Tour du Coudray . Charles met with her two days after her arrival and then sent her to Poitiers so that she could be cross @-@ examined to ensure she was telling the truth . Joan returned to Chinon in April where Charles granted her supplies and sent her to join the army at Orléans .
In 1562 the château came briefly into the possession of the Huguenots and was turned into a state prison by Henry IV of France . Cardinal Richelieu was given the castle to prevent it from coming under the control of unfriendly forces , though he allowed it to fall into ruin . Château de Chinon was abandoned until 1793 when , during the Reign of Terror , the castle was temporarily occupied by royalist Vendeans . Soon after , the castle lapsed back into decay .
The 19th century saw increasing public interest in France 's heritage and efforts were undertaken to preserve historic buildings . In 1830 the newly crowned Louis Philippe I created the role of Inspector @-@ General of Historic Monuments . Prosper Mérimée , better known as a writer , assumed the position in 1834 and helped halt the decay that had set in at Château de Chinon and instigated repairs to the structure . Since 1840 , the castle has been recognised as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture .
Between 2003 and 2010 the castle was the subject of a massive excavation and restoration project , costing 14 @.@ 5 million euros . It was hoped that the restored castle would attract 250 @,@ 000 tourists a year with a visitor centre built in the Fort St @-@ George , which was entirely excavated in advance . Before the visitor centre was built , the Fort St @-@ George was the subject of an archaeological excavation which covered nearly 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 43 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , unearthing the entire interior of the fort . The royal lodgings ( logis royales ) which were roofless for two hundred years , were restored inside and out and given with a mock 15th @-@ century interior . In addition about 150 metres ( 490 ft ) of the ramparts were also restored as well as the Tour du Coudray . Today , it is owned and managed by the Indre @-@ et @-@ Loire General Council and is a major tourist attraction .
= = Description = =
Standing on a rocky outcrop above the Vienne river , Château de Chinon has natural defences on three sides and a ditch dug along the fourth . Writing in the 12th century , the chronicler William of Newburgh commented that even before Château de Chinon came under the control of Henry II " its strength was such that nature seemed to vie with human art in fortifying and defending it " . That said , in the 12th century Henry II undertook a project of rebuilding the castle and much of the extant remains date from this period . The stone used to build the castle was quarried on the site .
The castle is divided , along its length , into three enclosures , each separated by a deep dry moat . There are some similarities with Château Gaillard , built by Richard the Lionheart in the closing years of the 12th century , which also consists of three enclosures and sits on a promontory above a nearby town .
The easternmost enclosure is known as Fort St @-@ Georges , the central is the Château du Milieu ( the middle castle ) , while the westernmost is known as the Fort du Coudray . The Fort St @-@ George was built under Henry II and contained a chapel dedicated England 's patron saint . The Château du Coudray was added by Philip II in the early 13th century , while the Château de Milieu was built in the 12th and 14th centuries . The round Tour du Coudray built by Philip II ( which has parallels at Dourdan , Falaise , Gisors , Laon , and Lillebonne ) guarded the bridge linking the Fort du Coudray and the Château de Milieu . While the curtain wall stands in many places , the buildings within the château do not survive to the same extent , and in many cases little more can be said about them than the location of their foundations and possible use .
= Halo Legends =
Halo Legends is a collection of seven short anime films set in the Halo science @-@ fiction universe . Financed by Halo franchise overseer 343 Industries , the stories were created by six Japanese production houses : Bee Train , Bones , Casio Entertainment , Production I.G. , Studio 4 ° C , and Toei Animation . Shinji Aramaki , creator and director of Appleseed and Appleseed Ex Machina , serves as the project 's creative director . Warner Bros. released Legends on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on February 16 , 2010 .
The idea for an anime compilation existed for years before there was momentum for the project . 343 creative director Frank O 'Connor produced story outlines or finished scripts that the production houses animated in a variety of styles .
= = Development = =
To oversee development of the entire Halo franchise , Microsoft created an internal division , 343 Industries , to manage the Halo brand . Frank O 'Connor , 343 's creative director , said that such a move was vital : " If you look at how George Lucas held on to Star Wars , not just to make money from action figures but to control the direction the universe went in , you can see why we think it 's pretty vital . "
Halo Legends had origins in the 2006 Marvel Comics tie @-@ in , The Halo Graphic Novel ; O 'Connor said that the idea of an anime compilation existed for years before there was momentum for the project . Wanting to tell smaller stories in a different format than video games and novels and in different art styles , O 'Connor said that anime was a natural fit . An additional consideration was that 343 Industries felt that the Japanese style of narrative fit the stories well . Most of the animation studios Microsoft approached were available for the project . Most studios were " afraid " of creating their own stories , even if they were familiar with the series , so O 'Connor sent them possible story treatments . Microsoft was deeply involved in making sure story details were correct and writing the scripts for the stories — O 'Connor estimated that 50 % of the dialogue in the final products were verbatim from the original scripts . While all the stories save one are considered canon , O 'Connor noted that some discrepancies were the cause of artistic interpretation .
The animation studios were given wide latitude in their presentation . " We realized very early on [ that Halo ] could take interpretation , " said O 'Connor , saying that the look @-@ and @-@ feel of the universe persisted even through differing artistic styles . In developing their stories and styles , the anime studios were supplied with access to Halo 's story bible and art assets .
One of the artistic styles that is the most radical departure from traditional animation styles is in " The Duel " , which employs a filter that makes every cell look as though it was hand painted by watercolors . His goal that he was aiming for in this project was , " to make audiences understand there should be other styles of animation beyond the existing two primary kinds of animation presented — precisely cel @-@ drawing 2D style and CG 3D style . I wanted to show that creators are not limited , that they have many options for different ( animation ) styles to create stories . "
Voice recording for the English dub was done by Seraphim Digital in Houston , Texas .
= = Episodes = =
Several episodes were originally broadcast on Halo Waypoint on the specified date . The episodes range in length from ten to twenty minutes .
The DVD released in 2010 has another episode sequence .
Origins I
Origins II
The Duel
Homecoming
Odd One Out
Prototype
The Babysitter
The Package
= = Release and reception = =
Halo Legends was originally to be released on February 9 , but launch was pushed back a week to February 16 . The compilation comes in three different retail packages : a standard DVD release with all the episodes , a two @-@ disc special @-@ edition which contains additional commentary , and the Blu @-@ ray Disc edition , featuring the special @-@ edition features and a summary of the Halo storyline . The film 's United States premiere was held at the AMC Metreon in San Francisco on February 10 , with the companion soundtrack released by Sumthing Distribution the day previous .
Reception to Legends was mixed . Orlando Parfit of IGN UK wrote that while the decision to merge Halo and Japanese anime seemed an odd choice , " Halo Legends proves a successful — if uneven — attempt to fuse these two universes , and will certainly prove essential viewing for those with more than a passing interest in Bungie 's seminal shooters . " IGN US reviewers Cindy White and Christopher Monfette said that the short films " prove surprisingly accessible to sci @-@ fi fans in general , " and that the collection was " well worth " the time . Matt Miller of Game Informer said that Halo Legends would appeal to story @-@ interested fans of the franchise , not those who cared about multiplayer gameplay .
Based on Rentrak and Home Media Magazine numbers , Legends ranked second and fourth in Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD sales , respectively , during its first week of sales in the United States . It also ranked seventh in Blu @-@ ray Disc rankings in Japan . In its second week it dropped off the US Blu @-@ ray Disc Top 20 charts , and slipped to tenth for DVD sales . According to The @-@ Numbers.com , Legends sold $ 2 @.@ 56 million worth of merchandise or 168 @,@ 000 DVDs its first week . Total sales have reached $ 8 @.@ 32 million , selling almost 600 @,@ 000 units .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack was composed by various artists , such as Tetsuya Takahashi and Yasuharu Takanashi . Although the soundtrack contains mostly remixes of original work by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori , it also has some original material of its own .
= Composite image filter =
A composite image filter is an electronic filter consisting of multiple image filter sections of two or more different types .
The image method of filter design determines the properties of filter sections by calculating the properties they have in an infinite chain of such sections . In this , the analysis parallels transmission line theory on which it is based . Filters designed by this method are called image parameter filters , or just image filters . An important parameter of image filters is their image impedance , the impedance of an infinite chain of identical sections .
The basic sections are arranged into a ladder network of several sections , the number of sections required is mostly determined by the amount of stopband rejection required . In its simplest form , the filter can consist entirely of identical sections . However , it is more usual to use a composite filter of two or three different types of section to improve different parameters best addressed by a particular type . The most frequent parameters considered are stopband rejection , steepness of the filter skirt ( transition band ) and impedance matching to the filter terminations .
Image filters are linear filters and are invariably also passive in implementation .
= = History = =
The image method of designing filters originated at AT & T , who were interested in developing filtering that could be used with the multiplexing of many telephone channels on to a single cable . The researchers involved in this work and their contributions are briefly listed below ;
John Carson provided the mathematical underpinning to the theory . He invented single sideband modulation for the purpose of multiplexing telephone channels . It was the need to recover these signals that gave rise to the need for advanced filtering techniques . He also pioneered the use of operational calculus ( what has now become Laplace transforms in its more formal mathematical guise ) to analyse these signals .
George Campbell worked on filtering from 1910 onwards and invented the constant k filter . This can be seen as a continuation of his work on loading coils on transmission lines , a concept invented by Oliver Heaviside . Heaviside , incidentally , also invented the operational calculus used by Carson .
Otto Zobel provided a theoretical basis ( and the name ) for Campbell 's filters . In 1920 he invented the m @-@ derived filter . Zobel also published composite designs incorporating both constant k and m @-@ derived sections .
R S Hoyt also contributed .
= = The image method = =
The image analysis starts with a calculation of the input and output impedances ( the image impedances ) and the transfer function of a section in an infinite chain of identical sections . This can be shown to be equivalent to the performance of a section terminated in its image impedances . The image method , therefore , relies on each filter section being terminated with the correct image impedance . This is easy enough to do with the internal sections of a multiple section filter , because it is only necessary to ensure that the sections facing the one in question have identical image impedances . However , the end sections are a problem . They will usually be terminated with fixed resistances that the filter cannot match perfectly except at one specific frequency . This mismatch leads to multiple reflections at the filter terminations and at the junctions between sections . These reflections result in the filter response deviating quite sharply from the theoretical , especially near the cut @-@ off frequency .
The requirement for better matching to the end impedances is one of the main motivations for using composite filters . A section designed to give good matching is used at the ends but something else ( for instance stopband rejection or passband to stopband transition ) is designed for the body of the filter .
= = Filter section types = =
Each filter section type has particular advantages and disadvantages and each has the capability to improve particular filter parameters . The sections described below are the prototype filters for low @-@ pass sections . These prototypes may be scaled and transformed to the desired frequency bandform ( low @-@ pass , high @-@ pass , band @-@ pass or band @-@ stop ) .
The smallest unit of an image filter is an L half @-@ section . Because the L section is not symmetrical , it has different image impedances ( <formula> ) on each side . These are denoted <formula> and <formula> . The T and the Π in the suffix refer to the shape of the filter section that would be formed if two half sections were to be connected back @-@ to @-@ back . T and Π are the smallest symmetrical sections that can be constructed , as shown in diagrams in the topology chart ( below ) . Where the section in question has an image impedance different from the general case a further suffix is added identifying the section type , for instance <formula> .
= = = Constant k section = = =
The constant k or k @-@ type filter section is the basic image filter section . It is also the simplest circuit topology . The k @-@ type has moderately fast transition from the passband to the stopband and moderately good stopband rejection .
= = = m @-@ derived section = = =
The m @-@ derived or m @-@ type filter section is a development of the k @-@ type section . The most prominent feature of the m @-@ type is a pole of attenuation just past the cut @-@ off frequency inside the stopband . The parameter m ( 0 < m < 1 ) adjusts the position of this pole of attenuation . Smaller values of m put the pole closer to the cut @-@ off frequency . Larger values of m put it further away . In the limit , as m approaches unity , the pole approaches ω of infinity and the section approaches a k @-@ type section .
The m @-@ type has a particularly fast cut @-@ off , going from fully pass at the cut @-@ off frequency to fully stop at the pole frequency . The cut @-@ off can be made faster by moving the pole nearer to the cut @-@ off frequency . This filter has the fastest cut @-@ off of any filter design ; note that the fast transition is achieved with just a single section , there is no need for multiple sections . The drawback with m @-@ type sections is that they have poor stopband rejection past the pole of attenuation .
There is a particularly useful property of m @-@ type filters with m = 0 @.@ 6 . These have maximally flat image impedance <formula> in the passband . They are therefore good for matching in to the filter terminations , in the passband at least , the stopband is another story .
There are two variants of the m @-@ type section , series and shunt . They have identical transfer functions but their image impedances are different . The shunt half @-@ section has an image impedance which matches <formula> on one side but has a different impedance , <formula> on the other . The series half @-@ section matches <formula> on one side and has <formula> on the other .
= = = mm ' -type section = = =
The mm ' -type section has two independent parameters ( m and m ' ) that the designer can adjust . It is arrived at by double application of the m @-@ derivation process . Its chief advantage is that it rather better at matching in to resistive end terminations than the k @-@ type or m @-@ type . The image impedance of a half @-@ section is <formula> on one side and a different impedance , <formula> on the other . Like the m @-@ type , this section can be constructed as a series or shunt section and the image impedances will come in T and Π variants . Either a series construction is applied to a shunt m @-@ type or a shunt construction is applied to a series m @-@ type . The advantages of the mm ' -type filter are achieved at the expense of greater circuit complexity so it would normally only be used where it is needed for impedance matching purposes and not in the body of the filter .
The transfer function of an mm ' -type is the same as an m @-@ type with m set to the product mm ' . To choose values of m and m ' for best impedance match requires the designer to choose two frequencies at which the match is to be exact , at other frequencies there will be some deviation . There is thus some leeway in the choice but Zobel suggests the values m = 0 @.@ 7230 and m ' = 0 @.@ 4134 which give a deviation of the impedance of less than 2 % over the useful part of the band . Since mm ' = 0 @.@ 3 , this section will also have a much faster cut @-@ off than an m @-@ type of m = 0 @.@ 6 which is an alternative for impedance matching .
It is possible to continue the m @-@ derivation process repeatedly and produce mm 'm ' ' -types and so on . However , the improvements obtained diminish at each iteration and are not usually worth the increase in complexity .
= = = Bode 's filter = = =
Another variation on the m @-@ type filter was described by Hendrik Bode . This filter uses as a prototype a mid @-@ series m @-@ derived filter and transforms this into a bridged @-@ T topology with the addition of a bridging resistor . This section has the advantage of being able to place the pole of attenuation much closer to the cut @-@ off frequency than the Zobel filter , which starts to fail to work properly with very small values of m because of inductor resistance . See equivalent impedance transforms for an explanation of its operation .
= = = Zobel network = = =
The distinguishing feature of Zobel network filters is that they have a constant resistance image impedance and for this reason are also known as constant resistance networks . Clearly , the Zobel network filter does not have a problem matching to its terminations and this is its main advantage . However , other filter types have steeper transfer functions and sharper cut @-@ offs . In filtering applications , the main role of Zobel networks is as equalisation filters . Zobel networks are in a different group from other image filters . The constant resistance means that when used in combination with other image filter sections the same problem of matching arises as with end terminations . Zobel networks also suffer the disadvantage of using far more components than other equivalent image sections .
= = = Effect of end terminations = = =
A consequence of the image method of filter design is that the effect of the end terminations has to be calculated separately if its effects on response are to be taken into account . The most severe deviation of the response from that predicted occurs in the passband close to cut @-@ off . The reason for this is twofold . Further into the passband the impedance match progressively improves , thus limiting the error . On the other hand , waves in the stopband are reflected from the end termination due to mismatch but are attenuated twice by the filter stopband rejection as they pass through it . So while stopband impedance mismatch may be severe , it has only limited effect on the filter response .
= = Cascading sections = =
Several L half @-@ sections may be cascaded to form a composite filter . The most important rule when constructing a composite image filter is that the image impedances must always face an identical impedance ; like must always face like . T sections must always face T sections , Π sections must always face Π sections , k @-@ type must always face k @-@ type ( or the side of an m @-@ type which has the k @-@ type impedance ) and m @-@ type must always face m @-@ type . Furthermore , m @-@ type impedances of different values of m cannot face each other . Nor can sections of any type which have different values of cut @-@ off frequency .
Sections at the beginning and end of the filter are often chosen for their impedance match in to the terminations rather than the shape of their frequency response . For this purpose , m @-@ type sections of m = 0 @.@ 6 are the most common choice . An alternative is mm ' -type sections of m = 0 @.@ 7230 and m ' = 0 @.@ 4134 although this type of section is rarely used . While it has several advantages noted below , it has the disadvantages of being more complex and also , if constant k sections are required in the body of the filter , it is then necessary to include m @-@ type sections to interface the mm ' -type to the k @-@ types .
The inner sections of the filter are most commonly chosen to be constant k since these produce the greatest stopband attenuation . However , one or two m @-@ type sections might also be included to improve the rate of fall from pass to stopband . A low value of m is chosen for m @-@ types used for this purpose . The lower the value of m , the faster the transition , while at the same time , the stopband attenuation becomes less , increasing the need to use extra k @-@ type sections as well . An advantage of using mm ' -types for impedance matching is that these type of end sections will have a fast transition anyway ( much more so than m = 0 @.@ 6 m @-@ type ) because mm ' = 0 @.@ 3 for impedance matching . So the need for sections in the body of the filter to do this may be dispensed with .
Another reason for using m @-@ types in the body of the filter is to place an additional pole of attenuation in the stopband . The frequency of the pole directly depends on the value of m . The smaller the value of m , the closer the pole is to the cut @-@ off frequency . Conversely , a large value of m places the pole further away from cut @-@ off until in the limit when m = 1 the pole is at infinity and the response is the same as the k @-@ type section . If a value of m is chosen for this pole which is different from the pole of the end sections it will have the effect of broadening the band of good stopband rejection near to the cut @-@ off frequency . In this way the m @-@ type sections serve to give good stopband rejection near to cut @-@ off and the k @-@ type sections give good stopband rejection far from cut @-@ off . Alternatively , m @-@ type sections can be used in the body of the filter with different values of m if the value found in the end sections is unsuitable . Here again , the mm ' -type would have some advantages if used for impedance matching . The mm ' -type used for impedance matching places the pole at m = 0 @.@ 3 . However , the other half of the impedance matching section needs to be an m @-@ type of m = 0 @.@ 723 . This automatically gives a good spread of stopband rejection and as with the steepness of transition issue , use of mm ' -type sections may remove the need for additional m @-@ type sections in the body .
Constant resistance sections may also be required , if the filter is being used on a transmission line , to improve the flatness of the passband response . This is necessary because the transmission line response is not usually anywhere near perfectly flat . These sections would normally be placed closest to the line since they present a predictable impedance to the line and also tend to mask the indeterminate impedance of the line from the rest of the filter . There is no issue with matching constant resistance sections to each other even when the sections are operating on totally different frequency bands . All sections can be made to have precisely the same image impedance of a fixed resistance .
= = = Image filter types = = =
Constant k filter
m @-@ derived filter
General mn @-@ type image filters
mm ' -type filter
Zobel network
Lattice filter
= = = Design concepts = = =
Image impedance
Prototype filter
Loading coils
= = = People = = =
Otto Zobel
George Campbell
John Renshaw Carson
Oliver Heaviside
= Aryacakravarti dynasty =
The Aryacakravarti dynasty ( Tamil : ஆரியச ் சக ் கரவர ் த ் திகள ் வம ் சம ் ) were kings of the Jaffna Kingdom in Sri Lanka . The earliest Sri Lankan sources , between 1277 and 1283 , mention a military leader of this name as a minister in the services of the Pandyan Empire ; he raided the western Sri Lankan coast and took the politically significant relic of the Buddha ’ s tooth from the Sinhalese capital city of Yapahuwa . Political and military leaders of the same family name left a number of inscriptions in the modern @-@ day Tamil Nadu state , with dates ranging from 1272 to 1305 , during the late Pandyan Empire . According to contemporary native literature , the family also claimed lineage from the Tamil Brahmins of the prominent Hindu pilgrimage temple of Rameswaram in the modern Ramanathapuram District of India . They ruled the Jaffna kingdom from the 13th until the 17th century , when the last of the dynasty , Cankili II , was ousted by the Portuguese .
= = Origin theories = =
The origins of the Aryacakravarti are claimed in contemporary court chronicles ; modern historians offer some competing theories .
= = = Pandyan feudatory family = = =
From the thirteenth @-@ century inscriptions commemorating dignitaries calling themselves Aryacakravartis in present @-@ day Tamil Nadu we can deduce that they hailed from the coastal region of present @-@ day Ramanathapuram District , which they called Cevvirukkai Nadu . They administered land and held important military ranks . It is believed that who had become prominent during the days of the Pandyan king Maravarman Kulasekaran .
Furthermore , the title Cakravarti seem to have been commonly used in the Pandyan kingdom as job title . . Compound titles exist , such as Maravacakravarti that belonged to a Maravar chief as well as Malavacakravarti belonged to a Malava chief . Ariyar in Tamil denote a title that belong to a person from North Indian origin . Thus the title Arayacakravarti seems to consider to be originated from Satavahanas , fit the structure of similarly used titles across the Pandyan kingdom .
Some of the dignitaries noted in the inscriptions are one Devar Arayacakravarti , Alakan Arayacakravarti , Minatungan Arayacakravarti and Iraman Arayacakravarti of whom Devar Arayacakravarti has at least two known inscriptions of which one at Sovapuri in Ramanathapuram in 1272 is the earliest . He caused a second inscription ( 1305 ) in Tirupulani in Ramanathapuram to be engraved thus indicating he was a minister or a feudatory . Notably the inscriptions also had the epithet Cetumukam signifying " in the order of Cetu . "
According to a Sinhalese primary source Culavamsa , a warlord or minister named Aryacakravarti invaded the Sinhalese capital of Yapahuwa on behalf of the Pandyan king Maaravarman Kulasekaran between the years 1277 – 1283 and took the politically significant Buddha ’ s tooth relic .
= = = Brahmins from Rameswaram = = =
The Cekaracecekaramalai written during the Aryacakravarti rule in Jaffna asserts that the direct ancestors of the Kings belonged to a group of 512 Ariyar ( a Brahmin priestly caste ) of the Pasupata sect hailed from Ayotthya settled of the Rameswaram Hindu temple . The source also claims that two out of the 512 were selected as Kings of Ariyars . It also explains that a direct ancestor of the kings was a scribe in the Pandyan kingdom and was called during a war with other kingdoms to assist the king , and that the ancestors of the kings fought in wars against kings in the Hoysala and Karnataka .
During Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan 's rule the Pandyas overwhelmed their Hoysala enemies and killed the Hoysala monarch Vira Someshwara in 1254 .
A study of their epithets , such as Teevaiyarkoon ( " King of Teevai " ) , Kantamalayaariyarkoon ( " Ariyan King of Kantamalai " ) and Ceetukaavalan ( " Protector of Cetu " ) confirms their connections to Rameswaram Hindu temple , as Teevai , Cetu and Kantamalai are all names for the same location : Rameswaram .
= = = Ganga dynasty = = =
In the opinion of Rasanayagam Mudaliar and Swami Gnanapragasar the Aryacakravarti dynasty was connected to the Eastern Ganga Dynasty through maternal lines . Rasanayagam believes that a Brahmin from the town of Rameswaram married into the surviving family members of the Kalinga Magha , an invader claiming to be from Kalinga kingdom in India . Magha apparently belonged to the Eastern Ganga Dynasty . The Royal flag of the Jaffna kingdom is similar to the Royal insignia of the Eastern Gangas . Gangas themselves also claimed Brahmin origins . The Setu coins minted by the Aryacakravarti kings also have a similar symbol .
Swami Gnanapragasar believes that the first Ariyacakravarti also called Cinkaiariyan ( Ariyan from Cinkainakar ) was Kalinga Magha himself . Three main arguments are adduced to support the claim that these kings were of Eastern Ganga descent . The first is the similar device on their coins ; the bull couchant and the crescent surmounting it were struck on coins issued by the Eastern Gangas and Ariyacakravartis . The second is the traditions of their origins are almost identical . The last is the assumption of titles Kangkainaadan ( From the country of Ganges ) and Kangkaiariyan ( Ariyan from the Ganga dynasty ) . According to S. Pathmanathan 's history of the Jaffna kingdom , these only establish similarity , but not any conclusive direct connections . Pathmanathan believes that we cannot categorically link the Arycakravarti dynasty with Eastern Gangas and can explain most of the similarities based on influence , even Western Ganga Dynasty descendants who had moved into Tamil lands after their defeat by the Chola Empire around the year 1000 and interpret them simply as reflecting a claim of origin from the Hindu holy city of Varanasi on the banks of the holiest river Ganges .
= = = Javaka @-@ Kalinga invaders = = =
S. Paranavitana offered a novel surmise explaining the origins of the Ariyacakravarti . According to him the Aryacakravarti are descendants of Chandrabhanu a Malay chieftain , who invaded the island from Tambralinga in 1247 . According to him refugees and immigrants from the Indian kingdom of Kalinga founded similarly named Kingdoms in South East Asia , and some of them came due to various reasons to north Sri Lanka and founded the Jaffna Kingdom . This view has been refuted by noted Indian historian K.A. Nilakanta Sastry as having no credible evidence , and other historians such as Louis Charles Damais ( 1911 – 66 ) , an expert on Indonesian studies , Yutaka Iwamoto ( 1910 – 88 ) , a Buddhist scholar , and S. Pathmanathan . They assert that there were no kingdoms in South East Asia called Kalinga and such assertions are based on erroneous readings of the Chinese name for a locality called Ho @-@ ling which actually stood for Walain not Kalinga . Further S. Pathmanathan asserts that Chandrabhanu had categorically claimed Padmavamsa lineage whereas S. Paranavitana had adduced a Gangavamsa lineage to the Aryacakravarti . Further he notes that the inscriptions that S. Paranavitana used to make his theory have not been deciphered by any other scholar to imply a Javaka connection to the Aryacakravartis .
= = Other sources = =
= = = Contemporary chronicles = = =
The earliest local Tamil chronicles on Jaffna Kingdom were composed in the Middle Ages . A prose work , Yalpana Vaipava Malai , compiled by poet Mayilvakana Pulavar in 1736 , cites four earlier writings such as Kailaya Malai , Vaiya Padal , Pararasasekaran Ula and Rasamurai as its source . Of which Rasamurai ( or list of Kings ) has not been found and all what we know about is through Yalpana Vaipava Malai . These , composed not earlier than the 14th century , contain folkloric legends mixed with historical anecdotes . But an astrological work , Cekarasacekara Malai , written during the rule of Cekarasacekaran V ( 1410 – 1440 ) by Soma Sarman has verifiable historical information and has been used extensively by historians from Humphrey Coddrington to S. Pathmanathan to reconstruct the kingdom 's early history .
The Sinhalese chronicles , such as Culavamsa , Rajavaliya and a number of Sandesya chronicles , such as Kokila Sandesaya and Selalihini Sandesaya , have valuable information on the early and middle period of the kingdom , its activities and its eventual occupation by the rival Kotte Kingdom in 1450 – 1467 . Culavamsa mentions in detail the arrival and the conquest of the Sinhalese capital Yapahuwa by a minister named Aryacakravarti during the period 1277 to 1283 . It also mentions that the minister carried away the Budha ’ s relic from the capital to Pandyan Kingdom . The Rajavaliya a primary source written during the 17th century refers to the fact that the Aryacakravartis collected taxes from Udarata and southern lowlands .
The conquest by a certain Sapumal Kumaraya , a military leader sent by the Kotte king , seemed to have left an indelible impression on the Sinhalese literati . The victory of Sapumal Kumaraya is sung in the Kokila Sandesaya ( " Message carried by Kokila bird " ) written in the 15th century by the principal monk of the Irugalkula Tilaka Pirivena in Mulgirigala . The book contains a contemporary description of the country traversed on the road by the cookoo bird from Devi Nuwara ( " City of Gods " ) in the south to Nallur ( " Beautiful City " ) in the North of Sri Lanka .
" Beloved Kokila , wing the way to Yapa Patuna . Our Prince Sapumal has driven away from there King Arya Chakravarti , and has established himself in war @-@ like might . To him , I offer this message . Arya Chakravarti beheld his glory , dazzling as the glory of the sun . He beheld his might which was poised throughout the eighteen ratas . Thereupon grief entered into his heart , he abandoned his realm and fled beyond the sea . "
= = = Inscriptions = = =
Lahugala
Parakramabahu V ( 1344 – 59 ) a king of Gampola who ruled from Dedigama retreated to the southeast of the island , to a place called Magul Maha Viharaya in the Ampara District after a confrontation with the Aryacakravarti . This is evident from inscriptions in a place called Lahugala .
Medawela
The Medawala inscriptions dated 1359 found near a bo @-@ tree at Medawala in Harispattuva reveal that Martanda Cinkaiariyan appointed tax collectors to collect taxes from the villages belonging to the Gampola kingdom .
Kotagama
The Kotagama inscriptions found in Kegalle District are a record of victory left by the Aryacakravarti kings of the Jaffna Kingdom in western Sri Lanka . The inscription was assigned to the 15th century by H.C.P. Bell , an archeologist , and Mudaliar Rasanayagam , based on paleographic analysis of the style of letters used . If this late date is to be accepted then this inscription stands in contrast to generally accepted theory based on Sinhalese literature that Alagakkonara the local chieftain who confronted the Aryacakravarti kings in 1391 was victorious in his effort .
Rameswaram temple
Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan or his successor is credited with an inscription dated 1414 in the South Indian Hindu temple Rameswaram about renovating its sanctum sanctorum . It indicated that the stones for the renovations were shipped from the city of Trincomalee in present @-@ day eastern Sri Lanka . This inscription was destroyed in 1866 .
Tenkasi Ten
The Tenkasi Ten inscription of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya of Tinnevelly who saw the backs of kings at Singai , Anurai , ' and else where , may refer to kings of Singai . Singai or Cinkainakar being the capital of Arayacakravartis and Anurai the name for any Sinhalese capital ; it is dated between 1449 / 50 and 1453 / 4 .
= = = Travelogues = = =
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian trader and explorer who gained fame for his worldwide travels , recorded in the book Il Milione ( " The Million " or The Travels of Marco Polo ) . He reached a port in the northern part of present @-@ day Sri Lanka between 1292 @-@ 94 . According to him the local king was an independent ruler who did not pay tribute to any other monarchs . He named the king as Cantheman , which is considered to be a corruption of Cinkaiariyan . Polo 's was followed by a visit by John of Montecorvino , who was a Franciscan missionary , traveller and statesman . He wrote in December 1291 ( or 1292 ) , the earliest noteworthy account of the Coromandel coast furnished by any Western European . According to him , he saw the wreckage of sixty seagoing vessels in the general area of Jaffna .
Ibn Batuta
Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan Berber scholar and jurisprudent from the Maliki Islamic law , and at times a Qadi or judge . He is best known as a traveler and explorer . He spent a few days as a guest of an Aryacakravarti in 1344 and wrote a detailed account of his encounter . According to him , the king controlled the economically important pearlfishing trade in the Palk Straights and had trading links with countries as far as Yemen . The monarch also spoke Persian and was located in the western coastal area of the island , in Puttalam region . He was also noted as receiving tribute of cinnamon from other southern rulers .
Giovanni de Marignolli
Giovanni de ' Marignolli , a notable traveller to the Far East in the 14th century , camt to Sri Lanka sometimes between 1330 and 1350 . He wrote in great detail about the country , its peoples and customs . According to him , the northern part of the island was ruled by a queen , with whom he had many audiences , who also lavished him with precious gifts . This queen is considered to be the mother of an Aryackaravarti and a regent who ruled on behalf of her young son . The so @-@ called " Catalan Map " drawn in 1375 also indicates that northern Sri Lanka was ruled by a queen . Before Marignolli , there was another traveler , Friar Ordrick , who landed in Jaffna in 1322 ; he also wrote about the prosperity of the kingdom . According him
" The gold , silver and pearls this king had in his possession cannot be found anywhere else in the world " .
= = = Portuguese colonial documents = = =
In his Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon , Father Queroz records a tradition as
In course of time , there came some Brahmanes , natives of Guzarata called Arus , who claiming royal descent ; and with the favor of Nayque of Madura , they erected a pagoda at Ramancor , whence they began to have trade and friendship with the king of Jaffnapatae , and one of them married a daughter of the king ; and finally her descendants became heirs to the Kingdom .
This rendition of basic story line seems to fit the modern consensus . Father Queroz ’ s time line is also anachronistic . The Aryacakravarti dynasty came to power a century before the ascendancy of the Madurai Nayaks but Pasupata Brahmins of Rameswaram had established a temple during the 10th Century after when Pasupata sect retreated to its strongholds of Gujarat , Nepal and the Himalayan hills . So it is possible that the Gujarati origin of the Kings paternal line along with native claims of origin from Nepal seems to be true . Arya Cakravarti built Naguleshwara Temple in Jaffna , similar temple was built by another Pasupata King in West Bengal .
= = Current consensus = =
The current consensus held by historians such as S. Pathmanathan , Patrick Peebles and K.M de Silva is that the Aryacakravartis were a Pandyan feudatory family that took power after the chaos created by the invasions of Kalinga Magha and Chandrabhanu . That the family was connected to the Ramanathapuram Hindu temple and was of Tamil Brahmin origin . It may have married into the family of eastern gangas or even for that matter the Chandrabanu ’ s successors , but the direct undeniable evidence for it is lacking . The influence of Eastern gangas in its royal flag and the coins is indisputable . Kulingai Cakravarti mentioned by the Tamil chronicles of the Kingdom may have been Kalingha Magha .
= Operation Frequent Wind =
Operation Frequent Wind was the final phase in the evacuation of American civilians and " at @-@ risk " Vietnamese from Saigon , South Vietnam prior to the takeover of the city by the North Vietnamese Army ( PAVN ) in the Fall of Saigon . It was carried out on 29 – 30 April 1975 , during the last days of the Vietnam War . More than 7 @,@ 000 people were evacuated by helicopter from various points in Saigon . The airlift resulted in a number of enduring images .
Evacuation plans already existed as a standard procedure for American embassies . At the beginning of March , fixed @-@ wing aircraft began evacuating civilians from Tan Son Nhat Airport through neighboring countries . By mid @-@ April , contingency plans were in place and preparations were underway for a possible helicopter evacuation . As the imminent collapse of Saigon became evident , Task Force 76 ( TF76 ) was assembled off the coast near Vung Tau to support a helicopter evacuation and provide air support if required . In the event , air support was not needed as the North Vietnamese paused for a week at the outskirts of Saigon , possibly waiting for the South Vietnamese government to collapse and avoiding a possible confrontation with the U.S. by allowing the mostly @-@ unopposed evacuation of Americans from Saigon .
On 28 April , Tan Son Nhut Air Base ( lying adjacent to the airport ) came under artillery fire and attack from Vietnamese People 's Air Force aircraft . The fixed @-@ wing evacuation was terminated and Operation Frequent Wind commenced . The evacuation took place primarily from the Defense Attaché Office ( DAO ) compound , beginning around 14 : 00 on the afternoon of 29 April , and ending that night with only limited small arms damage to the helicopters . The U.S. Embassy in Saigon was intended to only be a secondary evacuation point for embassy staff , but it was soon overwhelmed with evacuees and desperate South Vietnamese . The evacuation of the embassy was completed at 07 : 53 on 30 April , but some 400 third country nationals were left behind .
Tens of thousands of Vietnamese evacuated themselves by sea or air . With the collapse of South Vietnam , numerous boats and ships , VNAF helicopters and some fixed @-@ wing aircraft sailed or flew out to the evacuation fleet . Helicopters began to clog ship decks and eventually , some were pushed overboard to allow others to land . Pilots of other helicopters were told to drop off their passengers and then take off and ditch in the sea , from where they would be rescued . During the fixed @-@ wing evacuation 50 @,@ 493 people ( including 2 @,@ 678 Vietnamese orphans ) were evacuated from Tan Son Nhut . In Operation Frequent Wind a total of 1 @,@ 373 Americans and 5 @,@ 595 Vietnamese and third @-@ country nationals were evacuated by helicopter . The total number of Vietnamese evacuated by Frequent Wind or self @-@ evacuated and ending up in the custody of the United States for processing as refugees to enter the United States totalled 138 @,@ 869 . This operation was the debut combat deployment of the F @-@ 14 Tomcat aircraft .
= = Planning = =
Planning for the evacuation of the Americans and their South Vietnamese allies from South Vietnam had begun prior to April , 1975 . When U.S. President Gerald Ford met with the National Security Council on 9 April , 1975 he was told by Henry Kissinger that a maximum of 1 @.@ 6 million people had been identified as possible evacuees and that these included : American citizens and their relatives , the diplomatic corps , the ICCS , third country nationals under contract by the U.S. government and the employees the US and their dependents ( estimated at about 200 @,@ 000 people ) . In addition , the Vietnamese relatives of American citizens and senior Govt. of Vietnam officials and their dependents ( apx . 600 @,@ 000 people ) were also identified as potential evacuees , along with Vietnamese formerly employed by the U.S. and their dependents .
Although American officials at the highest levels of the intelligence community ( e.g. CIA Director William Colby ) were certain that the South Vietnamese government would collapse , everyone in the U.S. government underestimated the speed of the North Vietnamese advance during the 1975 Spring Offensive and how quickly South Vietnam 's Army would collapse .
Evacuation plans are standard for American embassies . The Talon Vise / Frequent Wind plan had been developed over a number of years . Originally codenamed " Talon Vise " , the operation was renamed " Frequent Wind " when the original codename was compromised .
By 1975 the Frequent Wind plan had an estimate of approximately 8 @,@ 000 US citizens and third country nationals to be evacuated , but it was never able to estimate the number of South Vietnamese to include . There were approximately 17 @,@ 000 at @-@ risk Vietnamese on embassy rolls , which , using an average of seven dependents per family , meant that the number requiring evacuation was 119 @,@ 000 . Taken with other categories of Vietnamese , the number quickly increased to over 200 @,@ 000 . The Frequent Wind plan set out four possible evacuation options , as follows :
Option 1 : Evacuation by commercial airlift from Tan Son Nhut and other South Vietnamese airports as required
Option 2 : Evacuation by military airlift from Tan Son Nhut and other South Vietnamese airports as required
Option 3 : Evacuation by sea lift from Saigon port
Option 4 : Evacuation by helicopter to US Navy ships in the South China Sea
With Option 4 , the helicopter evacuation would be expected to be similar to Operation Eagle Pull – the American evacuation by air of Phnom Penh , Cambodia , on 12 April 1975 .
= = Preparations on the ground = =
On 1 April an evacuation control center manned by U.S. Army , U.S. Navy , U.S. Air Force ( USAF ) and U.S. Marine Corps ( USMC ) personnel began operating at the Defense Attaché Office ( DAO ) compound on 12 @-@ hour shifts , increasing to 24 @-@ hour shifts the next day . Also on 1 April , Plan Alamo was implemented to utilize and defend the DAO compound and its annex as an evacuee holding area , intended to care for 1 @,@ 500 evacuees for five days . By 16 April Alamo was complete : water , C @-@ rations , petroleum , oil and lubricants had been stockpiled , backup electricity generators had been installed , sanitary facilities were completed , and concertina wire protected the perimeter .
On 7 April Air America pilot Nikki A. Fillipi , with USMC Lt Robert Twigger , assigned to the DAO as the US Navy liaison officer , surveyed 37 buildings in Saigon as possible landing zones ( LZ ) , selecting 13 of them as fit for use . Workers from Pacific Architects and Engineers visited each of the 13 LZs to remove obstructions and painted H 's ( the exact dimensions of a UH @-@ 1 Huey helicopter 's skids ) on each of the LZs . President Gerald Ford , in an address to the American public on 11 April , promised to evacuate Vietnamese civilians of various categories . The 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade ( 9th MAB ) , which was to supply helicopters and a security force for the evacuation , sent a delegation to consult with Ambassador Graham Martin on current plans on 12 April . Ambassador Martin told them that he would not tolerate any outward signs that the United States intended to abandon South Vietnam . All planning would have to be conducted with the utmost discretion . Brigadier General Richard E. Carey , commander of the 9th MAB , flew to Saigon the next day to see Ambassador Martin ; he later said that " The visit was cold , non @-@ productive and appeared to be an irritant to the Ambassador " . Thirteen Marines from the Marine Security Guard ( MSG ) detachment were deployed to the DAO Compound on 13 April to replace the eight Marine Guards withdrawn from the closed Danang and Nha Trang consulates who had been providing security up to that point .
By late April Air America helicopters were flying several daily shuttles from TF76 to the DAO Compound to enable the 9th MAB to conduct evacuation preparations at the DAO without exceeding the Paris Peace Accords ' limit of a maximum of 50 U.S. military personnel in South Vietnam . The US Government was continuing to observe its obligations under the Accords , notwithstanding the North Vietnamese invasion . In late April the MSG Marines were ordered to abandon Marshall Hall / Marine House , their billet at 204 Hong Thap Tu Street ( now 204 Nguyen Thi Minh Khai Street ) , and move into the recreation area in the Embassy compound .
The two major evacuation points chosen for Operation Frequent Wind were the DAO Compound adjacent to Tan Son Nhut Airport for American and Vietnamese civilian evacuees , and the US Embassy , Saigon for Embassy staff . The plan for the evacuation included buses positioned at 28 buildings throughout metropolitan Saigon designated as pick @-@ up points , with American civilian bus drivers standing by at those buildings . The buses would follow one of four planned evacuation routes from downtown Saigon to the DAO Compound , each route named after a Western Trail : Santa Fe , Oregon , Texas , etc .
= = Options 1 and 2 – fixed @-@ wing evacuation = =
By late March the Embassy began to reduce the number of US citizens in Vietnam by encouraging dependents and non @-@ essential personnel to leave the country by commercial flights and on Military Airlift Command ( MAC ) C @-@ 141 and C @-@ 5 aircraft , which were still bringing in emergency military supplies . In late March , two or three of these MAC aircraft were arriving each day and were used for the evacuation of civilians and Vietnamese orphans . On 4 April a C @-@ 5A aircraft carrying 250 Vietnamese orphans and their escorts suffered explosive decompression over the sea near Vung Tau and made a crash @-@ landing while attempting to return to Tan Son Nhut ; 153 people on board died in the crash .
Following the C @-@ 5 crash , and with the cause still unknown , the C @-@ 5 fleet was grounded and the MAC airlift was reduced to using C @-@ 141s and C @-@ 130s ; rather than loading as many evacuees as possible , each evacuee required a seat and a seatbelt , reducing the number of passengers that could be carried on each flight . Each C @-@ 141 would carry 94 passengers while each C @-@ 130 would carry 75 , although these restrictions were relaxed , and then ignored altogether as the pace of the evacuation quickened . Armed guards were also present on each flight to prevent the possibility of hijacking . American commercial and contract carriers continued to fly out of Tan Son Nhut , but with decreasing frequency . In addition , military aircraft from Australia , Indonesia , Iran , Poland , UK , France , and other countries flew in to evacuate their embassy personnel .
Throughout April the " thinning out " proceeded slowly , largely because of difficulties experienced by Americans in obtaining the necessary paperwork from the South Vietnamese Government to enable them to take their Vietnamese dependents with them , with the result that MAC aircraft were often departing empty . Finally , on 19 April , a simple procedure was implemented that cleared up the paperwork jam and the number of evacuees dramatically increased from 20 April onwards . The fall of Xuân Lộc on 20 April and the resignation of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu on 21 April brought greater crowds seeking evacuation to the DAO Compound as it became apparent that South Vietnam 's days were numbered . By 22 April 20 C @-@ 141 and 20 C @-@ 130s flights a day were flying evacuees out of Tan Son Nhut to Clark Air Base , some 1 @,@ 000 miles away in the Philippines . On 23 April President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines announced that no more than 2 @,@ 500 Vietnamese evacuees would be allowed in the Philippines at any one time , further increasing the strain on MAC which now had to move evacuees out of Saigon and move some 5 @,@ 000 evacuees from Clark Air Base on to Guam , Wake Island and Yokota Air Base . President Thieu and his family left Tan Son Nhut on 25 April on a USAF C @-@ 118 to go into exile in Taiwan . Also on 25 April the Federal Aviation Authority banned commercial flights into South Vietnam . This directive was subsequently reversed ; some operators had ignored it anyway . In any case this effectively marked the end of the commercial airlift from Tan Son Nhut .
On 27 April NVA rockets hit Saigon and Cholon for the first time since the 1973 ceasefire . It was decided that from this time only C @-@ 130s would be used for the evacuation due to their greater maneuverability . There was relatively little difference between the cargo loads of the two aircraft , C @-@ 141s had been loaded with up to 316 evacuees while C @-@ 130s had been taking off with in excess of 240 .
= = Task Force 76 = =
With the fall of Saigon imminent , between 18 and 24 April the U.S. Navy concentrated a large assemblage of ships off Vũng Tàu under Commander Task Force 76 comprising :
Task Force 76 USS Blue Ridge ( command ship )
Task Group 76 @.@ 4 ( Movement Transport Group Alpha )
USS Okinawa
USS Vancouver
USS Thomaston
USS Peoria
Task Group 76 @.@ 5 ( Movement Transport Group Bravo )
USS Dubuque
USS Durham
USS Frederick
Task Group 76 @.@ 9 ( Movement Transport Group Charlie )
USS Anchorage
USS Denver
USS Duluth
USS Mobile
The task force was joined by :
USS Hancock
USS Midway
each carrying Marine , and Air Force ( eight 21st Special Operations Squadron CH @-@ 53s and two 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron HH @-@ 53s ) helicopters .
Seventh Fleet flagship USS Oklahoma City .
Amphibious ships :
USS Mount Vernon
USS Barbour County
USS Tuscaloosa
A guided missile frigate :
USS Worden
and eight destroyer types for naval gunfire , escort , and area defense , including :
USS Richard B. Anderson
USS Cochrane
USS Kirk
USS Gurke
USS Rowan
USS Cook
USS Bausell ( DD @-@ 845 )
The USS Enterprise and USS Coral Sea carrier attack groups of Task Force 77 in the South China Sea provided air cover while Task Force 73 ensured logistic support .
The Marine evacuation contingent , the 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade ( Task Group 79 @.@ 1 ) , consisted of three Battalion Landing Teams ( BLT ) ; 2nd Battalion , 4th Marines ( 2 / 4 ) , 2nd Battalion 9th Marines ( 2 / 9 ) , 3rd Battalion 9th Marines ( 3 / 9 ) and three helicopter squadrons HMH @-@ 462 , HMH @-@ 463 , HMM @-@ 165 along with other support units from Marine Aircraft Group 39 ( MAG @-@ 39 ) .
In addition , a flotilla of Military Sealift Command ( MSC ) ships were assembled and these carried out seaborne evacuations from Saigon Port , this fleet comprised : Tug boats :
Asiatic Stamina
Chitose Maru
Haruma
Osceola
Shibaura Maru
and the following large transport ships :
SS American Challenger
SS Boo Heung Pioneer
SS Green Forest
SS Green Port
USNS Greenville Victory
SS Pioneer Contender
SS Pioneer Commander
USNS Sgt. Truman Kimbro
USNS Sgt. Andrew Miller
= = Tan Son Nhut under attack = =
On 28 April at 18 : 06 , three A @-@ 37 Dragonflies piloted by former VNAF pilots , who had defected to the Vietnamese People 's Air Force at the fall of Danang , dropped six Mk81 250 lb bombs on Tan Son Nhut Air Base destroying several aircraft . VNAF F @-@ 5s took off in pursuit , but they were unable to intercept the A @-@ 37s . C @-@ 130s leaving Tan Son Nhut reported receiving North Vietnamese Army ( PAVN ) .51 cal and 37 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AAA ) fire , while sporadic PAVN rocket and artillery attacks also started to hit the airport and air base . C @-@ 130 flights were stopped temporarily after the air attack but resumed at 20 : 00 on 28 April . At 21 : 00 on 28 April Major General Homer D. Smith Jr . , the senior Defense Attaché , informed the evacuation control center that 60 C @-@ 130 flights would come in on 29 April to evacuate 10 @,@ 000 people .
At 03 : 30 on 29 April a PAVN rocket hit Guardpost 1 at the DAO Compound , instantly killing Marine Corporals McMahon and Judge . They were the last American ground casualties in Vietnam .
At 03 : 58 , C @-@ 130E , # 72 @-@ 1297 , flown by a crew from the 776th Tactical Airlift Squadron , was destroyed by a 122 mm rocket while taxiing to pick up refugees after offloading a BLU @-@ 82 at Tan Son Nhut Air Base . The crew evacuated the burning aircraft on the taxiway and departed the airfield on another C @-@ 130 that had previously landed . This was the last USAF fixed @-@ wing aircraft to leave Tan Son Nhut . Between 04 : 30 and 08 : 00 up to 40 artillery rounds and rockets hit around the DAO Compound .
At dawn the VNAF began to haphazardly depart Tan Son Nhut Air Base as A @-@ 37s , F @-@ 5s , C @-@ 7s , C @-@ 119s and C @-@ 130s departed for Thailand while UH @-@ 1s took off in search of the ships of TF @-@ 76 . Some VNAF aircraft stayed to continue to fight the advancing PAVN . One AC @-@ 119 gunship had spent the night of 28 / 29 April dropping flares and firing on the approaching PAVN . At dawn on 29 April two A @-@ 1 Skyraiders began patrolling the perimeter of Tan Son Nhut at 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) until one was shot down , presumably by an SA @-@ 7 missile . At 07 : 00 the AC @-@ 119 was firing on PAVN to the east of Tan Son Nhut when it too was hit by an SA @-@ 7 and fell in flames to the ground .
At 07 : 00 on 29 April , Major General Smith advised Ambassador Martin that fixed @-@ wing evacuations should cease and that Operation Frequent Wind , the helicopter evacuation of US personnel and at @-@ risk Vietnamese should commence . Ambassador Martin refused to accept General Smith 's recommendation and instead insisted on visiting Tan Son Nhut to survey the situation for himself . At 10 : 00 Ambassador Martin confirmed General Smith 's assessment and at 10 : 48 he contacted Washington to recommend Option 4 , the helicopter evacuation . Finally at 10 : 51 the order was given by CINCPAC to commence Option 4 ; due to confusion in the chain of command , General Carey did not receive the execute order until 12 : 15 . At 08 : 00 Lieutenant General Minh , commander of the VNAF and 30 of his staff arrived at the DAO compound demanding evacuation , signifying the complete loss of VNAF command and control .
= = Option 4 – White Christmas in April = =
In preparation for the evacuation , the American Embassy had distributed a 15 @-@ page booklet called SAFE , short for " Standard Instruction and Advice to Civilians in an Emergency . " The booklet included a map of Saigon pinpointing " assembly areas where a helicopter will pick you up . " There was an insert page which read : " Note evacuational signal . Do not disclose to other personnel . When the evacuation is ordered , the code will be read out on Armed Forces Radio . The code is : The temperature in Saigon is 105 degrees and rising . This will be followed by the playing of I 'm Dreaming of a White Christmas . " Frank Snepp later recalled the arrival of helicopters at the Embassy while the song was playing over the radio as a " bizarre Kafkaesque time " . Japanese journalists , concerned that they would not recognize the tune , had to get someone to sing it to them .
After the evacuation signal was given , the buses began to pick up passengers and head to the DAO Compound . The system worked so efficiently that the buses were able to make three return journeys rather than the expected one . The biggest problem occurred when the ARVN guarding the main gate at Tan Son Nhut refused to allow the last convoy of buses into the DAO Compound at about 17 : 45 . As this was happening , a firefight between two ARVN units broke out and caught the rearmost buses in the crossfire , disabling two of the vehicles . Eventually the ARVN commander controlling the gates agreed to permit the remaining buses to enter the compound . General Carey 's threat to use the AH @-@ 1J SeaCobra helicopter gunships flying overhead may have played a role in the ARVN commander 's decision .
= = Security and air support = =
It was not known whether the PAVN and / or the ARVN would try to disrupt the evacuation and so the planners had to take all possible contingencies into account to ensure the safety and success of the evacuation . The staff of 9th MAB prescribed altitudes , routes , and checkpoints for flight safety for the operation . To avert mid @-@ air collisions , the planners chose altitudes which would provide separation of traffic and also a capability to see and avoid the enemy 's AAA , SA @-@ 2 and SA @-@ 7 missile threat ( 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) for flights inbound to Saigon and 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) for those outbound from Saigon to the Navy ships ) . These altitudes were also high enough to avoid small arms and artillery fire .
In the event that the PAVN or ARVN shot down a helicopter or a mechanical malfunction forced one to make an emergency landing in hostile territory , two orbiting CH @-@ 46s of MAG @-@ 39 each carrying 15 @-@ man , quick @-@ reaction " Sparrow Hawk " teams of Marines from 1st Platoon , Company A , 1st Battalion , 9th Marines , from the USS Blue Ridge , were ready to land and provide security enabling a search and rescue helicopter to pick up the crew . In addition , two CH @-@ 46s would provide medical evacuation capabilities while AH @-@ 1J SeaCobras would fly cover for the transport helicopters and for any ground units who requested support . The SeaCobras could also serve as Forward Air Controllers .
The air wings of the USS Enterprise and USS Coral Sea , were ready to provide close air support and anti @-@ aircraft suppression if required with their A @-@ 6 and A @-@ 7 attack aircraft , and would provide continuous fighter cover the evacuation route including by VF @-@ 1 and VF @-@ 2 , flying from the Enterprise with the first combat deployment of the new F @-@ 14 Tomcat . USAF aircraft operating out of Nakhon Phanom Air Base , Korat Air Base and U @-@ Tapao Air Base in Thailand were also overhead for the duration of the helicopter evacuation . A C @-@ 130 Airborne Command and Control controlled all US air operations over land . USAF F @-@ 4s , F @-@ 111s and A @-@ 7s provided air cover during daylight , being replaced by AC @-@ 130s from the 16th Special Operations Squadron at night . Strategic Air Command KC @-@ 135 tankers provided air @-@ to @-@ air refueling .
The evacuation proceeded without interference from the PAVN . Aircraft flying air cover for the evacuation reported being tracked with surface to air radar in the vicinity of Bien Hoa Air Base ( which had fallen to the PAVN on 25 April ) , but there were no missile launches . The Hanoi leadership , reckoning that completion of the evacuation would lessen the risk of American intervention , had apparently instructed General Dũng not to target the airlift itself . Members of the police in Saigon had been promised evacuation in exchange for protecting the American evacuation buses and control of the crowds in the city during the evacuation . Disgruntled ARVN troops repeatedly hit American helicopters with small arms fire throughout the evacuation , without causing serious damage . Despite receiving sporadic NVA AAA fire , USAF and USN aircraft made no attacks on AAA or SAM sites during the evacuation .
Despite all the concern over these military threats , the weather presented the gravest danger . At the beginning of the operation , pilots in the first wave reported the weather as 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) scattered , 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) overcast with 15 miles ( 24 km ) visibility , except in haze over Saigon , where visibility decreased to one mile . This meant that scattered clouds existed below their flight path while a solid layer of clouds more than two miles above their heads obscured the sun . The curtain of haze over Saigon so altered the diminished daylight that line of sight visibility was only a mile . The weather conditions deteriorated as the operation continued .
= = Air America = =
As part of the evacuation plan agreed with the DAO , Air America committed 24 of its 28 available helicopters to support the evacuation and 31 pilots agreed to stay in Saigon to support the evacuation ; this meant that most helicopters would have only one pilot rather than the usual two . At 08 : 30 on 29 April , with the shelling of Tan Son Nhut Airport subsiding , Air America began ferrying its helicopter and fixed @-@ wing pilots from their homes in Saigon to the Air America compound at Tan Son Nhut , across the road from the DAO Compound . Air America helicopters started flying to the rooftop LZs in Saigon and either shuttled the evacuees back to the DAO Compound or flew out to the ships of TF76 . By 10 : 30 all of Air America 's fixed @-@ wing aircraft had departed Tan Son Nhut , evacuating all non @-@ essential personnel and as many Vietnamese evacuees as they could carry and headed for Thailand . At some point during the morning VNAF personnel took 5 ICCS UH1 @-@ H Hueys and one Air America Bell 204 from the Air America ramp .
At 11 : 00 the security situation at the Air America compound was deteriorating as General Carey did not wish to risk his Marines by extending his perimeter to cover the Air America compound ( LZ 40 ) , so all Air America helicopters from this time operated out of the tennis courts in the DAO Annex ( LZ 35 ) . This move created fuel problems for Air America as they no longer had access to the fuel supplies in their compound and at least initially they were refused fuel by the ships of TF76 . According to US Naval Archives , at 12 : 30 an Air America Bell 205 landed Air Vice Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , Madame Kỳ , Dorothy Martin ( wife of Ambassador Martin ) and others on the USS Denver ; contemporary reports state and photos show that Marshal Kỳ piloted his own UH @-@ 1H Huey to the USS Midway .
At approximately 14 : 30 , Air America Bell 205 serial number " N47004 " landed on the roof of the Pittman Apartment Building at 22 Gia Long Street to collect a senior Vietnamese intelligence source and his family . The Pittman Building was not an approved LZ , but when the agreed pickup point at the Lee Hotel at 6 Chien Si Circle was declared unusable , CIA Station Chief Tom Polgar asked Oren B. Harnage , Deputy Chief of the Embassy 's Air Branch to change the pickup to the Pittman Building , which was the home of the Assistant Station Chief and had an elevator shaft believed capable of supporting the weight of a Huey . Harnage boarded an Air America Huey from the Embassy 's rooftop heliport and flew the short distance to the Pittman Building . Harnage leaned out of the Huey and helped approximately 15 evacuees board the Huey from the narrow helipad . The scene was famously captured on film by Hubert van Es ( see In Popular Culture below ) .
Air America helicopters continued to make rooftop pickups until after nightfall by which time navigation became increasingly difficult . Helicopters overflew the designated LZs to check no Americans had been left behind and then the last helicopters ( many low on fuel ) headed out to TF76 , located the USS Midway or the USS Hancock and shut down . All Air America flights had ceased by 21 : 00 . With its available fleet of only 20 Hueys ( 3 of which were impounded , ditched or damaged at TF76 ) , Air America had moved over 1 @,@ 000 evacuees to the DAO Compound , the Embassy or out to the ships of TF76 .
= = The DAO compound = =
At 14 : 06 two UH @-@ 1E Huey helicopters carrying General Carey and Colonel Gray ( commander of Regimental Landing Team 4 ( RLT4 ) ) landed at the DAO Compound . During their approach to the compound , Carey and Gray got a firsthand view of the PAVN 's firepower as they shelled nearby Tan Son Nhut Airport with ground , rocket , and artillery fire . They quickly established an austere command post in preparation for the arrival of the Marine CH @-@ 53s and the ground security force .
The first wave of 12 CH @-@ 53s from HMH @-@ 462 loaded with BLT 2 / 4 's command groups " Alpha " and " Bravo , " and Company F and reinforced Company H arrived in the DAO Compound at 15 : 06 and the Marines quickly moved to reinforce the perimeter defenses . As they approached the helicopters had taken rifle and M @-@ 79 grenade fire from ARVN troops but without causing any apparent damage . The second wave of 12 CH @-@ 53s from HMH @-@ 463 landed in the DAO Compound at 15 : 15 bringing in the rest of the BLT . A third wave of two CH @-@ 53s from HMH @-@ 463 and eight USAF CH @-@ 53Cs and two USAF HH @-@ 53s of the 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron ( all operating from the USS Midway ) arrived shortly afterwards .
" Alpha " command group , two rifle companies , and the 81 mm mortar platoon were deployed around the DAO headquarters building ( the Alamo ) and its adjacent landing zones . Companies E and F respectively occupied the northern and southern sections between the DAO headquarters and the DAO Annex . " Bravo " command group , consisting of two rifle companies and the 106 mm recoilless rifle platoon , assumed responsibility for security of the DAO Annex and its adjoining landing zones . Company G occupied the eastern section of the Annex , while Company H assumed control of the western section .
The HMH @-@ 462 CH @-@ 53s loaded with evacuees and left the compound , they unloaded the first evacuees delivered by Operation Frequent Wind at 15 : 40 . At about 17 : 30 General Carey ordered the extraction of 3rd Platoon , Company C of BLT 1 / 9 , which had been landed at the DAO Compound on 25 April to assist the Marine Security Guard . Between 19 : 00 and 21 : 00 General Carey transferred 3 platoons ( 130 men ) of BLT 2 / 4 into the Embassy compound to provide additional security and assistance for the Embassy .
At 19 : 30 General Carey directed that the remaining elements guarding the Annex be withdrawn to DAO headquarters ( the Alamo ) where the last of the evacuees would await their flight . Once completed , the new defensive perimeter encompassed only LZ 36 and the Alamo . By 20 : 30 the last evacuees had been loaded onto helicopters . With the evacuation of the landing control teams from the Annex and Alamo completed , General Carey ordered the withdrawal of the ground security forces from the DAO Compound around 22 : 50 . At 23 : 40 Marines destroyed the satellite terminal , the DAO Compound 's last means of direct communication with the outside world . At 00 : 30 on 30 April , thermite grenades , having been previously placed in selected buildings , ignited as two CH @-@ 53s left the DAO parking lot carrying the last elements of BLT 2 / 4 .
= = The Embassy = =
On 25 April 40 Marines from the 9th MAB on the USS Hancock were flown in by Air America helicopters in civilian clothes to the DAO compound to augment the 18 Marine Security Guards assigned to defend the Embassy ; an additional six Marines were assigned to protect Ambassador Martin . Martin had remained optimistic that a negotiated settlement could be reached whereby the US would not have to pull out of South Vietnam and , in an effort to avert defeatism and panic he instructed Major James Kean , Commanding Officer of the Marine Security Guard Battalion and Ground Support Force Commander United States Embassy Compound , that he could begin to remove the tamarind tree and other trees and shrubbery which prevented the use of the Embassy parking lot as a helicopter landing zone .
By the morning of 29 April it was estimated that approximately 10 @,@ 000 people had gathered around the Embassy , while some 2 @,@ 500 evacuees were in the Embassy and consular compounds . The crowds prevented the use of buses for transporting evacuees from the Embassy to the DAO Compound for evacuation and the Embassy gates were closed to prevent the crowd from surging through . Eligible evacuees now had to make themselves known to the Marine guards or Embassy staff manning the walls and were then lifted over the walls and into the Embassy compound . Among those arriving at the Embassy were Dr Phan Quang Dan , former Deputy Prime Minister and Minister responsible for social welfare and refugee resettlement , and Lieutenant @-@ General Dang Van Quang .
From 10 : 00 to 12 : 00 Major Kean and his Marines cut down the tamarind and other trees and moved vehicles to create an LZ in the Embassy parking lot behind the Chancery building . Two LZs were now available in the Embassy compound , the rooftop for UH @-@ 1s and CH @-@ 46 Sea Knights and the new parking lot LZ for the heavier CH @-@ 53s . Air America UH @-@ 1s began ferrying evacuees from other smaller assembly points throughout the city and dropping them on the Embassy 's rooftop LZ . At 15 : 00 the first CH @-@ 53s were sighted heading towards the DAO Compound at Tan Son Nhut . Major Kean contacted the Seventh Fleet to advise them of his airlift requirements , until that time the fleet believed that all evacuees had been bussed from the Embassy to the DAO Compound and that only two helicopters would be required to evacuate Ambassador Martin and the Marines from the Embassy .
Inside the Embassy , the evacuees had found whatever space was available inside the Embassy compound and evacuees and some staff proceeded to take alcohol from the Embassy 's stores . From the billowing incinerator on the Embassy roof floated intelligence documents and US currency , most charred ; some not . An Embassy official said that more than five million dollars were being burned .
At 17 : 00 the first CH @-@ 46 landed at the Embassy . Between 19 : 00 and 21 : 00 on 29 April approximately 130 additional Marines from 2nd Battalion 4th Marines were lifted from the DAO Compound to reinforce perimeter security at the Embassy , bringing the total number of Marines at the Embassy to 175 . The evacuation from the DAO Compound was completed by about 19 : 00 after which all helicopters would be routed to the Embassy ; Major Kean was informed that operations would cease at dark . Major Kean advised that the LZ would be well lit and had vehicles moved around the parking lot LZ with their engines running and headlights on to illuminate the LZ . At 21 : 30 a CH @-@ 53 pilot informed Major Kean that Admiral Whitmire , Commander of Task Force 76 had ordered that operations would cease at 23 : 00 . Major Kean saw Ambassador Martin to request that he contact the Oval Office to ensure that the airlift continued . Ambassador Martin soon sent word back to Major Kean that sorties would continue to be flown . At the same time , General Carey met Admiral Whitmire to convince him to resume flights to the Embassy despite pilot fatigue and poor visibility caused by darkness , fires and bad weather .
By 02 : 15 on 30 April one CH @-@ 46 and one CH @-@ 53 were landing at the Embassy every 10 minutes . At this time , the Embassy indicated that another 19 lifts would complete the evacuation . At that time Major Kean estimated that there were still some 850 non @-@ American evacuees and 225 Americans ( including the Marines ) , and Ambassador Martin told Major Kean to do the best he could . At 03 : 00 Ambassador Martin ordered Major Kean to move all the remaining evacuees into the parking lot LZ which was the Marines ' final perimeter . At 03 : 27 President Gerald Ford ordered that no more than 19 additional lifts would be allowed to complete the evacuation . At 04 : 30 with the 19 lift limit already exceeded , Major Kean went to the rooftop LZ and spoke over a helicopter radio with General Carey who advised that President Ford had ordered that the airlift be limited to US personnel . Major Kean was then ordered to withdraw his men into the Chancery building and withdraw to the rooftop LZ for evacuation .
Major Kean returned to the ground floor of the Chancery and ordered his men to withdraw into a large semicircle at the main entrance to the Chancery . Most of the Marines were inside the Chancery when the crowds outside the Embassy broke through the gates into the compound . The Marines closed and bolted the Chancery door , the elevators were locked by Seabees on the sixth floor and the Marines withdrew up the stairwells locking grill gates behind them . On the ground floor a water tanker was driven through the Chancery door and the crowd began to surge up through the building toward the rooftop . The Marines on the rooftop had sealed the doors and were using Mace to discourage the crowd from trying to break through . Sporadic gunfire from around the Embassy passed over the rooftop .
At 04 : 58 Ambassador Martin boarded a USMC CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight , call @-@ sign Lady Ace 09 of HMM @-@ 165 and was flown to the USS Blue Ridge . When Lady Ace 09 transmitted " Tiger is out , " those helicopter crews still flying thought the mission was complete , and delayed evacuating the Marines from the Embassy rooftop . CH @-@ 46s evacuated the Battalion Landing Team by 07 : 00 and after an anxious wait a lone CH @-@ 46 Swift 2 @-@ 2 of HMMT @-@ 164 arrived to evacuate Major Kean and the 10 remaining men of the Marine Security Guards , this last helicopter took off at 07 : 53 on 30 April and landed on USS Okinawa at 08 : 30 .
At 11 : 30 PAVN tanks smashed through the gates of the Presidential Palace ( now the Reunification Palace ) less than 1 km from the Embassy and raised the flag of the National Liberation Front for South Vietnam ( NLF ) over the building ; the Vietnam War was over .
= = Chaos at sea = =
During the course of the operation an unknown number of VNAF helicopters flew out of what remained of South Vietnam to the fleet . Around 12 : 00 five or six VNAF UH @-@ 1Hs and one of the stolen ICCS UH @-@ 1Hs , were circling around the USS Blue Ridge . The VNAF pilots had been instructed after dropping off their passengers to ditch their helicopters and they would then be picked up by one of the ship 's tenders . The pilot of the stolen ICCS Huey had been told to ditch off the port quarter of the ship , but seemed reluctant to do so , flying around the ship to the starboard bow he jumped from his helicopter at a height of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . His helicopter turned and hit the side of the USS Blue Ridge before hitting the sea . The tail rotor sheared off and embedded itself in the engine of an Air America Bell 205 that was doing a hot refueling on the helipad at the rear of the ship . The Air America pilot shut down his helicopter and left it and moments later a VNAF UH @-@ 1H attempted to land on the helipad , locked rotors with the Air America Bell , almost pushing it overboard . The stolen Air America Bell 204 , landed on the USS Kirk , from where US Navy pilots flew it to the USS Okinawa .
So many South Vietnamese helicopters landed on the TF76 ships that some 45 UH @-@ 1 Hueys and at least one CH @-@ 47 Chinook were pushed overboard to make room for more helicopters to land . Other helicopters dropped off their passengers and were then ditched into the sea by their pilots , close to the ships , their pilots bailing out at the last moment to be picked up by rescue boats .
One of the more notable events occurred on the USS Midway when the pilot of a VNAF Cessna O @-@ 1 dropped a note on the deck of the carrier , the note read " Can you move these helicopter to the other side , I can land on your runway , I can fly 1 hour more , we have enough time to move . Please rescue me . Major Buang , Wife and 5 child . " Midway 's CO , Captain L.C. Chambers ordered the flight deck crew to clear the landing area ; in the process an estimated US $ 10 million worth of UH @-@ 1 Huey helicopters were pushed overboard into the South China Sea . Once the deck was clear Major Buang approached the deck , bounced once and then touched down and taxied to a halt with room to spare . Major Buang became the first VNAF fixed @-@ wing pilot to ever land on a carrier . A second Cessna O @-@ 1 was also recovered by the USS Midway that afternoon .
At the same time as the aerial evacuation , tens of thousands of South Vietnamese fled towards TF @-@ 76 aboard junks , sampans , and small craft . MSC tugs pulled barges filled with people from Saigon Port out to TF @-@ 76 . A flotilla of 26 Republic of Vietnam Navy and other vessels concentrated off Long Sơn Island southwest of Vung Tau with 30 @,@ 000 sailors , their families , and other civilians on board . On the afternoon of 30 April , TF @-@ 76 moved away from the coast , picking up more refugees as they went . On 2 May , Task Force 76 , carrying the Operation Frequent Wind evacuees and 44 @,@ 000 seaborne evacuees and the RVN Navy group set sail for reception centers in the Philippines and Guam .
= = Results of the evacuation = =
During the fixed @-@ wing evacuation 50 @,@ 493 people ( including 2 @,@ 678 Vietnamese orphans ) were evacuated from Tan Son Nhut . Marine pilots accumulated 1 @,@ 054 flight hours and flew 682 sorties throughout Operation Frequent Wind . The evacuation of personnel from the DAO compound had lasted nine hours and involved over 50 Marine Corps and Air Force helicopters . In the helicopter evacuation a total of 395 Americans and 4 @,@ 475 Vietnamese and third @-@ country nationals were evacuated from the DAO compound and a further 978 U.S. and 1 @,@ 120 Vietnamese and third @-@ country nationals from the Embassy , giving a total of 1 @,@ 373 Americans and 5 @,@ 595 Vietnamese and third country nationals . In addition , Air America helicopters and RVNAF aircraft brought additional evacuees to the TF76 ships . Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act . Some 400 evacuees were left behind at the Embassy including over 100 South Korean citizens , among them was Brigadier General Dai Yong Rhee , the intelligence chief at the South Korean Embassy in Saigon . The South Korean civilians were evacuated in 1976 , while General Rhee and two other diplomats were held captive until April 1980 .
While the operation itself was a success , the images of the evacuation symbolized the wastefulness and ultimate futility of American involvement in Vietnam . President Ford later called it " a sad and tragic period in America 's history " but argued that " you couldn 't help but be very proud of those pilots and others who were conducting the evacuation " . Nixon 's pledge of Peace with Honor in Vietnam had become a humiliating defeat , which together with Watergate contributed to the crisis of confidence that affected America throughout the 1970s .
= = Casualties = =
For an operation of the size and complexity of Frequent Wind , casualties were relatively light . Marine corporals McMahon and Judge killed at the DAO compound were the only members of US forces killed in action during the operation and they were the last US ground casualties in Vietnam . A Marine AH @-@ 1J SeaCobra ran out of fuel while searching for the USS Okinawa and ditched at sea , the two crew members were rescued by a boat from USS Kirk . A CH @-@ 46F Swift 1 @-@ 4 of HMMT @-@ 164 from the USS Hancock flown by Captain William C. Nystul and First Lieutenant Michael J. Shea crashed into the sea on its approach to the ship after having flown a night sea and air rescue mission ( SAR ) . The two enlisted crew members survived , but the bodies of the pilots were not recovered . The cause of the crash was never determined .
= = Memorials = =
During the demolition of the Embassy , the ladder leading from the rooftop to the helipad was removed and sent back to the United States , where it is now on display at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum .
The Cessna O @-@ 1 Bird Dog that Major Buang landed on the USS Midway is now on display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation at Naval Air Station Pensacola , Florida . Lady Ace 09 , CH @-@ 46 serial number 154803 , is now on display at the Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum in San Diego , California .
= = In popular culture = =
On the afternoon of 29 April 1975 , Hubert van Es , a Saigon @-@ based photographer for United Press International , took the iconic photo of Operation Frequent Wind of an Air America UH @-@ 1 on a rooftop picking up Vietnamese evacuees . The building in the photo was the Pittman Apartment building at 22 Gia Long Street ( now 22 Lý Tự Trọng Street ) , which was used as a residence by various embassy , CIA , and USAID employees . It has often been misidentified as the US Embassy . Hubert van Es ' photo is frequently used in political cartoons commenting on US foreign policy .
The First Act of the stage musical , Miss Saigon , depicts events leading up to , and during Operation Frequent Wind , with the main protagonists ( Chris and Kim ) becoming separated as a result of the evacuation . Writer Claude @-@ Michel Schönberg has acknowledged that the musical was inspired by pictures of the evacuation . Hugh van Es believed that Miss Saigon misappropriated his photo and considered legal action against the show , but decided against it .
In The Simpsons at the end of Episode 16 of Season 6 , " Bart vs. Australia " , the Simpsons are evacuated from the American Embassy as angry Australians gather outside in a scene reminiscent of Hubert van Es 's famous photo . Homer asks the helicopter pilot if they are being taken to an aircraft carrier and is told that " the closest vessel is the USS Walter Mondale . It 's a laundry ship " .
The operation was the subject of the 2014 PBS documentary Last Days in Vietnam .
= = = Archival collections = = =
Guide to the Khanh Van Thi Nguyen Narrative on Operation Frequent Wind . Special Collections and Archives , The UC Irvine Libraries , Irvine , California .
= = = Other = = =
Last Days in Vietnam on Youtube
BBC News footage of the Fall of Saigon
ITN News footage of the Fall of Saigon on YouTube .
Saigon Facilities Map 1969
Scenes from Operation Frequent Wind on YouTube .
21st SOS Frequent Wind and Mayaguez Incident gallery
Video clip : Footage of evacuation operations underway aboard USS Midway , including historic Cessna O @-@ 1 landing by VNAF pilot Major Buang
= Stardust ( Willie Nelson album ) =
Stardust is a 1978 album by Willie Nelson that spans the genres of pop , jazz , and country music . Its ten songs consist entirely of pop standards that Nelson picked from among his favorites . Nelson asked Booker T. Jones , who was his neighbor in Malibu at the time , to arrange a version of " Moonlight in Vermont " . Impressed with Jones 's work , Nelson asked him to produce the entire album . Nelson 's decision to record such well @-@ known tracks was controversial among Columbia executives because he had distinguished himself in the outlaw country genre . Recording of the album took only ten days .
Released in April , Stardust was met with high sales and near @-@ universal positive reviews . It peaked at number one in Billboard 's Top Country Albums and number thirty in the Billboard 200 . Meanwhile , it charted at number one in Canadian RPM 's Country Albums and number twenty @-@ eight in RPM 's Top Albums . The singles " Blue Skies " and " All of Me " peaked respectively at numbers one and three in Billboard 's Hot Country Singles .
In 1979 , Nelson won a Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance for the song " Georgia on My Mind " . Stardust was on the Billboard 's Country Album charts for ten years — from its release until 1988 . The album also reached number one in New Zealand and number five in Australia in 1980 . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 257 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . It was originally certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in December 1978 . In 1984 , when it was certified triple platinum , Nelson was the highest @-@ grossing concert act in the United States . In 2002 , the album was certified quintuple platinum , and it was later inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame class of 2015 .
= = Background and recording = =
After the critical and commercial success of 1975 's Red Headed Stranger , Nelson became one of the most recognized artists in country music . He replicated this success in 1976 , releasing Wanted ! The Outlaws ( featuring Waylon Jennings , Jessi Colter and Tompall Glaser ) , which became the genre 's first certified platinum album .
By 1977 , Nelson had decided to record a collection of American pop standards . During that time , Nelson was living in the same neighborhood in Malibu as producer Booker T. Jones . The two became friends , and Nelson asked Jones to arrange " Moonlight in Vermont " . Pleased by the results , Nelson later asked Jones to produce an entire standards album for him . Nelson selected his ten favorite pop songs from his childhood , starting with " Stardust " . Nelson and his sister Bobbie had sheet music for the song that he had tried to perform with his guitar , but did not like that arrangement . Jones adapted the song for Nelson , who also picked for the album " Georgia on My Mind " , " Blue Skies " , " All of Me " , " Unchained Melody " , " September Song " , " On the Sunny Side of the Street " , " Moonlight in Vermont " , " Don 't Get Around Much Anymore " and " Someone to Watch Over Me " .
The executives of Columbia Records were not convinced that the album would sell well , because the project was a radical departure from his earlier success in the outlaw movement . The album included pop , jazz and folk music styles , in addition to country . It was recorded from December 3 – 12 , 1977 .
= = Release and reception = =
The album was released in April 1978 . The album peaked at number one Billboard Top Country Albums , and number thirty on the Billboard 200 . Meanwhile , the songs " Blue Skies " and " All of Me " peaked at number one and three respectively on Hot Country Songs . Stardust was certified platinum on December 1978 and was named Top Country Album of the year for 1978 . The album charted at number one in Canadian RPM 's Country Albums , while charted at number 28 in RPM 's Top Albums .
Nelson became the highest @-@ grossing concert act in the United States . In 1979 , Nelson won a Grammy Best Male Country Vocal Performance for " Georgia on My Mind " . In 1979 , " September Song " peaked at number fifteen in Billboard 's Hot Country Singles . Stardust spent two years on the Billboard 200 , and the album charted 540 weeks ( ten years ) on top country albums . In 1980 the album ranked at number one in New Zealand top albums , while it ranked at number 5 in Australian top albums .
In 1984 , the album was certified triple platinum , earning US $ 2 @.@ 1 million . Later it was also certified quadruple platinum in 1990 , and quintuple platinum in 2002 . It was ranked by Rolling Stone at # 257 in The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . In honor of the 35th anniversary of the release , it was announced that Nelson would perform the entire album live , with the accompainment of an orchestra directed by David Campbell during two shows on August 9 – 10 , 2013 at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California . In December 2014 the induction of Stardust to the Grammy Hall of Fame was announced , the record was included among the 2015 class .
= = = Initial reviews ( 1978 – 1979 ) = = =
Stardust received positive reviews from most publications , both on its original release and for its various reissues . Rolling Stone praised the album : " For all the sleek sophistication of the material , Stardust is as down @-@ home as the Legion dance . Heard coast to coast in lounges and on elevator soundtracks , these tunes have become part of the folk music of exurban America . And that 's the way Nelson plays them — spare and simple , with a jump band 's verve and a storyteller 's love of a good tale . By offering these songs , he 's displaying the tools of a journeyman musician 's trade — worn smooth and polished by constant use — and when he lays them out this way , they kind of look like works of art . Willie Nelson may be acknowledging both his own and country music 's debt to Broadway and Tin Pan Alley , but he 's also showing these hallowed musical institutions how the country makes their music its own " .
Billboard delivered a favorable review : " Unusual pairing of artist and producer here as Booker T. Jones was the prime mover in Booker T & the MGs a few years back . But the combination works well [ ... ] ( Nelson ) puts his distinctive , soft vocal style to good use interpreting a number of standards as well as country @-@ flavored tunes . All of the material seems well suited to his easygoing style as Nelson backs himself with guitar and gets help with guitar , drums , keyboards , bass and harmonica " . Texas Monthly also favored the album , but noted the difference with previous Nelson recordings : " Stardust blends the stark economy of Red Headed Stranger with an underlying current of church spiritualism . More often than not it works . Though the selections are all at least twenty years old , the songs withstand the test of time . Occasionally Willie 's voice seems to crack , I do miss the more familiar hard @-@ bitten whine that accompanies his usual fare like " Whiskey River " . But nonetheless this is a sterling effort " .
New Times wrote : " In Texas , some folks swear that Willie could sing " The Star Spangled Banner " and make it sound soulful . This collection of hoary old standards is the next best thing to testing that proposition directly . " Orange Coast praised Nelson 's performance of the standards : " Willie Nelson is perhaps the finest male singer in country music [ ... ] his phrasing and sense of understated drama have caused him to be compared with the best jazz singers . Now he 's released an album of old pop standards , Stardust ( Columbia ) , and you can almost hear the stirrings of an outlaw uprising between the grooves [ ... ] although is definitively no step forward in Nelson 's career , it 's still a pleasurable showcase of his considerable artistry as a vocalist . Plus even though he 's dealing with the sophisticated likes of Irving Berlin , George Gershwin , and Kurt Weill , he remains essentially country " .
= = = Other reviews = = =
Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album an A- letter grade , stating , " I 'm real happy this record exists , not just because Nelson can be a great interpretive singer — his " Moonlight in Vermont " is a revelation — but because he 's provided me with ten great popular songs that I 've never had much emotional access to . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the record five stars out of five , and said : " ( Stardust ) showcases Nelson 's skills as a musician and his entire aesthetic — where there is nothing separating classic American musical forms , it can all be played together — perhaps better than any other album , which is why it was a sensation upon its release and grows stronger with each passing year . "
Pitchfork Media rated the album with 9 @.@ 3 points out of 10 , and wrote : " Thirty years ago , Willie Nelson took a typically left turn and followed up a string of successful albums with a cover album of songs made famous by decidedly non @-@ country musicians like Dean Martin , Frank Sinatra and Louis Armstrong [ ... ] What makes the record so thrilling and very often beautiful — and what separates him from today 's ham @-@ handed vocalists — is Nelson 's facility as an interpreter [ ... ] With his tender , textured voice and intuitively around @-@ the @-@ beat phrasing , Nelson gives these songs fresh readings , with just the touch of sentimentality and nostalgia they demand . The cliché ' makes them his own ' certainly applies here : He sings them as they 've never been sung before or since , which is quite a feat considering their age and popularity . Hardened from endless touring into a tough , tight roadhouse revue , Nelson 's band gives a surprisingly supple performance on each song , which reinforces the album 's sweetly ruminative mood . Producer Booker T. Jones , of Stax fame , facilitates every aspect of the band 's sound , showcasing the performers ' range while ensuring the arrangements play to the lyrics and vocals without overwhelming them [ ... ] Stardust set both the template for Nelson 's career and the standard . Few artists have treat the American Songbook so affectionately and so cavalierly . "
Zagat Survey rated Stardust five stars out of five : " On this legendary departure from the traditional Willie , America 's pop troubadour puts his one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind touch on old pop standards , finding common ground between outlaw country and mellow [ ... ] Sweet and simple , more bow tie than bandana , each song is turned and twisted until it 's his own and , paired with the production talents of Booker T. Jones , sets a romantic mood that appeals to a whole new audience .
= = Track listing = =
Side one :
Side two :
= = Personnel = =
Willie Nelson – vocals , guitar
Bobbie Nelson – piano
Paul English – drums
Rex Ludwick – drums
Jody Payne – guitar
Bee Spears – bass
Chris Ethridge – bass
Mickey Raphael – harmonica
Booker T. Jones – organ , piano
= = Chart Performance = =
Albums
Singles
= = Reissues = =
= = = Columbia Records 1999 reissue bonus tracks = = =
" Scarlet Ribbons " ( Evelyn Danzig , Jack Segal ) – 4 : 30
" I Can See Clearly Now " ( Johnny Nash ) – 4 : 18
= = = Sony Records ' 30th Anniversary Legacy Edition bonus tracks = = =
In 2008 , Columbia Records issued a version of Stardust subtitled 30th Anniversary Legacy Edition . The album contained a 16 track bonus disc of standards from Nelson 's other albums . None of the bonus tracks date to the original Stardust sessions .
" What a Wonderful World " ( George David Weiss , Bob Thiele )
" Basin Street Blues " ( Spencer Williams )
" I 'm Confessin ' ( That I Love You ) " ( D. Dougherty , E. Reynolds , A. Neiburg )
" I 'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Write Myself a Letter " ( Fred E. Ahlert , Joe Young )
" The Gypsy " ( Billy Reid )
" Mona Lisa " ( Jay Livingston , Ray Evans )
" Ac @-@ Cent @-@ Tchu @-@ Ate the Positive " ( Johnny Mercer , Harold Arlen )
" Ole Buttermilk Sky " ( Hoagy Carmichael , J. Brooks )
" That Lucky Old Sun " ( Haven Gillespie , Beasley Smith )
" Little Things Mean a Lot " ( E. Calisch , C. Stutz )
" Cry " ( Churchill Kohlman )
" You 'll Never Know " ( Mack Gordon , Harry Warren )
" Tenderly " ( Jack Lawrence , Walter Lloyd Gross )
" Stormy Weather " ( Harold Arlen , Ted Koehler )
" One for My Baby ( and One More for the Road ) " ( Johnny Mercer , Harold Arlen )
" Angel Eyes " ( Earl Brent , Matt Dennis )
Tracks 1 , 7 , 8 from the album What a Wonderful World
Track 2 from the album The Promiseland
Tracks 3 , 4 , 6 from the album Somewhere Over the Rainbow
Tracks 5 , 16 from the album Angel Eyes
Track 9 from the album The Sound in Your Mind
Track 10 from the album Born for Trouble
Track 11 from the album City of New Orleans
Track 12 from the album Without a Song
Tracks 13 – 15 from the album One For the Road
= Battle of Constantinople ( 922 ) =
The Battle of Constantinople was fought in June 922 at the outskirts of the capital of the Byzantine Empire , Constantinople , between the forces of the First Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantines during the Byzantine – Bulgarian war of 913 – 927 . In the summer the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos sent troops under the commander Saktikios to repel another Bulgarian raid at the outskirts of the Byzantine capital . The Byzantines stormed the Bulgarian camp but were defeated when they confronted the main Bulgarian forces . During his flight from the battlefield Saktikios was mortally wounded and died the following night .
The Bulgarians , who by 922 were in control of most of the Balkans , continued to ravage the Byzantine countryside virtually unopposed . However , they lacked the maritime power to conduct a successful siege of Constantinople . The subsequent attempts to negotiate a Bulgarian – Arab alliance for a joint assault of Constantinople were discovered by the Byzantines and successfully countered . The strategic situation in the Balkans remained unchanged until both sides signed a peace treaty in 927 , which recognized the imperial title of the Bulgarian monarchs and the complete independence of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as an autocephalous Patriarchate .
The primary sources for the battle are the continuation of George Hamartolos ' Chronicle and John Skylitzes ' Synopsis of Histories .
= = Background = =
During his short reign the Byzantine emperor Alexander ( r . 912 – 913 ) provoked a conflict with the Bulgarian monarch Simeon I ( r . 893 – 927 ) . Simeon I , who had long harboured ambitions to claim an imperial title for himself , took the opportunity to wage war . With the Byzantine Empire in disarray following Alexander 's death in June 913 , the Bulgarians reached Constantinople unopposed and forced the regency of the infant Constantine VII ( r . 913 – 959 ) to recognize Simeon I as emperor ( in Bulgarian , Tsar ) . Following a palace coup in 914 , the new Byzantine regency revoked the concessions to the Bulgarians and summoned the whole army , including the troops in Asia Minor , to deal with the Bulgarian threat once and all . In the decisive battle of Achelous in 917 the Byzantine forces were completely annihilated , leaving the Bulgarians in charge of the Balkans . Their annual campaigns reached the walls of Constantinople and the Isthmus of Corinth . All subsequent attempts to confront the Bulgarian army at Katasyrtai , Aquae Calidae and Pegae ended in defeat .
Despite his military supremacy over land , Simeon I was aware that he needed naval assistance in order to seize Constantinople . In 922 he clandestinely sent envoys to the Fatimid caliph Ubayd Allah al @-@ Mahdi Billah in Mahdia to negotiate the assistance of the powerful Arab navy . Simeon I proposed to divide equally all spoils ; the Bulgarians were to keep Constantinople and the Fatimids would gain the Byzantine territories in Sicily and South Italy .
= = The battle = =
To distract the Byzantine attention from the secret negotiations with the Arabs , in the summer of 922 the Bulgarians launched a campaign in Eastern Thrace . They captured and garrisoned a number of fortified towns in the region , including Bizye . In June they reached the outskirts of Constantinople and burned the Palace of Theodora , situated on the shores of the Golden Horn .
In response , emperor Romanos I Lekapenos ( r . 920 – 944 ) summoned the commanders of the tagmata on a feast and urged them to confront the Bulgarians . The following day one of them , Saktikios , led the assault against the Bulgarians . While most of the Bulgarian soldiers were dispersed to loot the countryside , the Byzantines attacked the Bulgarian camp and slaughtered the few defenders left there . When the main Bulgarian forces were informed about the attack , they headed back to the camp to engage the opponents . In the ensuing heavy struggle the Bulgarians prevailed and forced the Byzantines to flee despite the personal courage of Saktikios , who the Byzantine chroniclers claim to have " killed many " . During the flight , the horse of Saktikios got stuck in the mud of a river and the Byzantine commander was wounded in the seat and the thigh . His soldiers managed to free the horse from the mud and to bring him to the Blachernae alive . Saktikios was laid in the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae , where he died the following night .
= = Aftermath = =
After the victory Simeon I sent letters to the Ecumenical Patri
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was released on February 15 , 1984 by Sire Records as the album 's fifth single . Written and composed by producer Reggie Lucas , the song was remixed by Madonna 's then @-@ boyfriend John " Jellybean " Benitez . She used a refined and expressive voice for the song . Its lyrics dealt with the subject of a love that is never fulfilled .
Contemporary critics and authors applauded the song , calling it harmonically the most complex song from the Madonna album and complimenting the dance @-@ pop nature of the song . " Borderline " became Madonna 's first top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number ten . In the United Kingdom it reached number two after it was re @-@ released as a single in 1986 . Elsewhere , the song reached the top 10 or top 20 of a number of European nations while peaking the singles chart of Ireland . The song was placed at 84 on Blender magazine 's " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " , while Time included it on the critic list " All @-@ Time 100 Songs " .
The accompanying music video portrayed Madonna with a Latin @-@ American man as her boyfriend . She was enticed by a British photographer to pose and model for him , but later returned to her original boyfriend . The video generated interest amongst academics , who noted the use of power as symbolism in it . With the video , Madonna was credited for breaking the taboo of interracial relationships and was considered one of her career @-@ making moments . The release of the video on MTV increased Madonna 's popularity further . Madonna has performed the song on her Virgin Tour ( 1985 ) and the Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 ) , where a punk @-@ rock version of the song was performed . " Borderline " has been covered by a number of artists , including Duffy , Jody Watley , Counting Crows , and The Flaming Lips .
= = Background = =
In 1982 , Madonna was working with producer Reggie Lucas on her debut album . She had already composed three songs , when Lucas brought one of his own compositions to the project and called it " Borderline " . However , after recording the song , Madonna was unhappy with the way the final version turned out . According to her , Lucas used too many instruments and did not consider her ideas for the song . This led to a dispute between the two . After finishing the album , Lucas left the project without altering the songs to Madonna 's specifications . Hence , Madonna brought her then boyfriend John " Jellybean " Benitez to remix " Borderline " and some of the other recorded tracks . On hearing the final version , Seymour Stein , head of Sire Records declared , " I dared to believe this was going to be huge beyond belief , the biggest thing I 'd ever had , after I heard ' Borderline ' ... The passion that she put into that song , I thought , there 's no stopping this girl . "
= = Composition = =
" Borderline " was recorded in February 1983 and ushered a change from the normal vocal tone expressed by Madonna in her songs . A sentimental track , the song talks about a love that is never quite fulfilled . According to author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández in his book Madonna 's drowned worlds , the lyrics of the song like " Something in way you love me won 't let me be / I don 't want to be your prisoner so baby won 't you set me free " depicted a rebellion against male chauvinism . Madonna used a refined and expressive voice to sing the song , backed by Lucas 's instrumentations . Considered as the best example of the working relationship between Lucas and Madonna , he pushed her to find emotional depth in the song . Although sounding icy , the chorus is contemporary in style and the vocal range for this song , was later used by Madonna as her own personal range through her whole music career . It opens with a keyboard rich intro played on a Fender @-@ Rhodes Electric Piano and a catchy synth melody provided by Fred Zarr . Bass player Anthony Jackson doubled Dean Gant 's synth bass to provide a solid and more complex texture .
The chords in the song were inspired by Seventies disco sound in Philadelphia as well as Elton John 's musical style during the mid @-@ seventies . The chord sequences cite from Bachman @-@ Turner Overdrive 's song " You Ain 't Seen Nothing Yet " while the synth phases display her typical musical style . The song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D major with Madonna 's vocal range spanning from F ♯ 3 to B4 . The song follows in the chord progression of D – C – G in the first verse to Bm – Em – A – F ♯ in the pre @-@ chorus , changes to A – F ♯ – Bm – A – E and G – D – A in the chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
Author J. Randy Taraborrelli , in his biography of Madonna , called " Borderline " along with " Holiday " the two key records which helped in establishing Madonna 's base in the music industry . He added that Madonna 's sober voice made the track " as close to an old Motown production as a hit could get in the dance @-@ music @-@ driven eighties . " Author Maury Dean in his book Rock ' n ' Roll Gold Rush called the song " echoey boogie " with " saucy @-@ style and come @-@ hither magnetism . " Author Rikky Rooksby in his book , The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna called it harmonically the most complex track of her debut album . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song effervescent . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the song soulful . Commentator Dave Marsh in his book The Heart of Rock & Soul said that the " music 's too damn good to be denied , no matter whose value system it disrupts . "
Journalist Roxanne Orgill in her book , Shout , Sister , Shout ! commented that " Borderline " was the song which made Madonna the star she is . Thom Duffy of Orlando Sentinel commented that " Borderline " was a song " introduced Madonna , the helium @-@ induced pop star , and a siren kitten . " The song was placed at number 84 on Blender Magazine 's " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born . " Time also included it on the critic list " All @-@ Time 100 Songs " , stating that " Madonna went on to sing more @-@ clever songs ( ' Material Girl ' ) , more @-@ showy songs ( ' Like a Prayer ' ) , more @-@ sexy songs ( ' Justify My Love ' ) . But ' Borderline , ' her first top @-@ 10 hit , captures the essence of her pop appeal , its freshness , simplicity and vitality . " Pitchfork Media considered the song the 106th best one of the 1980s , stating that " ' Borderline ' is one of the first laid bricks in the cathedral of Madonna ’ s mythology , four minutes of emotional helium that became her first Top 10 hit on the heels of an iconic music video . "
At the 1984 Billboard Music Awards , " Borderline " received two nominations , in the categories of Best New Artist and Best Choreography in a Music Video , but did not win either . In September 2014 , the song was placed at number two on Rolling Stone 's list of " 100 Best Singles of 1984 " . Carrie Grant from the magazine described the track as a " melodic synth @-@ a @-@ palooza with the plunky low end " , and also noting that Madonna 's vocals were restrained on the song , but sounded emotional . " The radio remix , which trims nearly three minutes from the tune , boasts one of Madge 's most iconic fade @-@ outs , standing by as she " la la la " s into the void . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song became Madonna 's first top ten hit when it reached position ten on the Billboard Hot 100 on June 16 , 1984 . The song reached a peak of two on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . It also became a crossover success by charting on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart at 23 . On October 22 , 1998 , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of one million copies . In Canada the song debuted at number 56 on the RPM issue dated August 4 , 1984 and reached a peak of number 25 on September 15 , 1984 . The song was on the chart for 14 weeks .
In the United Kingdom , with the original release of the song on June 2 , 1984 , it was able to reach a peak of only 56 . However , upon re @-@ releasing the song on January 1 , 1986 , it reached a new peak of two on the chart and was present for a total of nine weeks . The song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on February 1986 , for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 310 @,@ 000 copies there . Across Europe the song topped the chart in Ireland and entered the top ten of Belgium and Netherlands . It also peaked at number 23 in Switzerland and number 12 in Australia .
= = Music video = =
" Borderline " was filmed on location in Los Angeles , California from January 30 to February 2 , 1984 and was the first video that Madonna made with director Mary Lambert , who would later also direct the videos " Like a Virgin " , " Material Girl " , " La Isla Bonita " and " Like a Prayer " . Author Allen Metz noted how the video portrayed Madonna 's then " burgeoning star quality " . It is regarded as one of her career @-@ making moments when the video was started to be shown on MTV . She acted as the girlfriend of a Hispanic street guy who is picked up by a British photographer who publishes her picture on a magazine cover . The portrayal of the street life and high @-@ fashion scene in the video was a reference to Madonna 's life in the gritty , multiracial streets and clubs that she used to haunt while her career was beginning as well as the world of popularity and success she was experiencing at that moment . The storyline involved her being emotionally torn between the photographer and her boyfriend . Madonna 's boyfriend in the video is portrayed as Latino and her struggles with this relationship depicted the struggle Hispanic women faced with their men . Lambert said that there was " no formula " used when making the ' Borderline ' video and that they were " inventing it as we went along . " In the January 1997 issue of Rolling Stone , Lambert described the video and its plot as , " Boy and girl enjoy simple pleasures of barrio love , girl is tempted by fame , boy gets huffy , girl gets famous , but her new beau 's out @-@ of @-@ line reaction to a behavioral trifle ( all she did was to spray @-@ paint his expensive sports car ) drives her back to her true love . "
The video narrative weaved the two relationship stories in color and black and white . In the color sequence , Madonna sings , flirts and seduces the Hispanic guy ( Louie Louie ) who becomes her boyfriend . In the black @-@ and @-@ white sequence she poses for the photographer , who also courts her . The video had Madonna in her usual sense of style in those years and wore her hair in a haystack , lace gloves , high heeled boots with thick socks and her trademark boy @-@ toy belt . She changes from one shot to another in color as well as black and white while wearing an unusual array of clothes including crop @-@ tops , T @-@ shits , vests and sweaters coupled with cut @-@ off pants and jeans as well as a couple of evening gowns . Posing for the photographer , Madonna looks towards the camera with challenge in her eyes thus depicting sexual aggression . At one moment in the video , she starts spraying graffiti over some lifeless classical statues thus portraying herself as a transgressor who breaks rules and attempts at innovation . With the video Madonna broke the taboo of interracial relationships . Although at first it seems that Madonna denies the Hispanic guy in favour of the photographer , later she rejects him thus implying her desire to control her own sexual pleasures or going over the established pop borderlines with lyrics like " You just keep on pushing my love , over the borderline " . The contrasting image of Madonna , first as a messy blonde in the Hispanic sequence and later as a fashioned glamorous blonde , suggested that one can construct one 's own image and identity . Portraying herself as a Hispanic also had the clever marketing strategy of appealing herself to Hispanic and black youths thus breaking down racial barriers .
After its airing " Borderline " attracted early attention from academics . They noted the symbolism of power in the two contrasting scenes of the video . The British photographer and his studio is decorated with the classical sculptures and nude statues holding spears in a phallic symbol . In contrast , phallic symbols portrayed in the Hispanic neighborhood included a street lamp which Madonna embraces and a pool cue held erect by Madonna 's boyfriend . Author Andrew Metz commented that with these scenes , Madonna displayed her sophisticated views on the fabrications of feminity as a supreme power rather than the normal views of oppression . Author Carol Clerk said that the videos of " Borderline " and " Lucky Star " established Madonna not as the girl @-@ next @-@ door , but as a sassy and smart , tough funny woman . Her clothes worn in the video were later used by designers like Karl Lagerfeld and Christian Lacroix in Paris Fashion week of the same year . Professor Douglas Kellner in his book Media Culture : Cultural Studies , Identity , and Politics Between the Modern and the Postmodern commented that the video depicted motifs and strategies which helped Madonna in her journey to become a star .
= = Live performances and covers = =
The song has been performed by Madonna on The Virgin Tour ( 1985 ) and the Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 ) . In the Virgin Tour , Madonna performed the song wearing a black , fringed micro @-@ top and similar skirt , with her belly @-@ button exposed , and a number of crucifixes in different sizes , hanging from different parts of her body . Madonna performed the song in its original version . She appeared from behind a silhouette , and descended the steps , while waving her hands and singing . The performance was not included in the Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour VHS in 1985 .
" Borderline " was added to the set list of the first leg of her Sticky & Sweet Tour in 2008 during the Old School section of the performance . Madonna wore a pair of gym shorts in this section while wearing sneakers and long socks on her feet . The outfit was designed by Jeremy Scott and was a reference to Madonna 's old days in New York . A punk @-@ pop version of the song was performed by Madonna while playing a purple electric guitar on a microphone as the backdrops displayed Keith Harring 's cartoons and graphical imagery . Jon Pareles of The New York Times called the performance enthusiastic and punk @-@ pop . Nekesa Mumbi Moody of USA Today called it a " rocked out performance " . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone called it a " Cheap Trick @-@ style power pop song [ performance ] . " The song was not included in the 2009 leg of the tour and was replaced by a rock version of Madonna 's other song " Dress You Up . " In June 2016 , Madonna appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and closed the show by performing " Borderline " , watched by the President of the United States , Barack Obama .
In 2000 , an electro @-@ industrial cover of the song by Nivek Ogre of OhGr was included on the tribute compilation album , Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 . Heather Phares of AllMusic said that Ogre 's version " missed the mark . " Chicago pop punk band Showoff recorded a cover for the 2002 compilation album Punk Goes Pop . In 2006 singer Jody Watley covered the song for her album The Makeover . Watley 's downtempo version attained UK release as a single in October 2009 . An acoustic folk cover of the song by The Chapin Sisters was included on the 2007 Madonna tribute album Through the Wilderness . In 2008 , singer Duffy performed " Borderline " at Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Mote Park , Maidstone , Kent , England . The Flaming Lips and Stardeath and White Dwarfs recorded a cover of the song for the 2009 Warner Bros. Records compilation , Covered , A Revolution in Sound . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described the cover recording as turning Madonna 's version " inside out " . Counting Crows performed the song at the Royal Albert Hall in 2003 , an MP3 of the song was released on the band 's official website on March 17 , 2009 . The performance was criticised by ABC News , calling it anticlimatic . In 2010 , the TV show Glee covered it in the episode " The Power of Madonna " in a mashup with the song " Open Your Heart " , performed by Cory Monteith and Lea Michele .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Note : Borderline " Dub Remix " is also known as " Instrumental "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lead vocals
Reggie Lucas – writer , producer , guitars , drum programming
Fred Zarr – synthesizers , electric and acoustic piano
Dean Gant – synthesizers , electric and acoustic piano
Ed Welch – synthesizers
Anthony Jackson – electric bass
Ira Siegal – guitars
Bobby Malach – tenor saxophone
Gwen Guthrie – background vocals
Brenda White – background vocals
Chrissy Faith – background vocals
Credits adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= The Bitch Is Back ( Veronica Mars ) =
" The Bitch Is Back " is the series finale of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , the twentieth and final episode of the show 's third season , and the 64th episode overall . Co @-@ written by series creator Rob Thomas and executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by Michael Fields , the episode premiered on The CW on May 22 , 2007 , directly after the previous episode , " Weevils Wobble But They Don 't Go Down " . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she navigates life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica investigates the origins of a sex tape of her and Stosh " Piz " Piznarski ( Chris Lowell ) . Renouncing Logan Echolls ( Jason Dohring ) because he assaulted Piz , Veronica eventually discovers that the perpetrators are a secret society at Hearst College known as the Castle , headed by Jake Kane ( Kyle Secor ) . Meanwhile , Parker Lee ( Julie Gonzalo ) ends her relationship with Logan , and Keith Mars ( Enrico Colantoni ) navigates the issues surrounding his candidacy in the upcoming sheriff 's election .
Several days prior to airing " The Bitch Is Back " , The CW announced that the series was cancelled . In an effort to prevent Veronica Mars from being cancelled , Thomas had filmed a twelve @-@ minute pitch for a concept involving Veronica in the FBI Academy , but it was rejected . When writing the episode , Thomas and Ruggiero removed seven minutes of material from the original cut ; they wanted to create an ambiguous finale that did not resolve everything neatly . At the time of its original broadcast , the episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 15 million people and received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
Logan informs Veronica about the sex tape of her and Piz and hands her a DVD , although she berates him and denies that the recording is authentic . She views the tape and goes to visit Piz , who is badly bruised . She makes sure that Piz did not upload the footage to the internet , which he confirms . After learning that Logan had attacked Piz , Parker visits Logan 's hotel room and tearfully breaks up with him , claiming that he still loves Veronica . Veronica goes to Logan 's hotel room and berates him for attacking Piz . She confronts Dick about the origins of the sex tape , and he reveals that he got it from Chip Diller before forwarding it to his whole address book . She investigates further before encountering a student who refuses to tell her anything . She gets Weevil to destroy the student 's car , and he names the individual , whom she later wiretaps .
Veronica learns that there may be a connection to a fraternity , and Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) informs her that it is the secret society for which he is being recruited , the Castle . Wallace tells her that the equipment used to tape him was similar to that which was used to film Veronica and Piz . He starts to go through initiation with the group in order to ascertain the members ' identities for Veronica . The members make him go into a room and ask him very personal questions , electrically shocking him if he answers untruthfully . When they find out that Veronica has sent Wallace , they forcibly remove him , but he is able to figure out the identity of one of the other recruits . Veronica sneaks into the house of the recruit Wallace names and sees a large portrait of Lilly Kane ( Amanda Seyfried ) . She hears voices and hides behind a curtain before two men emerge . They speak about the Castle , and Veronica discovers that one of them is Jake Kane . After they leave , Veronica steals his computers . Keith investigates the robbery the following day , spotting Veronica on surveillance cameras ; however , he does not initially report his daughter . Veronica asks Mac ( Tina Majorino ) whether any computer could crack Jake 's password , and she is taken to a supercomputer on campus .
Keith questions Veronica about whether or not she broke into the house , despite knowing her guilt . Jake and a county prosecutor tell Keith that they will get a judge 's order and will return to prosecute Veronica . The supercomputer processes the names of all the Castle members just as Keith hands over the surveillance tape to the county prosecutor . Logan tries to apologize to Veronica . One of the Castle members comes up and tells her that the organization videotaped her , and Logan assaults him . Veronica returns the tape to Jake Kane on the condition that he does not tell Keith about it . She sees in the newspaper that charges have been filed against Keith for tampering with evidence relating to Veronica 's break @-@ in , likely meaning that he will lose the votes needed to win the sheriff 's election . She goes into a voting booth and votes for Keith as sheriff , walking away in pouring rain .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing , filming , and promotion = = =
" The Bitch Is Back " was co @-@ written by series creator Rob Thomas and executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by Michael Fields . The episode marked Thomas 's ninth writing credit , Ruggiero 's seventeenth installment of the series , and Fields 's eighth episode . The scene in which Veronica rebukes Logan was included because the writers thought that it would be a good note on which to end a season , even though it would not be the two characters ' final interaction in the series . Fields was heavily involved with the actors during filming of this scene .
Thomas highlighted the scene in which Logan attacks the Castle member for showcasing the romantic ambiguity between Logan , Veronica , and Piz . Thomas counseled Lowell about his facial expression before filming , and he was pleased with the end result , stating that " it breaks my heart " . While editing the final script , Thomas and Ruggiero had to remove roughly seven minutes from the original draft , including a scene featuring dialogue between Veronica and Leo . Later , Thomas thought that removing this scene made one voiceover by Veronica too sudden .
Thomas called the scene in which Keith makes Veronica dinner " quintessential Keith " and indicative of his lasting commitment to his daughter . Despite knowing that the episode could be the series finale , Thomas did not want it to completely resolve all plot lines ; his intention was to keep viewers guessing and prevent the conclusion from being too bland or typical . He ultimately felt that the final shot of Veronica walking away from the voting booth in the rain was " a pretty melancholy way to go out " . The song " It Never Rains in Southern California " by Albert Hammond plays during the final scene . In promotional advertising for the episode , The CW billed it as a season finale , despite the fact that the series had already been cancelled .
= = = FBI pitch = = =
Before cancellation , Thomas proposed his idea for season four to take place in the FBI Academy . Prior to the airing of " Un @-@ American Graffiti " , Enrico Colantoni stated that The CW had seen the filmed first ten pages and reacted negatively . However , Thomas denied this assertion and commented that The CW had not yet seen the FBI pitch . He added that it would be presented on May 2 , the day after the series came off a two @-@ month hiatus . Thomas 's statement was confirmed by a representative for the network .
Thomas filmed a twelve @-@ minute teaser for his new concept and presented it to The CW . The teaser was later released on the Veronica Mars third season DVD and the internet . The clip begins in medias res with Veronica , pretending to be a high schooler , talking to a teacher . The teaser flashes back to her first FBI meeting , and the viewers discover that she is investigating the teacher for sexual abuse allegations . She successfully catches the teacher on camera , and at the FBI , she runs into a former acquaintance named Seth . She investigates a potential bomber with another novice agent , and they speak to a man who appears to be innocent . However , he points a gun at Veronica 's partner as the clip ends .
Thomas had initially planned for Veronica to be in the FBI during a hypothetical seventh or eighth season of Veronica Mars . He accelerated his initial vision of the show in an attempt to prevent its cancellation . Although he believed that the new concept would appeal to CW executives , he commented , " I 'd be thrilled for [ Veronica ] to come back in any incarnation . "
The teaser was presented to the network on May 2 , 2007 . Nellie Andreeva of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Dawn Ostroff , president of The CW at the time , had responded positively to the new concept . The series 's title might have been changed if the FBI idea had been accepted . The CW had recently cancelled Gilmore Girls , leading some news outlets to speculate that Veronica Mars might be renewed in order to fill a schedule hole . Several cast members , including Gonzalo and Lowell , had taken other acting opportunities in anticipation of the series 's cancellation . Nevertheless , Thomas stated , " I don 't think we 're dead ; I kind of like our chances . "
= = = Cancellation = = =
Veronica Mars was one of roughly five series being considered for cancellation by the network in 2007 . At The CW 's upfront conference , critic Michael Ausiello asked Ostroff about the fate of the show . She responded that Thomas and Bell could work together on another show for the network , but she thought that this possibility was unlikely . She said that " it could come back in some form , but I don 't know what form that would be " . Thomas responded , " I assume that anything Dawn would be talking about in the realm of a Rob – Kristen project would involve a new from @-@ scratch pilot as they don 't have me in a deal , and they 'll lose Kristen in a couple of weeks . "
At the conference , Ostroff officially cancelled the series , saying about the FBI idea that " it 's not going to happen " . Upon the cancellation of the series , a group of fans who called themselves the " Cloud Watchers " sent more than 10 @,@ 000 Mars bars to The CW , hoping that the network would reverse its decision and renew the series . Several years after cancellation , Thomas expressed interest in creating a feature film based on the show .
= = Analysis = =
Several reviewers have commented on themes of the episode ; topics of discussion included the relationship between parents and children , class relations , the scene in which Logan attacks the perpetrator in Veronica 's sex tape case , and the final scene in relation to the overall moral of the series . According to Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club , the episode contained a role reversal between Veronica and Keith , with Keith violating the law . He noted the scene in which Keith erases the surveillance tapes of Veronica as illustrating the theme that " the two aren 't so different after all . " Roger Holland of PopMatters thought that the episode demonstrated that Veronica and Keith 's relationship was the central component of the show : " it was all about Veronica and Keith . And beyond that , about parents , children , and the myriad ways they can fuck each other up . " Stephanie Zacharek , writing for Salon , thought that the final scenes of " The Bitch Is Back " " cement the dour reality , posited at the very beginning of the series , that the rich ... are always going to be the ones in charge . "
Holland referred to Veronica 's line " I don 't want his apology " in the scene in which Logan assaults Gorya Sorokin as indicative of one of the main themes of the series : " She 's not interested in apologies . She 's driven by a nihilistic need for action and payback . " Eric Goldman of IGN wrote that the scene " had an air of ambiguity that could be interpreted in many ways . " The reviewer elaborated that Veronica 's smile could have indicated further romantic interest or that Logan might have been killed in retaliation for attacking Gorya . Zacharek stated that the episode 's ending " [ felt ] truncated , unfinished . It gave us no clear signposts telling us where , exactly , these characters are headed next , where they 'll end up . " Holland said that the theme of the final scene " seemed emphatically clear and killingly accurate . Life 's a bitch until you die . " Goldman wrote that the ending was fitting for the series : " Veronica Mars wasn 't exactly a show that was driven by happy thoughts or events , even though we wouldn 't have minded the characters ending up happy . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial showing , " The Bitch Is Back " was viewed by 2 @.@ 15 million viewers , ranking 74th of 85 in the weekly rankings . This figure was an increase from the previous episode , " Weevils Wobble But They Don 't Go Down " , which aired immediately prior and garnered 1 @.@ 78 million watchers . However , this number was a ratings decrease from both the third season premiere , " Welcome Wagon " , and the previous season finale , " Not Pictured " , which received 3 @.@ 36 and 2 @.@ 42 million viewers , respectively .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN graded the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He thought that the finale did not resolve every plot line by the end of the episode . However , he did not blame the writers , because they were not planning for the episode to be a series finale . He enjoyed the final scene between Logan , Veronica , and Piz because of the variety of different ways in which it could be interpreted . While he expressed some frustration over Keith 's criminal charges and the ambiguity regarding the outcome of the sheriff 's election , he opined that one could still take away important messages from the show because of Keith 's actions in the episode . The reviewer also lauded the final scene , writing that " the melancholy feeling of the final scene – with Veronica walking through the rain , having cast a vote for her dad that is probably meaningless – felt right for the series " .
Amy Ratcliffe of IGN listed " The Bitch Is Back " as the eighth @-@ best episode of Veronica Mars . She wrote that the episode " brings the show full circle " , returning Veronica to the position of a social outcast , and concluded by describing the episode as " a winner " . Alan Sepinwall , on his blog , What 's Alan Watching ? , praised the episode , stating that it was one of his favorite installments of the series . He thought that the series 's early film noir influences returned in the finale , a choice he lauded . In addition , he commended Bell and Colantoni 's performances , stating that the final scene " is a bleak ending , but strangely appropriate " .
Television Without Pity graded the episode an " A " . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the finale , writing that it functioned well within the context of the series and the season :
" We get significant emotional resolution between Keith and Veronica , whose relationship is the core of the show . We get to see Veronica being a badass , which is when Veronica Mars is at its most entertaining . All the supporting characters get something defining to do . The show engages with its history . And most importantly , it 's a fantastic episode . "
He went on to laud the interaction between Veronica and Keith and the latter 's eventual sacrifice for his daughter . In addition , he felt that the supporting characters , including Wallace , Parker , and Piz , also received appropriate sendoffs . He later ranked the episode as his fifth @-@ favorite of the series . Kelly West of Cinema Blend gave a mixed review . She enjoyed the elements that resembled the first season , such as the return of Jake Kane and the portrait of Lilly . She thought that " The Bitch Is Back " was satisfying within the context of the season , but that it was too ambiguous for a series finale : " How can the show not come back ? How can they leave us with Veronica and Logan still apart ? "
Stephanie Zacharek of Salon felt positively about the episode itself but ambivalent about the lack of resolution , stating , " I 'm not sure if Tuesday night 's finale is a deeply unsatisfying way to close out a series that 's ending before its time or the only way to end such a series . " However , she blamed the network for this ending . She also commented on the tone and themes of the episode , arguing that one of the series 's main takeaways was that the rich would always be in charge . However , she did not view the finale as being spiteful and pessimistic : " ' Veronica Mars ' has always been a clear @-@ eyed show , never a bitter one . " Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly felt unsatisfied with the episode 's conclusion , partially because Veronica and Logan did not resume dating . However , he praised the sex @-@ tape mystery and the plot involving the Castle because of their similarities to earlier seasons . He also praised Keith 's actions , stating , " Okay , maybe I 'm a sap , but this tugged at my heartstrings a bit and left me relieved there wasn 't a dreaded Veronica – Keith battle at the end . " Stransky concluded by saying that " the end is fine " . Sydney Bucksbaum of Zap2it felt disappointed because of the ambiguous endings of Keith 's arc and Veronica 's love triangle . Although she was positive towards " The Bitch Is Back " as a standalone episode , she found herself hoping that there were another episode to the season : " Watching Veronica walk out into the pouring rain all alone after casting a probably insignificant vote for her dad was depressing , symbolic ( rain in SoCal ? ) , and just downright unsatisfying . "
Roger Holland of PopMatters praised the episode . He wrote that the finale " took us all the way back to the heart of Veronica Mars " . Although he also commented on the lack of closure in " The Bitch Is Back " , he still believed that the finale highlighted some of the main themes of the series . " The final scenes of Veronica Mars offered no sense of closure . Rather , we were left with the sense [ that ] we 'd been denied a genuinely thrilling fourth season " . The TV Addict lauded the episode for returning to the tone and themes of the first season , calling it " the perfect mix of mystery , excitement , romance and snappy one @-@ liners " . The publication also praised Bell and Colantoni 's performances . Jesse Hastenger of PopMatters graded the episode an 8 out of 10 . Kath Skerry of Give Me My Remote expressed dissatisfaction with The CW for cancelling the series , but she praised the episode as a standalone installment : " As for the final two episodes themselves , they would have been magnificent season finales . It was classic Veronica Mars . Drama , comedy , inside jokes [ ... ] and callbacks to yesteryear . " On his blog , Cultural Learnings , critic Myles McNutt said that Colantoni should have been nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for his performance in the episode , saying that " this final sacrifice is Colantoni 's strongest character arc all season and is the proper episode selection for the actor . " On a ranking of all 64 Veronica Mars episodes , BuzzFeed ranked the episode 54th , declaring that it was " extremely disappointing " and " pretty dull " .
= Hurricane Nate ( 2011 ) =
Hurricane Nate caused minor damage in southeastern Mexico in mid @-@ September 2011 . The sixteenth named storm and fourth hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season , Nate originated from a frontal trough in the Bay of Campeche on September 7 . Within a weak steering environment , the storm meandered southwestward while gradually gaining strength . Though classified as a tropical storm operationally , data during a post @-@ season review indicated that Nate briefly attained Category 1 hurricane status on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale on September 8 . As a result of its slow motion , the storm caused significant upwelling , leading to a marked decrease in convection , and weakening accordingly . On September 11 , Nate moved ashore Mexico as a tropical storm , producing several inches of rainfall and damaging several hundred structures . Ten oil rig workers went missing ; seven were rescued , but one died of an unknown cause , and three other bodies were later recovered . In Veracruz , a boy was killed after being struck by lightning .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 5 , a frontal trough , the same responsible for the extratropical transition of Tropical Storm Lee , passed through the western Gulf of Mexico before stalling in the central Gulf of Mexico and Bay of Campeche . At the tail @-@ end of the trough , increased shower and thunderstorm activity associated with a developing low @-@ pressure area prompted the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to begin monitoring the disturbance for tropical cyclone formation the next day . The low separated from the front early on September 7 , but convection was too disorganized for classification at the time . By 1800 UTC , however , a curved band developed in the western semicircle of the circulation . In accordance with satellite imagery , surface observations from land and oil rigs , and data from a reconnaissance aircraft , the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Storm Nate , positioned roughly 160 mi ( 260 km ) north of Villahermosa , Mexico .
Within a weak steering environment between a mid @-@ level ridge over northern Mexico and a mid @-@ level ridge over the northern Caribbean Sea , Nate drifted slowly southwestward initially . Though an abundance of dry air was expected to limit a rapid rate of intensification , warm sea surface temperatures and light to moderate wind shear allowed for gradual strengthening . Operationally , the system attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mb ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) on September 8 . However , as part of its post @-@ season routine , the NHC received data from an offshore oil rig in the southeastern quadrant of the system that yielded maximum sustained surface winds of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) ; as a result , Nate was re @-@ designated as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale while centered approximately 80 mi ( 130 km ) north @-@ northwest of Ciudad del Carmen , Mexico . Following peak intensity , the storm 's broad wind field and slow forward motion led to significant ocean upwelling . With cooler sea surface temperatures and low ocean heat content , the coverage of deep convection decreased and Nate weakened to a tropical storm at 0600 UTC on September 9 .
While accelerating west @-@ northwest and eventually westward in response to an eastward shift in the ridge over Mexico , Nate moved away from cooler ocean temperatures , briefly allowing it to gain strength on September 10 . By the next day , however , increasingly dry , low- to mid @-@ level air wrapped into the circulation , causing associated convection to collapse . At 1600 UTC on September 11 , the system made landfall near Barra de Tecolutla , Mexico , with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The rugged terrain of Mexico caused Nate to rapidly weaken once inland , and the cyclone degenerated into a remnant low by 0000 UTC on September 12 , about 20 mi ( 30 km ) west of Poza Rica , Mexico . The circulation dissipated six hours later , at 1200 UTC on September 12 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Following Nate 's declaration as a tropical cyclone , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning stretching from Chilitepec to Celestún , noting that tropical storm conditions were likely within 12 hours . Early on September 8 , a tropical storm watch was issued from Celestún to Progreso . A day later , a tropical storm watches were issued from La Cruz to Tampico and Veracruz to Punta El Lagarto . A hurricane watch was issued from Tampico to Veracruz , and three hours later , all tropical storm warnings were discontinued . On September 10 , the tropical storm watch stretching from Veracruz to Punta El Lagarto was discontinued , and a tropical storm warning was issued from Tampico to Punta El Lagarto . By 1500 UTC , all tropical storm watches were discontinued , and at 2100 UTC , the tropical storm warning area was modified to Tampico to Tuxpan . At this time , the hurricane watch area was modified to Tampico to Tuxpan , and a hurricane warning was issued from Tampico to Veracruz . The following day , this hurricane warning was changed to a tropical storm warning following Nate 's weakening trend . All hurricane watches were discontinued , and during the afternoon hours , all tropical storm warnings were discontinued .
On September 7 , the Dos Bocas and Cayo Arcas ports , Mexico 's two main crude oil export ports , closed in preparation for the storm . Ten contractors for Geokinetics were forced to abandon their lifeboat after evacuating the Trinity II rig . Seven of the ten men were rescued ; however , one later died , and the bodies of the three other men were recovered . The body of the tenth man , who had remained listed as " missing " for several days , was recovered by the Mexican Navy on September 14 . Throughout Veracruz , 839 homes were damaged by the storm . In the southern sections of the state , Nate produced several inches of rainfall . A child was killed in Pánuco after a tree was struck by lightning and fell on his home .
= Goldfinger ( film ) =
Goldfinger ( 1964 ) is a British Technicolor spy film , the third in the James Bond series and the third to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . It is based on the novel of the same name by Ian Fleming . The film also stars Honor Blackman as Bond girl Pussy Galore and Gert Fröbe as the title character Auric Goldfinger , along with Shirley Eaton as the iconic Bond girl Jill Masterson . Goldfinger was produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman and was the first of four Bond films directed by Guy Hamilton .
The film 's plot has Bond investigating gold smuggling by gold magnate Auric Goldfinger and eventually uncovering Goldfinger 's plans to contaminate the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox . Goldfinger was the first Bond blockbuster , with a budget equal to that of the two preceding films combined . Principal photography took place from January to July 1964 in the United Kingdom , Switzerland and the US states of Kentucky and Florida .
The release of the film led to a number of promotional licensed tie @-@ in items , including a toy Aston Martin DB5 car from Corgi Toys which became the biggest selling toy of 1964 . The promotion also included an image of gold @-@ painted Shirley Eaton as Jill Masterson on the cover of Life .
Many of the elements introduced in the film appeared in many of the later James Bond films , such as the extensive use of technology and gadgets by Bond , an extensive pre @-@ credits sequence that was not part of the main storyline , multiple foreign locales and tongue in cheek humor . Goldfinger was the first Bond film to win an Academy Award and opened to largely favourable critical reception . The film was a financial success , recouping its budget in two weeks and is hailed as the Bond canon 's quintessential episode .
= = Plot = =
After destroying a drug laboratory in Latin America , James Bond — agent 007 — travels to Miami Beach where he receives instructions from his superior , M , via CIA agent Felix Leiter to observe bullion dealer Auric Goldfinger , who is staying at the same hotel as Bond . The agent sees Goldfinger cheating at gin rummy and stops him by distracting his employee , Jill Masterson , and blackmailing Goldfinger into losing . Bond and Jill consummate their new relationship ; however , Bond is subsequently knocked out by Goldfinger 's Korean manservant Oddjob . When Bond regains consciousness , he finds Jill dead , covered in gold paint , having died from " epidermal suffocation . "
In London , Bond learns that his objective is determining how Goldfinger smuggles gold internationally . Bond arranges to meet Goldfinger socially and wins a high @-@ stakes golf game against him with a recovered Nazi gold bar at stake . Bond follows him to Switzerland , where Tilly , Jill Masterson 's sister , makes an unsuccessful attempt at revenge by firing a rifle at Goldfinger .
Bond sneaks into Goldfinger 's plant and discovers that he smuggles the gold by melting it down and incorporating it into the bodywork of his car , which he takes with him whenever he travels . Bond also overhears him talking to a Red Chinese agent named Mr. Ling about " Operation Grand Slam . " Leaving , Bond encounters Tilly as she tries to kill Goldfinger again , but trips an alarm in the process ; Oddjob kills Tilly with his hat . Bond is captured and Goldfinger ties Bond to a cutting table underneath an industrial laser , which begins to slice a sheet of gold in half , with Bond lying over it . Bond lies to Goldfinger that MI6 knows about Grand Slam , causing Goldfinger to spare Bond 's life to mislead MI6 into believing that Bond has things in hand .
Bond is transported by Goldfinger 's Lockheed JetStar private jet , flown by his personal pilot , Pussy Galore , to his stud farm near Fort Knox , Kentucky . Bond escapes and witnesses Goldfinger 's meeting with US mafiosi , who have brought the materials he needs for Operation Grand Slam . Whilst they are each promised $ 1 million , Goldfinger tempts them that they " could have the million today , or ten millions tomorrow " . They listen to Goldfinger 's plan to rob Fort Knox before Goldfinger kills them all using some of the " Delta 9 " nerve gas he plans to release over Fort Knox .
Bond is recaptured while eavesdropping and tells Goldfinger the reasons why his stated plan to rob the gold depository will not work . Goldfinger hints he does not intend to steal the gold , and Bond deduces that Goldfinger will detonate an atomic device containing cobalt and iodine inside the vault , which would supposedly render the gold useless for 58 years . This will increase the value of Goldfinger 's own gold and give the Chinese an advantage from the potential economic chaos . Should the authorities be alerted , he would simply detonate the bomb in a major city or target .
Operation Grand Slam begins with Pussy Galore 's Flying Circus spraying the gas over Fort Knox . However , Bond had " seduced " Galore , convincing her to replace the nerve gas with a harmless substance and alert the US government about Goldfinger 's plan . The military personnel of Fort Knox convincingly play dead until they are certain that they can prevent the criminals from escaping the base with the bomb .
Believing the military forces to be neutralised , Goldfinger 's private army breaks into Fort Knox and accesses the vault itself as he arrives in a helicopter with the atomic device . In the vault , Oddjob handcuffs Bond to the device . The US troops attack ; Goldfinger takes off his coat , revealing a US Army colonel 's uniform , and kills Mr. Ling and the troops seeking to open the vault , before making his escape . Bond extricates himself from the handcuffs , but Oddjob attacks him before he can disarm the bomb . They fight and Bond manages to electrocute Oddjob . Bond forces the lock off the bomb , but is unable to disarm it . An atomic specialist who accompanied Leiter turns off the device with the clock stopped on " 0 : 03 " ( frozen at " 0 : 07 " in re @-@ release prints ) .
With Fort Knox safe , Bond is invited to the White House for a meeting with the President . However , Goldfinger has hijacked the plane carrying Bond . In a struggle for Goldfinger 's revolver , the gun discharges , shooting out a window , creating an explosive decompression . Goldfinger is blown out of the cabin through the ruptured window . With the plane out of control , Bond rescues Galore and they parachute safely from the aircraft before it crashes into the ocean .
= = Cast = =
Sean Connery as James Bond ( 007 ) : A British MI6 agent who is sent to investigate Auric Goldfinger . Connery reprised the role of Bond for the third time in a row . His salary rose , but a pay dispute later broke out during filming . After he suffered a back injury when filming the scene where Oddjob knocks Bond unconscious in Miami , the dispute was settled : Eon and Connery agreed to a deal where the actor would receive 5 % of the gross of each Bond film he starred in . It was while filming Goldfinger that Connery also became a fan of golf .
Honor Blackman as Pussy Galore : Goldfinger 's personal pilot and leader of an all @-@ female team of pilots known as Pussy Galore 's Flying Circus . Blackman was selected for the role of Pussy Galore because of her role in The Avengers and the script was rewritten to show Blackman 's judo abilities . The character 's name follows in the tradition of other Bond girls names that are double entendres . Concerned about censors , the producers thought about changing the character 's name to " Kitty Galore " , but they and Hamilton decided " if you were a ten @-@ year old boy and knew what the name meant , you weren 't a ten @-@ year old boy , you were a dirty little bitch . The American censor was concerned , but we got round that by inviting him and his wife out to dinner and [ told him ] we were big supporters of the Republican Party . " During promotion , Blackman took delight in embarrassing interviewers by repeatedly mentioning the character 's name . Whilst the American censors did not interfere with the name in the film , they refused to allow the name " Pussy Galore " to appear on promotional materials and for the US market she was subsequently called " Miss Galore " or " Goldfinger 's personal pilot " .
Gert Fröbe as Auric Goldfinger : A wealthy , psychopathic man obsessed with gold . Orson Welles was considered as Goldfinger , but his financial demands were too high ; Theodore Bikel auditioned for the role , but failed . Fröbe was cast because the producers saw his performance as a child molester in the German film Es geschah am hellichten Tag . Fröbe , who spoke little English , said his lines phonetically , but was too slow . To redub him , he had to double the speed of his performance to get the right tempo . The only time his real voice is heard is during his meeting with members of the Mafia at Auric Stud . Bond is hidden below the model of Fort Knox whilst Fröbe 's natural voice can be heard above . However , he was redubbed for the rest of the film by stage actor Michael Collins .
Shirley Eaton as Jill Masterson : Bond Girl and Goldfinger 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , whom Bond catches helping the villain cheat at a game of cards . He seduces her , but for her betrayal , she is completely painted in gold paint and dies from " skin suffocation " ( a fictional condition Ian Fleming created for the novel ; the skin does not actually " breathe " ) . Eaton was sent by her agent to meet Harry Saltzman and agreed to take the part if the nudity was done tastefully . It took an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to apply the paint to her body . Although only a small part in the film , the image of her painted gold was renowned and Eaton graced the cover of Life magazine of 6 November 1964 .
Harold Sakata as Oddjob : Goldfinger 's lethal Korean manservant . Director Guy Hamilton cast Sakata , an Olympic silver medallist weightlifter , as Oddjob after seeing him on a wrestling programme . Hamilton called Sakata an " absolutely charming man " , and found that " he had a very unique way of moving , [ so ] in creating Oddjob I used all of Harold 's own characteristics " . Sakata was badly burned when filming his death scene , in which Oddjob was electrocuted by Bond . Sakata , however , determinedly kept holding onto the hat despite his pain until the director said " Cut ! " Oddjob has been described as " a wordless role , but one of cinema 's great villains . "
Tania Mallet as Tilly Masterson : The sister of Jill Masterson , she is on a vendetta to avenge her sister , but is killed by Oddjob .
Bernard Lee as M : 007 's boss and head of the British Secret Service .
Cec Linder as Felix Leiter : Bond 's CIA liaison in the United States . Linder was the only actor actually on location in Miami . Linder 's interpretation of Leiter was that of a somewhat older man than the way the character was played by Jack Lord in Dr. No ; in reality , Linder was a year younger than Lord . According to screenwriter Richard Maibaum , Lord demanded co @-@ star billing , a bigger role and more money to reprise the Felix Leiter role in Goldfinger that led the producers to recast the role . At the last minute , Cec Linder switched roles with Austin Willis who played cards with Goldfinger .
Martin Benson as Mr. Solo : The lone gangster who refuses to take part in Operation Grand Slam and is later killed by Oddjob and crushed in the car in which he is riding .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q : The head of Q @-@ Branch , he supplies 007 with a modified Aston Martin DB5 . Hamilton told Llewelyn to inject humour into the character , thus beginning the friendly antagonism between Q and Bond that became a hallmark of the series . He had aleady appeared in the previous Bond film From Russia With Love and , with the exception of Live and Let Die , would continue to play Q in the next 16 Bond films .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny .
Austin Willis as Mr. Simmons : Goldfinger 's gullible gin rummy opponent in Miami .
Michael Mellinger as Kisch : Goldfinger 's secondary and quiet henchman and loyal lieutenant who leads his boss 's false Army convoy to Fort Knox .
Burt Kwouk as Mr. Ling : A Communist Chinese nuclear fission specialist who provides Auric Goldfinger with the dirty bomb to irradiate the gold inside Fort Knox .
Richard Vernon as Colonel Smithers , the Bank of England official .
Margaret Nolan as Dink , Bond 's masseuse from the Miami hotel sequence . Nolan also appeared as the gold @-@ covered body in advertisements for the film and in the opening title sequence as the golden silhouette , described as " Gorgeous , iconic , seminal " .
Gerry Duggan as Hawker , Bond 's golf caddy .
= = Production = =
With the court case between Kevin McClory and Fleming surrounding Thunderball still in the High Courts , producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman turned to Goldfinger as the third Bond film . Goldfinger had what was then considered a large budget of $ 3 million ( US $ 22 @,@ 889 @,@ 485 in 2016 dollars ) , the equivalent of the budgets of Dr. No and From Russia with Love combined , and was the first James Bond film classified as a box @-@ office blockbuster . Goldfinger was chosen with the American cinema market in mind , as the previous films had concentrated on the Caribbean and Europe .
Terence Young , who directed the previous two films , chose to film The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders instead , after a pay dispute that saw him denied a percentage of the film 's profits . Broccoli and Saltzman turned instead to Guy Hamilton to direct ; Hamilton , who had turned down directing Dr. No , felt that he needed to make Bond less of a " superman " by making the villains seem more powerful . Hamilton knew Fleming , as both were involved during intelligence matters in the Royal Navy during World War II . Goldfinger saw the return of two crew members who were not involved with From Russia with Love : stunt coordinator Bob Simmons and production designer Ken Adam . Both played crucial roles in the development of Goldfinger , with Simmons choreographing the fight sequence between Bond and Oddjob in the vault of Fort Knox , which was not just seen as one of the best Bond fights , but also " must stand as one of the great cinematic combats " whilst Adam 's efforts on Goldfinger were " luxuriantly baroque " and have resulted in the film being called " one of his finest pieces of work " .
= = = Writing = = =
Richard Maibaum , who co @-@ wrote the previous films , returned to adapt the seventh James Bond novel . Maibaum fixed the novel 's heavily criticised plot hole , where Goldfinger actually attempts to empty Fort Knox . In the film , Bond notes it would take twelve days for Goldfinger to steal the gold , before the villain reveals he actually intends to irradiate it with the then topical concept of a Red Chinese atomic bomb . However , Harry Saltzman disliked the first draft , and brought in Paul Dehn to revise it . Hamilton said Dehn " brought out the British side of things " . Connery disliked his draft , so Maibaum returned . Dehn also suggested the pre @-@ credit sequence to be an action scene with no relevance to the actual plot . Wolf Mankowitz , an un @-@ credited screenwriter on Dr. No , suggested the scene where Oddjob puts his car into a car crusher to dispose of a dead body . Because of the quality of work of Maibaum and Dehn , the script and outline for Goldfinger became the blueprint for future Bond films .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography on Goldfinger commenced on 20 January 1964 in Miami , Florida , at the Fontainebleau Hotel ; the crew was small , consisting only of Hamilton , Broccoli , Adam , and cinematographer Ted Moore . Sean Connery never travelled to Florida to film Goldfinger because he was filming Marnie elsewhere in the United States . Miami also served as location to the scenes involving Felix 's pursuit of Oddjob . After five days in Florida , production moved to England . The primary location was Pinewood Studios , home to among other sets , a recreation of the Fontainebleau , the South American city of the pre @-@ title sequence and both Goldfinger 's estate and factory . Three places near the studio were used , Black Park for the car chase involving Bond 's Aston Martin and Goldfinger 's henchmen inside the factory complex , RAF Northolt for the American airports and Stoke Park Club for the golf club scene . The end of the chase , when Bond 's Aston Martin crashes into a wall because of the mirror and the chase immediately preceding it , were filmed on the road at the rear of Pinewood Studios Sound Stages A and E and the Prop Store . The road is now called Goldfinger Avenue . Southend Airport was used for the scene where Goldfinger flies to Switzerland . Ian Fleming visited the set of Goldfinger in April 1964 ; he died a few months later in August 1964 , shortly before the film 's release . The second unit filmed in Kentucky , and these shots were edited into scenes filmed at Pinewood . Principal photography then moved to Switzerland , with the car chase being filmed at the small curves roads near Realp , the exterior of the Pilatus Aircraft factory in Stans serving as Goldfinger 's factory , and Tilly Masterson 's attempt to snipe Goldfinger being shot in the Furka Pass . Filming wrapped on 11 July at Andermatt , after nineteen weeks of shooting . Just three weeks prior to the film 's release , Hamilton and a small team , which included Broccoli 's stepson and future producer Michael G. Wilson as assistant director , went for last @-@ minute shoots in Kentucky . Extra people were hired for post @-@ production issues such as dubbing so the film could be finished in time .
Broccoli earned permission to film in the Fort Knox area with the help of his friend , Lt. Colonel Charles Russhon . To shoot Pussy Galore 's Flying Circus gassing the soldiers , the pilots were only allowed to fly above 3 @,@ 000 feet . Hamilton recalled this was " hopeless " , so they flew at about 500 feet , " and the military went absolutely ape " . The scenes of people fainting involved the same set of soldiers moving to different locations . For security reasons , the filmmakers were not allowed to film inside the United States Bullion Depository , although exterior photography was permitted . All sets for the interiors of the building were designed and built from scratch at Pinewood Studios . The filmmakers had no clue as to what the interior of the depository looked like , so Ken Adam 's imagination provided the idea of gold stacked upon gold behind iron bars . Adam later told UK daily newspaper The Guardian : " No one was allowed in Fort Knox but because [ producer ] Cubby Broccoli had some good connections and the Kennedys loved Ian Fleming 's books I was allowed to fly over it once . It was quite frightening - they had machine guns on the roof . I was also allowed to drive around the perimeter but if you got out of the car there was a loudspeaker warning you to keep away . There was not a chance of going in it , and I was delighted because I knew from going to the Bank of England vaults that gold isn 't stacked very high and it 's all underwhelming . It gave me the chance to show the biggest gold repository in the world as I imagined it , with gold going up to heaven . I came up with this cathederal @-@ type design . I had a big job to persuade Cubby and the director Guy Hamilton at first . " Saltzman disliked the design 's resemblance to a prison , but Hamilton liked it enough that it was built . The comptroller of Fort Knox later sent a letter to Adam and the production team , complimenting them on their imaginative depiction of the vault . United Artists even had irate letters from people wondering " how could a British film unit be allowed inside Fort Knox ? " Adam recalled , " In the end I was pleased that I wasn 't allowed into Fort Knox , because it allowed me to do whatever I wanted . " In fact , the set was deemed so realistic that Pinewood Studios had to post a 24 @-@ hour guard to keep the gold bar props from being stolen . Another element which was original was the atomic device , to which Hamilton requested the special effects crew to get inventive instead of realistic . Technician Bert Luxford described the end result as looking like an " engineering work " , with a spinning engine , a chronometer and other decorative pieces .
= = = Effects = = =
Hamilton remarked , " Before [ Goldfinger ] , gadgets were not really a part of Bond 's world . " Production designer Ken Adam chose the DB5 because it was the latest version of the Aston Martin ( in the novel Bond drove a DB3 , which he considered England 's most sophisticated car . The company was initially reluctant , but was finally convinced to make a product placement deal . In the script , the car was armed only with a smoke screen , but every crew member began suggesting gadgets to install in it : Hamilton conceived the revolving licence plate because he had been getting lots of parking tickets , while his stepson suggested the ejector seat ( which he saw on television ) . A gadget near the lights that would drop sharp nails was replaced with an oil dispenser because the producers thought the original could be easily copied by viewers . Adam and engineer John Stears overhauled the prototype of the Aston Martin DB5 coupe , installing these and other features into a car over six weeks . The scene where the DB5 crashes was filmed twice , with the second take being used in the film . The first take , in which the car drives through the fake wall , can be seen in the trailer . Two of the gadgets were not installed in the car : the wheel @-@ destroying spikes , inspired by Ben @-@ Hur 's scythed chariots , were entirely made in @-@ studio ; and the ejector seat used a seat thrown by compressed air , with a dummy sitting atop it . Another car without the gadgets was created , which was eventually furnished for publicity purposes . It was reused for Thunderball .
Lasers did not exist in 1959 when the book was written , nor did high @-@ power industrial lasers at the time the film was made , making them a novelty . In the novel , Goldfinger uses a circular saw to try to kill Bond , but the filmmakers changed it to a laser to make the film feel fresher . Hamilton immediately thought of giving the laser a place in the film 's story as Goldfinger 's weapon of choice . Ken Adam was advised on the laser 's design by two Harvard scientists who helped design the water reactor in Dr No . The laser beam itself was an optical effect added in post @-@ production . For close @-@ ups where the flame cuts through metal , technician Bert Luxford heated the metal with a blowtorch from underneath the table to which Bond was strapped .
The opening credit sequence was designed by graphic artist Robert Brownjohn , featuring clips of all James Bond films thus far projected on Margaret Nolan 's body . Its design was inspired by seeing light projecting on people 's bodies as they got up and left a cinema .
Visually , the film uses many golden motifs to parallel the gold 's symbolic treatment in the novel . All of Goldfinger 's female henchwomen in the film except his private jet 's co @-@ pilot ( black hair ) and stewardess ( who is Korean ) are red @-@ blonde , or blonde , including Pussy Galore and her Flying Circus crew ( both the characters Tilly Masterson and Pussy specifically have black hair in the novel ) . Goldfinger has a yellow @-@ painted Rolls @-@ Royce with number plate " AU 1 " ( " Au " being the chemical symbol for gold ) , and also sports yellow or golden items or clothing in every film scene , including a golden pistol , when disguised as a colonel . Bond is bound to a solid gold table ( as Goldfinger points out to him ) before nearly being lasered . Goldfinger 's factory henchmen in the film wear yellow sashes , Pussy Galore twice wears a metallic gold vest , and Pussy 's pilots all wear yellow sunburst insignia on their uniforms . The concept of the recurring gold theme running through the film was a design aspect conceived and executed by Ken Adam and art director Peter Murton .
The model jet used for wide shots of Goldfinger 's Lockheed JetStar was refurbished to be used as the presidential plane that crashes at the film 's end . Several cars were provided by the Ford Motor Company including a Mustang that Tilly Masterson drives , a Ford Country Squire station wagon used to transport Bond from the airport to the stud ranch , a Ford Thunderbird driven by Felix Leiter , and a Lincoln Continental in which Oddjob kills Solo . The Continental had its engine removed before being placed in a car crusher , and the destroyed car had to be partially cut so that the bed of the Ford Falcon Ranchero in which it was deposited could support the weight .
= = Music = =
Since the release date for the film had been pre @-@ determined and filming had finished close to that date , John Barry received some edits directly from the cutting @-@ room floor , rather than as a finished edit , and scored some sequences from the rough initial prints . Barry described his work in Goldfinger as a favourite of his , saying it was " the first time I had complete control , writing the score and the song " . The musical tracks , in keeping with the film 's theme of gold and metal , make heavy use of brass , and also metallic chimes . The film 's score is described as " brassy and raunchy " with " a sassy sexiness to it " .
Goldfinger is said to have started the tradition of Bond theme songs ' being from the pop genre or using popular artists , although this had already been done with Matt Monro singing the title song of From Russia with Love . Shirley Bassey sang the theme song " Goldfinger " , and she would go on to sing the theme songs for two other Bond films , Diamonds are Forever and Moonraker . The song was composed by John Barry , with lyrics by Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse that were described in one contemporary newspaper as " puerile " . Like the score , the arrangement makes heavy use of brass , and incorporates the Bond theme from Dr. No . Newley recorded the early versions , which were even considered for inclusion in the film . The soundtrack album topped the Billboard 200 chart , and reached the 14th place in the UK Albums Chart . The single for " Goldfinger " was also successful , reaching 8th in the Billboard Hot 100 and 21st in the UK charts .
= = Release and reception = =
Goldfinger was premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 17 September 1964 , with general release in the United Kingdom the following day . Leicester Square was packed with sightseers and fans and police were unable to control the crowd due to the number of people . A set of glass doors to the cinema was accidentally broken and the premiere was shown ten minutes late because of the confusion . The United States premiere occurred on 21 December 1964 , at the DeMille Theatre in New York . The film opened in 64 cinemas across 41 cities and eventually peaked at 485 screens . Goldfinger was temporarily banned in Israel because of Gert Fröbe 's connections with the Nazi Party . The ban , however , was lifted many years later when a Jewish family publicly thanked Fröbe for protecting them from persecution during World War II .
= = = Promotion = = =
The film 's marketing campaign began as soon as filming started in Florida , with Eon allowing photographers to enter the set to take pictures of Shirley Eaton painted in gold . Robert Brownjohn , who designed the opening credits , was responsible for the posters for the advertising campaign , which also used actress Margaret Nolan . To promote the film , the two Aston Martin DB5s were showcased at the 1964 New York World 's Fair and it was dubbed " the most famous car in the world " ; consequently , sales of the car rose . Corgi Toys began its decades @-@ long relationship with the Bond franchise , producing a toy of the car , which became the biggest selling toy of 1964 . The film 's success also led to licensed tie @-@ in clothing , dress shoes , action figures , board games , jigsaw puzzles , lunch boxes , toys , record albums , trading cards and slot cars .
= = = Critical response = = =
Goldfinger was generally a critical success . Derek Prouse of The Sunday Times said of Goldfinger that it was " superbly engineered . It is fast , it is most entertainingly preposterous and it is exciting . "
The reviewer from The Times said " All the devices are infinitely sophisticated , and so is the film : the tradition of self @-@ mockery continues , though at times it over @-@ reaches itself " , also saying that " It is the mixture as before , only more so : it is superb hokum . " Connery 's acting efforts were overlooked by this reviewer , who did say : " There is some excellent bit @-@ part playing by Mr. Bernard Lee and Mr. Harold Sakata : Mr. Gert Fröbe is astonishingly well cast in the difficult part of Goldfinger . " Donald Zec , writing for the Daily Mirror said of the film that " Ken Adam 's set designs are brilliant ; the direction of Guy Hamilton tautly exciting ; Connery is better than ever , and the titles superimposed on the gleaming body of the girl in gold are inspired . "
Penelope Gilliatt , writing in The Observer said that the film had " a spoofing callousness " and that it was " absurd , funny and vile " . The Guardian said that Goldfinger was " two hours of unmissable fantasy " , also saying that the film was " the most exciting , the most extravagant of the Bond films : garbage from the gods " , adding that Connery was " better than ever as Bond " . Alan Dent , writing for The Illustrated London News , thought Goldfinger " even tenser , louder , wittier , more ingenious and more impossible than ' From Russia with Love ' ... [ a ] brilliant farrago " , adding that Connery " is ineffable " .
Philip Oakes of The Sunday Telegraph said that the film was " dazzling in its technical ingenuity " , while Time said that " this picture is a thriller exuberantly travestied . " Bosley Crowther , writing in The New York Times was less enthusiastic about the film , saying that it was " tediously apparent " that Bond was becoming increasingly reliant on gadgets with less emphasis on " the lush temptations of voluptuous females " , although he did admit that " Connery plays the hero with an insultingly cool , commanding air . " He saved his praises for other actors in the film , saying that " Gert Fröbe is aptly fat and feral as the villainous financier , and Honor Blackman is forbiddingly frigid and flashy as the latter 's aeronautical accomplice . "
In Guide for the Film Fanatic , Danny Peary wrote that Goldfinger is " the best of the James Bond films starring Sean Connery ... There 's lots of humor , gimmicks , excitement , an amusing yet tense golf contest between Bond and Goldfinger , thrilling fights to the death between Bond and Oddjob and Bond and Goldfinger , and a fascinating central crime ... Most enjoyable , but too bad Eaton 's part isn 't longer and that Fröbe 's Goldfinger , a heavy but nimble intellectual in the Sydney Greenstreet tradition , never appeared in another Bond film . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times declared this to be his favourite Bond film and later added it to his ' Great Movies " list .
The film @-@ critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes found 96 % positive reviews based on 56 reviews , tying with From Russia with Love ( also 96 % ) and Dr. No ( 96 % ) as the highest @-@ rated James Bond films .
= = = Box office = = =
Goldfinger 's $ 3 million budget was recouped in two weeks , and it broke box office records in multiple countries around the world . The Guinness Book of World Records went on to list Goldfinger as the fastest grossing film of all time . Demand for the film was so high that the DeMille cinema in New York City had to stay open twenty @-@ four hours a day . The film closed its original box office run having grossed $ 23 million in the United States and $ 46 million worldwide . After reissues , the first being as a double feature with Dr. No in 1966 , Goldfinger grossed a total of $ 51 @,@ 081 @,@ 062 in the United States and $ 73 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 elsewhere , for a total worldwide gross of $ 124 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 .
The film distributor Park Circus re @-@ released Goldfinger in the UK on 27 July 2007 at 150 multiplex cinemas , on digital prints . The re @-@ release put the film twelfth at the weekly box office .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 1965 Academy Awards , Norman Wanstall won the Academy Award for Best Sound Effects Editing for his work , making Goldfinger the first Bond film to receive an Academy Award . John Barry was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Score for a Motion Picture , and Ken Adam was nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) for Best British Art Direction ( Colour ) , where he also won the award for Best British Art Direction ( Black and White ) for Dr. Strangelove . The American Film Institute has honoured the film four times : ranking it No. 90 for best movie quote ( " A martini . Shaken , not stirred " ) , No. 53 for best song ( " Goldfinger " ) , No. 49 for best villain ( Auric Goldfinger ) , and No. 71 for most thrilling film . In 2006 , Entertainment Weekly and IGN both named Goldfinger as the best Bond film , while MSN named it as the second best , behind its predecessor . IGN and EW also named Pussy Galore as the second best Bond girl . In 2008 , Total Film named Goldfinger as the best film in the series . The Times placed Goldfinger and Oddjob second and third on their list of the best Bond villains in 2008 . They also named the Aston Martin DB5 as the best car in the films .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Goldfinger 's script became a template for subsequent Bond films . It was the first of the series showing Bond relying heavily on technology , as well as the first to show a pre @-@ credits sequence with only a tangential link to the main story — in this case allowing Bond to get to Miami after a mission . Also introduced for the first of many appearances is the briefing in Q @-@ branch , allowing the viewer to see the gadgets in development . The subsequent films in the Bond series follow most of Goldfinger 's basic structure , featuring a henchman with a particular characteristic , a Bond girl who is killed by the villain , big emphasis on the gadgets and a more tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek approach , though trying to balance action and comedy .
Goldfinger has been described as perhaps " the most highly and consistently praised Bond picture of them all " and after Goldfinger , Bond " became a true phenomenon . " The success of the film led to the emergence of many other works in the espionage genre and parodies of James Bond , such as The Beatles film Help ! in 1965 and a spoof of Ian Fleming 's first Bond novel , Casino Royale , in 1967 . Indeed , it has been said that Goldfinger was the cause of the boom in espionage films in the 1960s , so much so that in " 1966 , moviegoers were offered no less than 22 examples of secret agent entertainment , including several blatant attempts to begin competing series , with James Coburn starring as Derek Flint in the film Our Man Flint and Dean Martin as Matt Helm " .
Even within the Bond canon , Goldfinger is acknowledged ; the 22nd Bond film , Quantum of Solace , includes an homage to the gold body paint death scene by having a female character dead on a bed nude , covered in crude oil . Outside the Bond films , elements of Goldfinger , such as Oddjob and his use of his hat as a weapon , Bond removing his drysuit to reveal a tuxedo underneath and the laser scene have been homaged or spoofed in works such as True Lies , The Simpsons , and the Austin Powers series . The US television programme MythBusters explored many scenarios seen in the film , such as the explosive depressurisation in a plane at high altitudes , the death by full body painting , an ejector seat in a car and using a tuxedo under a drysuit .
The success of the film led to Ian Fleming 's Bond novels receiving an increase of popularity and nearly 6 million books were sold in the United Kingdom in 1964 , including 964 @,@ 000 copies of Goldfinger alone . Between the years 1962 to 1967 a total of 22 @,@ 792 @,@ 000 Bond novels were sold .
= = = Accolades = = =
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills : # 71
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Auric Goldfinger : # 49 Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" A Martini . Shaken , not stirred . " : # 90
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" Goldfinger " : # 53
AFI 's 100 Years … 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) - Nominated
= Codex Sinaiticus =
Codex Sinaiticus ( Modern Greek : Σιναϊτικός Κώδικας , Hebrew : קודקס סינאיטיקוס ; Shelfmarks and references : London , Brit . Libr . , Additional Manuscripts 43725 ; Gregory @-@ Aland nº א [ Aleph ] or 01 , [ Soden δ 2 ] ) or " Sinai Bible " is one of the four great uncial codices , an ancient , handwritten copy of the Greek Bible . The codex is a celebrated historical treasure .
The codex is an Alexandrian text @-@ type manuscript written in the 4th century in uncial letters on parchment . Current scholarship considers the Codex Sinaiticus to be one of the best Greek texts of the New Testament , along with that of the Codex Vaticanus . Until the discovery by Constantin von Tischendorf of the Sinaiticus text , the Codex Vaticanus was unrivaled .
The Codex Sinaiticus came to the attention of scholars in the 19th century at Saint Catherine 's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula , with further material discovered in the 20th and 21st centuries . Although parts of the Codex are scattered across four libraries around the world , most of the manuscript is today vested in the British Library London , where it is on public display . Since its discovery , study of the Codex Sinaiticus has proven to be extremely useful to scholars for critical studies of biblical text .
While large portions of the Old Testament is missing , it is assumed that the Codex originally contained the whole of both Testaments . Approximately half of the Greek Old Testament ( or Septuagint ) survived , along with a complete New Testament , the entire apocrypha plus the Epistle of Barnabas and portions of The Shepherd of Hermas .
= = Description = =
The codex consists of parchment , originally in double sheets , which may have measured about 40 by 70 cm .
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that Weber once had a nightmare during which he talked in his sleep about jumping from a plane , leaving his fingerprints on the " aft stairs " . He also reportedly told her that an old knee injury had been incurred by " jumping out of a plane " . Like the hijacker , Weber drank bourbon and chain smoked . Other circumstantial evidence included a 1979 trip to Seattle and the Columbia River , during which Weber took a walk alone along the river bank in the Tina Bar area ; four months later Brian Ingram made his ransom cash discovery in the same area .
The FBI eliminated Weber as an active suspect in July 1998 when his fingerprints did not match any of those processed in the hijacked plane , and no other direct evidence could be found to implicate him . Later , his DNA also failed to match the samples recovered from Cooper 's tie , though the Bureau has since conceded that they cannot be certain that the organic material on the tie came from Cooper .
= = = John List = = =
John Emil List was an accountant and World War II and Korean War veteran who murdered his wife , three teenage children , and 85 @-@ year @-@ old mother in Westfield , New Jersey fifteen days before the Cooper hijacking , withdrew $ 200 @,@ 000 from his mother 's bank account , and disappeared . He came to the attention of the Cooper task force due to the timing of his disappearance , multiple matches to the hijacker 's description , and the reasoning that " a fugitive accused of mass murder has nothing to lose . " After his capture in 1989 , List admitted to murdering his family , but denied any involvement in the Cooper hijacking . While his name continues to crop up in Cooper articles and documentaries , no substantive evidence implicates him , and the FBI no longer considers him a suspect . He died in prison in 2008 .
= = = Barbara Dayton = = =
Barbara Dayton , a recreational pilot and University of Washington librarian who was born Robert Dayton , served in the Merchant Marine in 1926 and then the Army during World War II . After discharge Dayton worked with explosives in the construction industry and aspired to a professional airline career , but could not obtain a commercial pilot 's license .
Dayton underwent gender reassignment surgery in 1969 and changed her name to Barbara . She claimed to have staged the Cooper hijacking two years later , disguised as a man , in order to " get back " at the airline industry and the FAA , whose insurmountable rules and conditions had prevented her from becoming an airline pilot . She said she hid the ransom money in a cistern near her landing point in Woodburn , a suburban area south of Portland , Oregon . Eventually she recanted her entire story , ostensibly after learning that she could still be charged with the hijacking . The FBI has never commented publicly on Dayton , who died in 2002 .
= = = Ted Mayfield = = =
Mayfield was an Army Special Forces veteran , pilot , competitive skydiver , and skydiving instructor who served time for negligent homicide after two of his students died when their parachutes failed to open . His criminal record also included armed robbery and transportation of stolen aircraft , and in 2010 he was sentenced to three years ' probation for flying a single @-@ engine plane , 26 years after permanent revocation of his pilot 's license . He was suggested repeatedly as a suspect early in the investigation , according to FBI Agent Ralph Himmelsbach , who knew Mayfield from a prior dispute at a local airport . He was ruled out , based partly on the fact that he called Himmelsbach less than two hours after Flight 305 landed in Reno to volunteer advice on standard skydiving practices and possible landing zones .
In 2006 two amateur researchers named Daniel Dvorak and Matthew Myers proposed him as a suspect once again , attracting coverage from a Portland television station and the syndicated program Inside Edition . They asserted that they had assembled a convincing circumstantial case that would be detailed in a forthcoming book . They theorized that Mayfield called Himmelsbach not to offer advice , but to establish an alibi ; and they challenged Himmelsbach 's conclusion that Mayfield could not possibly have found a phone in time to call the FBI less than four hours after jumping into the wilderness at night . Mayfield denied any involvement , and repeated a previous assertion that the FBI called him five times while the hijacking was still in progress to ask about parachutes , local skydivers , and skydiving techniques . ( Himmelsbach said the FBI never called Mayfield . ) Mayfield further charged that Dvorak and Myers asked him to play along with their theory , and " we 'll all make a lot of money " . ( Dvorak and Myers called any inference of collusion a " blatant lie " . )
Dvorak died in 2007 , and the promised book was never published . The FBI offered no comment beyond Himmelsbach 's original statement that Mayfield , who died in 2015 , was ruled out as a suspect early on .
= = = Jack Coffelt = = =
Coffelt was a conman , ex @-@ convict , and purported government informant who claimed to have been the chauffeur and confidante of Abraham Lincoln 's last undisputed descendant , great @-@ grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith . In 1972 he began claiming he was D.B. Cooper , and attempted through an intermediary , a former cellmate named James Brown , to sell his story to a Hollywood production company . He said he landed near Mount Hood , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Ariel , injuring himself and losing the ransom money in the process . Photos of Coffelt bear a resemblance to the composite drawings , although he was in his mid @-@ fifties in 1971 . He was reportedly in Portland on the day of the hijacking , and sustained leg injuries around that time which were consistent with a skydiving mishap .
Coffelt 's account was reviewed by the FBI , which concluded that it differed in significant details from information that had not been made public , and was therefore a fabrication . Brown , undeterred , continued peddling the story long after Coffelt died in 1975 . Multiple media venues , including the television news program 60 Minutes , considered and rejected it . In a 2008 book about Lincoln 's descendants , author Charles Lachman revisited Coffelt 's tale although it had been discredited 36 years before .
= = = Lynn Doyle Cooper = = =
L.D. Cooper , a leather worker and Korean War veteran , was proposed as a suspect in July 2011 by his niece , Marla Cooper . As an 8 @-@ year @-@ old , she recalled Cooper and another uncle planning something " very mischievous " , involving the use of " expensive walkie @-@ talkies " , at her grandmother 's house in Sisters , Oregon , 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Portland . The next day flight 305 was hijacked ; and though the uncles ostensibly were turkey hunting , L.D. Cooper came home wearing a bloody shirt — the result , he said , of an auto accident . Later , she said , her parents came to believe that L.D. Cooper was the hijacker . She also recalled that her uncle , who died in 1999 , was obsessed with the Canadian comic book hero Dan Cooper ( see Theories and conjectures ) , and " had one of his comic books thumbtacked to his wall " — although he was not a skydiver or paratrooper .
In August New York magazine published an alternative witness sketch , reportedly based on a description by Flight 305 eyewitness Robert Gregory , depicting horn @-@ rimmed sunglasses , a " russet " -colored suit jacket with wide lapels , and marcelled hair . The article notes that L.D. Cooper had wavy hair that looked marcelled ( as did Duane Weber ) .
On August 3 the FBI announced that no fingerprints had been found on a guitar strap made by L.D. Cooper . One week later they added that his DNA did not match the partial DNA profile obtained from the hijacker 's tie , but acknowledged , once again , that there is no certainty that the hijacker was the source of the organic material obtained from the tie . The Bureau has made no further public comment .
= = = Robert Rackstraw = = =
In 1978 , Robert Wesley Rackstraw , who grew up in Scotts Valley , California , was arrested on multiple charges , including check @-@ kiting , possession of explosives , and theft of an aircraft . A trained U.S. Army helicopter pilot who as a decorated Vietnam soldier , he was suspected and questioned by authorities , but was ultimately cleared .
In July 2016 , a TV special called D.B. Cooper : Case Closed ? aired on the History Channel , and postulated " D.B. Cooper " to be Rackstraw . A team of more than 40 ( many retired ) investigators , including former FBI agents , point to him as D.B. Cooper , citing his criminal history , skill set , and resemblance to the 1972 composite sketch . The case for Rackstraw 's involvement in the skyjacking is detailed in Tom Colbert 's book , The Last Master Outlaw : How He Outfoxed the FBI Six Times But Not A Cold Case Team . However , key eyewitnesses to the hijacking — including Mucklow — were unable to corroborate the theory .
The FBI , citing a lack of prosecutable evidence , chose not to pursue further investigation of Rackstraw .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Airport security = = =
The Cooper hijacking marked the beginning of the end for unfettered and unscrutinized airline travel . Despite initiation of the federal Sky Marshal program the previous year , 31 hijackings were committed in U.S. airspace in 1972 , 19 of them for the specific purpose of extorting money . ( Most of the rest were attempts to reach Cuba . ) In 15 of the extortion cases the hijackers also demanded parachutes . In early 1973 the FAA began requiring airlines to search all passengers and their bags . Amid multiple lawsuits charging that such searches violated Fourth Amendment protections against search and seizure , federal courts ruled that they were acceptable when applied universally , and when limited to searches for weapons and explosives . In contrast to the 31 hijackings in 1972 , only two were attempted in 1973 , both by psychiatric patients , one of whom intended to crash the airliner into the White House to kill President Nixon .
= = = Aircraft modifications = = =
In the wake of multiple " copycat " hijackings in 1972 the FAA required that all Boeing 727 aircraft be fitted with a device , later dubbed the " Cooper vane " , that prevents lowering of the aft airstair during flight . Also mandated as a direct result of the hijacking was the installation of peepholes in all cockpit doors , making it possible for the cockpit crew to observe events in the passenger cabin with the cockpit door closed .
= = = Subsequent history of N467US = = =
In 1978 the hijacked 727 @-@ 100 aircraft was sold by Northwest to Piedmont Airlines where it was reregistered N838N and continued in domestic carrier service . In 1984 it was purchased by the now @-@ defunct charter company Key Airlines , reregistered N29KA , and incorporated into the Air Force 's civilian charter fleet that shuttled workers between Nellis Air Force Base and the Tonopah Test Range during the top @-@ secret F @-@ 117 Nighthawk development program . In 1996 the aircraft was scrapped for parts in a Memphis boneyard .
= = = Earl Cossey = = =
In late April 2013 Earl Cossey , the owner of the skydiving school that furnished the four parachutes given to Cooper , was found dead in his home in Woodinville , a suburb of Seattle . His death was ruled a homicide due to blunt @-@ force trauma to the head . The perpetrator remains unknown . Conspiracy theorists immediately began pointing out possible links to the Cooper case , but authorities responded that they have no reason to believe that any such link exists . Woodinville officials later announced that the most likely motive for the crime was burglary .
= = Cultural phenomena = =
While D.B. Cooper was an air pirate and extortionist ( Himmelsbach famously called him a " rotten sleazy crook " ) who endangered the lives of 42 people and caused immeasurable inconvenience for many others , his bold , adventurous , unprecedented crime inspired a cult following , expressed through song , film and literature . Cities in the Pacific Northwest sold tourist souvenirs and held celebrations in his memory . He is remembered in Ariel , Washington , with a " Cooper Day " event held annually on the weekend after Thanksgiving weekend , and elsewhere with Cooper @-@ themed promotions held by restaurants and bowling alleys . Cooper has also been used in the storylines of such popular TV series as Prison Break , NewsRadio , and Numb3rs , as well as a book titled The Vesuvius Prophecy , based on The 4400 TV series .
= Chaplain – Medic massacre =
The Chaplain – Medic massacre was a war crime that took place in the Korean War on July 16 , 1950 , on a mountain above the village of Tuman , South Korea . Thirty unarmed , critically wounded United States Army soldiers and an unarmed chaplain were murdered by members of the North Korean army during the Battle of Taejon .
Operating at the Kum River during the Battle of Taejon , troops of the U.S. Army 's 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division , were cut off from resupply by a roadblock established by North Korean troops of the NK 3rd Division . The roadblock proved difficult to break , and forced U.S. troops to move through nearby mountains to evacuate their wounded .
Thirty critically wounded U.S. troops were stranded at the top of a mountain . Attended to by only two non @-@ combatants , a chaplain and a medic , the wounded were discovered by a North Korean patrol . Though the medic was able to escape , the North Koreans executed the unarmed chaplain as he prayed over the wounded , then killed the rest of them . The massacre was one of several incidents that led U.S. commanders to establish a commission in July to look into war crimes during the war . The same month , the North Korean commanders , concerned about the way their soldiers were treating prisoners of war , laid out stricter guidelines for handling enemy captives . Other than this change , the historiography of the incident in North Korean sources is largely unknown ; as a result , sources detailing the incident are almost exclusively from the United States and other United Nations allies .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations committed troops to the conflict to prevent the collapse of the South Korean state . However , the number of U.S. forces in the Far East available to support this effort had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier . The closest U.S. division , the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , headquartered in Japan , was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to defense cutbacks enacted in the first Truman administration . Nevertheless , the 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea to absorb the initial " shock " of North Korean advances and to buy time for the deployment of additional forces , such as the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , 1st Provisional Marine Brigade and other Eighth Army supporting units .
= = = Delaying action = = =
Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . The force at the battle , Task Force Smith , retreated from Osan , and U.S. forces were again defeated in the Battle of Pyongtaek . For over a week after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south at and around Chochiwon , Chonan , Pyongtaek , Hadong , and Yechon . These American soldiers , most of whom had experienced only occupation duty in Japan and no actual combat , were unprepared compared to the more disciplined North Korean units .
On July 12 , the division 's commander , Major General William F. Dean , ordered the division 's 19th , 21st , and 34th Infantry Regiments to cross the Kum River , destroying all bridges behind them , and to establish defensive positions around Taejon . Taejon was a major South Korean city 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of Seoul and 130 miles ( 210 km ) northwest of Pusan , and was the site of the 24th Infantry Division 's headquarters . Dean formed a line with the 34th Infantry and 19th Infantry facing east , and held the heavily battered 21st Infantry in reserve to the southeast . The Kum River wrapped north and west around the city , providing a defensive line 10 to 15 miles from the outskirts of Taejon , which is protected on the south by the Sobaek Mountains . With major railroad lines and roads emanating in all directions , Taejon stood as a major transportation hub between Seoul and Taegu , giving it great strategic value for both the American and North Korean forces . Taejon had to be held to stop the North Korean forces from converging on the unfinished defensive lines around Pusan .
= = Massacre = =
= = = North Korean attack = = =
Following an initial penetration to the north , the retreating 34th Infantry moved south to Nonsan . On July 15 , the 19th Infantry moved its 2nd Battalion to fill some of the gaps left by the 34th . There , it was reinforced by troops from the Republic of Korea Army . The combined forces observed a large build @-@ up of North Korean troops on the west side of the river . At 03 : 00 on July 16 , the North Koreans launched a massive barrage of tank , artillery and mortar fire on the 19th Infantry positions and North Korean troops began to cross the river in boats . The North Korean forces gathered on the west bank and assaulted the positions of the 1st Battalion 's C and E Companies , followed by a second landing against B Company . North Korean forces pushed against the entire battalion , threatening to overwhelm it . The regimental commander ordered all support troops and officers to the line and they were able to repulse the assault . However , in the melee , North Korean forces infiltrated their rear elements , attacking the reserve forces and blocking supply lines . Stretched thin , the 19th Infantry was unable to hold the line at the Kum River and simultaneously repel the North Korean forces .
= = = Roadblock = = =
North Korean troops promptly set up a roadblock directly behind the 19th Infantry 's line in its main route of supply along the road near the village of Tuman , just south of Yusong on Taejon 's western outskirts . The roadblock quickly became a serious problem for U.S. forces trying to move ammunition and wounded to and from the Kum River line . Around 13 : 00 on July 16 , the 19th Infantry Regimental commander contacted Dean , who ordered him to break the roadblock . However , North Korean troops had set up at least six machine @-@ gun nests above the road at Tuman , and repeated attacks against it were unable to drive the North Korean troops away .
The roadblock was preventing evacuation of the wounded . Troops attempted to drive wounded in jeeps through the roadblock , but this exposed them to machine @-@ gun fire . By 16 : 00 supply columns were also piling up at the block , unable to proceed as armor and airstrikes attempted to dislodge the North Koreans . Five hundred men from the regiment were gathered waiting to break the roadblock while heavy armor units from Taejon moved against it from the other side . During this time , U.S. troops from the 19th Infantry , desperate to move around the roadblock to obtain supplies and care for wounded , began moving through the surrounding hills . One tank was able to make it through the roadblock to evacuate the 19th Infantry 's wounded commander , but by 19 : 00 commanders ordered the regiment to move its wounded along the ridges to the east of the roadblock .
= = = Executions = = =
At 21 : 00 , about 100 men of the 19th Infantry moved into the hills to the east of the town . They carried with them about 30 wounded , including several litter @-@ bound patients too seriously wounded to walk . Some of the group of 100 were ordered to carry these men , but many of them separated from the group in the mountains . By the time they reached the top of the mountain , officers decided some of the seriously wounded could not be carried any further , as their carriers were exhausted . The regimental medical officer , Captain Linton J. Buttrey , and Chaplain Herman G. Felhoelter remained behind with the wounded , intending to move them when another group of troops came through who could carry them . Buttrey wore a Red Cross brassard identifying him as a medic , while Felhoelter wore a large white Latin cross brassard , identifying him as a military chaplain in the U.S. Army Chaplain Corps . The two who remained and the wounded were non @-@ combatants under international law , as they carried no weapons .
Soon after , Buttrey and Felhoelter heard a North Korean patrol approaching , a group of men from the North Korean 3rd Division which had infiltrated the U.S. lines . Felhoelter told Buttrey to escape , and although Buttrey was shot and severely wounded in the ankle by North Korean fire while running , he was able to get away . Felhoelter then began administering last rites and extreme unction to the wounded as they lay on their litters . From this point , observers from the 19th Infantry 's regimental Headquarters and Headquarters Company watched through binoculars from a distance as a patrol of young @-@ looking and possibly untrained North Korean troops approached the site of the wounded . The troops were armed with Soviet @-@ made rifles and PPSh @-@ 41 " burp guns " . As Felhoelter knelt to pray over the wounded U.S. soldiers , the North Korean troops shot him in the head and back . They then proceeded to shoot and kill all of the 30 critically wounded soldiers with their automatic weapons before withdrawing into the wilderness .
= = Aftermath = =
American troops were able to recover the bodies of only three of the victims of the massacre due to the chaos of the battle and subsequent American withdrawal , and were unable to capture any North Korean troops who participated in the massacre . For his actions in volunteering to stay behind with the wounded , Herman G. Felhoelter was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , the second highest decoration for valor awarded by the U.S. military . He was the first chaplain of the war to receive an award for valor . He received a brief obituary in Time Magazine in December 1952 . Felhoelter was the first of twelve chaplains killed or missing at that point in the war , including Emil J. Kapaun , the second chaplain of the war to be awarded a Distinguished Service Cross .
= = = U.S. response = = =
The incident would be one of the first of a series of atrocities the U.S. forces accused North Korean soldiers of committing . After the Chaplain – Medic , Hill 303 and Bloody Gulch massacres , U.S. commanders established a commission on July 27 to investigate allegations of war crimes and collect evidence .
In late 1953 , the United States Senate Committee on Government Operations , led by Joseph McCarthy , conducted an investigation of up to 1 @,@ 800 reported incidents of war crimes allegedly committed throughout the Korean War . The Chaplain – Medic massacre was one of the first to be investigated , and it was here that the incident got its name . Buttrey , the lone survivor of the executions , was called to testify before the committee , and the U.S. Government concluded that the North Korean army violated the terms of the Geneva Convention , and condemned its actions .
In 1981 , the United States erected a series of monuments in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington , Virginia , listing the names of chaplains killed in various wars including World War II , the Korean War and the Vietnam War . Felhoelter 's name was among those engraved in the memorial .
= = = North Korean response = = =
Generally subsequent research has found the North Korean command did not directly order its troops to mistreat prisoners or unarmed wounded during the early phase of the war . The Chaplain – Medic massacre and similar atrocities are believed to have been conducted by " uncontrolled small units , by vindictive individuals , or because of unfavorable and increasingly desperate situations confronting the captors . " The more North Korean troops suffered from worsening conditions on the front lines , the more they mistreated American wounded and prisoners . T. R. Fehrenbach , a military historian , wrote in his analysis of the event that North Korean troops committing these acts were probably accustomed to torture and execution of prisoners due to decades of rule by oppressive armies of the Empire of Japan up until World War II .
A July 28 , 1950 , order by General Lee Yong Ho , commander of the North Korean 3rd Division , was intercepted by UN intelligence . The document was signed by Kim Chaek , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , and Choi Yong @-@ kun , commander of the Advanced General Headquarters of the North Korean Army , and stated that killing prisoners of war was " strictly prohibited . " Lee directed individual units ' Cultural Sections to inform the division 's troops of the rule . The higher @-@ profile Hill 303 massacre the next month prompted North Korean division commanders to issue sterner orders on the treatment of prisoners of war .
= The Wrestlers ( Etty ) =
The Wrestlers is an oil painting on millboard by English artist William Etty , painted around 1840 and currently in the York Art Gallery . It depicts a wrestling match between a black man and a white man , both glistening with sweat and under an intense light emphasising their curves and musculature . While little documentation of the painting exists prior to 1947 , it is likely that it was painted over a period of three evenings at the life class of the Royal Academy .
The Royal Academy had moved to new premises in Trafalgar Square in 1837 , and the studio used by the life class was cramped and hot , a fact thought to account for the sweatiness of the central figures . Etty was best known for his painting of nude or near @-@ nude women in historical and mythological settings but had also painted men involved in various forms of combat .
In the period in which The Wrestlers was painted , sports were becoming increasingly popular , and the painting is both a reflection of this trend and a part of the English tradition of copying poses from classical Hellenistic works . It was also a time of change in the British attitude to race relations . Etty in this period was generally making a conscious effort to illustrate moral lessons in his work , and it is not clear whether he chose the topic as a form of social commentary or simply because the contrast between the black and white flesh tones was visually striking .
Although The Wrestlers was probably exhibited as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work in 1849 , it then went into a private collection and was not publicly exhibited again for almost a century . In 1947 it was put on sale ; with little interest from commercial galleries owing to its subject , it was bought for the bargain price of 30 guineas by the York Art Gallery , where it remains . The painting formed a part of major exhibitions in 2002 and 2011 – 12 .
= = Background = =
William Etty ( 1787 – 1849 ) , the seventh son of a York baker and miller , had originally been an apprentice printer in Hull , but on completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship in 1805 moved to London to become an artist . In January 1807 he was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools as a probationer , and in July of that year became a student of renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence , studying under him for a year .
Strongly influenced by the works of Titian and Rubens , Etty became famous for painting nude figures in biblical , literary and mythological settings . He became well @-@ respected for his ability to capture flesh tones accurately in painting , and for his fascination with contrasts in skin tones . Many of his peers greatly admired his work , and in February 1828 he defeated John Constable by 18 votes to five to become a full Royal Academician , at the time the highest honour available to an artist .
Between 1820 and 1829 Etty exhibited 15 paintings , of which 14 depicted nude figures . While some nude paintings by foreign artists existed in private collections in England , the country had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice .
Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the prurient reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received , many critics condemned his recurrent depictions of female nudity as indecent .
= = Composition = =
The Wrestlers is an oil study from life , depicting a black and a white wrestler grappling . Although at first glance the white wrestler appears to be dominant , the figures are in fact equally matched ; this was unusual for the time , as it was a common belief in Britain in this period that black people were physically weaker than whites . Showing the subjects under bright light , the painting is a combination of intense juxtapositions between intimacy and violence , dark and light skin , and hard and soft surfaces . The black wrestler is naked ; the white wrestler wears a loincloth , although it is possible that this was added after Etty 's death . The intense light casts deep shadows , emphasising the curves and musculature of the wrestlers ' bodies , as the skin of the two combatants is stretched and distorted under the pressure of the grapple . The figures are set against a dark green curtain and a brown wall , rather than in a wrestling ring .
The identity of the wrestlers is not known . Alison Smith , Lead Curator of British Art to 1900 at Tate , speculates that the white figure may have been John Wilton of Somerset , who had possibly been the model for Little John in Daniel Maclise 's 1839 Robin Hood and His Merry Men Entertaining Richard the Lionheart in Sherwood Forest . The figures glisten with sweat . Art historian Sarah Victoria Turner speculates that this is not simply for dramatic effect , but reflects the fact that after the Royal Academy 's 1837 move to its new building in Trafalgar Square the studio used by the life class was a cramped and poorly ventilated room lit by gaslight , which when crowded with students and with the lights on could become extremely hot .
The Wrestlers is thought to have been painted in around 1840 . It is likely that it was executed at the Royal Academy 's life class ; despite his senior status , Etty continued to attend there throughout his life . While students at the class usually worked from a single model , Etty would occasionally arrange for " a Treat " , in which a group of models would be used to create an entire composition for the students to sketch ( often arranged in poses derived from Old Master paintings ) . Painted on millboard , The Wrestlers was probably executed over the course of three evenings . On the first evening Etty would have drawn the models in chalk or charcoal and inked the outline ; on the second evening the figures would have been painted in oil paint , and on the third evening a thin glaze would have been applied to the painting to which colour would then have been added .
= = = Subject = = =
Although best known for his paintings of women , Etty had also produced paintings of nude or semi @-@ nude men engaged in combat , such as 1829 's Benaiah . There was a tendency among British artists in this period to attempt to illustrate the physiques of strong and well @-@ proportioned living men , as an indication that the best of British manhood had reached or surpassed the Hellenistic ideal which at that time was considered the model of perfection . Almost all artists , as part of their training , would be expected to draw from reproductions of classical statues in British museums , or to visit Italy and Greece to view the originals in situ . Etty , and other British artists of the day , would have been familiar with the technical issues of drawing men wrestling , as the Uffizi Wrestlers ( the Pancrastinae ) was one of the subjects new entrants to the Royal Academy Schools were required to draw . Etty had also made lengthy visits to France and Italy in 1816 , 1822 – 24 and 1830 to view and sketch the paintings and statuary of those countries , with additional visits to Belgium in 1840 and 1841 to view the works of Rubens , whom he greatly admired .
Moreover , as the industrial revolution took hold and the prevalence of manual labour declined , there were increasing concerns that British men would become unfit and undisciplined ; images of sport and combat were thought to motivate the viewer to aspire to an ideal of physical strength which people were worried was becoming lost . Wrestling and boxing thus were popular subjects for artworks , and Etty had produced other paintings and sketches of men engaged in fights of one kind or another . It had become common for artists to use boxers and soldiers as models , as they had the strength and bearing considered desirable , and the discipline to hold a pose for long periods in the studio .
The motivation behind Etty 's choice to pair a black and a white wrestler is not clear . Etty had painted black and Indian subjects in the past , and it was not unusual in that period for artists to use non @-@ white models , but it was rare to show a black and a white figure embracing . It is possible that he was simply interested in the contrast between the flesh tones ; it is documented that he would sometimes arrange models of different skin colours for that reason . It is also possible that he saw " primitive " black men as closer in spirit or physique to the wrestlers of the classical civilisations . Sarah Victoria Turner argues that combat was the only subject in which it would have been felt appropriate at the time to depict naked black and white figures in intimate closeness .
1840 , the year in which The Wrestlers is likely to have been painted , saw the World Anti @-@ Slavery Convention in London and the London exhibition of The Slave Ship and The Slave Trade , and race relations had become a major social and political issue . While black wrestlers and boxers — often former slaves from the United States or their descendants — were not unusual in England in the period , and the former slave Tom Molineaux had twice challenged for the boxing world championship in 1811 , they were still treated with suspicion by many members of the public .
= = Sale and exhibition = =
Virtually no contemporary records or reviews of The Wrestlers exist , and it was probably sold to a private collector either on its completion or in the sale of over 800 works found in Etty 's studio following his death ; Dennis Farr 's 1958 biography of Etty lists the painting exhibited in 1849 as " lent by C. W. Wass " . The Wrestlers was probably exhibited at the June 1849 Royal Society of Arts retrospective of over 130 works by Etty , shortly before his death on 13 November of that year . ( Etty produced three paintings entitled The Wrestlers , and it is not certain which was the one exhibited in 1849 , although it is thought likely to be this one . )
Etty died in 1849 , and his work enjoyed a brief boom in popularity . Interest in him declined over time , and by the end of the 19th century the value of all his paintings had fallen below their original levels . Following his death , nude paintings went out of fashion very rapidly in Britain .
An old man , semi @-@ nude , is stepping forward while another man , seen from the back and of dark complexion , embraces his legs . The picture is in my opinion not only a genuine Etty , but very well painted indeed , and as the subject is quite unsuitable for the art trade , it may go at a very cheap figure .
The Wrestlers was sold by a private collector on 31 October 1947 . Owing to its subject matter there was little interest from commercial galleries , and it was bought by York Civic Trust for the bargain price of 30 guineas ( £ 31 @.@ 50 ; about £ 680 in 2016 terms ) . It was immediately presented to the York Art Gallery , where it remains . The painting was one of four works by Etty exhibited in Tate Britain 's 2002 exhibition Exposed : The Victorian Nude , and was a central component of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
= Jetpac =
Jetpac is a 1983 shooter video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game and released for the ZX Spectrum and VIC @-@ 20 . It was later released for BBC Micro in 1984 . The game is the first instalment in the Jetman series , and is the first game to be released by the company , who were later known as Rare . The game follows Jetman as he must rebuild his rocket in order to explore different planets , whilst simultaneously defending himself from aliens . Jetpac has since been included in other Rare games such as an unlockable in Donkey Kong 64 and part of a compilation in Rare Replay . The game later spawned two sequels and a 2007 remake , Jetpac Refuelled , which was released for the Xbox Live Arcade service .
The game was written by Chris Stamper and graphics were designed by Tim Stamper . Jetpac was one of the very few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game when the normal method of cassette loading took minutes . The game was met with critical acclaim upon release , with reviewers praising the game 's presentation and playability . It later won the " Game of the Year " title at the Golden Joystick Awards in 1983 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game world is presented in a horizontal wraparound and consists of three platforms which Jetman can manoeuvre onto . Jetman must assemble his rocket ( which spawns in instalments scattered around the map ) , and then fill it with fuel before taking off to the next planet , where the procedure is broadly repeated . In addition , the player has to defend themselves from the planet 's aliens , and for bonus points collect valuable resources which occasionally fall from above .
After the first level , the rocket stays assembled and just requires refuelling . However , every four levels , the rocket resets ( giving the player an extra life ) and the replacement has to be built before it can be re @-@ fuelled for take off . Each new model has a new design with a higher number written on it , although the gameplay remains unchanged . The enemies change forms each level ( cycling back to the first after eight levels ) and each alien has a different pattern of movement which means they can be dealt with in a different manner .
= = Development and release = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company were known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on development whilst the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or graphics . Whilst developing Jetpac , the Stamper brothers closely studied the emerging Japanese video gaming market and had started to practice developing games for their upcoming Famicom console , later predicting that the ZX Spectrum had a limited lifespan .
Jetpac was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game when the normal method of cassette loading took minutes . The game used the common technique of placing planar sprites with image sprites atop another , which often created overlapped colours on both ZX Spectrum and BBC Micro versions of the game . The game was also able to run on the 16K version of the Spectrum .
The game sold a total of 300 @,@ 000 units for the ZX Spectrum and generated £ 1 million in revenue for Ultimate Play The Game , which enabled the Stamper brothers to gain a foothold in the early video gaming market . After the game 's release , Jetpac was parodied in a long @-@ running Crash comic strip named Lunar Jetman . The strip , designed by John Richardson , lasted from July 1984 to October 1991 and gained popular reception from readers . To develop the comic , photographs had to be processed manually on a photo @-@ mechanical tone and then transferred to paper , later being fully colourised in the late 1980s .
= = Reception = =
The game was critically acclaimed upon release . Crash praised the graphics and presentation , citing that they were of " the highest standard " and added that it was " difficult to find any real faults " with the game . CVG similarly praised the graphics , stating that the presentation was " superb " and the gameplay was considered addictive . In a retrospective review , Chris Wilkins of Eurogamer noted that the colourful graphics and sound effects were advanced for the time , but what truly made for a " faultless " experience was its simple gameplay .
ZX Computing praised the game 's playability and replay @-@ value , stating that Jetpac was " a very well put together piece of software " . The game was number one in the first Spectrum sales chart published by CVG . The ZX Spectrum version was voted number 73 in the Your Sinclair Readers ' Top 100 Games of All Time in 1993 and was voted the 14th best game of all time by the readers of Retro Gamer for an article that was scheduled to be in a special Your Sinclair tribute issue . The game won the title " Game of the Year " at the 1983 Golden Joystick Awards .
= = = Legacy = = =
Jetpac 's popularity further spawned two sequels , Lunar Jetman ( 1983 ) and Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship ( 1990 ) . The latter , however , was not released for the ZX Spectrum due to disappointing sales of the original NES version , although a version for the Commodore 64 was finished but never released .
Since its release , Jetpac has been included in other games developed by Rare . The game is playable in Donkey Kong 64 , where it could be unlocked to play in Cranky Kong 's laboratory after obtaining 15 Banana Medals . Beating Cranky Kong 's high score rewards the player with the Rareware Coin , which is necessary to beat the game . The game was retained in the April 2015 Virtual Console re @-@ release of Donkey Kong 64 on the Wii U , despite it being technically owned by Microsoft . An enhanced remake of Jetpac , entitled Jetpac Refuelled , was released on the Xbox Live Arcade in March 2007 . Microsoft 's E3 2015 press conference unveiled the compilation title Rare Replay , which has a selection of thirty games from Rare 's lifetime game library , including Jetpac and its sequels and remake .
= Puri =
Puri ( listen ) ( Odia : ପୁରୀ ) is a city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India . It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar . It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th @-@ century Jagannath Temple located in the city . It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus .
Puri is known by several names since the ancient times , and was locally known as " Shrikhetra " and Lord Jagannath temple is known as " Badadeula " . Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers , from the 4th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple . Odisha , including Puri and its temple , were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947 . Even though princely states do not exist in India today the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple . The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries .
The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent . The 24 festivals , including 13 major ones , held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy ; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year . Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city .
Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana ( HRIDAY ) scheme of Government of India .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
Puri , located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal , is in the centre of the Puri district . It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast , the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west , Mauza Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east . It is within the 67 kilometres ( 42 mi ) coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city . However , the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16 @.@ 3268 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 3038 sq mi ) spread over 30 wards , which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) .
Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal . In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh ( also known as " Ashokan Tosali " ) . Then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River , a branch of the Mahanadi River . This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary , and formed many sand hills . These sand hills could not be cut through by the streams . Because of the sand hills , the Bhargavi River , flowing to the south of Puri , moved away towards the Chilika Lake . This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons , known as Sar and Samang , on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively . Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) in an east @-@ west direction and a width of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in north @-@ south direction . The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and the process of siltation continues . According to a 15th @-@ century Odia writer Saraladasa , the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up . Katakarajavamsa , a 16th @-@ century chronicle ( c.1600 ) , attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road , as done during the reign of King Narasimha II ( 1278 – 1308 ) of Eastern Ganga dynasty .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen – Geiger climate classification system the climate of Puri is classified as Aw ( Tropical savanna climate ) . The city has moderate and tropical climate . Humidity is fairly high throughout the year . The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) and during winter it is 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 337 millimetres ( 52 @.@ 6 in ) and the average annual temperature is 26 @.@ 9 ° C ( 80 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The weather data is given in the following table .
= = History = =
= = = Names in history = = =
Puri , the holy land of Lord Jagannatha , also known by the popular vernacular name Shrikhetra , has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda , Matsya purana , Brahma Purana , Narada Purana , Padma Purana , Skanda Purana , Kapila Purana and Niladrimahodaya . In the Rigveda , in particular , it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama @-@ grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with Vedic hymns . Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri , and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha . Sages like Bhrigu , Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage close to this place . Its name is mentioned , conforming to the deity worshipped , as Srikshetra , Purusottama Dhāma , Purusottama Kshetra , Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri . Puri , however , is the popular usage . It is also known by the geographical features of its location as Shankhakshetra ( the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell ) , Neelāchala ( " Blue mountain " a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue ) , Neelāchalakshetra , Neelādri . In Sanskrit , the word " Puri " means town or city , and is cognate with polis in Greek .
Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India , which was later spelled as Che @-@ li @-@ ta @-@ lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang . When the present temple was built by the Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 11th and 12th centuries AD , it was called Purushottamkshetra . However , the Moghuls , the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama @-@ chhatar or just Chhatar . In Moghul ruler Akbar 's Ain @-@ i @-@ Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama . In the Sanskrit drama Anargha Raghava Nataka as well , authored by Murari Mishra , a playwright , in the 8th century AD , it is referred to as Purushottama . It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri , named after the deity or in a short form as Puri . It is the only shrine in India , where Radha , along with Lakshmi , Saraswati , Durga , Bhudevi , Sati , Parvati , and Shakti , abodes with Krishna , who is also known by the name Jagannath .
= = = Ancient period = = =
According to the chronicle Madala Panji , in 318 AD , the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta king Rakatavahu . In the temple 's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king Indradyumna , Ujjayani .
S. N. Sadasivan , a historian , in his book A Social History of India quotes William Joseph Wilkins , author of the book Hindu Mythology , Vedic and Purānic as stating that in Puri , Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town ; the Buddha deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha . It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Lord Krishna . Even during Maurya king Ashoka 's reign in 240 BC , Kalinga was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu ( barbarians from outside Odisha ) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha . Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple .
Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century . The Eastern Ganga king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha , then known as the Purushottam @-@ Jagannatha , and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under " divine order as Jagannatha 's sons and vassals " . Even though princely states do not exist in India today , the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple ; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Ratha Yatra .
= = = Medieval and early modern periods = = =
The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannath Temple , which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple , rather than for religious reasons . The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king Govinda @-@ III ( 798 – 814 AD ) , and the last took place in 1881 AD by the monotheistic followers of Alekh ( Mahima Dharma ) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha . From 1205 AD onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of Afghan and Moghul descent , known as Yavanas or foreigners . In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple . Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region . However , the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted . The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple , the triad of Jagannath , Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion .
Puri is the site of the Govardhana Matha , one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya , when he visited Puri in 810 AD , and since then it has become an important dham ( divine centre ) for the Hindus ; the others being those at Sringeri , Dwarka and Jyotirmath . The Matha ( monastery of various Hindu sects ) is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya . It is a local belief about these dhams that Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri , has his bath at Rameshwaram , spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath .
In the 16th century , Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal established the Bhakti movements of India , now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement . He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri ; he is said to have merged with the deity . There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here .
In the 17th century , for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India , the temple served as a landmark , being located in a plaza in the centre of the city , which they called the " White Pagoda " while the Konark Sun Temple , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) away to the east of Puri , was known as the " Black Pagoda " .
The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannatha temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha . These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates . This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters .
The city has many other Mathas as well . The Emar Matha was founded by the Tamil Vaishnava saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD . This Matha , which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple , is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of Suryavamsi Gajapatis . The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber .
The British conquered Orissa in 1803 , and , recognising the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state , they initially appointed an official to look after the temple 's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district .
= = = Modern history = = =
In 1906 , Sri Yukteswar , an exponent of Kriya Yoga and a resident of Puri , established an ashram , a spiritual training center , named " Kararashram " in Puri . He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram .
The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj , the Raj Bhavan , built in 1913 – 14 during the era of governors .
For the people of Puri , Lord Jagannatha , visualized as Lord Krishna , is synonymous with their city . They believe that Lord Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state . However , after the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple ( in the Amalaka part of the temple ) on 14 June 1990 , people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha . The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight ( 7 tonnes ( 7 @.@ 7 tons ) ) , that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened , was done on 28 February 1991 .
Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government . It is chosen as one of the 12 heritage cities with " focus on holistic development " to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017 .
Non @-@ Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library , located within the precincts of the temple , for a small donation .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 Census of India , Puri is an urban agglomeration governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state , with a population of 201 @,@ 026 This rose to 200 @,@ 564 in 2011 – comprising 104 @,@ 086 males , 96 @,@ 478 females , and 18 @,@ 471 children ( under six years of age ) . The sex ratio is 927 . The average literacy rate in the city is 88 @.@ 03 percent ( 91 @.@ 38 percent for males and 84 @.@ 43 percent for females ) .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent . The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town . Agricultural production of rice , ghee , vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple . Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple . The temple administration employs 6 @,@ 000 men to perform the rituals . The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20 @,@ 000 people . According to Colleen Taylor Sen an author on food and travel , writing on the food culture of India , the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100 @,@ 000 people , . According to J Mohapatra , Director , Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd ( IBPIL ) , the kitchen is known as " a largest and biggest kitchen of the world . "
= = City management and governance = =
The Puri Municipality , Puri Konark Development Authority , Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply , sewerage , waste management , street lighting and infrastructure of roads . The major activity , which puts maximum pressure on these organisations , is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July . According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event . Hence , development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims , apart from security , gets priority attention .
The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality . The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust , which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881 . After India 's independence in 1947 , the Orissa Municipal Act ( 1950 ) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality . This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Jagannatha Temple at Puri = = =
The Jagannatha Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture . The temple tower , with a spire , rises to a height of 58 metres ( 190 ft ) , and a flag is unfurled above it , fixed over a wheel ( chakra ) .
The temple is built on an elevated platform ( of about 420 @,@ 000 square feet ( 39 @,@ 000 m2 ) area ) , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) above the adjacent area . The temple rises to a height of 214 feet ( 65 m ) above the road level . The temple complex covers an area of 10 @.@ 7 acres ( 4 @.@ 3 ha ) . There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple , each gate located at the central part of the walls . These gates are : the eastern gate called the Singhadwara ( Lions Gate ) , the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara ( Horse Gate ) , the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara ( Tigers Gate ) or the Khanja Gate , and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or ( elephant gate ) . These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma ( right conduct ) , Jnana ( knowledge ) , Vairagya ( renunciation ) and Aishwarya ( prosperity ) . The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures . There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara , called the Aruna Stambha { Solar Pillar } , 11 metres ( 36 ft ) in height with 16 faces , made of chlorite stone ; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of Arun ( Sun ) in a prayer mode is mounted . This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun Temple . The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion , horse mounted men , tigers , and elephants in the name and order of the gates . A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering . The Lion Gate ( Singhadwara ) is the main gate to the temple , which is guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya . The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca , which are revered , as it is believed to possess " spiritual animation " . Children are made to roll down these steps , from top to bottom , to bring them spiritual happiness . After entering the temple , on the left side , there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities ; the kitchen is called as " the biggest hotel of the world " .
According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed . However , according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty . It was completed by his descendant , Anangabhima Deva , in the 12th century . The wooden images of Jagannath , Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here . The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558 . Then , when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal , it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad . Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh , the General of Mughal emperor Akbar , the temple became part of the Mughal empire till 1751 . Subsequently , it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803 . During the British Raj , the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947 .
The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha , personifying Lord Krishna , Balabhadra , His older brother , and Subhadra , His younger sister . The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form . The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms , while that of Subhadra does not have any arms . The heads are large , painted and non @-@ carved . The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes .
= = = The Pancha Tirtha of Puri = = =
Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri , to complete a pilgrimage to Puri . The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank , the Rohini Kunda , the Markandeya Tank , the Swetaganga Tank , and the Bay of Bengal also called the Mahodadhi , in Sanskrit ' Mahodadhi ' means a " great ocean " ; all are considered sacred bathing spots in the Swargadwar area . These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water .
= = = Gundicha Temple = = =
The Gundicha Temple , known as the Garden House of Jagannatha , stands in the centre of a beautiful garden , bounded by compound walls on all sides . It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the northeast of the Jagannatha Temple . The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda ( Grand Avenue ) , which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra . According to a legend , Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple .
The temple is built using light @-@ grey sandstone , and , architecturally , it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style . The complex comprises four components : vimana ( tower structure containing the sanctum ) , jagamohana ( assembly hall ) , nata @-@ mandapa ( festival hall ) and bhoga @-@ mandapa ( hall of offerings ) . There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage . The temple is set within a garden , and is known as " God 's Summer Garden Retreat " or garden house of Jagannatha . The entire complex , including the garden , is surrounded by a wall which measures 430 by 320 feet ( 131 m × 98 m ) with height of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) .
Except for the 9 @-@ day Rath Yatra , when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple , otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year . Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee . Foreigners ( generally prohibited entry in the main temple ) are allowed inside this temple during this period . The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration , Puri , the governing body of the main temple . A small band of servitors maintain the temple .
= = = Swargadwar = = =
Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea . Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated . It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back .
= = = Beach = = =
The beach at Puri , known as the " Ballighai beach , at the mouth of Nunai River , is 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees . It has golden yellow sand . Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here . Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide .
= = = District museum = = =
The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath , local sculptures , patachitra ( traditional , cloth @-@ based scroll painting ) , ancient Palm @-@ leaf manuscripts , and local craft work .
= = = Raghunandana library = = =
Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Matha complex ( opposite Simhadwara or lion gate , the main entrance gate ) . The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti ( Jagannatha Historical Centre ) is also located here . The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha , His cult and the history of the city .
= = Festivals of Puri = =
Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year , of which 13 are major . The most important of these is the Rath Yatra , or the car festival , held in the June – July , which is attended by more than 1 million people .
= = = Rath Yatra at Puri = = =
The Jagannatha Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri , but once during the month of Asadha ( rainy season of Orissa , usually in June or July ) , they are brought out on the Bada Danda ( main street of Puri ) and taken over a distance of ( 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) ) to the Shri Gundicha Temple in huge chariots ( ratha ) , allowing the public to have darśana ( holy view ) . This festival is known as the Rath Yatra , meaning the journey ( yatra ) of the chariots . The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day , the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha ( June – July ) .
Historically , the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra on the completion of the Jagannatha Temple around 1150 AD . This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early . Friar Odoric , in his account of 1321 , reported how the people put the " idols " on chariots , and the King , the Queen and all the people drew them from the " church " with song and music .
The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels , which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees . The chariot for Lord Jagannatha is about 45 feet ( 14 m ) high and 35 square feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m2 ) and takes about 2 months for its construction . The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels , each of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) diameter . The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti . On its other three faces , the wooden carvings are of Rama , Surya and Vishnu . The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha . The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth . The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is 44 feet ( 13 m ) in height fitted with 14 wheels . The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer . The carvings on this chariot include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannatha 's companions . The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra , which is 43 feet ( 13 m ) in height supported on 12 wheels , roof covered in black and red colour cloth , and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is Arjuna . Other images carved on the chariot are of Vana Durga , Tara Devi and Chandi Devi . The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels , the wood @-@ carved charioteer and horses , and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne . The chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut . The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra
= = = Chhera Pahara = = =
The Chhera Pahara ( sweeping with water ) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra . During this ritual , the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots . The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold @-@ handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder . As per the custom , although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom , he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha . This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha , there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee .
= = = Chandan Yatra = = =
The Chandan Yatra festival held every year on Akshaya Tritiya day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Rath Yatra . It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year .
= = = Snana Yatra = = =
Every year , on the Purnima day in the Hindu calendar month of Jyestha ( June ) , the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra . Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan ( meaning : " golden well " ) located near the northern gate of the temple . Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities . After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god , Ganesha . Later , during the night , the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi . After this the Jhulana Yatra is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days , cruised over boats in the Narmada tank .
= = = Anavasara or Anasara = = =
Anasara , a derivative of the Sanskrit word " Anabasara " , literally means vacation . Every year after the holy Snana Yatra , the triad images , without the Sudarshana Chakra , are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar ( also known as Anasara pindi , ' pindi ' is Oriya term meaning " platform " ) where they remain for the next fortnight of ( Krishna paksha ) ; devotees are not allowed to view these images . Instead , devotees go to the nearby Brahmagiri to see the Lord in the four @-@ handed form of Alarnath , a depiction of Vishnu . Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Rath Yatra , which is called Navayouvana . It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath , and they are treated by the special servants , the Daitapatis , for 15 days . Daitapatis perform special nitis ( rites ) known as Netrotchhaba ( a rite of painting the eyes of the triad ) . During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities .
= = = Naba Kalebara = = =
Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the Lord Jagannatha that takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa ( extra month ) . This can take place at an interval of 8 , 12 or even 18 years . Literally meaning the " New Body " ( Nava
= New , Kalevar =
Body ) in Odia , the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $ 500 @,@ 000 . The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha . During the Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015 the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood . More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival .
= = = Suna Besha = = =
Suna Besha , ( ' Suna besh 'in Oriya language means “ dressing in gold ” ) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha or Raja Bhesha , is an event when the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are adorned with gold jewelry . This event is observed five times in a year . It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima ( January ) , Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi ( July ) , Dashahara ( Bijayadashami ) ( October ) , Karthik Purnima ( November ) , and Pousa Purnima ( December ) . One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar . The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana ( gem studded altar ) . On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra ; Jagannatha is also adorned with a Chakra ( disc ) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand . Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand .
= = = Niladri Bije = = =
Niladri Bije , celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha ( June – July ) on Trayodashi ( 13th day ) , marks the end of the Ratha Yatra . The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum , swaying rhythmically ; a ritual which is known as pahandi .
= = = Sahi yatra = = =
The Sahi Yatra , considered the world 's biggest open @-@ air theatre , is an annual event lasting 11 days ; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ends on Rama avishke ( Sanskrit meaning : anointing ) . The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayana . The residents of various localities , or Sahis , are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners .
= = = Samudra Arati = = =
The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago . The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha . On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea .
= = Transport = =
Earlier , when roads did not exist , people used to walk or travel by animal @-@ drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri . Travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges up to Calcutta , and then on foot or by carriages . It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak ( Road ) was built around 1790 . The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri , which became operational in 1898 . Puri is now well @-@ connected by rail , road and air services . A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways which connects Puri with Calcutta , and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route . The rail distance is about 499 kilometres ( 310 mi ) from Calcutta and 468 kilometres ( 291 mi ) from Vishakhapatnam . Road network includes NH 203 that links the city with Bhubaneswar , the state capital , situated about 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) away . NH 203 B connects the city with Satapada via Brahmagiri . Marine drive , which is part of NH 203 A , connects Puri with Konark . The nearest airport is the Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar . Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of the Indian Railways .
= = Arts and crafts = =
= = = Sand art = = =
Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri . The art form is attributed to Balaram Das , a poet who lived in the 14th century . Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists . These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves . This art form has gained international fame in recent years . One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is Sudarshan Patnaik . He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 , in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal , to provide training to students interested in this art form .
= = = Appliqué art = = =
Appliqué art , which is a stitching @-@ based craft unlike embroidery , was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of Pipili . It is widely used in Puri , both for decoration of the deities and for sale . Maharana 's family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri . They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies . The appliqué works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies , umbrellas , drapery , carry bags , flags , coverings of dummy horses and cows , and other household textiles ; these are marketed in Puri . The cloth used is made in dark colours of red , black , yellow , green , blue and turquoise blue .
= = Culture = =
Cultural activities , including the annual religious festivals , in Puri are : The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year , and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year . The cultural programmes include unique sand art , display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival . In addition , cultural programmes are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector 's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station . Odissi dance , Odia music and folk dances are part of this event . Odissi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri . This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by Devadasis ( Maharis ) attached to the Jagannatha Temple who performed dances in the Nata mandapa of the temple to please the deities . Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued , the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular ; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus ( teachers ) are from Puri . Some of the famous Odissi dancers are Kelucharan Mohapatra , Mayadhar Raut , Sonal Mansingh , Sanjukta Panigrahi and many more .
= = Education = =
Some of the educational institutions in Puri are :
Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management
Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College , established in 1981
Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy , Puri , under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy ( CCRH ) , New Delhi ; established in March 2006
Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University , established in July 1981
Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya , a college and hospital where treatment and training is based on Ayurveda school of medicine
The Industrial Training Institute , a premier technical institution to provide education to skilled , committed & talented technicians was established in 1966 by the Government of India
= = Puri people = =
Gopabandhu Das – Social worker
Nilakantha Das – Social activist
Kelucharan Mohapatra – Odissi dancer
Pankaj Charan Das – Dancer
Manasi Pradhan – Writer and activist
Raghunath Mohapatra – Architect and sculptor
Baisali Mohanty - ALC Global Fellow at University of Oxford , United Kingdom
Sudarshan Patnaik – Sand artist
Rituraj Mohanty – Singer
= Megan Rapinoe =
Megan Anna Rapinoe ( / rəˈpiːnoʊ / ) ; born July 5 , 1985 , is an American professional soccer midfielder / winger who plays for Seattle Reign FC in the National Women 's Soccer League . As a member of the United States women 's national soccer team , she helped the U.S. win gold at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup and 2012 London Olympics , and silver at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup .
Rapinoe is internationally known for her crafty style of play and her precise cross to Abby Wambach in the 122nd minute of the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup quarterfinals against Brazil , which resulted in an equalizer goal and eventual win for the Americans after a penalty kick shootout . During the 2012 London Olympics , she scored three goals and tallied a team @-@ high four assists to lead the United States to a gold medal . She is the first player , male or female , to score a Goal Olimpico at the Olympic Games .
Rapinoe is an advocate for numerous LGBT organizations , including the Gay , Lesbian & Straight Education Network ( GLSEN ) and Athlete Ally . In 2013 , she was awarded the Board of Directors Award by the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center . She is sponsored by Nike , Samsung and DJO Global , and has appeared in multiple promotional pieces for clothing company Wildfang , as well as for Nike . She previously played for the Chicago Red Stars , Philadelphia Independence and magicJack in Women 's Professional Soccer ( WPS ) as well as Olympique Lyonnais in France 's Division 1 Féminine .
= = Early life = =
Rapinoe grew up in Redding , California , with her parents , Jim and Denise , and five siblings , including her fraternal twin , Rachael . She spent most of her youth playing with teams coached by her father until high school . Instead of playing soccer at Foothill High School , Rapinoe played for the Elk Grove Pride club team , located south of Sacramento . She competed in track as a freshman and sophomore ; basketball as a freshman , sophomore , and senior ; and was on the honor roll every semester of high school . Rapinoe was named Parade and National Soccer Coaches Association of America ( NSCAA ) All @-@ American as a junior and senior . She was named to McDonald 's All @-@ American Game in 2004 . Rapinoe played for the under @-@ 14 Northern California state Olympic Development Program ( ODP ) team in 1999 as well as the regional ODP team in 2002 .
= = = Elk Grove United , 2002 – 05 = = =
From 2002 to 2005 , Rapinoe played for Elk Grove Pride in the Women 's Premier Soccer League ( WPSL ) along with her twin sister , Rachael , and future national teammate , Stephanie Cox . She and her family commuted two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours from her hometown to play with the team . During the US Youth Soccer National Championships , she scored an equalizer goal in the 18th minute to tie the game 1 – 1 against the Peachtree City Lazers . Elk Grove United finished second at the nationals after the Lazers scored a game @-@ winning goal in the second half .
= = = University of Portland Pilots , 2005 – 08 = = =
Rapinoe and her sister both attended the University of Portland in Portland , Oregon . The Rapinoe twins almost committed to Santa Clara University before choosing to play for the Portland Pilots on full scholarships . In 2004 , Rapinoe did not play college soccer in what would have been her freshman season in order to play in the 2004 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship where the United States placed third .
In 2005 as a freshman , Rapinoe helped the Pilots to an undefeated season and the NCAA Division I Women 's Soccer Championship . During the College Cup quarterfinal against Notre Dame , she scored twice and served one assist helping the Pilots win 3 – 1 and advance to the College Cup . During the College Cup final against UCLA , she scored one goal and served an assist helping the Pilots win 4 – 0 . She was named NSCAA First Team All @-@ American and was on the Soccer America First Team Freshman All @-@ America . Rapinoe made the NCAA Women 's Soccer Championship All Tournament Team and was the West Coast Conference Freshman of the Year . She was also named to the All @-@ West Coast Conference First Team and the All @-@ West Coast Conference Freshman Team . Rapinoe played and started all 25 games as an attacking midfielder , scoring 15 goals and adding 13 assists for 43 points – ranking fifth for freshman point totals in the school 's history . That year , she also scored seven game @-@ winning goals .
As a sophomore in 2006 , Rapinoe was among the nation 's leading scorers with ten goals and two assists in eleven matches . During a match against Washington State University on October 5 , she suffered her first season @-@ ending anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) injury . Despite her injury , she was one of three Portland players in the program 's history , including Tiffeny Milbrett and Shannon MacMillan , to score 25 goals and 15 assists in 2 seasons . In 2007 , Rapinoe suffered her second season @-@ ending ACL injury two games into the season . She was granted a medical hardship waiver by the NCAA , but did not use it .
After taking her time to recover from her second ACL injury , Rapinoe returned for the 2008 season and was on the starting lineup in all 22 games for the Pilots . She helped the team secure a 20 – 2 record scoring five goals and serving 13 assists . Her 13 assists ranked first for the Pilots as well as in the West Coast Conference and she was named West Coast Conference Player of the Year . She was also named a Soccer America First @-@ Team All @-@ American and NSCAA Second Team All @-@ American . Although she had one more season of college eligibility remaining due to her NCAA medical hardship waiver , she opted to enter the Women 's Professional Soccer Draft instead . Rapinoe 's 88 @-@ point career , including 30 goals and 28 assists , ranks tenth in the school 's history despite her playing only 60 games .
= = Club career = =
= = = Women 's Professional Soccer ( WPS ) , 2009 – 11 = = =
Rapinoe was selected second overall in the 2009 WPS Draft by the Chicago Red Stars for the inaugural season of Women 's Professional Soccer ( WPS ) , the highest division of soccer in the United States at the time . She was on the starting lineup in 17 of the 18 games in which she appeared for the Red Stars for a total of 1 @,@ 375 minutes on the pitch . Rapinoe scored two goals and assisted on three others . In August 2009 , she was named to the league 's All @-@ Star Team and played in the 2009 WPS All @-@ Star Game against Swedish Damallsvenskan champions Umeå IK . In 2010 , she started in 19 of the 20 games in which she appeared for the Red Stars . She scored one goal .
In December 2010 , Rapinoe signed with expansion team Philadelphia Independence after the Chicago Red Stars ceased operations . She appeared in four games and scored one goal before being traded to magicJack ( formerly Washington Freedom ) while she was in Germany for the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup . It was reported that the " cash considerations " involved in the transfer were $ 100 @,@ 000 . The average salary for a female player in the league was $ 25 @,@ 000 . Rapinoe scored two goals in her eight regular season appearances for magicJack helping the team finish third in the league standings and secure a spot in the playoffs . During the team 's semifinal match against the Boston Breakers on August 17 , 2011 , Rapinoe scored in the 61st minute solidifying the team 's 3 – 1 win and advancement to the championship final. magicJack was later defeated 2 – 0 by the Philadelphia Independence in the final . On October 25 , 2011 , the WPS voted to terminate the magicJack franchise , leaving Rapinoe and many other players as free agents for the 2012 season . The league suspended operations in early 2012 .
= = = Sydney FC and Seattle Sounders Women , 2011 – 12 = = =
In October 2011 , Rapinoe signed with Australian W @-@ League team Sydney FC as a guest player for two games . In her second game against Melbourne Victory , she scored with seven minutes remaining to seal three points for Sydney . The win was the first for Sydney during the 2011 – 12 season . Sydney FC went on to finish third in the regular season and advanced to the playoffs where they were defeated by Brisbane Roar in penalty kicks .
During the summer of 2012 , Rapinoe joined fellow national team members Hope Solo , Sydney Leroux , Alex Morgan and Stephanie Cox to play with the Seattle Sounders Women in between camps with the national team as they prepared for the 2012 Summer Olympics . Of the signing , Sounders head coach Michelle French said , " Stemming from her leadership and success at the University of Portland , Megan has continued to evolve and grow into one of the most exciting , unpredictable , creative , and flashy players in the women 's game . " Rapinoe made two appearances during the regular season with the team , serving two assists . With Rapinoe and her national teammates ' presence on the team , the Sounders sold out nine of their ten home matches at the 4 @,@ 500 capacity Starfire Stadium . Average attendance during the 2012 season for the Sounders Women was four times higher than the next closest team .
= = = Olympique Lyonnais , 2013 – 14 = = =
In January 2013 , Rapinoe signed for six months with Olympique Lyonnais , the French side that had previously won six consecutive French league championships and two straight European titles , for a reported 11 @,@ 000 euros ( or approximately $ 14 @,@ 000 ) a month . Rapinoe played in six regular season matches for the team , scoring two goals primarily playing as a left winger in the squad 's 4 – 3 – 3 formation .
Rapinoe made her UEFA Women 's Champions League debut during the first leg of the 2012 – 13 quarterfinal against FC Malmö on March 20 , 2013 . She scored one goal during her 24 minutes on the pitch contributing to Lyon 's 5 – 0 final victory . She later scored a goal and served an assist during Lyon 's 6 – 1 win over FCF Juvisy in the second leg of the semifinals . Rapinoe became the fifth American woman in history to play in a Champions League final when Lyon faced German side VfL Wolfsburg on May 23 , 2013 . Lyon was defeated 1 – 0 in the final . Rapinoe concluded her Champions League debut having made five appearances , scoring two goals and serving one assist .
After returning to Lyon for the 2013 – 14 season , Rapinoe scored three goals in her eight appearances for the club . During the 2013 – 14 Champions League , she made four appearances for Lyon and scored one goal during the team 's 6 – 0 defeat of FC Twente . Lyon was eliminated in the Round of 16 . In January 2014 , it was announced that Rapinoe had ended her time with Lyon earlier than planned and would be returning to the Seattle Reign for the entire 2014 season . She finished her time with Lyon having scored 8 goals in 28 matches in all competitions .
= = = Seattle Reign FC , 2013 – present = = =
In 2013 , Rapinoe joined Seattle Reign FC to which she had been previously allocated in the National Women 's Soccer League . Before Rapinoe joined the squad , the team had been struggling to score goals and were 0 – 9 – 1 in ten games . With the addition of Rapinoe , her national team and former Seattle Sounders Women teammate , Hope Solo , and some lineup changes to the front line , the Reign improved their goal @-@ scoring ability and turned their league record around . During a match against her former team in the WPS , the Chicago Red Stars , Rapinoe played a direct role in all of Seattle 's four goals – leading the team to a 4 – 1 win over Chicago . After scoring two goals and serving one assist during the match , she was named NWSL Player of the Week for Week 16 for the 2013 NWSL season . Despite only playing approximately half of the season ( 12 out of 22 regular season games ) , Rapinoe was the Reign 's leading scorer with five goals .
After suffering a foot injury during the first home match of the 2014 season on April 14 , Rapinoe sat out several games and made her second season appearance on July 3 against Western New York Flash . Her four goals and one assist during the regular season helped the Reign secure the league 's regular season title ( NWSL Shield ) with a 16 @-@ 2 @-@ 6 record and 54 points - 13 points ahead of the second place team , FC Kansas City . During the team 's playoff semi @-@ final match against Washington Spirit , Rapinoe scored a goal helping the Reign win 2 – 1 and advance to the championship final against FC Kansas City . Despite Rapinoe 's goal during the championship final , the Reign was ultimately defeated by Kansas City 2 – 1 .
Rapinoe returned to the Reign for the 2015 season . During the team 's first match against Western New York Flash , she scored her first professional hat trick and served an assist to Jess Fishlock to help the Reign defeat the Flash 5 – 1 . She was subsequently named the league 's NWSL Player of the Week for week 1 of the season .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth national teams = = =
Rapinoe played for the United States under @-@ 16 national soccer team in 2002 and traveled with the team to France and Houston , Texas . She also played at the United States Youth Soccer Association International Tournament in Houston in May 2003 .
From 2003 to 2005 , Rapinoe played for the United States under @-@ 19 team . She made 21 appearances and scored nine goals . Her first camp with the under @-@ 19 team occurred in January 2003 in Chula Vista , California . She traveled with the team during a European tour to the Netherlands and Germany in July 2003 . She scored her first goal with the team against Mexico on March 1 , 2003 . Rapinoe played in three matches at the 2004 CONCACAF Under @-@ 19 qualifying tournament , scoring three goals . During the 2004 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship in Thailand she scored a team @-@ high three goals , including one in the third place match victory against Brazil .
= = = Senior national team = = =
= = = = National team debut and injury recovery , 2006 – 09 = = = =
Rapinoe trained with the United States women 's national soccer team for the first time during the team 's 2006 Residency Training Camp in Carson , California . She made her debut for the senior team on July 23 , 2006 , during a friendly match against Ireland . She scored her first two goals on October 1 , 2006 , during a friendly match against Taiwan .
Due to two separate ACL injuries , Rapinoe did not play for the senior team in 2007 or 2008 and subsequently missed the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup and the 2008 Beijing Olympics . Upon her return to the team in 2009 , she led the team in points with five , including two goals and one assist . She was on the starting lineup in six of the seven games in which she played the same year .
During the 2009 Algarve Cup , Rapinoe scored the game @-@ winning goal against Norway leading the team to a 1 – 0 victory during the team 's third group stage match of the tournament . After the U.S. finished at the top of their group , they were defeated during a penalty kick shoutout by Sweden in the championship final .
= = = = 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = = =
In 2010 , Rapinoe started eight of the ten games she played and scored four goals with two assists . Rapinoe scored against Sweden and China and twice against Guatemala at the 2010 CONCACAF Women 's World Cup Qualifying Tournament , in which she played three games . After the United States finished third at the tournament , they traveled to Italy to vie for a place at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup in the UEFA @-@ CONCACAF play @-@ off against Italy . During the team 's second match of the series , Rapinoe served the assist for Amy Rodriguez 's game @-@ winning goal helping the United States earn a berth to the 2011 World Cup .
Rapinoe was named to the United States roster for the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup . During the team 's second group stage match against Colombia , she entered the match during the 50th minute and scored almost immediately to put the United States up 2 – 0 . Rapinoe celebrated her goal by running to the corner to the left of Colombia 's goal , picking up an on @-@ field microphone being used for the match 's television broadcast , tapping it , and singing Bruce Springsteen 's " Born in the U.S.A. " into it .
During the quarterfinal match against Brazil , Rapinoe came on as a substitute and served the precise cross to Abby Wambach 's equalizer goal in the 122nd minute of the game : a goal that holds the record for latest goal ever scored in a World Cup match . Rapinoe would later convert her shot during the penalty shootout to help send the United States to the semifinals . Rapinoe described her last minute cross against Brazil : " I just took a touch and friggin ' smacked it with my left foot . I don 't think I 've hit a ball like that with my left foot . I got it to the back post and that beast in the air just got a hold of it . "
Following the match against Brazil , Rapinoe was named ESPN 's Next Level Player of the Week for completing 5 of 10 crosses while the rest of the team was 0 for 18 . She served an assist in the semifinal against France in which the United States won 3 – 1 . During the dramatic final match against Japan in front of 48 @,@ 817 spectators at sold @-@ out Commerzbank @-@ Arena in Frankfurt and a record @-@ breaking international television audience , Rapinoe served her third assist of the tournament to Alex Morgan who scored the game @-@ opening goal in the 69th minute . The United States tied Japan 2 – 2 during regular and overtime leading to their second penalty kick shootout of the tournament . They were defeated 3 – 1 in penalties and concluded the tournament with a silver medal . Rapinoe 's tournament record included one goal and three assists . She played in all six games for the United States .
= = = = 2012 London Olympics = = = =
Rapinoe helped lead the United States to a gold medal at the 2012 Olympic Games in London . During the team 's second group stage match against Colombia , she scored the game @-@ winning goal in the 33rd minute in what became a 3 – 0 win for the Americans . After the U.S. defeated North Korea 1 – 0 in their final group stage match , they faced New Zealand in the quarterfinals and won 2 – 0 .
During a dramatic semifinal match against Canada at Old Trafford , Rapinoe scored two game @-@ equalizing goals in the 54th and 70th minutes . Her first goal was a rare Goal Olimpico – a corner kick that goes untouched by another player into the net . She is the first and so far only player , male or female , to score an Olimpico at the Olympic Games . The U.S. defeated Canada 4 – 3 with a stoppage time goal in the 123rd minute by Alex Morgan . With her two goals , Rapinoe is one of only five players , including Wei Haiying , Cristiane , Angela Hucles and Christine Sinclair , to have scored two goals during an Olympic semifinal .
The U.S. clinched the gold medal after defeating Japan 2 – 1 at Wembley Stadium in front of 80 @,@ 203 spectators – the largest crowd ever for a women 's Olympic soccer game . Rapinoe assisted on Carli Lloyd 's second goal of the final in the 53rd minute . She ended the tournament with three goals and a team @-@ high of four assists ( tied with Alex Morgan ) . Widely regarded as one of the top players of the Olympics , Rapinoe was named to numerous ' Team of the Tournament ' lists including those selected by the BBC and All White Kit .
Rapinoe had a career @-@ high 8 goals and 12 assists for the United States throughout all of 2012 .
= = = = 2013 – 14 = = = =
At the 2013 Algarve Cup in Portugal , Rapinoe was named the Player of the Tournament , despite playing in only two of the four matches in which the United States competed . She was injured in practice and did not play during the final as the team defeated Germany to win the 2013 Algarve Cup .
During a friendly match against South Korea on June 20 , 2013 , Rapinoe served a corner kick that ended up being the assist for Abby Wambach 's record @-@ breaking 159th international goal . Wambach 's goal broke the world record for most international goals scored by a male or female . During a friendly match against New Zealand at Candlestick Park in San Francisco , California , Rapinoe scored the game @-@ opening goal on a direct free kick ( her 23rd international goal ) to help the U.S. win 4 – 1 and was named Player of the Match .
= = = = 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = = =
In April 2015 , Rapinoe was named to the roster for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Canada coached by national team head coach Jill Ellis . During the team 's first group stage match against Australia , she scored the game opening goal in the 12th minute . She also scored a second goal in the 78th minute . With an additional goal scored by teammate Christen Press in the 61st minute , the United States won 3 – 1 .
During training for a Victory Tour match to celebrate the team 's world cup win in late 2015 , Rapinoe tore her ACL .
= = = International summary = = =
Updated through 2015 @-@ 01 @-@ 03
= = = International goals = = =
= = Honors and awards = =
Following the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Rapinoe 's hometown of Redding honored her with a parade and named September 10 " Megan Rapinoe Day . " She received the Harry Glickman Professional Female Athlete of the Year award at the 60th annual Oregon Sports Awards held on February 12 , 2012 . On October 25 , 2012 , she was one of ten female soccer players shortlisted for the FIFA World Player of the Year award . The same year , she was named a finalist for Sports Illustrated 's Most Inspiring Performers of 2012 . Rapinoe was awarded the Board of Directors Award by the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center on November 10 , 2012 , for bringing awareness to LGBT people in sports .
In March 2013 , Rapinoe was named Player of the Tournament at the 2013 Algarve Cup which the U.S. won . She tallied a goal and assist in two games played . After scoring two goals and serving one assist during a 4 – 1 win over the Chicago Red Stars on July 25 , 2013 , she was named NWSL Player of the Week by the media for Week 16 of the 2013 NWSL season .
In December 2014 , Rapinoe was inducted into the Shasta County Sports Hall Of Fame along with several other athletes from Shasta County including Ryan O 'Callaghan and Ricky Ray .
In 2015 , she was inducted into the National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame .
Also in 2015 , she was named NWSL Player of the Week for Week 2 of the 2015 NWSL season .
= = Personal life = =
On July 2 , 2012 , Rapinoe came out as lesbian in an interview with Out magazine , in which she revealed that she had been in a relationship with Australian football player Sarah Walsh since 2009 . After approximately five years together , Rapinoe and Walsh ended their relationship in 2013 . Rapinoe has since been dating Sub Pop recording artist Sera Cahoone . Rapinoe and Cahoone announced their engagement in August 2015 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Rapinoe has done philanthropic work for the Gay , Lesbian & Straight Education Network ( GLSEN ) and the United States Olympic Committee . In 2013 , she became an ambassador for Athlete Ally , a nonprofit organization that focuses on ending homophobia and transphobia in sports .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Rapinoe has signed endorsement deals with Nike and Samsung . She has appeared in multiple commercials for Nike . In 2013 , she appeared in advertisements for the clothing company , Wildfang and began a partnership with medical device company , DJO Global .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Print media = = =
Rapinoe was featured on the cover of the March 2013 edition of Curve . She was profiled in August 6 , 2012 , edition of Sports Illustrated and the July 2012 edition of Out . The April 11 , 2013 , edition of The New York Times featured an article about her experiences in France , with the national team , and coming out publicly before the 2012 Olympics . In July 2014 , she was featured in the ESPN 's The Body Issue .
= = = Television and film = = =
Rapinoe has made appearances on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , The Today Show , The Rachel Maddow Show and Good Morning America . In 2012 , she appeared in an ESPN feature called Title IX is Mine : USWNT . She was the focus of a Fox Soccer feature entitled , Fox Soccer Exclusive : Megan Rapinoe in November 2012 .
= = = Video Games = = =
Rapinoe was featured along with her national teammates in the EA Sports ' FIFA video game series starting in FIFA 16 , the first time women players were included in the game . In September 2015 , she was ranked by EA Sports as the # 2 women 's player following teammate Carli Lloyd .
= = = Ticker Tape Parade , White House Honor , and Corn Maze = = =
Following the United States ' win at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Rapinoe and her teammates became the first women 's sports team to be honored with a Ticker Tape Parade in New York City . Each player received a key to the city from Mayor Bill de Blasio . In October of the same year , the team was honored by President Barack Obama at the White House and the president made note of the Northern California farm that had built a corn maze in the shape of Rapinoe 's face .
= Preston railway station =
Preston railway station serves the city of Preston in Lancashire , England , and is a major station on the West Coast Main Line , and is the notional half @-@ way point on the WCML between London Euston and Glasgow Central 194 miles from Glasgow Central and 206 from London Euston although ( the actual half @-@ way point is at Leyland , approximately 6 miles south ) . It is served by Northern , Virgin Trains , and TransPennine Express services , plus Caledonian Sleeper overnight services between London and Scotland .
A station was first opened on this site by the North Union Railway in 1838 . It was extended in 1850 with new platforms under the separate management of the East Lancashire Railway , and by 1863 , London – Scotland trains stopped here to allow passengers to eat in the station dining room . The current station was built 1880 and extended in 1903 and 1913 , when it had fifteen platforms . A free buffet for servicemen was provided during both World Wars . The " East Lancashire " platforms were demolished in the 1970s as connecting lines closed . Only eight platforms remain in regular use today .
As well as intercity trains to London , Birmingham , Manchester , Glasgow and Edinburgh , the station is served by local trains to most parts of Lancashire , and parts of Cumbria , Greater Manchester , Merseyside and Yorkshire .
= = Station layout and amenities = =
The main entrance to the station is at the bottom of the station approach , a ramp off the bridge that carries Fishergate over the railway . The ticket office exists within the small concourse . This concourse gives direct access , down the ramp , to the intercity platforms 3 and 4 . There are footbridges on either side of this ramp to all other platforms . The eastern footbridge ends at an alternative entrance to the station on Butler Street , giving closer access to Preston city centre and the station car park . There also exists a subway which provides step @-@ free access to all eight platforms in use at the station and with platform 7 , at
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the south end of which is another entrance serving the station car park .
The island forming platforms 3 and 4 is a very wide island platform with a long series of buildings . Inside these buildings are services and amenities including a newsagent and several food outlets including a licensed restaurant . There are also toilets and a large waiting room . A small travel centre on platform 3 , near the ramp , is operated by Virgin Trains staff to give information for passengers on the platform . In addition to these main amenities , there is a small coffee shop outlet on platform 4 , as well as an additional shop on platforms 1 and 2 .
Passenger information systems were updated during 2007 and now use dot matrix display screens . Preston retains a manual tannoy system , a rarity amongst the larger stations in the UK . In 2009 the station was identified as one of the ten worst category B interchange stations for mystery shopper assessment of fabric and environment , and was set to receive a share of £ 50m funding for improvements prior to a public spending review initiated in 2010 .
= = Services = =
There are currently six through and two bay platforms in use at Preston , with two more available for emergency use . All lines are electrified , allowing any train to use any platform .
= = = Northern = = =
4tph to Blackpool North
6tpd to Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness
2tpd to Windermere
1tph to Liverpool South Parkway
2tph to York
1tph to Colne
1tph to Manchester Airport
1tph to Manchester Victoria
1tph to Hazel Grove
1tph to Ormskirk
= = = TransPennine Express = = =
1tph to Manchester Airport
1tph to Glasgow Central or Edinburgh Waverley ( Alternates )
= = = Virgin Trains = = =
2tph to London Euston
1tph to Glasgow Central
1 train every 2 hours to Edinburgh Waverley
Serco operate their " Highland " Caledonian Sleeper service with a call at Preston to and from the Scottish Highlands . They are the only services through the station not operated by the three companies listed above . London Midland 's single evening peak service from Birmingham New Street no longer operates , having been withdrawn at the end of the 2007 @-@ 08 timetable .
Great North Western Railway has been given permission to run 6 trains a day from London to Blackpool North from 2018 , which will call at Preston . The London terminus will be either Euston or Queen 's Park , depending on network capacity during planned infrastructural work to the West Coast Mainline . Additional intermediate stations at which the service will stop are also dependent upon future capacity .
= = History = =
In coaching days , Preston was an important centre for both passenger and postal traffic . This importance continued into the railway age , both as a major junction and as a stopping point about half way between London and Glasgow .
= = = Preston ’ s railways = = =
The first rail lines in Preston were those of the Lancaster Canal Tramroad , a horse @-@ drawn line connecting two parts of the Lancaster Canal . It opened in 1805 , but never carried passengers and never converted to steam . It ceased operating in Preston in 1862 .
The first steam @-@ hauled passenger railway in Preston was the North Union Railway ( NUR ) . On 31 October 1838 it opened its line from Wigan to a station on the site of the present @-@ day Preston Station . This immediately linked the town to London , Birmingham , Liverpool and Manchester .
Each subsequent line was built by a different company . Rivalry often prevented any cooperation over shared facilities , and so almost every railway line into Preston used its own station . It was not until 1900 that all lines in Preston shared a single station , by which time all the companies had been taken over by one or both of just two companies .
The second passenger railway into Preston was the Preston and Longridge Railway , which opened as another horse @-@ drawn tramway on 1 May 1840 , to a terminus in Deepdale Street . It converted to steam in 1848 , but did not run its trains into the North Union station until 1885 .
The Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway ( L & PJR ) was the third line , which opened on 25 June 1840 , initially using the North Union station . However , relations between the NUR and L & PJR soured , and , from 1 January 1842 , most L & PJR trains used , instead , Maxwell House railway station , a short distance to the north of the North Union station . A few trains passed through , but the NUR charged a toll of 6d per passenger . Most passengers refused to pay , preferring to alight at Maxwell House and walk the 200 yards ( 200 m ) to the North Union station , but the NUR refused to hold the train to allow passengers to walk and rebook . The NUR advised northbound passengers to travel by the Lancaster Canal rather than the L & PJR . On 1 January 1844 , Maxwell House station came into the possession of the NUR , and lack of agreement led to several weeks when hapless L & PJR passengers had to alight on the trackside at nearby Dock Street ( off Pitt Street ) . Lancaster trains were able to use the North Union station from 12 February .
Preston ’ s fourth railway was the Preston and Wyre Joint Railway to Fleetwood , opening , just a few weeks after the L & PJR , on 16 July 1840 , to its own terminus at Maudlands in Leighton Street . After 12 February 1844 , regular Preston and Wyre trains used the North Union station , along with the L & PJR , although Maudlands Station continued to be used for excursions for some decades .
The fifth company to run trains into Preston was the Bolton and Preston Railway ( BPR ) , from 22 June 1843 . Its line joined the North Union ’ s at Euxton , 5 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 9 km ) south of Preston , but the company used Maxwell House station instead of the North Union ’ s . However , the NUR charged 1s per passenger to BPR trains over its tracks , and eventually the BPR resorted to ferrying its passengers by road between Euxton and Preston . The BPR was driven into submission and was taken over by the NUR from 1 January 1844 .
The sixth line into Preston was that of the Preston and Blackburn Railway , which opened on 1 June 1846 , joining the North Union line immediately south of Farrington Station ( respelt “ Farington ” from October 1857 ) . The railway company was absorbed into the East Lancashire Railway ( ELR ) on 3 August 1846 . Once again , the NUR charged high tolls for the use of its line which led the ELR to build its own line into Preston . The line was initially opposed by Preston Corporation , but was eventually permitted on condition that the embankment north of the Ribble ( which later became the dividing line between Avenham and Miller Parks ) be ornamentally laid out , and that a pedestrian path ( still in use today ) be provided on the river bridge . The line ran into new platforms built on the east side of the North Union station , which were managed and staffed by the ELR , and which had their own booking hall and entrance in Butler Street . The new platforms were effectively a separate station . The new line and station opened on 2 September 1850 .
The seventh line in Preston was the North Union ’ s own Victoria Quay Branch to Victoria Quay on the River Ribble ( later extended to Preston Docks in 1882 and which now connects to the heritage Ribble Steam Railway ) . The single @-@ track goods line opened in October 1846 from a south @-@ facing junction immediately south of Preston Station , through a tight curve into a tunnel with a gradient of 1 in 29 , emerging north of Fishergate Hill near the riverside .
The eighth line to Preston was the Liverpool , Ormskirk and Preston Railway , owned by the ELR and connected to its Blackburn line into Preston . It opened on 2 April 1849 . From 1891 , its trains used a new curve at Farington to enter Preston via the North Union line .
The ninth and final line into Preston was the West Lancashire Railway ( WLR ) from Southport . The railway arrived in Preston on 16 September 1882 , by which time all the town ’ s other lines were owned by the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) or the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( LYR ) , or jointly by both . The independent WLR built its own Fishergate Hill station . It also built a connecting line to the former ELR ( then LYR ) line , via which the majority of Southport @-@ to @-@ Preston trains continued to Blackburn . The railway was not a success , and on 1 July 1897 it was taken over by the LYR . This resulted in the diversion of all passenger services to use the East Lancashire platforms of Preston Station from 16 July 1900 .
The network of lines south of Preston allowed great flexibility in the routing of trains . A train approaching the town on any of the lines from the south ( except the WLR from Southport ) could be routed to enter the station via either the North Union or the East Lancashire line . It was even possible for trains from the north to perform an effective U @-@ turn , a feat sometimes carried out by trains between Scotland and Blackpool that would otherwise have had to reverse .
= = = Station development = = =
When the station was first opened in 1838 by the North Union Railway , the line north of the station passed through a tunnel under the west end of Fishergate ( then Preston ’ s major thoroughfare ) . It was on a slope so steep that sometimes station staff had to push trains out of the station . By 1846 , the station was already very busy , handling trains from Wigan and the south , Bolton , Fleetwood , Blackpool , Lancaster and the north , and Blackburn . There were no footbridges ; passengers had to cross the lines escorted by station staff . North of the station was a network of goods lines around the end of the Lancaster Canal . The coal yards and sidings here continued to operate long after the canal had fallen into commercial disuse .
The station ’ s first expansion came in 1850 when the new East Lancashire line used new platforms staffed and managed by the East Lancashire Railway , with their own entrance and booking office in Butler Street . From 1863 , trains between London and Scotland , having no dining cars , were scheduled to allow 20 minutes at Preston for passengers to eat in the station ’ s dining room . The pressure on catering staff was increased when northbound and southbound trains would often arrive about the same time . The condition of the station deteriorated to the extent that on 18 August 1866 part of the roof on the East Lancashire side collapsed injuring three people , one seriously . By then , 150 trains a day passed through the station .
Eventually the station was rebuilt , at a cost of a quarter of a million pounds , reopening in July 1880 , and with seven through platforms and four bay platforms . At this time , both the Ribble bridge and the line as far as Euxton , were widened from two tracks to four . A striking feature of the new station was its long and wide central island platform , 1 @,@ 225 feet ( 373 m ) long and 110 feet ( 34 m ) wide . It was larger than any of the London terminal station platforms , the longest being Kings Cross at 990 feet ( 302 m ) . Along the centre of the platform were refreshment rooms , offices , and waiting rooms . A booking hall at the north end of the station was accessed from the middle of a new bridge carrying Fishergate over the railway . A broad ramp led down to the main island platform , with footbridges to smaller platforms on either side . Further south , the platforms were also linked by a passenger subway and a separate subway for luggage , accessed via hoists . At the south end of the main platform , a footbridge led to the nearby Park Hotel , a joint LYR / LNWR property , opened in 1883 .
On 30 January 1877 a heavy storm blew the roof completely away from the station , but a more serious accident occurred on 13 July 1896 when a Euston to Glasgow train passed through the station at an estimated 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) , despite a 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) speed limit . It was derailed on a tight curve at the north end of the station , killing one person . As a result of this , the tracks were realigned . Charles Street , to the west of the station , was demolished , as were more houses northwest of the station . Fishergate bridge was extended on its west side . This allowed more tracks and platforms to be built on the west side of the station , with gentler curves . The Ribble bridge was widened again , from four to six tracks . These enlargements were completed by 1903 . The east side of the station was also extended in 1913 .
By 1926 , the lines and platforms were used as follows , from west to east :
Southwest of the station was Christian Road Goods Station ( previously known as Charles Street Goods Station before 1903 ) .
Next was the single @-@ track goods line that curved west to enter the tunnel to the docks .
North of the tunnel was a goods loading platform , added in 1903 .
Then were two through lines for non @-@ stop traffic , added in 1903 .
Platforms 1 and 2 formed a large island platform , added in 1903 , with station buildings , handling through traffic to and from Blackpool . Platform 2 was also used as a terminal platform for Longridge trains , and as a reversal platform for trains between Lancaster and Blackpool .
Between platforms 2 and 3 was a centre line used as a run @-@ around loop .
Platforms 3 and 4 formed a narrow island platform without buildings . Platform 3 was used for terminal and reversal trains , as Platform 2 . Platform 4 was a loop platform for Platform 5 .
Platforms 5 and 6 formed the main , wide island platform , with a full set of buildings along its centre . The platforms were used mainly for West Coast Main Line services , northbound and southbound respectively . At the south end were two bay platforms , between platforms 5 and 6 , used for short trains and goods vans .
Platforms 7 and 8 formed another narrow island platform , somewhat shorter than the other platforms . Platform 7 was a loop platform for Platform 6 . Platform 8 was the northbound East Lancashire through platform .
Platform 9 was the main southbound East Lancashire through platform , containing more buildings and linked to the Butler Street station entrance .
Platform 10 was added in 1913 , as another southbound East Lancashire through platform , which trains accessed via a short tunnel underneath a rebuilt Butler Street entrance .
Platform 11 was a bay platform , set back at the south end of Platform 9 , and curving sharply to the east .
Platforms 12 and 13 were bay platforms , between Platforms 11 and 10 , also curving east . All three bay platforms were for terminating services to and from Southport , Blackburn and Liverpool via Ormskirk . Platform 13 was added in 1913 .
To the east of the station was Butler Street Goods Station , with a large number of sidings and two warehouses .
Later , platforms 11 , 12 , 13 and 10 were renumbered into the more logical sequence 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 .
= = = Contraction = = =
A number of lines around Preston have closed , including the Longridge line in 1930 and the West Lancashire line in 1964 . The old island platforms one and two were closed in 1970 together with the goods lines to the west of the station , but it was then extended northwards to allow platform two to become a dedicated parcels platform . The line towards Liverpool was truncated and singled in summer 1970 , with Preston services terminating at Ormskirk . This was followed by the closure of the East Lancashire line , between Preston and Bamber Bridge , via its original direct route , in April 1972 . The East Lancashire platforms 10 to 13 were demolished , along with the Butler Street Goods Yard . Their site is now covered by car parks for the station and the adjacent Fishergate Shopping Centre , which was built in the 1980s , partly over the north end of the former goods yard . The remaining platforms 3 to 9 were renumbered 1 to 7 .
Some of the station 's heritage can still be seen :
At the far north end of platform 4 are the remains of the Ladywell Sidings , most of which was swept away by the ring road built in the 1990s .
At the north end of platform 3 , a disused bay platform can be seen . It follows the original alignment of the main platform before the 1903 expansion .
There is a tunnel between platforms 3 and 4 , under the station approach . Locomotives and trains are occasionally stored there .
At the north of platform 7 is the blocked up remains of the tunnel which took the platform 13 ( originally number 10 ) through @-@ line from the north , under the Butler Street entrance .
At the southern end of platform 7 , the platform edge curves away to the east but the line now turns westward to join the main line .
The former platforms 1 and 2 are also still in existence , but closed to passengers , and was used for Royal Mail Parcelforce services until recently . Old platform 1 and the lines to its west have been broken to form two bay platforms . Network Rail has its offices here .
= = = Special features = = =
A free buffet for servicemen was provided at the station during both World Wars . The Preston Station Free Buffet Association served free hot drinks , biscuits and buns and sold sandwiches at cost price to anyone in uniform 24 hours a day for the duration of the First World War . Four hundred women working 12 @-@ hour shifts served over 3 million men between 1915 and 1919 . 12 million cups of tea were served between 1939 and 1945 . It was funded by subscription and had its own marked crockery . The station was on a major north @-@ south route for troops . There are three commemorative plaques related to the First World War buffet in the waiting room on platforms 3 and 4 , the former site of WWI buffet . One of the drama segments of the televised Preston Passion of 2012 was set in the First World War servicemen 's buffet . The Second World War buffet was located in the southern building further down platforms 5 & 6 ( now platforms 3 & 4 ) .
One of the catenary stanchions on platform 4 is notably better kept than others , and carries a small plaque detailing the visit of Queen Elizabeth II on 7 May 1974 , after the completion of electrification of tracks north of the point where it stands . This was significant because it marked the completion of the total electrification of the West Coast Main Line .
= Hurricane Gonzalo =
Hurricane Gonzalo was a powerful Atlantic tropical cyclone that wrought destruction in the Leeward Islands and Bermuda in October 2014 . At the time , it was the strongest hurricane in the Atlantic since Igor in 2010 , Gonzalo struck Bermuda less than a week after the surprisingly fierce Hurricane Fay ; 2014 was the first season in recorded history to feature two hurricane landfalls on Bermuda . Gonzalo formed from a tropical wave on October 12 , while located east of the Lesser Antilles . It made landfall on Antigua , Saint Martin , and Anguilla as a Category 1 hurricane , causing damage on those and nearby islands . Antigua and Barbuda sustained US $ 40 million in losses , and boats were abundantly damaged or destroyed throughout the northern Leeward Islands . The storm killed three people on Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy . Gonzalo tracked northwestward as it intensified into a Category 4 major hurricane , the first in the Atlantic since Ophelia in 2011 . Eyewall replacement cycles led to fluctuations in the hurricane 's structure and intensity , but on October 16 , Gonzalo peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) .
After Hurricane Fay caused extensive power outages on the island just days before , residents of Bermuda were forced to complete preparations for Gonzalo in haste . Banks , businesses , schools , and government offices closed in advance of the storm , while the Royal Navy ship HMS Argyll left its post in the Caribbean to provide Bermuda with emergency assistance . The cyclone gradually weakened before crossing directly over central Bermuda at Category 2 strength around 00 : 30 UTC on October 18 . Gonzalo battered the island with wind gusts as high as 144 mph ( 232 km / h ) , downing hundreds of trees and creating widespread roof damage . At the height of the storm , about 31 @,@ 000 out of 36 @,@ 000 total electricity customers were without power ; service was not fully restored until early November . Many roads were impassable immediately following the hurricane , and in many cases the damage done by Gonzalo was indistinguishable from that of Fay . Bermuda Regiment soldiers and sailors from the Argyll took part in initial cleanup and repairs on the territory , and preliminary assessments revealed that the storm did not compare to the devastation of Hurricane Fabian in 2003 . Catastrophe modelling firms estimated that Bermuda suffered up to $ 400 million in losses , and despite the heavy disruptions , no deaths or serious injuries were reported there .
Departing Bermuda , Gonzalo accelerated toward the waters of the North Atlantic , passing close to southeastern Newfoundland before becoming extratropical on October 19 . Gusty winds and bands of heavy rain in the southeastern Avalon Peninsula engendered minor flooding and power outages . A large storm system involving the remnants of Gonzalo battered the British Isles and central Europe on October 21 , killing three people in the United Kingdom and severely hindering transportation . The system later played a role in triggering torrential rains over the Balkans , which resulted in severe flooding in Greece and Bulgaria .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Gonzalo originated in a tropical wave that emerged from the western coast of Africa on October 4 and trekked across the Atlantic . Despite an attendant expanse of clouds and thunderstorms , hostile winds from an upper @-@ level trough hindered cyclogenesis . On October 10 , after encountering an eastward @-@ propagating Kelvin wave , the system developed more concentrated convection . With conditions increasingly favorable for further development , the disturbance gradually became better organized , forming a small low pressure area by October 11 . In turn , a tropical depression formed at 00 : 00 UTC on October 12 , located approximately 390 mi ( 630 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Continued maturation amid warm waters and low wind shear yielded Tropical Storm Gonzalo 12 hours later . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not begin issuing advisories on the cyclone until midday on October 12 , after a Hurricane Hunter flight into the system reported surface winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) .
A powerful ridge over the central Atlantic steered the nascent storm westward toward the Lesser Antilles . Thunderstorm activity was strong near the center , although initially somewhat disorganized and asymmetric . However , a tight inner core soon took shape , and Gonzalo began to quickly intensify throughout the day on October 12 . Following the appearance of an eye feature early the next day , the storm was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane while located near Antigua in the eastern Caribbean . Shortly thereafter , the storm passed directly over the island . The hurricane later struck Saint Martin and Anguilla , and skirted just north of the British Virgin Islands while continuing to intensify . By that time , it was headed toward the northwest around the periphery of the aforementioned ridge .
On October 14 , the eye contracted to a diameter of 17 mi ( 28 km ) and improved its satellite presentation . At 18 : 00 UTC , Gonzalo strengthened to a Category 3 major hurricane while located about 170 mi ( 270 km ) north of San Juan , Puerto Rico . Six hours later it became the first Category 4 hurricane in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Ophelia in 2011 . Subsequently , a concentric eyewall structure indicated an imminent eyewall replacement cycle , with the inner feature " about as small as it can get " according to the NHC . The eyewall replacement cycle briefly disrupted the storm 's core , causing Gonzalo to weaken slightly , but upon completion on the evening of October 15 , the system stabilized and resumed intensification . While moving northward early the next day , Gonzalo reached its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . By evening it had turned north @-@ northeastward , ahead of an advancing trough over the eastern United States and in the wake of the receding ridge .
From the evening of October 16 through the next morning , the hurricane experienced further internal fluctuations as it approached Bermuda from the south @-@ southwest . Concurrently , the storm began to weaken . In particular , cloud tops around the hurricane warmed , and convection became less uniform , likely attributable to cooler waters and heightened wind shear . The hurricane was downgraded to Category 2 as the northern eyewall crossed Bermuda , and at about 00 : 30 UTC on October 18 , the center of circulation passed directly over the island , signalling an official landfall . Along with Hurricane Fay , which struck Bermuda on October 12 , this represented the first recorded instance of two hurricanes making landfall on the island within the same season . Moving away from Bermuda , the hurricane continued to degrade , but showed signs of increased organization later on October 18 . As Gonzalo accelerated northeastward at over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , it passed about 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Newfoundland 's Avalon Peninsula early on October 19 . In spite of sea surface temperatures below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) , the storm was able to maintain a central dense overcast and deep warm core . By 18 : 00 UTC , Gonzalo had finally succumbed to the cold environment and intense wind shear , completing its transition into a strong extratropical cyclone about 460 mi ( 740 km ) northeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . It sped east @-@ northeastward until a frontal boundary absorbed it on October 20 , to the south @-@ southwest of Iceland . The resultant system brought stormy weather to the British Isles and parts of mainland Europe on October 21 , and later contributed to the formation of a large cut @-@ off low .
= = Preparations = =
When Gonzalo first formed , various governments across the eastern Caribbean issued tropical cyclone warnings and watches , extending from Guadeloupe to the coast of Puerto Rico . As the storm was strengthening and moving through the region , a hurricane warning was issued for the British Virgin Islands , Anguilla , and Saint Martin . Several major cruise lines altered their itineraries to avoid the storm .
Late on October 14 , while Gonzalo was still located about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 130 km ) to the south , the Bermuda Weather Service issued a hurricane watch for the island . The watch was upgraded to a warning the next day . Having been affected by the unexpectedly destructive Hurricane Fay just days earlier , residents quickly began preparing for Gonzalo by obtaining emergency supplies and expediting cleanup efforts from the previous storm . Premier of Bermuda Michael Dunkley advised citizens to complete most preparations by the afternoon of October 16 . Banks and businesses began closing that day , while schools and government offices were closed by October 17 . One school functioned as a storm shelter , and 66 people ultimately sought refuge there . Bus and ferry services were suspended on the evening of October 16 . Bermuda 's only daily newspaper , the Royal Gazette , did not go to print on October 17 , but distributed the next day 's edition for free . Bermuda Regiment soldiers were stationed at various points to support emergency response crews and ensure the safety of the public .
The Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation ( CARILEC ) sent linemen to assist the Bermuda Electric Light Company ( BELCO ) crews in the event of power outages from Gonzalo . Still completing restoration work after massive outages from Fay , BELCO stationed vehicles and supplies at strategic points on the island to prepare for the next hurricane . On the morning of October 16 , BELCO switched its focus from Fay to Gonzalo , leaving around 1 @,@ 500 households without power ; the remaining affected customers were asked to refrain from calling to report outages . Ahead of the storm , the Royal Navy frigate HMS Argyll sailed from the Caribbean to provide Bermuda with emergency assistance . Public beaches were closed as hurricane swells began to build , and the decision was made to shut down the Causeway early on October 17 , based on forecasts of long @-@ duration severe winds . Additionally , L.F. Wade International Airport closed prior to the storm 's onslaught , accounting for 62 canceled commercial flights . Three cruise ships were diverted from the island .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
While moving through the northeastern Lesser Antilles as a fledgling hurricane , Gonzalo produced sustained winds of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) on Antigua , with gusts to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Roads were blocked by uprooted trees , while numerous buildings , including several schools , received significant damage . Gonzalo caused an island @-@ wide power outage , and its storm surge damaged boats . Schools and businesses were forced to close , and four emergency shelters opened to storm victims . Debris and flooding forced V. C. Bird International Airport to delay its return to operation after closing as a precaution . Numerous homes sustained damage , largely to their roofs , with the Saint George Parish suffering the greatest losses . Farming communities and a variety of crops were severely impacted , which sparked concerns of imminent produce shortages . Some growers lost their entire banana crops .
Barbuda experienced gusts as high as 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) , as well as radar @-@ estimated rainfall of up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) . Although Barbuda was subject to less widespread devastation than its twin island , there were still snapped tree limbs , reports of flooding , and disruptions to utility services . Damages to residences , government buildings , and agriculture on Antigua contributed to Antigua and Barbuda 's national storm cost of around US $ 40 million , which also includes compensation to American Airlines for not meeting departing passenger quotas during the hurricane . Numerous individuals were treated for minor storm @-@ related injuries , none of them life @-@ threatening . Further west , Gonzalo caused minor power outages on Saint Kitts and Nevis , while a general 1 – 2 in ( 25 – 50 mm ) of rain accompanied wind gusts to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Guadeloupe .
The storm wrecked dozens of boats around Saint Martin , including 22 in Simpson Bay Lagoon , and an elderly man aboard one of the stricken vessels was killed . Two people on Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy went missing in the storm , and were presumed dead after remaining unaccounted for several months later . Fourteen other missing individuals were returned alive . Winds on Saint Barthélemy blew 86 mph ( 138 km / h ) sustained , with gusts to 126 mph ( 203 km / h ) . Fallen trees obstructed streets , and an aircraft flipped over on a runway at Gustaf III Airport . As many as 40 boats were reportedly beached on Saint Barthélemy .
On Saint Martin , sustained winds exceeded 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) , and L 'Espérance Airport recorded gusts to 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) before the observing equipment failed . As much as 5 @.@ 70 in ( 145 mm ) of rain fell over the island . Reports of urban flooding and entrance of water into homes were common . Gonzalo impaired water and electricity services throughout Dutch Sint Marteen and inflicted significant damage to homes . The St. Maarten Zoo sustained heavy structural damage , though all resident animals survived unharmed . The French side of the island incurred relatively little destruction , with scattered roof and window damage , though Orient Beach " was a scene of complete devastation " ; several businesses there suffered extensively . Emergency responders and military aircraft from Martinique were dispatched to aid in post @-@ storm recovery on Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin .
Heavy rain on Anguilla flooded the Clayton J. Lloyd International Airport and portions of several districts , qualifying the government for a US $ 500 @,@ 000 " excess rainfall " insurance payout . The eastern and western ends of the island bore the brunt of the storm , facing damage to utility poles , vegetation , and roofs , and public schools did not reopen until October 20 or later . The sole hospital experienced minor flood damage .
Gonzalo produced squally weather in parts of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , causing power outages and prompting 20 people to stay in an emergency shelter . Cyril E. King Airport on Saint Thomas was temporarily closed due to the storm ; the airport endured blustery conditions , with gusts reaching 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Elsewhere , rough seas affected parts of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas .
= = = Bermuda = = =
Gonzalo generated hurricane @-@ force winds across Bermuda over a period of about six hours , at their strongest from the northwest on the backside of the storm . Tropical storm conditions persisted for up to 24 hours . Elevated weather stations observed the highest winds ; Commissioner 's Point recorded 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 109 mph ( 175 km / h ) , and St. David 's measured gusts as high as 144 mph ( 232 km / h ) . Gusts reached 113 mph ( 182 km / h ) at the Causeway , closer to sea level . The airport recorded 2 @.@ 85 in ( 72 mm ) of rain , but due to the strong winds , this was most likely an underestimation of what actually fell . The passage of the hurricane 's eye was marked by diminished winds and a lack of rain , but a drizzle of ocean mist reportedly fell over the island . As Gonzalo struck at low tide , the effects of storm surge were minimal . At Esso Pier on the north side of the island , storm tides peaked at 3 @.@ 25 ft ( 0 @.@ 99 m ) above normal .
The intense winds brought down utility poles and hundreds of trees ( likely exacerbated by saturated ground from record rainfall in the months prior ) , leaving " barely a road " passable . The storm razed several invasive species , with endemic trees proving more resilient . A composting facility received 1 @,@ 200 truckloads of plant debris per day after Fay and Gonzalo , up from an average of 100 . Damage from the storms totaled around US $ 260 @,@ 000 on Bermuda National Trust properties , which include nature preserves and cemeteries . Similarly , the Bermuda Botanical Gardens and Arboretum were closed due to safety hazards resulting from extensive vegetation damage .
The first storm @-@ related power outages took place in the early afternoon on October 17 as weather conditions worsened . At the height of the storm , about 31 @,@ 000 out of 36 @,@ 000 electricity customers were without power , including the 1 @,@ 500 outages left unresolved after Fay . Backup CARILEC crews helped with specialty assignments , such as commercial outages and homes without power since before Gonzalo 's onslaught . Service was not fully restored until November 3 , and BELCO ultimately spent US $ 2 @.@ 9 million on system repairs after hurricanes Fay and Gonzalo . The company replaced 228 utility poles , 80 transformers , and over 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) of wire . Other utilities , such as television and Internet services , also suffered , and technicians handled individual outages deep into the month of November . About 600 streetlights on main roads and several hundred more on side @-@ streets were inoperative following the hurricane ; some remained unmended through January 2015 .
Structural damage ranged from the superficial to complete wall or roof failure , the latter being relatively uncommon . A multitude of buildings , including churches , a visitor 's center , the House of Assembly building in Hamilton , and the Bermuda Police Service headquarters at Prospect Camp , suffered some degree of roof damage . Older structures were particularly prone to substantial damage , as were commercial storage buildings subject to less strict building codes . In December , five new slate quarries were approved to accommodate the demand for roofing materials . Both the new and old portions of the King Edward VII Memorial Hospital received significant damage that exposed the facilities to the elements . An exhibit at the Bermuda Aquarium , Museum and Zoo was unroofed , and coastal erosion threatened to encroach on the site , though no animals were harmed . Part of the structure 's roof was blown a quarter mile ( 400 m ) .
L.F. Wade International Airport sustained some roof and runway lighting damage , and the Bermuda Weather Service building lost a storm shutter and saw water forced inside a communications room . A restaurant at the site of the Gibbs Hill Lighthouse was severely damaged , requiring a complete roof replacement . The Causeway was largely spared , with some damage to the safety walls alongside the road , and it was partially reopened on October 18 after initial repairs . However , one of two lanes remained shut down for several days . Many boats were washed ashore and damaged or wrecked by the storm , and other vessels tipped over in boatyards . According to preliminary estimates , properties in the Dockyard alone incurred US $ 1 million ( 2014 BMD ) in damage .
The strongest hurricane to directly affect Bermuda since 2003 's Hurricane Fabian , Gonzalo was generally less destructive . Damage modelling firms estimated insured losses from the hurricane to settle between US $ 200 and US $ 400 million , not including damage to watercraft , though the CEO of the largest property insurer on Bermuda believed losses to be much lower . It was estimated that a Fabian equivalence in 2014 would cause about US $ 650 million in damage . Some insurance companies decided to treat Fay and Gonzalo as a single event , allowing one deductible to count toward claims from both storms . After initial assessments , Premier Dunkley reported that the territory fared " much better than we expected " , and the storm was not blamed for any deaths or major injuries on Bermuda .
In the aftermath of the hurricane , a Royal Navy helicopter aboard the Argyll flew out ahead of the ship to start aerial damage assessments . Members of the Bermuda Regiment immediately began cleanup and recovery efforts , while the government provided tarps to affected homeowners . Sailors from the Argyll teamed up with Regiment soldiers upon the ship 's arrival to continue relief work . Some 35 of the vessel 's crew members worked to clear debris from the runway at the airport , which reopened on October 19 after thorough evaluations . Including damage from Fay , about $ 2 million was spent on airport repairs , and the storms were later cited as evidence of the need for a newer terminal in a more protected location . All schools on the territory resumed classes by October 21 .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
On October 17 , the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued a tropical storm watch for the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland , between Arnold 's Cove and Chapel 's Cove . Some communities , including St. John 's , worked to clear debris from culverts and storm drains to minimize the effects of flooding . Outer rainbands produced up to 2 @.@ 7 in ( 69 mm ) of rain in just a few hours , which produced localized urban flooding in St. John 's . Winds gusted to 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) at Cape Pine and 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) at Cape Race . At St. John 's International Airport , sustained winds of 34 mph ( 54 km / h ) were punctuated by gusts to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . The winds briefly cut power to about 100 households in a St. John 's neighborhood . Offshore , a buoy over the Laurentian fan recorded peak wave heights to 68 ft ( 21 m ) , and an oil rig southeast of the storm 's center experienced sustained winds of 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) . Low astronomical tides prevented significant coastal flooding , but a 2 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) surge was recorded at both St. John 's and Argentia . Farther west , the hurricane generated rough seas and rip currents along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia .
= = = Europe = = =
The extratropical storm complex incorporating the remnants of Gonzalo generated strong winds across the British Isles , especially over Ireland and the northern United Kingdom . Winds gusted to 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) at Oban in western Scotland , while gusts exceeding 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) were common elsewhere . The system halted transportation throughout the region , forcing the cancellation of more than 100 flights at London Heathrow Airport , grounding ferries , and blocking roads and railways with debris . Falling trees killed one woman near Hyde Park , London , and injured several others . In Essex , the winds collapsed a car jack supporting a van , fatally crushing a man working underneath , while poor weather conditions were blamed on a traffic accident in Liverpool that killed a male motorist . The storm triggered minor power outages in Scotland and Wales , with more extensive outages in northwestern Ireland after gusts as high as 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) .
Western and central Europe were also impacted by damaging winds and downpours . The coast of the Netherlands endured high seas and gusts to 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) , uprooting trees and flooding the coastline . Rail services and flight operations were disrupted throughout the region . In Germany , gusts over 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) were recorded at high elevations . In Stuttgart alone , 50 vehicles were damaged by falling debris ; downed trees , torn roofs , and power outages were common throughout the nation . In the capital of Munich , the storm destroyed a large tin roof measuring over 850 sq ft ( 80 sq m ) , parts of which impacted cars and fences on the ground . Damage from the incident was estimated at € 500 @,@ 000 . Throughout Germany , the storm wrought € 60 – 100 million in insured losses . A woman died in a traffic accident , attributed to wet road conditions , along the Bundesstraße 303 in the Bayreuth district . Northwesterly gales yielded a storm surge along the country 's North Sea coastline , with tides running over 7 ft ( 2 m ) above normal along the Elbe River at Hamburg . Neighboring Austria and Switzerland also experienced gales and power outages . A tornado touched down near Neukirchen an der Enknach in Austria , damaging homes and farms . Gusts in southern Switzerland reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , leading to road and rail closures . In southern France , the system initiated a mistral wind event .
The upper @-@ level low associated with the hurricane 's remnants blanketed parts of the Alps with heavy snowfall , accumulating to several feet , and subsequently fueled torrential rains in the Balkans on October 24 and 25 . Floodwaters caused by estimated rainfall totals nearing 6 in ( 150 mm ) inundated entire villages in southeastern Bulgaria , forcing hundreds to evacuate , and there were widespread disruptions of power and water services . A woman in Burgas died from drowning . In the Greek capital city of Athens , the deluge filled streets with rushing water that swept away hundreds of vehicles . More than 300 buildings were inundated in the Attica area .
= Battle of Porton Plantation =
The Battle of Porton Plantation ( 8 – 10 June 1945 ) took place near the village of Soraken on Bougainville Island , in the Solomon Islands archipelago during World War II . Involving forces from Australia , New Zealand and Japan , the battle was part of the wider Bougainville campaign , which had begun in late 1943 and lasted until the end of the war in August 1945 . The battle formed part of Australian efforts to liberate the northern part of Bougainville .
The fighting occurred after a company @-@ sized Australian force from the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion made an amphibious landing north of the Porton Plantation jetties in an attempt to outflank the Japanese positions on the Ratsua front , which were holding up the advance of the 26th and the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalions from the 11th Brigade . The Australians landed unopposed and established a small perimeter , but some of their landing craft ran aground and they were unable to bring their heavy weapons and support elements ashore . Troops from the Japanese 87th Naval Garrison Force quickly surrounded the beachhead and , as their supply situation grew desperate , the Australians were forced to withdraw . In the course of their evacuation by sea another landing craft ran aground . Over the next two days several unsuccessful rescue attempts were made until eventually , in the early morning of 11 June , the last Australian survivors were picked up .
The battle was a victory for the Japanese and it proved instrumental in helping them to regain the initiative in the northern sector of Bougainville . As a result , shortly afterwards the Australian forces on Bougainville changed the focus of their operations to the southern sector of the island where they were able to advance along the coastal plain towards the main Japanese position at Buin . Since the end of the war , there has been considerable criticism of the planning undertaken by the Australians prior to the operation , and it has been argued that the operation failed due to poor intelligence and lack of resources and was ultimately unnecessary .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic situation = = =
Japanese forces had landed on Bougainville in early 1942 , capturing it from the small force of Australians garrisoning the island . They had subsequently developed several airbases on the island , using it to conduct operations in the northern Solomon Islands and to attack the Allied lines of communication between the United States , Australia and the Southwest Pacific Area . These bases also helped protect Rabaul , the major Japanese garrison and naval base in Papua New Guinea , and throughout 1943 , Allied planners determined that Bougainville was vital for neutralising the Japanese base around Rabaul . US Marines conducted an amphibious landing at Cape Torokina , on the western coast of the island , north of Empress Augusta Bay , in November 1943 . After an initial counter @-@ attack which had been repulsed , the US Marines had been replaced by a garrison of US Army troops who began consolidating their position around Torokina , establishing a strong perimeter . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched a heavy counter @-@ attack , which was turned back with many casualties . After this , the situation on Bougainville became largely static , as the Japanese focused primarily on subsistence , and the US forces chose to adopt a mainly defensive posture focused on maintaining the perimeter around Torokina .
On 22 November 1944 , the Australian II Corps , consisting mainly of Militia troops under the command of Lieutenant General Stanley Savige , took over responsibility for Allied operations on Bougainville from the US XIV Corps . Throughout November and December Australian units began relieving the Americans who were then redeployed on subsequent operations in the Philippines . Although Japanese forces on Bougainville actually numbered around 40 @,@ 000 men at the time , Allied intelligence failed to determine this accurately , estimating that there were only about 17 @,@ 500 defenders . As a result of this error , Australian planning staff believed that they were opposed by a roughly equal @-@ sized force and the Australian corps commander , Savige , under orders from General Thomas Blamey , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Australian Military Forces during the war , to " destroy ... [ Japanese ] ... resistance ... without committing major forces " and limiting casualties , consequently decided that he would pursue a limited offensive campaign to clear the Japanese from Bougainville . The majority of the Japanese force was believed to be concentrated in the south and as a result the main effort of the Australian plan was focused upon driving towards Buin . Supporting operations were also conducted along two other fronts . In the north , it was planned that the Japanese would be forced into the narrow Bonis Peninsula and contained there while , in the centre , the seizure of Pearl Ridge would give the Australians control of the east – west avenues of approach , as well as affording them protection against further counter @-@ attacks and opening the way for a drive to the east coast . The Australian troops were largely inexperienced , but were according to historian Karl James " fresh ... [ and ] well equipped " . For their part , according to James , the Japanese force on Bougainville had been " ... reinforced from Rabual with troops , weapons and equipment " and although much of 1944 had been spent foraging and establishing food supplies on the island , there was only " enough food reserves for four months " .
The build up of Australian forces was hampered by a lack of resources , which were focused largely upon the US operations in the Philippines , and Australian operations in Borneo , which was considered the priority , and ultimately these considerations would impact upon Australian strategy upon the island due to the limited amount of amphibious support available . After initial moves by the Australians to take over the US perimeter at Torokina and garrison the Outer Islands in September and October , in November the Australians took over officially from the Americans . Later that month , troops from the 7th Brigade left the perimeter and took over from the small US forces holding outposts along the Numa Numa Trail in the centre of the island . From there , a couple of minor skirmishes followed culminating in the Battle of Pearl Ridge . In late December , the 11th Brigade , under the command of Brigadier John Stevenson , took over control of the northern sector of the island from the 7th Brigade , which was transferred to the southern sector to take part in the main offensive . Throughout January , as part of efforts to liberate the northern part of the island , the brigade advanced north along the coast from Kuraio Mission , clearing the main settlements while sending patrols inland in an effort to flush out the Japanese from the high features in an effort to draw them into fighting in the open . In mid @-@ January the lead Australian battalion , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly , came up against a strong Japanese position at Tsimba Ridge and over the course of three weeks fought to gain control of the feature . The Australians lost 23 killed and 53 wounded while the Japanese had at least 66 men killed .
= = = Preliminary moves = = =
Following the fighting on Tsimba Ridge , the 31st / 51st was relieved by the 26th Infantry Battalion , and the Australians continued to advance north towards Soraken . Over the course of several months , the 26th advanced on several axes : from Downs ' Ridge they crossed the Nagam River , while on the coast another element advanced though Lalum to the Compton River . Between these two forces , another linked up with those that had crossed the Nagam , and proceeded north over the Compton towards Soraken Plantation . Elsewhere , barges were used to land forces on the Soraken Peninsula in several locations to dislocate the Japanese forces there and sever their lines of communication , while other landings took place on Saposa Island and Torokori Island . In April , the 26th was relieved by the 55th / 53rd Infantry Battalion which advanced north to Ratsua , from where the Australians planned to move along the Bonis Peninsula . By late May , however , casualties amongst the 55th / 53rd meant that they had to be withdrawn from the line , and the 26th Infantry Battalion was moved back up to replace them , along with the 31st / 51st . At the start of June the Australians were stretched out across a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) line between Ratsua to Ruri Bay .
On 4 June , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion began patrolling operations around Buoi Plantation . Two companies , ' B ' and ' D ' , were committed to these operations with ' B ' Company focusing upon the north @-@ eastern part of the plantation , while ' D ' Company patrolled to their east . Clashes followed over the next three days ; the Australians lost one killed , and the Japanese 10 . Australian intelligence suggested that the Japanese had concentrated strongly along the approaches to the peninsula , and in order to deal with these positions it was decided that an amphibious landing would be made by a company of the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion near the jetties around Porton Plantation , 3 @.@ 1 miles ( 5 @.@ 0 km ) to the north of Ratusa , to outflank them and launch an attack from the rear , while the main force – consisting of the remainder of the 31st / 51st and the 26th Infantry Battalion – pushed north from the Ratsua front to establish a new position along a line between Porton and Chindawon . During the planning phase , concerns were raised by several officers about the size of the force allocated and the distance that the breakthrough force would be required to advance to link up with the force landing at the beachhead , but these were ultimately discounted . On the evening of 5 June , the Australian battalion commander outlined his plan and in the afternoon of the following day rehearsal landings were undertaken . Final preparations were made on the night of 6 / 7 June and continued throughout the next day .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
The Australian landing force consisted of 190 men embarked on six landing craft . The bulk of the force was made up of infantry from ' A ' Company and a platoon from ' C ' Company , 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion under the command of Captain Clyde Downs . Artillery support was provided by the 11th and 12th Batteries of the 4th Field Regiment and the 2nd Mountain Battery . Other supporting units included engineers from the 16th Field Company and 42nd Assault Landing Craft Company , medical support from the 19th Field Ambulance and logistics support from the 223rd Supply Platoon . Although aerial reconnaissance indicated that there were strong Japanese fortifications in the area , initially no air support was allocated to the operation , with requests for preliminary air strikes being denied by II Corps as they were , according to James , not " considered to be suitable air targets " . The Japanese force in the immediate vicinity initially consisted of about 100 men from the Imperial Japanese Navy 's 87th Naval Garrison Force which had been formed from men drawn from the 211th Pioneer Unit interspersed with regular naval personnel . However , over the course of the battle the strength of the Japanese force grew to between 400 and 500 men . The Japanese force was commanded by the senior naval officer at Buka , Captain Eikichi Kato , whose 87th Naval Garrison Force had taken over responsibility for the defence of the Tarlena area when the Imperial Japanese Army 's 38th Independent Mixed Brigade was transferred south to the Numa Numa area .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial landing and fighting around the beachhead = = =
At 3 : 57 am on 8 June the first wave of Australian troops landed on the beach in three landing craft . They came ashore unopposed and after advancing about 100 yards ( 91 m ) inland established a small perimeter around the beachhead in the tree line surrounding the plantation . A series of forward positions were then established a further 50 yards ( 46 m ) inland . Instead of pushing his rifle platoons further inland , however , Downs decided that he would wait for the second wave to arrive . This ultimately proved critical as it allowed the Japanese commander , Kato , time to respond to the landing . As the three landing craft of the first wave withdrew , another three landing craft came in with reinforcements , heavy weapons and other support elements , however , they ran aground on a coral reef and the men aboard were forced to wade ashore . Although one of these craft was later able to float free , two of the others remained stuck . A short time later they began to take fire from Japanese machine @-@ guns , which stopped the Australians from unloading their equipment .
Lacking organic indirect fire support as all the mortars had been in the landing craft that were in the second wave , Downs established communications with the artillery , and a barrage was brought down on suspected Japanese positions by the artillery forward observation officer , Lieutenant David Spark , with the assistance of a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Boomerang that was on station overhead to provide aerial observation . By dawn , Downs ' company was taking sporadic fire from Japanese pill boxes , and they began patrolling forward of their perimeter to locate these positions . These patrols were unable to progress very far before they were forced back by Japanese fire , which confirmed how bad the company 's position was . They determined that they had landed about 270 yards ( 250 m ) north of where they had been supposed to land , and inside what the official historian Gavin Long described as an " arc of enemy trenches and pill @-@ boxes with a radius of about 400 yards " that effectively boxed them in .
Throughout the day the defenders began pressing against the Australian forward positions and engaging them with mortar fire as more reinforcements were brought up . Shortly after the landing , Kato was able to concentrate a force of about 100 Japanese defenders in the immediate vicinity , however , throughout the day he was able to bring in further reinforcements and by nightfall there were approximately 300 Japanese around the Australian perimeter . In order to respond , an attempt was made by the Australians to bring in reinforcements of their own and supplies by sea . Due to the low tide and heavy fire from the beach , the attempt failed , as did two subsequent attempts , as the Japanese commander pre @-@ empted their arrival and set up ambushes along the approaches north and south of the landing beach . While the fighting was going on around Porton , beginning on 4 June , the 26th Infantry Battalion and the rest of the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion attempted to break through to the Australian company from Ratsua . They were unable to penetrate the Japanese lines ; however , as they came up against defenders that were determined to resist because they were unable to withdraw any further along the peninsula .
= = = Australian evacuation efforts = = =
By the morning of 9 June , the supply situation for Downs ' company had become critical and 11th Brigade headquarters decided that it would be best to evacuate the beach . Up until that point casualties had been relatively light with only four killed and seven wounded , but the Japanese force , which had increased overnight to between 400 and 500 men as reinforcements arrived by barges and trucks from the Buka Passage area , launched a strong attack aimed at destroying the Australian force , attacking from three sides of the perimeter . In order to defend themselves the Australians called down heavy artillery fire from the battery of 25 @-@ pounders that was supporting them from its position on the Soraken peninsula . As the fighting intensified , some of the artillery shells were brought down as close as 25 yards ( 23 m ) from their own troops . Air support was also called in , with 16 RAAF Boomerangs and Royal New Zealand Air Force Corsairs attacking Japanese positions around the perimeter . As a result of these attacks , the Australians were able to hold off the Japanese attacks until 4 : 30 pm when three assault landing craft arrived from Soraken to take them off the beach , and ferry them out to two larger vessels that were waiting further out to sea .
Amid a torrent of Japanese fire , the Australians broke contact and made for the landing craft , bringing the wounded out with them . The embarkation took only five minutes , but as the vessels attempted to depart two of them , overloaded with about 60 men on board , ran aground and stuck fast . In an effort to lighten the load , several men volunteered to leave the craft , which enabled one of the vessels to float free . The other , however , remained stuck . Coming under attack from the Japanese , some of whom waded out and attacked the men in the vessel with grenades , the casualties mounted , with a number of men , including Downs , being either killed or lost overboard and subsequently listed as missing , presumed killed .
As rations and water dwindled , unsuccessful attempts were made on 10 June to rescue the men in the stranded barge with support from artillery and aircraft . While Corsairs flew close support missions , Beaufort and Mitchell bombers dropped life rafts but the survivors were unable to reach them due to machine @-@ gun fire . Further casualties occurred when , in the early morning of 11 June , a Japanese soldier managed to reach the vessel and fired upon the occupants with a machine @-@ gun , killing two and wounding others before he was killed himself . Shortly after this a Japanese anti @-@ tank gun fired two shells at the landing craft , destroying its stern . Further shots were prevented when Australian artillery ranged in on the gun , having been directed by Captain John Whitelaw , an artillery observer on one of two landing craft that had been despatched with canvas assault boats , crewed by engineers from the 16th Field Company .
Launching 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the stranded craft , three assault boats set out and over the course of two hours ferried the survivors back to the landing craft , which then set out for Soraken , arriving there at 4 : 30 am on 11 June . Other men swam over 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) through the shark @-@ infested waters to Torokori Island , while others were either rescued at sea or managed to link up with the Australians along the Ratsua front , who had been attempting to break through to them but found themselves checked 500 yards ( 460 m ) from them , by sneaking through the Japanese lines from the rear .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Following the failure of the landing at Porton Plantation , the planned Australian advance into the Bonis Peninsula was called off . The Australian high command decided to refocus their efforts upon the drive towards Buin in the south and as a result the effort in the north was reduced to that of a holding action as further resources were transferred out of the sector . Following the withdrawal , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion continued fighting along the Ratsua front before being relieved on 28 June by the 8th Infantry Battalion and withdrawing to Torokina , where they remained until the end of the war . The 23rd Brigade under Brigadier Arnold Potts took over control of the sector , and for a period of four weeks along the Ratsua front the 8th and 27th Infantry Battalions carried out patrolling operations before the Australians decided to withdraw to the Buoi Plantation in mid @-@ July , by which time the Japanese forces in the area , boosted by their victory at Porton , had begun to seize the initiative through the use of harassment tactics . Following this several small @-@ scale actions continued along the front until offensive action was discontinued on 11 August 1945 as the war came to a conclusion .
= = = Analysis = = =
Since the end of the war , the conceptual validity and strategic necessity of the Australian landing has been called into question by historians . Both James and Davidson state that several aspects of the planning undertaken by 11th Brigade staff and the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion 's commander contributed to the defeat , particularly in relation to the failure of intelligence to adequately identify the risks posed by the nearby reefs , as well as the failure to adequately resource the operation , and an overestimation of the ability of neighbouring forces to breakthrough to the beachhead . Charlton also argues that the landing was hastily planned , under @-@ resourced and inadequately supported , and that it was part of a strategically unnecessary campaign . James agrees that it was under resourced , stating that the size of the assault force was " too small to establish a beachhead and push inland as well " , although ultimately argues that the campaign was necessary . It has also been speculated that the Japanese might also have gained prior knowledge of the attack . In support of this , James outlines that in the aftermath of the fighting , Blamey visited Kelly at his headquarters around Ratsua and upon interviewing him , stated to the II Corps commander , Savige , that he felt that Kelly had erred in conducting rehearsals of the barge landings during the planning stage within view of Japanese positions , potentially warning them of the operation .
The Battle of Porton Plantation ended in defeat for the Australians , as the landing was repulsed and the Japanese remained in possession of the beachhead . Amidst a campaign where largely the Australians dominated – it was the only defeat – the battle represented a shift in momentum in the northern sector , which was in part due to the shift in resources south , a fact which continued to impact Australian operations in the sector until the end of the war . During the course of the landing and the subsequent withdrawal , the Australians suffered 23 killed or missing , presumed dead , and 106 wounded , while the Japanese lost 26 killed . Both sides seem to have overestimated the casualties that they inflicted , with the Australians believing that they had killed between 147 and 197 Japanese , and the Japanese estimating Australian losses to have been around 60 killed and 100 wounded .
= = = Commemoration = = =
After the end of hostilities , a reconnaissance party including officers from the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion returned to the area and found that the Japanese defenders had buried the Australians that had died on the beach and had constructed a memorial to them , reading : " The Australian soldiers buried here died by the sea " . For its part in the landing , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion received the battle honour of " Bonis – Porton " , as did the 26th Infantry Battalion . Today , this honour is held by both the 31st Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment and the 51st Battalion , Far North Queensland Regiment , the successor units of the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion . The following decorations were awarded to members of the Australian forces that took part in the battle : one Distinguished Conduct Medal , two Military Crosses , four Military Medals , and three Mentions in Despatches . Porton Training Depot in Cairns , Australia , was named after this battle .
= Scotland in the High Middle Ages =
The High Middle Ages of Scotland encompass Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of King Alexander III in 1286 , which was an indirect cause of the Scottish Wars of Independence .
At the close of the ninth century , various competing kingdoms occupied the territory of modern Scotland . Scandinavian influence was dominant in the northern and western islands , Brythonic culture in the southwest , the Anglo @-@ Saxon or English Kingdom of Northumbria in the southeast and the Pictish and Gaelic Kingdom of Alba in the east , north of the River Forth . By the tenth and eleventh centuries , northern Great Britain was increasingly dominated by Gaelic culture , and by the Gaelic regal lordship of Alba , known in Latin as either Albania or Scotia , and in English as " Scotland " . From its base in the east , this kingdom acquired control of the lands lying to the south and ultimately the west and much of the north . It had a flourishing culture , comprising part of the larger Gaelic @-@ speaking world and an economy dominated by agriculture and trade .
After the twelfth @-@ century reign of King David I , the Scottish monarchs are better described as Scoto @-@ Norman than Gaelic , preferring French culture to native Scottish culture . A consequence was the spread of French institutions and social values including Canon law . The first towns , called burghs , appeared in the same era , and as they spread , so did the Middle English language . These developments were offset by the acquisition of the Norse @-@ Gaelic west and the Gaelicisation of many of the noble families of French and Anglo @-@ French origin . National cohesion was fostered with the creation of various unique religious and cultural practices . By the end of the period , Scotland experienced a " Gaelic revival " , which created an integrated Scottish national identity . By 1286 , these economic , institutional , cultural , religious and legal developments had brought Scotland closer to its neighbours in England and the Continent , although outsiders continued to view Scotland as a provincial , even savage place . By this date , the Kingdom of Scotland had political boundaries that closely resembled those of the modern nation .
= = Historiography = =
Scotland in the High Middle Ages is a relatively well @-@ studied topic and Scottish medievalists have produced a wide variety of publications . Some , such as David Dumville , Thomas Owen Clancy and Dauvit Broun , are primarily interested in the native cultures of the country , and often have linguistic training in the Celtic languages . Normanists , such as G.W.S. Barrow , are concerned with the Norman and Scoto @-@ Norman cultures introduced to Scotland after the eleventh century . For much of the twentieth century , historians tended to stress the cultural change that took place in Scotland during this time . However , scholars such as Cynthia Neville and Richard Oram , while not ignoring cultural changes , argue that continuity with the Gaelic past was just as , if not more , important .
Since the publication of Scandinavian Scotland by Barbara E. Crawford in 1987 , there has been a growing volume of work dedicated to the understanding of Norse influence in this period . However , from 849 on , when Columba 's relics were removed from Iona in the face of Viking incursions , written evidence from local sources in the areas under Scandinavian influence all but vanishes for three hundred years . The sources for information about the Hebrides and indeed much of northern Scotland from the eighth to the eleventh century , are thus almost exclusively Irish , English or Norse . The main Norse texts were written in the early thirteenth century and should be treated with care . The English and Irish sources are more contemporary , but according to historian Alex Woolf , may have " led to a southern bias in the story " , especially as much of the Hebridean archipelago became Norse @-@ speaking during this period .
There are various traditional clan histories dating from the nineteenth century such as the " monumental " The Clan Donald and a significant corpus of material from the Gaelic oral tradition that relates to this period , although their value is questionable .
= = Origins of the Kingdom of Alba = =
At the close of the ninth century various polities occupied Scotland . The Pictish and Gaelic Kingdom of Alba had just been united in the east ; the Scandinavian @-@ influenced Kingdom of the Isles emerged in the west . Ragnall ua Ímair was a key figure at this time although the extent to which he ruled territory in western and northern Scotland including the Hebrides and Northern Isles is unknown as contemporary sources are silent on this matter . Dumbarton , the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde had been sacked by the Uí Ímair in 870 . This was clearly a major assault , which may have brought the whole of mainland Scotland under temporary Uí Imair control . The south @-@ east had been absorbed by the English Kingdom of Bernicia / Northumbria in the seventh century . Galloway in the south west was a Lordship with some regality . In a Galwegian charter dated to the reign of Fergus , the Galwegian ruler styled himself rex Galwitensium , King of Galloway . In the north east the ruler of Moray was called not only " king " in both Scandinavian and Irish sources , but before Máel Snechtai , " King of Alba " .
However , when Domnall mac Causantín died at Dunnottar in 900 , he was the first man to be recorded as rí Alban and his kingdom was the nucleus that would expand as Viking and other influences waned . In the tenth century the Alban elite had begun to develop a conquest myth to explain their increasing Gaelicisation at the expense of Pictish culture . Known as MacAlpin 's Treason , it describes how Cináed mac Ailpín is supposed to have annihilated the Picts in one fell takeover . However , modern historians are now beginning to reject this conceptualization of Scottish origins . No contemporary sources mention this conquest . Moreover , the Gaelicisation of Pictland was a long process predating Cináed , and is evidenced by Gaelic @-@ speaking Pictish rulers , Pictish royal patronage of Gaelic poets , and Gaelic inscriptions and placenames . The change of identity can perhaps be explained by the death of the Pictish language , but also important may be Causantín II 's alleged Scoticisation of the " Pictish " Church and the trauma caused by Viking invasions , most strenuously felt in the Pictish kingdom 's heartland of Fortriu .
= = Scandinavian @-@ influenced territories = =
= = = Kingdom of the Isles = = =
The Kingdom of the Isles comprised the Hebrides , the islands of the Firth of Clyde and the Isle of Man from the 9th to the 13th centuries AD . The islands were known to the Norse as the Suðreyjar , or " Southern Isles " as distinct from the Norðreyjar or " Northern Isles " of Orkney and Shetland , which were held by the Earls of Orkney as vassals of the Norwegian crown throughout the High Middle Ages .
After Ragnall ua Ímair , Amlaíb Cuarán , who fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 and who also became King of Northumbria , is the next King of the Isles on record . In the succeeding years Norse sources also list various rulers such as Gilli , Sigurd the Stout , Håkon Eiriksson and Thorfinn Sigurdsson as rulers over the Hebrides as vassals of the Kings of Norway or Denmark .
Godred Crovan became the ruler of Dublin and Mann from 1079 and from the early years of the twelfth century the Crovan dynasty asserted themselves and ruled as " Kings of Mann and the Isles " for the next half century . The kingdom was then sundered due to the actions of Somerled whose sons inherited the southern Hebrides while the Manx rulers held on to the " north isles " for another century .
= = = The North = = =
The Scandinavian influence in Scotland was probably at its height in the mid eleventh century during the time of Thorfinn Sigurdsson , who attempted to create a single political and ecclesiastical domain stretching from Shetland to Man . The permanent Scandinavian holdings in Scotland at that time must therefore have been at least a quarter of the land area of modern Scotland .
By the end of the eleventh century the Norwegian crown had come to accept that Caithness was held by the Earls of Orkney as a fiefdom from the Kings of Scotland although its Norse character was retained throughout the thirteenth century . Raghnall mac Gofraidh was granted Caithness after assisting the Scots king in a conflict with Harald Maddadson , an earl of Orkney in the early thirteenth century .
In the ninth century Orcadian control stretched into Moray , which was a semi @-@ independent kingdom for much of this early period . The Moray rulers MacBeth ( 1040 – 1057 ) and his successor Lulach ( 1057 – 1058 ) became rulers of the entire Scottish kingdom for a time . However , Moray was subjugated by the Scottish kings after 1130 , when the native ruler , Óengus of Moray was killed leading a rebellion . Another revolt in 1187 was equally unsuccessful .
= = = South west Scotland = = =
By the mid tenth century Amlaíb Cuarán controlled The Rhinns and the region gets the modern name of Galloway from the mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement that produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel . Magnus Barelegs is said to have " subdued the people of Galloway " in the eleventh century and Whithorn seems to have been a centre of Hiberno @-@ Norse artisans who traded around the Irish Sea by the end of the first millennium . However , the place name , written and archaeological evidence of extensive Norse ( as opposed to Norse @-@ Gael ) settlement in the area is not convincing .
The ounceland system seems to have become widespread down the west coast including much of Argyll , and most of the south west apart from a region near the inner Solway Firth . In Dumfries and Galloway the place name evidence is complex and of mixed Gaelic , Norse and Danish influence , the last most likely stemming from contact with the extensive Danish holdings in northern England . Although the Scots obtained greater control after the death of Gilla Brigte and the accession of Lochlann in 1185 , Galloway was not fully absorbed by Scotland until 1235 , after the rebellion of the Galwegians was crushed .
= = Strathclyde = =
The main language of Strathclyde and elsewhere in the Hen Ogledd in the opening years of the High Middle Ages was Cumbric , a variety of the British language akin to Old Welsh . Some time after 1018 and before 1054 , the kingdom appears to have been conquered by the Scots , most probably during the reign of Máel Coluim mac Cináeda who died in 1034 . At this time the territory of Strathclyde extended as far south as the River Derwent . In 1054 , the English king Edward the Confessor dispatched Earl Siward of Northumbria against the Scots , then ruled by Mac Beth . By the 1070s , if not earlier in the reign of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada , it appears that the Scots again controlled Strathclyde , although William Rufus annexed the southern portion in 1092 . The territory was granted by Alexander I to his brother David , later King David I , in 1107 .
= = Kingdom of Alba or Scotia = =
= = = Gaelic kings : Domnall II to Alexander I = = =
Domnall mac Causantín 's nickname was dásachtach . This simply meant a madman , or , in early Irish law , a man not in control of his functions and hence without legal culpability . The following long reign ( 900 – 942 / 3 ) of his successor Causantín is more often regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of Alba .
The period between the accession of Máel Coluim I and Máel Coluim mac Cináeda was marked by good relations with the Wessex rulers of England , intense internal dynastic disunity and , despite this , relatively successful expansionary policies . In 945 , king Máel Coluim I received Strathclyde as part of a deal with King Edmund of England , an event offset somewhat by Máel Coluim 's loss of control in Moray . Sometime in the reign of king Idulb ( 954 – 962 ) , the Scots captured the fortress called oppidum Eden , i.e. Edinburgh . Scottish control of Lothian was strengthened with Máel Coluim II 's victory over the Northumbrians at the Battle of Carham ( 1018 ) . The Scots had probably some authority in Strathclyde since the later part of the ninth century , but the kingdom kept its own rulers , and it is not clear that the Scots were always strong enough to enforce their authority .
The reign of King Donnchad I from 1034 was marred by failed military adventures , and he was defeated and killed by MacBeth , the Mormaer of Moray , who became king in 1040 . MacBeth ruled for seventeen years , so peacefully that he was able to leave to go on pilgrimage to Rome . However , he was overthrown by Máel Coluim , the son of Donnchad who some months later defeated MacBeth 's stepson and successor Lulach to become king Máel Coluim III . In subsequent medieval propaganda Donnchad 's reign was portrayed positively , while MacBeth was vilified . William Shakespeare followed this distorted history in describing both men and the Queen consort Gruoch in his play Macbeth .
It was Máel Coluim III , not his father Donnchad , who did more to create the dynasty that ruled Scotland for the following two centuries . Part of the resource was the large number of children he had , perhaps as many as a dozen , through marriage to the widow or daughter of Thorfinn Sigurdsson and afterwards to the Anglo @-@ Hungarian princess Margaret , granddaughter of Edmund Ironside . However , despite having a royal Anglo @-@ Saxon wife , Máel Coluim spent much of his reign conducting slave raids against the English , adding to the woes of that people in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England and the Harrying of the North . Marianus Scotus narrates that " the Gaels and French devastated the English ; and [ the English ] were dispersed and died of hunger ; and were compelled to eat human flesh " .
Máel Coluim 's Queen Margaret was the sister of the native claimant to the English throne , Edgar Ætheling . This marriage , and Máel Coluim 's raids on northern England , prompted interference by the Norman rulers of England in the Scottish kingdom . King William the Conqueror invaded and Máel Coluim submitted to his authority , giving his oldest son Donnchad as a hostage . From 1079 onwards there were various cross border raids by both parties and Máel Coluim himself and Edward , his eldest son by Margaret , died in one of them in the Battle of Alnwick , in 1093 .
Tradition would have made his brother Domnall Bán Máel Coluim 's successor , but it seems that Edward , his eldest son by Margaret , was his chosen heir . With Máel Coluim and Edward dead in the same battle , and his other sons in Scotland still young , Domnall was made king . However , Donnchad II , Máel Coluim 's eldest son by his first wife , obtained some support from William Rufus and took the throne . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle his English and French followers were massacred , and Donnchad II himself was killed later in the same year ( 1094 ) by Domnall 's ally Máel Petair of Mearns . In 1097 , William Rufus sent another of Máel Coluim 's sons , Edgar , to take the kingship . The ensuing death of Domnall Bán secured the kingship for Edgar , and there followed a period of relative peace . The reigns of both Edgar and his successor Alexander are obscure by comparison with their successors . The former 's most notable act was to send a camel ( or perhaps an elephant ) to his fellow Gael Muircheartach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland . When Edgar died , Alexander took the kingship , while his youngest brother David became Prince of Cumbria .
= = = Scoto @-@ Norman kings : David I to Alexander III = = =
The period between the accession of David I and the death of Alexander III was marked by dependency upon and relatively good relations with the Kings of England . The period can be regarded as one of great historical transformation , part of a more general phenomenon , which has been called " Europeanisation " . The period also witnessed the successful imposition of royal authority across most of the modern country . After David I , and especially in the reign of William I , Scotland 's Kings became ambivalent about the culture of most of their subjects . As Walter of Coventry tells us , " The modern kings of Scotland count themselves as Frenchmen , in race , manners , language and culture ; they keep only Frenchmen in their household and following , and have reduced the Gaels to utter servitude . "
This situation was not without consequence . In the aftermath of William 's capture at Alnwick in 1174 , the Scots turned on the small number of Middle English @-@ speakers and French @-@ speakers among them . William of Newburgh related that the Scots first attacked the Scoto @-@ English in their own army , and Newburgh reported a repetition of these events in Scotland itself . Walter Bower , writing a few centuries later about the same events confirms that " there took place a most wretched and widespread persecution of the English both in Scotland and Galloway " .
The first instance of strong opposition to the Scottish kings was perhaps the revolt of Óengus , the Mormaer of Moray . Other important resistors to the expansionary Scottish kings were Somerled , Fergus of Galloway , Gille Brigte , Lord of Galloway and Harald Maddadsson , along with two kin @-@ groups known today as the MacHeths and the MacWilliams . The threat from the latter was so grave that , after their defeat in 1230 , the Scottish crown ordered the public execution of the infant girl who happened to be the last of the MacWilliam line . According to the Lanercost Chronicle :
Many of these resistors collaborated , and drew support not just in the peripheral Gaelic regions of Galloway , Moray , Ross and Argyll , but also from eastern " Scotland @-@ proper " , and elsewhere in the Gaelic world . However , by the end of the twelfth century , the Scottish kings had acquired the authority and ability to draw in native Gaelic lords outside their previous zone of control in order to do their work , the most famous examples being Lochlann , Lord of Galloway and Ferchar mac in tSagairt . By the reign of Alexander III , the Scots were in a strong position to annex the remainder of the western seaboard , which they did following Haakon Haakonarson 's ill @-@ fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs with the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . The conquest of the west , the creation of the Mormaerdom of Carrick in 1186 and the absorption of the Lordship of Galloway after the Galwegian revolt of Gille Ruadh in 1235 meant that Gaelic speakers under the rule of the Scottish king formed a majority of the population during the so @-@ called Norman period . The integration of Gaelic , Norman and Saxon culture that began to occur may have been the platform that enabled King Robert I to emerge victorious during the Wars of Independence , which followed soon after the death of Alexander III .
= = Geography = =
At the beginning of this period the boundaries of Alba contained only a small proportion of modern Scotland . Even when these lands were added to in the tenth and eleventh centuries , the term Scotia was applied in sources only to the region between the River Forth , the central Grampians and the River Spey and only began to be used to describe all of the lands under the authority of the Scottish crown from the second half of the twelfth century . By the late thirteenth century when the Treaty of York ( 1237 ) and Treaty of Perth ( 1266 ) had fixed the boundaries with the Kingdom of the Scots with England and Norway respectively , its borders were close to the modern boundaries . After this time both Berwick and the Isle of Man were lost to England , and Orkney and Shetland were gained from Norway in the fifteenth century .
The area that became Scotland in this period is divided by geology into five major regions : the Southern Uplands , Central Lowlands , the Highlands , the North @-@ east coastal plain and the Islands . Some of these were further divided by mountains , major rivers and marshes . Most of these regions had strong cultural and economic ties elsewhere : to England , Ireland , Scandinavian and mainland Europe . Internal communications were difficult and the country lacked an obvious geographical centre . Dunfermline emerged as a major royal centre in the reign of Malcolm III and Edinburgh began to be used to house royal records in the reign of David I , but , perhaps because of its proximity and vulnerability to England , it did not become a formal capital in this period .
The expansion of Alba into the wider Kingdom of Scotland was a gradual process combining external conquest and the suppression of occasional rebellions with the extension of seigniorial power through the placement of effective agents of the crown . Neighbouring independent kings became subject to Alba and eventually disappeared from the records . In the ninth century the term mormaer , meaning " great steward " , began to appear in the records to describe the rulers of Moray , Strathearn , Buchan , Angus and Mearns , who may have acted as " marcher lords " for the kingdom to counter the Viking threat . Later the process of consolidation is associated with the feudalism introduced by David I , which , particularly in the east and south where the crown 's authority was greatest , saw the placement of lordships , often based on castles , and the creation of administrative sheriffdoms , which overlay the pattern of local thegns . It also saw the English earl and Latin comes begin to replace the mormaers in the records . The result has been seen as a " hybrid kingdom , in which Gaelic , Anglo @-@ Saxon , Flemish and Norman elements all coalesced under its ' Normanised ' , but nevertheless native lines of kings " .
= = Economy and society = =
= = = Economy = = =
The Scottish economy of this period was dominated by agriculture and by short @-@ distance , local trade . There was an increasing amount of foreign trade in the period , as well as exchange gained by means of military plunder . By the end of this period , coins were replacing barter goods , but for most of this period most exchange was done without the use of metal currency .
Most of Scotland 's agricultural wealth in this period came from pastoralism , rather than arable farming . Arable farming grew significantly in the " Norman period " , but with geographical differences , low @-@ lying areas being subject to more arable farming than high @-@ lying areas such as the Highlands , Galloway and the Southern Uplands . Galloway , in the words of G. W. S. Barrow , " already famous for its cattle , was so overwhelmingly pastoral , that there is little evidence in that region of land under any permanent cultivation , save along the Solway coast " . The average amount of land used by a husbandman in Scotland might have been around 26 acres . The native Scots favoured pastoralism , in that Gaelic lords were happier to give away more land to French and Middle English @-@ speaking settlers , while holding on tenaciously to upland regions , perhaps contributing to the Highland / Galloway @-@ Lowland division that emerged in Scotland in the later Middle Ages . The main unit of land measurement in Scotland was the davoch ( i.e. " vat " ) , called the arachor in Lennox and also known as the " Scottish ploughgate " . In English @-@ speaking Lothian , it was simply ploughgate . It may have measured about 104 acres ( 0 @.@ 42 km2 ) , divided into 4 raths . Cattle , pigs and cheeses were among the chief foodstuffs , from a wide range of produce including sheep , fish , rye , barley , bee wax and honey .
David I established the first chartered burghs in Scotland , copying the burgher charters and Leges Burgorum ( rules governing virtually every aspect of life and work ) almost verbatim from the English customs of Newcastle @-@ Upon @-@ Tyne . Early burgesses were usually Flemish , English , French and German , rather than Gaelic Scots . The burgh 's vocabulary was composed totally of either Germanic and French terms . The councils that ran individual burghs were individually known as lie doussane , meaning the dozen .
= = = Demography and language = = =
The population of Scotland in this period is unknown . The first reliable information in 1755 shows the inhabitants of Scotland as 1 @,@ 265 @,@ 380 . Best estimates put the Scottish population for earlier periods in the High Middle Ages between 500 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people , growing from a low point to a high point . Linguistically , the majority of people within Scotland throughout this period spoke the Gaelic language , then simply called Scottish , or in Latin , lingua Scotica . Other languages spoken throughout this period were Old Norse and English , with the Cumbric language disappearing somewhere between 900 and 1100 . Pictish may have survived into this period , but the evidence is weak . After the accession of David I , or perhaps before , Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court . From his reign until the end of the period , the Scottish monarchs probably favoured the French language , as evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles , literature and translations of administrative documents into the French language . English , with French and Flemish , became the main language of Scottish burghs . However , they were , in Barrow 's words , " scarcely more than villages ... numbered in hundreds rather than thousands " .
= = = Society = = =
The legal tract known as Laws of the Brets and Scots , probably compiled in the reign of David I , underlines the importance of the kin group as entitled to compensation for the killing of individual members . It also lists five grades of man : King , mormaer , toísech , ócthigern and neyfs . The highest rank below the king , the mormaer ( " great officer " ) , were probably about a dozen provincial rulers , later replaced by the English term earl . Below them the toísech ( leader ) , appear to have managed areas of the royal demesne , or that of a mormaer or abbot , within which they would have held substantial estates , sometimes described as shires and the title was probably equivalent to the later thane . The lowest free rank mentioned by the Laws of the Brets and Scots , the ócthigern ( literally , little or young lord ) , is a term the text does not translate into French . There were probably relatively large numbers of free peasant farmers , called husbandmen or bondmen , in the south and north of the country , but fewer in the lands between the Forth and Sutherland until the twelfth century , when landlords began to encourage the formation of such a class through paying better wages and deliberate immigration . Below the husbandmen a class of free farmers with smaller parcels of land developed , with cottars and grazing tenants ( gresemen ) . The non @-@ free naviti , neyfs or serfs existed in various forms of service , with terms with their origins in Irish practice , including cumelache , cumherba and scoloc who were tied to a lord 's estate and unable to leave it without permission , but who records indicate often absconded for better wages or work in other regions or in the developing burghs .
The introduction of feudalism from the time of David I , not only introduced sheriffdoms that overlay the pattern of local thanes , but also meant that new tenures were held from the king , or a superior lord , in exchange for loyalty and forms of service that were usually military . However , the imposition of feudalism continued to sit beside existing system of landholding and tenure and it is not clear how this change impacted on the lives of the ordinary free and unfree workers . In places , feudalism may have tied workers more closely to the land , but the predominantly pastoral nature of Scottish agriculture may have made the imposition of a manorial system on the English model impracticable . Obligations appear to have been limited to occasional labour service , seasonal renders of food , hospitality and money rents .
= = Law and government = =
Early Gaelic law tracts , first written down in the ninth century , reveal a society highly concerned with kinship , status , honour and the regulation of blood feuds . Scottish common law began to take shape at the end of the period , assimilating Gaelic and Celtic law with practices from Anglo @-@ Norman England and the Continent . In the twelfth century , and certainly in the thirteenth , strong continental legal influences began to have more effect , such as Canon law and various Anglo @-@ Norman practices . Pre @-@ fourteenth century law among the native Scots is not always well attested , but extensive knowledge of early Gaelic Law gives some basis for its reconstruction . In the earliest extant Scottish legal manuscript , there is a document called Leges inter Brettos et Scottos . The document survives in Old French , and is almost certainly a French translation of an earlier Gaelic document . It retained a vast number of untranslated Gaelic legal terms . Later medieval legal documents , written both in Latin and Middle English , contain more Gaelic legal terms , examples including slains ( Old Irish slán or sláinte ; exemption ) and cumherba ( Old Irish comarba ; ecclesiastic heir ) .
A Judex ( pl. judices ) represents a post @-@ Norman continuity with the ancient Gaelic orders of lawmen called in English today Brehons . Bearers of the office almost always have Gaelic names north of the Forth or in the south @-@ west . Judices were often royal officials who supervised baronial , abbatial and other lower @-@ ranking " courts " . However , the main official of law in the post @-@ Davidian Kingdom of the Scots was the Justiciar who held courts and reported to the king personally . Normally , there were two Justiciarships , organised by linguistic boundaries : the Justiciar of Scotia and the Justiciar of Lothian . Sometimes Galloway had its own Justiciar too .
The office of Justiciar and Judex were just two ways that Scottish society was governed . In the earlier period , the king " delegated " power to hereditary native " officers " such as the Mormaers / Earls and Toísechs / Thanes . It was a government of gift @-@ giving and bardic lawmen . There were also popular courts , the comhdhail , testament to which are dozens of placenames throughout eastern Scotland . In the Norman period , sheriffdoms and sheriffs and , to a lesser extent , bishops ( see below ) became increasingly important . The former enabled the King to effectively administer royal demesne land . During David I 's reign , royal sheriffs had been established in the king 's core personal territories ; namely , in rough chronological order , at Roxburgh , Scone , Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , Stirling and Perth . By the reign of William I , there may have been about 30 royal sheriffdoms , including ones at Ayr and Dumfries , key locations on the borders of Galloway @-@ Carrick . As the distribution and number of sheriffdoms expanded , so did royal control . By the end of the thirteenth century , sheriffdoms had been established in westerly locations as far @-@ flung as Wigtown , Kintyre , Skye and Lorne . Through these , the thirteenth @-@ century Scottish king exercised more control over Scotland than any of his later medieval successors . The king himself was itinerant and had no " capital " as such although Scone performed a key function . By ritual tradition , all Scottish kings in this period had to be crowned there by the Mormaers of Strathearn and Fife . Although King David I tried to build up Roxburgh as a capital , in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries , more charters were issued at Scone than any other location . Other popular locations were nearby Perth , Stirling , Dunfermline and Edinburgh . In the earliest part of this era , Forres and Dunkeld seem to have been the chief royal residences .
Records from the Scandinavian @-@ held lands are much @-@ less well documented by comparison . Udal law formed the basis of the legal system and it is known that the Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland measure . Althings were open @-@ air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all free men . At these sessions decisions were made , laws passed and complaints adjudicated . Examples include Tingwall and Law Ting Holm in Shetland , Dingwall in Easter Ross , and Tynwald on the Isle of Man .
= = Warfare = =
= = = Land warfare = = =
By the twelfth century the ability of lords and the king to call on wider bodies of men beyond their household troops for major campaigns had become the " common " ( communis exertcitus ) or " Scottish army " ( exercitus Scoticanus ) , the result of a universal obligation based on the holding of variously named units of land . Later decrees indicated that the common army was a levy of all able @-@ bodied freemen aged between 16 and 60 , with 8 @-@ days warning . It produced relatively large numbers of men serving for a limited period , usually as unarmoured or poorly armoured bowmen and spearmen . In this period it continued to be mustered by the earls and they often led their men in battle , as was the case in the Battle of the Standard in 1138 . It would continue to provide the vast majority of Scottish national armies , potentially producing tens of thousands of men for short periods of conflict , into the early modern era .
There also developed obligations that produced smaller numbers of feudal troops . The Davidian Revolution of the twelfth century was seen by Geoffrey Barrow as bringing " fundamental innovations in military organization " . These included the knight 's fee , homage and fealty , as well as castle @-@ building and the regular use of professional cavalry , as knights held castles and estates in exchange for service , providing troops on a 40 @-@ day basis . David 's Norman followers and their retinues were able to provide a force of perhaps 200 mounted and armoured knights , but the vast majority of his forces were the " common army " of poorly armed infantry , capable of performing well in raiding and guerrilla warfare . Although such troops were only infrequently able to stand up to the English in the field , nonetheless they did manage to do so critically in the wars of independence at Stirling Bridge in 1297 and Bannockburn in 1314 .
= = = Marine warfare = = =
The Viking onslaught of the British Isles was based on superior sea @-@ power , which enabled the creation of the thalassocracies of the north and west . In the late tenth century the naval battle of " Innisibsolian " ( tentatively identified as taking place near the Slate Islands of Argyll ) was won by Alban forces over Vikings , although this was an unusual setback for the Norse . In 962 Ildulb mac Causantín , King of Scots , was killed
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and conservative parties , respectively ; and both parties came to compete for electoral success in the South , with the Republican Party controlling most of Southern politics .
= = Constitutionality = =
= = = Voter eligibility provisions = = =
Early in the Act 's enforcement history , the Supreme Court addressed the constitutionality of several provisions relating to voter qualifications and prerequisites to voting . In Katzenbach v. Morgan ( 1966 ) , the Court upheld the constitutionality of Section 4 ( e ) . This section prohibits jurisdictions from administering literacy tests to citizens who attain a sixth @-@ grade education in an American school in which the predominant language was Spanish , such as schools in Puerto Rico . Although the Court had earlier held in Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections ( 1959 ) that literacy tests did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment , in Morgan the Court held that Congress could enforce Fourteenth Amendment rights — such as the right to vote — by prohibiting conduct it deemed to interfere with such rights , even if that conduct may not be independently unconstitutional . After Congress created a nationwide ban on all literacy tests and similar devices in 1970 by enacting Section 201 , the Court upheld the ban as constitutional in Oregon v. Mitchell ( 1970 ) .
In Oregon , the Supreme Court also addressed the constitutionality of various other provisions relating to voter qualifications and prerequisites to voting . The Court upheld Section 202 , which prohibits any state or local jurisdiction from requiring people to live in their borders for longer than 30 days before allowing them to vote in a presidential election . Additionally , the Court upheld the provision lowering the minimum voting age to 18 in federal elections , but it held that Congress exceeded its power by lowering the voting age to 18 in state elections ; this precipitated the ratification of the Twenty @-@ sixth Amendment the following year , which lowered the voting age in all elections to 18 . The Court was deeply divided in Oregon , and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding .
= = = Section 2 results test = = =
The constitutionality of Section 2 , which contains a general prohibition on discriminatory voting laws , has not been definitively explained by the Supreme Court . As amended in 1982 , Section 2 prohibits any voting practice that has a discriminatory effect , irrespective of whether the practice was enacted or is administered for the purpose of discriminating . This " results test " contrasts with the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments , both of which directly prohibit only purposeful discrimination . Given this disparity , whether the Supreme Court would uphold the constitutionality of Section 2 as appropriate legislation passed to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments , and under what rationale , remains unclear .
In Mississippi Republican Executive Opinion v. Brooks ( 1984 ) , the Supreme Court summarily affirmed , without a written opinion , a lower court 's decision that Section 2 is constitutional . Justice Rehnquist , joined by Chief Justice Burger , dissented from the opinion . Their reasoning was that the case presented complex constitutional issues that should have warranted a full hearing . In later cases , the Supreme Court is more likely to disregard one of its previous judgments that lacks a written opinion , but lower courts must respect the Supreme Court 's unwritten summary affirmances as being as equally binding on them as Supreme Court judgments with written opinions . Partially due to Brooks , the constitutionality of the Section 2 results test has since been unanimously upheld by lower courts .
= = = Coverage formula and preclearance = = =
The Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of the Section 5 preclearance requirement in three cases . The first case was South Carolina v. Katzenbach ( 1966 ) , which was decided about five months after the Act 's enactment . The Court held that Section 5 constituted a valid use of Congress 's power to enforce the Fifteenth Amendment , reasoning that " exceptional circumstances " of pervasive racial discrimination , combined with the inadequacy of case @-@ by @-@ case litigation in ending that discrimination , justified the preclearance requirement . The Court also upheld the constitutionality of the 1965 coverage formula , saying that it was " rational in both practice and theory " and that the bailout provision provided adequate relief for jurisdictions that may not deserve coverage .
The Supreme Court again upheld the preclearance requirement in City of Rome v. United States ( 1980 ) . The Court held that because Congress had explicit constitutional power to enforce the Reconstruction Amendments " by appropriate legislation " , the Act did not violate principles of federalism . The Court also explicitly upheld the " discriminatory effect " prong of Section 5 , stating that even though the Fifteenth Amendment directly prohibited only intentional discrimination , Congress could constitutionally prohibit unintentional discrimination to mitigate the risk that jurisdictions may engage in intentional discrimination . Finally , the Court upheld the 1975 extension of Section 5 because of the record of discrimination that continued to persist in the covered jurisdictions . The Court further suggested that the temporary nature of the special provisions was relevant to Section 5 's constitutionality .
The final case in which the Supreme Court upheld Section 5 was Lopez v. Monterey County ( Lopez II ) ( 1999 ) . In Lopez II , the Court reiterated its reasoning in Katzenbach and Rome , and it upheld as constitutional the requirement that covered local governments obtain preclearance before implementing voting changes that their parent state required them to implement , even if the parent state was not itself a covered jurisdiction .
The 2006 extension of Section 5 was challenged before the Supreme Court in Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder ( 2009 ) . The lawsuit was brought by a municipal water district in Texas that elected members to a water board . The District wished to move a voting location from a private home to a public school , but that change was subject to preclearance because Texas was a covered jurisdiction . The District did not register voters , and thus it did not appear to qualify as a " political subdivision " eligible to bail out of coverage . Although the Court indicated in dicta ( a non @-@ binding part of the court 's opinion ) that Section 5 presented difficult constitutional questions , it did not declare Section 5 unconstitutional ; instead , it interpreted the law to allow any covered local government , including one that does not register voters , to obtain an exemption from preclearance if it meets the bailout requirements .
On November 9 , 2012 , the Supreme Court granted certiorari in the case of Shelby County v. Holder limited to the question of " whether Congress ' decision in 2006 to reauthorize Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act under the pre @-@ existing coverage formula of Section 4 ( b ) ... exceeded its authority under the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments , thus violating the Tenth Amendment and Article IV of the United States Constitution " . On June 25 , 2013 , the Court struck down Section 4 ( b ) as unconstitutional . The Court reasoned that the coverage formula violates the constitutional principles of " equal sovereignty of the states " and federalism because its disparate treatment of the states is " based on 40 year @-@ old facts having no logical relationship to the present day " , which makes the formula unresponsive to current needs . The Court did not strike down Section 5 , but without Section 4 ( b ) , no jurisdiction may be subject to Section 5 preclearance unless Congress enacts a new coverage formula . After the decision , several states that were fully or partially covered — including Texas , Mississippi , North Carolina , and South Carolina — implemented laws that were previously denied preclearance . This prompted new legal challenges to these laws under other provisions unaffected by the Court 's decision , such as Section 2 .
= = = Racial gerrymandering = = =
While Section 2 and Section 5 prohibit jurisdictions from drawing electoral districts that dilute the votes of protected minorities , the Supreme Court has held that in some instances , the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prevents jurisdictions from drawing district lines to favor protected minorities . The Court first recognized the justiciability of affirmative " racial gerrymandering " claims in Shaw v. Reno ( 1993 ) . In Miller v. Johnson ( 1995 ) , the Court explained that a redistricting plan is constitutionally suspect if the jurisdiction used race as the " predominant factor " in determining how to draw district lines . For race to " predominate " , the jurisdiction must prioritize racial considerations over traditional redistricting principles , which include " compactness , contiguity , [ and ] respect for political subdivisions or communities defined by actual shared interests . " If a court concludes that racial considerations predominated , then the redistricting plan is considered " racially gerrymandered " and must be subjected to strict scrutiny , meaning that the redistricting plan will be upheld as constitutional only if it is narrowly tailored to advance a compelling state interest . In Bush v. Vera ( 1996 ) , a plurality of the Supreme Court assumed that complying with Section 2 or Section 5 constituted compelling interests , and lower courts have allowed only these two interests to justify racial gerrymandering .
= Lindsay Hassett with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Lindsay Hassett was the vice @-@ captain and one of three on @-@ tour selectors for Don Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 . The Australians went undefeated in their 34 matches ; this unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles , and resulted in them being regarded as one of the greatest teams of all time . A right @-@ handed batsman , Hassett played in all five Tests ; he was a middle @-@ order batsman in all but the Fourth Test , when he stood in as an opener due to an injury to Sid Barnes .
As the matches were often played consecutively without a day between fixtures , Australia employed a rotation policy , and as a result , Hassett captained the team in nine tour matches while Bradman was rested . Under Hassett 's watch , Australia won seven matches , five of these by an innings , while both draws were rain @-@ affected fixtures in which more than half the playing time was lost . Hassett had two close encounters , both on damp pitches before the First Test . Against Yorkshire , Australia scraped home by four wickets in a low @-@ scoring match with ten men after Sam Loxton succumbed to injury . In a later match against Hampshire , Australia ceded a first innings lead for the first time on tour , but recovered to win by eight wickets .
Hassett ended the first @-@ class matches with 1 @,@ 563 runs at a batting average of 74 @.@ 22 including seven centuries . Among the Australians , he had the third highest aggregate behind Bradman and Arthur Morris and the second highest average . His highest score was an unbeaten 200 against the Gentlemen of England . Hassett was less successful in the Tests , scoring 310 runs at 44 @.@ 28 with one century . This placed him fourth in the Australian aggregates , but only seventh in the averages . His biggest contribution was his 137 in the first innings of the First Test at Trent Bridge . It was a patient innings as England attempted to stop Australia 's scoring with defensive leg theory ; Hassett helped the tourists set up a first innings lead of 344 , which laid the foundation for the eventual victory . He had three scores between 35 and 50 during the Tests , but was unable to convert his starts into large innings . Hassett took 23 catches on the tour , the most by an Australia excluding wicket @-@ keepers .
Hassett was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year for 1949 . Wisden remarked that " in addition to his playing ability Hassett 's cheerfulness and leadership , which extended to off @-@ the @-@ field relaxation as well as in the more exacting part of the programme , combined to make him an ideal vice @-@ captain able to lift a considerable load off Bradman 's busy shoulders " .
= = Background = =
The 1948 tour was Hassett 's second Test campaign in England . A diminutive right @-@ handed batsman , he toured England under Bradman in 1938 , making his Test debut during the series and playing in all four matches . Following the interruption of World War II , Hassett led the Australian Services — a military team — in the Victory Tests . He became a regular member of the Test team and was the vice @-@ captain under Bradman for the series against England and India in Australia during 1946 – 47 and 1947 – 48 respectively . In the latter Test series , he averaged 110 @.@ 66 with the bat , and he was duly selected for the tour of England , continuing in his role as Bradman 's deputy .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . Hassett thus played as vice @-@ captain of Bradman 's first @-@ choice team and took a catch as Australia dismissed the hosts for 233 . However , when Australia batted , Bradman rearranged the order and Hassett came in at No. 7 with Australia ’ s score at 5 / 320 after losing 4 / 55 in a middle @-@ order collapse . Hassett made 25 in 66 minutes with three fours as Australia declared at 8 / 462 ; the hosts were bowled out for 212 to complete an Australian victory by an innings and 17 runs . Hassett was rested for next match against Leicestershire , which resulted in another innings win for the tourists .
The Australians then proceeded to play Yorkshire at Bradford , on a damp pitch that suited slower bowling ; rain delayed the start of the match until midway through the first afternoon . Bradman rested himself and returned to London while Hassett led the team . Yorkshire elected to bat and were bowled out in difficult batting conditions for 71 , despite Australia losing all rounder Sam Loxton with a hamstring injury . Australia replied with 101 without Loxton , who was unable to bat . Hassett came in at 1 / 24 and was immediately out for a duck . Australia then bowled out the hosts in the second innings for 89 . Chasing 60 for victory , Hassett elected to not ask for the pitch to be rolled . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Hassett " might have made an initial mistake in not having the pitch rolled because whenever there was rain about in England the heavy roller seemed to knock any nonsense [ erratic bounce and sideways movement ] out of the pitch " . Australia lost quick wickets and Hassett came in with the score at 2 / 5 . Keith Miller was then out at 3 / 13 after attempting to hit a six , while Hassett was nervous after his first innings duck . Ron Hamence joined Hassett and they took the score to 20 before the former was run out attempting a quick single . Without further addition to the score , Hassett attempted a pull shot and top edged it so high that five players had the time to converge and any of these could have caught the ball . The catch was eventually taken directly in front of Hassett , leaving Australia at 5 / 20 . To make matters worse , Loxton was still too injured to bat , so Australia effectively only had four wickets in hand and faced its first loss to an English county since 1912 . Neil Harvey had scored a solitary run when he was dropped at short leg . Colin McCool fell at 6 / 31 , and Harvey and new partner Don Tallon were both given lives before the tourists scraped home by four wickets . It was the closest Australia came to defeat for the whole tour , and Hassett was very relieved , playing his head in his hands and muttering " Why me ? Why is it always me ? " in a reference to his encountering rain @-@ affected wickets as captain .
Bradman returned to lead the Australians in the next match against Surrey at The Oval in London ; Australia won the toss and batted first . Sid Barnes and Arthur Morris put on 136 , before Bradman and Barnes put on another 207 before the opener fell for 176 . Hassett came in and Bradman was dismissed for 146 at 3 / 403 . Hassett struck form and reached his first century for the English summer , posting 110 before being clean bowled by Test seamer Alec Bedser as Australia were bowled out for 632 . Bedser pitched an outswinger on leg stump and it moved away to clip Hassett 's off stump . Bradman ’ s men then bowled Surrey out for 141 and 195 to win by an innings .
Bradman rested himself for the next match against Cambridge University , and Hassett led the tourists to another innings victory after the hosts won the toss and elected to bat . After Cambridge had made 167 , Hassett scored an unbeaten 61 in a partnership of 140 with Bill Brown before declaring at 4 / 414 when Brown fell for 200 . Hassett 's bowlers then dismissed the hosts for 196 in the second innings , sealing victory by an innings and 51 runs . In the following match against Essex , Bradman returned and Hassett was rested as Australia won the toss and batted first , scoring a world @-@ record of 721 first @-@ class runs in one day . The visitors then proceeded to victory by an innings and 451 runs , their biggest winning margin for the summer . Bradman then rested himself for the next game against Oxford University , where Hassett oversaw another innings victory . Hassett made a duck , caught from a rearing ball from paceman Philip Whitcombe , as Australia made 431 and then enforced the follow on .
The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full @-@ strength Test team , while Australia selected their first @-@ choice team . Bradman captained the team and batted at No. 3 with Hassett in his customary position at No. 4 . Barring one change in the bowling department , the same team would line up for Australia in the First Test , with the top six batsmen in the same position . It was a chance for players from both sides to gain a psychological advantage before the Tests . Australia elected to bat and Hassett came in to join Bradman at 2 / 171 . The pair took the score to 200 before Bradman fell for 98 to leave Australia at 3 / 200 . Hassett then put on 80 with Miller before being trapped leg before wicket ( lbw ) for 51 by Jack Young . Fingleton hailed Hassett 's display as " the prettiest half century we saw in the whole summer . There was not effort in his play . The ball sped quietly and quickly in all directions . " Bradman 's men went on to amass 552 and bowled out the hosts for 189 and 205 to win by an innings , with Hassett catching Len Hutton and Ken Cranston in the first innings .
The MCC match was followed by Australia 's first non @-@ victory of the tour , which was against Lancashire . Hassett was rested as the first day was washed out and the match ended in a draw . In the following match against Nottinghamshire , the hosts batted first and made 179 . Hassett made 44 and featured in a partnership of 81 with Keith Miller as the tourists reached 400 . However , Nottinghamshire ended at 8 / 299 to hang on for a draw in the second innings . Bradman rested himself for the following match against Hampshire , and Hassett oversaw another scare . On a drying pitch , Australia were dismissed for 117 in reply to the home side 's 195 , the first time they had conceded a first innings lead on tour . Australia had made a solid start , reaching 2 / 70 before Hassett fell for 26 , sparking a collapse of 8 / 47 to be all out for 117 . This prompted Bradman to telegram Hassett : " Bradford was bad enough but this is unbearable , heads up and chins down . " Hampshire were then bowled out for 103 , leaving Australia a target of 182 , which they reached to seal an eight @-@ wicket win , with Hassett unbeaten on 27 . The final match before the First Test was against Sussex . Hassett was rested as Australia skittled the hosts for 86 and declared at 5 / 549 , before completing another innings victory .
= = First Test = =
Australia headed into the First Test at Trent Bridge with ten wins and two draws from twelve tour matches , including eight innings victories . England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . Pundits predicted that the pitch would be ideal for batting after offering some assistance to fast bowlers in the first hour . The surface had greened up following overnight rain . Australia 's fast bowlers reduced England to 8 / 74 before finishing them off for 165 late on the first day . The tourists had already taken the lead by the time Hassett came in to join Bradman at 4 / 185 on the second afternoon . The hard @-@ hitting Miller had come in at No. 4 , the more Hassett 's usual position , indicating that Bradman may have been looking to attack , but the change in batting order failed as Miller was out for a duck .
Australia had been scoring slowly , as they would throughout the day , and following Hassett 's entrance , the Australians slowed further as Bradman changed the team strategy to one of attempting to bat only once . Hassett almost holed out early when he knocked a ball from Alec Bedser up in the air and it just evaded the grasp of wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans . Yardley continued to employ leg theory , as he and Charlie Barnett bowled outside leg stump ; this tactic stifled the Australian scoring but also limited wicket @-@ taking opportunities . During one over , Bradman did not attempt to hit a single ball and put his hands on his hips to express his displeasure at England ’ s tactics . During the 15 minutes before tea , the Australian skipper did not add a single run and was heckled by the crowd . In the last session , Bradman brought up one of his slowest ever centuries , as Yardley focused on stopping runs rather than taking Australian wickets . Bradman reached stumps on 130 . Hassett also batted patiently , with one period of 20 minutes during which his score remained on 30 . Australia closed the second day at 4 / 293 to lead by 128 , with Hassett on 41 , having combined for an unbroken stand of 108 with Bradman .
Early on the third day , Bradman fell for 138 with the score at 5 / 305 . Yardley again pinned Hassett down with more leg theory . Laker bowled with one slip , while Young had none and employed a pure ring field . The scoring was slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26 @-@ over spell conceded only 14 runs . In the face of the slow proceedings , Hassett conducted himself in a humorous way , and English commentator John Arlott said that " only his grace and concealed humour made his innings tolerable " . He mainly scored from deflections and was for the most part prepared to take his time . The injured Ray Lindwall came out to join Hassett at 7 / 365 without a runner . Hassett — who had scored only 30 runs in the first 75 minutes of the morning — swept Laker for four and then hit him for the first six of the match . Hassett added 53 in the two hours of the morning session to reach lunch at 94 . Australia were unhurried and remained patient in the face of Yardley ’ s defensive tactics because they had bowled England out on the first day and there was still sufficient time to force a result . After the break , Hassett reached his first Test century on English soil. from 305 minutes . He then accelerated , adding a further 37 runs in 49 minutes , before being bowled by Bedser , having struck 20 fours and a six . This ended an eighth @-@ wicket partnership of 107 with Lindwall with the score at 8 / 473 ; Australia ended at 509 to take a 344 @-@ run first innings lead .
During England ’ s second innings , Joe Hardstaff , Jr. fell for 43 , lofting Ernie Toshack to Hassett on the leg side to end a partnership of 93 with Denis Compton . The ball looped up in the air and travelled half @-@ way to the square leg boundary , but Hassett managed to keep track of its trajectory through the fog . Australia eventually finished off the hosts for 441 , leaving them a target of 98 on the final afternoon . Australia proceeded steadily to 38 from 32 minutes before Morris fell . Bradman came in and was out for a duck . This left Australia at 2 / 48 , at which point dark clouds began to close in on the ground , and it appeared that rain might save England . However , it never came , and meanwhile Hassett joined Barnes . The pair attacked , Hassett twice driving Bedser over the infield for boundaries , and later pulling another ball in the air for another four . The tourists reached the target without further loss after 87 minutes of batting . Barnes tied the scores with a swept boundary , but ran off the field with a souvenir stump , believing that the match was over . He returned to the field when he noticed the crowd reaction ; Hassett hit the winning run to end with an unbeaten 21 .
Between Tests , Bradman rested himself for the match against Northamptonshire , which started the day after the Test . Hassett won the toss and elected to bowl ; his bowlers ensured that the decision paid off by bowling out the hosts for 119 . When Australia batted , Hassett came in at 1 / 17 and added 122 runs for the second wicket with Morris before combining for another 104 with Ron Hamence . Hassett was eventually out for the top score of 127 , having played with flair and freedom he eschewed in the Tests , before Australia declared at 8 / 352 . The bowlers then removed Northamptonshire for 169 , giving Australia a victory by an innings and 64 runs . Hassett also took five catches for the match . He was rested for the second match against Yorkshire , which was drawn .
= = Second Test = =
Australia opted to field an unchanged lineup for the Second Test at Lord 's . Bradman elected to bat , allowing Lindwall more time to recover from a groin strain before being required to bowl . Hassett came in to join Morris at 2 / 87 when Bradman fell soon after lunch on the first day . The new ball was available , but England had declined to take it . Bedser beat Hassett second ball with a delivery that moved back in , but the appeal for lbw was turned down . However , Yardley opted to not take the ball , and Hassett managed to score a single and get off strike before the English captain finally called for a replacement ball . Journalist and retired Australian cricketer Bill O 'Reilly said that the failure to take the new ball immediately after the appeal was a failure to maximise the psychological pressure on Hassett .
The pair added 79 before Morris fell for 105 and Miller was out seven runs later at 4 / 173 . By taking two quick wickets , England had put the match back in the balance . Batting out of position in the middle order , Brown came in and helped Hassett to rebuild the innings . Both scored slowly , averaging more than three and half minutes for each run . Hassett was dropped three times before Yardley , who was bowling mainly in order to allow his frontline bowlers to recuperate , broke through his defences with a yorker , dismissing him for 47 after 175 minutes of batting ; the English skipper trapped Brown lbw nine runs later to leave Australia 6 / 225 . Australia recovered to 350 on the second morning , and England were then bowled out on the third morning for 215 . Australia 's top @-@ order scored quickly and Hassett came in with the score at 2 / 296 after 277 minutes of batting . Yardley bowled Hassett first ball off the inside edge , so Miller came to the crease at 3 / 296 to face the hat @-@ trick ball . Miller survived a loud lbw appeal to deny the English captain a hat @-@ trick . Australia then declared at 7 / 460 on the fourth day to leave England a target of 596 , which would have taken a world record run @-@ chase for victory . Hassett caught Alec Bedser from the bowling of Bill Johnston as Australia bowled out the hosts for 186 early on the final morning to win by 409 runs .
The next match was against Surrey and started the day after the Lord ’ s Test . Australia elected to field and dismissed the hosts for 221 . Brown injured a finger while fielding and was unable to bat in Australia 's first innings . Hamence filled in as an opener alongside Hassett but was out for a duck , so Bradman joined his deputy with the score at 1 / 6 . The Australian skipper put on 231 with Hassett , who top @-@ scored with 139 . Accelerating after reaching his century , Hassett was out for 4 / 289 and the tourists collapsed to be all out for 389 , after losing 7 / 100 . In the second innings , Australia 's makeshift openers Harvey and Sam Loxton chased down the 122 runs required for a 10 @-@ wicket win in less than hour , so Hassett was not required to bat .
Bradman rested himself for the following match against Gloucestershire before the Third Test . Hassett led the team and elected to bat as Australia reached 7 / 774 declared on the second day . It was the tourists ’ highest score for the tour and the second best by any Australian team on English soil . Hassett instructed his batsmen to attack local off spinner Tom Goddard , who was seen as a possible selection for England in the Third Test . His batsmen used their feet to charge at Goddard , who was used to batsmen playing him from static positions , and could not cope . Goddard took 0 / 186 from 32 overs and his chances of being selected ended . However , Hassett was unable to join the plunder , making only 21 . He then enforced the follow on as the hosts were out for 279 and 132 to cede victory by an innings and 363 runs . Hassett allowed himself to bowl for the first time on tour , sending down two overs for eight runs without taking a wicket .
= = Third Test = =
The teams reassembled at Old Trafford for the Third Test . Australia replaced Brown — who had scored 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three innings — with the all rounder Loxton , who had made an unbeaten 47 against Surrey and 159 not out against Gloucestershire . England made 363 after electing to bat . On the second day , Australia were in trouble when Hassett came in at 2 / 13 . Morris and Hassett rebuilt the innings , adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes before the latter was beaten in flight by Jack Young . Aiming to break Young 's restrictive leg side bowling , Hassett charged down the pitch and lofted a drive for four . However , in attempting a similar lofted drive over cover , he mishit the ball , which was caught by Cyril Washbrook at wide mid @-@ off . This left Australia at 3 / 82 and they eventually made 221 to avoid the follow on by eight runs .
In England 's second innings , Lindwall bounced Washbrook and the England opener went for the hook shot . The ball flew in the air straight towards fine leg , where Hassett dropped the ball on the third attempt . At the time , Washbrook was on 21 . The English batsman had moved to 78 when he again hooked Lindwall to long leg and was again dropped by Hassett . The Australian vice @-@ captain responded by borrowing a helmet from a nearby policeman before humorously gesturing to indicate that he was ready for the next catch , much to the amusement of the crowd . On 80 , Washbrook was dropped in the slips cordon by Johnson from the bowling of Toshack . After the day 's play , Washbrook shouted Hassett a drink ; England were in a strong position at 3 / 174 , with an overall lead of 316 . Luckily for Australia , the pair of missed chances from the England opener late in the day cost little . Washbrook remained unbeaten on 85 as England declared without further addition to their score midway through the last day ; the entire fourth day and the final morning had been lost to rain . Hassett was not required as Australia batted for 61 overs to reach 1 / 92 and ensure that the match ended in a draw .
After Old Trafford , Hassett was rested as Australia defeated Middlesex by ten wickets in their only county match between Tests .
= = Fourth Test = =
The teams then headed to Headingley for the Fourth Test . Australia made two changes . Neil Harvey replaced the injured Barnes , while Ron Saggers replaced Don Tallon — who had a finger injury — behind the stumps . The reserve opener Brown was not recalled to open in the absence of Barnes ; instead , Hassett would improvise and open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order . As Australia led 2 – 0 after three Tests , England needed to win the last two matches to square the series . The home team won the toss and elected to bat on a batsman @-@ friendly pitch . Hassett dropped Len Hutton — who went on to score 81 — on 25 . England ’ s first @-@ wicket partnership was broken at 168 and was their first opening stand beyond 42 for the series . The hosts were eventually out for 496 on the second day . Hassett caught England wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans , who meekly prodded a ball from Sam Loxton straight to silly mid @-@ on .
With Barnes injured , Hassett moved from the middle @-@ order to open the innings with Morris . Bedser removed Morris for six to leave Australia at 1 / 13 , bringing Bradman to the crease . Hassett batted in a restrained manner , while Bradman attacked . The Australian captain was 31 and his deputy 13 as the tourists reached stumps at 1 / 63 . Bradman did the majority of the scoring during the closing stages of the afternoon , adding 31 in a partnership of 50 . On the third morning , play resumed in hot and humid conditions . In the second over delivered by Dick Pollard , the bowler made the second ball lift unexpectedly . Hassett was unable to get out of the way and edged the ball to Jack Crapp for 13 . Bradman was out in the same over and Australia were in trouble at 3 / 68 , but they recovered after a middle @-@ order counterattack took them to 458 early on the fourth day . Hassett then caught Bedser during England 's second innings .
England declared at 8 / 365 after two overs on the last day . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket and make it more likely to spin . Bradman elected to not have the pitch rolled at all , demonstrating his belief that such a device would only make batting more difficult .
Yardley ’ s declaration left Australia to chase 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory for the batting team . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target ; the local press wrote them off and predicted that they would be dismissed by lunchtime on a deteriorating wicket that was expected to favour the spin bowlers . Morris and Hassett started slowly , scoring only six runs in the first six overs on a surface that offered spin and bounce . It appeared that they were playing carefully at first before deciding whether to try and achieve the target at a later point . Only 44 runs came in the first hour , meaning that 360 runs were still needed in 285 minutes . Evans then missed a leg @-@ side stumping opportunity against Hassett as Bedser beat both openers with extra bounce . Hassett was dismissed by Compton 's left @-@ arm unorthodox spin for 17 with the score at 57 . The Englishman ’ s delivery had caught Hassett 's leading edge and he dived forward in his follow through to take a one @-@ handed catch just above the ground . Bradman joined Morris with 347 runs needed in 257 minutes . The English spinners created a number of chances against both batsmen , but multiple catches and stumping opportunities were fumbled . Aside from the missed wicket @-@ taking opportunities , the spinners were erratic in line and length and Bradman and Morris plundered many boundaries . Australia went on to complete the world record chase with seven wickets and 15 minutes in hand , ensuring an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead .
Hassett was rested as Australia amassed 456 and defeated Derbyshire by an innings immediately after the Fourth Test . He then led the team in place of the resting Bradman in the next match against Glamorgan , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings . The hosts fell for 197 and Hassett was unbeaten on 71 as Australia reached 3 / 215 — having featured in a partnership of 126 with Miller — when the weather ended the match .
In response to the home side 's 138 , Hassett top @-@ scored with 68 in Australia 's first innings of 254 before being trapped leg before wicket by Eric Hollies as the tourists defeated Warwickshire by nine wickets . Hollies 's 8 / 107 was the best innings bowling figures against the Australians for the summer . The feat earned him selection for the Fifth Test , where he dismissed Bradman in his final Test innings for a duck .
Hassett was then rested as Australia faced and drew with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . Bradman then rested himself and Hassett captained in the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings . Hassett made three while batting at No. 8 as Australia made 282 and then had the hosts at 5 / 73 when rain washed out the match after the first day .
= = Fifth Test = =
Australia then headed to The Oval for the Fifth Test . Barnes returned from injury , so Hassett returned to his customary position in the middle order . England elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Propelled by Lindwall 's 6 / 20 , the tourists skittled Yardley ’ s men for 52 in 42 @.@ 1 overs on the first afternoon . With the score at 1 / 10 , Bill Edrich attempted to hook a short ball from Bill Johnston . Edrich failed to get the ball in the middle of the bat and it looped up and travelled around 10 m . Hassett caught the ball just behind square leg , diving sideways to get two hands to the ball . Soon after , Lindwall bounced Compton , resulting in an edge that appeared to be heading towards the slips cordon . However , the ball cleared the ring of Australian fielders . Hutton called Compton through for a run , but his surprised partner was too busy watching the ball and dropped his bat in panic . Luckily for Compton , the ball went to Hassett at third man , who waited for Compton to regain his bat and composure before returning the ball , thereby forfeiting the opportunity to effect the run out . However , Compton only made four before being dismissed , so Australia lost little from Hassett 's sportsmanship .
In contrast , Australia batted with apparent ease , as the overcast skies cleared and sun came out late on the first afternoon . The opening partnership had reached 117 before Hollies removed Barnes for 61 . This brought Bradman to the crease shortly before 18 : 00 . As Bradman had announced that the tour would be his last at international level , the innings would be his last at Test level if Australia batted only once . With 6 @,@ 996 Test career runs , he only needed four runs to average 100 @.@ 00 in Test cricket . On the second ball , Hollies bowled Bradman for a duck with a googly that went between bat and pad as the Australian skipper leaned forward . Bradman appeared stunned and slowly turned around and walked back to the pavilion , receiving another large round of applause .
Hassett came in with the score at 2 / 117 and together with Morris saw Australia to the close at 2 / 153 . Morris was unbeaten on 77 and Hassett 10 . The next day , the pair took the score to 226 before their 109 @-@ run stand was broken when Young trapped Hassett lbw for 37 after 134 minutes of batting . As the Australians had dismissed their hosts cheaply on the first day and were already well in the lead , they had plenty of time to complete a victory , so Hassett and Morris had no need to take undue risks and scored at a sedate pace . The following batsmen were unable to string together substantial partnerships and Australia ended at 389 . When England batted again , Allan Watkins pulled Doug Ring to the leg side and straight into the hands of Hassett , who did not need to move from his position on the boundary , leaving England at 6 / 167 . The home team were eventually out for 188 and Australia thus sealed the series 4 – 0 with an innings victory .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Hassett was rested as Australia defeated Kent by an innings . In the next match against the Gentlemen of England at Lord 's , Hassett came to the crease at 2 / 221 after Brown was out for 121 and featured in a 110 @-@ run third @-@ wicket partnership with Bradman , who then fell for 150 . Miller came in and put on 157 with Hassett before being dismissed for 69 on the second day . Australia eventually declared at 5 / 610 when Hassett reached 200 not out against a team that featured eight Test players . Australia went on to win by an innings after enforcing the follow on . Bradman then rested himself and Hassett led Australia against Somerset . Hassett decided to bat and came to the crease when Brown was run out before Australia had scored a single run . On his 35th birthday , he made 103 and was the next batsman to fall at 2 / 256 , after a second @-@ wicket partnership with Barnes , who retired ill on 42 , and Harvey , who went on to make 126 . This ended a partnership of 187 in only 110 minutes with Harvey . Australia declared on 5 / 560 at the end of the first day . Hassett enforced the follow on as Australia went on to win by an innings and 374 runs , skittling the hosts for 115 and 71 . Hassett made it three centuries in a row against the South of England . He came in at 2 / 49 to join Bradman and the pair added 188 for the third wicket before the captain fell for 143 with the total at 3 / 237 . Hassett then put on 175 with Harvey before the latter was out for 110 at 4 / 412 . This ended a partnership of 175 in only 110 minutes . He was eventually out for the top score of 151 while attempting a big hit , leaving the score at 6 / 446 , having anchored the tourists ’ innings . Australia declared at 7 / 522 and bowled out the hosts for 298 when rain ended the match . Hassett bowled six wicketless overs and conceded 28 runs in South 's only innings .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the H. D. G. Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but on this occasion Bradman insisted that only six current English Test players be allowed to participate . Bradman then fielded a full @-@ strength team , with the only difference from the Fifth Test team being the inclusion of Ian Johnson at the expense of Doug Ring . The bowlers skittled the hosts for 177 , and Hassett came in at No. 10 and made an unbeaten seven as Australia declared at 8 / 469 . The hosts were 2 / 75 when the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays . It was the tourists ’ last first @-@ class match for the tour and when it became obvious that they would not lose , Bradman let Hassett bowl four overs for twelve runs without taking a wicket . The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . Hassett missed both of the matches ; Australia won both by an innings .
= = Role = =
Aside from being the vice @-@ captain , Hassett was one of three on @-@ tour selectors along with Bradman and Morris . As matches often started the day after the previous fixture , Australia employed a rotation policy and Hassett led the tourists in nine tour matches while Bradman was rested . Under Hassett 's watch , Australia won seven matches , five of these by an innings , while both draws were rain @-@ affected fixtures in which more than half the playing time was lost . Hassett had two close encounters as captain , both on damp pitches before the First Test . Against Yorkshire , Australia scraped home by four wickets with ten men after Sam Loxton was injured in a low @-@ scoring match . In a later game against Hampshire , Australia ceded a first innings lead for the first time on tour after a middle @-@ order collapse , but recovered to win by eight wickets . The matches against Cambridge University , Oxford University , Northamptonshire , Gloucestershire and Somerset were won by an innings . The wins over the latter two were particularly convincing ; Australia amassed its largest score for the tour against Gloucestershire , making 7 / 774 declared before winning by an innings and 363 runs . After the Tests , Australia compiled 5 / 560 against Somerset and won by an innings and 374 runs in less than two days . The matches against Durham and Glamorgan were washed out , with at least half the playing time lost .
A right @-@ handed batsman , Hassett played in all five Tests ; he batted in the middle @-@ order in all but the Fourth Test at Headingley , when he opened due to an injury to Sid Barnes . Aside from the Headingley Test , Hassett batted at No. 4 after Morris , Barnes and Bradman and in front of Keith Miller , except in the first innings of the series when he batted at No. 6 and made 137 . Hassett scored 310 runs at 44 @.@ 28 , placing him fourth in the Australian aggregates , but only seventh in the averages . He took six catches and did not bowl during the Tests .
Hassett ended the first @-@ class tour with 1 @,@ 563 runs at 74 @.@ 22 with seven first @-@ class centuries . He had the third highest aggregate behind Bradman and Morris and the second highest average . His highest score was an unbeaten 200 against the Gentlemen of England . In his 27 first @-@ class innings , Hassett batted at Nos. 3 , 4 and 5 , 21 times . Aside from the three instances in which he batted outside these positions in the Tests , Hassett made 139 while opening in the second match against Surrey in place of the injured Bill Brown , and 35 and seven not out against Worcestershire and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , batting at No. 7 and No. 10 respectively.N- An occasional medium pacer , Hassett delivered 12 overs — none in Tests — without taking a wicket . He took 23 catches , the most by an Australian ( excluding wicket @-@ keepers ) .
In recognition of his performances , Hassett was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1949 . Wisden opined that " in addition to his playing ability Hassett 's cheerfulness and leadership , which extended to off @-@ the @-@ field relaxation as well as in the more exacting part of the programme , combined to make him an ideal vice @-@ captain able to lift a considerable load off Bradman 's busy shoulders " .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
= Bert Jansch =
Herbert " Bert " Jansch ( 3 November 1943 – 5 October 2011 ) was a Scottish folk musician and founding member of the band Pentangle . He was born in Glasgow and came to prominence in London in the 1960s , as an acoustic guitarist , as well as a singer @-@ songwriter . He recorded at least 25 albums and toured extensively from the 1960s to the 21st century .
Jansch was a leading figure in the British folk music revival of the 1960s , touring folk clubs and recording several solo albums , as well as collaborating with other musicians such as John Renbourn and Anne Briggs . In 1968 , he co @-@ founded the band Pentangle , touring and recording with them until their break @-@ up in 1972 . He then took a few years ' break from music , returning in the late 1970s to work on a series of projects with other musicians . He joined a reformed Pentangle in the early 1980s and remained with them as they evolved through various changes of personnel until 1995 . Until his death , Jansch continued to work as a solo artist .
Jansch 's work influenced such artists as Al Stewart , Paul Simon , Johnny Marr , Elton John , Ian Anderson , Bernie Taupin , Bernard Butler , Jimmy Page , Nick Drake , Graham Coxon , Donovan , Neil Young , Fleet Foxes , Devendra Banhart , Neil Halstead , and Roy Harper .
Jansch received two Lifetime Achievement Awards at the BBC Folk Awards : one , in 2001 , for his solo achievements and the other , in 2007 , as a member of Pentangle .
= = Early years = =
Herbert Jansch was born at Stobhill Hospital in the Springburn district of Glasgow , in 1943 , the descendant of a family originally from Hamburg , Germany , who settled in Scotland during the Victorian era . The family name is pronounced / ˈjænʃ / yansh by almost everyone except Jansch himself . He and some close members of his family pronounce it / ˈdʒænʃ / jansh .
Jansch was brought up in the residential area of Edinburgh known as West Pilton , where he attended Pennywell Primary School and Ainslie Park Secondary School . As a teenager , he acquired a guitar and started visiting a local folk club ( " The Howff " ) run by Roy Guest . There , he met Archie Fisher and Jill Doyle ( Davey Graham 's half @-@ sister ) , who introduced him to the music of Big Bill Broonzy , Pete Seeger , Brownie McGhee and Woody Guthrie . He also met and shared a flat with Robin Williamson , who remained a friend when Jansch later moved to London .
After leaving school , Jansch took a job as a nurseryman then , in August 1960 , he gave this up , intending to become a full @-@ time musician . He appointed himself as an unofficial caretaker at The Howff and , as well as sleeping there , he may have received some pay to supplement his income as a novice performer who did not own his own guitar . He spent the next two years playing one @-@ night stands in British folk clubs . This was a musical apprenticeship that exposed him to a range of influences , including Martin Carthy and Ian Campbell , but especially Anne Briggs , from whom he learned some of the songs ( such as " Blackwaterside " and " Reynardine " ) that would later feature strongly in his recording career .
Between 1963 and 1965 , Jansch travelled around Europe and beyond , hitch @-@ hiking from place to place and living on earnings from busking and casual musical performances in bars and cafes . Before leaving Glasgow , he married a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Lynda Campbell . It was a marriage of convenience which allowed her to travel with him as she was too young to have her own passport . They split up after a few months and Jansch was eventually repatriated to Britain after catching dysentery in Tangiers .
= = London ( mid @-@ 1960s ) = =
Jansch moved to London where , in the mid @-@ 1960s , there was a burgeoning interest in folk music . There , he met the engineer and producer Bill Leader , at whose home they made a recording of Jansch 's music on a reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorder . Leader sold the tape for £ 100 to Transatlantic Records , who produced an album directly from it . The album Bert Jansch was released in 1965 and went on to sell 150 @,@ 000 copies . It included Jansch 's protest song " Do You Hear Me Now " which was brought to the attention of the pop music mainstream later that year by the singer Donovan , who covered it on his Universal Soldier EP , which reached No. 1 in the UK EP chart and No. 27 in the singles chart . Also included in Jansch 's first album was his song " Needle of Death " , a stark anti @-@ drugs lament written after a friend died of a heroin overdose .
In his early career , Jansch was sometimes characterized as a British Bob Dylan . During this period , Jansch described his musical influences as " the only three people that I 've ever copied were Big Bill Broonzy , Davy Graham and Archie Fisher " . Jansch followed his first album with two more , produced in quick succession : It Don 't Bother Me and Jack Orion — which contained his first recording of " Blackwaterside " , later to be taken up by Jimmy Page and recorded by Led Zeppelin as " Black Mountain Side " . Jansch said : " The accompaniment was nicked by a well @-@ known member of one of the most famous rock bands , who used it , unchanged , on one of their records . " Transatlantic took legal advice about the alleged copyright infringement and were advised that there was " a distinct possibility that Bert might win an action against Page " . Ultimately , Transatlantic were dubious about the costs involved in taking on Led Zeppelin in the courts , and half the costs would have had to be paid by Jansch personally , which he simply could not afford , so the case was never pursued . The arrangement and recording of Jack Orion was greatly influenced by Jansch 's friend , singer Anne Briggs .
In London , Jansch met up with other innovative acoustic guitar players , including John Renbourn ( with whom he shared a flat in Kilburn ) , Davey Graham , Wizz Jones , Roy Harper and Paul Simon . They would all meet and play in various London music clubs , including the Troubadour in Old Brompton Road , and Les Cousins club in Greek Street , Soho . Renbourn and Jansch frequently played together , developing their own intricate interplay between the two guitars , often referred to as ' Folk baroque ' .
In 1966 , they recorded the Bert and John album together , featuring much of this material . Late in 1967 they tired of the all @-@ nighters at Les Cousins and became the resident musicians at a music venue set up by Bruce Dunnet , a Scottish entrepreneur , at the Horseshoe pub ( now defunct ) , at 264 – 267 Tottenham Court Road . This became the haunt of a number of musicians , including the singer Sandy Denny . Another singer , Jacqui McShee , began performing with the two guitarists and , with the addition of Danny Thompson ( string bass ) and Terry Cox ( drums ) , they formed the group , Pentangle . The venue evolved into a jazz club , but by then the group had moved on .
On 19 October 1968 , Jansch married Heather Sewell . At the time , she was an art student and had been the girlfriend of Roy Harper . She inspired several of Jansch 's songs and instrumentals : the most obvious is " Miss Heather Rosemary Sewell " , from his 1968 album Birthday Blues , but Jansch says that , despite the name , " M 'Lady Nancy " ( from the 1971 Rosemary Lane album ) was also written for her . As Heather Jansch she has become a well @-@ known sculptor .
= = Pentangle years : 1968 – 73 = =
Pentangle 's first major concert was at the Royal Festival Hall in 1967 , and their first album was released in the following year . Pentangle embarked on a demanding schedule of touring the world and recording and , during this period , Jansch largely gave up solo performances . He did , however , continue to record , releasing Rosemary Lane in 1971 . The tracks for this album were recorded on a portable tape recorder by Bill Leader at Jansch 's cottage in Ticehurst , Sussex — a process which took several months , with Jansch only working when he was in the right mood .
Pentangle reached their highest point of commercial success with the release of their Basket of Light album in 1969 . The single , Light Flight , taken from the album became popular through its use as theme music for a TV drama series Take Three Girls for which the band also provided incidental music . In 1970 , at the peak of their popularity , they recorded a soundtrack for the film Tam Lin , made at least 12 television appearances , and undertook tours of the UK ( including the Isle of Wight Festival ) and America ( including a concert at the Carnegie Hall ) . However , their fourth album , Cruel Sister , released in October 1970 , was a commercial disaster . This was an album of traditional songs that included a 20 @-@ minute long version of Jack Orion , a song that Jansch and Renbourn had recorded previously as a duo on Jansch 's Jack Orion album .
Pentangle recorded two further albums , but the strains of touring and of working together as a band were taking their toll . Then Pentangle withdrew from their record company , Transatlantic , in a bitter dispute regarding royalties . The final album of the original incarnation of Pentangle was Solomon 's Seal released by Warner Brothers / Reprise in 1972 . Colin Harper describes it as " a record of people 's weariness , but also the product of a unit whose members were still among the best players , writers and musical interpreters of their day " . Pentangle split up in January 1973 , and Jansch and his wife bought a farm near Lampeter , in Wales , and withdrew temporarily from the concert circuit .
= = Late 1970s = =
After two years as a farmer , Jansch left his wife and family and returned to music ( although Jansch and his wife would not be formally divorced until 1988 ) . In 1977 , he recorded the album A Rare Conundrum with a new set of musicians : Mike Piggott , Rod Clements and Pick Withers . He then formed the band Conundrum with the addition of Martin Jenkins ( violin ) and Nigel Smith ( bass ) . They spent six months touring Australia , Japan and the United States . With the end of the tour , Conundrum parted company and Jansch spent six months in the United States , where he recorded the Heartbreak album with Albert Lee .
Jansch toured Scandinavia , working as a duo with Martin Jenkins and , based on ideas they developed , recorded the Avocet album ( initially released in Denmark ) . Jansch rates this as amongst his own favourites from his own recordings . On returning to England , he set up Bert Jansch 's Guitar Shop at 220 , New King 's Road , Fulham . The shop specialised in hand @-@ built acoustic guitars but was not a commercial success and closed after two years .
= = 1980s = =
In 1980 , an Italian promoter encouraged the original Pentangle to reform for a tour and a new album . The reunion started badly , with Terry Cox being injured in a car accident , resulting in the band 's debuting at the Cambridge Folk Festival as a four @-@ piece Pentangle . They managed to complete a tour of Italy ( with Cox in a wheelchair ) and Australia , before Renbourn left the band in 1983 . There then followed a series of personnel changes , including Mike Piggott replacing John Renbourn from 1983 to 1987 and recording Open the Door and In the Round , but ultimately leaving Jansch and McShee as the only original members . The final incarnation consisting of Jansch , McShee , Nigel Portman Smith ( keyboards ) , Peter Kirtley ( guitar and vocals ) and Gerry Conway ( drums ) survived from 1987 to 1995 and recorded three albums : Think of Tomorrow , One More Road and Live 1994 . As a solo artist in the mid @-@ 1980s , he often appeared on Vivian Stanshall and Ki Longfellow @-@ Stanshall 's showboat , the Old Profanity Showboat , in Bristol 's Floating Harbour .
In 1985 two intriguely enigmatic limited edition albums appeared issued under the name of Loren Auerbach , who was to become his wife . ' After The Long Night ' was released in February 1985 with the second , ' Playing The Game ' appearing in October . Bert Jansch was guest player initially and also became a writer on some of the songs , arranger and co @-@ vocalist . Richard Newman was the primary guitarist and songwriter . Loren Auerbach had worked alongside Richard Newman for many years prior to meeting Bert Jansch . Newman and Jansch were the key players on ' After The Long night ' . On ' Playing The Game ' Jansch and Newman were joined with Cliff Aungier , Geoff Bradford ( lead guitarist from Cyril Davis ' All Stars , Long John Baldry 's Hoochie Coochie Men and the fist line @-@ up of The Rolling stones ) and Brian Knight ( British blues veteran of the Blues By six ) . The two albums became one - ' After The Long Night / Playing The Game ' . Bert Jansch played guitar with Richard Newman on the following Newman songs : I Can 't Go Back ; Smiling Faces ; Playing The Game ; Sorrow ; Days and Nights ; The Rainbow Man ; Frozen Beauty ; Christabel ; So Lonely ; The Miller . All songs were sung by Auerbach with the exception of ' The Miller ' that was sung by Newman . Bert married Loren Auerbach in 1999 .
He had always been a heavy drinker , but in 1987 he fell ill while working with Rod Clements and Marty Craggs , and was rushed to hospital , where he was told that he was " as seriously ill as you can be without dying " and that he had a choice of " giving up alcohol or simply giving up " . He chose the former option : Colin Harper states that " There can be no doubt that Bert 's creativity , reliability , energy , commitment and quality of performance were all rescued dramatically by the decision to quit boozing " . Jansch and Clements continued the work they had started before Jansch 's illness , resulting in the 1988 Leather Launderette album .
= = Final years and death : 1992 – 2011 = =
Bert was the prime mover in the Acoustic Routes film , first broadcast by the BBC in 1992 . It shows him revisiting his old haunts and reminiscing with guests such as Al Stewart , Anne Briggs , John Renbourn , and Davey Graham .
From 1995 , Jansch appeared frequently at the 12 Bar Club in Denmark Street , London . One of his live sets there was recorded direct to Digital Audio Tape ( DAT ) by Jansch 's then manager , Alan King , and was released as the Live at the 12 Bar : an official bootleg album in 1996 . In 2002 Jansch , Bernard Butler and Johnny " Guitar " Hodge performed live together at the Jazz Cafe , London . Bernard Butler had also appeared on Bert 's 2002 album Edge of a Dream featuring , amongst others , Ralph McTell and guitarist Paul Wassif . The instrumental " Black Cat Blues " , featuring Paul Wassif , appeared on the 2003 film Calendar Girls , and Wassif became a frequent sideman at Bert 's live shows . In 2003 , Jansch celebrated his 60th birthday with a concert at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London . The BBC organised a concert for Jansch and various guests at the church of St Luke Old Street , which was televised on BBC Four .
In 2005 , Jansch teamed up again with one of his early influences , Davey Graham , for a small number of concerts in England and Scotland . His concert tour had to be postponed , owing to illness , and Jansch underwent major heart surgery in late 2005 . By 2006 he had recovered and was playing concerts again . Jansch 's album The Black Swan ( his first for four years ) was released on Sanctuary on 18 September 2006 , featuring Beth Orton and Devendra Banhart on tracks " Katie Cruel " , " When the Sun Comes Up " , and " Watch the Stars " , amongst other guests . In 2007 , he featured on Babyshambles album , Shotter 's Nation , playing acoustic guitar in the song " The Lost Art of Murder " . After recording , he accompanied Babyshambles ' lead singer Pete Doherty on several acoustic gigs , and performed on the Pete and Carl Reunion Gig , where ex @-@ Libertines and Dirty Pretty Things singer Carl Barat joined Doherty on stage .
In 2009 he played a concert at the London Jazz Cafe to celebrate the release of three of his older albums ( LA Turnaround , Santa Barbara Honeymoon and A Rare Conundrum ) on CD format . However , later that year , due to an unexpected illness , he had to cancel a 22 @-@ date North American tour that was due to start on 26 June . Jansch 's website reported : " Bert is very sorry to be missing the tour , and apologises to all the fans who were hoping to see him . He is looking forward to rescheduling as soon as possible . "
Jansch opened for Neil Young on his Twisted Road solo tour in the US and Canada , starting on 18 May 2010 . He also performed at Eric Clapton 's Crossroads festival in June 2010 . These were Jansch 's first shows since his illness . One of Bert 's last recording sessions was with Eric Clapton for Paul Wassif 's 2011 album Looking Up Feeling Down . In 2011 , a few reunion gigs took place with Pentangle , including performances at the Glastonbury Festival and one final concert at the Royal Festival Hall , London , which was also Jansch 's last ever public performance .
Jansch died on 5 October 2011 , aged 67 , at a hospice in Hampstead after a long battle with lung cancer .
He is buried in Highgate Cemetery .
= = Recognition and awards = =
In 2001 Jansch received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards , and on 5 June 2006 , he received the MOJO Merit Award at the Mojo Honours List ceremony , based on " an expanded career that still continues to be inspirational " . The award was presented by Beth Orton and Roy Harper . Rolling Stone ranked Jansch as No. 94 on its list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of all Time in 2003 .
In January 2007 , the five original members of Pentangle ( including Jansch ) were given a Lifetime Achievement award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards . The award was presented by Sir David Attenborough . Producer John Leonard said " Pentangle were one of the most influential groups of the late 20th century and it would be wrong for the awards not to recognise what an impact they had on the music scene . " Pentangle played together for the event , for the first time in more than two decades , and their performance was broadcast on BBC Radio 2 on Wednesday , 7 February 2007 . In 2007 , Jansch was also awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music by Edinburgh Napier University , " in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the UK music industry " .
= = Music = =
Bert Jansch 's musical influences included Big Bill Broonzy and Brownie McGhee , whom Jansch first saw playing at The Howff in 1960 and , much later , claimed that he 'd " still be a gardener " if he hadn 't encountered McGhee and his music . Jansch was also strongly influenced by the British folk music tradition , particularly by Anne Briggs and , to a lesser extent , A.L. Lloyd . Other influences included jazz ( notably Charles Mingus ) , early music ( John Renbourn and Julian Bream ) and other contemporary singer @-@ songwriters – especially Clive Palmer . The other major influence was Davey Graham who , himself , brought together an eclectic mixture of musical styles . Also , in his formative years , Jansch had busked his way through Europe to Morocco , picking up musical ideas and rhythms from many sources . From these influences , he distilled his own individual guitar style .
Some of his songs feature a basic clawhammer style of right @-@ hand playing but these are often distinguished by unusual chord voicings or by chords with added notes . An example of this is his song " Needle of Death " , which features a simple picking style but several of the chords are decorated with added ninths . Characteristically , the ninths are not the highest note of the chord , but appear in the middle of the arpeggiated finger @-@ picking , creating a " lumpiness " to the sound .
Another characteristic feature was his ability to hold a chord in the lower strings whilst bending an upper string — often bending up from a semitone below a chord note . These can be heard clearly on songs such as " Reynardine " where the bends are from the diminished fifth to the perfect fifth . Jansch often fitted the accompaniment to the natural rhythm of the words of his songs , rather than playing a consistent rhythm throughout . This can lead to occasional bars appearing in unusual time signatures . For example , his version of the Ewan MacColl song " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , unlike most other covers of that song , switches from 4 / 4 time to 3 / 4 and 5 / 4 . A similar disregard for conventional time signatures is found in several of his collaborative compositions with Pentangle : for instance , " Light Flight " from the Basket of Light album includes sections in 5 / 8 , 7 / 8 and 6 / 4 time .
= = Instruments = =
Through the development of Pentangle , Jansch played a number of instruments : banjo , Appalachian dulcimer , recorder and concertina — on rare occasions he has even been known to play electric guitar . However , it is his acoustic guitar playing that was most notable .
Jansch 's first guitar was home @-@ made from a kit but when he left school and started work , he bought a Höfner cello @-@ style guitar . Soon he traded this in for a Zenith which was marketed as the " Lonnie Donegan guitar " and which Jansch played in the folk clubs in the early 1960s . His first album was reputedly recorded using a Martin 00028 borrowed from Martin Carthy . Pictures of Jansch in the middle 1960s show him playing a variety of models , including Martin and Epiphone guitars . He had a guitar hand @-@ built by John Bailey , which was used for most of the Pentangle recordings but was eventually stolen .
Jansch later played two six @-@ string guitars built by the Coventry @-@ based luthier , Rob Armstrong , one of which appears on the front and back covers of the 1980 Shanachie release , Best of Bert Jansch . He then had a contract with Yamaha , who provided him with an FG1500 which he played , along with a Yamaha LL11 1970s jumbo guitar . Jansch 's relationship with Yamaha continued and they presented him with an acoustic guitar with gold trim and abalone inlay for his 60th birthday although , valued at about £ 3000 , Jansch was quoted as saying that it is too good for stage use . Jansch was a well @-@ known Fylde guitar player .
= = Influence = =
Jansch 's music , and particularly his acoustic guitar playing , have influenced a range of well @-@ known musicians . His first album ( Bert Jansch , 1965 ) was much admired , with Jimmy Page saying " At one point , I was absolutely obsessed with Bert Jansch . When I first heard that LP , I couldn 't believe it . It was so far ahead of what everyone else was doing . No one in America could touch that . " The same debut album included Jansch 's version of the Davy Graham instrumental " Angie " . This was a favourite of Mike Oldfield , who practised acoustic guitar alone as a child , and was then heavily influenced by Jansch 's style . The title of the instrumental inspired Oldfield to call his first band ( with sister Sally ) The Sallyangie .
Jansch 's version of " Angie " inspired Paul Simon 's recording of the piece , which was retitled " Anji " and appeared on the Simon & Garfunkel album Sounds of Silence . From the same era , Neil Young is quoted as saying , " As much of a great guitar player as Jimi [ Hendrix ] was , Bert Jansch is the same thing for acoustic guitar ... and my favourite . " Nick Drake and Donovan were both admirers of Jansch : both recorded covers of his songs and Donovan went on to dedicate two of his own songs to Jansch ; " Bert 's Blues " appeared on his Sunshine Superman LP , and " House of Jansch " on his fourth album Mellow Yellow . Other tributes included Gordon Giltrap 's album Janschology ( 2000 ) which has two tunes by Jansch , plus two others that show his influence . Further afield , the Japanese acoustic guitar player Tsuneo Imahori is known to have been heavily influenced by Jansch .
= = Discography = =
Albums
1965 – Bert Jansch
1965 – It Don 't Bother Me
1966 – Jack Orion
1966 – Bert and John ( with John Renbourn )
1967 – Nicola
1969 – Birthday Blues
1971 – Rosemary Lane
1973 – Moonshine
1974 – L.A. Turnaround
1975 – Santa Barbara Honeymoon
1977 – A Rare Conundrum ( released 1976 in Denmark and 1977 in UK )
1979 – Avocet ( released 1978 in Denmark and 1979 in UK )
1980 – Thirteen Down ( credited as " The Bert Jansch Conundrum " )
1982 – Heartbreak
1985 – From the Outside ( only released officially in Belgium )
1989 – Leather Launderette ( with Rod Clements )
1990 – Sketches
1990 – The Ornament Tree
1995 – When the Circus Comes to Town
1998 – Toy Balloon
2000 – Crimson Moon
2002 – Edge of a Dream
2006 – The Black Swan
2012 – Heartbreak 30th Anniversary Edition – 2 @-@ CD set , the first CD containing the classic 1982 album Heartbreak ( tracks reordered ) , the second containing a contemporaneous solo live performance at McCabe 's Guitar Shop , including some of the same tracks
Live
1980 – Bert Jansch Live at La Foret ( released in Japan only )
1993 – BBC Radio 1 Live in Concert
1996 – Live at the 12 Bar : An Authorised Bootleg
1998 – Young Man Blues
2001 – Downunder : Live in Australia
2004 – The River Sessions
2007 – Fresh As a Sweet Sunday Morning ( live concert 2006 CD / DVD )
2012 – Sweet Sweet Music
Singles and EPs
1966 – Needle of Death ( EP )
1967 – " Life Depends on Love " / " A Little Sweet Sunshine "
1973 – " Oh My Father " / " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face "
1974 – " In the Bleak Midwinter " / " One For Jo " ( non @-@ album A @-@ side )
1975 – " Dance Lady Dance " / " Build Another Band "
1978 – " Black Birds of Brittany " / " The Mariner 's Farewell "
1980 – " Time and Time " / " Una Linea Di Dolcezza "
1982 – " Heartbreak Hotel " / " Up to the Stars "
1985 – " Playing the Game " / " After the Long Night "
2003 – " On the Edge of a Dream " / " Walking This Road " / " Crimson Moon "
Compilations
1966 – Lucky Thirteen ( U.S. release containing tracks from Jansch 's two UK LP 's . )
1969 – Bert Jansch : The Bert Jansch Sampler
1972 – Box Of Love : The Bert Jansch Sampler Volume 2
1978 – Bert Jansch — Anthology ( Transatlantic MTRA 2007 )
1986 – Strolling Down The Highway
1992 – The Gardener : Essential Bert Jansch
1993 – Three Chord Trick
1997 – Blackwater Side
2000 – Dazzling Stranger : The Bert Jansch Anthology
2011 – Angie : The Collection
DVD
2007 – Fresh As a Sweet Sunday Morning ( live concert 2006 )
= Franklin Center ( Chicago ) =
The Franklin Center is a 60 @-@ story supertall skyscraper completed in 1989 as the AT & T Corporate Center to consolidate the central region headquarters of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company ( AT & T ) . It stands at a height of 1 @,@ 007 ft ( 307 m ) and contains 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) in the Loop neighborhood of downtown Chicago . It is located two blocks east of the Chicago River and northeast of the Willis Tower with a main address of 227 West Monroe Street and an alternate address of 100 South Franklin Street. in the Loop community area of downtown Chicago .
The supertall building is the tallest constructed in Chicago in the last quarter of the 20th century . It is the 5th tallest building in Chicago and the 13th tallest in the United States . It contains office and retail space and a 350 @-@ space garage .
Tishman Speyer acquired the property in 2004 and renamed the adjacent USG Building as Franklin Center in 2007 after USG relocated its offices . The name was later applied to the entire complex .
= = History = =
A 1982 consent decree split the American Telephone & Telegraph Company monopoly into several entities with local service providers becoming part of a Regional Bell Operating Company . In the decade that followed , AT & T erected new buildings across the country including the AT & T Building in New York City . April 5 , 1985 , AT & T issued a request for proposals that produced eleven respondents . Stein and Co . , the winning realtor , sought Skidmore , Owings and Merrill as designers for the purpose of distinguishing a proposal from the nearby Willis Tower . AT & T employees began to occupy the office space April 3 , 1989 .
The building was built under a self @-@ imposed comprehensive minority contracting and affirmative action package that met the city 's 1985 30 % hiring rule for public sector projects . Chicago mayor Harold Washington 's administration had passed an edict that 30 % of the work for public sector projects be set aside for minority and women @-@ owned businesses . In a show of support for this rule , Stein & Co. and AT & T adopted the rule for their private development .
= = Architecture = =
Designed by Adrian D. Smith of Skidmore , Owings & Merrill , the Franklin Center , is one of the most famous and recognized buildings in Chicago . The building 's form features setbacks at the 15th , 30th and 45th floors . Designed in the postmodern architectural style , it is a granite @-@ clad steel @-@ framed building resting on pile foundations . The structure is characterized by strong vertical lines , spiked roof pinnacles , granite cladding and setbacks . The granite is a deep red color at the base , but changes shade to rose @-@ beige at the top . Above the 5th floor , the lighter rose @-@ beige granite is protected by silk @-@ screened aluminum panels . The building relies on Gothic detailing to showcase verticality . The building 's verticality evokes images of 1920s buildings , and the sturdiness of the structure is reminiscent of the Chicago Board of Trade Building . In addition to its design , the building relies on its location at the farthest corner from the Willis Tower to set it apart .
= = = Interior = = =
The Otis elevators are spanned by a series of neo @-@ deco light bands extending wall to wall . The lobby extends completely through the block , with a giant entrance hall at Monroe Street and a 16 @-@ story full @-@ height atrium in the link between the AT & T and USG towers ( also designed by Smith ) as both towers share a common appearance . The building boasts two public lobbies and a mezzanine @-@ level lobby . The lobbies are among the most lavish in Chicago , and they are all decorated with patterned marble floors and walls , bronze , gold @-@ leaf oak trim , and stylized lighting fixtures .
= = = Features = = =
The building features a lobby @-@ level 650 @-@ seat restaurant , a 23 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m2 ) retail concourse on two levels , and a 170 @-@ car 24 @-@ hour parking facility on the lower two levels . The building lobby extends all the way through the block to connect with the USG Building and an atrium links the two structures .
= = Exterior lighting = =
As with other downtown buildings , the tower 's setbacks and spires are accented by colored lights at night . The building 's managers were praised for dimming their lights during bird migrations , reducing bird mortality 80 % .
= = USG Building = =
The USG Corporation developed the 35 @-@ story 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 100 @,@ 000 m2 ) structure originally known as the USG Building as its corporate headquarters building immediately adjacent to and connected to the AT & T Corporate Center in 1992 . Located at 125 South Franklin Street , the same developers , architects and design teams were chosen , and the two buildings were built jointly as a block @-@ long complex on an 85 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 900 m2 ) site . They share a 16 @-@ story atrium which houses a grand arcade and serves as a common base to the two separate towers . When USG Corporation moved to a new facility in 2007 , the building was renamed Franklin Center .
= = Proximity to transit = =
Positioned near the southwest corner of the Loop , the building is near two elevated stations of the Chicago ' L ' . The Quincy station is one block to the south and the Washington and Wells station is located two blocks to the north , both on Wells Street . Union Station stands three blocks to the west on Jackson Boulevard , providing terminal service for Amtrak and select service for Metra . Additional Metra service is provided at the LaSalle Street Station , four blocks to the south and Ogilvie Transportation Center station four blocks to the north @-@ west .
= = Tenants = =
A.T. Kearney
Citigroup
Credit Suisse
Eris Exchange
FTI Consulting
General American Transportation Corporation
Guggenheim Partners
McDermott Will & Emery
John Crane Group
Robert W. Baird & Co .
The Cambridge Group
TGG Group
West Monroe Partners
William Blair & Company
= = Awards = =
1990 - Award of Excellence for Urban Development , from the Chicago Chapter of the National Association of Industrial and Office Properties
1992 - Best New Building , from the Chicago civic group Friends of Downtown
1997 - Most Valuable Property National Top Ten , from The Wall Street Journal
1998 - Prix d 'Excellence , Office Properties Worldwide , from FIABCI International
= = Position in Chicago 's skyline = =
The Center is the 5th tallest completed building in Chicago , trailing the Willis Tower , Aon Center , John Hancock Center , and Trump International Hotel and Tower ( Chicago ) in height . The building 's official height measurement increased to from 886 feet ( 270 m ) to 1 @,@ 007 feet ( 307 m ) when the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat changed measurement conventions to include ornamental spires during the Willis Tower - Petronas Tower height controversy .
= Swingin Party =
" Swingin Party " is a song written by Paul Westerberg and recorded by his band The Replacements for their fourth studio album Tim ( 1985 ) . The song is an indie rock and rock and roll ballad with influences from jazz , country and new wave . Lyrically , it portrays the protagonist 's " feigned nonchalance " . It was well received by music critics , who praised Westerberg 's songwriting talent . The song has been covered by other artists , notably Kindness in 2009 and Lorde in 2013 .
= = Composition = =
" Swingin Party " was written by Paul Westerberg and produced by Tommy Ramone , and was recorded by The Replacements . It is an indie rock and rock and roll ballad with influences from jazz , country and new wave . It features staccato chords instrumented by electric guitar . According to Bill Janovitz from AllMusic , the song climbs scales in a way reminiscent of " Somethin ' Stupid " by Frank Sinatra and Nancy Sinatra ( 1967 ) . The lyrics are introspective , and portray the protagonist 's " feigned nonchalance " . Writing for Spin , editor J.D. opined that the song 's theme is " literary reflections " as Westerberg sings , " Quttin ' school and goin ' to work and never goin ' fishin ' " . According to Tim Holmes of Rolling Stone , the song 's theme is that " life is a lilting series of ultimately empty , but nonetheless compulsory , soirees " , while Robert Hilburn from the Los Angeles Times wrote that the song is " about loneliness and youthful insecurity " . In an interview for the Los Angeles Times , Westerberg said : " One of the reasons we used to drink so much is that it was scary going up on stage . That 's one of the things ' Swingin ' Party ' is all about on the album ... how it is a little frightening to put yourself on display all the time . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Swingin Party " received positive reviews from music critics , most of whom praised Westerberg 's songwriting credits for the track . PopMatters ' Michael Keefe lauded Westerberg 's songwriting ability on " Swingin Party " . Craig Rosen writing for Billboard opined that the song showcased Westerberg 's " capable " songwriting for the band . In a separate journal for the same publication , Braoley Bambarger named " Swingin Party " a " bittersweeet " ballad that " won the hearts of a generation of college radio fans " . Craig Marks from Spin shared that the song 's line " Bring your own lampshade / Somewhere there 's a party " is the third best lyric written by Westerberg for The Replacements . Tim Nelson from BBC Music selected " Swingin Party " as one of the outstanding tracks from Tim .
= = Other versions = =
In 2000 , Singaporean power pop band Popland covered " Swingin Party " for the tribute album Left of the Dial : A Pop Tribute to The Replacements .
Canadian band The Weakerthans performed " Swingin Party " at the 2005 Winnipeg Folk Festival . British musician Kindness released a house rendition of " Swingin Party " as his first single in 2009 , which was later used for the soundtrack of the 2015 drama film Paper Towns . It was released as a 7 @-@ inch vinyl via Moshi Moshi Records , with an original song " Gee Up " as the B @-@ side . It was included on his debut studio album World , You Need a Change of Mind ( 2012 ) . A music video comprising clips from educational films and travel videos was released in August 2009 .
New Zealand singer Lorde covered " Swingin Party " as the B @-@ side to her second single , " Tennis Court " ( 2013 ) . It was also included on Tennis Court EP and later on the US iTunes Store version of The Love Club EP ( 2013 ) . Lorde 's cover of " Swingin Party " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart on June 17 , 2013 at number ten , and dropped off the chart the following week . A live rendition was included on her EP Live in Concert . In December 2013 , the cover was included in Lorde 's extended edition of her debut studio album Pure Heroine . Brittany Spanos from The Village Voice praised the cover and wrote that it helps Lorde express her " rich voice in all its glory " .
= Debby Applegate =
Debby Applegate ( born 1968 ) is an American historian and biographer . She is the author of The Most Famous Man in America : The Biography of Henry Ward Beecher , for which she won the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography .
Born in Eugene , Oregon in 1968 , Applegate attended Amherst College as an undergraduate , where she began a two @-@ decade fascination with famous alumnus Henry Ward Beecher , a 19th @-@ century abolitionist minister who was later the subject of a widely publicized sex scandal . She made Beecher the subject of her dissertation in American Studies at Yale , where she received a Ph.D. in 1998 . After several more years of research , Applegate published The Most Famous Man in America , which was praised by critics and awarded the Pulitzer Prize . She has announced that her second book will be a biography of New York City brothel @-@ keeper Polly Adler .
= = Biography = =
Born in Eugene , Oregon , Applegate grew up in Clackamas , Oregon , graduating from Clackamas High School in 1985 . She was raised in what she described as an " unusual religious environment " : her mother , from a Mormon family , became a New Thought minister , while her father was an Irish Catholic . She graduated summa cum laude from Amherst College in 1989 and was a Sterling Fellow at Yale University , where she earned a Ph.D. in American Studies in 1998 .
Applegate has taught at Yale , Wesleyan University , and Marymount Manhattan College . Her contributions have appeared in The Journal of American History and The New York Times .
Applegate was a founding member of Biographers International Organization ( BIO ) , and served as its interim president in 2009 . She currently serves as the Chair of BIO 's Advisory Committee .
She is married to Bruce Tulgan , a business writer whose books include It 's Okay To Be The Boss . They live in New Haven , Connecticut .
= = The Most Famous Man in America = =
As an undergraduate student worker at Amherst College , Applegate was assigned to assemble an exhibit on a famous alumnus and selected Henry Ward Beecher , a 19th @-@ century minister known for his abolitionist preaching and widely publicized sex scandal . Applegate described him as " unlike any religious figure I ’ d ever seen . I loved his very modern sense of humor , his irreverence , and his joyful , ecumenical approach to religion and life in general . " She later made him the subject of her undergraduate senior thesis and her PhD dissertation at Yale University . After graduation , Applegate signed a publishing contract to write a biography of Beecher .
Applegate 's initial chapters were written in what she considered an overly academic voice , so to write a biography with popular appeal , she studied fiction writing , including techniques for suspense and pornographic writing . She structured the resulting book as a psychological thriller .
Though she had originally hoped to publish the book during the 1998 Lewinsky scandal , in which US President Bill Clinton was discovered to have had a sexual relationship with a White House intern , the research took several years longer than she had initially planned . The book was finally released in 2006 by Doubleday .
= = = Reception = = =
The Most Famous Man in America was sold well and was generally praised by critics . NPR selected it as one of the year 's best nonfiction books , stating that the book " convinces readers of the truth of that swaggering title " . Kirkus Reviews called it a " beautifully written biography of America 's one best @-@ known preacher ... An exceptionally thorough and thoughtful account of a spectacular career that helped shape and reflect national preoccupations before , during and after the Civil War . " Publishers Weekly wrote that " this assessment of Beecher is judicious and critical . Applegate gives an insightful account . " In a review for The Boston Globe , Katherine A. Powers called the book a " fantastic story with novelistic flair and penetration into the ever @-@ changing motives and expediencies of its many actors . " Michael Kazin , reviewing the book for The New York Times , stated that Applegate 's writing occasionally " loses its force in a thicket of personal details " , but concluded that the book is " a biography worthy of its subject " .
On April 16 , 2007 , the book was announced as the winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography . Applegate said of her win , " Half of it is just good luck ... Had it come out four years ago , I don 't think the climate was ready for it . The religious right intersection with politics is very important now . "
= = Madam : The Notorious Life and Times of Polly Adler = =
As of 2011 , Applegate was working on a biography of Polly Adler , New York City 's notorious Prohibition @-@ era brothel @-@ keeper whose 1953 memoir A House is Not a Home became a New York Times Bestseller and a 1963 film starring Shelley Winters . The decision to write the book came after a year of research into 1920s New York City cultural history , during which Applegate discovered Adler 's memoir and grew fascinated by it . Applegate 's book is to be titled Madam : The Notorious Life and Times of Polly Adler and will be published by Doubleday .
= Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral development =
Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget . Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the University of Chicago in 1958 , and expanded and developed this theory throughout his life .
The theory holds that moral reasoning , the basis for ethical behavior , has six identifiable developmental stages , each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor . Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget , who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages . Expanding on Piaget 's work , Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice , and that it continued throughout the individual 's lifetime , a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research .
The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels : pre @-@ conventional morality , conventional morality , and post @-@ conventional morality .
For his studies , Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinz dilemma , and was interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas . He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed , rather than its conclusion , and classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages .
There have been critiques of the theory from several perspectives . Arguments include that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other moral values , such as caring ; that there is such an overlap between stages that they should more properly be regarded as separate domains ; or that evaluations of the reasons for moral choices are mostly post hoc rationalizations ( by both decision makers and psychologists studying them ) of essentially intuitive decisions .
Nevertheless , an entirely new field within psychology was created as a direct result of Kohlberg 's theory , and according to Haggbloom et al . ' s study of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century , Kohlberg was the 16th most frequently cited psychologist in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century , as well as the 30th most eminent overall .
Kohlberg 's scale is about how people justify behaviors and his stages are not a method of ranking how moral someone 's behavior is . There should , however , be a correlation between how someone scores on the scale and how they behave , and the general hypothesis is that moral behaviour is more responsible , consistent and predictable from people at higher levels .
= = Stages = =
Kohlberg 's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each : pre @-@ conventional , conventional and post @-@ conventional . Following Piaget 's constructivist requirements for a stage model , as described in his theory of cognitive development , it is extremely rare to regress in stages — to lose the use of higher stage abilities . Stages cannot be skipped ; each provides a new and necessary perspective , more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them .
Level 1 ( Pre @-@ Conventional )
1 . Obedience and punishment orientation
( How can I avoid punishment ? )
2 . Self @-@ interest orientation
( What 's in it for me ? )
( Paying for a benefit )
Level 2 ( Conventional )
3 . Interpersonal accord and conformity
( Social norms )
( The good boy / girl attitude )
4 . Authority and social @-@ order maintaining orientation
( Law and order morality )
Level 3 ( Post @-@ Conventional )
5 . Social contract orientation
6 . Universal ethical principles
( Principled conscience )
The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages , but may be regarded by those in later stages as simplistic , lacking in sufficient attention to detail .
= = = Pre @-@ conventional = = =
The pre @-@ conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children , although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning . Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences . The pre @-@ conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner . A child with pre @-@ conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society 's conventions regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring .
In Stage one ( obedience and punishment driven ) , individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves . For example , an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished . " The last time I did that I got spanked , so I will not do it again . " The worse the punishment for the act is , the more " bad " the act is perceived to be . This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering . It is " egocentric , " lacking recognition that others ' points of view are different from one 's own . There is " deference to superior power or prestige . "
An example of obedience and punishment driven morality would be a child refusing to do something because it is wrong and that the consequences could result in punishment . For example , a child 's classmate tries to dare the child to skip school . The child would apply obedience and punishment driven morality by refusing to skip school because he would get punished .
Stage two ( self @-@ interest driven ) expresses the " what 's in it for me " position , in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one 's reputation or relationships to groups of people . Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others , but only to a point where it might further the individual 's own interests . As a result , concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect , but rather a " You scratch my back , and I 'll scratch yours " mentality . The lack of a societal perspective in the pre @-@ conventional level is quite different from the social contract ( stage five ) , as all actions at this stage have the purpose of serving the individual 's own needs or interests . For the stage two theorist , the world 's perspective is often seen as morally relative .
An example of self @-@ interest driven is when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore . The child asks , " what 's in it for me ? " The parents offer the child an incentive by giving a child an allowance to pay them for their chores . The child is motivated by self @-@ interest to do chores .
= = = Conventional = = =
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults . To reason in a conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society 's views and expectations . The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development . Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society 's conventions concerning right and wrong . At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society 's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience . Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid , however , and a rule 's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned .
In Stage three ( good intentions as determined by social consensus ) , the self enters society by conforming to social standards . Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society 's views . They try to be a " good boy " or " good girl " to live up to these expectations , having learned that being regarded as good benefits the self . Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person 's relationships , which now begin to include things like respect , gratitude , and the " golden rule " . " I want to be liked and thought well of ; apparently , not being naughty makes people like me . " Conforming to the rules for one 's social role is not yet fully understood . The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage ; one may feel more forgiving if one thinks that " they mean well " .
In Stage four ( authority and social order obedience driven ) , it is important to obey laws , dictums , and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society . Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three . A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong . If one person violates a law , perhaps everyone would — thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules . When someone does violate a law , it is morally wrong ; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones . Most active members of society remain at stage four , where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force .
= = = Post @-@ Conventional = = =
The post @-@ conventional level , also known as the principled level , is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society , and that the individual ’ s own perspective may take precedence over society ’ s view ; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles . Post @-@ conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles — principles that typically include such basic human rights as life , liberty , and justice . People who exhibit post @-@ conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms — ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights . Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question . Because post @-@ conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions , their behavior , especially at stage six , can be confused with that of those at the pre @-@ conventional level .
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning .
In Stage five ( social contract driven ) , the world is viewed as holding different opinions , rights , and values . Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community . Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts . Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “ the greatest good for the greatest number of people " . This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise . Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning .
In Stage six ( universal ethical principles driven ) , moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles . Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice , and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws . Legal rights are unnecessary , as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action . Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way , as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant . This involves an individual imagining what they would do in another ’ s shoes , if they believed what that other person imagines to be true . The resulting consensus is the action taken . In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself ; the individual acts because it is right , and not because it avoids punishment , is in their best interest , expected , legal , or previously agreed upon . Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists , he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level .
= = = Further stages = = =
In Kohlberg 's empirical studies of individuals throughout their life Kohlberg observed that some had apparently undergone moral stage regression . This could be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending the theory . Kohlberg chose the latter , postulating the existence of sub @-@ stages in which the emerging stage has not yet been fully integrated into the personality . In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 4 ½ or 4 + , a transition from stage four to stage five , that shared characteristics of both . In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law and order reasoning ; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society itself as culpable . This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two , as the individual views those interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong . Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering college .
Kohlberg suggested that there may be a seventh stage — Transcendental Morality , or Morality of Cosmic Orientation — which linked religion with moral reasoning . Kohlberg 's difficulties in obtaining empirical evidence for even a sixth stage , however , led him to emphasize the speculative nature of his seventh stage .
= = Theoretical assumptions ( philosophy ) = =
Kohlberg 's stages of moral development are based on the assumption that humans are inherently communicative , capable of reason , and possess a desire to understand others and the world around them . The stages of this model relate to the qualitative moral reasonings adopted by individuals , and so do not translate directly into praise or blame of any individual 's actions or character . Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and not particular moral conclusions , Kohlberg insists that the form and structure of moral arguments is independent of the content of those arguments , a position he calls " formalism " .
Kohlberg 's theory centers on the notion that justice is the essential characteristic of moral reasoning . Justice itself relies heavily upon the notion of sound reasoning based on principles . Despite being a justice @-@ centered theory of morality , Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with plausible formulations of deontology and eudaimonia .
Kohlberg 's theory understands values as a critical component of the right . Whatever the right is , for Kohlberg , it must be universally valid across societies ( a position known as " moral universalism " ) : there can be no relativism . Moreover , morals are not natural features of the world ; they are prescriptive . Nevertheless , moral judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity .
According to Kohlberg : someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages . For example , an individual cannot jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments ( stage three ) to being a proponent of social contracts ( stage five ) . On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory , however , an individual will look to the next level . Realizing the limitations of the current stage of thinking is the driving force behind moral development , as each progressive stage is more adequate than the last . The process is therefore considered to be constructive , as it is initiated by the conscious construction of the individual , and is not in any meaningful sense a component of the individual 's innate dispositions , or a result of past inductions .
= = = Formal elements = = =
Progress through Kohlberg 's stages happens as a result of the individual 's increasing competence , both psychologically and in balancing conflicting social @-@ value claims . The process of resolving conflicting claims to reach an equilibrium is called " justice operation . " Kohlberg identifies two of these justice operations : " equality , " which involves an impartial regard for persons , and " reciprocity , " which means a regard for the role of personal merit . For Kohlberg , the most adequate result of both operations is " reversibility , " in which a moral or dutiful act within a particular situation is evaluated in terms of whether or not the act would be satisfactory even if particular persons were to switch roles within that situation ( also known colloquially as " moral musical chairs " ) .
Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development . Specifically important are the individual 's " view of persons " and their " social perspective level " , each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage . The " view of persons " can be understood as the individual 's grasp of the psychology of other persons ; it may be pictured as a spectrum , with stage one having no view of other persons at all , and stage six being entirely socio @-@ centric . Similarly , the social perspective level involves the understanding of the social universe , differing from the view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms .
= = Examples of applied moral dilemmas = =
Kohlberg established the Moral Judgement Interview in his original 1958 dissertation . During the roughly 45 @-@
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minute tape recorded semi @-@ structured interview , the interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral reasoning a person uses . The dilemmas are fictional short stories that describe situations in which a person has to make a moral decision . The participant is asked a systemic series of open @-@ ended questions , like what they think the right course of action is , as well as justifications as to why certain actions are right or wrong . The form and structure of these replies are scored and not the content ; over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an overall score is derived .
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist 's dilemma : Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe .
= = Criticisms = =
One criticism of Kohlberg 's theory is that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values , and so may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions . Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlberg 's theory is overly androcentric . Kohlberg 's theory was initially developed based on empirical research using only male participants ; Gilligan argued that it did not adequately describe the concerns of women . Kohlberg stated that women tend to get stuck at level 3 , focusing on details of how to maintain relationships and promote the welfare of family and friends . Men are likely to move on to the abstract principles , and thus have less concern with the particulars of who is involved . Consistent with this observation , Gilligan 's theory of moral development does not focus on the value of justice . She developed an alternative theory of moral reasoning based on the ethics of caring . Critics such as Christina Hoff Sommers , however , argued that Gilligan 's research is ill @-@ founded , and that no evidence exists to support her conclusion .
Kohlberg 's stages are not culturally neutral , as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures . Although they progress through the stages in the same order , individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates . Kohlberg has responded by saying that although different cultures do indeed inculcate different beliefs , his stages correspond to underlying modes of reasoning , rather than to those beliefs .
Another criticism of Kohlberg ’ s theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral judgements . This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations where participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage , typically using more self @-@ interest driven reasoning ( i.e. , stage two ) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning ( i.e. , stage four ) . Kohlberg ’ s theory is generally considered to be incompatible with inconsistencies in moral reasoning . Carpendale has argued that Kohlberg ’ s theory should be modified to focus on the view that the process of moral reasoning involves integrating varying perspectives of a moral dilemma rather than simply fixating on applying rules . This view would allow for inconsistency in moral reasoning since individuals may be hampered by their inability to consider different perspectives . Krebs and Denton have also attempted to modify Kohlberg ’ s theory to account for a multitude of conflicting findings , but eventually concluded that the theory is not equipped to take into consideration how most individuals make moral decisions in their everyday lives .
Other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is primarily a result of formal reasoning . Social intuitionists such as Jonathan Haidt , for example , argue that individuals often make moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness , law , human rights , or abstract ethical values . Thus the arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other rationalist psychologists could be considered post hoc rationalizations of intuitive decisions ; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than Kohlberg 's theory suggests .
= = Continued relevance = =
Kohlberg 's body of work on the stages of moral development has been utilized by others working in the field . One example is the Defining Issues Test ( DIT ) created in 1979 by James Rest , originally as a pencil @-@ and @-@ paper alternative to the Moral Judgement Interview . Heavily influenced by the six @-@ stage model , it made efforts to improve the validity criteria by using a quantitative test , the Likert scale , to rate moral dilemmas similar to Kohlberg 's . It also used a large body of Kohlbergian theory such as the idea of " post @-@ conventional thinking " . In 1999 the DIT was revised as the DIT @-@ 2 ; the test continues to be used in many areas where moral testing is required , such as divinity , politics , and medicine .
= Fort Pasir Panjang =
Fort Pasir Panjang or Labrador Battery is located within the lush Labrador Park at the southern tip of Singapore island . It was one of the 11 coastal artillery forts built by the British in the 19th century to defend the western passageway into Keppel Harbour against piracy and foreign naval powers . During the 1942 Battle of Pasir Panjang , the fort played a supporting role but a limited one in defending the Malay Regiments against the Japanese invasion at Bukit Chandu . In 1995 , the site was gazetted by the National Heritage Board as one of the 11 World War II sites in Singapore .
= = History = =
Labrador was named after Labrador Bay which it overlooks the deep and calm water off its shores . The Long Ya Men or " Dragon 's Teeth Gate " , two craggy granite outcrops formerly stood on each side of the entrance to the New Harbour ( now Keppel Harbour ) as a navigation landmark to ancient mariners . The two rock outcrops were subsequently blown up by the Straits Settlement surveyor , John Thomson , in August 1848 to widen the entrance to the harbour . Labrador 's strategic value was recognised by the British as early as 1843 when plans were made to set up defences to protect Singapore , an important trading post founded by Sir Stamford Raffles of the British East India Company in 1819 .
= = = Piracy = = =
The New Harbour was later renamed as Keppel Harbour in 1900 after Admiral Sir Henry Keppel of HMS Meander , who carried out an on @-@ site survey to build an anchorage in the harbour in the 1880s . He was also known for his successful campaigns against the pirates in 1842 that were boldly harassing merchant ships in close proximity to the harbour . Piracy became less of a danger to the trade of Singapore only from the 1850s .
The original , Western Harbour limit is marked by a white obelisk , near the former site of Long Ya Men . This obelisk still stands at Tanjong Berlayer Point ( " Tanjong " means " land 's end " in Malay ) to indicate where the southernmost tip of the Asian Continent was .
= = = Defenses = = =
In 1878 , as part of the review of the defences of Singapore against threats from European powers in the region , it was decided that forts be built on either side of the entrance to New Harbour . Fort Pasir Panjang was built on Labrador and Fort Siloso on Pulau Blakang Mati ( now Sentosa ) . It was found that the steep cliffs and thick mangrove swamps surrounding the two forts acted as an ideal natural barrier to intruders .
= = = = Underwater mines = = = =
To strengthen the defence further , by 1881 , mines were laid in the waters between the two forts and the eastern entrance of the harbour . The mines were tethered to the seabed but floated dangerously under the surface of the water unseen to any enemy marine vessels . To enable safe passage of ships , a ' friendly safe channel ' was created through the minefields . The work involved in the laying of minefields under the narrow channel ( just 240 m apart ) had actually led to rumours that tunnels running under the channels were constructed to link the two forts . There are , however , no archival records to prove that these tunnels were ever constructed .
= = = = Gun emplacements = = = =
The Fort came under the operation of the 7th Coast Artillery Regiment , which received orders from Faber Fire Command led by Brigadier A.D. Curtiss . A gun emplacement is a position or platform specially prepared to support large heavy guns and artillery . The first type of gun put on Fort Pasir Panjang was the 7 @-@ inch Rifled Muzzle @-@ Loading ( R.M.L. ) . Two of these guns were first installed in 1878 so as to provide a temporary defence for the fort . They were , however , removed soon after .
The defence reviews of 1885 , then proposed that these guns be reinstalled together with the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Rifled Breech @-@ Loading ( R.B.L. ) guns . While the latter guns came into the Fort much later , the 7 @-@ inch R.M.L. were already in place by 1886 .
In 1896 , a proposal was forwarded to replace the 7 @-@ inch R.M.L. gun with two 6 @-@ inch Quick @-@ Firing ( Q.F. ) guns . This came out of the suggestion that the 7 @-@ inch R.M.L. has neither sufficient range accuracy nor rapidity of fire for effective defence . Even the engineer of the Fort , H.E. McCallum referred to these guns as being " the worst in the service " .
The emplacement was eventually modified to contain 2 × 6 in ( 152 mm ) Q.F. guns . This modern type of gun definitely better in terms of its accuracy and rapidity to counter the speedy motor torpedo boats that appeared in the 1880s . Each shell used by these 6 @-@ inch Q.F. weighed 45 kilograms .
= = = = 7 @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loading gun = = = =
Weight : 6 @.@ 5 tons .
Muzzle velocity : 1 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 460 m / s ) .
Rounds per minute : 2 – 3
Type of ammunition used : Common shells , shrapnel shells and case shots .
= = = = 6 @-@ inch quick @-@ firing gun = = = =
Weight : 7 tons .
Muzzle velocity 2 @,@ 150 feet per second ( 655 m / s ) .
Rounds per minute : 25 – 30 .
Maximum range : 15 @,@ 700 yards ( 14 @,@ 400 m ) on a central pivot .
= = = = The Casemate = = = =
The Casemate was built in 1886 to serve as an ammunition store for the guns . It also acted as a shelter for gunners and infantry groups stationed at the Fort . It is situated at the highest point of the hill and served the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch R.M.L. guns nearby . The casemate has four rooms , one of the rooms held the entrance to a tunnel that led to underground store rooms beneath the first emplacement . Lim Bo Seng , a war hero of Singapore , was a major brick supplier in the late 1930s , with his main client , the colonial government . Bricks supplied by Lim lay in certain sections of the casemates at the Fort . His other projects included the construction of Alexandra Hospital , the army barracks in Changi and many defence works in the 1930s .
= = = = Tunnels = = = =
The tunnels , constructed in 1886 , leads to underground storerooms constructed to serve gun emplacements located directly above it . To date , the tunnels serving Gun Emplacement III is the most extensive tunnel discovered at Labrador Park .
As one walked into the tunnel , there is an enlarged chamber allowing for two @-@ way human traffic . This was important since the walkways in the tunnel tend to be very narrow . The tunnel then splits into two . One leads to the cartridge storeroom and hoist area while the other leads to the shell storeroom and hoist area . A hoist is a mechanical pulley system to lift the shells and cartridges from the underground room to the emplacement above it . The allocation of separation hoists for the shells and the cartridges allows for convenience and a more systematic operation of the gun above it .
= = = = Uses of the underground rooms = = = =
The underground storerooms played important roles in the Fort . For one , they protected ammunition from being ignited by enemy fire . Secondly , the use of hoists facilitated easy movement and retrieval of ammunition . Thirdly , the tunnel provided protection for the gunners not involved in the actual manning of the gun . Lastly , they help to protect the gun and gunners above from any accidental explosions in the underground room itself . The underground tunnels lead to the following areas :
Lighting room — Given the inflammable nature of the store , no naked flames were allowed in any rooms with the exception of this room .
Cartridge room — For the storage of cartridges .
Cartridge lift area — Where the hoist raising the cartridges to the emplacement aboveground was found .
Filled shell store — For the storage of shells filled with gunpowder .
Shell lift area — Where the hoist raising the Filled Shells to the emplacement aboveground was found .
= = = Japanese invasion = = =
Before the onset of World War II ( WWII ) , Fort Pasir Panjang was subsequently upgraded to Labrador Battery . Tank obstacles , land mines and beach defences were put in place around the Fort . Air bases and garrisons were quickly sited in Malaya to counter the Japanese invasion threat . In anticipation of a coastal attack , 11 forts and gun batteries protected the coastal south of Singapore :
Fort Pasir Panjang
Fort Siloso
Mount Imbiah Battery
Fort Serapong
Fort Connaught
Fort Canning
Fullerton
Palmer
Faber Fire Command
Fort Silingsing
Fort Teregah
By the eve of the Japanese invasion , Singapore had become one of the most fortified countries in the world .
= = = Battle for Pasir Panjang = = =
By 13 February 1942 , the Japanese had already reached Pasir Panjang Ridge ( present Kent Ridge Park ) after destroying the Allied artillery force on Chwee Chian Hill ( where Poh Ern Shih Temple stands today ) . This location was near the Alexandra area where the main ammunition stores and a military hospital were situated . The men of the 1st Battalion , Charlie Company , Malay Regiment , led by Lieutenant Adnan Bin Saidi fought bravely to the last . Many Japanese soldiers were killed or wounded . The guns from Labrador assisted the Malay Regiment in their 48 @-@ hour struggle against the Japanese by firing high @-@ explosive shells at enemy troops . However , with Japanese reinforcements , the Malay Regiment were finally surrounded and massacred . Three lucky ones , together with Lieutenant Abbas Abdul @-@ Manan managed to escape and later rejoined 30 surviving soldiers of a British battalion in the nearby area .
After their conquest of Pasir Panjang Ridge , the Japanese proceeded to march towards the city of Singapore for their final decisive thrust against remaining Allied forces there . Perched on a hill ( near present Keppel Country Club ) along Pasir Panjang Road , the escaped Malay and British soldiers had gathered together and waited patiently to ambush the Japanese convoy heading towards the city . Using mounted Bofors guns , they let loose deluge of gunshots causing the Japanese to scramble for cover . The Japanese tanks attempted to move forward to engage the enemy but they could not advance due to the sea of dead and wounded bodies blocking its way . About 100 Japanese soldiers were killed during the ambush before the Anglo @-@ Malay force retreated to the city to join their fellow men for their final stand against the Japanese .
= = = Alexandra Hospital massacre = = =
On 14 February 1942 , seeking reprisal for their great loss and also retaliation against retreating soldiers from the 44th Indian Brigade who had fired from Alexandra Hospital , 3 groups of Japanese soldiers went on a blind rampage and entered the hospital from the rear bayoneting everyone they found , regardless of whether they were soldiers , patients and medical staff . They killed a British officer , Lieutenant W.E.J. Weston , who was carrying a white flag to meet them . Even a young patient , Corporal Holden , who was lying on an operating table was not spared . About 200 defenceless souls were massacred . Some managed to escape death by falling to the floor and pretending to be dead .
The following day , Lieutenant @-@ General Renya Mutaguchi , commander of the Japanese 18th Division toured the hospital and distributed tinned fruits , all the while apologising profusely for the brutality of his soldiers and assured the staff of their safety . He also ordered the execution of the Japanese soldiers responsible for the massacre , within the hospital grounds .
= = = Ineffective guns = = =
A common misunderstanding is that the British only anticipated a seaward attack and that the guns of Singapore could only fire out to sea . On the eve of the Japanese attack on Singapore , with the exception of the 15 " guns at the Buona Vista Battery , all large guns in Singapore had 360 @-@ degree traverse . The guns of the Labrador Battery could and did fire inland as they did at advancing Japanese troops in February 1942 .
Nonetheless , the Labrador Battery guns had limited effect during the battle and the rounds allocated to it were more armour @-@ piercing cartridges rather than high explosive rounds which were more effective against the infantry . As a result , these guns were ineffective and saw little action during the Battle of Singapore .
= = Aftermath = =
Before the British surrendered to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 , they destroyed all remaining coastal artillery to prevent any possible usage by the invading Japanese forces . This is known as a scorched @-@ earth policy .
After WWII , there was a worldwide disbandment of British forts as advances in air defence systems caused them to become obsolete . Today , the ruins of coastal fortifications are still visible at Labrador Battery , Mount Faber , Fort Siloso and Fort Canning that serve as a lasting reminder of their wartime legacy in Fortress Singapore .
= Far Side Virtual =
Far Side Virtual is a 2011 album by James Ferraro , released digitally and on vinyl by the label Hippos in Tanks . The album marked Ferraro 's transition from his previous style of lo @-@ fi drone music toward a sharply produced electronic aesthetic . Far Side Virtual deliberately evokes the artificial style of corporate " elevator music " and obsolete computer sounds . Ferraro said he first conceived of the album for release as a series of ringtones , and that listeners using songs from the album as ringtones is the completion of the project . The album engages with concepts of hyperreality , simulacra , disposable consumer culture , 1990s retro @-@ futurism , advertising and branding , pop art , and musical kitsch . Critics have found Ferraro 's attitude toward his themes ambiguous , depicting the modern world as both bleak dystopia and uncanny utopia .
The album received generally favorable reviews , with many critics admiring its conceptual underpinnings as much as , or more than , the quality of the music itself . The album also had its vocal detractors ; particularly , its position as UK music magazine The Wire 's number one release of the year was met with contention from some readers . Far Side Virtual has been cited as one of the original catalysts of vaporwave , an underground electronic music movement that covers much of the same sonic and conceptual territory .
= = Release = =
Far Side Virtual was announced in May 2011 as Ferraro 's first LP for the label Hippos in Tanks . The label first released the digital EP Condo Pets , intended to preview the sound of the forthcoming LP . Karen Ka Ying Chan , writer for Dummy , identified the theme of the two releases as Ferraro 's " fascination of the surreal side of American living " . Amber Bravo of The Fader said Far Side Virtual had been " billed somewhat as a cultural critique as told through MIDI @-@ synths . "
Ferraro 's announcement of the album reads , in part : " all the proceeds from Far Side Virtual are going towards my facial reconstructive plastic surgery , my new face will be fashioned after CCTV 's satellite queen , Princess Diana. and you will be able to see it live in concert on the Far Side Virtual World Tour .. Always coca cola . " The tracks " Adventures in Green Foot Printing " and " Earth Minutes " were released in advance of the album . Far Side Virtual was released on October 25 , 2011 , as a digital download and a 1000 @-@ copy run of transparent vinyl records .
Ferraro later explained that his original idea had been to release the 16 compositions on the album as a set of downloadable ringtones , but wanted the songs to have the impact of a complete album but felt that few would want to purchase the music as a set of ringtones . Ferraro said , " Hopefully these songs [ will be ] made available for ringtone and the album will be condensed into ringtone format so the album won 't be the centerpiece , it will just dissipate into the infrastructure . The record is just the contained gallery space of these ringtone compositions . " Ferraro said that listeners using the songs from Far Side Virtual as ringtones is the realization of Far Side Virtual as a performance art installation .
= = Music and critical interpretation = =
The cover of the album displays iPads over a low resolution image of Google Street View . Explaining the title in an interview , Ferraro said :
Far Side Virtual mainly designates a space in society , or a mode of behaving . All of these things operating in synchronicity : like ringtones , flat @-@ screens , theater , cuisine , fashion , sushi . I don 't want to call it " virtual reality , " so I call it Far Side Virtual . If you really want to understand Far Side , first off , listen to [ Claude ] Debussy , and secondly , go into a frozen yogurt shop . Afterwards , go into an Apple store and just fool around , hang out in there . Afterwards , go to Starbucks and get a gift card . They have a book there on the history of Starbucks — buy this book and go home . If you do all these things you 'll understand what Far Side Virtual is — because people kind of live in it already .
The sources of most of the album 's sounds were described as " perversely commonplace " by a music critic , and include the Skype log @-@ in sound , a Windows shut @-@ down melody and a synthesized voice . Ferraro created Far Side Virtual with the Apple audio software GarageBand , which brought out the " cheap digital sound " he desired , and called it a " [ r ] ubbery plastic symphony for global warming , dedicated to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch . This is ringtone music meant to be experienced on the post @-@ structuralist medium , the smartphone . " Ferraro frequently described it as a still life of the 21st century . Far Side Virtual was retrospectively tagged as one of the first , and most influential , releases in vaporwave , a genre mostly spread via the Internet and identified by its adoption of dated electronic " corporate mood music " and ambiguously ironic attitude .
Andy Battaglia compared the feeling of the music to online virtual world Second Life , city @-@ building game SimCity and the work of art filmmaker Ryan Trecartin . Adam Harper of Dummy called it a " pastiche [ of ] a kind of music you never knew you knew existed : techno @-@ capitalist stock promotional music for the era of the personal computer ... Each track is bristling with the maximalist promise of a world of possibilities waiting behind the screen for your double @-@ click , and evokes a time when we were much less familiar with and cynical about the virtual world technology has brought us into . " Bomb writer Luke Degnan wrote , " This is what Far Side Virtual does for 45 minutes — it reminds the listener that these sounds were born digitally and will die digitally . This is a digital album for a digital age . "
Ferraro said , " When I made Far Side Virtual , I was really into grime . I lived in Leeds for a year and I used to hear to kids listening to instrumentals on their phones , rapping over the top . I love the way that sounds : the texture of super compressed digital beats coming out of a cellphone and just a voice over it . Far Side Virtual was inspired by hearing music like that . " Electronic musician Dan Deacon praised the album for its unaltered , standard MIDI sound . Commenting on the production style , Joseph Stannard of The Wire wrote , " In contrast to the audio soup of Ferraro 's earlier recordings , these tracks have a spacious , architectural feel that recalls Laurie Anderson , Philip Glass and Rush . "
Critics noted that the album abandons the veneer of noise that coats Ferraro 's previous releases while retaining — and reimagining — the form and ethos of noise music . Ferraro said " it 's still in the tradition of noise . " According to Bomb magazine writer Luke Degan , the album is unlike the " reverbed @-@ out , feedback @-@ laden noise music " of Ferraro 's earlier music , but instead represents the noise of the " digital age . " A Fact writer said , " there 's no distortion , no tape @-@ hiss , no obvious underground signifiers ... [ but ] this new cleanness and clarity to the Ferraro aesthetic hasn 't diminished the hallucinatory power of his music ... [ the songs ] will terrify you to the core even as they evoke the soundtrack of a third @-@ tier Melanie Griffith rom @-@ com or a forgotten Phil Collins B @-@ side . " Another critic said , " while Ferraro is interested in issues of distance and impermanence , there is no lo @-@ fi fuzz or warm nostalgic haze to temper how flat and ugly the music he 's referencing on Far Side Virtual is . "
Like Ferraro 's previous albums Night Dolls with Hairspray and Last American Hero , Far Side Virtual explores American culture of the present and recent past . A writer from French music blog The Drone described Far Side Virtual as a concept album inspired by the ideas of hyperreality and simulacra from the post @-@ modern cultural theorist Jean Baudrillard . Harper wrote , " Up until Far Side Virtual , many of James Ferraro 's albums were impressionistic lo @-@ fi portraits of bygone eras – perhaps on Far Side Virtual he decided to represent the present as is and then let nature take its course , over time , and do the aging for him . Returning to it in ten or twenty years time , we might discover that it was ironically a victim of its own futurist acceleration , and is now about as up @-@ to @-@ date as a ten @-@ year @-@ old carton of milk . "
English music critic Simon Reynolds said that while the album 's song titles allude to the 21st century , the album is sonically reminiscent of the 1990s and that Ferraro shares interest in that time period with contemporaries like Oneohtrix Point Never . Reynolds wrote , " Far Side Virtual seems to undertake an archaeology of the recent past , conjuring the onset of the internet revolution and 90s optimism about information technology . But that recent past could equally be a case of ' the long present ' in so far as the digiculture ideology of convenience / instant access / maximization of options now permeates everyday life and is arguably where faint residues of utopianism persist in an otherwise gloomy and anxious culture . "
= = Reception = =
Far Side Virtual was met with greater critical attention than Ferraro 's previous releases . Just over a year after its release , Marc Masters at Pitchfork wrote that " Far Side Virtual became Ferraro 's most discussed and divisive effort , landing on year @-@ end best @-@ of lists as often as it got dismissed as a joke . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 77 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on seven reviews . Critics tended to agree that Far Side Virtual takes the state of 21st @-@ century consumerism as its subject , but there was no consensus regarding whether Ferraro intended to satirize , criticize or embrace this condition . Brandon Soderberg said that the album 's concept " seemed critic @-@ proof , which was frustrating ... Negative reviews could be dismissed as the listener 's simply not getting the joke . "
The Wire published a favorable review by Joseph Stannard , in which he wrote " If it is an elaborate put @-@ on — and I suspect Ferraro isn 't averse to a chuckle at the expense of his audience — Far Side Virtual still feels like the culmination of numerous releases ' worth of research and development . ... Whether or not its creator is giggling through a bong smoke haze , Far Side Virtual is a convincing evocation of the digital dreamtime . " Stefan Wharton of Tiny Mix Tapes ' took the album as a statement about blurred boundaries between consumers and their technologies , citing the writing of Markus Giesler as a precedent . Wharton said , " Far Side Virtual succeeds in exciting the collective memory of that generation now so conjoined to its technological appendages . " In Pitchfork 's review , Soderberg wrote , " the songs here are exactly the same as what they 're ostensibly parodying , which is bold and maybe even the point . ... You suddenly realize you 're listening to 45 minutes of utilitarian music that doesn 't really have a purpose . Can something be utopian and dystopian at the same time ? Probably . Maybe even always . "
Steve Shaw of Fact called the album " an intense immersive listening experience that is both deeply comforting and unsettling at the same time " and said " arguably , it is more a piece of art than a collection of music . ... Compositionally , Far Side Virtual is truly frenetic , nothing safe from Ferraro ’ s meddling , all elements completely malleable and at the mercy of his eccentric imagination . " Spin gave the album a three @-@ star review , and the staff reviewer wrote that Ferraro " makes a glowing , glossy album out of everyday digital detritus . If you can wade through the excruciating sitar @-@ synths , bank @-@ lobby melodies , home @-@ fitness techno , and infomercial drum breaks , Ferraro 's playfulness blips into view . "
= = = End @-@ of @-@ year acclaim and The Wire controversy = = =
Far Side Virtual appeared on several best of 2011 lists and features . In Tiny Mix Tapes 's end @-@ of @-@ year wrap @-@ up column on nostalgia in pop music , Jonathan Dean wrote , " You may want to throw Far Side Virtual against a wall upon hearing its relentlessly arch , kitschy blandness , but it manages to successfully turn pop against itself , which , like it or not , is a politically progressive project . Its pure , bold conceptualism stood out in a year that was dominated by the ' febrile sterility ' of post @-@ internet microgenres and tail @-@ swallowing postmodernism . " Music critic Jonah Weiner cited Far Side Virtual for his end @-@ of @-@ year article on contemporary protest songs , and called it " antagonizingly , alienatingly , wondrously bland . " Fact named Hippos in Tanks the best label of the year , listing the signing of Ferraro and subsequent release of Far Side Virtual as one of its finest accomplishments .
Tiny Mix Tapes included the album as its 21st @-@ best album of the year , and summarized the album as " hyperreal ... frivolous ... eerily familiar and scarily comfortable : pop structures moving one step closer toward the ' synthetic music box ' from Huxley 's Brave New World . " Fact ranked Far Side Virtual as its sixth @-@ best album of the year , and called it " [ t ] he finest , most accessible example yet of James Ferraro ’ s ability to turn the detritus and dreck of US pop / commercial culture into gold – or , at any rate , something stomach @-@ turningly psychedelic , mentally disturbing yet oddly celebratory . " Dummy named the album one of its " 12 albums for 2011 , " and Ruth Saxelby concluded that Ferraro " neither celebrates nor critiques the internet 's reign but simply observes it with deep fascination . Andy Warhol style , it reflects the ambiguity of consumer culture in the digital age back at us with a Pixar @-@ animated wink . " The album placed at 316 on The Village Voice Pazz & Jop poll , with votes from four critics .
Far Side Virtual topped The Wire 's top 50 releases of 2011 — a choice that proved to be polarizing among readers . Writing to elucidate the " low mandate " for the album , editor @-@ in @-@ chief Tony Herrington noted that only seven of 60 voters included Far Side Virtual on their lists , and no voters chose it as their personal favorite . Herrington said the choice was " entirely appropriate in a year in which the abundance of choice brought on by digital technology reached such a tipping point as to make genuine consensus impossible . ... you either swoon over the conceptual audacity of its deadpan appropriation of late capitalist @-@ era corporate mood Muzak , or you think it 's the worst record Dave Grusin never made . " Tiny Mix Tapes ' Dean wrote that after Far Side Virtual topped The Wire 's list , " discerning music nerds have felt the imperative to step to either side of a line , " and that Herrington 's column " amounted to a retraction . " While praising the magazine for its diverse taste , Seattle Weekly 's Eric Grandy jokingly commented that it was " no surprise " that the " willfully obscurantist " magazine would top their list with a " winking Windows ' 97 soft @-@ rock hellscape " .
= = Track listing = =
" Linden Dollars " – 1 : 57
" Global Lunch " – 2 : 13
" Dubai Dream Tone " – 1 : 49
" Sim " – 2 : 53
" Bags " – 3 : 25
" PIXARnia and the Future of Norman Rockwell " – 1 : 44
" Palm Trees , Wi @-@ Fi and Dream Sushi " – 2 : 39
" Fro Yo and Cellular Bits " – 2 : 19
" Google Poeises " – 3 : 51
" Starbucks , Dr. Seussism , and While Your Mac Is Sleeping " – 2 : 25
" Adventures in Green Foot Printing " – 3 : 28
" Dream On " – 3 : 07
" Earth Minutes " – 4 : 17
" Tomorrow 's Baby of the Year " – 1 : 49
" Condo Pets " – 3 : 31
" Solar Panel Smile " – 4 : 08
= For Emma , Forever Ago =
For Emma , Forever Ago is the debut studio album by American indie folk band Bon Iver . It was first self @-@ released in July 2007 , and later saw wide release on the Jagjaguwar label in February 2008 . The album is principally the work of singer @-@ songwriter Justin Vernon , who had previously performed in the band DeYarmond Edison . After college , the group moved to Raleigh , North Carolina , but broke up in 2006 . Vernon fell ill with mononucleosis and a liver infection , and grew frustrated with his songwriting and life . He left Raleigh and drove an hour northwest of his hometown , Eau Claire , Wisconsin , hoping to be alone .
The album was recorded at Vernon 's father 's remote hunting cabin over late 2006 to early 2007 . He abandoned his old songwriting methods and instead focused on wordless melodies that he later set to words , which he felt evoked a more subconscious meaning . The record 's lyrical subjects include lost love and mediocrity . His folk @-@ infused songs include heavy choral arrangements , featuring Vernon 's falsetto , and horns . He hunted his own food and spent much of his time isolated . Though he did not intend to make an album , he received strong encouragements from friends and decided to self @-@ release For Emma , Forever Ago in July 2007 . After several performances and online exposure , he was signed to Jagjaguwar later that year .
For Emma , Forever Ago attracted wide acclaim from music critics , achieving a spot on dozens of end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year lists , as well as several awards . It became a major commercial success for Jagjaguwar , an independent label , and has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . " Skinny Love " became the album 's best @-@ performing single and also went gold . Vernon gathered together several musicians to form a band to tour with . The album 's touring cycle lasted two years , ending in late 2009 , and visited several countries and music festivals worldwide .
= = Background = =
Justin Vernon was born in Eau Claire , Wisconsin , and grew up pursuing music . He saw the folk duo the Indigo Girls in concert in middle school and it proved formative on his life . He attended the University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire ( UW – Eau Claire ) , where he played in a number of bands . One such group , Mount Vernon , consisted of ten members and contained saxophonist Sara Jensen , who became his first love . He and Jensen broke up in the middle of his college years , but would remain friends . He studied music theory for a time as well as jazz , but ended up with a degree in religious studies . DeYarmond Edison became his next musical project , as he graduated from college and relocated to Raleigh , North Carolina in August 2005 . The group chose Raleigh hoping for an adventure and a more vibrant musical scene .
Over the course of his time in Raleigh , he became frustrated with his songwriting as well as personal life . He worked at a local sandwich shop that he felt took too much time from him . He started to have health problems : he first contracted pneumonia , then mononucleosis , which developed into a liver infection that kept him bedridden for three months . Members of the band began to fight , and Vernon was kicked out of the group . Many of his bands had held similar members — some he had known since his adolescence — which amplified the pain of breaking apart . Afterwards , he spent time as a band member for the Rosebuds ; his contributions feature on their third album , Night of the Furies . Vernon also recorded a solo extended play , Hazeltons , which he distributed in 100 self @-@ made CD @-@ Rs . He lost his money playing online poker , which he viewed as a microcosm for his other problems .
Vernon , then 25 , felt his life had spiraled into mediocrity , as though he had lost the sense of purpose he had a half @-@ decade prior . He sensed he had compromised with bandmates and in his personal life . His depression was fueled by indifference , and he decided to get away from Raleigh and return to his hometown . He broke @-@ up with his then @-@ girlfriend , Christy Smith , and tossed his recording equipment into the trunk of his car . He drove home to Eau Claire over eighteen hours through the night . He first stopped at his parents home while they were out . He sat on their couch and felt " claustrophobic " and " super @-@ empty . " He returned to the road , in search of silence and hoping to be alone .
= = Recording and production = =
Vernon 's travels brought him to his father 's hunting cabin , roughly an hour northwest of his hometown and outside of Medford , Wisconsin . He and his father had often spent weekends at the 80 @-@ acre rural property — an area they dubbed " the land " — when he was growing up . In an interview , he described it as " a little alpine @-@ style , timber @-@ frame cabin . " The cabin was not necessarily ramshackle ; his father had replaced its dirt floor and installed plumbing years before . For roughly three weeks , Vernon sat alone in the shack , drinking beer and watching seasons of the television show Northern Exposure on DVD . He mulled over thoughts about his relationship with Jensen , a break @-@ up he had struggled to get over . He hunted his food , a practice that he had learned from his father . He killed two deer in his period at the property , which lasted the entire three months " and then some , " according to Vernon . At one point , he faced a wild bear that entered the cabin late one night , enticed by his stew . His father would drop by " every 10 days or so , " supplying his son with beer , eggs , and cheese . Vernon completed tasks for him , such as stripping wood , clearing brush , and stacking lumber . He did not intend to stay for long , viewing the excursion as " an opportunity to escape the trap of society , to not pay bills , to play music and live really cheaply . " Instead , he stayed for three months in the harsh Wisconsin winter .
After three weeks , Vernon grew tired of his " self @-@ indulgent , lazy behavior " and began forming song ideas . He had an idea for a song and brought inside his musical equipment , which consisted of several guitars , microphones , and an old @-@ model Macintosh with ProTools LE . Shortly before exiting Raleigh , he had developed song ideas but ceased working on them in his depression . He began recording songs and layering his vocals atop more vocals , imitating a choir . He sang in falsetto , which he had first tried with his previous band . He gained freedom in singing in a higher register , feeling he accessed " painful melodies " unattainable in his previous work . He further manipulated his recorded vocals using the software Auto @-@ Tune . Soon , he began developing more songs , which were worked on in 12 @-@ hour " bursts " of productivity . " I would work for 14 hours a day and start to feel a little insane , " he later commented . The work was " labor @-@ intensive , " as he often merged over a minimum of eight tracks of vocals on each song . He likened the singularity of the process to his teenage years , where he worked alone with an eight @-@ track . According to Vernon , days were hazy and began to run together for him . He would wake each morning at sunrise , due to the light reflecting from the snow . To help repair his 1964 Sears Silvertone guitar , he traded venison in the nearby town . By February , with winter drawing to a close , Vernon emerged from the cabin with nine songs . He left still feeling physically sick from the infection , nor did he feel " renewed " from his creative catharsis . He spent additional time in Raleigh recording brass in " re : stacks " , and he invited friends Randy Pingrey and John Dehaven over one day to play trumpet and trombone on the songs .
While stories of the " cabin " would become oft @-@ repeated and mythologized , Vernon never viewed it that way : " It 's sort of odd to look back and see it as magical , because it felt like a lonely few months at the cabin , where I plugged in the laptop and fucked around . " Rolling Stone 's Josh Eells later summarized its romanticized story as " part Into the Wild , part Basement Tapes , part Walden , part Unabomber . " Vernon later viewed the album a victory for his mental health , a metaphor for taking " personal steps " to improve his life . He characterized his growth as a " small internal dialogue between me and the microphone . " The album 's title comes from the middle name of Jensen , though he refrained from confirming that she was the central inspiration behind the album . He felt the titular " Emma " was evocative of " a statement , a sentiment and a closing of my own history . " He went more in @-@ depth in a later remark : " Emma isn 't a person . Emma is a place that you get stuck in . Emma 's a pain that you can ’ t erase . "
= = Composition = =
For Emma , Forever Ago is a summation of Vernon 's life events at the time , ranging from " lost love and longing " to mediocrity . His lyrics on the album aspire to tell stories , which was inspired by musician Bruce Springsteen , and the song structures are unorthodox . He discarded his old method of songwriting , both metaphorically and literally : on one occasion , an old PowerBook crashed , losing dozens of unfinished old songs . Vernon buried the laptop in the snow , later remarking , " They were taken from me but it was good that they were , as it really gave me a new face . " Music came first , after which he would create wordless vocal lines . He felt this process brought forth " weird , subconscious melodies and sounds . " He considered this method a " back @-@ door way , " as they fit more to his unintelligible syllables than words . He expanded upon this process in a 2008 interview :
Vernon listened to little music while creating the album , but was inspired by a myriad of sources . He had listened to Vienna Boys ' Choir recordings months prior , which inspired him to incorporate choral arrangements into his work . He also felt inspired by Appalachian folk singers who employed the falsetto register , which inspired him to use his . As a result , he felt more comfortable singing certain complicated phrases , as though he could express pain or joy more clearly . He suggested in one interview it could have been a reaction to his favorite black singers , such as the Staple Singers , Mahalia Jackson , and Sam Cooke . " Flume " was created at his girlfriend Christy Smith 's house in Raleigh , preceding his trip to the cabin . He later dubbed " Flume " as the " catalyst " for his move to the cabin and creation of Bon Iver : " that was the song that made me leave . " While " Skinny Love " has been considered a reference to his relationship with Smith , Vernon countered this as " not entirely accurate [ ... ] it 's about that time in a relationship that I was going through ; you 're in a relationship because you need help , but that 's not necessarily why you should be in a relationship . And that 's skinny . " " re : stacks " , meanwhile , references his gambling problem .
= = Release = =
After completing the recordings , Vernon returned to North Carolina to play guitar on tour with the Rosebuds , who toured through that spring . It took several months for him to have thoughts on his recordings . He viewed them as potential demos he would later re @-@ record , but Ivan Howard of the Rosebuds convinced him to leave it as is , commenting , " This is your record . " He consulted friends to listen first before deciding to self @-@ release it . He mixed his recordings himself , hoping to send them out to labels who would give him an advance to record a " real " album . While at the cabin , Vernon had written to Kelly Crisp of the Rosebuds , concluding his letter with " bon iver , " a misspelling of " bon hiver , " which is French for " good winter . " Its origins lie in an episode of Northern Exposure , wherein two characters greet one another . Crisp encouraged him to name the project Bon Iver . While on tour with the Rosebuds , he asked to play a small solo set , his first , prior to a performance at that year 's South by Southwest ( SXSW ) . Encouraged , more performances followed in New York and in Wisconsin .
For Emma , Forever Ago was first self @-@ distributed on MySpace in June 2007 , and gradually became an independent hit throughout that year . My Old Kentucky Blog was the first to popularize the record . A release party was held at the House of Rock in Eau Claire on July 8 , 2007 , marking the album 's CD debut . It was a limited run of 500 copies , as Vernon had no idea who would be interested . He intended to send out 100 copies to press outlets . Positive reviews increased within weeks , from music blogs such as BrooklynVegan and Pitchfork . An appearance at the CMJ Music Marathon in New York increased Vernon 's popularity among music blogs , and he began to see offers to release the album from record labels . According to Vernon , major labels were " desperate " to sign him , offering contracts in which he chose the deal . He chose to sign with independent label Jagjaguwar in late October 2007 because he liked the label 's president , Chris Swanson , who had first opened communication in the summer , and its Midwest roots . 4AD would distribute the album in Europe .
= = Commercial performance = =
Upon its February 2008 release , For Emma , Forever Ago sold 4 @,@ 000 copies in its debut week . That placed it on several U.S. album sales charts , including at number 182 on the Billboard 200 and a number five entry on the Top Heatseekers chart . Sales for For Emma were " slow @-@ building , " according to music publication Billboard , but eventually became a " commercial smash " for Jagjaguwar . The album eventually peaked at number 64 on the Billboard 200 in the issue dated January 24 , 2009 . Prior to its official release on Jagjaguwar , the album was widely available online . The label offered sales incentives in response , including a free poster with pre @-@ ordered copies , a bonus track on the iTunes Store edition , as well as purchasing a copy required for in @-@ store performances . The album was mostly successful among triple @-@ A radio stations in the U.S. , including many public stations in the Midwest , where the label focused their marketing campaign .
In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 42 on the UK Albums Chart ; it was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for sales of over 100 @,@ 000 copies . It achieved its largest international success in Ireland , where it debuted at number 16 ; it was also a top 40 hit album in Flanders , Portugal , Australia , and Denmark . In Australia , the album was eventually certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies , and it was also certified gold by IFPI Denmark , denoting shipments of 10 @,@ 000 copies .
For Emma , Forever Ago has been a top @-@ selling title on vinyl for many years during the format 's revival in the U.S. ; it sold over 102 @,@ 000 copies on vinyl in the first half of the 2010s . " If you ’ d told me when we put out For Emma , Forever Ago that we would sell almost 100 @,@ 000 copies on vinyl , I would think that was just absolutely insane , " said Nick Blandford , managing director of the Secretly Label Group . Its overall sales were last estimated at 335 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan , in June 2011 , but the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2013 for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Reception = =
For Emma , Forever Ago received widespread acclaim from critics . It scored an 88 on review aggregate site Metacritic . One of the earliest reviews came from Pitchfork 's Stephen M. Deusner , who praised Vernon 's " soulful performance , " describing the record as " a ruminative collection of songs full of natural imagery and acoustic strums — the sound of a man left alone with his memories and a guitar . " Rob Sheffield for Rolling Stone christened it a " quiet marvel , " praising Vernon 's " light touch , with zero interest in narrative or confessional lyrics . " The Guardian 's Jude Rogers praised Vernon 's restraint , noting , " nothing is overplayed , but nothing feels throwaway either . " Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club characterized it as " quietly startling , " opining , " The power is in how these songs sound rather than what the opaque lyrics don 't quite spell out . " Tim Sendra of AllMusic wrote that " For Emma captures the sound of broken and quiet isolation , wraps it in a beautiful package , and delivers it to your door with a beating , bruised heart . It 's quite an achievement for a debut and the promise of greatness in the future is high . "
David Marchese , writing for Spin , suggested Vernon 's " sturdy folk chords , earthy melodies , and plainspoken , pastoral lyrics prevent the album from descending into self @-@ pity . " Uncut 's John Mulvey deemed the record " a hermetically sealed , complete and satisfying album " that " operates so securely and intensely in its own world that to listen sometimes seem like an intrusive act . " Darcie Stevens of the Austin Chronicle described the record as a " paradigm of uninhibited closure , a gentle touch on a sad day , " writing , " [ Vernon ] ' s pain is so visceral it provides warmth , the therapeutic definition of music . " The New York Times called the record " irresistible . " On the other hand , Robert Christgau , in his review for MSN Music , stated that the album ultimately had little to say about " shared aloneness " , comparing Vernon unfavorably to Robert Creeley and writing that Vernon 's " solitary meditations ... lose definition faster than an angel 's breath on a January morn " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Touring = =
Vernon first toured as Bon Iver along the East Coast , supporting Elvis Perkins , in late 2007 . One of the biggest concerts came in December 2007 , when the band performed at the Bowery Ballroom . For the major touring cycle after the album 's official release , he gathered together several musicians for the trek , including former guitar student Mike Noyce and drummer Sean Carey . Carey , a jazz drummer from UW – Eau Claire , was a fan of the album , and had approached Vernon at one of his first performances . Vernon felt comfortable performing the album live , though it was very personal : " It ’ s weird that I ’ m still behind these songs , " he told PopMatters . " It ’ s weird that I ’ m still able to float with them and be with them and find new and old pain in the song . The fact that they haven ’ t just run their course , that they ’ re not old hat after a year is really exciting . " The band toured with label @-@ mates Black Mountain , which allowed the two groups to attract a " diverse crowd , " according to Billboard . In summer 2009 , the band played various festivals , including Bonnaroo , Lollapalooza , and Austin City Limits . Some shows were performed with support from the Indigo Girls , one of Vernon 's favorite groups . He held one memorable show at Hollywood Forever Cemetery at six in the morning . The album 's main touring cycle was complete by late 2009 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Justin Vernon .
= = Personnel = =
Information in this section is adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Simeon I of Bulgaria =
Simeon ( also Symeon ) I the Great ( Bulgarian : Симеон I Велики , transliterated Simeon I Veliki [ simɛˈɔn ˈpɤ ̞ rvi vɛˈliki ] ) ruled over Bulgaria from 893 to 927 , during the First Bulgarian Empire . Simeon 's successful campaigns against the Byzantines , Magyars and Serbs led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion ever , making it the most powerful state in contemporary Eastern Europe . His reign was also a period of unmatched cultural prosperity and enlightenment later deemed the Golden Age of Bulgarian culture .
During Simeon 's rule , Bulgaria spread over a territory between the Aegean , the Adriatic and the Black Sea , and the new Bulgarian capital Preslav was said to rival Constantinople . The newly independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church became the first new patriarchate besides the Pentarchy , and Bulgarian Glagolitic and Cyrillic translations of Christian texts spread all over the Slavic world of the time . It was at the Preslav Literary School in the 890s that the Cyrillic alphabet was developed . Halfway through his reign , Simeon assumed the title of Emperor ( Tsar ) , having prior to that been styled Prince ( Knyaz ) .
= = Background and early life = =
Simeon was born in 864 or 865 , as the third son of Knyaz Boris I of Krum 's dynasty . As Boris was the ruler who Christianized Bulgaria in 865 , Simeon was a Christian all his life . Because his eldest brother Vladimir was designated heir to the Bulgarian throne , Boris intended Simeon to become a high @-@ ranking cleric , possibly Bulgarian archbishop , and sent him to the leading University of Constantinople to receive theological education when he was thirteen or fourteen . He took the name Simeon as a novice in a monastery in Constantinople . During the decade ( ca . 878 – 888 ) he spent in the Byzantine capital , he received excellent education and studied the rhetoric of Demosthenes and Aristotle . He also learned fluent Greek , to the extent that he was referred to as " the half @-@ Greek " in Byzantine chronicles . He is speculated to have been tutored by Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople , but this is not supported by any source .
Around 888 , Simeon returned to Bulgaria and settled at the newly established royal monastery of Preslav " at the mouth of the Tiča " , where , under the guidance of Naum of Preslav , he engaged in active translation of important religious works from Greek to Old Church Slavonic ( Old Bulgarian ) , aided by other students from Constantinople . Meanwhile , Vladimir had succeeded Boris , who had retreated to a monastery , as ruler of Bulgaria . Vladimir attempted to reintroduce paganism in the empire and possibly signed an anti @-@ Byzantine pact with Arnulf of Carinthia , forcing Boris to re @-@ enter political life . Boris had Vladimir imprisoned and blinded , and then appointed Simeon as the new ruler . This was done at an assembly in Preslav which also proclaimed Bulgarian as the only language of state and church and moved the Bulgarian capital from Pliska to Preslav , to better cement the recent conversion . It is not known why Boris did not place his second son , Gavril , on the throne , but instead preferred Simeon .
= = Reign = =
= = = Trade War with Byzantium and Magyar invasions = = =
With Simeon on the throne , the long @-@ lasting peace with the Byzantine Empire established by his father was about to end . A conflict arose when Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise , allegedly acting under pressure from his mistress Zoe Zaoutzaina and her father Stylianos Zaoutzes , moved the marketplace for Bulgarian goods from Constantinople to Thessaloniki , where the Bulgarian merchants were heavily taxed . The Bulgarians sought protection by Simeon , who in turn complained to Leo . However , the Byzantine emperor ignored his embassy .
Forced to take action , in the autumn of 894 Simeon invaded the Byzantine Empire from the north , meeting with little opposition due to the concentration of most Byzantine forces in eastern Anatolia to counter Arab invasions . Informed of the Bulgarian offensive , the surprised Leo sent an army consisting of guardsmen and other military units from the capital to halt Simeon , but his troops were routed somewhere in the theme of Macedonia . The Bulgarians took most of the Khazar mercenary guardsmen prisoners and killed many archons , including the army 's commander . However , instead of continuing his advance to the Byzantine capital , Simeon quickly withdrew his troops to face a Magyar invasion from the north . These events were later called " the first trade war in medieval Europe " by Bulgarian historians .
Unable to effectively respond to the Bulgarian campaign due to the engagement of their forces against the Arabs , the Byzantines convinced the Magyars to attack Bulgaria , promising to transport them across the Danube using the Byzantine navy . Leo VI may have also concluded an agreement with Arnulf to make sure that the Franks did not support Simeon against the Magyars . In addition , the talented commander Nikephoros Phokas was called back from southern Italy to lead a separate army against Bulgaria in 895 with the mere intention to overawe the Bulgarians . Simeon , unaware of the threat from the north , rushed to meet Phokas ' forces , but the two armies did not engage in a fight . Instead , the Byzantines offered peace , informing him of both the Byzantine foot and maritime campaign , but intentionally did not notify him of the planned Magyar attack . Simeon did not trust the envoy and , after sending him to prison , ordered the Byzantine navy 's route into the Danube closed off with ropes and chains , intending to hold it until he had dealt with Phokas .
Despite the problems they encountered because of the fencing , the Byzantines ultimately managed to ferry the Magyar forces led by Árpád 's son Liüntika across the Danube , possibly near modern Galaţi , and assisted them in pillaging the nearby Bulgarian lands . Once notified of the surprise invasion , Simeon headed north to stop the Magyars , leaving some of his troops at the southern border to prevent a possible attack by Phokas . Simeon 's two encounters with the enemy in Northern Dobruja resulted in Magyar victories , forcing him to retreat to Drǎstǎr . After pillaging much of Bulgaria and reaching Preslav , the Magyars returned to their lands , but not before Simeon had concluded an armistice with Byzantium towards the summer of 895 . A complete peace was delayed , as Leo VI required the release of the Byzantine captives from the Trade War .
= = = Anti @-@ Magyar campaign and further wars with Byzantium = = =
Having dealt with the pressure from the Magyars and the Byzantines , Simeon was free to plan a campaign against the Magyars looking for retribution . He negotiated a joint force with the Magyars ' eastern neighbours , the Pechenegs , and imprisoned the Byzantine envoy Leo Choirosphaktes in order to delay the release of the captives until after the campaign against the Magyars . This would allow him to renegotiate the peace conditions in his favour . In an exchange of letters with the envoy , Simeon refused to release the captives and ridiculed Leo VI 's astrological abilities .
Using a Magyar invasion in the lands of the neighbouring Slavs in 896 as a casus belli , Simeon headed against the Magyars together with his Pecheneg allies , defeating them completely in the Battle of Southern Buh and making them leave Etelköz forever and settle in Pannonia . Following the defeat of the Magyars , Simeon finally released the Byzantine prisoners in exchange for Bulgarians captured in 895 .
Claiming that not all prisoners had been released , Simeon once again invaded Byzantium in the summer of 896 , heading directly to Constantinople . He was met in Thrace by a hastily assembled Byzantine army , but annihilated the Byzantine forces in the Battle of Bulgarophygon ( at modern Babaeski , Turkey ) . Arming Arab captives and sending them to fight with the Bulgarians as a desperate measure , Leo VI managed to repel the Bulgarians from Constantinople , which they had besieged . The war ended with a peace treaty which formally lasted until around Leo VI 's death in 912 and under which Byzantium was obliged to pay Bulgaria an annual tribute . Under the treaty , the Byzantines also ceded an area between the Black Sea and Strandža to the Bulgarian Empire . Meanwhile , Simeon had also imposed his authority over Serbia in return for recognizing Petar Gojniković as their ruler .
Simeon often violated the peace treaty with Byzantium , attacking and conquering Byzantine territory on several occasions , such as in 904 , when the Bulgarian raids were used by Arabs led by the Byzantine renegade Leo of Tripoli to undertake a maritime campaign and seize Thessaloniki . After the Arabs plundered the city , it was an easy target for Bulgaria and the nearby Slavic tribes . In order to dissuade Simeon from capturing the city and populating it with Slavs , Leo VI was forced to make further territorial concessions to the Bulgarians in the modern region of Macedonia . With the treaty of 904 , all Slavic @-@ inhabited lands in modern southern Macedonia and southern Albania were ceded to the Bulgarian Empire , with the border line running some 20 kilometres north of Thessaloniki .
= = = Recognition as Emperor = = =
The death of Leo VI on 11 May 912 and the accession of his infant son Constantine VII under the guidance of Leo 's brother Alexander , who expelled Leo 's wife Zoe from the palace , constituted a great opportunity for Simeon to attempt another campaign against Constantinople , the conquest of which remained the dream of his life . In the spring of 913 , Simeon 's envoys , who had arrived in Constantinople to renew the peace of 896 , were sent away by Alexander , who refused to pay the annual tribute , urging Simeon to prepare for war .
Before Simeon could attack , Alexander died on 6 June 913 , leaving the empire in the hands of a regency council headed by Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos . Many residents of Constantinople did not recognize the young emperor and instead supported the pretender Constantine Doukas , which , exacerbated by revolts in southern Italy and the planned Arab invasion in eastern Anatolia , was all to Simeon 's advantage . Nicholas Mystikos tried to discourage Simeon from invading Byzantium in a long series of pleading letters , but the Bulgarian ruler nevertheless attacked in full force in late July or August 913 , reaching Constantinople without any serious resistance .
The anarchy in Constantinople had ceased after the murder of the pretender Constantine Doukas , however , and a government had promptly been formed with Patriarch Nicholas at the helm . This urged Simeon to raise his siege and enter peace negotiations , to the joy of the Byzantines . The protracted negotiations resulted in the payment of the arrears of Byzantine tribute , the promise that Constantine VII would marry one of Simeon 's daughters , and , most importantly , Simeon 's official recognition as Emperor of the Bulgarians by Patriarch Nicholas in the Blachernae Palace .
Shortly after Simeon visited Constantinople , Constantine 's mother Zoe returned to the palace on the insistence of the young emperor and immediately proceeded to eliminate the regents . Through a plot , she managed to assume power in February 914 , practically removing Patriarch Nicholas from the government , disowning and obscuring his recognition of Simeon 's imperial title , and rejecting the planned marriage of her son to one of Simeon 's daughters . Simeon had to resort to war to achieve his goals . He invaded Thrace in the summer of 914 and captured Adrianople . Zoe was quick to send Simeon numerous presents in order to conciliate him , and she managed to convince him to cede back Adrianople and withdraw his army . In the following years , Simeon 's forces were engaged in the northwestern Byzantine provinces , around Drač ( Durrës ) and Thessaloniki , but did not make a move against Constantinople .
= = = Victories at Acheloos and Katasyrtai = = =
By 917 , Simeon was preparing for yet another war against Byzantium . He attempted to conclude an anti @-@ Byzantine union with the Pechenegs , but his envoys could not match the financial resources of the Byzantines , who succeeded in outbidding them . The Byzantines hatched a large @-@ scale campaign against Bulgaria and also tried to persuade the Serbian Prince Petar Gojniković to attack the Bulgarians with Magyar support .
In 917 , a particularly strong Byzantine army led by Leo Phokas the Elder , son of Nikephoros Phokas , invaded Bulgaria accompanied by the Byzantine navy under the command of Romanos Lekapenos , which sailed to the Bulgarian Black Sea ports . En route to Mesembria ( Nesebǎr ) , where they were supposed to be reinforced by troops transported by the navy , Phokas ' forces stopped to rest near the river of Acheloos , not far from the port of Anchialos ( Pomorie ) . Once informed of the invasion , Simeon rushed to intercept the Byzantines , and attacked them from the nearby hills while they were resting disorganized . In the Battle of Acheloos of 20 August 917 , one of the largest in medieval history , the Bulgarians completely routed the Byzantines and killed many of their commanders , although Phokas managed to escape to Mesembria . Decades later , Leo the Deacon would write that " piles of bones can still be seen today at the river Acheloos , where the fleeing army of the Byzantines was then infamously slain " .
The planned Pecheneg attack from the north also failed , as the Pechenegs quarrelled with admiral Lekapenos , who refused to transport them across the Danube to aid the main Byzantine army . The Byzantines were not aided by Serbs and Magyars either : the Magyars were engaged in Western Europe as Frankish allies , and the Serbs under Petar Gojniković were reluctant to attack Bulgaria because Michael of Zahumlje , an ally of Bulgaria , had notified Simeon of their plans .
Simeon 's army quickly followed up the victory of Acheloos with another success . The Bulgarians sent to pursuit the remnants of the Byzantine army approached Constantinople and encountered Byzantine forces under Leo Phokas , who had returned to the capital , at the village of Katasyrtai in the immediate proximity of Constantinople . The Bulgarian regiments attacked and again defeated the Byzantines , destroying some of their last units before returning to Bulgaria .
= = = Suppression of Serbian unrest and late campaigns against Byzantium = = =
Immediately after that campaign , Simeon sought to punish the Serbian ruler Petar Gojniković who had attempted to betray him by concluding an alliance with the Byzantines . Simeon sent an army led by two of his commanders , Theodore Sigrica and Marmais , to Serbia . The two managed to persuade Petar to attend a personal meeting , during which he was enchained and carried off to Bulgaria , where he died in a dungeon . Simeon put Pavle Branović , prior to that an exile in Bulgaria , on the Serbian throne , thus restoring the Bulgarian influence in Serbia for a while .
Meanwhile , the Byzantine military failures forced another change of government in Constantinople : the admiral Romanos Lekapenos replaced Zoe as regent of the young Constantine VII in 919 , forcing her back into a convent . Romanos betrothed his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine and advanced to the rank of co @-@ emperor in December 920 , effectively assuming the government of the empire , which was largely what Simeon had planned to do .
No longer able to climb to the Byzantine throne by diplomatic means , the infuriated Simeon once again had to wage war to impose his will . Between 920 and 922 , Bulgaria increased its pressure on Byzantium , campaigning in the west through Thessaly reaching the Isthmus of Corinth and in the east in Thrace , reaching and crossing the Dardanelles to lay siege on the town of Lampsacus . Simeon 's forces appeared before Constantinople in 921 , when they demanded the deposition of Romanos and captured Adrianople , and 922 , when they were victorious at Pigae , burned much of the Golden Horn and seized Bizye . In the meantime , the Byzantines attempted to ignite Serbia against Simeon , but he substituted Pavle with Zaharije Pribisavljević , a former refugee at Constantinople that he had captured .
Desperate to conquer Constantinople , Simeon planned a large campaign in 924 and sent envoys to the Fatimid caliph Ubayd Allah al @-@ Mahdi Billah , who possessed a powerful navy which Simeon needed . The caliph agreed and sent his own representatives back with the Bulgarians to arrange the alliance . However , the envoys were captured by the Byzantines at Calabria . Romanos offered peace to the Arabs , supplementing this offer with generous gifts , and ruined their union with Bulgaria .
In Serbia , Zaharije was persuaded by the Byzantines to revolt against Simeon . Zaharije was supported by many Bulgarians exhausted from Simeon 's endless campaigns against Byzantium . The Bulgarian emperor sent his troops under Sigrica and Marmais , but they were routed and the two commanders beheaded , which forced Simeon to conclude an armistice with Byzantium in order to concentrate on the suppression of the uprising . Simeon sent an army led by Časlav Klonimirović in 924 to depose Zaharije . He was successful , as Zaharije fled to Croatia . After this victory , the Serbian nobility was invited to come to Bulgaria and bow to the new Prince . However , he did not appear at the supposed meeting and all of them were beheaded . Bulgaria annexed Serbia directly .
In the summer of 924 , Simeon nevertheless arrived at Constantinople and demanded to see the patriarch and the emperor . He conversed with Romanos on the Golden Horn on 9 September 924 and arranged a truce , according to which Byzantium would pay Bulgaria an annual tax , but would be ceded back some cities on the Black Sea coast . During the interview of the two monarchs , two eagles are said to have met in the skies above and then to have parted , one of them flying over Constantinople and the other heading to Thrace , as a sign of the irreconcilability of the two rulers . In his description of this meeting , Theophanes Continuatus mentions that " the two emperors ... conversed " , which may indicate renewed Byzantine recognition of Simeon 's imperial claims .
= = = War with Croatia and death = = =
Most likely after ( or possibly at the time of ) Patriarch Nicholas ' death in 925 , Simeon raised the status of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church to a patriarchate . This may be linked to Simeon 's diplomatic relations with the Papacy between 924 and 926 , during which he demanded and received Pope John X 's recognition of his title as " Emperor of the Romans " , truly equal to the Byzantine emperor , and possibly the confirmation of a patriarchal dignity for the head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church .
In 926 , Simeon 's troops under Alogobotur invaded Croatia , at the time a Byzantine ally , but were completely defeated by the army of King Tomislav in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands . Fearing a Bulgarian retribution , Tomislav accepted to abandon his union with Byzantium and make peace on the basis of the status quo , negotiated by the papal legate Madalbert . In the last months of his life , Simeon prepared for another conflict with Constantinople despite Romanos ' desperate pleas for peace .
On 27 May 927 , Simeon died of heart failure in his palace in Preslav . Byzantine chroniclers tie his death to a legend , according to which Romanos decapitated a statue which was Simeon 's inanimate double , and he died at that very hour .
He was succeeded by his son Peter I , with George Sursubul , the new emperor 's maternal uncle , initially acting as a regent . As part of the peace treaty signed in October 927 and reinforced by Peter 's marriage to Maria ( Eirene ) , Romanos ' granddaughter , the existing borders were confirmed , as were the Bulgarian ruler 's imperial dignity and the head of the Bulgarian Church 's patriarchal status .
= = Culture and religion = =
During Simeon 's reign , Bulgaria reached its cultural apogee , becoming the literary and spiritual centre of Slavic Europe . In this respect , Simeon continued his father Boris ' policy of establishing and spreading Slavic culture and attracting noted scholars and writers within Bulgaria 's borders . It was in the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School , founded under Boris , that the main literary work in Bulgaria was concentrated during the reign of Simeon in the new Cyrillic alphabet which was developed there .
The late 9th and early 10th century constitute the earliest and most productive period of medieval Bulgarian literature . Having spent his early years in Constantinople , Simeon introduced Byzantine culture to the Bulgarian court , but eliminated its assimilative effect by means of military power and religious autonomy . The disciples of Cyril and Methodius , among whom Clement of Ohrid , Naum and Constantine of Preslav , continued their educational work in Bulgaria , actively translating Christian texts , such as the Bible and the works of John Chrysostom , Basil of Caesarea , Cyril of Alexandria , Gregory of Nazianzus , Athanasius of Alexandria , as well as historic chronicles such as these of John Malalas and George Hamartolus , to Bulgarian . The reign of Simeon also witnessed the production of a number of original theological and secular works , such as John Exarch 's Six Days ( Šestodnev ) , Constantine of Preslav 's Alphabetical Prayer and Proclamation of the Holy Gospels , and Černorizec Hrabǎr 's An Account of Letters . Simeon 's own contribution to this literary blossoming was praised by his contemporaries , for example in the Praise to Tsar Simeon preserved in the Zlatostruj collection and Simeon 's Collection , to which the tsar personally wrote an addendum .
Simeon turned the new Bulgarian capital Preslav into a magnificent religious and cultural centre , intended more as a display of his realm 's heyday and as a royal residence than as a military fortress . With its more than twenty cross @-@ domed churches and numerous monasteries , its impressive royal palace and the Golden ( or Round ) Church , Preslav was a true imperial capital . The development of Bulgarian art in the period is demonstrated by a ceramic icon of Theodore Stratelates and the Preslav @-@ style illustrated ceramics .
= = Family = =
Simeon was married twice . By his first wife , whose identity is unknown , Simeon had a son called Michael , possibly because his mother was of inferior birth , he was excluded from the succession and sent to a monastery .
By his second wife , the sister of the influential noble George Sursubul , he had three sons : Peter , who succeeded as Emperor of Bulgaria in 927 and ruled until 969 ; Ivan , who unsuccessfully conspired against Peter in 929 and then fled to Byzantium ; and Benjamin ( Bajan ) , who , according to Lombard historian Liutprand of Cremona , " possessed the power to transform himself suddenly into a wolf or other strange animal " .
Simeon also had several daughters , including one who was arranged to marry Constantine VII in 913 . The marriage was annulled by Constantine 's mother Zoe once she had returned to the court .
= = Legacy and popular culture = =
Tsar Simeon I has remained among the most highly valued Bulgarian historical figures , as indicated by popular vote in the Velikite Bǎlgari ( a spin @-@ off of 100 Greatest Britons ) television programme , which in February 2007 placed him fourth among the greatest Bulgarians ever . Simeon the Great has been regularly featured in fiction . Bulgarian national writer Ivan Vazov dedicated a children 's patriotic poem to him , " Tsar Simeon " , and it was later arranged as a song , " Kray Bosfora šum se vdiga " ( " A Clamour Rises by the Bosphorus " ) . An eleven @-@ episode drama series filmed in 1984 , Zlatniyat vek ( The Golden Age ) , retells the story of Simeon 's reign . In the series , the tsar is played by Marius Donkin . A historical drama play called Tsar Simeon Veliki — Zlatniyat vek produced by Stefan Staychev , director of the Silistra Theatre , premiered in December 2006 . Ivan Samokovliev stars in the part of Simeon .
The painting , " The Bulgarian Tsar Simeon " is part of the 20 @-@ canvas work by Alfons Mucha , The Slav Epic .
The last Bulgarian monarch , Simeon Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha , was named after Simeon I. A brand of high @-@ quality grape rakija , Car Simeon Veliki , also bears his name , and an Antarctic peak on Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands was named Simeon Peak in his honour by the Antarctic Place @-@ names Commission .
= = Timeline = =
= = = In Bulgarian = = =
Bakalov , Georgi ; Milen Kumanov ( 2003 ) . Elektronno izdanie – Istorija na Bǎlgarija ( in Bulgarian ) . Sofia : Trud , Sirma . ISBN 954528613X . OCLC 62020465 .
Bogdanov , Ivan ( 1973 ) . Simeon Veliki — epoha i ličnost ( in Bulgarian ) . Sofia . OCLC 71590049 .
Bozhilov , Ivan ( 1983 ) . Car Simeon Veliki ( 893 – 927 ) — zlatnijat vek na srednovekovna Bǎlgarija ( in Bulgarian ) . Sofia : Izdatelstvo na Otečestvenija front . OCLC 1323835 .
Delev , Petǎr ; Valeri Kacunov ; Plamen Mitev ; Evgeniya Kalinova ; Iskra Baeva ; Boian Dobrev ( 2006 ) . " 9 Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri Car Simeon ; 10 Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata kultura " . Istorija i civilizacija za 11 @.@ klas ( in Bulgarian ) . Trud , Sirma . ISBN 954 @-@ 9926 @-@ 72 @-@ 9 .
Ivanova , Klimentina ; Svetlina Nikolova ( 1995 ) . Tǎržestvo na slovoto . Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata knižnina ( in Bulgarian ) . Sofia : Agata @-@ A. ISBN 978 @-@ 954 @-@ 540 @-@ 005 @-@ 6 .
Todt , Klaus @-@ Peter ( 1996 ) . " Symeon , Zar " . In Bautz , Traugott . Biographisch @-@ Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon ( BBKL ) ( in German ) 11 . Herzberg : Bautz. cols . 345 – 350 . ISBN 3 @-@ 88309 @-@ 064 @-@ 6 .
Tsanev , Stefan ( 2006 ) . " 10 ( 889 – 912 ) Zlatnijat vek . Knjaz Rasate @-@ Vladimir , car Simeon Veliki ; 11 ( 912 – 927 ) Kǎrvavijat vek . Simeon — car na bǎlgari i romei " . Bǎlgarski hroniki ( in Bulgarian ) . Sofia , Plovdiv : Trud , Žanet 45 . ISBN 954 @-@ 528 @-@ 610 @-@ 5 .
Zlatarski , Vasil ( 1971 ) [ 1927 ] . " 2 Ot slavjanizacijata na dǎržavata do padaneto na Pǎrvoto carstvo ( 852 – 1018 ) : 4 Borba s Vizantija za političesko nadmoštie " . Istorija na bǎlgarskata dǎržava prez srednite vekove . Tom I. Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo ( in Bulgarian ) ( 2 ed . ) . Sofia : Nauka i izkustvo . OCLC 67080314 .
" 1 @.@ 2 Bǎlgarite stavat hristijani . Izborǎt na knjaz Boris I " . Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija ( in Bulgarian ) . Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria , Trud , Sirma . 2005 .
= Glacier National Park ( U.S. ) =
Glacier National Park is a national park located in the U.S. state of Montana , on the Canada – United States border with the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia . The park encompasses over 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) and includes parts of two mountain ranges ( sub @-@ ranges of the Rocky Mountains ) , over 130 named lakes , more than 1 @,@ 000 different species of plants , and hundreds of species of animals . This vast pristine ecosystem is the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the " Crown of the Continent Ecosystem " , a region of protected land encompassing 16 @,@ 000 square miles ( 41 @,@ 000 km2 ) .
The region that became Glacier National Park was first inhabited by Native Americans . Upon the arrival of European explorers , it was dominated by the Blackfeet in the east and the Flathead in the western regions . Under pressure the Blackfoot ceded the mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal government ; it later became part of the park . Soon after the establishment of the park on May 11 , 1910 , a number of hotels and chalets were constructed by the Great Northern Railway . These historic hotels and chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks and a total of 350 locations are on the National Register of Historic Places . By 1932 work was completed on the Going @-@ to @-@ the @-@ Sun Road , later designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark , which provided greater accessibility for automobiles into the heart of the park .
The mountains of Glacier National Park began forming 170 million years ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata . Known as the Lewis Overthrust , these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest fossilized examples of extremely early life found anywhere on Earth . The current shapes of the Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges and positioning and size of the lakes show the telltale evidence of massive glacial action , which carved U @-@ shaped valleys and left behind moraines which impounded water , creating lakes . Of the estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in the mid @-@ 19th century , only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010 . Scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all the glaciers may disappear by 2030 if the current climate patterns persist .
Glacier National Park has almost all its original native plant and animal species . Large mammals such as the Grizzly bears , moose , and mountain goats , as well as rare or endangered species like the wolverines and Canadian lynxes , inhabit this park . Hundreds of species of birds , more than a dozen fish species , and a few reptile and amphibian species have been documented . The park has numerous ecosystems ranging from prairie to tundra . Notably , the easternmost forests of western redcedar and hemlock grow in the southwest portion of the park . Large forest fires are uncommon in the park . However , in 2003 over 13 % of the park burned .
Glacier National Park borders Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada — the two parks are known as the Waterton @-@ Glacier International Peace Park and were designated as the world 's first International Peace Park in 1932 . Both parks were designated by the United Nations as Biosphere Reserves in 1976 , and in 1995 as World Heritage sites .
= = History = =
According to archeological evidence , Native Americans first arrived in the Glacier area some 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The earliest occupants with lineage to current tribes were the Flathead ( Salish ) and Kootenai , Shoshone , and Cheyenne . The Blackfeet arrived around the beginning of the 18th century and soon dominated the eastern slopes of what later became the park , as well as the Great Plains immediately to the east . The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter winds of the plains , allowing them to supplement their traditional bison hunts with other game meat . Today , the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in the east , while the Flathead Indian Reservation is located west and south of the park . When the Blackfeet Reservation was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty , it included the eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide . To the Blackfeet , the mountains of this area , especially Chief Mountain and the region in the southeast at Two Medicine , were considered the " Backbone of the World " and were frequented during vision quests . In 1895 Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area , some 800 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 200 km2 ) , to the U.S. government for $ 1 @.@ 5 million , with the understanding that they would maintain usage rights to the land for hunting as long as the ceded stripe will be public land of the United States . This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation .
While exploring the Marias River in 1806 , the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the area that is now the park . A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area that later became the park . In 1885 George Bird Grinnell hired noted explorer ( and later well regarded author ) James Willard Schultz to guide him on a hunting expedition into what would later become the park . After several more trips to the region , Grinnell became so inspired by the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a national park . In 1901 Grinnell wrote a description of the region in which he referred to it as the " Crown of the Continent " . His efforts to protect the land make him the premier contributor to this cause . A few years after Grinnell first visited , Henry L. Stimson and two companions , including a Blackfoot , climbed the steep east face of Chief Mountain in 1892 .
In 1891 the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at Marias Pass 5 @,@ 213 feet ( 1 @,@ 589 m ) , which is along the southern boundary of the park . In an effort to stimulate use of the railroad , the Great Northern soon advertised the splendors of the region to the public . The company lobbied the United States Congress . In 1897 the park was designated as a forest preserve . Under the forest designation , mining was still allowed but was not commercially successful . Meanwhile , proponents of protecting the region kept up their efforts . In 1910 , under the influence of the Boone and Crockett Club , spearheaded by Club members George Bird Grinnell , Henry L. Stimson , and the railroad , a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which redesignated the region from a forest reserve to a national park . This bill was signed into law by President William Howard Taft on May 11 , 1910 . In 1910 George Bird Grinnell wrote , " This Park , the country owes to the Boone and Crockett Club , whose members discovered the region , suggested it being set aside , caused the bill to be introduced into congress and awakened interest in it all over the country " .
From May until August 1910 , the forest reserve supervisor , Fremont Nathan Haines , managed the park 's resources as the first acting superintendent . In August 1910 , William Logan was appointed the park 's first superintendent . While the designation of the forest reserve confirmed the traditional usage rights of the Blackfeet , the enabling legislation of the national park does not mention the guarantees to the Native Americans . It is the position of the United States government that with the special designation as a National Park the mountains ceded their multi @-@ purpose public land status and the former rights ceased to exist as it was confirmed by the Court of Claims in 1935 . Some Blackfeet held that their traditional usage rights still exist de jure . In the 1890s , armed standoffs were avoided narrowly several times .
The Great Northern Railway , under the supervision of president Louis W. Hill , built a number of hotels and chalets throughout the park in the 1910s to promote tourism . These buildings , constructed and operated by a Great Northern subsidiary called the Glacier Park Company , were modeled on Swiss architecture as part of Hill 's plan to portray Glacier as " America 's Switzerland " . Hill was especially interested in sponsoring artists to come to the park , building tourist lodges that displayed their work . His hotels in the park never made a profit but they attracted thousands of visitors who came via the Great Northern .
Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between the lodges or utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to the Many Glacier area in the northeast .
The chalets , built between 1910 and 1913 , included Belton , St. Mary , Going @-@ to @-@ the @-@ Sun , Many Glacier , Two Medicine , Sperry , Granite Park , Cut Bank , and Gunsight Lake . The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge , adjacent to the park on its east side , and the Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of Swiftcurrent Lake . Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of these buildings , choosing each for their dramatic scenic backdrops and views . Another developer , John Lewis , built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913 – 1914 . The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and it was later renamed Lake McDonald Lodge . Some of the chalets were in remote backcountry locations accessible only by trail . Today , only Sperry , Granite Park , and Belton Chalets are still in operation , while a building formerly belonging to Two Medicine Chalet is now Two Medicine Store . The surviving chalet and hotel buildings within the park are now designated as National Historic Landmarks . In total , 350 buildings and structures within the park are listed on the National Register of Historic Places , including ranger stations , backcountry patrol cabins , fire lookouts , and concession facilities .
After the park was well established and visitors began to rely more on automobiles , work was begun on the 53 @-@ mile ( 85 km ) long Going @-@ to @-@ the @-@ Sun Road , completed in 1932 . Also known simply as the Sun Road , the road bisects the park and is the only route that ventures deep into the park , going over the Continental Divide at Logan Pass , 6 @,@ 646 feet ( 2 @,@ 026 m ) at the midway point . The Sun Road is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1985 was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark . Another route , along the southern boundary between the park and National Forests , is U.S. Route 2 , which crosses the Continental Divide at Marias Pass and connects the towns of West Glacier and East Glacier .
The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , a New Deal relief agency for young men , played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing both Glacier National Park and Yellowstone National Park . CCC projects included reforestation , campground development , trail construction , fire hazard reduction , and fire @-@ fighting work . The increase in motor vehicle traffic through the park during the 1930s resulted in the construction of new concession facilities at Swiftcurrent and Rising Sun , both designed for automobile @-@ based tourism . These early auto camps are now also listed on the National Register .
In 2011 , Glacier National Park was depicted on the seventh quarter in the America the Beautiful Quarters series .
= = Park management = =
Glacier National Park is managed by the National Park Service , with the park 's headquarters in West Glacier , Montana . Visitation to Glacier National Park averages slightly less than 2 million visitors annually . However , a relative few venture far from main roadways and hotels .
Glacier National Park had an operating budget of $ 13 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 for the 2008 fiscal year . The 2008 budget increased from 2007 and was used to increase employee staffing levels , but monies for maintenance projects and road work were not forthcoming . In anticipation of the 100th anniversary of the park in 2010 , major reconstruction of the Going @-@ to @-@ the @-@ Sun Road was completed , creating temporary road closures . The Federal Highway Administration managed the reconstruction project in cooperation with the National Park Service . Some rehabilitation of major structures such as visitor centers and historic hotels , as well as improvements in wastewater treatment facilities and campgrounds , are expected to be completed by the anniversary date . Also planned are fishery studies for Lake McDonald , updates of the historical archives , and restoration of trails .
The mandate of the National Park Service is to " ... preserve and protect natural and cultural resources " . The Organic Act of August 25 , 1916 established the National Park Service as a federal agency . One major section of the Act has often been summarized as the " Mission " , " ... to promote and regulate the use of the ... national parks ... which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations . " In keeping with this mandate , hunting is illegal in the park , as are mining , logging , and the removal of natural or cultural resources . Additionally , oil and gas exploration and extraction are not permitted . These restrictions , however , caused a lot of conflict with the adjoining Blackfeet Indian Reservation . When they sold the land to the United States government , it was with the stipulation of being able to maintain their usage rights of the area , many of which ( such as hunting ) had come into conflict with these regulations . In 1974 , a wilderness study was submitted to Congress which identified 95 % of the area of the park as qualifying for wilderness designation . Unlike a few other parks , Glacier National Park has yet to be protected as wilderness , but National Park Service policy requires that identified areas listed in the report be managed as wilderness until Congress renders a full decision . Ninety @-@ three percent of Glacier National Park is managed as wilderness , even though it has not been officially designated .
= = Geography and geology = =
The park is bordered on the north by Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta , and the Flathead Provincial Forest and Akamina @-@ Kishinena Provincial Park in British Columbia . To the west , the north fork of the Flathead River forms the western boundary , while its middle fork is part of the southern boundary . The Blackfeet Indian Reservation provides most of the eastern boundary . The Lewis and Clark and the Flathead National Forests form the southern and western boundary . The remote Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex is located in the two forests immediately to the south .
The park contains a dozen large lakes and 700 smaller ones , but only 131 lakes have been named . Lake McDonald on the western side of the park is the longest at 9 @.@ 4 miles ( 15 @.@ 1 km ) , the largest in area at 6 @,@ 823 acres ( 27 @.@ 61 km2 ) , and the deepest at 464 feet ( 141 m ) . Numerous smaller lakes , known as tarns , are located in cirques formed by glacial erosion . Some of these lakes , like Avalanche Lake and Cracker Lake , are colored an opaque turquoise by suspended glacial silt , which also causes a number of streams to run milky white . The lakes of Glacier National Park remain cold year round , with temperatures rarely above 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) at their surface . Cold water lakes such as these support little plankton growth , ensuring that the lake waters are remarkably clear . The lack of plankton , however , lowers the rate of pollution filtration , so pollutants have a tendency to linger longer . Consequently , the lakes are considered environmental bellwethers as they can be quickly affected by even minor increases in pollutants .
Two hundred waterfalls are scattered throughout the park . However , during drier times of the year , many of these are reduced to a trickle . The largest falls include those in the Two Medicine region , McDonald Falls in the McDonald Valley , and Swiftcurrent Falls in the Many Glacier area , which is easily observable and close to the Many Glacier Hotel . One of the tallest waterfalls is Bird Woman Falls , which drops 492 feet ( 150 m ) from a hanging valley beneath the north slope of Mount Oberlin .
= = = Geology = = =
The rocks found in the park are primarily sedimentary rocks of the Belt Supergroup . They were deposited in shallow seas over 1 @.@ 6 billion to 800 million years ago . During the formation of the Rocky Mountains 170 million years ago , one region of rocks now known as the Lewis Overthrust was forced eastward 50 miles ( 80 km ) . This overthrust was several miles ( kilometers ) thick and hundreds of miles ( kilometers ) long . This resulted in older rocks being displaced over newer ones , so the overlying Proterozoic rocks are between 1 @.@ 4 and 1 @.@ 5 billion years older than Cretaceous age rocks they now rest on .
One of the most dramatic evidences of this overthrust is visible in the form of Chief Mountain , an isolated peak on the edge of the eastern boundary of the park rising 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 800 m ) above the Great Plains . There are six mountains in the park over 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) in elevation , with Mount Cleveland at 10 @,@ 466 feet ( 3 @,@ 190 m ) being the tallest . Appropriately named Triple Divide Peak sends waters towards the Pacific Ocean , Hudson Bay , and Gulf of Mexico watersheds . This peak can effectively be considered to be the apex of the North American continent , although the mountain is only 8 @,@ 020 feet ( 2 @,@ 444 m ) above sea level .
The rocks in Glacier National Park are the best preserved Proterozoic sedimentary rocks in the world , with some of the world 's most fruitful sources for records of early life . Sedimentary rocks of similar age located in other regions have been greatly altered by mountain building and other metamorphic changes ; consequently fossils are less common and more difficult to observe . The rocks in the park preserve such features as millimeter @-@ scale lamination , ripple marks , mud cracks , salt @-@ crystal casts , raindrop impressions , oolites , and other sedimentary bedding characteristics . Six fossilized species of Stromatolites , early organisms consisting of primarily blue @-@ green algae , have been documented and dated at about 1 billion years . The discovery of the Appekunny Formation , a well preserved rock stratum in the park , pushed back the established date for the origination of animal life a full billion years . This rock formation has bedding structures which are believed to be the remains of the earliest identified metazoan ( animal ) life on Earth .
= = = Glaciers = = =
Glacier National Park is dominated by mountains which were carved into their present shapes by the huge glaciers of the last ice age . These glaciers have largely disappeared over the last 12 @,@ 000 years . Evidence of widespread glacial action is found throughout the park in the form of U @-@ shaped valleys , glacial cirques , arêtes and large outflow lakes radiating like fingers from the base of the highest peaks . Since the end of the ice ages , various warming and cooling trends have occurred . The last recent cooling trend was during the Little Ice Age , which took place approximately between 1550 and 1850 . During the Little Ice Age , the glaciers in the park expanded and advanced , although to nowhere near as great an extent as they had during the Ice Age .
During the middle of the 20th century , examination of the maps and photographs from the previous century provided clear evidence that the 150 glaciers known to have existed in the park a hundred years earlier had greatly retreated , and in many cases disappeared altogether . Repeat photography of the glaciers , such as the pictures taken of Grinnell Glacier between 1938 and 2009 as shown , help to provide visual confirmation of the extent of glacier retreat .
In the 1980s , the U.S. Geological Survey began a more systematic study of the remaining glaciers , which has continued to the present day . By 2010 , 37 glaciers remained , but only 25 of these were considered to be " active glaciers " of at least 25 acres ( 0 @.@ 10 km2 ) in area . If the current warming trend continues , all of the remaining glaciers in the park will be gone by 2030 . This glacier retreat follows a worldwide pattern that has accelerated even more since 1980 . Without a major climatic change in which cooler and moister weather returns and persists , the mass balance , which is the accumulation rate versus the ablation ( melting ) rate of glaciers , will continue to be negative and the glaciers have been projected to eventually disappear , leaving behind only barren rock .
After the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850 , the glaciers in the park retreated moderately until the 1910s . Between 1917 and 1941 , the retreat rate accelerated and was as high as 330 feet ( 100 m ) per year for some glaciers . A slight cooling trend from the 1940s until 1979 helped to slow the rate of retreat and , in a few cases , even advanced the glaciers over ten meters . However , during the 1980s , the glaciers in the park began a steady period of loss of glacial ice , which continues as of 2010 . In 1850 , the glaciers in the region near Blackfoot and Jackson Glaciers covered 5 @,@ 337 acres ( 21 @.@ 6 km2 ) , but by 1979 , the same region of the park had glacier ice covering only 1 @,@ 828 acres ( 7 @.@ 4 km2 ) . Between 1850 and 1979 , 73 % of the glacial ice had melted away . At the time the park was created , Jackson Glacier was part of Blackfoot Glacier , but the two have separated into two glaciers since .
The impact of glacier retreat on the park 's ecosystems is not fully known , but plant and animal species that are dependent on cold water could suffer due to a loss of habitat . Reduced seasonal melting of glacial ice may also affect stream flow during the dry summer and fall seasons , reducing water table levels and increasing the risk of forest fires . The loss of glaciers will also reduce the aesthetic visual appeal that glaciers provide to visitors .
= = = Climate = = =
As the park spans the Continental Divide , and has more than 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) in elevation variance , many climates and microclimates are found in the park . As with other alpine systems , average temperature usually drops as elevation increases . The western side of the park , in the Pacific watershed , has a milder and wetter climate , due to its lower elevation . Precipitation is greatest during the winter and spring , averaging 2 to 3 inches ( 50 to 80 mm ) per month . Snowfall can occur at any time of the year , even in the summer , and especially at higher altitudes . The winter can bring prolonged cold waves , especially on the eastern side of the Continental Divide , which is has a higher elevation overall . Snowfalls are significant over the course of the winter , with the largest accumulation occurring in the west . During the tourist season , daytime high temperatures average 60 to 70 ° F ( 16 to 21 ° C ) , and nighttime lows usually drop into the 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) range . Temperatures in the high country may be much cooler . In the lower western valleys , daytime highs in the summer may reach 90 ° F ( 30 ° C ) .
Rapid temperature changes have been noted in the region . In Browning , Montana , just east of the park in the Blackfeet Reservation , a world record temperature drop of 100 ° F ( 56 ° C ) in only 24 hours occurred on the night of January 23 – 24 , 1916 , when thermometers plunged from 44 to − 56 ° F ( 7 to − 49 ° C ) .
Glacier National Park has a highly regarded global climate change research program . Based in West Glacier , with the main headquarters in Bozeman , Montana , the U.S. Geological Survey has performed scientific research on specific climate change studies since 1992 . In addition to the study of the retreating glaciers , research performed includes forest modeling studies in which fire ecology and habitat alterations are analyzed . Additionally , changes in alpine vegetation patterns are documented , watershed studies in which stream flow rates and temperatures are recorded frequently at fixed gauging stations , and atmospheric research in which UV @-@ B radiation , ozone and other atmospheric gases are analyzed over time . The research compiled contributes to a broader understanding of climate changes in the park . The data collected , when compared to other facilities scattered around the world , help to correlate these climatic changes on a global scale .
Glacier is considered to have excellent air and water quality . No major areas of dense human population exist anywhere near the region and industrial effects are minimized due to a scarcity of factories and other potential contributors of pollutants . However , the sterile and cold lakes found throughout the park are easily contaminated by airborne pollutants that fall whenever it rains or snows , and some evidence of these pollutants has been found in park waters . Wildfires could also impact the quality of water . However , the pollution level is currently viewed as negligible , and the park lakes and waterways have a water quality rating of A @-@ 1 , the highest rating given by the state of Montana .
= = Wildlife and ecology = =
= = = Flora = = =
Glacier is part of a large preserved ecosystem collectively known as the " Crown of the Continent Ecosystem " , all of which is primarily untouched wilderness of a pristine quality . Virtually all the plants and animals which existed at the time European explorers first entered the region are present in the park today .
A total of over 1 @,@ 132 plant species have been identified parkwide . The predominantly coniferous forest is home to various species of trees such as the Engelmann spruce , Douglas fir , subalpine fir , limber pine and western larch , which is a deciduous conifer , producing cones but losing its needles each fall . Cottonwood and aspen are the more common deciduous trees and are found at lower elevations , usually along lakes and streams . The timberline on the eastern side of the park is almost 800 feet ( 244 m ) lower than on the western side of the Continental Divide , due to exposure to the colder winds and weather of the Great Plains . West of the Continental Divide , the forest receives more moisture and is more protected from the winter , resulting in a more densely populated forest with taller trees . Above the forested valleys and mountain slopes , alpine tundra conditions prevail , with grasses and small plants eking out an existence in a region that enjoys as little as three months without snow cover . Thirty species of plants are found only in the park and surrounding national forests . Beargrass , a tall flowering plant , is commonly found near moisture sources , and is relatively widespread during July and August . Wildflowers such as monkeyflower , glacier lily , fireweed , balsamroot and Indian paintbrush are also common .
The forested sections fall into three major climatic zones . The west and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir and the southwest by redcedar and hemlock ; the areas east of the Continental Divide are a combination of mixed pine , spruce , fir and prairie zones . The cedar @-@ hemlock groves along the Lake McDonald valley are the easternmost examples of this Pacific climatic ecosystem .
Whitebark pine communities have been heavily damaged due to the effects of blister rust , a non native fungus . In Glacier and the surrounding region , 30 % of the whitebark pine trees have died and over 70 % of the remaining trees are currently infected . The whitebark pine provides a high fat pine cone seed , commonly known as the pine nut , that is a favorite food of red squirrels and Clark 's nutcracker . Both grizzlies and black bears are known to raid squirrel caches of pine nuts , one of the bears ' favorite foods . Between 1930 and 1970 , efforts to control the spread of blister rust were unsuccessful , and continued destruction of whitebark pines appears likely , with attendant negative impacts on dependent species .
= = = Fauna = = =
Virtually all the historically known plant and animal species , with the exception of the bison and woodland caribou , are still present , providing biologists with an intact ecosystem for plant and animal research . Two threatened species of mammals , the grizzly bear and the Canadian lynx , are found in the park . Although their numbers remain at historical levels , both are listed as threatened because in nearly every other region of the U.S. outside of Alaska , they are either extremely rare or absent from their historical range . On average , one or two bear attacks on humans occur each year ; since the creation of the park in 1910 , there have been a total of 10 bear @-@ related deaths . The number of grizzlies and lynx in the park is not known for certain , but park biologists believed as of 2008 that there were just above 300 grizzlies in the park ; a study which commenced in 2001 hopes to determine the number of lynx . The exact population figures for grizzlies and the smaller black bear are not known but biologists are using a variety of methods to try to determine an accurate population range . Another study has indicated that the wolverine , another very rare mammal in the lower 48 states , also lives in the park . Other mammals such as the mountain goat ( the official park symbol ) , bighorn sheep , moose , elk , mule deer , skunk , white @-@ tailed deer , bobcat , coyote , and cougar are either plentiful or common . Unlike in Yellowstone National Park , which implemented a wolf reintroduction program in the 1990s , it is believed that wolves recolonized Glacier National Park naturally during the 1980s . Sixty @-@ two species of mammals have been documented including badger , river otter , porcupine , mink , marten , fisher , six species of bat and numerous other smaller mammals .
A total of 260 species of birds have been recorded , with raptors such as the bald eagle , golden eagle , peregrine falcon , osprey and several species of hawks residing year round . The harlequin duck is a colorful species of waterfowl found in the lakes and waterways . The great blue heron , tundra swan , Canada goose and American wigeon are species of waterfowl more commonly encountered in the park . Great horned owl , Clark 's nutcracker , Steller 's jay , pileated woodpecker and cedar waxwing reside in the dense forests along the mountainsides , and in the higher altitudes , the ptarmigan , timberline sparrow and rosy finch are the most likely to be seen . The Clark 's nutcracker is less plentiful than in past years due to the decline in the number of whitebark pines .
Because of the colder climate , ectothermic reptiles are all but absent , with two species of garter snake and the western painted turtle being the only three reptile species proven to exist . Similarly , only six species of amphibians are documented , although those species exist in large numbers . After a forest fire in 2001 , a few park roads were temporarily closed the following year to allow thousands of western toads to migrate to other areas .
A total of 23 species of fish reside in park waters and native game fish species found in the lakes and streams include the westslope cutthroat trout , northern pike , mountain whitefish , kokanee salmon and Arctic grayling . Glacier is also home to the threatened bull trout , which is illegal to possess and must be returned to the water if caught inadvertently . Introduction in previous decades of lake trout and other non @-@ native fish species has greatly impacted some native fish populations , especially the bull trout and west slope cutthroat trout .
= = = Fire ecology = = =
Forest fires were viewed for many decades as a threat to protected areas such as forests and parks . As a better understanding of fire ecology developed after the 1960s , forest fires were understood to be a natural part of the ecosystem . The earlier policies of suppression resulted in the accumulation of dead and decaying trees and plants , which would normally have been reduced had fires been allowed to burn . Many species of plants and animals actually need wildfires to help replenish the soil with nutrients and to open up areas that allow grasses and smaller plants to thrive . Glacier National Park has a fire management plan which ensures that human @-@ caused fires are generally suppressed . In the case of natural fires , the fire is monitored and suppression is dependent on the size and threat the fire may pose to human safety and structures .
Increased population and the growth of suburban areas near parklands , has led to the development of what is known as Wildland Urban Interface Fire Management , in which the park cooperates with adjacent property owners in improving safety and fire awareness . This approach is common to many other protected areas . As part of this program , houses and structures near the park are designed to be more fire resistant . Dead and fallen trees are removed from near places of human habitation , reducing the available fuel load and the risk of a catastrophic fire , and advance warning systems are developed to help alert property owners and visitors about forest fire potentials during a given period of the year . Glacier National Park has an average of 14 fires with 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) burnt each year . In 2003 , 136 @,@ 000 acres ( 550 km2 ) burned in the park after a five @-@ year drought and a summer season of almost no precipitation . This was the most area transformed by fire since the creation of the park in 1910 .
= = Recreation = =
Glacier is distant from major cities
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. The closest airport is in Kalispell , Montana , southwest of the park . Amtrak trains stop at East and West Glacier , and Essex . A fleet of restored 1930s White Motor Company coaches , called Red Jammers , offer tours on all the main roads in the park . The drivers of the buses are called " Jammers " , due to the gear @-@ jamming that formerly occurred during the vehicles ' operation . The tour buses were rebuilt in 2001 by Ford Motor Company . The bodies were removed from their original chassis and built on modern Ford E @-@ Series van chassis . They were also converted to run on propane to lessen their environmental impact .
Historic wooden tour boats , some dating back to the 1920s , operate on some of the larger lakes . Several of these boats have been in continuous seasonal operation at Glacier National Park since 1927 and carry up to 80 passengers .
Hiking is popular in the park . Over half of the visitors to the park report taking a hike on the park 's nearly 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 127 km ) of trails . 110 miles ( 177 km ) of the Continental Divide National Scenic Trail spans most of the distance of the park north to south , with a few alternative routes at lower elevations if high altitude passes are closed due to snow . The Pacific Northwest National Scenic Trail crosses the park on 52 miles ( 84 km ) from east to west .
Dogs are not permitted on any trails in the park due to the presence of bears and other large mammals . Dogs are permitted at front country campsites that can be accessed by a vehicle and along paved roads .
Anyone entering the United States over land or waterway from Canada must have a passport with them .
Many day hikes can be taken in the park . Back @-@ country camping is allowed at campsites along the trails . A permit is required and can be obtained from certain visitor centers or arranged for in advance . Much of Glacier 's back country is usually inaccessible to hikers until early June due to accumulated snow pack and avalanche risk , and many trails at higher altitudes remain snow packed until July . Campgrounds that allow vehicle access are found throughout the park , most of which are near one of the larger lakes . The campgrounds at St. Mary and at Apgar are open year round , but conditions are primitive in the off @-@ season , as the restroom facilities are closed and there is no running water . All campgrounds with vehicle access are usually open from mid @-@ June until mid @-@ September . Guide and shuttle services are also available .
Fishing is popular in the park . Some of the finest fly fishing in North America can be found in the streams that flow through Glacier National Park . Though the park requires that those fishing understand the regulations , no permit is required to fish the waters within the park boundary . The threatened bull trout must be released immediately back to the water if caught ; otherwise , the regulations on limits of catch per day are liberal .
Winter recreation in Glacier is limited . Snowmobiling is illegal throughout the park . Cross @-@ country skiing is permitted in the lower altitude valleys away from avalanche zones .
= = Gallery = =
= = In popular culture = =
Glacier Park Remembered , a documentary produced by Montana PBS
Through Glacier Park in 1915 / Seeing America first with Howard Eaton ( With Illustrations ) , a road trip travelogue by Mary Roberts Rinehart
Tenting Tonight : A Chronicle of Sport and Adventure in Glacier Park and Cascade Mountains ( 1918 ) by Mary Roberts Rinehart , first published in Cosmopolitan ( 1917 )
= John , King of England =
John ( 24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216 ) , also known as John Lackland ( Norman French : Johan sanz Terre ) , was King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death in 1216 . John lost the Duchy of Normandy to King Philip II of France , which resulted in the collapse of most of the Angevin Empire and contributed to the subsequent growth in power of the Capetian dynasty during the 13th century . The baronial revolt at the end of John 's reign led to the sealing of the Magna Carta , a document sometimes considered to be an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom .
John , the youngest of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine , was at first not expected to inherit significant lands . Following the failed rebellion of his elder brothers between 1173 and 1174 , however , John became Henry 's favourite child . He was appointed the Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent . John 's elder brothers William , Henry and Geoffrey died young ; by the time Richard I became king in 1189 , John was a potential heir to the throne . John unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against Richard 's royal administrators whilst his brother was participating in the Third Crusade . Despite this , after Richard died in 1199 , John was proclaimed King of England , and came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John 's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace treaty of Le Goulet in 1200 .
When war with France broke out again in 1202 , John achieved early victories , but shortages of military resources and his treatment of Norman , Breton and Anjou nobles resulted in the collapse of his empire in northern France in 1204 . John spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands , raising huge revenues , reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances . John 's judicial reforms had a lasting impact on the English common law system , as well as providing an additional source of revenue . An argument with Pope Innocent III led to John 's excommunication in 1209 , a dispute finally settled by the king in 1213 . John 's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed due to the French victory over John 's allies at the battle of Bouvines . When he returned to England , John faced a rebellion by many of his barons , who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England 's most powerful nobles . Although both John and the barons agreed to the Magna Carta peace treaty in 1215 , neither side complied with its conditions . Civil war broke out shortly afterwards , with the barons aided by Louis of France . It soon descended into a stalemate . John died of dysentery contracted whilst on campaign in eastern England during late 1216 ; supporters of his son Henry III went on to achieve victory over Louis and the rebel barons the following year .
Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John 's performance as king , and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards . Historian Jim Bradbury has summarised the current historical opinion of John 's positive qualities , observing that John is today usually considered a " hard @-@ working administrator , an able man , an able general " . Nonetheless , modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king , including what historian Ralph Turner describes as " distasteful , even dangerous personality traits " , such as pettiness , spitefulness and cruelty . These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in the Victorian era , and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture , primarily as a villain in films and stories depicting the Robin Hood legends .
= = Early life ( 1166 – 89 ) = =
= = = Childhood and the Angevin inheritance = = =
John was born to Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine on 24 December 1166 . Henry had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard — Anjou , Normandy and England — and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany . Henry married the powerful Eleanor of Aquitaine , who reigned over the Duchy of Aquitaine and had a tenuous claim to Toulouse and Auvergne in southern France , in addition to being the former wife of Louis VII of France . The result was the Angevin Empire , named after Henry 's paternal title as Count of Anjou and , more specifically , its seat in Angers . The Empire , however , was inherently fragile : although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry , the disparate parts each had their own histories , traditions and governance structures . As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine , the extent of Henry 's power in the provinces diminished considerably , scarcely resembling the modern concept of an empire at all . Some of the traditional ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time . It was unclear what would happen to the empire on Henry 's death . Although the custom of primogeniture , under which an eldest son would inherit all his father 's lands , was slowly becoming more widespread across Europe , it was less popular amongst the Norman kings of England . Most believed that Henry would divide the empire , giving each son a substantial portion , and hoping that his children would continue to work together as allies after his death . To complicate matters , much of the Angevin empire was held by Henry only as a vassal of the King of France of the rival line of the House of Capet . Henry had often allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor against France , making the feudal relationship even more challenging .
Shortly after his birth , John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a wet nurse , a traditional practice for medieval noble families . Eleanor then left for Poitiers , the capital of Aquitaine , and sent John and his sister Joan north to Fontevrault Abbey . This may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son , with no obvious inheritance , towards a future ecclesiastical career . Eleanor spent the next few years conspiring against her husband Henry and neither parent played a part in John 's very early life . John was probably , like his brothers , assigned a magister whilst he was at Fontevrault , a teacher charged with his early education and with managing the servants of his immediate household ; John was later taught by Ranulph Glanville , a leading English administrator . John spent some time as a member of the household of his eldest living brother Henry the Young King , where he probably received instruction in hunting and military skills .
John grew up to be around 5 ft 5 in ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) tall , relatively short , with a " powerful , barrel @-@ chested body " and dark red hair ; he looked to contemporaries like an inhabitant of Poitou . John enjoyed reading and , unusually for the period , built up a travelling library of books . He enjoyed gambling , in particular at backgammon , and was an enthusiastic hunter , even by medieval standards . He liked music , although not songs . John would become a " connoisseur of jewels " , building up a large collection , and became famous for his opulent clothes and also , according to French chroniclers , for his fondness for bad wine . As John grew up , he became known for sometimes being " genial , witty , generous and hospitable " ; at other moments , he could be jealous , over @-@ sensitive and prone to fits of rage , " biting and gnawing his fingers " in anger .
= = = Early life = = =
During John 's early years , Henry attempted to resolve the question of his succession . Henry the Young King had been crowned King of England in 1170 , but was not given any formal powers by his father ; he was also promised Normandy and Anjou as part of his future inheritance . Richard was to be appointed the Count of Poitou with control of Aquitaine , whilst Geoffrey was to become the Duke of Brittany . At this time it seemed unlikely that John would ever inherit substantial lands , and he was jokingly nicknamed " Lackland " by his father .
Henry II wanted to secure the southern borders of Aquitaine and decided to betroth his youngest son to Alais , the daughter and heiress of Humbert III of Savoy . As part of this agreement John was promised the future inheritance of Savoy , Piedmont , Maurienne , and the other possessions of Count Humbert . For his part in the potential marriage alliance , Henry II transferred the castles of Chinon , Loudun and Mirebeau into John 's name ; as John was only five years old his father would continue to control them for practical purposes . Henry the Young King was unimpressed by this ; although he had yet to be granted control of any castles in his new kingdom , these were effectively his future property and had been given away without consultation . Alais made the trip over the Alps and joined Henry II 's court , but she died before marrying John , which left the prince once again without an inheritance .
In 1173 John 's elder brothers , backed by Eleanor , rose in revolt against Henry in the short @-@ lived rebellion of 1173 to 1174 . Growing irritated with his subordinate position to Henry II and increasingly worried that John might be given additional lands and castles at his expense , Henry the Young King travelled to Paris and allied himself with Louis VII . Eleanor , irritated by her husband 's persistent interference in Aquitaine , encouraged Richard and Geoffrey to join their brother Henry in Paris . Henry II triumphed over the coalition of his sons , but was generous to them in the peace settlement agreed at Montlouis . Henry the Young King was allowed to travel widely in Europe with his own household of knights , Richard was given Aquitaine back , and Geoffrey was allowed to return to Brittany ; only Eleanor was imprisoned for her role in the revolt .
John had spent the conflict travelling alongside his father , and was given widespread possessions across the Angevin empire as part of the Montlouis settlement ; from then onwards , most observers regarded John as Henry II 's favourite child , although he was the furthest removed in terms of the royal succession . Henry II began to find more lands for John , mostly at various nobles ' expense . In 1175 he appropriated the estates of the late Earl of Cornwall and gave them to John . The following year , Henry disinherited the sisters of Isabelle of Gloucester , contrary to legal custom , and betrothed John to the now extremely wealthy Isabelle . In 1177 , at the Council of Oxford , Henry dismissed William FitzAldelm as the Lord of Ireland and replaced him with the ten @-@ year @-@ old John .
Henry the Young King fought a short war with his brother Richard in 1183 over the status of England , Normandy and Aquitaine . Henry II moved in support of Richard , and Henry the Young King died from dysentery at the end of the campaign . With his primary heir dead , Henry rearranged the plans for the succession : Richard was to be made King of England , albeit without any actual power until the death of his father ; Geoffrey would retain Brittany ; and John would now become the Duke of Aquitaine in place of Richard . Richard refused to give up Aquitaine ; Henry II was furious and ordered John , with help from Geoffrey , to march south and retake the duchy by force . The two attacked the capital of Poitiers , and Richard responded by attacking Brittany . The war ended in stalemate and a tense family reconciliation in England at the end of 1184 .
In 1185 John made his first visit to Ireland , accompanied by 300 knights and a team of administrators . Henry had tried to have John officially proclaimed King of Ireland , but Pope Lucius III would not agree . John 's first period of rule in Ireland was not a success . Ireland had only recently been conquered by Anglo @-@ Norman forces , and tensions were still rife between Henry II , the new settlers and the existing inhabitants . John infamously offended the local Irish rulers by making fun of their unfashionable long beards , failed to make allies amongst the Anglo @-@ Norman settlers , began to lose ground militarily against the Irish and finally returned to England later in the year , blaming the viceroy , Hugh de Lacy , for the fiasco .
The problems amongst John 's wider family continued to grow . His elder brother Geoffrey died during a tournament in 1186 , leaving a posthumous son , Arthur , and an elder daughter , Eleanor . Geoffrey 's death brought John slightly closer to the throne of England . The uncertainty about what would happen after Henry 's death continued to grow ; Richard was keen to join a new crusade and remained concerned that whilst he was away Henry would appoint John his formal successor .
Richard began discussions about a potential alliance with Philip II in Paris during 1187 , and the next year Richard gave homage to Philip in exchange for support for a war against Henry . Richard and Philip fought a joint campaign against Henry , and by the summer of 1189 the king made peace , promising Richard the succession . John initially remained loyal to his father , but changed sides once it appeared that Richard would win . Henry died shortly afterwards .
= = Richard 's reign ( 1189 – 99 ) = =
When John 's elder brother Richard became king in September 1189 , he had already declared his intention of joining the Third Crusade . Richard set about raising the huge sums of money required for this expedition through the sale of lands , titles and appointments , and attempted to ensure that he would not face a revolt while away from his empire . John was made Count of Mortain , was married to the wealthy Isabel of Gloucester , and was given valuable lands in Lancaster and the counties of Cornwall , Derby , Devon , Dorset , Nottingham and Somerset , all with the aim of buying his loyalty to Richard whilst the king was on crusade . Richard retained royal control of key castles in these counties , thereby preventing John from accumulating too much military and political power , and , for the time being , the king named the four @-@ year @-@ old Arthur of Brittany as the heir to the throne . In return , John promised not to visit England for the next three years , thereby in theory giving Richard adequate time to conduct a successful crusade and return from the Levant without fear of John seizing power . Richard left political authority in England – the post of justiciar – jointly in the hands of Bishop Hugh de Puiset and William Mandeville , and made William Longchamp , the Bishop of Ely , his chancellor . Mandeville immediately died , and Longchamp took over as joint justiciar with Puiset , which would prove to be a less than satisfactory partnership . Eleanor , the queen mother , convinced Richard to allow John into England in his absence .
The political situation in England rapidly began to deteriorate . Longchamp refused to work with Puiset and became unpopular with the English nobility and clergy . John exploited this unpopularity to set himself up as an alternative ruler with his own royal court , complete with his own justiciar , chancellor and other royal posts , and was happy to be portrayed as an alternative regent , and possibly the next king . Armed conflict broke out between John and Longchamp , and by October 1191 Longchamp was isolated in the Tower of London with John in control of the city of London , thanks to promises John had made to the citizens in return for recognition as Richard 's heir presumptive . At this point Walter of Coutances , the Archbishop of Rouen , returned to England , having been sent by Richard to restore order . John 's position was undermined by Walter 's relative popularity and by the news that Richard had married whilst in Cyprus , which presented the possibility that Richard would have legitimate children and heirs .
The political turmoil continued . John began to explore an alliance with the French king Philip II , freshly returned from the crusade . John hoped to acquire Normandy , Anjou and the other lands in France held by Richard in exchange for allying himself with Philip . John was persuaded not to pursue an alliance by his mother . Longchamp , who had left England after Walter 's intervention , now returned , and argued that he had been wrongly removed as justiciar . John intervened , suppressing Longchamp 's claims in return for promises of support from the royal administration , including a reaffirmation of his position as heir to the throne . When Richard still did not return from the crusade , John began to assert that his brother was dead or otherwise permanently lost . Richard had in fact been captured en route to England by the Duke of Austria and was handed over to Emperor Henry VI , who held him for ransom . John seized the opportunity and went to Paris , where he formed an alliance with Philip . He agreed to set aside his wife , Isabella of Gloucester , and marry Philip 's sister , Alys , in exchange for Philip 's support . Fighting broke out in England between forces loyal to Richard and those being gathered by John . John 's military position was weak and he agreed to a truce ; in early 1194 the king finally returned to England , and John 's remaining forces surrendered . John retreated to Normandy , where Richard finally found him later that year . Richard declared that his younger brother – despite being 27 years old – was merely " a child who has had evil counsellors " and forgave him , but removed his lands with the exception of Ireland .
For the remaining years of Richard 's reign , John supported his brother on the continent , apparently loyally . Richard 's policy on the continent was to attempt to regain through steady , limited campaigns the castles he had lost to Philip II whilst on crusade . He allied himself with the leaders of Flanders , Boulogne and the Holy Roman Empire to apply pressure on Philip from Germany . In 1195 John successfully conducted a sudden attack and siege of Évreux castle , and subsequently managed the defences of Normandy against Philip . The following year , John seized the town of Gamaches and led a raiding party within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Paris , capturing the Bishop of Beauvais . In return for this service , Richard withdrew his malevolentia ( ill @-@ will ) towards John , restored him to the county of Gloucestershire and made him again the Count of Mortain .
= = Early reign ( 1199 – 1204 ) = =
= = = Accession to the throne , 1199 = = =
After Richard 's death on 6 April 1199 there were two potential claimants to the Angevin throne : John , whose claim rested on being the sole surviving son of Henry II , and young Arthur I of Brittany , who held a claim as the son of John 's elder brother Geoffrey . Richard appears to have started to recognise John as his heir presumptive in the final years before his death , but the matter was not clear @-@ cut and medieval law gave little guidance as to how the competing claims should be decided . With Norman law favouring John as the only surviving son of Henry II and Angevin law favouring Arthur as the only son of Henry 's elder son , the matter rapidly became an open conflict . John was supported by the bulk of the English and Norman nobility and was crowned at Westminster , backed by his mother , Eleanor . Arthur was supported by the majority of the Breton , Maine and Anjou nobles and received the support of Philip II , who remained committed to breaking up the Angevin territories on the continent . With Arthur 's army pressing up the Loire valley towards Angers and Philip 's forces moving down the valley towards Tours , John 's continental empire was in danger of being cut in two .
Warfare in Normandy at the time was shaped by the defensive potential of castles and the increasing costs of conducting campaigns . The Norman frontiers had limited natural defences but were heavily reinforced with castles , such as Château Gaillard , at strategic points , built and maintained at considerable expense . It was difficult for a commander to advance far into fresh territory without having secured his lines of communication by capturing these fortifications , which slowed the progress of any attack . Armies of the period could be formed from either feudal or mercenary forces . Feudal levies could only be raised for a fixed length of time before they returned home , forcing an end to a campaign ; mercenary forces , often called Brabançons after the Duchy of Brabant but actually recruited from across northern Europe , could operate all year long and provide a commander with more strategic options to pursue a campaign , but cost much more than equivalent feudal forces . As a result , commanders of the period were increasingly drawing on larger numbers of mercenaries .
After his coronation , John moved south into France with military forces and adopted a defensive posture along the eastern and southern Normandy borders . Both sides paused for desultory negotiations before the war recommenced ; John 's position was now stronger , thanks to confirmation that the counts Baldwin IX of Flanders and Renaud of Boulogne had renewed the anti @-@ French alliances they had previously agreed to with Richard . The powerful Anjou nobleman William des Roches was persuaded to switch sides from Arthur to John ; suddenly the balance seemed to be tipping away from Philip and Arthur in favour of John . Neither side was keen to continue the conflict , and following a papal truce the two leaders met in January 1200 to negotiate possible terms for peace . From John 's perspective , what then followed represented an opportunity to stabilise control over his continental possessions and produce a lasting peace with Philip in Paris . John and Philip negotiated the May 1200 Treaty of Le Goulet ; by this treaty , Philip recognised John as the rightful heir to Richard in respect to his French possessions , temporarily abandoning the wider claims of his client , Arthur . John , in turn , abandoned Richard 's former policy of containing Philip through alliances with Flanders and Boulogne , and accepted Philip 's right as the legitimate feudal overlord of John 's lands in France . John 's policy earned him the disrespectful title of " John Softsword " from some English chroniclers , who contrasted his behaviour with his more aggressive brother , Richard .
= = = Le Goulet peace , 1200 – 02 = = =
The new peace would only last for two years ; war recommenced in the aftermath of John 's decision in August 1200 to marry Isabella of Angoulême . In order to remarry , John first needed to abandon Isabel , Countess of Gloucester , his first wife ; John accomplished this by arguing that he had failed to get the necessary papal permission to marry Isabel in the first place – as a cousin , John could not have legally wed her without this . It remains unclear why John chose to marry Isabella of Angoulême . Contemporary chroniclers argued that John had fallen deeply in love with Isabella , and John may have been motivated by desire for an apparently beautiful , if rather young , girl . On the other hand , the Angoumois lands that came with Isabella were strategically vital to John : by marrying Isabella , John was acquiring a key land route between Poitou and Gascony , which significantly strengthened his grip on Aquitaine .
Unfortunately , Isabella was already engaged to Hugh of Lusignan , an important member of a key Poitou noble family and brother of Count Raoul of Eu , who possessed lands along the sensitive eastern Normandy border . Just as John stood to benefit strategically from marrying Isabella , so the marriage threatened the interests of the Lusignans , whose own lands currently provided the key route for royal goods and troops across Aquitaine . Rather than negotiating some form of compensation , John treated Hugh " with contempt " ; this resulted in a Lusignan uprising that was promptly crushed by John , who also intervened to suppress Raoul in Normandy .
Although John was the Count of Poitou and therefore the rightful feudal lord over the Lusignans , they could legitimately appeal John 's actions in France to his own feudal lord , Philip . Hugh did exactly this in 1201 and Philip summoned John to attend court in Paris in 1202 , citing the Le Goulet treaty to strengthen his case . John was unwilling to weaken his authority in western France in this way . He argued that he need not attend Philip 's court because of his special status as the Duke of Normandy , who was exempt by feudal tradition from being called to the French court . Philip argued that he was summoning John not as the Duke of Normandy , but as the Count of Poitou , which carried no such special status . When John still refused to come , Philip declared John in breach of his feudal responsibilities , reassigned all of John 's lands that fell under the French crown to Arthur – with the exception of Normandy , which he took back for himself – and began a fresh war against John .
= = = Loss of Normandy , 1202 – 04 = = =
John initially adopted a defensive posture similar to that of 1199 : avoiding open battle and carefully defending his key castles . John 's operations became more chaotic as the campaign progressed , and Philip began to make steady progress in the east . John became aware in July that Arthur 's forces were threatening his mother , Eleanor , at Mirebeau Castle . Accompanied by William de Roches , his seneschal in Anjou , he swung his mercenary army rapidly south to protect her . His forces caught Arthur by surprise and captured the entire rebel leadership at the battle of Mirebeau . With his southern flank weakening , Philip was forced to withdraw in the east and turn south himself to contain John 's army .
John 's position in France was considerably strengthened by the victory at Mirebeau , but John 's treatment of his new prisoners and of his ally , William de Roches , quickly undermined these gains . De Roches was a powerful Anjou noble , but John largely ignored him , causing considerable offence , whilst the king kept the rebel leaders in such bad conditions that twenty @-@ two of them died . At this time most of the regional nobility were closely linked through kinship , and this behaviour towards their relatives was regarded as unacceptable . William de Roches and other of John 's regional allies in Anjou and Brittany deserted him in favour of Philip , and Brittany rose in fresh revolt . John 's financial situation was tenuous : once factors such as the comparative military costs of materiel and soldiers were taken into account , Philip enjoyed a considerable , although not overwhelming , advantage of resources over John .
Further desertions of John 's local allies at the beginning of 1203 steadily reduced John 's freedom to manoeuvre in the region . He attempted to convince Pope Innocent III to intervene in the conflict , but Innocent 's efforts were unsuccessful . As the situation became worse for John , he appears to have decided to have Arthur killed , with the aim of removing his potential rival and of undermining the rebel movement in Brittany . Arthur had initially been imprisoned at Falaise and was then moved to Rouen . After this , Arthur 's fate remains uncertain , but modern historians believe he was murdered by John . The annals of Margam Abbey suggest that " John had captured Arthur and kept him alive in prison for some time in the castle of Rouen ... when John was drunk he slew Arthur with his own hand and tying a heavy stone to the body cast it into the Seine . " Rumours of the manner of Arthur 's death further reduced support for John across the region . Arthur 's sister , Eleanor , who had also been captured at Mirebeau , was kept imprisoned by John for many years , albeit in relatively good conditions .
In late 1203 , John attempted to relieve Château Gaillard , which although besieged by Philip was guarding the eastern flank of Normandy . John attempted a synchronised operation involving land @-@ based and water @-@ borne forces , considered by most historians today to have been imaginative in conception , but overly complex for forces of the period to have carried out successfully . John 's relief operation was blocked by Philip 's forces , and John turned back to Brittany in an attempt to draw Philip away from eastern Normandy . John successfully devastated much of Brittany , but did not deflect Philip 's main thrust into the east of Normandy . Opinions vary amongst historians as to the military skill shown by John during this campaign , with most recent historians arguing that his performance was passable , although not impressive . John 's situation began to deteriorate rapidly . The eastern border region of Normandy had been extensively cultivated by Philip and his predecessors for several years , whilst Angevin authority in the south had been undermined by Richard 's giving away of various key castles some years before . His use of routier mercenaries in the central regions had rapidly eaten away his remaining support in this area too , which set the stage for a sudden collapse of Angevin power . John retreated back across the Channel in December , sending orders for the establishment of a fresh defensive line to the west of Chateau Gaillard . In March 1204 , Gaillard fell . John 's mother Eleanor died the following month . This was not just a personal blow for John , but threatened to unravel the widespread Angevin alliances across the far south of France . Philip moved south around the new defensive line and struck upwards at the heart of the Duchy , now facing little resistance . By August , Philip had taken Normandy and advanced south to occupy Anjou and Poitou as well . John 's only remaining possession on the Continent was now the Duchy of Aquitaine .
= = John as king = =
= = = Kingship and royal administration = = =
The nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill @-@ defined and uncertain . John 's predecessors had ruled using the principle of vis et voluntas , or " force and will " , taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions , often justified on the basis that a king was above the law . Both Henry II and Richard had argued that kings possessed a quality of " divine majesty " ; John continued this trend and claimed an " almost imperial status " for himself as ruler . During the 12th century , there were contrary opinions expressed about the nature of kingship , and many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law , and take counsel of the leading members of the realm . There was as yet no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so . Despite his claim to unique authority within England , John would sometimes justify his actions on the basis that he had taken council with the barons . Modern historians remain divided as to whether John suffered from a case of " royal schizophrenia " in his approach to government , or if his actions merely reflected the complex model of Angevin kingship in the early 13th century .
John inherited a sophisticated system of administration in England , with a range of royal agents answering to the Royal Household : the Chancery kept written records and communications ; the Treasury and the Exchequer dealt with income and expenditure respectively ; and various judges were deployed to deliver justice around the kingdom . Thanks to the efforts of men like Hubert Walter , this trend towards improved record keeping continued into his reign . Like previous kings , John managed a peripatetic court that travelled around the kingdom , dealing with both local and national matters as he went . John was very active in the administration of England and was involved in every aspect of government . In part he was following in the tradition of Henry I and Henry II , but by the 13th century the volume of administrative work had greatly increased , which put much more pressure on a king who wished to rule in this style . John was in England for much longer periods than his predecessors , which made his rule more personal than that of previous kings , particularly in previously ignored areas such as the north .
The administration of justice was of particular importance to John . Several new processes had been introduced to English law under Henry II , including novel disseisin and mort d 'ancestor . These processes meant the royal courts had a more significant role in local law cases , which had previously been dealt with only by regional or local lords . John increased the professionalism of local sergeants and bailiffs , and extended the system of coroners first introduced by Hubert Walter in 1194 , creating a new class of borough coroners . John worked extremely hard to ensure that this system operated well , through judges he had appointed , by fostering legal specialists and expertise , and by intervening in cases himself . John continued to try relatively minor cases , even during military crises . Viewed positively , Lewis Warren considers that John discharged " his royal duty of providing justice ... with a zeal and a tirelessness to which the English common law is greatly endebted " . Seen more critically , John may have been motivated by the potential of the royal legal process to raise fees , rather than a desire to deliver simple justice ; John 's legal system also only applied to free men , rather than to all of the population . Nonetheless , these changes were popular with many free tenants , who acquired a more reliable legal system that could bypass the barons , against whom such cases were often brought . John 's reforms were less popular with the barons themselves , especially as they remained subject to arbitrary and frequently vindictive royal justice .
= = = Economy = = =
One of John 's principal challenges was acquiring the large sums of money needed for his proposed campaigns to reclaim Normandy . The Angevin kings had three main sources of income available to them , namely revenue from their personal lands , or demesne ; money raised through their rights as a feudal lord ; and revenue from taxation . Revenue from the royal demesne was inflexible and had been diminishing slowly since the Norman conquest . Matters were not helped by Richard 's sale of many royal properties in 1189 , and taxation played a much smaller role in royal income than in later centuries . English kings had widespread feudal rights which could be used to generate income , including the scutage system , in which feudal military service was avoided by a cash payment to the king . He derived income from fines , court fees and the sale of charters and other privileges . John intensified his efforts to maximise all possible sources of income , to the extent that he has been described as " avaricious , miserly , extortionate and moneyminded " . John also used revenue generation as a way of exerting political control over the barons : debts owed to the crown by the king 's favoured supporters might be forgiven ; collection of those owed by enemies was more stringently enforced .
The result was a sequence of innovative but unpopular financial measures . John levied scutage payments eleven times in his seventeen years as king , as compared to eleven times in total during the reign of the preceding three monarchs . In many cases these were levied in the absence of any actual military campaign , which ran counter to the original idea that scutage was an alternative to actual military service . John maximised his right to demand relief payments when estates and castles were inherited , sometimes charging enormous sums , beyond barons ' abilities to pay . Building on the successful sale of sheriff appointments in 1194 , John initiated a new round of appointments , with the new incumbents making back their investment through increased fines and penalties , particularly in the forests . Another innovation of Richard 's , increased charges levied on widows who wished to remain single , was expanded under John . John continued to sell charters for new towns , including the planned town of Liverpool , and charters were sold for markets across the kingdom and in Gascony . The king introduced new taxes and extended existing ones . The Jews , who held a vulnerable position in medieval England , protected only by the king , were subject to huge taxes ; £ 44 @,@ 000 was extracted from the community by the tallage of 1210 ; much of it was passed on to the Christian debtors of Jewish moneylenders . John created a new tax on income and movable goods in 1207 – effectively a version of a modern income tax – that produced £ 60 @,@ 000 ; he created a new set of import and export duties payable directly to the crown . John found that these measures enabled him to raise further resources through the confiscation of the lands of barons who could not pay or refused to pay .
At the start of John 's reign there was a sudden change in prices , as bad harvests and high demand for food resulted in much higher prices for grain and animals . This inflationary pressure was to continue for the rest of the 13th century and had long @-@ term economic consequences for England . The resulting social pressures were complicated by bursts of deflation that resulted from John 's military campaigns . It was usual at the time for the king to collect taxes in silver , which was then re @-@ minted into new coins ; these coins would then be put in barrels and sent to royal castles around the country , to be used to hire mercenaries or to meet other costs . At those times when John was preparing for campaigns in Normandy , for example , huge quantities of silver had to be withdrawn from the economy and stored for months , which unintentionally resulted in periods during which silver coins were simply hard to come by , commercial credit difficult to acquire and deflationary pressure placed on the economy . The result was political unrest across the country . John attempted to address some of the problems with the English currency in 1204 and 1205 by carrying out a radical overhaul of the coinage , improving its quality and consistency .
= = = Royal household and ira et malevolentia = = =
John 's royal household was based around several groups of followers . One group was the familiares regis , John 's immediate friends and knights who travelled around the country with him . They also played an important role in organising and leading military campaigns . Another section of royal followers were the curia regis ; these curiales were the senior officials and agents of the king and were essential to his day @-@ to @-@ day rule . Being a member of these inner circles brought huge advantages , as it was easier to gain favours from the king , file lawsuits , marry a wealthy heiress or have one 's debts remitted . By the time of Henry II , these posts were increasingly being filled by " new men " from outside the normal ranks of the barons . This intensified under John 's rule , with many lesser nobles arriving from the continent to take up positions at court ; many were mercenary leaders from Poitou . These men included soldiers who would become infamous in England for their uncivilised behaviour , including Falkes de Breauté , Geard d 'Athies , Engelard de Cigongé and Philip Marc . Many barons perceived the king 's household as what Ralph Turner has characterised as a " narrow clique enjoying royal favour at barons ' expense " staffed by men of lesser status .
This trend for the king to rely on his own men at the expense of the barons was exacerbated by the tradition of Angevin royal ira et malevolentia – " anger and ill @-@ will " – and John 's own personality . From Henry II onwards , ira et malevolentia had come to describe the right of the king to express his anger and displeasure at particular barons or clergy , building on the Norman concept of malevoncia – royal ill @-@ will . In the Norman period , suffering the king 's ill @-@ will meant difficulties in obtaining grants , honours or petitions ; Henry II had infamously expressed his fury and ill @-@ will towards Thomas Becket ; this ultimately resulted in Becket 's death . John now had the additional ability to " cripple his vassals " on a significant scale using his new economic and judicial measures , which made the threat of royal anger all the more serious .
John was deeply suspicious of the barons , particularly those with sufficient power and wealth to potentially challenge the king . Numerous barons were subjected to John 's malevolentia , even including William Marshal , a famous knight and baron normally held up as a model of utter loyalty . The most infamous case , which went beyond anything considered acceptable at the time , proved to be that of William de Braose , a powerful marcher lord with lands in Ireland . De Braose was subjected to punitive demands for money , and when he refused to pay a huge sum of 40 @,@ 000 marks ( equivalent to £ 26 @,@ 666 at the time ) , his wife and one of his sons were imprisoned by John , which resulted in their deaths . De Braose died in exile in 1211 , and his grandsons remained in prison until 1218 . John 's suspicions and jealousies meant that he rarely enjoyed good relationships with even the leading loyalist barons .
= = = Personal life = = =
John 's personal life greatly affected his reign . Contemporary chroniclers state that John was sinfully lustful and lacking in piety . It was common for kings and nobles of the period to keep mistresses , but chroniclers complained that John 's mistresses were married noblewomen , which was considered unacceptable . John had at least five children with mistresses during his first marriage to Isabelle of Gloucester , and two of those mistresses are known to have been noblewomen . John 's behaviour after his second marriage to Isabella of Angoulême is less clear , however . None of John 's known illegitimate children were born after he remarried , and there is no actual documentary proof of adultery after that point , although John certainly had female friends amongst the court throughout the period . The specific accusations made against John during the baronial revolts are now generally considered to have been invented for the purposes of justifying the revolt ; nonetheless , most of John 's contemporaries seem to have held a poor opinion of his sexual behaviour .
The character of John 's relationship with his second wife , Isabella of Angoulême , is unclear . John married Isabella whilst she was relatively young – her exact date of birth is uncertain , and estimates place her between at most 15 and more probably towards nine years old at the time of her marriage . Even by the standards of the time , Isabella was married whilst very young . John did not provide a great deal of money for his wife 's household and did not pass on much of the revenue from her lands , to the extent that historian Nicholas Vincent has described him as being " downright mean " towards Isabella . Vincent concluded that the marriage was not a particularly " amicable " one . Other aspects of their marriage suggest a closer , more positive relationship . Chroniclers recorded that John had a " mad infatuation " with Isabella , and certainly John had conjugal relationships with Isabella between at least 1207 and 1215 ; they had five children . In contrast to Vincent , historian William Chester Jordan concludes that the pair were a " companionable couple " who had a successful marriage by the standards of the day .
John 's lack of religious conviction has been noted by contemporary chroniclers and later historians , with some suspecting that John was at best impious , or even atheistic , a very serious issue at the time . Contemporary chroniclers catalogued his various anti @-@ religious habits at length , including his failure to take communion , his blasphemous remarks , and his witty but scandalous jokes about church doctrine , including jokes about the implausibility of the Resurrection . They commented on the paucity of John 's charitable donations to the church . Historian Frank McLynn argues that John 's early years at Fontevrault , combined with his relatively advanced education , may have turned him against the church . Other historians have been more cautious in interpreting this material , noting that chroniclers also reported John 's personal interest in the life of St Wulfstan of Worcester and his friendships with several senior clerics , most especially with Hugh of Lincoln , who was later declared a saint . Financial records show a normal royal household engaged in the usual feasts and pious observances – albeit with many records showing John 's offerings to the poor to atone for routinely breaking church rules and guidance . The historian Lewis Warren has argued that the chronicler accounts were subject to considerable bias and the King was " at least conventionally devout , " citing his pilgrimages and interest in religious scripture and commentaries .
= = Later reign ( 1204 – 14 ) = =
= = = Continental policy = = =
During the remainder of his reign , John focused on trying to retake Normandy . The available evidence suggests that John did not regard the loss of the Duchy as a permanent shift in Capetian power . Strategically , John faced several challenges : England itself had to be secured against possible French invasion , the sea @-@ routes to Bordeaux needed to be secured following the loss of the land route to Aquitaine , and his remaining possessions in Aquitaine needed to be secured following the death of his mother , Eleanor , in April 1204 . John 's preferred plan was to use Poitou as a base of operations , advance up the Loire valley to threaten Paris , pin down the French forces and break Philip 's internal lines of communication before landing a maritime force in the Duchy itself . Ideally , this plan would benefit from the opening of a second front on Philip 's eastern frontiers with Flanders and Boulogne – effectively a re @-@ creation of Richard 's old strategy of applying pressure from Germany . All of this would require a great deal of money and soldiers .
John spent much of 1205 securing England against a potential French invasion . As an emergency measure , John recreated a version of Henry II 's Assize of Arms of 1181 , with each shire creating a structure to mobilise local levies . When the threat of invasion faded , John formed a large military force in England intended for Poitou , and a large fleet with soldiers under his own command intended for Normandy . To achieve this , John reformed the English feudal contribution to his campaigns , creating a more flexible system under which only one knight in ten would actually be mobilised , but would be financially supported by the other nine ; knights would serve for an indefinite period . John built up a strong team of engineers for siege warfare and a substantial force of professional crossbowmen . The king was supported by a team of leading barons with military expertise , including William Longespée , William the Marshal , Roger de Lacy and , until he fell from favour , the marcher lord William de Braose .
John had already begun to improve his Channel forces before the loss of Normandy and he rapidly built up further maritime capabilities after its collapse . Most of these ships were placed along the Cinque Ports , but Portsmouth was also enlarged . By the end of 1204 he had around 50 large galleys available ; another 54 vessels were built between 1209 and 1212 . William of Wrotham was appointed " keeper of the galleys " , effectively John 's chief admiral . Wrotham was responsible for fusing John 's galleys , the ships of the Cinque Ports and pressed merchant vessels into a single operational fleet . John adopted recent improvements in ship design , including new large transport ships called buisses and removable forecastles for use in combat .
Baronial unrest in England prevented the departure of the planned 1205 expedition , and only a smaller force under William Longespée deployed to Poitou . In 1206 John departed for Poitou himself , but was forced to divert south to counter a threat to Gascony from Alfonso VIII of Castile . After a successful campaign against Alfonso , John headed north again , taking the city of Angers . Philip moved south to meet John ; the year 's campaigning ended in stalemate and a two @-@ year truce was made between the two rulers .
During the truce of 1206 – 1208 , John focused on building up his financial and military resources in preparation for another attempt to recapture Normandy . John used some of this money to pay for new alliances on Philip 's eastern frontiers , where the growth in Capetian power was beginning to concern France 's neighbours . By 1212 John had successfully concluded alliances with his nephew Otto IV , a contender for the crown of Holy Roman Emperor in Germany , as well as with the counts Renaud of Boulogne and Ferdinand of Flanders . The invasion plans for 1212 were postponed because of fresh English baronial unrest about service in Poitou . Philip seized the initiative in 1213 , sending his elder son , Louis , to invade Flanders with the intention of next launching an invasion of England . John was forced to postpone his own invasion plans to counter this threat . He launched his new fleet to attack the French at the harbour of Damme . The attack was a success , destroying Philip 's vessels and any chances of an invasion of England that year . John hoped to exploit this advantage by invading himself late in 1213 , but baronial discontent again delayed his invasion plans until early 1214 , in what would prove to be his final Continental campaign .
= = = Scotland , Ireland and Wales = = =
In the late 12th and early 13th centuries the border and political relationship between England and Scotland was disputed , with the kings of Scotland claiming parts of what is now northern England . John 's father , Henry II , had forced William the Lion to swear fealty to him at the Treaty of Falaise in 1174 . This had been rescinded by Richard I in exchange for financial compensation in 1189 , but the relationship remained uneasy . John began his reign by reasserting his sovereignty over the disputed northern counties . He refused William 's request for the earldom of Northumbria , but did not intervene in Scotland itself and focused on his continental problems . The two kings maintained a friendly relationship , meeting in 1206 and 1207 , until it was rumoured in 1209 that William was intending to ally himself with Philip II of France . John invaded Scotland and forced William to sign the Treaty of Norham , which gave John control of William 's daughters and required a payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 . This effectively crippled William 's power north of the border , and by 1212 John had to intervene militarily to support the Scottish king against his internal rivals . John made no efforts to reinvigorate the Treaty of Falaise , though , and both William and Alexander in turn remained independent kings , supported by , but not owing fealty to , John .
John remained Lord of Ireland throughout his reign . He drew on the country for resources to fight his war with Philip on the continent . Conflict continued in Ireland between the Anglo @-@ Norman settlers and the indigenous Irish chieftains , with John manipulating both groups to expand his wealth and power in the country . During Richard 's rule , John had successfully increased the size of his lands in Ireland , and he continued this policy as king . In 1210 the king crossed into Ireland with a large army to crush a rebellion by the Anglo @-@ Norman lords ; he reasserted his control of the country and used a new charter to order compliance with English laws and customs in Ireland . John stopped short of trying to actively enforce this charter on the native Irish kingdoms , but historian David Carpenter suspects that he might have done so , had the baronial conflict in England not intervened . Simmering tensions remained with the native Irish leaders even after John left for England .
Royal power in Wales was unevenly applied , with the country divided between the marcher lords along the borders , royal territories in Pembrokeshire and the more independent native Welsh lords of North Wales . John took a close interest in Wales and knew the country well , visiting every year between 1204 and 1211 and marrying his illegitimate daughter , Joan , to the Welsh prince Llywelyn the Great . The king used the marcher lords and the native Welsh to increase his own territory and power , striking a sequence of increasingly precise deals backed by royal military power with the Welsh rulers . A major royal expedition to enforce these agreements occurred in 1211 , after Llywelyn attempted to exploit the instability caused by the removal of William de Braose , through the Welsh uprising of 1211 . John 's invasion , striking into the Welsh heartlands , was a military success . Llywelyn came to terms that included an expansion of John 's power across much of Wales , albeit only temporarily .
= = = Dispute with the Pope = = =
When the Archbishop of Canterbury , Hubert Walter , died on 13 July 1205 , John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III that would lead to the king 's excommunication . The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories . From the 1040s onwards , however , successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the church being " governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre " and established " its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction , separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler " , in the words of historian Richard Huscroft . After the 1140s , these principles had been largely accepted within the English church , albeit with an element of concern about centralising authority in Rome . These changes brought the customary rights of lay rulers such as John over ecclesiastical appointments into question . Pope Innocent was , according to historian Ralph Turner , an " ambitious and aggressive " religious leader , insistent on his rights and responsibilities within the church .
John wanted John de Gray , the Bishop of Norwich and one of his own supporters , to be appointed Archbishop of Canterbury after the death of Walter , but the cathedral chapter for Canterbury Cathedral claimed the exclusive right to elect Walter 's successor . They favoured Reginald , the chapter 's sub @-@ prior . To complicate matters , the bishops of the province of Canterbury also claimed the right to appoint the next archbishop . The chapter secretly elected Reginald and he travelled to Rome to be confirmed ; the bishops challenged the appointment and the matter was taken before Innocent . John forced the Canterbury chapter to change their support to John de Gray , and a messenger was sent to Rome to inform the papacy of the new decision . Innocent disavowed both Reginald and John de Gray , and instead appointed his own candidate , Stephen Langton . John refused Innocent 's request that he consent to Langton 's appointment , but the pope consecrated Langton anyway in June 1207 .
John was incensed about what he perceived as an abrogation of his customary right as monarch to influence the election . He complained both about the choice of Langton as an individual , as John felt he was overly influenced by the Capetian court in Paris , and about the process as a whole . He barred Langton from entering England and seized the lands of the archbishopric and other papal possessions . Innocent set a commission in place to try to convince John to change his mind , but to no avail . Innocent then placed an interdict on England in March 1208 , prohibiting clergy from conducting religious services , with the exception of baptisms for the young , and confessions and absolutions for the dying .
John treated the interdict as " the equivalent of a papal declaration of war " . He responded by attempting to punish Innocent personally and to drive a wedge between those English clergy that might support him and those allying themselves firmly with the authorities in Rome . John seized the lands of those clergy unwilling to conduct services , as well as those estates linked to Innocent himself ; he arrested the illicit concubines that many clerics kept during the period , only releasing them after the payment of fines ; he seized the lands of members of the church who had fled England , and he promised protection for those clergy willing to remain loyal to him . In many cases , individual institutions were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates . By 1209 the situation showed no signs of resolution , and Innocent threatened to excommunicate John if he did not acquiesce to Langton 's appointment . When this threat failed , Innocent excommunicated the king in November 1209 . Although theoretically a significant blow to John 's legitimacy , this did not appear to greatly worry the king . Two of John 's close allies , Emperor Otto IV and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse , had already suffered the same punishment themselves , and the significance of excommunication had been somewhat devalued . John simply tightened his existing measures and accrued significant sums from the income of vacant sees and abbeys : one 1213 estimate , for example , suggested the church had lost an estimated 100 @,@ 000 marks ( equivalent to £ 66 @,@ 666 at the time ) to John . Official figures suggest that around 14 % of annual income from the English church was being appropriated by John each year .
Innocent gave some dispensations as the crisis progressed . Monastic communities were allowed to celebrate Mass in private from 1209 onwards , and late in 1212 the Holy Viaticum for the dying was authorised . The rules on burials and lay access to churches appear to have been steadily circumvented , at least unofficially . Although the interdict was a burden to much of the population , it did not result in rebellion against John . By 1213 , though , John was increasingly worried about the threat of French invasion . Some contemporary chroniclers suggested that in January Philip II of France had been charged with deposing John on behalf of the papacy , although it appears that Innocent merely prepared secret letters in case Innocent needed to claim the credit if Philip did successfully invade England .
Under mounting political pressure , John finally negotiated terms for a reconciliation , and the papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulf Verraccio in May 1213 at the Templar Church at Dover . As part of the deal , John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to the papacy for a feudal service of 1 @,@ 000 marks ( equivalent to £ 666 at the time ) annually : 700 marks ( £ 466 ) for England and 300 marks ( £ 200 ) for Ireland , as well as recompensing the church for revenue lost during the crisis . The agreement was formalised in the Bulla Aurea , or Golden Bull . This resolution produced mixed responses . Although some chroniclers felt that John had been humiliated by the sequence of events , there was little public reaction . Innocent benefited from the resolution of his long @-@ standing English problem , but John probably gained more , as Innocent became a firm supporter of John for the rest of his reign , backing him in both domestic and continental policy issues . Innocent immediately turned against Philip , calling upon him to reject plans to invade England and to sue for peace . John paid some of the compensation money he had promised the church , but he ceased making payments in late 1214 , leaving two @-@ thirds of the sum unpaid ; Innocent appears to have conveniently forgotten this debt for the good of the wider relationship .
= = Failure in France and the First Barons ' War ( 1215 – 16 ) = =
= = = Tensions and discontent = = =
Tensions between John and the barons had been growing for several years , as demonstrated by the 1212 plot against the king . Many of the disaffected barons came from the north of England ; that faction was often labelled by contemporaries and historians as " the Northerners " . The northern barons rarely had any personal stake in the conflict in France , and many of them owed large sums of money to John ; the revolt has been characterised as " a rebellion of the king 's debtors " . Many of John 's military household joined the rebels , particularly amongst those that John had appointed to administrative roles across England ; their local links and loyalties outweighed their personal loyalty to John . Tension also grew across North Wales , where opposition to the 1211 treaty between John and Llywelyn was turning into open conflict . For some the appointment of Peter des Roches as justiciar was an important factor , as he was considered an " abrasive foreigner " by many of the barons . The failure of John 's French military campaign in 1214 was probably the final straw that precipitated the baronial uprising during John 's final years as king ; James Holt describes the path to civil war as " direct , short and unavoidable " following the defeat at Bouvines .
= = = Failure of the 1214 French campaign = = =
In 1214 John began his final campaign to reclaim Normandy from Philip . John was optimistic , as he had successfully built up alliances with the Emperor Otto , Renaud of Boulogne and Count Ferdinand of Flanders ; he was enjoying papal favour ; and he had successfully built up substantial funds to pay for the deployment of his experienced army . Nonetheless , when John left for Poitou in February 1214 , many barons refused to provide military service ; mercenary knights had to fill the gaps . John 's plan was to split Philip 's forces by pushing north @-@ east from Poitou towards Paris , whilst Otto , Renaud and Ferdinand , supported by William Longespée , marched south @-@ west from Flanders .
The first part of the campaign went well , with John outmanoeuvring the forces under the command of Prince Louis and retaking the county of Anjou by the end of June . John besieged the castle of Roche @-@ au @-@ Moine , a key stronghold , forcing Louis to give battle against John 's larger army . The local Angevin nobles refused to advance with the king ; left at something of a disadvantage , John retreated back to La Rochelle . Shortly afterwards , Philip won the hard @-@ fought battle of Bouvines in the north against Otto and John 's other allies , bringing an end to John 's hopes of retaking Normandy . A peace agreement was signed in which John returned Anjou to Philip and paid the French king compensation ; the truce was intended to last for six years . John arrived back in England in October .
= = = Pre @-@ war tensions and Magna Carta = = =
Within a few months of John 's return , rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule . John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring . John appears to have been playing for time until Pope Innocent III could send letters giving him explicit papal support . This was particularly important for John , as a way of pressuring the barons but also as a way of controlling Stephen Langton , the Archbishop of Canterbury . In the meantime , John began to recruit fresh mercenary forces from Poitou , although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that the king was escalating the conflict . John announced his intent to become a crusader , a move which gave him additional political protection under church law .
Letters of support from the pope arrived in April but by then the rebel barons had organised . They congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John , appointing Robert fitz Walter as their military leader . This self @-@ proclaimed " Army of God " marched on London , taking the capital as well as Lincoln and Exeter . John 's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful , but once the rebels held London they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from John 's royalist faction . John instructed Langton to organise peace talks with the rebel barons .
John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede , near Windsor Castle , on 15 June 1215 . Langton 's efforts at mediation created a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement ; it was later renamed Magna Carta , or " Great Charter " . The charter went beyond simply addressing specific baronial complaints , and formed a wider proposal for political reform , albeit one focusing on the rights of free men , not serfs and unfree labour . It promised the protection of church rights , protection from illegal imprisonment , access to swift justice , new taxation only with baronial consent and limitations on scutage and other feudal payments . A council of twenty @-@ five barons would be created to monitor and ensure John 's future adherence to the charter , whilst the rebel army would stand down and London would be surrendered to the king .
Neither John nor the rebel barons seriously attempted to implement the peace accord . The rebel barons suspected that the proposed baronial council would be unacceptable to John and that he would challenge the legality of the charter ; they packed the baronial council with their own hardliners and refused to demobilise their forces or surrender London as agreed . Despite his promises to the contrary , John appealed to Innocent for help , observing that the charter compromised the pope 's rights under the 1213 agreement that had appointed him John 's feudal lord . Innocent obliged ; he declared the charter " not only shameful and demeaning , but illegal and unjust " and excommunicated the rebel barons . The failure of the agreement led rapidly to the First Barons ' War .
= = = War with the barons = = =
The rebels made the first move in the war , seizing the strategic Rochester Castle , owned by Langton but left almost unguarded by the archbishop . John was well prepared for a conflict . He had stockpiled money to pay for mercenaries and ensured the support of the powerful marcher lords with their own feudal forces , such as William Marshal and Ranulf of Chester . The rebels lacked the engineering expertise or heavy equipment necessary to assault the network of royal castles that cut off the northern rebel barons from those in the south . John 's strategy was to isolate the rebel barons in London , protect his own supply lines to his key source of mercenaries in Flanders , prevent the French from landing in the south @-@ east , and then win the war through slow attrition . John put off dealing with the badly deteriorating situation in North Wales , where Llywelyn the Great was leading a rebellion against the 1211 settlement .
John 's campaign started well . In November John retook Rochester Castle from rebel baron William d 'Aubigny in a sophisticated assault . One chronicler had not seen " a siege so hard pressed or so strongly resisted " , whilst historian Reginald Brown describes it as " one of the greatest [ siege ] operations in England up to that time " . Having regained the south @-@ east John split his forces , sending William Longespée to retake the north side of London and East Anglia , whilst John himself headed north via Nottingham to attack the estates of the northern barons . Both operations were successful and the majority of the remaining rebels were pinned down in London . In January 1216 John marched against Alexander II of Scotland , who had allied himself with the rebel cause . John took back Alexander 's possessions in northern England in a rapid campaign and pushed up towards Edinburgh over a ten @-@ day period .
The rebel barons responded by inviting the French prince Louis to lead them : Louis had a claim to the English throne by virtue of his marriage to Blanche of Castile , a granddaughter of Henry II . Philip may have provided him with private support but refused to openly support Louis , who was excommunicated by Innocent for taking part in the war against John . Louis ' planned arrival in England presented a significant problem for John , as the prince would bring with him naval vessels and siege engines essential to the rebel cause . Once John contained Alexander in Scotland , he marched south to deal with the challenge of the coming invasion .
Prince Louis intended to land in the south of England in May 1216 , and John assembled a naval force to intercept him . Unfortunately for John , his fleet was dispersed by bad storms and Louis landed unopposed in Kent . John hesitated and decided not to attack Louis immediately , either due to the risks of open battle or over concerns about the loyalty of his own men . Louis and the rebel barons advanced west and John retreated , spending the summer reorganising his defences across the rest of the kingdom . John saw several of his military household desert to the rebels , including his half @-@ brother , William Longespée . By the end of the summer the rebels had regained the south @-@ east of England and parts of the north .
= = Death = =
In September 1216 John began a fresh , vigorous attack . He marched from the Cotswolds , feigned an offensive to relieve the besieged Windsor Castle , and attacked eastwards around London to Cambridge to separate the rebel @-@ held areas of Lincolnshire and East Anglia . From there he travelled north to relieve the rebel siege at Lincoln and back east to King 's Lynn , probably to order further supplies from the continent . In King 's Lynn , John contracted dysentery , which would ultimately prove fatal . Meanwhile , Alexander II invaded northern England again , taking Carlisle in August and then marching south to give homage to Prince Louis for his English possessions ; John narrowly missed intercepting Alexander along the way . Tensions between Louis and the English barons began to increase , prompting a wave of desertions , including William Marshal 's son William and William Longespée , who both returned to John 's faction .
The king returned west but is said to have lost a significant part of his baggage train along the way . Roger of Wendover provides the most graphic account of this , suggesting that the king 's belongings , including the Crown Jewels , were lost as he crossed one of the tidal estuaries which empties into the Wash , being sucked in by quicksand and whirlpools . Accounts of the incident vary considerably between the various chroniclers and the exact location of the incident has never been confirmed ; the losses may have involved only a few of his pack @-@ horses . Modern historians assert that by October 1216 John faced a " stalemate " , " a military situation uncompromised by defeat " .
John 's illness grew worse and by the time he reached Newark Castle he was unable to travel any farther ; John died on the night of 18 October . Numerous – probably fictitious – accounts circulated soon after his death that he had been killed by poisoned ale , poisoned plums or a " surfeit of peaches " . His body was escorted south by a company of mercenaries and he was buried in Worcester Cathedral in front of the altar of St Wulfstan . A new sarcophagus with an effigy was made for him in 1232 , in which his remains now rest .
= = Legacy = =
In the aftermath of John 's death William Marshal was declared the protector of the nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry III . The civil war continued until royalist victories at the battles of Lincoln and Dover in 1217 . Louis gave up his claim to the English throne and signed the Treaty of Lambeth . The failed Magna Carta agreement was resuscitated by Marshal 's administration and reissued in an edited form in 1217 as a basis for future government . Henry III continued his attempts to reclaim Normandy and Anjou until 1259 , but John 's continental losses and the consequent growth of Capetian power in the 13th century proved to mark a " turning point in European history " .
John 's first wife , Isabel , Countess of Gloucester , was released from imprisonment in 1214 ; she remarried twice , and died in 1217 . John 's second wife , Isabella of Angoulême , left England for Angoulême soon after the king 's death ; she became a powerful regional leader , but largely abandoned the children she had had by John . John had five legitimate children , all by Isabella . His eldest son , Henry III , ruled as king for the majority of the 13th century . Richard became a noted European leader and ultimately the King of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire . Joan married Alexander II of Scotland to become his queen consort . Isabella married the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . His youngest daughter , Eleanor , married William Marshal 's son , also called William , and later the famous English rebel Simon de Montfort . John had a number of illegitimate children by various mistresses , including nine sons – Richard , Oliver , John , Geoffrey , Henry , Osbert Gifford , Eudes , Bartholomew and probably Philip – and three daughters – Joan , Maud and probably Isabel . Of these , Joan became the most famous , marrying Prince Llywelyn the Great of Wales .
= = = Historiography = = =
Historical interpretations of John have been subject to considerable change over the years . Medieval chroniclers provided the first contemporary , or near contemporary , histories of John 's reign . One group of chroniclers wrote early in John 's life , or around the time of his accession , including Richard of Devizes , William of Newburgh , Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto . These historians were generally unsympathetic to John 's behaviour under Richard 's rule , but slightly more positive towards the very earliest years of John 's reign . Reliable accounts of the middle and later parts of John 's reign are more limited , with Gervase of Canterbury and Ralph of Coggeshall writing the main accounts ; neither of them were positive about John 's performance as king . Much of John 's later , negative reputation was established by two chroniclers writing after the king 's death , Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris , the latter claiming that John attempted conversion to Islam in exchange for military aid from the Almohad ruler Muhammad al @-@ Nasir - a story which is considered to be untrue by modern historians .
In the 16th century political and religious changes altered the attitude of historians towards John . Tudor historians were generally favourably inclined towards the king , focusing on John 's opposition to the Papacy and his promotion of the special rights and prerogatives of a king . Revisionist histories written by John Foxe , William Tyndale and Robert Barnes portrayed John as an early Protestant hero , and John Foxe included the king in his Book of Martyrs . John Speed 's Historie of Great Britaine in 1632 praised John 's " great renown " as a king ; he blamed the bias of medieval chroniclers for the king 's poor reputation .
By the Victorian period in the 19th century historians were more inclined to draw on the judgements of the chroniclers and to focus on John 's moral personality . Kate Norgate , for example , argued that John 's downfall had been due not to his failure in war or strategy , but due to his " almost superhuman wickedness " , whilst James Ramsay blamed John 's family background and his cruel personality for his downfall . Historians in the " Whiggish " tradition , focusing on documents such as the Domesday Book and Magna Carta , trace a progressive and universalist course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period . These historians were often inclined to see John 's reign , and his signing of Magna Carta in particular , as a positive step in the constitutional development of England , despite the flaws of the king himself . Winston Churchill , for example , argued that " [ w ] hen the long tally is added , it will be seen that the British nation and the English @-@ speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns " .
In the 1940s , new interpretations of John 's reign began to emerge , based on research into the record evidence of his reign , such as pipe rolls , charters , court documents and similar primary records . Notably , an essay by Vivian Galbraith in 1945 proposed a " new approach " to understanding the ruler . The use of recorded evidence was combined with an increased scepticism about two of the most colourful chroniclers of John 's reign , Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris . In many cases the detail provided by these chroniclers , both writing after John 's death , was challenged by modern historians . Interpretations of Magna Carta and the role of the rebel barons in 1215 have been significantly revised : although the charter 's symbolic , constitutional value for later generations is unquestionable , in the context of John 's reign most historians now consider it a failed peace agreement between " partisan " factions . There has been increasing debate about the nature of John 's Irish policies . Specialists in Irish medieval history , such as Sean Duffy , have challenged the conventional narrative established by Lewis Warren , suggesting that Ireland was less stable by 1216 than was previously supposed .
Most historians today , including John 's recent biographers Ralph Turner and Lewis Warren , argue that John was an unsuccessful monarch , but note that his failings were exaggerated by 12th- and 13th @-@ century chroniclers . Jim Bradbury notes the current consensus that John was a " hard @-@ working administrator , an able man , an able general " , albeit , as Turner suggests , with " distasteful , even dangerous personality traits " , including pettiness , spitefulness and cruelty . John Gillingham , author of a major biography of Richard I , follows this line too , although he considers John a less effective general than do Turner or Warren , and describes him " one of the worst kings ever to rule England " . Bradbury takes a moderate line , but suggests that in recent years modern historians have been overly lenient towards John 's numerous faults . Popular historian Frank McLynn maintains a counter @-@ revisionist perspective on John , arguing that the king 's modern reputation amongst historians is " bizarre " , and that as a monarch John " fails almost all those [ tests ] that can be legitimately set " .
= = = Popular representations = = =
Popular representations of John first began to emerge during the Tudor period , mirroring the revisionist histories of the time . The anonymous play The Troublesome Reign of King John portrayed the king as a " proto @-@ Protestant martyr " , similar to that shown in John Bale 's morality play Kynge Johan , in which John attempts to save England from the " evil agents of the Roman Church " . By contrast , Shakespeare 's King John , a relatively anti @-@ Catholic play that draws on The Troublesome Reign for its source material , offers a more " balanced , dual view of a complex monarch as both a proto @-@ Protestant victim of Rome 's machinations and as a weak , selfishly motivated ruler " . Anthony Munday 's play The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington portrays many of John 's negative traits , but adopts a positive interpretation of the king 's stand against the Roman Catholic Church , in line with the contemporary views of the Tudor monarchs . By the middle of the 17th century , plays such as Robert Davenport 's King John and Matilda , although based largely on the earlier Elizabethan works , were transferring the role of Protestant champion to the barons and focusing more on the tyrannical aspects of John 's behaviour .
Nineteenth @-@ century fictional depictions of John were heavily influenced by Sir Walter Scott 's historical romance , Ivanhoe , which presented " an almost totally unfavourable picture " of the king ; the work drew on Victorian histories of the period and on Shakespeare 's play . Scott 's work influenced the late 19th @-@ century children 's writer Howard Pyle 's book The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood , which in turn established John as the principal villain within the traditional Robin Hood narrative . During the 20th century , John was normally depicted in fictional books and films alongside Robin Hood . Sam De Grasse 's role as John in the black @-@ and @-@ white 1922 film version shows John committing numerous atrocities and acts of torture . Claude Rains played John in the 1938 colour version alongside Errol Flynn , starting a trend for films to depict John as an " effeminate ... arrogant and cowardly stay @-@ at @-@ home " . The character of John acts either to highlight the virtues of King Richard , or contrasts with the Sheriff of Nottingham , who is usually the " swashbuckling villain " opposing Robin . An extreme version of this trend can be seen in the Disney cartoon version , for example , which depicts John , voiced by Peter Ustinov , as a " cowardly , thumbsucking lion " . Popular works that depict John beyond the Robin Hood legends , such as James Goldman 's play and later film , The Lion in Winter , set in 1183 , commonly present him as an " effete weakling " , in this instance contrasted with the more masculine Henry II , or as a tyrant , as in A. A. Milne 's poem for children , " King John 's Christmas " .
= = Ancestry = =
= Sale , Greater Manchester =
Sale is a town in Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . Historically in Cheshire , it is on the south bank of the River Mersey , 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) south of Stretford , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of Altrincham , and 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Manchester . In 2011 , it had a population of 134 @,@ 122 .
Evidence of Stone Age , Roman , and Anglo @-@ Saxon activity has been discovered locally . In the Middle Ages , Sale was a rural township , linked ecclesiastically with neighbouring Ashton upon Mersey , whose fields and meadows were used for crop and cattle farming . By the 17th century , Sale had a cottage industry manufacturing garthweb , the woven material from which horses ' saddle girths were made .
The Bridgewater Canal reached the town in 1765 , stimulating Sale 's urbanisation . The arrival of the railway in 1849 triggered Sale 's growth as a commuter town for Manchester , leading to an influx of middle class residents ; by the end of the 19th century the town 's population had more than tripled . Agriculture gradually declined as service industries boomed .
Sale 's urban growth resulted in a merger with neighbouring Ashton upon Mersey , following the Local Government Act 1929 . The increase in population led to the granting of a charter in 1935 , giving Sale honorific borough status . Since then , Sale has continued to thrive as a commuter town , supported by its proximity to the M60 motorway and the Manchester Metrolink network . Sale Water Park contains an artificial lake used for water sports . Sale FC and Sale Sharks rugby union clubs and Sale Harriers athletics club were founded in Sale , although only the first now remains in the town at their Heywood Road ground .
= = History = =
A flint arrowhead discovered in Sale suggests a prehistoric human presence at the location , but there is no further evidence of activity in the area until the Roman period . A 4th @-@ century hoard of 46 Roman coins was discovered in Ashton upon Mersey , one of four known hoards dating from that period discovered within the Mersey basin . Sale lies along the line of the Roman road which runs between the fortresses at Chester ( Deva Victrix ) and York ( Eboracum ) , via the fort at Manchester ( Mamucium ) ; the present @-@ day A56 follows the route of the road through the town . After the Roman departure from Britain in the early @-@ 5th century , Britain was invaded by the Anglo @-@ Saxons .
Some local field and road names , and the name of Sale itself , are Anglo @-@ Saxon in origin , which indicates the town was founded in the 7th or 8th centuries . The Old English salh , from which " Sale " is derived , means " at the sallow tree " , and Ashton upon Mersey means " village or farm near the ash trees " . Although the townships of Sale and Ashton upon Mersey were not mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 , that may be because only a partial survey was taken . The first recorded occurrences of Sale and Ashton upon Mersey are in 1199 – 1216 and 1260 respectively . The settlements were referred to as townships rather than manors , which suggests further evidence of Anglo @-@ Saxon origins as townships were developed by the Saxons .
The manor of Sale was one of 30 held by William FitzNigel , a powerful 12th century baron in north Cheshire . He divided it between Thomas de Sale and Adam de Carrington , who acted as Lords of the Manor on FitzNigel 's behalf . On de Sale 's death , his land passed to his son @-@ in @-@ law , John Holt ; de Carrington 's land passed into the ownership of Richard de Massey , a member of the Masseys who were Barons of Dunham . Sale descended through the Holt and Massey families until the 17th century , when their respective lands were sold . Sale Old Hall was built in about 1603 for James Massey , probably to replace a medieval manor house , and was one of the first buildings in northwest England to be made of brick . It was rebuilt in 1840 and demolished in 1920 , but two buildings in its grounds have survived : its dovecote , now in Walkden Gardens , and its lodge , the latter now occupied by Sale Golf Club .
In 1745 , Crossford Bridge – which dated back to at least 1367 – was torn down . It was one of a series of bridges crossing the River Mersey destroyed by order of the government , to slow the advance of Jacobite forces during the Jacobite rising . The Jacobites repaired the bridge upon reaching Manchester , and used it to send a small force into Sale and Altrincham . Their intention was to deceive the authorities into believing that the Jacobites were heading for Chester . The feint was successful and the main Jacobite army later marched south through Cheadle and Stockport instead .
The extension of the Bridgewater Canal to Runcorn was completed as far as Sale by 1765 , and transformed the town 's economy by providing a quick and cheap route into Manchester for fresh produce . Farmers who took their wares to market in Manchester brought back night soil to fertilise the fields . Not everyone benefited from the canal however ; several yeomen claimed that their crops were damaged by flooding from the Barfoot Bridge aqueduct . A 1777 map shows the village of Cross Street , on the site of the road now of the same name , divided between the townships of Sale and Ashton upon Mersey . The village was first referred to in 1586 and is believed to have originated around this time . The map also shows that Sale was spread out , mainly consisting of farmhouses around Dane Road , Fairy Lane , and Old Hall Road . Sale absorbed Cross Street as it expanded .
About 300 acres ( 120 ha ) of " wasteland " known as Sale Moor was enclosed in 1807 , to be divided between the landowners in Sale . This was part of a nationwide initiative to begin cultivation of common land to lessen the food shortage caused by the Napoleonic Wars . Records of poor relief in the town start in 1808 , a time when the region was in the grip of an economic depression . Poorhouses , where paupers could stay rent @-@ free , were built in the early @-@ 19th century , reflecting the poor state of the local economy . In 1829 , Samuel Brooks acquired 515 acres ( 208 ha ) of land in Sale – about a quarter of the township – from George Grey , 6th Earl of Stamford . The area later became known as Brooklands after the land owner .
The Manchester , South Junction and Altrincham Railway opened in 1849 , and led to the middle classes using Sale as a commuter town , a residence away from their place of work . This resulted in Sale 's population more than tripling by the end of the 19th century . The land in Sale Moor was the cheapest in the town because the soil was poor and difficult to cultivate , which was part of the reason the area was common land until the early 19th century . However , when the railway opened , Sale Moor was close to the station and became the most expensive area in Sale . Villas were built in Sale Moor , and a few in Ashton upon Mersey as the demand for land increased . They were often decorated with stained glass or different coloured bricks in an attempt to make them " mansions in miniature " for the aspiring middle class .
Pressure from an increasing population led to the town being supplied with amenities such as sewers , which were built in 1875 – 1880 ; and Sale was connected to the telephone network in 1888 . As in the late @-@ 19th century , the early @-@ 20th century saw a great deal of construction work in Sale . The town 's first swimming baths were built in 1914 , and its first cinema , the Palace , was opened during the First World War . The end of the war in 1918 resulted in a rush of marriages , which highlighted a shortage of housing . The local councils of Sale and Ashton upon Mersey took the initiative of building council housing , and rented it to the local population at below market rates . By the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , Sale had 594 council houses . The building programme was interrupted by the start of the war. additional private housing development brought the total of inter @-@ war houses built in Sale to around 900 , including large housing estates like Woodheys Hall estate in Ashton .
Sale was never officially evacuated during the war , and even received families from evacuated areas , although it was not considered far enough from likely targets to be an official destination for evacuees . The town 's proximity to Manchester , an industrial centre directed towards the war effort , did result in a number of bombing raids . Incendiaries dropped on Sale in September 1940 caused no casualties , but did damage a house . In a bombing incident the following November , four people were injured and a school was damaged ; on 22 December 1940 , twelve people were injured by bombs . On the night of 23 December , much of Manchester suffered heavy bombing in what became known as the Manchester Blitz . Six hundred incendiary bombs were dropped on Sale in three hours . There were no injuries , but Sale Town Hall was severely damaged . On 3 August 1943 , at 11 : 50 pm , a Wellington Bomber on a training exercise crashed in Walton Park in the south @-@ west of the town . Of the six @-@ man crew , consisting of five members of the Royal Australian Air Force and one member of the Royal Air Force , the pilot and the bomb @-@ aimer were killed .
Sale 's shopping centre was redeveloped during the 1960s , as part of the town 's post @-@ war regeneration . In 1973 , the shopping precinct in the town centre , which had grown up in the mid @-@ 19th century , was also redeveloped and pedestrianised in an attempt to increase trade . The construction of the M63 motorway ( subsequently renamed the M60 ) in 1972 led to the creation of Sale Water Park . To minimise the risk of flooding , the new road was built on an embankment , for which the necessary gravel was extracted from what is today an artificial lake and water @-@ sports centre . Opportunities for leisure were increased when the old swimming baths , demolished in 1971 , were replaced in 1973 by a new complex built on the same site .
= = Governance = =
Historically , Sale was a township in the ancient parish of Ashton upon Mersey in the hundred of Bucklow and county of Cheshire . Throughout the Middle Ages it was governed by the Lord of the Manor . Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , Sale was joined with the Altrincham Poor Law Union , an inter @-@ parish unit established to provide social security . The unit changed its name to Bucklow Poor Law Union in 1895 . Sale adopted the Local Government Act 1858 in November 1866 , and Sale Local Board was formed to govern the township at the beginning of 1867 . Members were elected to the local board by the town 's ratepayers . A household had one vote for every £ 10 ( £ 800 as of 2016 ) of rateable value . Under the Local Government Act 1888 Sale became an urban district of the administrative county of Cheshire . The local board was replaced by Sale Urban District Council in 1894 . The parish of Ashton upon Mersey became an urban district in 1895 . In 1930 , the Ashton upon Mersey UD was merged into Sale UD under a county review order .
In December 1933 , Sale Urban District submitted a petition to the Privy Council in an attempt to gain a charter of incorporation . At the time , Sale UD had the largest population and highest rateable value of any urban district in the country . The petition was successful and on 21 September 1935 Sale UD was granted borough status , and became the Municipal Borough of Sale . Following the Local Government Act 1972 , on 1 April 1974 the Municipal Borough of Sale was abolished . Sale became an unparished area of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester . The town 's education , town planning , waste collection , health , social care and other services are administered by Trafford Council .
For national elections , Sale was in the parliamentary constituency of Altrincham and Sale from 1945 until 1997 , when it was split between Altrincham and Sale West and Wythenshawe and Sale East . The Altrincham and Sale West constituency is one of the Conservative Party 's two seats in Greater Manchester . The Sale area consists of five electoral wards , which between them have 15 of the 63 seats on the council . The wards are Ashton upon Mersey , Brooklands , Priory , Sale Moor , and St. Mary 's . As of the 2012 local elections , the Conservative Party held nine of the seats and the Labour Party held six .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 25 ′ 29 ″ N 2 ° 19 ′ 19 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 4246 , − 2 @.@ 322 ) , Sale lies respectively to the north and south of the neighbouring towns of Altrincham and Stretford , and 5 miles ( 8 km ) south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . The district of Wythenshawe is to the southeast . Sale is in the Mersey Valley , about 100 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level on generally flat ground . The River Mersey , which runs just north of the town , is prone to flooding during heavy rains , so the Sale Water Park , close to the town 's northern boundary , acts as an emergency flood basin . The man @-@ made , and thus more controllable , Bridgewater Canal runs through the centre of the town .
Sale 's local drift geology consists of sand and gravel deposited about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last ice age . The bedrock is Bunter sandstone in the west and Triassic waterstone in the east . United Utilities obtains the town 's drinking water from the Lake District . Sale 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .
The town 's main districts are Ashton upon Mersey in the northwest , Sale Moor in the southeast , and Brooklands in the southwest . The main commercial area is Sale town centre , in the central northern area of the town , but smaller commercial centres are also found in Ashton upon Mersey and Sale Moor . Brooklands is the most densely populated area . Most of the parks , including Worthington and Walton , are in the central and southern areas , leaving Ashton upon Mersey and Sale Moor with a shortage of accessible green space .
Sale 's built environment is varied , with a mixture of modern and old buildings . Some terraces , semi @-@ detached houses and villas , survive from the Victorian period , although many of the larger houses have been converted into flats . Many semi @-@ detached houses survive from the 1930s , when there was a need for new housing in the town as a result of a growing population and an increasingly wealthy middle class . Interspersed with these older structures are newer housing developments , such as the estates built in Ashton upon Mersey and the east of Sale during the 1970s .
= = Demography = =
As of the 2001 UK census , Sale had a population of 55 @,@ 234 . The 2001 population density was 12 @,@ 727 inhabitants per square mile ( 4 @,@ 914 / km2 ) , with a 100 to 94 @.@ 2 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio . Of those over 16 years old , 30 @.@ 0 % were single ( never married ) , 51 @.@ 3 % married and 7 @.@ 8 % divorced . Although the proportion of divorced people was similar to that of Trafford and England , the rates of those who were single and married were significantly different from the national and Trafford averages ( Trafford : 44 @.@ 3 % single , 35 @.@ 6 % married ; England : 44 @.@ 3 % single , 34 @.@ 7 % married ) . Sale 's 24 @,@ 027 households included 32 @.@ 2 % one @-@ person , 37 @.@ 8 % married couples living together , 8 @.@ 3 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 8 @.@ 5 % single parents with their children , these figures were similar to those of Trafford and England . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 22 @.@ 3 % had no academic qualifications , similar to that of 24 @.@ 7 % in all of Trafford but significantly lower than 28 @.@ 9 % in all of England . Sale had a much higher percentage of adults with a diploma or degree than Greater Manchester as a whole . Of Sale residents aged 16 – 74 , 26 @.@ 7 % had an educational qualification such as first degree , higher degree , qualified teacher status , qualified medical doctor , qualified dentist , qualified nurse , midwife , or health visitor , compared to 20 % nationwide .
Originally a working class town , there was an influx of middle class people in the mid @-@ 19th century when businessmen began using Sale as a commuter town . Since then , Sale has had a greater proportion of middle class residents than the national average . In 1931 , 22 @.@ 7 % of Sale 's population was middle class compared with 14 % in England and Wales , and by 1971 , this had increased to 36 @.@ 3 % compared with 24 % nationally . Parallel to this increase in the middle classes of Sale was the decline of the working class population . In 1931 , 20 @.@ 3 % were working class compared with 36 % in England and Wales ; by 1971 , this had decreased to 15 @.@ 4 % in Sale and 26 % nationwide . The rest of the population was made up of clerical workers and skilled manual workers . The change in social structure in the town was at a similar rate to that of the rest of the nation but was biased towards the middle classes , transforming Sale into the middle class town it is today .
= = = Population change = = =
According to the hearth tax returns of 1664 , the township of Sale had a population of about 365 . Parish registers show that the area experienced steady population growth during the 17th and 18th centuries , more so during the latter half of the 19th century ( due to the Industrial Revolution ) . This later growth was less rapid than that seen in neighbouring areas such as Altrincham , Bowdon or Stretford . The increase in growth in the latter half of the 19th century also coincides with the arrival of the railway , indicative of Sale 's growth as a commuter town . A huge increase in population in 1921 – 1931 is accounted for by the administrative merger of Sale with Ashton upon Mersey in 1930 . Steady growth thereon is evident until 1981 , when the decline of industry in Trafford and the Greater Manchester area accounts for a reduction in the town 's population . This follows the general population trend for Greater Manchester , with residents relocating to new jobs . The table below details population changes since 1801 , including the percentage change since the last census .
= = Economy = =
During the medieval period , most of the land was used for growing crops and raising livestock such as cattle . The produce from arable farming would have been sufficient to support the local population , but the cattle would have been sold to the ruling classes . Agriculture provided the main source of employment for Sale 's residents until the mid @-@ 19th century . Industry was slow to develop in the area , as in most of what would become Trafford . This was partly because of the reluctance of the two main land owners in the area , the Stamfords and the de Traffords , to invest . Although weaving was common in Sale during the late 17th and early 18th century , by 1851 only 4 % of the population was employed in that industry .
Along with the rest of the region , Sale 's economy during the early @-@ 19th century was weak , a state of affairs which persisted until the arrival of the railway in the middle of the century . Despite the dominance of agriculture , there was a growing service industry ; Sale and Ashton upon Mersey experienced a growth in numbers employed in retail and domestic services in the first half of the 19th century . By 1901 , less than 20 % of Sale residents were employed in agriculture . Employment was available in workhouses for those who could
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and paid off at Chatham Dockyard in March to provide crews for antisubmarine vessels . She remained at Chatham in a care and maintenance status through February 1918 , serving as an auxiliary sickbay and in other subsidiary duties , then served as an accommodation ship there from March 1916 to May 1918 .
In May 1918 , Prince George began a refit a Chatham for conversion to a destroyer depot ship . She was renamed Victorious II in September 1918 , and emerged from refit in October 1918 . She was then attached to repair ship ( her sister ship and former battleship ) Victorious at Scapa Flow , where she served as a depot ship to destroyers of the Grand Fleet . She reverted to the name Prince George in February 1919 , and in March transferred to Sheerness to serve as depot ship to destroyers based on the Medway . Prince George was placed on the disposal list at Sheerness on 21 February 1920 , and was sold for scrapping to a British firm on 22 September 1921 . She was resold to a German firm in December 1921 , and departed for Germany for scrapping . During the voyage , Prince George was wrecked on 30 December 1921 off Camperduin , the Netherlands . She subsequently was stripped of valuable materials and left as a breakwater , remaining there to this day .
= Ely , Cambridgeshire =
Ely ( / ˈiːli / EE @-@ lee ) is a cathedral city in Cambridgeshire , England , 14 miles ( 23 km ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Cambridge and about 80 miles ( 129 km ) by road from London . Æthelthryth ( Etheldreda ) founded an abbey at Ely in AD 673 ; the abbey was destroyed in 870 by Danish invaders and was rebuilt by Ethelwold , Bishop of Winchester , in 970 . Construction of the cathedral was started in 1083 by a Norman abbot , Simeon . Alan of Walsingham 's octagon , built over Ely 's nave crossing between 1322 and 1328 , is the " greatest individual achievement of architectural genius at Ely Cathedral " , according to architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner . Building continued until the dissolution of the abbey in 1539 during the Reformation . The cathedral was sympathetically restored between 1845 and 1870 by the architect George Gilbert Scott . As the seat of a diocese , Ely has long been considered a city ; in 1974 , city status was granted by royal charter .
Ely is built on a 23 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 60 km2 ) Kimmeridge Clay island which , at 85 feet ( 26 m ) , is the highest land in the fens . Major rivers including the Witham , Welland , Nene and Great Ouse feed into the fens and , until draining commenced in the 17th century , formed freshwater marshes and meres within which peat was laid down . There are two Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the city : a former Kimmeridge Clay quarry , and one of the United Kingdom 's best remaining examples of medieval ridge and furrow agriculture .
The economy of the region is mainly agricultural . Before the fens were drained , the harvesting of osier ( willow ) and sedge ( rush ) and the extraction of peat were important activities , as were eel fishing — from which the settlement 's name may have been derived — and wild fowling . The city had been the centre of local pottery production for more than 700 years , including pottery known as Babylon ware . A Roman road , Akeman Street , passes through the city ; the southern end is at Ermine Street near Wimpole and its northern end is at Brancaster . Little direct evidence of Roman occupation in Ely exists , although there are nearby Roman settlements such as those at Little Thetford and Stretham . A coach route , known to have existed in 1753 between Ely and Cambridge , was improved in 1769 as a turnpike ( toll @-@ road ) . The present day A10 closely follows this route ; a south @-@ western bypass of the city was built in 1986 . Ely railway station built in 1845 is on the Fen Line and is now a railway hub , with lines north to King 's Lynn , north @-@ west to Peterborough , east to Norwich , south @-@ east to Ipswich and south to Cambridge and London .
The King 's School is a coeducational boarding school which was granted a royal charter in 1541 by Henry VIII ; the school claims to have existed since 970 . Henry I granted the first annual Fair , Saint Audrey 's ( Etheldreda 's ) seven @-@ day event , to the abbot and convent on 10 October 1189 ; the word " tawdry " originates from cheap lace sold at this fair . Present day annual events include the Eel Festival in May , established in 2004 , and a fireworks display in Ely Park , first staged in 1974 . The city of Ely has been twinned with Denmark 's oldest town , Ribe , since 1956 . Ely City Football Club was formed in 1885 .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
Roswell Pits are a palaeontologically significant Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north @-@ east of the city . The Jurassic Kimmeridge Clays were quarried in the 19th and 20th centuries for the production of pottery and for maintenance of river embankments . Many specimens of ammonites , belemnites and bivalves were found during quarrying , in addition to an almost complete specimen of a Pliosaur .
There is some scattered evidence of Late Mesolithic to Bronze Age activity in Ely such as Neolithic flint tools , a Bronze Age axe and spearhead . There is slightly denser Iron Age and Roman activity with some evidence of at least seasonal occupation . For example , a possible farmstead , of the late Iron Age to early Roman period , was discovered at West Fen Road and some Roman pottery was found close to the east end of the cathedral on The Paddock . There was a Roman settlement , including a tile kiln built over an earlier Iron Age settlement , in Little Thetford , 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the south .
= = = Name = = =
The origin and meaning of Ely 's name have always been regarded as obscure by place @-@ name scholars , and are still disputed . The earliest record of the name is in the Latin text of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , where Bede wrote Elge . This is apparently not a Latin name , and subsequent Latin texts nearly all used the forms Elia , Eli , or Heli with inorganic H- . In Old English charters , and in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , the spelling is usually Elig .
Skeat derived the name Ely from what he called " O [ ld ] Northumbrian " ēlġē , meaning " district of eels " . This uses a hypothetical word * ġē , which is not recorded in isolation but thought by some to be related to the modern German word Gau , meaning " district " . The theory is that the name then developed a vowel to become ēliġē , and was afterwards re @-@ interpreted to mean " eel island " . This essentially is the explanation accepted by Reaney Ekwall , Mills and Watts .
But difficulties remain . Bailey , in his discussion of ġē names , has pointed out that Ely would be anomalous if really from ēlġē " eel district " , being remote from the areas where possible examples of ġē names occur , and moreover , there is no parallel for the use of a fish @-@ name in compounds with ġē . More seriously , the usual English spelling remains Elig , even in the dative case used after many prepositions , where Elige would be expected if the second element were īġ " island " . This is in conflict with all the other island names which surround Ely .
= = = Medieval and early modern periods = = =
The city 's origins lay in the foundation of an abbey in AD 673 , a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north of the village of Cratendune on the Isle of Ely , under the protection of St Etheldreda , daughter of King Anna . This first abbey was destroyed in 870 by Danish invaders and rededicated to Etheldreda in 970 by Ethelwold , Bishop of Winchester . The abbots of Ely then accumulated such wealth in the region that in the Domesday survey ( 1086 ) it was the " second richest monastery in England " . The first Norman bishop , Simeon , started building the cathedral in 1083 . The octagon was rebuilt by sacrist Alan of Walsingham between 1322 and 1328 after the collapse of the original nave crossing on 22 February 1322 . Ely 's octagon is considered " one of the wonders of the medieval world " . Architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner believes the octagon " is a delight from beginning to end for anyone who feels for space as strongly as for construction " and is the " greatest individual achievement of architectural genius at Ely Cathedral " .
Cherry Hill is the site of Ely Castle which is of Norman construction and is a United Kingdom scheduled monument . Of similar construction to Cambridge Castle , the 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) diameter , 40 feet ( 12 m ) high citadel @-@ type motte and bailey is thought to be a royal defence built by William the Conqueror following submission of the Isle from rebels such as the Earl Morcar and the folk @-@ hero Hereward the Wake . This would date the first building of the castle to circa 1070 .
Following the accession of Mary I of England to the throne in 1553 , the papacy made its first effective efforts to enforce the Pope Paul III @-@ initiated Catholic reforms in England . During this time , which became known as the Marian Persecutions , two men from Wisbech , constable William Wolsey and painter Robert Pygot , " were accused of not ... believing that the body and blood of Christ were present in the bread and wine of the sacrament of mass " . For this Christian heresy they were condemned by the bishop 's chancellor , John Fuller , on the 9 October 1555 . On 16 October 1555 they were burnt at the stake " probably on the Palace Green in front of Ely Cathedral " . In The Book of Ely published in 1990 , Blakeman writes that " permission was not given " for a memorial to the martyrs to be placed on Palace Green . In 2011 , a plaque recording this martyrdom event was erected on the north @-@ east corner of Palace Green by the City of Ely Perspective .
Oliver Cromwell lived in Ely from 1636 to 1646 after inheriting a sixteenth @-@ century property — now known as Oliver Cromwell 's House — and the position of local tax collector from his mother 's brother , Sir Thomas Steward . Cromwell was one of the governors of Thomas Parsons ' Charity , which dates back to 1445 and was granted a Royal Charter by Charles I of England . The Charity still provides grants and housing to deserving local applicants .
= = = Post @-@ medieval decline = = =
There was a form of early workhouse in 1687 , perhaps at St Mary 's , which may have been part of an arrangement made between the Ely people and a Nicholas Wythers of Norwich in 1675 . He was paid £ 30 per annum to employ the poor to " spin jersey " and was to pay them in money not goods . A purpose @-@ built workhouse was erected in 1725 for 35 inmates on what is now St Mary 's Court . Four other workhouses existed , including Holy Trinity on Fore Hill for 80 inmates ( 1738 – 1956 ) and the Ely Union workhouse , built in 1837 , which housed up to 300 inmates . The latter became Tower Hospital in 1948 and is now a residential building , Tower Court . Two other former workhouses were the Haven Quayside for unmarried mothers and another on the site of what is now the Hereward Hall in Silver Street .
The diaries of writers and journalists such as William Camden , Celia Fiennes , Daniel Defoe , John Byng and William Cobbett illustrate the decline of Ely after the 14th century plague and the 16th century reformation which led to the dissolution of the monastery in 1539 . In the 1607 edition of Britannia , chorographic surveyor William Camden records that " as for Ely it selfe , it is no small Citie , or greatly to be counted off either for beauty or frequency and resort , as having an unwholsome aire by reason of the fens round about " . In 1698 , Celia Fiennes was writing " the Bishop [ Simon Patrick ] does not Care to stay long in this place not being for his health ... they have lost their Charter ... and its a shame [ the Bishop ] does not see it better ordered and ye buildings and streetes put in a better Condition . They are a slothful people and for little but ye takeing Care of their Grounds and Cattle wch is of vast advantage " . Daniel Defoe , when writing in the Eastern Counties section of A tour thro ' the whole island of Great Britain ( 1722 ) , went " to Ely , whose cathedral , standing in a level flat country , is seen far and wide ... that some of it is so antient , totters so much with every gust of wind , looks so like a decay , and seems so near it , that when ever it does fall , all that ' tis likely will be thought strange in it , will be , that it did not fall a hundred years sooner " . On his way to a Midlands tour , John Byng visited Ely on 5 July 1790 staying at the Lamb Inn . In his diary he writes that " the town [ Ely ] is mean , to the extreme ... those withdrawn , their dependancies must decay " . Recording in his Rural Rides on 25 March 1830 , William Cobbett reports that " Ely is what one may call a miserable little town : very prettily situated , but poor and mean . Everything seems to be on the decline , as , indeed , is the case everywhere , where the clergy are the masters " .
The Ely and Littleport riots occurred between 22 and 24 May 1816 . At the Special Commission assizes , held at Ely between 17 and 22 June 1816 , twenty @-@ four rioters were condemned . Nineteen had their sentences variously commuted from penal transportation for life to twelve @-@ months imprisonment ; the remaining five were executed on 28 June 1816 .
= = = Victorian and twentieth @-@ century regeneration = = =
Ely Cathedral was " the first great cathedral to be thoroughly restored " . Work commenced in 1845 and was completed nearly thirty years later ; most of the work was " sympathetically " carried out by the architect George Gilbert Scott . The only pavement labyrinth to be found in an English cathedral was installed below the west tower in 1870 .
For over 800 years the cathedral and its associated buildings — built on an elevation 68 feet ( 21 m ) above the nearby fens — have visually influenced the city and its surrounding area . Geographer John Jones , writing in 1924 , reports that " from the roof of King 's Chapel in Cambridge , on a clear day , Ely [ cathedral ] can be seen on the horizon , 16 miles ( 26 km ) distant , an expression of the flatness of the fens " . In 1954 , architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner wrote " as one approaches Ely on foot or on a bicycle , or perhaps in an open car , the cathedral dominates the picture for miles around ... and offers from everywhere an outline different from that of any other English cathedral " . Local historian Pamela Blakeman reports a claim that " Grouped around [ the cathedral ] ... is the largest collection of mediaeval buildings still in daily use in this country " .
As the seat of a diocese , Ely has long been considered a city : the caption to John Speed 's 1610 plan of Ely reads " Although this Citie of Ely " , and Aikin refers to Ely as a city in 1800 . Ely , however , was not formally granted city status until 1 April 1974 by the Queen by letters patent . Ely 's population of 20 @,@ 256 ( as recorded in 2011 ) classifies it as one of the smallest cities in England ; although the population has increased noticeably since 1991 when it was recorded at 11 @,@ 291 .
Henry III of England granted a market to the Bishop of Ely using letters close on 9 April 1224 although Ely had been a trading centre prior to this . Present weekly market days are Thursday and Saturday and seasonal markets are held monthly on Sundays and Bank Holiday Mondays from Easter to November . The city is situated on the River Great Ouse , which was a significant means of transport until the fens were drained and Ely ceased to be an island in the eighteenth century . The river is now a popular boating spot , and has a large marina .
= = = Liberty of Ely = = =
The abbey at Ely was one of many which were refounded in the Benedictine reforms of King Edgar the Peaceful ( 943 – 975 ) . The " special and peculiarly ancient " honour and freedoms given to Ely by charter at that time may have been intended to award only fiscal privilege , but have been interpreted to confer on subsequent bishops the authority and power of a ruler . These rights were reconfirmed in charters granted by Edward the Confessor and in William the Conqueror 's confirmation of the old English liberty at Kenford . The Isle of Ely was mentioned in some statutes as a county palatine ; this provided an explanation of the bishop 's royal privileges and judicial authority , which would normally belong to the sovereign ; but legal authorities such as Sir Edward Coke did not completely endorse the form of words . These bishop 's rights were not fully extinguished until 1837 .
= = = Local government = = =
The local authority of the city was the City of Ely Urban District Council from 1894 to 1974 . The Isle of Ely County Council governed the Isle of Ely administrative county that surrounding and included the city from 1889 to 1965 . In 1965 there was a reform of local government that merged the county council with that of Cambridgeshire to form the Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely County Council . In 1974 as part of a national reform of local government , the Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely County Council merged with the Huntingdon and Peterborough County Council to form the Cambridgeshire County Council . The City of Ely Urban District Council became the City of Ely Council , a parish council which covers the same area but with fewer powers , and the East Cambridgeshire District Council which covers a wider area .
= = Governance = =
Regular elections take place to the City of Ely Council , East Cambridgeshire District Council and Cambridgeshire County Council . The civil parish is divided into four wards called Ely North , Ely South , Ely East and Ely West . Fourteen councillors are elected to the parish council . The East Cambridgeshire District Council is also based in Ely . For elections to the East Cambridgeshire District Council the four wards of Ely South , Ely East and Ely West each return two district councillors ; and Ely North returns three . In 2011 , the seats were held by four Liberal Democrat and five Conservative councillors . For elections to the Cambridgeshire County Council the city returns two councillors , both of whom were Conservatives in 2013 . For elections to the UK Parliament , Ely is part of the South East Cambridgeshire constituency . James Paice held the seat from 1987 until he stepped down in 2015 . For elections to the European Parliament , Ely is part of the East of England constituency .
= = Geography = =
= = = Geology and topography = = =
The west of Cambridgeshire is made up of limestones from the Jurassic period , whilst the east Cambridgeshire area consists of Cretaceous ( upper Mesozoic ) chalks known locally as clunch . In between these two major formations , the high ground forming the Isle of Ely is from a lower division Cretaceous system known as Lower Greensand which is capped by Boulder Clay ; all local settlements , such as Stretham and Littleport , are on similar islands . These islands rise above the surrounding flat land which forms the largest plain of Britain from the Jurassic system of partly consolidated clays or muds . Kimmeridge Clay beds dipping gently west underlie the Lower Greensand of the area exposed , for example , about 1 mile ( 2 km ) south of Ely in the Roswell Pits . The Lower Greensand is partly capped by glacial deposits forming the highest point in East Cambridgeshire , rising to 85 feet ( 26 m ) above sea level in Ely .
The low @-@ lying fens surrounding the island of Ely were formed , prior to the 17th century , by alternate fresh @-@ water and sea @-@ water incursions . Major rivers in the region , including the Witham , Welland , Nene and Great Ouse , drain an area of some 6 @,@ 000 square miles ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) — five times larger than the fens — into the basin that forms the fens . Defoe in 1774 described the fens as " the sink of no less than thirteen Counties " . On 23 November of that year , Church of England cleric and Christian theologician John Wesley , wrote of his approach to Ely after visiting Norwich : " about eight , Wednesday , 23 , Mr. Dancer met me with a chaise [ carriage ] and carried me to Ely . Oh , what want of common sense ! Water covered the high road for a mile and a half . I asked , ' How must foot @-@ people come to the town ? ' ' Why , they must wade through ! ' " Peat formed in the fresh @-@ water swamps and meres whilst silts were deposited by the slow @-@ moving sea @-@ water . Francis Russell , Earl of Bedford , supported by Parliament , financed the draining of the fens during the 17th century , led by the Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden ; the fens continue to be drained to this day .
= = = Climate = = =
With an average annual rainfall of 24 inches ( 600 mm ) , Cambridgeshire is one of the driest counties in the British Isles . Protected from the cool onshore coastal breezes east of the region , Cambridgeshire is warm in summer and cold and frosty in winter . Regional weather forecasting and historical summaries are available from the UK Met Office . The nearest Met Office weather station is Cambridge . Additional local weather stations report periodic figures to the internet such as Weather Underground , Inc .
= = Demography = =
The Domesday survey of 1086 revealed 110 households which were mainly rural . In 1251 , a survey showed an increase to 345 households with the start of urban living although still largely rural . By the 1416 survey there were 457 occupied premises in the city and many of the streets were arranged much as they are today . See also the cartographer John Speed 's plan of Ely , 1610 . In 1563 there were 800 households and by 1753 the population was recorded as 3 @,@ 000 .
= = Economy = =
As an island surrounded by marshes and meres , the fishing of eels was important as both a food and an income for the abbot and his nearby tenants . For example , to the abbot of Ely in 1086 , Stuntenei was worth 24 @,@ 000 eels , Litelport 17 @,@ 000 eels and even the small village of Liteltetford was worth 3 @,@ 250 eels . Prior to the extensive and largely successful drainage of the fens during the seventeenth century , Ely was a trade centre for goods made out of willow , reeds and rushes and wild fowling was a major local activity . Peat in the form of " turf " was used as a fuel and in the form of " moor " as a building material . Ampthill Clay was dug from the local area for the maintenance of river banks and Kimmeridge Clay at Roswell Pits for the making of pottery wares . In general , from a geological perspective , " The district is almost entirely agricultural and has always been so . The only mineral worked at the present time is gravel for aggregate , although chalk , brick clay ( Ampthill and Kimmeridge clays ) , phosphate ( from Woburn Sands , Gault and Cambridge Greensand ) , sand and gravel , and peat have been worked on a small scale in the past " .
Phosphates nodules , referred to locally as coprolites , were dug in the area surrounding Ely between 1850 and 1890 for use as an agricultural fertiliser . This industry provided significant employment for the local labour force . One of the largest sugar beet factories in England was opened in Queen Adelaide , 2 miles ( 3 km ) from the centre of Ely , in 1925 . The factory closed in 1981 , although sugar beet is still farmed locally .
Pottery was made in Ely from the 12th century until 1860 : records show around 80 people who classed their trade as potters . " Babylon ware " is the name given to pottery made in one area of Ely . This ware is thought to be so named because there were potters in an area cut off from the centre by the re @-@ routing of the River Great Ouse around 1200 ; by the seventeenth century this area had become known as Babylon . Although the reason for the name is unclear , by 1850 it was in official use on maps . The building of the Ely to King 's Lynn railway in 1847 cut the area off even further , and the inhabitants could only cross to Ely by boat .
= = Culture = =
= = = Annual events = = =
Annual fairs have been held in Ely since the twelfth century . Saint Audrey 's ( Etheldreda 's ) seven @-@ day fair , held either side of 23 June , was first granted officially by Henry I to the abbot and convent on 10 October 1189 . At this fair , cheap necklaces , made from brightly coloured silk , were sold — these were called " tawdry lace " . " Tawdry " , a corruption of " Saint Audrey " , now means " pertaining to the nature of cheap and gaudy finery " . Two other fairs , the 15 day festival of St Lambert , first granted in 1312 and the 22 day fair beginning on the Vigil of the Ascension , first granted in 1318 . The festival of St Lambert had stopped by the eighteenth century . St Etheldreda 's and the Vigil of the Ascension markets still continue , although the number of days have been considerably reduced and the dates have changed .
Present @-@ day annual events in Ely include Aquafest , which has been staged at the riverside by the Rotary Club on the first Sunday of July since 1978 . Other events include the Eel Day carnival procession and the annual fireworks display in Ely Park , first staged in 1974 . The Ely Folk Festival has been held in the city since 1985 . The Ely Horticultural Society have been staging their Great Autumn Show since 1927 .
= = = Twin town = = =
Since September 1956 , Ely has been twinned with Ribe , Denmark 's oldest town and part of the Municipality of Esbjerg ; officials from Ribe first came to Ely in 1957 . The golden anniversary of this twinning was celebrated in 2006 . Exchange visits occur roughly every two years .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = War memorial = = =
A cannon , captured during the Crimean War at the Siege of Sevastopol ( 1854 – 1855 ) and given to Ely by Queen Victoria in 1860 , is located on Palace Green , west of the cathedral . The inscription reads " Russian cannon captured during the Crimean War presented to the people of Ely by Queen Victoria in 1860 to mark the creation of the Ely Rifle Volunteers " . The cannon was cast at the Alexandrovski factory in 1802 , the factory 's director being the Englishman , Charles Gascoigne . The serial number is 8726 . The calibre is 30 pounds and the weight is 252 poods , or about 9 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) . The cannon is mounted on an iron carriage which would previously have been mounted on a " heavy iron traversing slide " known as ' Systeme Venglov 1853 ' . The Ely Rifle Volunteers , formed in 1860 , became part of the Cambridgeshire Regiment during 1914 – 1918 then subsequently part of the Royal Anglian Regiment until disbanded in 1999 .
= = = Notable buildings = = =
There are twenty three Grade I , six Grade II * and one hundred and fifty three Grade II listed buildings in the city of Ely .
Cherry Hill , to the south of Cathedral Park , is the remains of the Norman period , motte and bailey , Ely Castle . The earliest written record of this 40 feet ( 12 m ) high by 250 feet ( 76 m ) diameter castle is in the time of Henry I. Two twelfth century hospitals , St Mary Magdalene founded 1172 and St John the Baptist founded circa 1200 , were on the site of what is now a four @-@ building farmstead . Building dates are not known but the extant remains indicate circa 1175 – 85 . Bishop Northwold merged the two hospitals in 1240 . The farmstead Grade I listed building status was graded on 23 September 1950 between four properties : St John 's farmhouse , a barn to the south @-@ west ( formerly chapel of St John ) , a barn to the north ( formerly chapel of St Mary ) and a dovecote . Above the north doorway of the south @-@ western barn of St John 's farmhouse is a carved Barnack stone which is built into the thirteenth century wall . The stone is thought to have been robbed from the Anglo @-@ Saxon monastery of St Etheldreda . This heavily weathered eighth @-@ century stone shows a man blowing a horn whilst riding on an ox .
John Alcock , Bishop of Ely and founder of Jesus College , Cambridge , constructed the Bishop 's Palace during his bishopric , between 1486 and 1500 ; of the original fabric , only the east tower and the lower part of the west tower remain . A " startlingly huge " London Plane tree , planted in 1680 , still grows in the garden and is " said to be one of the largest in England " . Benjamin Lany , Bishop of Ely from 1667 until 1675 , demolished much of Alcock 's work and thus became responsible for most of the present @-@ day building . This Grade I listed building is south @-@ west of and close to the west end of the cathedral , opposite the original village green , now named Palace Green .
St Mary 's Vicarage , better known locally as Cromwell House , is a Grade II * listed building of mainly sixteenth @-@ century plaster @-@ frame construction although there exist some stone arches , circa 1380 . A plaque on the front of the house records that this is " Cromwell House , the residence of Oliver Cromwell from 1636 to 1647 when collector of Ely Tithes " . Between 1843 – 1847 the house was the Cromwell Arms public house and it was restored in 1905 when it was given its " timbered appearance " . The house was opened as a re @-@ creation of seventeenth @-@ century living and a tourist information centre on 6 December 1990 . The former Ely Gaol is a late seventeenth @-@ century Grade II listed building which since has been the Ely museum . From the thirteenth century , buildings on this site have been ; a private house , a tavern and — since 1836 when the Bishop transferred his thirteenth @-@ century prison from Ely Porta — the Bishop 's Gaol . It was a registry office prior to becoming a museum .
The Lamb Hotel is a Grade II listed building which is prominently situated on the corner of Lynn Road and High Street 100 yards ( 91 m ) north of the west end of the cathedral . The hotel was erected as a coaching house on the site of the previous Lamb Inn during 1828 and 1829 . At that time it had stabling for 30 horses and a lock @-@ up for two coaches . In 1906 it had five bedrooms for the landlord , 15 rooms for lodgers , room for 15 horses and 12 vehicles . In 2007 it had 31 rooms for guests . It is claimed that an inn has existed on the site since Bishop Fordham 's survey between 1416 and 1417 . It is also claimed that an inn existed on the site in 1690 , but no earlier .
The city 's courthouse was built in 1821 , replacing a previous court in the Shire Hall . It ceased operation in 2011 as part of central government measures to close 93 magistrates ' courts across England and Wales .
= = = Notable sites = = =
The former Kimmeridge Clay quarry Roswell Pits , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south @-@ west of Ely Cathedral , is now a nature reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . The trees in Abbey Park were planted on Mount Hill in 1779 by James Bentham , a minor canon of Ely . Ely Castle once stood on Mount Hill , which was renamed Cherry Hill following the tree plantings by Bentham . The Chettisham Meadow SSSI is a medieval ridge and furrow grassland about 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) north of the city centre . This site , one of the UK 's best remaining examples of ridge and furrow agriculture , also contains protected species such as the Green @-@ winged Orchid .
= = Transport = =
= = = Rail = = =
Ely railway station , on the Fen Line , is a major railway hub with the Cambridge to Ely section opening in 1845 . Five major railway lines — excluding the former Ely and St Ives Railway — emanate from this hub : north to King 's Lynn , north @-@ west to Peterborough , east to Norwich , south @-@ east to Ipswich and south to Cambridge and London . At the opening of the 26 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 42 @.@ 6 km ) Lynn and Ely railway " with great éclat " on 25 October 1847 , the Ely station building , completed in 1847 , was described by The Illustrated London News as " an extensive pile in pleasing mixed Grecian and Italian style " . The former Ely and St Ives Railway , known locally as the Grunty Fen Express , opened in 1865 but was never popular . In 1866 , the 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) return journey from Ely to Sutton cost 2s 0d , that equates to a cost of almost £ 8 in 2016 . The line closed to passengers in February 1931 and completely closed in 1964 . As of Autumn 2014 , train operating companies using Ely were : Great Northern , Abellio Greater Anglia , CrossCountry and East Midlands Trains with direct trains to Cambridge , London , most of East Anglia , the Midlands and the North . There are connecting services to many other parts of England and to Scotland .
= = = Road = = =
A Roman road , named Akeman Street , has been documented from Ermine Street near Wimpole through Cambridge , Stretham and Ely to Brancaster through Denver . This is not the same road as the major Roman road named Akeman Street which started from Verulamium ( south @-@ west of St Albans ) then via Tring and Aylesbury terminating near Alcester . In Bishop John Fordham 's survey of Ely in 1416 – 1417 , an east to west Akermanstrete or Agemanstrete is mentioned , which now forms part of the east @-@ west Egremont Street . Akeman Street would have been oriented north @-@ south passing through central Ely and therefore the east @-@ west oriented Egremont Street cannot have a Roman origin . It is suggested that the Wimpole to Brancaster road name of " Akeman " was derived by antiquarians , without justification , from Acemanes @-@ ceastre , an ancient name for Bath .
Medieval accountant , Clement of Thetford made , or had others make on his behalf , many journeys between 1291 and 1292 , as evidenced by his sacrist 's rolls — the earliest known roll of the Ely Monastery . For example , he travelled the 25 miles ( 40 km ) to Bury ( Bury St Edmunds ) fair to obtain rice , sugar , etc . , the 16 miles ( 26 km ) to Barnwell for wheels , axles , etc. for carts , then the 51 miles ( 82 km ) to St Botolph 's ( Boston ) for wine , the 14 miles ( 23 km ) to Reche ( Reach ) for steel and iron and the 78 miles ( 126 km ) to London , principally for things needed in the vestry for the service of the Church , but also to pay taxes . Some or parts of these journeys will have been made by river .
The eighteenth @-@ century historian Edmund Carter , in his 1753 History of the County of Cambridge & c . , described a thrice @-@ weekly coach journey " for the conveniency of ſending and receiving letters and ſmall parcels " from the Lamb Inn , Ely to the post @-@ house , Cambridge . In the 1760s , the Reverend James Bentham , an antiquarian and minor canon of Ely , encouraged the ecclesiastical authorities and townspeople of Ely to subscribe to a turnpike road between Ely and Cambridge ; improvements which started in 1769 . The eighteenth century London to King 's Lynn coach route , documented by the Postmaster General 's surveyor , John Cary , passed through Ely with a stop at the Lamb Inn , a coaching inn in 1753 and extant as the Lamb Hotel . Cary measured the distance of the London ( Shoreditch ) to Ely section as being 67 miles ( 108 km ) . The A142 road from Newmarket to Chatteris passes east – west , south of the town .
Ely is on the north @-@ south A10 road from London to King 's Lynn ; the south @-@ west bypass of the town was built in 1986 . A proposal for an Ely south @-@ east bypass of the A142 is included in the major schemes of the Cambridgeshire Local Transport Plan . The proposed route would include 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) of new road between new roundabout junctions on Stuntney Causeway and Angel Drove . The bypass is intended to reduce congestion in Ely , and to avoid the low bridge on the Ely to King 's Lynn railway line , which has the third highest vehicle strike rate in the country . Proposals for the bypass went to public consultation in October 2011 and the County Council and District Council have announced that they may fund some of the costs of construction ( estimated to be up to £ 28 million ) with contributions from developers who wish to build a retail park near the proposed route .
= = = River = = =
The River Great Ouse flows through the south @-@ eastern boundary of the city . King Cnut arrived at Ely by boat for the Purification of St Mary ; " When they were approaching land [ at Ely ] , the king rose up in the middle of his men and directed the boatmen to make for the little port at full speed " . Archaeological excavations in the year 2000 , between Broad Street and the present river , revealed artificially cut channels " at right @-@ angles to the present river front " thus " evidently part of the medieval port of Ely " . In 1753 , Carter reports that " for the conveniency of paſſengers , and heavy goods to and from Cambridge " a boat left Ely every Tuesday and Friday for Cambridge ; the 20 miles ( 32 km ) journey took six hours .
= = Religious sites = =
Ely Cathedral
The Anglican Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity is known as the Ship of the Fens , a name inspired by the distant views of its towers , which dominate the low @-@ lying wetlands known as " The Fens " . The diocese of Ely was created in 1108 out of the see of Lincoln , and a year later the bishopric of Ely was founded . Construction of the cathedral was begun by William the Conqueror in 1083 , with it finally opening in 1189 after 116 years . On 22 February 1322 it suffered the collapse of the crossing , which was rebuilt as an octagon . The cathedral was completed in 1351 . John Wesley wrote of his 22 November 1774 visit to Ely that " the cathedral , [ is ] one of the most beautiful I have seen . The western tower is exceedingly grand , and the nave of an amazing height " .
Ely is the nearest cathedral city to Cambridge , which lies within the same diocese . The Diocese of Ely covers 1 @,@ 507 square miles ( 3 @,@ 903 km2 ) , 641 @,@ 000 people ( 2011 ) and 335 churches . It includes the county of Cambridgeshire , except for much of Peterborough , and three parishes in the south which are in the diocese of Chelmsford . The Diocese of Ely also includes the western part of Norfolk , a few parishes in Peterborough and Essex , and one in Bedfordshire .
Other
The church of St Mary , dedicated by Bishop Eustace , is an early thirteenth @-@ century building with a circa 1300 spire and tower with eight bells . The church was heavily restored starting in 1877 . The Roman Catholic Church of St. Etheldreda , in Egremont Street , dates from 1891 . The Methodist chapel , in Chapel Street , was built in 1818 and was restored in 1891 . The Salem Baptist chapel was erected in 1840 . The Church of St Peter on Broad Street was built in 1890 ; the architect was James Piers St Aubyn .
= = Sport = =
Ely City F.C. was established in 1885 and joined the Eastern Counties Football League in 1960 . In the 1997 – 1998 season , they reached the 3rd round of the FA Vase . Since the 2007 – 08 season they have been members of the Eastern Counties Football League Premier Division .
The University of Cambridge rowing club has a boathouse on the bank of the river , and trains there for the annual Boat Race against the University of Oxford . In 1944 , the Boat Race took place on a 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) course on the River Great Ouse near Ely , the only time it has not been held on the River Thames . On that occasion the race was won by Oxford .
= = Education = =
The King 's School , Ely claims to have beginnings in the re @-@ foundation of St Etheldreda 's monastery in 970 by the Benedictine order . The wealthy sent their sons to such places to learn how to read and translate Latin texts . Edward the Confessor may have been educated at Ely between circa 1005 and 1010 . " The teaching of grammar continued in the cloisters [ of Ely ] and this tradition was the forerunner of the Cathedral Grammar School , today known as The King 's School Ely " .
Needham 's Charity School was founded in 1740 in Back Hill by Mrs Catherine Needham ' for the education , clothing and apprenticement of poor children ' . There were originally 24 free scholars aged 9 to 14 years of age . ' The Needham 's School relocated to a new building in Downham Road adjacent to Ely High School in 1969 . This building is now part of Ely College .
The National School for boys was located in Silver Street . There was a National School for Girls in Market Street . Both National Schools received bursaries from the Parson 's Charity.The Broad Street School was erected in 1858 . In later years the Silver Street and Broad Street schools operated as St Mary 's Junior School . The Ely High School for Girls opened in 1905 in St. Mary 's Street , moving to the Downham Road site in 1957 . In 1972 Ely High School closed when state secondary education in the area changed to the comprehensive model , the site becoming the City of Ely VIth Form College , part of Ely Community College which is currently Ely College .
In 1940 the Bishop 's Palace was acquired by the Red Cross as a hospital and after the second world war it became a school for disabled children and young people .
Education in Ely , as of 2011 , includes The King 's School , Ely College and St John 's Community Primary School .
= = Public services = =
Anglian Water supplies the city 's water and sewage services from their Ely Public Water Supply . The water quality was reported as excellent in 2011 . In the same report , the hardness was reported as 292 mg / l . The nearest reservoir , Grafham Water , is 21 miles ( 34 km ) due west .
The Distribution Network Operator for electricity is EDF Energy . The largest straw @-@ burning power station in the world is at nearby Sutton . This renewable energy resource power station rated at 36 @.@ 85 MW from burning biomass , nearly 25 percent of the total renewable energy reported for Cambridgeshire in 2009 . The world 's largest poultry litter power plant , 38 @.@ 5 MW , is at Thetford , Norfolk .
East Cambridgeshire District Council is part of the Recycling in Cambridgeshire and Peterborough ( RECAP ) Partnership , which was granted Beacon status for waste and recycling in 2006 – 07 .
The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Hospital on Lynn Road , north of Ely , was built during the Second World War , and until 1993 served nearby permanent RAF stations including at Marham , Feltwell , Lakenheath , and Mildenhall . HRH Diana , Princess of Wales renamed the hospital in 1987 , and since 1993 the Princess of Wales Hospital sees 40 @,@ 000 out @-@ patient visitors per year as a community hospital ; part of the lifespan healthcare NHS trust . National health services ( NHS ) for the city are administered ( 2011 ) by NHS East of England . Acute cases are handled by four hospitals , including Addenbrooke 's Hospital , 20 miles ( 32 km ) south and Papworth Hospital 28 miles ( 45 km ) south @-@ west of the city .
= = Notable people = =
The former RAF hospital based in Ely meant that many children of serving RAF parents were born in the city . These include rugby union player and Rugby World Cup 2003 winning manager with England national rugby team , Clive Woodward , Australian émigrée actor Guy Pearce , and actor Simon MacCorkindale . Autogyro world record @-@ holder Ken Wallis was also born in Ely . Other notable people from Ely include The Sisters of Mercy singer Andrew Eldritch , and journalist Chris Hunt . Crime writer Jim Kelly and award winning poet Wendy Cope currently live in the city .
= = Cultural references = =
Children 's book Tom 's Midnight Garden by Philippa Pearce is partly set in Ely and includes a scene in Ely Cathedral and scenes inspired by the author 's father 's own childhood experiences of skating along the frozen river from Cambridge to Ely in the frost of 1894 – 95 . The first series of Jim Kelly 's crime novels , featuring journalist Philip Dryden , is largely set in the author 's home town of Ely and in the Fens . Graham Swift 's 1983 novel Waterland takes place , and recounts several historical events , in and around the town of Ely .
The album cover for Pink Floyd 's The Division Bell was created by Storm Thorgerson with Ely as the background between two massive sculptures that he had erected outside the city .
= Pixar =
Pixar Animation Studios ( Pixar ) ( / ˈpɪksɑːr / ) , is an American computer animation film studio based in Emeryville , California . Pixar is a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company . Luxo Jr . , a character from the short film of the same name , is the studio 's mascot .
Pixar began in 1979 as the Graphics Group , part of the Lucasfilm computer division , before its spin @-@ out as a corporation in 1986 , with funding by Apple Inc. co @-@ founder Steve Jobs , who became the majority shareholder . Disney purchased Pixar in 2006 at a valuation of $ 7 @.@ 4 billion , a transaction that resulted in Jobs becoming Disney 's largest single shareholder at the time .
Pixar is best known for CGI @-@ animated feature films created with RenderMan , Pixar 's own implementation of the industry @-@ standard RenderMan image @-@ rendering application programming interface used to generate high @-@ quality images .
Pixar has produced 17 feature films , beginning with Toy Story ( 1995 ) , which was the first @-@ ever computer @-@ animated feature film , and its most recent being Finding Dory ( 2016 ) . All 17 films have debuted with CinemaScore ratings of at least " A − , " indicating positive receptions with audiences . The studio has also produced several short films . As of June 2016 , its feature films have made over $ 10 billion worldwide , with an average worldwide gross of $ 593 million per film . Three of Pixar 's films — Finding Nemo ( 2003 ) , Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) , and Inside Out ( 2015 ) — are among the 50 highest @-@ grossing films of all time , with Toy Story 3 being the third all @-@ time highest animated film with a gross of $ 1 @.@ 063 billion , behind Walt Disney Animation Studios ' Frozen ( 2013 ) and Illumination Entertainment 's Minions ( 2015 ) , which grossed $ 1 @.@ 276 billion and $ 1 @.@ 159 billion respectively in their initial releases as of 2016 . Fourteen of Pixar 's films are among the 50 highest @-@ grossing animated films .
The studio has earned sixteen Academy Awards , seven Golden Globe Awards , and eleven Grammy Awards , among many other awards and acknowledgments . Most of Pixar 's films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature , since its inauguration in 2001 , with eight winning ; this includes Finding Nemo , Toy Story 3 , and Inside Out , along with The Incredibles ( 2004 ) , Ratatouille ( 2007 ) , WALL @-@ E ( 2008 ) , Up ( 2009 ) , and Brave ( 2012 ) . Monsters , Inc . ( 2001 ) and Cars ( 2006 ) are the only two films that were nominated for the award without winning it , while Cars 2 ( 2011 ) , Monsters University ( 2013 ) , and The Good Dinosaur ( 2015 ) are the only three not to be nominated . Up and Toy Story 3 were also the second and third animated films to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture , the first being Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) .
On September 6 , 2009 , Pixar executives John Lasseter , Brad Bird , Pete Docter , Andrew Stanton , and Lee Unkrich were presented with the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement by the biennial Venice Film Festival . This award was presented by Lucasfilm founder , George Lucas .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Pixar got its start in 1974 when NYIT 's founder Alexander Schure , who was also the owner of a traditional animation studio , established the Computer Graphics Lab ( CGL ) , recruited computer scientists who shared his ambitions about creating the world 's first computer @-@ animated film . Ed Catmull and Malcolm Blanchard were the first to be hired , and were soon joined by Alvy Ray Smith and David DiFrancesco some months later , which were the four original members the Computer Graphics Lab . Schure kept pouring money into the computer graphics lab , an estimated $ 15 million , giving the group everything they desired and drove NYIT into serious financial troubles . But they eventually realized they needed to work in a real movie studio in order to reach their goal , and when George Lucas approached them and offered them a job at his studio , six employees decided to move over to Lucasfilm . During the following months , they gradually resigned from CGL , found temporary jobs for about a year to avoid making Schure suspicious , before they joined The Graphics Group at Lucasfilm .
The Graphics Group , which was one third of the Computer Division of Lucasfilm , was launched in 1979 with the hiring of Edwin Catmull from the New York Institute of Technology ( NYIT ) , where he was in charge of the Computer Graphics Lab . He was then reunited with Alvy Ray Smith , who also made the journey from NYIT to Lucasfilm , and was made director of The Graphics Group . At NYIT , the researchers pioneered many of the CG foundation techniques — in particular the invention of the alpha channel ( by Catmull and Smith ) . Years later the CGL produced a few frames of an experimental film called The Works . After moving to Lucasfilm , the team worked on creating the precursor to RenderMan , called REYES ( for " renders everything you ever saw " ) ; and developed a number of critical technologies for CG — including " particle effects " and various animation tools .
In 1982 , the team began working on special effects film sequences with Industrial Light & Magic . After years of research , and key milestones such as the Genesis Effect in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan and the Stained Glass Knight in Young Sherlock Holmes , the group , which then numbered 40 individuals , was spun out as a corporation in February 1986 by Catmull and Smith . Amongst the 38 remaining employees , there were also Malcolm Blanchard , David DiFrancesco , Ralph Guggenheim and Bill Reeves , who had been part of the team since the days of NYIT . Tom Duff , also a NYIT member , would later join Pixar after its formation . With Lucas ' 1983 divorce , which coincided with the sudden drop @-@ off in revenues from Star Wars licenses following the release of Return of the Jedi , they knew he would most likely sell the whole Graphics Group . Worried that the employees would be lost to them if that happened , which would prevent the creation of the first computer animated movie , they concluded that the best way to keep the team together was to turn the group into an independent company . But Moore 's Law also said that the first film was still some years away , and they needed to focus on a proper product while waiting for the computers to become powerful enough . Eventually , they decided they should be a hardware company in the meantime , with their Pixar Image Computer as the core product , a system primarily sold to government agencies and the scientific and medical community .
The newly independent company was headed by Edwin Catmull as President and Alvy Ray Smith as Executive Vice President . While looking for investors , Steve Jobs was interested , but Lucas found his offer too low . Yet he accepted it in the end after it turned out to be impossible to find other investors . Jobs , who had recently been fired from Apple Computer , paid $ 5 million to George Lucas for technology rights and put them and $ 5 million cash as capital into the company , and joined the board of directors as chairman .
One of the buyers of Pixar Image Computers was Walt Disney Studios , which was using it as part of their Computer Animation Production System ( CAPS ) project , using the machine and custom software written by Pixar to migrate the laborious ink and paint part of the 2D animation process to a more automated method . The Image Computer never sold well . In a bid to drive sales of the system , Pixar employee John Lasseter — who had long been working on non @-@ for @-@ profit short demonstration animations , such as Luxo Jr . ( 1986 ) , to show off the device 's capabilities — premiered his creations at SIGGRAPH , the computer graphics industry 's largest convention , to great fanfare .
Inadequate sales of Pixar 's computers threatened to put the company out of business as financial losses grew . Jobs invested more and more money in exchange for an increased stake in the company , reducing the proportion of management and employee ownership until eventually his total investment of $ 50 million gave him control of the entire company . In 1989 , Lasseter 's growing animation department , originally composed of just four people ( Lasseter , Bill Reeves , Eben Ostby , and Sam Leffler ) , was turned into a division that produced computer @-@ animated commercials for outside companies . Early successes included campaigns for Tropicana , Listerine , and Life Savers . In April 1990 , Pixar sold its hardware division , including all proprietary hardware technology and imaging software , to Vicom Systems , and transferred 18 of Pixar 's approximately 100 employees . That same year , Pixar moved from San Rafael to Richmond , California . Pixar released some of its software tools on the open market for Macintosh and Windows systems . RenderMan was one of the leading 3D packages of the early 1990s , and Typestry was a special @-@ purpose 3D text renderer that competed with Adobe AddDepth .
During this period Pixar continued its successful relationship with Walt Disney Feature Animation , a studio whose corporate parent would ultimately become its most important partner . As 1991 began , however , the layoff of 30 employees in the company 's computer hardware department — including the company 's president , Chuck Kolstad , reduced the total number of employees to just 42 , essentially its original number . Yet Pixar made a historic $ 26 million deal with Disney to produce three computer @-@ animated feature films , the first of which was Toy Story . By then the software programmers , who were doing RenderMan and IceMan , and Lasseter 's animation department , which made television commercials ( and four Luxo Jr. shorts for Sesame Street the same year ) , were all that remained of Pixar .
Despite the total income from these projects the company continued to lose money and Jobs , as chairman of the board and now the full owner , often considered selling it . Even as late as 1994 Jobs contemplated selling Pixar to another company , most notably Microsoft . Only after learning from New York critics that Toy Story would probably be a hit — and confirming that Disney would distribute it for the 1995 Christmas season — did he decide to give Pixar another chance . For the first time he also took an active leadership role in the company and made himself CEO . Toy Story went on to gross more than $ 362 million worldwide and , when Pixar held its initial public offering on November 29 , 1995 , it exceeded Netscape 's as the biggest IPO of the year . In only its first half @-@ hour of trading Pixar stock shot from $ 22 to $ 45 , delaying trading because of un @-@ matched buy orders . Shares climbed to $ 49 before closing the day at $ 39 .
During the 1990s and 2000s , Pixar gradually developed the " Pixar Braintrust , " the studio 's primary creative development process , in which all directors , writers , and lead storyboard artists at the studio look at each other 's projects on a regular basis and give each other very candid " notes " ( the industry term for constructive criticism ) . The Braintrust operates under a philosophy of a " filmmaker @-@ driven studio , " in which creatives help each other move their films forward through a process somewhat like peer review , as opposed to the traditional Hollywood approach of an " executive @-@ driven studio " in which directors are micromanaged through " mandatory notes " from development executives ranking above the producers . According to Catmull , it evolved out of the working relationship between Lasseter , Stanton , Docter , Unkrich , and Joe Ranft on Toy Story .
As a result of the success of Toy Story , Pixar built a new studio at the Emeryville campus which was designed by PWP Landscape Architecture and opened in November 2000 .
= = = Disney subsidiary ( 2006 @-@ present ) = = =
Pixar and Disney had disagreements after the production of Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) . Originally intended as a straight @-@ to @-@ video release ( and thus not part of Pixar 's three @-@ picture deal ) , the film was eventually upgraded to a theatrical release during production . Pixar demanded that the film then be counted toward the three @-@ picture agreement , but Disney refused . Though profitable for both , Pixar later complained that the arrangement was not equitable . Pixar was responsible for creation and production , while Disney handled marketing and distribution . Profits and production costs were split 50 @-@ 50 , but Disney exclusively owned all story and sequel rights and also collected a 10- to 15 @-@ percent distribution fee . The lack of story and sequel rights was perhaps the most onerous aspect to Pixar and set the stage for a contentious relationship .
The two companies attempted to reach a new agreement for ten months before it fell through in January 2004 . The new deal would be only for distribution , as Pixar intended to control production and own the resulting film properties themselves . The company also wanted to finance their films on their own and collect 100 percent of the profits , paying Disney only the distribution fee . More importantly , as part of any distribution agreement with Disney , Pixar demanded control over films already in production under their old agreement , including The Incredibles ( 2004 ) and Cars ( 2006 ) . Disney considered these conditions unacceptable , but Pixar would not concede .
Disagreements between Steve Jobs and then @-@ Disney chairman and CEO Michael Eisner made the negotiations more difficult than they otherwise might have been . They broke down completely in mid @-@ 2004 , with Disney forming Circle 7 Animation and Jobs declaring that Pixar was actively seeking partners other than Disney . Despite this announcement , Pixar did not enter negotiations with other distributors , although a Warner Bros. spokesperson told CNN , " We would love to be in business with Pixar . They are a great company . " After a lengthy hiatus , negotiations between the two companies resumed following the departure of Eisner from Disney in September 2005 . In preparation for potential fallout between Pixar and Disney , Jobs announced in late 2004 that Pixar would no longer release movies at the Disney @-@ dictated November time frame , but during the more lucrative early summer months . This would also allow Pixar to release DVDs for their major releases during the Christmas shopping season . An added benefit of delaying Cars from November 4 , 2005 , to June 9 , 2006 was to extend the time frame remaining on the Pixar @-@ Disney contract , to see how things would play out between the two companies .
Pending the Disney acquisition of Pixar , the two companies created a distribution deal for the intended 2007 release of Ratatouille , if the acquisition fell through , to ensure that this one film would still be released through Disney 's distribution channels . In contrast to the earlier Disney / Pixar deal , Ratatouille was to remain a Pixar property and Disney would have received only a distribution fee . The completion of Disney 's Pixar acquisition , however , nullified this distribution arrangement .
In 2006 , Disney ultimately agreed to buy Pixar for approximately $ 7 @.@ 4 billion in an all @-@ stock deal . Following Pixar shareholder approval , the acquisition was completed May 5 , 2006 . The transaction catapulted Steve Jobs , who was the majority shareholder of Pixar with 50 @.@ 1 % , to Disney 's largest individual shareholder with 7 % and a new seat on its board of directors . Jobs ' new Disney holdings exceeded holdings belonging to ex @-@ CEO Michael Eisner , the previous top shareholder , who still held 1 @.@ 7 % ; and Disney Director Emeritus Roy E. Disney , who held almost 1 % of the corporation 's shares . Pixar shareholders received 2 @.@ 3 shares of Disney common stock for each share of Pixar common stock redeemed .
As part of the deal , John Lasseter , by then Executive Vice President , became Chief Creative Officer ( reporting to President and CEO Robert Iger and consulting with Disney Director Roy E. Disney ) of both Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios ( including its division , DisneyToon Studios ) , as well as the Principal Creative Adviser at Walt Disney Imagineering , which designs and builds the company 's theme parks . Catmull retained his position as President of Pixar , while also becoming President of Walt Disney Animation Studios , reporting to Bob Iger and Dick Cook , chairman of The Walt Disney Studios . Steve Jobs ' position as Pixar 's chairman and chief executive officer was also removed , and instead he took a place on the Disney board of directors .
After the deal closed in May 2006 , Lasseter revealed that Iger had realized Disney needed to buy Pixar while watching a parade at the opening of Hong Kong Disneyland in September 2005 . Iger noticed that of all the Disney characters in the parade , not one was a character that Disney had created within the last ten years , since all the newer ones had been created by Pixar . Upon returning to Burbank , Iger commissioned a financial analysis that confirmed that Disney had actually lost money on animation for the past decade , then presented that information to the board of directors at his first board meeting after being promoted from COO to CEO , and the board in turn authorized him to explore the possibility of a deal with Pixar . Lasseter and Catmull were wary when the topic of Disney buying Pixar first came up , but Jobs asked them to give Iger a chance ( based on his own experience negotiating with Iger in summer 2005 for the rights to ABC shows for the fifth @-@ generation iPod Classic ) , and in turn , Iger convinced them of the sincerity of his epiphany that Disney really needed to re @-@ focus on animation .
Lasseter and Catmull 's oversight of both the Disney and Pixar studios did not mean that the two studios were merging , however . In fact , additional conditions were laid out as part of the deal to ensure that Pixar remained a separate entity , a concern that analysts had expressed about the Disney deal . Some of those conditions were that Pixar HR policies would remain intact , including the lack of employment contracts . Also , the Pixar name was guaranteed to continue , and the studio would remain in its current Emeryville , California , location with the " Pixar " sign . Finally , branding of films made post @-@ merger would be " Disney • Pixar " ( beginning with Cars ) .
Jim Morris , producer of WALL @-@ E ( 2008 ) , became general manager of Pixar . In this new position , Morris took charge of the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the studio facilities and products .
After a few years , Lasseter and Catmull were able to successfully transfer the basic principles of the Pixar Braintrust to Disney , although meetings of the Disney Story Trust are reportedly " more polite " than those of the Pixar Braintrust . Catmull later explained that after the merger , to maintain the studios ' separate identities and cultures ( notwithstanding the fact of common ownership and common senior management ) , he and Lasseter " drew a hard line " that each studio was solely responsible for its own projects and would not be allowed to borrow personnel from or lend tasks out to the other . That rule ensures that each studio maintains " local ownership " of projects and can be proud of its own work . Thus , for example , when Pixar had issues with Ratatouille and Disney Animation had issues with Bolt ( 2008 ) , " nobody bailed them out " and each studio was required " to solve the problem on its own " even when they knew there were personnel at the other studio who theoretically could have helped .
In November 2014 , Morris was promoted to president of Pixar , while his counterpart at Disney Animation , general manager Andrew Millstein , was also promoted to president of that studio . Both will continue to report to Catmull , who retains the title of president of Walt Disney and Pixar Animation Studios .
= = = Expansion = = =
On April 20 , 2010 , Pixar Animation Studios opened Pixar Canada in the downtown area of Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The roughly 2 @,@ 000 square meters studio produced seven short films based on Toy Story and Cars characters . In October 2013 , the studio was closed down to refocus Pixar 's efforts at its main headquarters .
= = Headquarters ( campus ) = =
When Steve Jobs , chief executive officer of Apple Inc. and Pixar Animation Studios , and John Lasseter , then the executive vice president of Pixar , decided to move their studios from a leased space in Point Richmond , California , to larger quarters of their own , they chose a 20 @-@ acre site in Emeryville , California , formerly occupied by Del Monte Foods , Inc . The first of several buildings , a high @-@ tech structure designed by Bohlin Cywinski Jackson , has special foundations and generators to ensure continued film production , even through major earthquakes . The character of the building is intended to abstractly recall Emeryville 's industrial past . The two @-@ story steel @-@ and @-@ masonry building is a collaborative space with many pathways .
= = Feature films and shorts = =
= = = Traditions = = =
While some of Pixar 's first animators were former cel animators , including John Lasseter , they also came from computer animation or were fresh college graduates . A large number of animators that make up the animation department at Pixar were hired around the time Pixar released A Bug 's Life ( 1998 ) and Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) . Although Toy Story was a successful film , it was Pixar 's only feature film at the time . The majority of the animation industry was ( and still is ) located in Los Angeles while Pixar is located 350 miles ( 560 km ) north in the San Francisco Bay Area . Also , traditional hand @-@ drawn animation was still the dominant medium for feature animated films .
With the scarcity of Los Angeles @-@ based animators willing to move their families so far north , give up traditional animation , and try computer animation , Pixar 's new hires at this time either came directly from college or had worked outside feature animation . For those who had traditional animation skills , the Pixar animation software ( Marionette ) was designed so that traditional animators would require a minimum amount of training before becoming productive .
In an interview with PBS talk show host Tavis Smiley , Lasseter said that Pixar 's films follow the same theme of self @-@ improvement as the company itself has : with the help of friends or family , a character ventures out into the real world and learns to appreciate his friends and family . At the core , Lasseter said , " it 's gotta be about the growth of the main character and how he changes . "
As of 2016 , every Pixar feature film produced for Disney has included a character voiced by John Ratzenberger , who had famously starred in the TV show Cheers . Pixar paid tribute to their " good luck charm " in the end credits of Cars ( 2006 ) by parodying scenes from three of their earlier films , replacing all of the characters with motor vehicles . After the third scene , Mack ( his character in Cars ) realizes that the same actor has been voicing characters in every film and angrily demands to know " What kind of a cut @-@ rate production is this ? "
Due to the traditions that have occurred within the film , such as anthropomorphic animals and easter egg crossovers between movies that have been spotted by fans , a blog post entitled The Pixar Theory was published in 2013 by Jon Negroni to make the belief that all of the characters within the Pixar universe were related .
= = = Sequels and prequels = = =
Toy Story 2 was originally commissioned by Disney as a 60 @-@ minute direct @-@ to @-@ video release . Expressing doubts about the strength of the material , John Lasseter convinced the Pixar team to start from scratch and make the sequel their third full @-@ length feature film .
Following the release of Toy Story 2 in 1999 , Pixar and Disney had a gentlemen 's agreement that Disney would not make any sequels without Pixar 's involvement , despite their own right to do so . After the two companies were unable to agree on a new deal , Disney announced in 2004 they would plan move forward on sequels with / without Pixar , and put Toy Story 3 into pre @-@ production at Disney 's new CGI division Circle 7 Animation . However , when Lasseter was placed in charge of all Disney and Pixar animation following the 2006 merger of the companies , he put all sequels on hold and Toy Story 3 was cancelled . In May 2006 , it was announced that Toy Story 3 was back in pre @-@ production with a new plot and under Pixar 's control . The film was released on June 18 , 2010 as Pixar 's eleventh feature film .
Shortly after announcing the resurrection of Toy Story 3 , Lasseter fueled speculation on further sequels by saying , " If we have a great story , we 'll do a sequel . " Cars 2 , Pixar 's first non @-@ Toy Story sequel , was officially announced in April 2008 and released on June 24 , 2011 as their twelfth . Monsters University , a prequel to Monsters , Inc . ( 2001 ) , was announced in April 2010 and initially set for release in November 2012 ; the release date was pushed to June 21 , 2013 , due to Pixar 's past success with summer releases , according to a Disney executive .
In June 2011 , Tom Hanks , who voiced Woody in the Toy Story series , implied that Toy Story 4 was " in the works , " although it had not yet been confirmed by the studio . In April 2013 , Finding Dory , a sequel to Finding Nemo , was announced for a June 17 , 2016 release . In March 2014 , The Incredibles 2 and Cars 3 were announced as films in development . In November 2014 , Toy Story 4 was confirmed to be in development with Lasseter serving as director . In an interview , Lasseter stated that " [ a ] lot of people in the industry view us doing sequels as being for the business of it , but for us it 's pure passion ... One of the things that was very important for me as an artist is to continue directing . When I direct , I get to work with the individual artists , with the animators . " In August 2015 , at the D23 Expo , Lasseter said that the film would focus on the romance between Woody and Bo Peep . Its story will be built on the fact that Bo Peep was absent in Toy Story 3 , with Woody and Buzz Lightyear trying to find her and bring her back .
= = = Adaptation to television = = =
Toy Story was the first Pixar film to be adapted onto television , with Buzz Lightyear of Star Command film and TV series . Cars became the second with the help of Cars Toons , a series of three @-@ to @-@ five @-@ minute short films running between regular Disney Channel shows and featuring Mater ( the tow truck voiced by comedian Larry the Cable Guy ) . Between 2013 and 2014 , Pixar released its first two television specials , Toy Story of Terror ! and Toy Story That Time Forgot .
= = = Animation and live @-@ action = = =
All Pixar films to date have been computer @-@ animated features , but WALL @-@ E so far has been the only Pixar film to not be completely animated , as it featured a small amount of live @-@ action footage . 1906 , the live @-@ action film by Brad Bird based on a screenplay and novel by James Dalessandro about the 1906 earthquake , was in development but has since been abandoned by Bird and Pixar . Bird has stated that he was " interested in moving into the live @-@ action realm with some projects " while " staying at Pixar [ because ] it 's a very comfortable environment for me to work in . "
The Toy Story Toons short , Hawaiian Vacation also includes the fish and shark as live @-@ action .
Jim Morris , general manager of Pixar , produced Disney 's John Carter ( 2012 ) , which Pixar 's Andrew Stanton co @-@ wrote and directed .
Pixar assisted in the story development of Disney 's The Jungle Book ( 2016 ) , as well as providing suggestions for the film 's end credits sequence .
= = = Upcoming projects = = =
Michael Wallis , the voice of Sheriff from the Cars franchise and a Route 66 consultant for the first two films , said in an August 2013 interview that Pixar would make a third film in the series , which will go back to Route 66 and will also include Route 99 ; a release date of June 16 , 2017 was announced later .
In April 2012 , Pixar announced their intention to create a film centered on the Mexican holiday Día de los Muertos which is to be directed by Lee Unkrich . In 2015 , the film 's title was announced as Coco , and a planned release in November 22 , 2017 .
In November 2014 , it was announced that John Lasseter will direct Toy Story 4 , scheduled for a June 15 , 2018 release .
A sequel to The Incredibles was announced in March 2014 , to be directed by Brad Bird , with a release date set for June 21 , 2019 .
= = Exhibitions = =
Since December 2005 , Pixar has held exhibitions celebrating the art and artists of Pixar , over their first twenty years in animation .
= = = Pixar : 20 Years of Animation = = =
Pixar celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2006 with the release of Pixar 's seventh feature film , Cars , and held two exhibitions , from April to June 2010 , at Science Centre Singapore , in Jurong East , Singapore , and the London Science Museum , London . It was their first time holding an exhibition in Singapore .
The exhibition highlights consist of work @-@ in @-@ progress sketches from various Pixar productions , clay sculptures of their characters , and an autostereoscopic short showcasing a 3D version of the exhibition pieces which is projected through four projectors . Another highlight is the Zoetrope , where visitors of the exhibition are shown figurines of Toy Story characters " animated " in real @-@ life through the zoetrope .
= = = Pixar : 25 Years of Animation = = =
Pixar celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2011 with the release of its twelfth feature film , Cars 2 . Pixar had celebrated its 20th anniversary with the first Cars . The Pixar : 25 Years of Animation exhibition was held at the Oakland Museum of California from July 2010 until January 2011 . The exhibition tour debuts in Hong Kong , and was held at the Hong Kong Heritage Museum in Sha Tin , between March 27 and July 11 , 2011 . In 2013 the exhibition was held in the EXPO in Amsterdam , The Netherlands . On November 16 , 2013 , the exhibition moved to the Art Ludique museum in Paris , France , with a scheduled run until March 2 , 2014 . The exhibition moved to three Spanish cities later in 2014 and 2015 : Madrid ( held in CaixaForum from March 21 until June 22 ) , Barcelona ( held also in Caixaforum from February until May ) and Zaragoza .
Pixar : 25 Years of Animation includes all of the artwork from Pixar : 20 Years of Animation , plus art from Ratatouille , WALL @-@ E , Up , and Toy Story 3 .
= = = The Science Behind Pixar = = =
The Science Behind Pixar is a travelling exhibition that first opened on June 28 , 2015 at the Museum of Science in Boston , Massachusetts . It was developed by the Museum of Science in collaboration with Pixar . The exhibit features forty interactive elements that explain the production pipeline at Pixar . They are divided into eight sections , each demonstrating a step in the filmmaking process : Modeling , Rigging , Surfaces , Sets & Cameras , Animation , Simulation , Lighting , and Rendering . Before visitors enter the exhibit , they watch a short video at an introductory theater .
The exhibition closed on January 10 , 2016 and moved to the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where it opened on March 12 and will close on September 5 . After that , it will move to the California Science Center in Los Angeles , California and be open from October 15 , 2016 through April 9 , 2017 . It will make another stop at the Science Museum of Minnesota in St. Paul , Minnesota from May 27 through September 4 , 2017 .
= = = Pixar : 30 Years of Animation = = =
It is currently unknown what a 30 @-@ year anniversary celebration of Pixar 's films and achievements would entail .
= Førde Airport , Bringeland =
Førde Airport , Bringeland ( IATA : FDE , ICAO : ENBL ; Norwegian : Førde lufthamn , Bringeland ) is a regional airport located at Bringelandsåsen in the municipality of Gaular , about 16 kilometers ( 10 mi ) south of the town of Førde in Sogn og Fjordane county , Norway . Owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , the airport has a single 1 @,@ 019 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 343 ft ) runway numbered 07 – 25 . It is served by Widerøe , which operates Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft to the cities of Bergen , Florø and Oslo .
Starting in 1970 , the town of Førde was served by Førde Airport , Øyrane , located in an industrial site in town and with poor operational conditions . Bringeland was opened in 1986 and the old airport was closed . Bringeland originally consisted of a 859 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 818 ft ) runway , but that was lengthened in 2010 . Since 1988 , the helicopter operator Airlift has also been based at the airport . The airport was originally municipal , but nationalized in 1996 . Bringeland served 82 @,@ 356 passengers in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Øyrane = = =
The first plans for an airport serving the Sunnfjord region was in the town of Florø ; construction started in 1956 , but was halted . A government commission recommended in 1964 that a primary airport be built in Florø serve the entire county . These plans were changed in 1965 , following Håkon Kyllingmark being appointed Ministry of Transport and Communications ( Norway ) . He instead insisted on a network of short take @-@ off and landing airports for smaller communities . Førde Airport , Øyrane was built with such specifications , but was located in the middle of the industrial area Øyrane , just outside the town center . From 1971 it became part of the regional aviation network in Western Norway .
From before the airport was built it was evident that the location was not well suited , and planning of an alternative location began in 1968 . The main concern was that the airport lacked an instrument landing system and could thus only be used during daylight hours . The first alternative location proposal was for Langelandsåsen , but the site was discarded by the Civil Aviation Administration ( CAA ) because of poor weather conditions . Late proposals were Espelandsmyrene and then Alværa on the Sognefjord . By 1972 , the CAA had concluded that there probably was not a suitable location for an airport near Førde and recommended that the town instead by served by Florø Airport , located 70 kilometers ( 43 mi ) away .
= = = Construction and operational history = = =
Bringelandsåsen was proposed by the CAA in 1974 . Plans were developed and in 1983 the Ministry of Transport and Communications recommended that Øyrane be closed and replaced with an all @-@ new airport at Bringeland . Construction started in 1985 and the new airport opened on 31 August 1986 , taking over all scheduled traffic from Øyrane . Widerøe started scheduled services to Oslo and Bergen , originally using de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter and DHC @-@ 7 Dash 7 aircraft , of which the latter which was used to Oslo . Airlift was established in 1986 and was based at Øyrane until 1988 , when it also moved to Bringeland . Dash 8 aircraft were phased in from 1993 .
The airport was originally owned as an inter @-@ municipal enterprise by Gaular and Førde . Operating deficits were covered through various subsidies from the state , often with unclear responsibilities and little financial risk for the owners . Most regional airports , including Førde , were nationalized in 1996 and transferred to the CAA , later renamed Avinor . Widerøe lost the public service obligation contract to fly to Florø Airport in 2000 , and therefore moved its technical base for Western Norway to Førde , which included a new hangar .
Førde Airport had a café until 2006 and originally 859 meters ( 2 @,@ 818 ft ) runway . In 2009 and 2010 , it was expanded with another 160 meters ( 520 ft ) to the west . SCAT @-@ I was installed in 2011 . The following year , Widerøe regained the Florø contract , and moved its technical base back there .
= = Facilities = =
Førde Airport , Bringeland is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor . The airport has a 1 @,@ 019 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 343 by 98 ft ) asphalt runway , aligned 07 – 25 . Instrument flight rules are only allowed for aircraft equipped with SCAT @-@ I. The terminal has a small conference center , and the airport is a seventeen @-@ minute drive from Førde . Firda Billag operates an airport coach to Førda , which takes twenty minutes . Paid parking , taxis and car rental is available at the airport . Airlift has its own hangar , helipad and administration buildings .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Widerøe operates all scheduled services out of Førde , connecting it to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen and Bergen Airport , Flesland with a combined seven daily flights . The flights are operated with Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft and are subsidized as part of a public service obligation contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . Førde Airport is the local airport for ten municipalities in Sunnfjord and outer Sogn . The airport had 82 @,@ 356 passengers , 8 @,@ 109 aircraft movements and 3 tonnes of cargo in 2014 . Less than a fifth of the patronage travels to Bergen , and Førde even experiences some leakage by people driving to Bergen Airport directly .
The helicopter operator Airlift is based at Bringeland ; it is the largest employer in Gaular , with 150 employees in 2002 . The company flies air ambulance and various charter services . Also at the airport is an aviation club , Fjordane Flyklubb .
= = Future = =
Avinor has started a process to look at the airport structure in Sogn og Fjordane . Early plans have looked at closing down Førde Airport , and possibly also Sandane Airport , Anda , while expanding the runway at Florø Airport to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . This would allow for jetliners to operate from Florø to Oslo with significantly lower ticket prices [ not likely with less than 80 @-@ 120 ' 000 citizens within 50 @-@ 80 km radius ] and remove the need for subsidies . Previously , the Ministry of Transport and Communications has proposed closing Sandane Airport and splitting the traffic between Førde and Ørsta @-@ Volda Airport , Hovden . The road distance from Sandane to Bringeland is 97 kilometers ( 60 mi ) , from Sandane to Florø Airport 93 km ( 58 mi ) and from Førde to Florø Airport 58 km ( 36 mi ) .
= Anton Chekhov =
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov ( / ˈtʃɛkɔːf , -ɒf / ; Russian : Анто ́ н Па ́ влович Че ́ хов , pronounced [ ɐnˈton ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ ˈtɕɛxəf ] ; 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904 ) was a Russian playwright and short story writer who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short fiction in history . His career as a playwright produced four classics and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics . Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg , Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three seminal figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre . Chekhov practiced as a medical doctor throughout most of his literary career : " Medicine is my lawful wife " , he once said , " and literature is my mistress . "
Chekhov renounced the theatre after the disastrous reception of The Seagull in 1896 , but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Constantin Stanislavski 's Moscow Art Theatre , which subsequently also produced Chekhov 's Uncle Vanya and premiered his last two plays , Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard . These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble as well as to audiences , because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a " theatre of mood " and a " submerged life in the text " .
Chekhov had at first written stories only for financial gain , but as his artistic ambition grew , he made formal innovations which have influenced the evolution of the modern short story . He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers , insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions , not to answer them .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Anton Chekhov was born on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great ( 17 January Old Style ) 29 January 1860 , the third of six surviving children , in Taganrog , a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia . His father , Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov , the son of a former serf , was from a village Vilkhovatka near Kobeliaky ( Poltava Region in modern @-@ day Ukraine ) and ran a grocery store . A director of the parish choir , devout Orthodox Christian , and physically abusive father , Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son 's many portraits of hypocrisy . Chekhov 's mother , Yevgeniya ( Morozova ) , was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth @-@ merchant father all over Russia . " Our talents we got from our father , " Chekhov remembered , " but our soul from our mother . " In adulthood , Chekhov criticised his brother Alexander 's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel 's tyranny : " Let me ask you to recall that it was despotism and lying that ruined your mother 's youth . Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that it 's sickening and frightening to think about it . Remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool . "
Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and the Taganrog Gymnasium ( since renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium ) , where he was kept down for a year at fifteen for failing an examination in Ancient Greek . He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father 's choirs . In a letter of 1892 , he used the word " suffering " to describe his childhood and recalled :
When my brothers and I used to stand in the middle of the church and sing the trio " May my prayer be exalted " , or " The Archangel 's Voice " , everyone looked at us with emotion and envied our parents , but we at that moment felt like little convicts .
He later became an atheist .
In 1876 , Chekhov 's father was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house . To avoid debtor 's prison he fled to Moscow , where his two eldest sons , Alexander and Nikolay , were attending university . The family lived in poverty in Moscow , Chekhov 's mother physically and emotionally broken by the experience . Chekhov was left behind to sell the family 's possessions and finish his education .
Chekhov remained in Taganrog for three more years , boarding with a man called Selivanov who , like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard , had bailed out the family for the price of their house . Chekhov had to pay for his own education , which he managed by private tutoring , catching and selling goldfinches , and selling short sketches to the newspapers , among other jobs . He sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow , along with humorous letters to cheer them up . During this time , he read widely and analytically , including the works of Cervantes , Turgenev , Goncharov , and Schopenhauer , and wrote a full @-@ length comic drama , Fatherless , which his brother Alexander dismissed as " an inexcusable though innocent fabrication . " Chekhov also enjoyed a series of love affairs , one with the wife of a teacher .
In 1879 , Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow , having gained admission to the medical school at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University .
= = = Early writings = = =
Chekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family . To support them and to pay his tuition fees , he wrote daily short , humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life , many under pseudonyms such as " Antosha Chekhonte " ( Антоша Чехонте ) and " Man without a Spleen " ( Человек без селезенки ) . His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life , and by 1882 he was writing for Oskolki ( Fragments ) , owned by Nikolai Leykin , one of the leading publishers of the time . Chekhov 's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction .
In 1884 , Chekhov qualified as a physician , which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor free of charge .
In 1884 and 1885 , Chekhov found himself coughing blood , and in 1886 the attacks worsened , but he would not admit his tuberculosis to his family or his friends . He confessed to Leykin , " I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues . " He continued writing for weekly periodicals , earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodations .
Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg , Novoye Vremya ( New Times ) , owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin , who paid a rate per line double Leykin 's and allowed Chekhov three times the space . Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend , perhaps Chekhov 's closest .
Before long , Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention . The sixty @-@ four @-@ year @-@ old Dmitry Grigorovich , a celebrated Russian writer of the day , wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story " The Huntsman " that " You have real talent , a talent that places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation . " He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down , write less , and concentrate on literary quality .
Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him " like a thunderbolt " and confessed , " I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires — mechanically , half @-@ consciously , caring nothing about either the reader or myself . " The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice , since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care , continually revising . Grigorovich 's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious , artistic ambition in the twenty @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old . In 1888 , with a little string @-@ pulling by Grigorovich , the short story collection At Dusk ( V Sumerkakh ) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize " for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth . "
= = = Turning points = = =
In 1887 , exhausted from overwork and ill health , Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine , which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe . On his return , he began the novella @-@ length short story " The Steppe , " which he called " something rather odd and much too original , " and which was eventually published in Severny Vestnik ( The Northern Herald ) . In a narrative that drifts with the thought processes of the characters , Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home , and his companions , a priest and a merchant . " The Steppe " has been called a " dictionary of Chekhov 's poetics " , and it represented a significant advance for Chekhov , exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper .
In autumn 1887 , a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play , the result being Ivanov , written in a fortnight and produced that November . Though Chekhov found the experience " sickening " and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander , the play was a hit and was praised , to Chekhov 's bemusement , as a work of originality . Although Chekhov did not fully realize it at the time , Chekhov 's plays , such as The Seagull ( written in 1895 ) , Uncle Vanya ( written in 1897 ) , The Three Sisters ( written in 1900 ) , and The Cherry Orchard ( written in 1903 ) served as a revolutionary backbone to what is common sense to the medium of acting to this day : an effort to recreate and express the " realism " of how people truly act and speak with each other and translating it to the stage in order to manifest the human condition as accurately as possible in hopes to make the audience reflect upon their own definition of what it means to be human , warts and all .
This philosophy of approaching the art of acting has stood not only steadfast , but as the cornerstone of acting for much of the 20th century to this day . Mikhail Chekhov considered Ivanov a key moment in his brother 's intellectual development and literary career . From this period comes an observation of Chekhov 's that has become known as Chekhov 's gun , a dramatic principle that requires that every element in a narrative be necessary and irreplaceable , and that everything else be removed .
Remove everything that has no relevance to the story . If you say in the first chapter that there is a rifle hanging on the wall , in the second or third chapter it absolutely must go off . If it 's not going to be fired , it shouldn 't be hanging there .
The death of Chekhov 's brother Nikolay from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced A Dreary Story , finished that September , about a man who confronts the end of a life that he realises has been without purpose . Mikhail Chekhov , who recorded his brother 's depression and restlessness after Nikolay 's death , was researching prisons at the time as part of his law studies , and Anton Chekhov , in a search for purpose in his own life , himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform .
= = = Sakhalin = = =
In 1890 , Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train , horse @-@ drawn carriage , and river steamer to the Russian Far East and the katorga , or penal colony , on Sakhalin Island , north of Japan , where he spent three months interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census . The letters Chekhov wrote during the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ month journey to Sakhalin are considered to be among his best . His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious .
Tomsk is a very dull town . To judge from the drunkards whose acquaintance I have made , and from the intellectual people who have come to the hotel to pay their respects to me , the inhabitants are very dull , too .
The inhabitants of Tomsk later retaliated by erecting a mocking statue of Chekhov .
Chekhov witnessed much on Sakhalin that shocked and angered him , including floggings , embezzlement of supplies , and forced prostitution of women . He wrote , " There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man 's degradation . " He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents . For example :
On the Amur steamer going to Sakhalin , there was a convict who had murdered his wife and wore fetters on his legs . His daughter , a little girl of six , was with him . I noticed wherever the convict moved the little girl scrambled after him , holding on to his fetters . At night the child slept with the convicts and soldiers all in a heap together .
Chekhov later concluded that charity was not the answer , but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts . His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as Ostrov Sakhalin ( The Island of Sakhalin ) , a work of social science , not literature , that is worthy and informative rather than brilliant . Chekhov found literary expression for the " Hell of Sakhalin " in his long short story " The Murder , " the last section of which is set on Sakhalin , where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night while longing for home . Chekhov 's writing on Sakhalin is the subject of brief comment and analysis in Haruki Murakami 's novel 1Q84 . It is also the subject of a poem by the Nobel Prize winner Seamus Heaney , " Chekhov on Sakhalin " ( collected in the volume Station Island ) .
= = = Melikhovo = = =
In 1892 , Chekhov bought the small country estate of Melikhovo , about forty miles south of Moscow , where he lived with his family until 1899 . " It 's nice to be a lord , " he joked to his friend Ivan Leontyev ( who wrote humorous pieces under the pseudonym Shcheglov ) , but he took his responsibilities as a landlord seriously and soon made himself useful to the local peasants . As well as organising relief for victims of the famine and cholera outbreaks of 1892 , he went on to build three schools , a fire station , and a clinic , and to donate his medical services to peasants for miles around , despite frequent recurrences of his tuberculosis .
Mikhail Chekhov , a member of the household at Melikhovo , described the extent of his brother 's medical commitments :
From the first day that Chekhov moved to Melikhovo , the sick began flocking to him from twenty miles around . They came on foot or were brought in carts , and often he was fetched to patients at a distance . Sometimes from early in the morning peasant women and children were standing before his door waiting .
Chekhov 's expenditure on drugs was considerable , but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick , which reduced his time for writing . However , Chekhov 's work as a doctor enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society : for example , he witnessed at first hand the peasants ' unhealthy and cramped living conditions , which he recalled in his short story " Peasants " . Chekhov visited the upper classes as well , recording in his notebook : " Aristocrats ? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness , the same toothless old age and disgusting death , as with market @-@ women . "
In 1894 , Chekhov began writing his play The Seagull in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo . In the two years since he had moved to the estate , he had refurbished the house , taken up agriculture and horticulture , tended the orchard and the pond , and planted many trees , which , according to Mikhail , he " looked after ... as though they were his children . Like Colonel Vershinin in his Three Sisters , as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years . "
The first night of The Seagull , at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg on 17 October 1896 , was a fiasco , as the play was booed by the audience , stinging Chekhov into renouncing the theatre . But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich @-@ Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Constantin Stanislavski to direct a new production for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898 . Stanislavski 's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text , and restored Chekhov 's interest in playwriting . The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged Uncle Vanya , which Chekhov had completed in 1896 .
= = = Yalta = = =
In March 1897 , Chekhov suffered a major hemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow . With great difficulty he was persuaded to enter a clinic , where the doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life .
After his father 's death in 1898 , Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa , into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year . Though he planted trees and flowers , kept dogs and tame cranes , and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky , Chekhov was always relieved to leave his " hot Siberia " for Moscow or travels abroad . He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there . In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre , composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he " wrote serenely , the way I eat pancakes now " . He took a year each over Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard .
On 25 May 1901 , Chekhov married Olga Knipper quietly , owing to his horror of weddings . She was a former protegée and sometime lover of Nemirovich @-@ Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for The Seagull . Up to that point , Chekhov , known as " Russia 's most elusive literary bachelor , " had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment . He had once written to Suvorin :
By all means I will be married if you wish it . But on these conditions : everything must be as it has been hitherto — that is , she must live in Moscow while I live in the country , and I will come and see her ... I promise to be an excellent husband , but give me a wife who , like the moon , won 't appear in my sky every day .
The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov 's marital arrangements with Olga : he lived largely at Yalta , she in Moscow , pursuing her acting career . In 1902 , Olga suffered a miscarriage ; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence , based on the couple 's letters , that conception may have occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart , although Russian scholars have rejected that claim . The literary legacy of this long @-@ distance marriage is a correspondence that preserves gems of theatre history , including shared complaints about Stanislavski 's directing methods and Chekhov 's advice to Olga about performing in his plays .
In Yalta , Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories , The Lady with the Dog ( also called " Lady with Lapdog " ) , which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a married man and a married woman in Yalta . Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter , but they find themselves drawn back to each other , risking the security of their family lives .
= = = Death = = =
By May 1904 , Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis . Mikhail Chekhov recalled that " everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off , but the nearer [ he ] was to the end , the less he seemed to realise it . " On 3 June , he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest , from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha , describing the food and surroundings , and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better . In his last letter , he complained about the way German women dressed .
Chekhov 's death has become one of " the great set pieces of literary history , " retold , embroidered , and fictionalised many times since , notably in the short story " Errand " by Raymond Carver . In 1908 , Olga wrote this account of her husband 's last moments :
Anton sat up unusually straight and said loudly and clearly ( although he knew almost no German ) : Ich sterbe ( " I 'm dying " ) . The doctor calmed him , took a syringe , gave him an injection of camphor , and ordered champagne . Anton took a full glass , examined it , smiled at me and said : " It 's a long time since I drank champagne . " He drained it and lay quietly on his left side , and I just had time to run to him and lean across the bed and call to him , but he had stopped breathing and was sleeping
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One of the first non @-@ Russians to praise Chekhov 's plays was George Bernard Shaw , who subtitled his Heartbreak House " A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes , " and pointed out similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov : " the same nice people , the same utter futility . "
In the United States , Chekhov 's reputation began its rise slightly later , partly through the influence of Stanislavski 's system of acting , with its notion of subtext : " Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches , " wrote Stanislavski , " but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word ... the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak . " The Group Theatre , in particular , developed the subtextual approach to drama , influencing generations of American playwrights , screenwriters , and actors , including Clifford Odets , Elia Kazan and , in particular , Lee Strasberg . In turn , Strasberg 's Actors Studio and the " Method " acting approach influenced many actors , including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro , though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism . In 1981 , the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted The Seagull as The Notebook of Trigorin . One of Anton 's nephews , Michael Chekhov would also contribute heavily to modern theatre , particularly through his unique acting methods which differed from Stanislavski 's .
Despite Chekhov 's acclaim during his lifetime as a playwright , some writers believe that his short stories represent the greater achievement . Raymond Carver , who wrote the short story " Errand " about Chekhov 's death , believed that Chekhov was the greatest of all short story writers :
Chekhov 's stories are as wonderful ( and necessary ) now as when they first appeared . It is not only the immense number of stories he wrote — for few , if any , writers have ever done more — it is the awesome frequency with which he produced masterpieces , stories that shrive us as well as delight and move us , that lay bare our emotions in ways only true art can accomplish .
Ernest Hemingway , another writer influenced by Chekhov , was more grudging : " Chekhov wrote about six good stories . But he was an amateur writer . " And Vladimir Nabokov criticized Chekhov 's " medley of dreadful prosaisms , ready @-@ made epithets , repetitions . " But he also declared The Lady with the Dog " one of the greatest stories ever written " in its depiction of a problematic relationship , and described Chekhov as writing " the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life , slowly and yet without a break , in a slightly subdued voice . "
For the writer William Boyd , Chekhov 's historical accomplishment was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the " event plot " for something more " blurred , interrupted , mauled or otherwise tampered with by life . "
Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in The Common Reader ( 1925 ) :
But is it the end , we ask ? We have rather the feeling that we have overrun our signals ; or it is as if a tune had stopped short without the expected chords to close it . These stories are inconclusive , we say , and proceed to frame a criticism based upon the assumption that stories ought to conclude in a way that we recognise . In so doing we raise the question of our own fitness as readers . Where the tune is familiar and the end emphatic — lovers united , villains discomfited , intrigues exposed — as it is in most Victorian fiction , we can scarcely go wrong , but where the tune is unfamiliar and the end a note of interrogation or merely the information that they went on talking , as it is in Tchekov , we need a very daring and alert sense of literature to make us hear the tune , and in particular those last notes which complete the harmony .
While a Professor of Comparative Literature at Princeton University , Michael Goldman presented his view on defining the elusive quality of Chekhov 's comedies stating : " Having learned that Chekhov is comic ... Chekhov is comic in a very special , paradoxical way . His plays depend , as comedy does , on the vitality of the actors to make pleasurable what would otherwise be painfully awkward -- inappropriate speeches , missed connections , faux pas , stumbles , childishness -- but as part of a deeper pathos ; the stumbles are not pratfalls but an energized , graceful dissolution of purpose . "
Alan Twigg , the chief editor and publisher of the Canadian book review magazine BC Bookworld wrote ,
One can argue Anton Chekhov is the second @-@ most popular writer on the planet . Only Shakespeare outranks Chekhov in terms of movie adaptations of their work , according to the movie database IMDb . ... We generally know less about Chekhov than we know about mysterious Shakespeare .
Chekhov has also influenced the work of Japanese playwrights including Shimizu Kunio , Yōji Sakate , and Ai Nagai . Critics have noted similarities in how Chekhov and Shimizu use a mixture of light humor as well as an intense depictions of longing . Sakate adapted several of Chekhov 's plays and transformed them in the general style of nō . Nagai also adapted Chekhov 's plays , including Three Sisters , and transformed his dramatic style into Nagai 's style of satirical realism while emphasizing the social issues depicted on the play .
Chekhov 's works have been adapted for the screen , including Sidney Lumet 's Sea Gull and Louis Malle 's Vanya on 42nd Street . His work has also served as inspiration or been referenced in numerous films . In Andrei Tarkovsky 's 1975 film The Mirror , characters discuss his short story Ward No. 6 . Plays by Chekhov are also referenced in Francois Truffaut 's 1980 drama film The Last Metro , which is set in a theater . A portion of a stage production of Three Sisters appears in the 2014 drama film Still Alice .
= = Gallery = =
= Dreadnought =
The dreadnought was the predominant type of battleship in the early 20th century . The first of its kind , the Royal Navy 's Dreadnought , made such a strong impression on people 's minds when launched in 1906 that similar battleships built subsequently were referred to generically as " dreadnoughts " , and earlier battleships became known as " pre @-@ dreadnoughts " . Dreadnought 's design had two revolutionary features : an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " armament scheme , with more heavy @-@ calibre guns than previous ships , and steam turbine propulsion . As dreadnoughts became a symbol of national power , the arrival of these new warships was a crucial catalyst in the intensifying naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany . With the launch of a single ship , Dreadnought , the scales of naval power were reset overnight . As a result , dreadnought races sprang up around the world , including in South America , during the lead up to the beginning of World War I. Successive designs increased rapidly in size and made use of improvements in armament , armour , and propulsion throughout the dreadnought era . Within five years , new battleships had outclassed Dreadnought . These more powerful vessels were known as " super @-@ dreadnoughts . " Most of the original dreadnoughts were scrapped after the end of World War I under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , but many of the newer super @-@ dreadnoughts continued to be used throughout World War II . The only surviving dreadnought is USS Texas , located near the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site .
Dreadnought @-@ building consumed vast resources in the early 20th century , but there was only one battle between large dreadnought fleets . In the 1916 Battle of Jutland , the British and German navies clashed with no decisive result . The term " dreadnought " gradually dropped from use after World War I , especially after the Washington Naval Treaty , as virtually all remaining battleships shared dreadnought characteristics ; the term can also be used to describe battlecruisers , the other type of ship resulting from the dreadnought revolution .
= = Origins = =
The distinctive all @-@ big @-@ gun armament of the dreadnought was developed in the first years of the 20th century as navies sought to increase the range and power of the armament of their battleships . The typical battleship of the 1890s , now known as the " pre @-@ dreadnought " , had a main armament of four heavy guns of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) calibre , a secondary armament of six to eighteen quick @-@ firing guns of between 4 @.@ 7 inches ( 119 mm ) and 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 191 mm ) calibre , and other smaller weapons . This was in keeping with the prevailing theory of naval combat that battles would initially be fought at some distance , but the ships would then approach to close range for the final blows , when the shorter @-@ range , faster @-@ firing guns would prove most useful . Some designs had an intermediate battery of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns . Serious proposals for an all @-@ big @-@ gun armament were circulated in several countries by 1903 .
All @-@ big @-@ gun designs commenced almost simultaneously in three navies . The Imperial Japanese Navy authorized the construction of Satsuma , designed with twelve 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in 1904 , laid down in May . The Royal Navy began the design of HMS Dreadnought in January 1905 which was laid down in October . The US Navy gained authorization for USS Michigan , carrying eight 12 @-@ inch guns in March , which was laid down in December 1906 .
The move to all @-@ big @-@ gun designs was accomplished because a uniform , heavy @-@ calibre armament offered advantages in both firepower and fire control , and the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 showed that naval battles could , and likely would , be fought at long distances . The newest 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns had longer range and fired heavier shells than a gun of 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) or 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) calibre . Most historians also cite advantages in fire control ; at long ranges guns were aimed by observing the splashes caused by shells fired in salvoes , and it was difficult to interpret different splashes caused by different calibres of gun . There is still debate as to whether this feature was important .
= = = Long @-@ range gunnery = = =
In naval battles of the 1890s the decisive weapon was the medium @-@ calibre , typically 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , quick @-@ firing gun firing at relatively short range ; at the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894 , the victorious Japanese did not commence firing until the range had closed to 3 @,@ 900 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 yd ) and most of the fighting occurred at 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) . At these ranges , lighter guns had good accuracy , and their high rate of fire delivered high volumes of ordnance on the target , known as the " hail of fire " . Naval gunnery was too inaccurate to hit targets at a longer range .
By the early 20th century , British and American admirals expected future battleships would engage at longer distances . Newer models of torpedo had longer ranges . For instance , in 1903 , the US Navy ordered a design of torpedo effective to 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . Both British and American admirals concluded that they needed to engage the enemy at longer ranges . In 1900 , Admiral Sir John " Jackie " Fisher , commanding the Royal Navy Mediterranean Fleet , ordered gunnery practice with 6 @-@ inch guns at 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . By 1904 the US Naval War College was considering the effects on battleship tactics of torpedoes with a range of 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) to 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) .
The range of light and medium @-@ calibre guns was limited , and accuracy declined badly at longer range . At longer ranges the advantage of a high rate of fire decreased ; accurate shooting depended on spotting the shell @-@ splashes of the previous salvo , which limited the optimum rate of fire .
On 10 August 1904 the Imperial Russian Navy engaged the Imperial Japanese Navy in one of the longest @-@ range gunnery duels to date - over 8 miles ( 13 km ) - during the Battle of the Yellow Sea . The Russian battleships were equipped with Liuzhol range finders with an effective range of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) and the Japanese ships had Barr & Stroud range finders that reached out to 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) , but both sides still managed to hit each other with 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main battery fire at 8 miles ( 13 km ) . Naval architects and strategists around the world took notice .
= = = All @-@ big @-@ gun mixed @-@ calibre ships = = =
An evolutionary step was to reduce the quick @-@ firing secondary battery and substitute additional heavy guns , typically 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) or 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) . Ships designed in this way have been described as ' all @-@ big @-@ gun mixed @-@ calibre ' or later ' semi @-@ dreadnoughts ' . Semi @-@ dreadnought ships had many heavy secondary guns in wing turrets near the centre of the ship , instead of the small guns mounted in barbettes of earlier pre @-@ dreadnought ships .
Semi @-@ dreadnoughts classes included the British King Edward VII and Lord Nelson ; Russian Andrei Pervozvanny ; Japanese Katori , Satsuma , and Kawachi ; American Connecticut and Mississippi ; French Danton ; Italian Regina Elena ; and Austro @-@ Hungarian Radetzky class .
The design process for these ships often included discussion of an ' all @-@ big @-@ gun one @-@ calibre ' alternative . The June 1902 issue of Proceedings of the US Naval Institute contained comments by the US Navy 's leading gunnery expert Prof. P.R Alger proposing a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in twin turrets . In May 1902 , the Bureau of Construction and Repair submitted a design for the battleship with twelve 10 @-@ inch guns in twin turrets , two at the ends and four in the wings . Lt. Cdr . H. C. Poundstone submitted a paper to President Roosevelt in December 1902 arguing the case for larger battleships . In an appendix to his paper , Poundstone suggested a greater number of 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) and 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) guns was preferable to a smaller number of 12 @-@ inch and 9 @-@ inch . The Naval War College and Bureau of Construction and Repair developed these ideas in studies between 1903 and 1905 . War @-@ game studies begun in July 1903 " showed that a battleship armed with twelve 11 @-@ inch or 12 @-@ inch guns hexagonally arranged would be equal to three or more of the conventional type . "
The Royal Navy was thinking along similar lines . A design had been circulated in 1902 – 03 for " a powerful ' all big @-@ gun ' armament of two calibres , viz. four 12 @-@ inch and twelve 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . " The Admiralty decided to build three more King Edward VIIs ( with a mixture of 12 @-@ inch , 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch and 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) ) in the 1903 – 04 naval construction programme instead . The all @-@ big @-@ gun concept was revived for the 1904 – 05 programme , the Lord Nelson class . Restrictions on length and beam meant the midships 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets became single instead of twin , thus giving an armament of four 12 @-@ inch , ten 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch and no 6 @-@ inch . The constructor for this design , J.H. Narbeth , submitted an alternative drawing showing an armament of twelve 12 @-@ inch guns , but the Admiralty was not prepared to accept this . Part of the rationale for the decision to retain mixed @-@ calibre guns was the need to begin the building of the ships quickly because of the tense situation produced by the Russo @-@ Japanese War .
= = = Switch to all @-@ big @-@ gun designs = = =
The replacement of the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) or 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns with weapons of 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) or 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) calibre improved the striking power of a battleship , particularly at longer ranges . Uniform heavy @-@ gun armament offered many other advantages . One advantage was logistical simplicity . When the US was considering whether to have a mixed @-@ calibre main armament for the South Carolina class , for example , William Sims and Homer Poundstone stressed the advantages of homogeneity in terms of ammunition supply and the transfer of crews from the disengaged guns to replace gunners wounded in action .
A uniform calibre of gun also helped streamline fire control . The designers of Dreadnought preferred an all @-@ big @-@ gun design because it would mean only one set of calculations about adjustments to the range of the guns . Some historians today hold that a uniform calibre was particularly important because the risk of confusion between shell @-@ splashes of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) and lighter guns made accurate ranging difficult . This viewpoint is controversial , as fire control in 1905 was not advanced enough to use the salvo @-@ firing technique where this confusion might be important , and confusion of shell @-@ splashes does not seem to have been a concern of those working on all @-@ big @-@ gun designs . Nevertheless , the likelihood of engagements at longer ranges was important in deciding that the heaviest possible guns should become standard , hence 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) rather than 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) .
The newer designs of 12 @-@ inch gun mounting had a considerably higher rate of fire , removing the advantage previously enjoyed by smaller calibres . In 1895 , a 12 @-@ inch gun might have fired one round every four minutes ; by 1902 , two rounds per minute was usual . In October 1903 , the Italian naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti published a paper in Jane 's Fighting Ships entitled " An Ideal Battleship for the British Navy " , which called for a 17 @,@ 000 ton ship carrying a main armament of twelve 12 @-@ inch guns , protected by armour 12 inches thick , and having a speed of 24 knots ( 28 mph / 44 km / h ) . Cuniberti 's idea — which he had already proposed to his own navy , the Regia Marina — was to make use of the high rate of fire of new 12 @-@ inch guns to produce devastating rapid @-@ fire from heavy guns to replace the ' hail of fire ' from lighter weapons . Something similar lay behind the Japanese move towards heavier guns ; at Tsushima , Japanese shells contained a higher than normal proportion of high explosive , and were fused to explode on contact , starting fires rather than piercing armour . The increased rate of fire laid the foundations for future advances in fire control .
= = = Building the first dreadnoughts = = =
In Japan , the two battleships of the 1903 – 04 programme were the first in the world to be laid down as all @-@ big @-@ gun ships , with eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . The armour of their design was considered too thin , demanding a substantial redesign . The financial pressures of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and the short supply of 12 @-@ inch guns — which had to be imported from the United Kingdom — meant these ships were completed with a mixture of 12 @-@ inch and 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) armament . The 1903 – 04 design retained traditional triple @-@ expansion steam engines , unlike Dreadnought .
The dreadnought breakthrough occurred in the United Kingdom in October 1905 . The new First Sea Lord , John " Jackie " Fisher had long been an advocate of new technology in the Royal Navy and had recently been convinced of the idea of an all @-@ big @-@ gun battleship . Fisher is often credited as the creator of the dreadnought and the father of the United Kingdom 's great dreadnought battleship fleet , an impression he himself did much to reinforce . It has been suggested Fisher 's main focus was on the arguably even more revolutionary battlecruiser and not the battleship .
Shortly after taking office , Fisher set up a Committee on Designs to consider future battleships and armoured cruisers . The Committee 's first task was to consider a new battleship . The specification for the new ship was a 12 @-@ inch main battery and anti @-@ torpedo @-@ boat guns but no intermediate calibres , and a speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ) which was two or three knots faster than existing battleships . The initial designs intended twelve 12 @-@ inch guns , though difficulties in positioning these guns led the chief constructor at one stage to propose a return to four 12 @-@ inch guns with sixteen or eighteen of 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) . After a full evaluation of reports of the action at Tsushima compiled by an official observer , Captain Pakenham , the Committee settled on a main battery of ten 12 @-@ inch guns , along with twenty @-@ two 12 pounders as secondary armament . The Committee also gave Dreadnought steam turbine propulsion , which was unprecedented in a large warship . The greater power and lighter weight of turbines meant the 21 @-@ knot ( 24 mph / 39 km / h ) design speed could be achieved in a smaller and less costly ship than if reciprocating engines had been used . Construction took place quickly ; the keel was laid on 2 October 1905 , the ship was launched on 10 February 1906 , and completed on 3 October 1906 — an impressive demonstration of British industrial might .
The first US dreadnoughts were the two South Carolina @-@ class ships . Detailed plans for these were worked out in July – November 1905 , and approved by the Board of Construction on 23 November 1905 . Building was slow ; specifications for bidders were issued on 21 March 1906 , the contracts awarded on 21 July 1906 and the two ships were laid down in December 1906 , after the completion of the Dreadnought .
= = Design = =
The designers of dreadnoughts sought to provide as much protection , speed , and firepower as possible in a ship of a realistic size and cost . The hallmark of dreadnought battleships was an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " armament , but they also had heavy armour concentrated mainly in a thick belt at the waterline and in one or more armoured decks . Secondary armament , fire control , command equipment , and protection against torpedoes also had to be crammed into the hull .
The inevitable consequence of demands for ever greater speed , striking power , and endurance meant that displacement , and hence cost , of dreadnoughts tended to increase . The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 imposed a limit of 35 @,@ 000 tons on the displacement of capital ships . In subsequent years treaty battleships were commissioned to build up to this limit . Japan 's decision to leave the Treaty in the 1930s , and the arrival of the Second World War , eventually made this limit irrelevant .
= = = Armament = = =
Dreadnoughts mounted a uniform main battery of heavy @-@ calibre guns ; the number , size , and arrangement differed between designs . Dreadnought mounted ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . 12 @-@ inch guns had been standard for most navies in the pre @-@ dreadnought era and this continued in the first generation of dreadnought battleships . The Imperial German Navy was an exception , continuing to use 280 @-@ millimetre ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) guns in its first class of dreadnoughts , the Nassau class .
Dreadnoughts also carried lighter weapons . Many early dreadnoughts carried a secondary armament of very light guns designed to fend off enemy torpedo boats . The calibre and weight of secondary armament tended to increase , as the range of torpedoes and the staying power of the destroyers expected to carry them also increased . From the end of World War I onwards , battleships had to be equipped with many light guns as anti @-@ aircraft armament .
Dreadnoughts frequently carried torpedo tubes themselves . In theory , a line of battleships so equipped could unleash a devastating volley of torpedoes on an enemy line steaming a parallel course . In practice , torpedoes fired from battleships scored very few hits , and there was a risk that a stored torpedo would cause a dangerous explosion if hit by enemy fire .
= = = = Position of main armament = = = =
The effectiveness of the guns depended in part on the layout of the turrets . Dreadnought , and the British ships which immediately followed it , carried five turrets : one forward , one aft and one amidships on the centreline of the ship , and two in the ' wings ' next to the superstructure . This allowed three turrets to fire ahead and four on the broadside . The Nassau and Helgoland classes of German dreadnoughts adopted a ' hexagonal ' layout , with one turret each fore and aft and four wing turrets ; this meant more guns were mounted in total , but the same number could fire ahead or broadside as with Dreadnought .
Dreadnought designs experimented with different layouts . The British Neptune @-@ class battleship staggered the wing turrets , so all ten guns could fire on the broadside , a feature also used by the German Kaiser class . This risked blast damage to parts of the ship over which the guns fired , and put great stress on the ship 's frames .
If all turrets were on the centreline of the vessel , stresses on the ship 's frames were relatively low . This layout meant the entire main battery could fire on the broadside , though fewer could fire end @-@ on . It meant the hull would be longer , which posed some challenges for the designers ; a longer ship needed to devote more weight to armour to get equivalent protection , and the magazines which served each turret interfered with the distribution of boilers and engines . For these reasons , HMS Agincourt , which carried a record fourteen 12 @-@ inch guns in seven centreline turrets , was not considered a success .
A superfiring layout was eventually adopted as standard . This involved raising one or two turrets so they could fire over a turret immediately forward or astern of them . The US Navy adopted this feature with their first dreadnoughts in 1906 , but others were slower to do so . As with other layouts there were drawbacks . Initially , there were concerns about the impact of the blast of the raised guns on the lower turret . Raised turrets raised the centre of gravity of the ship , and might reduce the stability of the ship . Nevertheless , this layout made the best of the firepower available from a fixed number of guns , and was eventually adopted generally . The US Navy used superfiring on the South Carolina class , and the layout was adopted in the Royal Navy with the Orion class of 1910 . By World War II , superfiring was entirely standard .
Initially , all dreadnoughts had two guns to a turret . One solution to the problem of turret layout was to put three or even four guns in each turret . Fewer turrets meant the ship could be shorter , or could devote more space to machinery . On the other hand , it meant that in the event of an enemy shell destroying one turret , a higher proportion of the main armament would be out of action . The risk of the blast waves from each gun barrel interfering with others in the same turret reduced the rate of fire from the guns somewhat . The first nation to adopt the triple turret was Italy , in the Dante Alighieri , soon followed by Russia with the Gangut class , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Tegetthoff class , and the US Nevada class . British Royal Navy battleships did not adopt triple turrets until after the First World War , with the Nelson class . Several later designs used quadruple turrets , including the British King George V class and French Richelieu class .
= = = = Main armament power and calibre = = = =
Rather than try to fit more guns onto a ship , it was possible to increase the power of each gun . This could be done by increasing either the calibre of the weapon and hence the weight of shell , or by lengthening the barrel to increase muzzle velocity . Either of these offered the chance to increase range and armour penetration .
Both methods offered advantages and disadvantages , though in general greater muzzle velocity meant increased barrel wear . As guns fire , their barrels wear out , losing accuracy and eventually requiring replacement . At times , this became problematic ; the US Navy seriously considered stopping practice firing of heavy guns in 1910 because of the wear on the barrels . The disadvantages of guns of larger calibre are that guns and turrets must be heavier ; and heavier shells , which are fired at lower velocities , require turret designs that allow a larger angle of elevation for the same range . Heavier shells have the advantage of being slowed less by air resistance , retaining more penetrating power at longer ranges .
Different navies approached the issue of calibre in different ways . The German navy , for instance , generally used a lighter calibre than the equivalent British ships , e.g. 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) calibre when the British standard was 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) . Because German metallurgy was superior , the German 12 @-@ inch gun had better shell weight and muzzle velocity than the British 12 @-@ inch ; and German ships could afford more armour for the same vessel weight because the German 12 " guns were lighter than the 13 @.@ 5 " guns the British required for comparable effect .
Over time the calibre of guns tended to increase . In the Royal Navy , the Orion class , launched 1910 , had ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns , all on the centreline ; the Queen Elizabeth class , launched 1913 , had eight 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns . In all navies , fewer guns of larger calibre came to be used . The smaller number of guns simplified their distribution , and centreline turrets became the norm .
A further step change was planned for battleships designed and laid down at the end of World War I. The Japanese Nagato @-@ class battleships in 1917 carried 410 @-@ millimetre ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) guns , which was quickly matched by the US Navy 's Colorado class . Both the United Kingdom and Japan were planning battleships with 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) armament , in the British case the N3 class . The Washington Naval Treaty concluded on 6 February 1922 and ratified later limited battleship guns to not more than 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) calibre , and these heavier guns were not produced .
The only battleships to break the limit were the Japanese Yamato class , begun in 1937 ( after the treaty expired ) , which carried 460 mm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) main guns . By the middle of World War II , the United Kingdom was making use of 15 @-@ inch guns kept as spares for the Queen Elizabeth class to arm the last British battleship , HMS Vanguard .
Some World War II @-@ era designs were drawn up proposing another move towards gigantic armament . The German H @-@ 43 and H @-@ 44 designs proposed 508 @-@ millimetre ( 20 in ) guns , and there is evidence Hitler wanted calibres as high as 609 @-@ millimetre ( 24 in ) ; the Japanese ' Super Yamato ' design also called for 508 mm guns . None of these proposals went further than very preliminary design work .
= = = = Secondary armament = = = =
The first dreadnoughts tended to have a very light secondary armament intended to protect them from torpedo boats . Dreadnought carried 12 @-@ pounder guns ; each of her twenty @-@ two 12 @-@ pounders could fire at least 15 rounds a minute at any torpedo boat making an attack . The South Carolinas and other early American dreadnoughts were similarly equipped . At this stage , torpedo boats were expected to attack separately from any fleet actions . Therefore , there was no need to armour the secondary gun armament , or to protect the crews from the blast effects of the main guns . In this context , the light guns tended to be mounted in unarmoured positions high on the ship to minimize weight and maximize field of fire .
Within a few years , the principal threat was from the destroyer — larger , more heavily armed , and harder to destroy than the torpedo boat . Since the risk from destroyers was very serious , it was considered that one shell from a battleship 's secondary armament should sink ( rather than merely damage ) any attacking destroyer . Destroyers , in contrast to torpedo boats , were expected to attack as part of a general fleet engagement , so it was necessary for the secondary armament to be protected against shell splinters from heavy guns , and the blast of the main armament . This philosophy of secondary armament was adopted by the German navy from the start ; Nassau , for instance , carried twelve 150 @-@ mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and sixteen 88 @-@ mm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns , and subsequent German dreadnought classes followed this lead . These heavier guns tended to be mounted in armoured barbettes or casemates on the main deck . The Royal Navy increased its secondary armament from 12 @-@ pounder to first 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) and then 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns , which were standard at the start of World War I ; the US standardized on 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) calibre for the war but planned 6 @-@ inch guns for the ships designed just afterwards .
The secondary battery served several other roles . It was hoped that a medium @-@ calibre shell might be able to score a hit on an enemy dreadnought 's sensitive fire control systems . It was also felt that the secondary armament could play an important role in driving off enemy cruisers from attacking a crippled battleship .
The secondary armament of dreadnoughts was , on the whole , unsatisfactory . A hit from a light gun could not be relied on to stop a destroyer . Heavier guns could not be relied on to hit a destroyer , as experience at the Battle of Jutland showed . The casemate mountings of heavier guns proved problematic ; being low in the hull , they proved liable to flooding , and on several classes some were removed and plated over . The only sure way to protect a dreadnought from destroyer or torpedo boat attack was to provide a destroyer squadron as escort . After World War I the secondary armament tended to be mounted in turrets on the upper deck and around the superstructure . This allowed a wide field of fire and good protection without the negative points of casemates . Increasingly through the 1920s and 1930s the secondary guns were seen as a major part of the anti @-@ aircraft battery , with high @-@ angle , dual @-@ purpose guns increasingly adopted .
= = = Armour = = =
Much of the displacement of a dreadnought was taken up by the steel plating of the armour . Designers spent much time and effort to provide the best possible protection for their ships against the various weapons they would be faced with . Only so much weight could be devoted to protection , without compromising speed , firepower or seakeeping .
= = = = Central citadel = = = =
The bulk of a dreadnought 's armour was concentrated around the " armoured citadel " . This was a box , with four armoured walls and an armoured roof , around the most important parts of the ship . The sides of the citadel were the " armoured belt " of the ship , which started on the hull just in front of the forward turret and ran to just behind the aft turret . The ends of the citadel were two armoured bulkheads , fore and aft , which stretched between the ends of the armour belt . The " roof " of the citadel was an armoured deck . Within the citadel were the boilers , engines , and the magazines for the main armament . A hit to any of these systems could cripple or destroy the ship . The " floor " of the box was the bottom of the ship 's hull , and was unarmoured , although it was in fact a " triple bottom " .
The earliest dreadnoughts were intended to take part in a pitched battle against other battleships at ranges of up to 10 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . In such an encounter , shells would fly on a relatively flat trajectory , and a shell would have to hit at or just about the waterline to damage the vitals of the ship . For this reason , the early dreadnoughts ' armour was concentrated in a thick belt around the waterline ; this was 11 inches ( 280 mm ) thick in Dreadnought . Behind this belt were arranged the ship 's coal bunkers , to further protect the engineering spaces . In an engagement of this sort , there was also a lesser threat of indirect damage to the vital parts of the ship . A shell which struck above the belt armour and exploded could send fragments flying in all directions . These fragments were dangerous , but could be stopped by much thinner armour than what would be necessary to stop an unexploded armour @-@ piercing shell . To protect the innards of the ship from fragments of shells which detonated on the superstructure , much thinner steel armour was applied to the decks of the ship .
The thickest protection was reserved for the central citadel in all battleships . Some navies extended a thinner armoured belt and armoured deck to cover the ends of the ship , or extended a thinner armoured belt up the outside of the hull . This " tapered " armour was used by the major European navies — the United Kingdom , Germany and France . This arrangement gave some armour to a larger part of the ship ; for the very first dreadnoughts , when high @-@ explosive shellfire was still considered a significant threat , this was useful . It tended to result in the main belt being very short , only protecting a thin strip above the waterline ; some navies found that when their dreadnoughts were heavily laden , the armoured belt was entirely submerged . The alternative was an " all or nothing " protection scheme , developed by the US Navy . The armour belt was tall and thick , but no side protection at all was provided to the ends of the ship or the upper decks . The armoured deck was also thickened . The " all @-@ or @-@ nothing " system provided more effective protection against the very @-@ long @-@ range engagements of dreadnought fleets and was adopted outside the US Navy after World War I.
The design of the dreadnought changed to meet new challenges . For example , armour schemes were changed to reflect the greater risk of plunging shells from long @-@ range gunfire , and the increasing threat from armour @-@ piercing bombs dropped by aircraft . Later designs carried a greater thickness of steel on the armoured deck ; Yamato carried a 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) main belt , but a deck 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) thick .
= = = = Underwater protection and subdivision = = = =
The final element of the protection scheme of the first dreadnoughts was the subdivision of the ship below the waterline into several watertight compartments . If the hull were holed — by shellfire , mine , torpedo , or collision — then , in theory , only one area would flood and the ship could survive . To make this precaution even more effective , many dreadnoughts had no doors between different underwater sections , so that even a surprise hole below the waterline need not sink the ship . There were still several instances where flooding spread between underwater compartments .
The greatest evolution in dreadnought protection came with the development of the anti @-@ torpedo bulge and torpedo belt , both attempts to protect against underwater damage by mines and torpedoes . The purpose of underwater protection was to absorb the force of a detonating mine or torpedo well away from the final watertight hull . This meant an inner bulkhead along the side of the hull , which was generally lightly armoured to capture splinters , separated from the outer hull by one or more compartments . The compartments in between were either left empty , or filled with coal , water or fuel oil .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Dreadnoughts were propelled by two to four screw propellers . Dreadnought herself , and all British dreadnoughts , had screw shafts driven by steam turbines . The first generation of dreadnoughts built in other nations used the slower triple @-@ expansion steam engine which had been standard in pre @-@ dreadnoughts .
Turbines offered more power than reciprocating engines for the same volume of machinery . This , along with a guarantee on the new machinery from the inventor , Charles Parsons , persuaded the Royal Navy to use turbines in Dreadnought . It is often said that turbines had the additional benefits of being cleaner and more reliable than reciprocating engines . By 1905 , new designs of reciprocating engine were available which were cleaner and more reliable than previous models .
Turbines also had disadvantages . At cruising speeds much slower than maximum speed , turbines were markedly less fuel @-@ efficient than reciprocating engines . This was particularly important for navies which required a long range at cruising speeds — and hence for the US Navy , which was planning in the event of war to cruise across the Pacific and engage the Japanese in the Philippines .
The US Navy experimented with turbine engines from 1908 in the North Dakota , but was not fully committed to turbines until the Pennsylvania class in 1916 . In the preceding Nevada class , one ship , the Oklahoma , received reciprocating engines , while the Nevada received geared turbines . The two New York @-@ class ships of 1914 both received reciprocating engines , but all four ships of the Florida ( 1911 ) and Wyoming ( 1912 ) classes received turbines .
The disadvantages of the turbine were eventually overcome . The solution which eventually was generally adopted was the geared turbine , where gearing reduced the rotation rate of the propellers and hence increased efficiency . This solution required technical precision in the gears and hence was difficult to implement .
One alternative was the turbo @-@ electric drive where the steam turbine generated electrical power which then drove the propellers . This was particularly favoured by the US Navy , which used it for all dreadnoughts from late 1915 – 1922 . The advantages of this method were its low cost , the opportunity for very close underwater compartmentalization , and good astern performance . The disadvantages were that the machinery was heavy and vulnerable to battle damage , particularly the effects of flooding on the electrics .
Turbines were never replaced in battleship design . Diesel engines were eventually considered by some powers , as they offered very good endurance and an engineering space taking up less of the length of the ship . They were also heavier , however , took up a greater vertical space , offered less power , and were considered unreliable .
= = = = Fuel = = = =
The first generation of dreadnoughts used coal to fire the boilers which fed steam to the turbines . Coal had been in use since the very first steam warships . One advantage of coal was that it is quite inert ( in lump form ) and thus could be used as part of the ship 's protection scheme . Coal also had many disadvantages . It was labor @-@ intensive to pack coal into the ship 's bunkers and then feed it into the boilers . The boilers became clogged with ash . Airborne coal dust and related vapors were highly explosive , possibly evidenced by the explosion of USS Maine . Burning coal as fuel also produced thick black smoke which gave away the position of a fleet and interfered with visibility , signaling , and fire control . In addition , coal was very bulky and had comparatively low thermal efficiency .
Oil @-@ fired propulsion had many advantages for naval architects and officers at sea alike . It reduced smoke , making ships less visible . It could be fed into boilers automatically , rather than needing a complement of stokers to do it by hand . Oil has roughly twice the thermal content of coal . This meant that the boilers themselves could be smaller ; and for the same volume of fuel , an oil @-@ fired ship would have much greater range .
These benefits meant that , as early as 1901 , Fisher was pressing the advantages of oil fuel . There were technical problems with oil @-@ firing , connected with the different distribution of the weight of oil fuel compared to coal , and the problems of pumping viscous oil . The main problem with using oil for the battle fleet was that , with the exception of the United States , every major navy would have to import its oil . As a result , some navies adopted ' dual @-@ firing ' boilers which could use coal sprayed with oil ; British ships so equipped , which included dreadnoughts , could even use oil alone at up to 60 % power .
The US had large reserves of oil , and the US Navy was the first to wholeheartedly adopt oil @-@ firing , deciding to do so in 1910 and ordering oil @-@ fired boilers for the Nevada class , in 1911 . The United Kingdom was not far behind , deciding in 1912 to use oil on its own in the Queen Elizabeth class ; shorter British design and building times meant that Queen Elizabeth was commissioned before either of the Nevada @-@ class vessels . The United Kingdom planned to revert to mixed firing with the subsequent Revenge class , at the cost of some speed — but Fisher , who returned to office in 1914 , insisted that all the boilers should be oil @-@ fired . Other major navies retained mixed coal @-@ and @-@ oil firing until the end of World War I.
= = Dreadnought building = =
Dreadnoughts were developed as a move in an international battleship arms @-@ race which had begun in the 1890s . The British Royal Navy had a big lead in the number of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , but a lead of only one dreadnought . This has led to criticism that the British , by launching HMS Dreadnought , threw away a strategic advantage . Most of the United Kingdom 's naval rivals were themselves contemplating or even building warships that featured a uniform battery of heavy guns . Both the Japanese Navy and the US Navy ordered " all @-@ big @-@ gun " ships in 1904 – 05 , with the Satsuma and South Carolina ships , respectively . Germany 's Kaiser Wilhelm II had advocated a fast warship armed only with heavy guns since the 1890s . By securing a head start in dreadnought construction , the United Kingdom ensured that its dominance of the seas continued .
The battleship race soon accelerated once more , placing a great burden on the finances of the governments which engaged in it . The first dreadnoughts were not much more expensive than the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts , but the cost per ship continued to grow thereafter . Modern battleships were the crucial element of naval power in spite of their price . Each battleship was a signal of national power and prestige , in a manner similar to the nuclear weapons of today . Germany , France , Russia , Italy , Japan and Austria all began dreadnought programmes , and second @-@ rank powers including the Ottoman Empire , Argentina , Brazil , and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards .
= = = Anglo @-@ German arms race = = =
The building of Dreadnought coincided with increasing tension between the United Kingdom and Germany . Germany had begun to build a large battlefleet in the 1890s , as part of a deliberate policy to challenge British naval supremacy . With the conclusion of the Entente Cordiale between the United Kingdom and France in April 1904 , it became increasingly clear that the United Kingdom 's principal naval enemy would be Germany , which was building up a large , modern fleet under the ' Tirpitz ' laws . This rivalry gave rise to the two largest dreadnought fleets of the pre @-@ war period .
The first German response to Dreadnought came with the Nassau class , laid down in 1907 . This was followed by the Helgoland class in 1909 . Together with two battlecruisers — a type for which the Germans had less admiration than Fisher , but which could be built under authorization for armoured cruisers , rather than capital ships — these classes gave Germany a total of ten modern capital ships built or building in 1909 . The British ships were faster and more powerful than their German equivalents , but a 12 : 10 ratio fell far short of the 2 : 1 ratio that the Royal Navy wanted to maintain .
In 1909 , the British Parliament authorized an additional four capital ships , holding out hope Germany would be willing to negotiate a treaty about battleship numbers . If no such solution could be found , an additional four ships would be laid down in 1910 . Even this compromise solution meant ( when taken together with some social reforms ) raising taxes enough to prompt a constitutional crisis in the United Kingdom in 1909 – 10 . In 1910 , the British eight @-@ ship construction plan went ahead , including four Orion @-@ class super @-@ dreadnoughts , and augmented by battlecruisers purchased by Australia and New Zealand . In the same period , Germany laid down only three ships , giving the United Kingdom a superiority of 22 ships to 13 . The British resolve demonstrated by their construction programme led the Germans to seek a negotiated end to the arms race . The Admiralty 's new target of a 60 % lead over Germany was near enough to Tirpitz 's goal of cutting the British lead to 50 % , but talks foundered on the question on whether British Commonwealth battlecruisers should be included in the count , as well as non @-@ naval matters like the German demands for recognition of ownership of Alsace @-@ Lorraine .
The dreadnought race stepped up in 1910 and 1911 , with Germany laying down four capital ships each year and the United Kingdom five . Tension came to a head following the German Naval Law of 1912 . This proposed a fleet of 33 German battleships and battlecruisers , outnumbering the Royal Navy in home waters . To make matters worse for the United Kingdom , the Imperial Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was building four dreadnoughts , while the Italians had four and were building two more . Against such threats , the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee vital British interests . The United Kingdom was faced with a choice of building more battleships , withdrawing from the Mediterranean , or seeking an alliance with France . Further naval construction was unacceptably expensive at a time when social welfare provision was making calls on the budget . Withdrawing from the Mediterranean would mean a huge loss of influence , weakening British diplomacy in the Mediterranean and shaking the stability of the British Empire . The only acceptable option , and the one recommended by First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill , was to break with the policies of the past and make an arrangement with France . The French would assume responsibility for checking Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary in the Mediterranean , while the British would protect the north coast of France . In spite of some opposition from British politicians , the Royal Navy organised itself on this basis in 1912 .
In spite of these important strategic consequences , the 1912 Naval Law had little bearing on the battleship force ratios . The United Kingdom responded by laying down ten new super @-@ dreadnoughts in its 1912 and 1913 budgets — ships of the Queen Elizabeth and Revenge classes , which introduced a further step change in armament , speed and protection — while Germany laid down only five , concentrating resources on the Army .
= = = United States = = =
The American South Carolina @-@ class battleships were the first all @-@ big @-@ gun ships completed by one of the United Kingdom 's rivals . The planning for the type had begun before Dreadnought was launched . There is some speculation the US Navy design was influenced by informal contacts with sympathetic Royal Navy officials , but the American ship was very different .
The US Congress authorized the Navy to build two battleships , but of only 16 @,@ 000 tons or lower displacement . As a result , the South Carolina class were built to much tighter limits than Dreadnought . To make the best use of the weight available for armament , all eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns were mounted along the centreline , in superfiring pairs fore and aft . This arrangement gave a broadside equal to Dreadnought , but with fewer guns ; this was the most efficient distribution of weapons and was a precursor of the standard practice of future generations of battleships . The principal economy of displacement compared to Dreadnought was in propulsion ; South Carolina retained triple @-@ expansion steam engines , and could manage only 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ) compared to 21 kn ( 39 km / h ) for Dreadnought . For this reason the later Delaware class were described by some as the US Navy 's first dreadnoughts ; only a few years after their commissioning , the South Carolina class could not operate tactically with the newer dreadnoughts due to their low speed , and were forced to operate with the older pre @-@ dreadnoughts .
The two ships of the Delaware class were the first US battleships to match the speed of British dreadnoughts . The decision to use a 10 @-@ gun 20 @,@ 500 ton ship over a 12 @-@ gun 24 @,@ 000 ton in this class was criticized , because the secondary battery was ' wet ' ( suffering from spray ) and the bow was low in the water . The alternative 12 @-@ gun design had many disadvantages as well ; the extra two guns and a lower casemate had ' hidden costs ' — the two wing turrets planned would weaken the upper deck , be almost impossible to adequately protect against underwater attack , and force magazines to be located too close to the sides of the ship .
The US Navy continued to expand its battlefleet , laying down two ships in most subsequent years until 1920 . The US continued to use reciprocating engines as an alternative to turbines until the Nevada class , laid down in 1912 . In part this reflected a cautious approach to battleship @-@ building , and in part a preference for long endurance over high maximum speed .
= = = Japan = = =
With their victory in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , the Japanese became concerned about the potential for conflict with the US . The theorist Satō Tetsutarō developed the doctrine that Japan should have a battlefleet at least 70 % the size of that of the US . This would enable the Japanese navy to win two decisive battles , the first early in a war against the US Pacific Fleet , and the second against the US Atlantic Fleet which would inevitably be dispatched as reinforcements .
Japan 's first priorities were to refit the pre @-@ dreadnoughts captured from Russia and to complete Satsuma and Aki . The Satsumas were designed before Dreadnought , but financial shortages resulting from the Russo @-@ Japanese War delayed completion and resulted in their carrying a mixed armament , so they were known as ' semi @-@ dreadnought 's . These were followed by a modified Aki @-@ type : Kawachi and Settsu . These two ships were laid down in 1909 and completed in 1912 . They were armed with twelve 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns , but they were of two different models with differing barrel lengths , meaning that they would have had difficulty controlling their fire at long ranges .
= = = In other countries = = =
Compared to the other major naval powers , France was slow to start building dreadnoughts , instead finishing the planned Danton class of pre @-@ dreadnoughts , laying down five in 1907 and 1908 . In September 1910 the first of the Courbet class was laid down , making France the eleventh nation to enter the dreadnought race . In the Navy Estimates of 1911 , Paul Bénazet asserted that from 1896 to 1911 , France dropped from being the world 's second @-@ largest naval power to fourth ; he attributed this to problems in maintenance routines and neglect . The closer alliance with the United Kingdom made these reduced forces more than adequate for French needs .
The Italian navy had received proposals for an all @-@ big @-@ gun battleship from Cuniberti well before Dreadnought was launched , but it took until 1909 for Italy to lay down one of its own . The construction of Dante Alighieri was prompted by rumours of Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought building . A further five dreadnoughts of the Conte di Cavour class and Andrea Doria class class followed as Italy sought to maintain its lead over Austria @-@ Hungary . These ships remained the core of Italian naval strength until World War II . The subsequent Francesco Caracciolo @-@ class battleship were suspended ( and later cancelled ) on the outbreak of World War I.
In January 1909 , Austro @-@ Hungarian admirals circulated a document calling for a fleet of four dreadnoughts . A constitutional crisis in 1909 – 10 meant no construction could be approved . In spite of this , two dreadnoughts were laid down by shipyards on a speculative basis – due especially to the energetic manipulations of Rudolf Montecuccoli , Chief of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy – and later approved along with an additional two . The resulting ships , all Tegetthoff class , were to be accompanied by a further four ships , but these were cancelled on the outbreak of World War I.
In June 1909 , the Imperial Russian Navy began construction of four Gangut class dreadnoughts for the Baltic Fleet , and in October 1911 , three more Imperatritsa Mariya class dreadnoughts for the Black Sea were laid down . Of seven ships , only one was completed within four years of being laid down , and the Gangut ships were " obsolescent and outclassed " upon commissioning . Taking lessons from Tsushima , and influenced by Cuniberti , they ended up more closely resembling slower versions of Fisher 's battlecruisers than Dreadnought , and they proved badly flawed due to their smaller guns and thinner armour when compared with contemporary dreadnoughts .
Spain commissioned three ships of the España class , with the first laid down in 1909 . The three ships were the smallest dreadnoughts ever built . They were built in Spain , with assistance ; construction on the third ship , Jaime I , took nine years from its laying down date to completion because of non @-@ delivery of critical material , especially armament , from the United Kingdom .
Brazil was the third country to begin construction on a dreadnought . It ordered three dreadnoughts from the United Kingdom which would mount a heavier main battery than any other battleship afloat at the time ( twelve 12 in ( 30 cm ) / 45 calibre guns ) . Two were completed : Minas Geraes was laid down on by Armstrong ( Elswick ) on 17 April 1907 , and its sister , São Paulo , followed thirteen days later at Vickers ( Barrow ) . Although many naval journals in Europe and the US speculated that the ships were really acting as a proxy for one of the naval powers and would hand the ships over to them as soon as they were complete , both ships were commissioned into the Brazilian Navy in 1910 .
The Netherlands intended by 1912 to replace its fleet of pre @-@ dreadnought armoured ships with a modern fleet composed of dreadnoughts . After a Royal Commission proposed the purchase of nine dreadnoughts in August 1913 , there were extensive debates over the need for such ships and , if they were necessary , the actual number needed . These lasted into August 1914 , when a bill authorizing funding for four dreadnoughts was finalized , but the outbreak of World War I halted the ambitious plan .
Turkey ordered two dreadnoughts from British yards , which were seized by the British on the outbreak of World War I , in order to reinforce the Royal Navy and prevent the ships falling into enemy hands . The ships Reshadiye and Sultan Osman I became HMS Erin and Agincourt ( 1913 ) respectively . The seizure of the ships was followed by Germany 's gift to Turkey of two warships , the battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the cruiser SMS Breslau . This became an important factor in the decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the Central Powers .
Greece had ordered a dreadnought from Germany , but work stopped on the outbreak of war . The main armament for the Greek ship had been ordered in the United States , and the guns consequently equipped a class of British monitors . Greece in 1914 purchased two pre @-@ dreadnoughts from the United States Navy , renaming them Kilkis and Lemnos in Royal Hellenic Navy service .
= = = Super @-@ dreadnoughts = = =
Within five years of the commissioning of Dreadnought , a new generation of more powerful " super @-@ dreadnoughts " was being built . The first super @-@ dreadnoughts are generally considered to be the British Orion class . What made them ' super ' was the unprecedented 2 @,@ 000 @-@ ton jump in displacement , the introduction of the heavier 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) gun , and the placement of all the main armament on the centreline . In the four years between Dreadnought and Orion , displacement had increased by 25 % , and weight of broadside ( literally , the weight of ammunition that can be fired in one salvo ) had doubled .
British super @-@ dreadnoughts were joined by those built by other nations as well . The US Navy New York class , laid down in 1911 , carried 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) guns in response to the British move and this calibre became standard . In Japan , two Fusō class super @-@ dreadnoughts were laid down in 1912 , followed by the two Ises in 1914 , with both classes carrying twelve 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) guns . In 1917 , the Nagato class was ordered , the first dreadnoughts to mount 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns , making them arguably the most powerful warships in the world . All were increasingly built from Japanese rather than imported components . In France , the Courbets were followed by three super @-@ dreadnoughts of the Bretagne class , carrying 340 mm ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) guns ; another five Normandies were canceled on the outbreak of World War I. The aforementioned Brazilian dreadnoughts sparked a small @-@ scale arms race in South America , as Argentina and Chile each ordered two super @-@ dreadnoughts from the US and the United Kingdom , respectively . Argentina 's Rivadavia and Moreno had a main armament equaling that of their Brazilian counterparts , but were much heavier and carried thicker armour . Both of Chile 's battleships were purchased by the British on the outbreak of the First World War . One , Almirante Latorre , was later repurchased by Chile .
Later British super @-@ dreadnoughts , principally the Queen Elizabeth class , dispensed with the midships turret , so weight and volume were freed for larger , oil @-@ fired boilers . The new 15 @-@ inch ( 381 @-@ mm ) gun gave greater firepower in spite of the loss of a turret , and there was a thicker armour belt and improved underwater protection . The class had a 25 @-@ knot ( 46 @-@ km / h ) design speed , and they were considered the first fast battleships .
The design weakness of super @-@ dreadnoughts , which distinguished them from post @-@ World War I designs , was armour disposition . Their design emphasized the vertical armour protection needed in short @-@ range battles , where shells would strike the sides of the ship , and assumed that an outer plate of armour would detonate any incoming shells so that crucial internal structures such as turret bases needed only light protection against splinters . This was in spite of the fact that these ships could engage the enemy at 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) , ranges where the shells would be descending at angles of up to thirty degrees ( ' plunging fire ' ) and so could drop behind the outer plate and strike the internal structures directly . Post @-@ war designs typically had 5 to 6 inches ( 130 to 150 mm ) of deck armour laid across the top of single , much thicker vertical plates to defend against this . The concept of zone of immunity became a major part of the thinking behind battleship design . Lack of underwater protection was also a weakness of these pre @-@ World War I designs which were developed before the use of torpedoes became widespread .
The United States Navy 's ' Standard type battleships ' , beginning with the Nevada class , were designed with long @-@ range engagements and plunging fire in mind ; the first of these was laid down in 1912 , four years before the Battle of Jutland taught the dangers of long @-@ range fire to European navies . Important features of the standard battleships were ' all or nothing ' armour and ' raft ' construction — based on a design philosophy which held that only those parts of the ship worth giving the thickest possible protection were worth armouring at all , and that the resulting armoured " raft " should contain enough reserve buoyancy to keep afloat the entire ship in the event the unarmoured bow and stern were thoroughly punctured and flooded . This design was proven in battle at the 1942 Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , when an ill @-@ timed turn by South Dakota silhouetted her to Japanese guns . In spite of receiving 26 heavy hits , her armoured raft remained untouched and she remained both afloat and operational at the end of action .
= = In action = =
The First World War was almost an anticlimax for the great dreadnought fleets . There was no decisive clash of modern battlefleets to compare with Tsushima . The role of battleships was marginal to the great land struggle in France and Russia ; it was equally marginal to the German war on commerce ( Handelskrieg ) and the Allied blockade .
By virtue of geography , the Royal Navy could keep the German High Seas Fleet bottled up in the North Sea with relative ease , but was unable to break the German superiority in the Baltic Sea . Both sides were aware , because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts , that a full fleet engagement would most likely result in a British victory . The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on favourable terms : either inducing a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone , or to fight a pitched battle near the German coast , where friendly minefields , torpedo boats , and submarines could even the odds .
The first two years of war saw conflict in the North Sea limited to skirmishes by battlecruisers at the Battle of Heligoland Bight and Battle of Dogger Bank , and raids on the English coast . In May 1916 , a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on favourable terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets on 31 May to 1 June in the indecisive Battle of Jutland .
In the other naval theatres , there were no decisive pitched battles . In the Black Sea , Russian and Turkish battleships skirmished , but nothing more . In the Baltic Sea , action was largely limited to convoy raiding and the laying of defensive minefields . The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea : the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by British and French blockading fleets . And in the Mediterranean , the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault at Gallipoli .
The course of the war illustrated the vulnerability of battleships to cheaper weapons . In September 1914 , the U @-@ boat threat to capital ships was demonstrated by successful attacks on British cruisers , including the sinking of three elderly British armoured cruisers by the German submarine U @-@ 9 in less than an hour . Mines continued to prove a threat when a month later the recently commissioned British super @-@ dreadnought HMS Audacious struck one and sank in 1914 . By the end of October , British strategy and tactics in the North Sea had changed to reduce the risk of U @-@ boat attack . Jutland was the only major clash of dreadnought battleship fleets in history , and the German plan for the battle relied on U @-@ boat attacks on the British fleet ; and the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers closing on British battleships , causing them to turn away to avoid the threat of torpedo attack . Further near @-@ misses from submarine attacks on battleships led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships .
For the German part , the High Seas Fleet determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines , and since submarines were more needed for commerce raiding , the fleet stayed in port for much of the remainder of the war . Other theatres showed the role of small craft in damaging or destroying dreadnoughts . The two Austrian dreadnoughts lost in 1918 were the casualties of Italian torpedo boats and frogmen .
= = Battleship building from 1914 onwards = =
= = = World War I = = =
The outbreak of World War I largely halted the dreadnought arms race as funds and technical resources were diverted to more pressing priorities . The foundries which produced battleship guns were dedicated instead to the production of land @-@ based artillery , and shipyards were flooded with orders for small ships . The weaker naval powers engaged in the Great War — France , Austria @-@ Hungary , Italy and Russia — suspended their battleship programmes entirely . The United Kingdom and Germany continued building battleships and battlecruisers but at a reduced pace .
In the United Kingdom , Fisher returned to his old post as First Sea Lord ; he had been created 1st Baron Fisher in 1909 , taking the motto Fear God and dread nought . This , combined with a government moratorium on battleship building , meant a renewed focus on the battlecruiser . Fisher resigned in 1915 following arguments about the Gallipoli Campaign with the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill .
The final units of the Revenge and Queen Elizabeth classes were completed , though the last two battleships of the Revenge class were redesigned as battlecruisers of the Renown class . Fisher followed these ships with the even more extreme Courageous class ; very fast and heavily armed ships with minimal , 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) armour , called ' large light cruisers ' to get around a Cabinet ruling against new capital ships . Fisher 's mania for speed culminated in his suggestion for HMS Incomparable , a mammoth , lightly armoured battlecruiser .
In Germany , two units of the pre @-@ war Bayern class were gradually completed , but the other two laid down were still unfinished by the end of the War . Hindenburg , also laid down before the start of the war , was completed in 1917 . The Mackensen class , designed in 1914 – 15 , were begun but never finished .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In spite of the lull in battleship building during the World War , the years 1919 – 1922 saw the threat of a renewed naval arms race between the United Kingdom , Japan and the US . The Battle of Jutland exerted a huge influence over the designs produced in this period . The first ships which fit into this picture are the British Admiral class , designed in 1916 . Jutland finally persuaded the Admiralty that lightly armoured battlecruisers were too vulnerable , and therefore the final design of the Admirals incorporated much @-@ increased armour , increasing displacement to 42 @,@ 000 tons . The initiative in creating the new arms race lay with the Japanese and United States navies . The United States Naval Appropriations Act of 1916 authorized the construction of 156 new ships , including ten battleships and six battlecruisers . For the first time , the United States Navy was threatening the British global lead . This programme was started slowly ( in part because of a desire to learn lessons from Jutland ) , and never fulfilled entirely . The new American ships ( the Colorado @-@ class battleships and Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers ) , took a qualitative step beyond the British Queen Elizabeth class and Admiral classes by mounting 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns .
At the same time , the Imperial Japanese Navy was finally gaining authorization for its ' eight @-@ eight battlefleet ' . The Nagato class , authorized in 1916 , carried eight 16 @-@ inch guns like their American counterparts . The next year 's naval bill authorized two more battleships and two more battlecruisers . The battleships , which became the Tosa class , were to carry ten 16 @-@ inch guns . The battlecruisers , the Amagi class , also carried ten 16 @-@ inch guns and were designed to be capable of 30 knots , capable of beating both the British Admiral- and the US Navy 's Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers .
Matters took a further turn for the worse in 1919 when Woodrow Wilson proposed a further expansion of the United States Navy , asking for funds for an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers in addition to the completion of the 1916 programme ( the South Dakota class not yet started ) . In response , the Diet of Japan finally agreed to the completion of the ' eight @-@ eight fleet ' , incorporating a further four battleships . These ships , the Kii class would displace 43 @,@ 000 tons ; the next design , the Number 13 class , would have carried 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) guns . Many in the Japanese navy were still dissatisfied , calling for an ' eight @-@ eight @-@ eight ' fleet with 24 modern battleships and battlecruisers .
The British , impoverished by World War I , faced the prospect of slipping behind the US and Japan . No ships had been begun since the Admiral class , and of those only HMS Hood had been completed . A June 1919 Admiralty plan outlined a post @-@ war fleet with 33 battleships and eight battlecruisers , which could be built and sustained for £ 171 million a year ( approximately £ 7 @.@ 09 billion today ) ; only £ 84 million was available . The Admiralty then demanded , as an absolute minimum , a further eight battleships . These would have been the G3 battlecruisers , with 16 @-@ inch guns and high speed , and the N3 @-@ class battleships , with 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) guns . Its navy severely limited by the Treaty of Versailles , Germany did not participate in this three @-@ way naval building competition . Most of the German dreadnought fleet was scuttled at Scapa Flow by its crews in 1919 ; the remainder were handed over as war prizes .
The major naval powers avoided the cripplingly expensive expansion programmes by negotiating the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 . The Treaty laid out a list of ships , including most of the older dreadnoughts and almost all the newer ships under construction , which were to be scrapped or otherwise put out of use . It furthermore declared a ' building holiday ' during which no new battleships or battlecruisers were to be laid down , save for the British Nelson class . The ships which survived the treaty , including the most modern super @-@ dreadnoughts of all three navies , formed the bulk of international capital ship strength through the 1920s and 1930s and , with some modernisation , into World War II . The ships built under the terms of the Washington Treaty ( and subsequently the London Treaties in 1930 and 1936 ) to replace outdated vessels were known as treaty battleships .
From this point on , the term ' dreadnought ' became less widely used . Most pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were scrapped or hulked after World War I , so the term ' dreadnought ' became less necessary .
= Pennsylvania Route 97 ( Adams County ) =
Pennsylvania Route 97 ( PA 97 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Known for most of its length as Baltimore Pike , the highway runs 9 @.@ 363 miles ( 15 @.@ 068 km ) from the Maryland state line near Littlestown , where the highway continues as Maryland Route 97 ( MD 97 ) , northwest to U.S. Route 15 ( US 15 ) near Gettysburg . PA 97 connects Gettysburg and Littlestown in southeastern Adams County . The highway also links those communities with Westminster and Baltimore . From PA 97 's northern end , Baltimore Pike continues toward Gettysburg through the Gettysburg Battlefield Historic District , where it provides access to the Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center .
Baltimore Pike was built as a turnpike in the early 19th century to connect Gettysburg , Littlestown , and Baltimore . The turnpike was a prominent linear feature during the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg despite not being the focus of a particular skirmish . Baltimore Pike was designated one of the original legislative routes in the early 1910s and became the northernmost part of US 140 in the late 1920s . The U.S. Highway was widened and resurfaced in the 1940s . When the US 140 designation was retired in the late 1970s , the highway became PA 97 to match the adjacent Maryland highway . With the creation of PA 97 , the route had its northern terminus at the US 15 interchange while Baltimore Pike north of there became unnumbered .
= = Route description = =
PA 97 begins at the Maryland state line in Germany Township . The highway continues south as MD 97 ( Littlestown Pike ) toward Westminster . PA 97 heads northwest along two @-@ lane Baltimore Pike . The highway crosses Piney Creek and enters the borough of Littlestown , through which the highway follows Queen Street . PA 97 intersects PA 194 ( King Street ) in the center of town . The state highway becomes Baltimore Pike again on leaving Littlestown and re @-@ entering Germany Township . PA 97 crosses Alloway Creek into Mount Joy Township . The highway crosses Plum Creek east of the hamlet of Germantown and Littles Run within Two Taverns . PA 97 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway at its crossing of Plum Run just south of Lake Heritage , which is also the name of the surrounding residential development . The state highway passes north of The Outlet Shoppes at Gettysburg and reaches its northern terminus at its diamond interchange with US 15 . Baltimore Pike continues northwest through the Gettysburg Battlefield Historic District toward the Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center , Evergreen Cemetery , several units of Gettysburg National Military Park , and the borough of Gettysburg .
= = History = =
The Gettysburg and Petersburg Turnpike Company was chartered in March 1807 to construct an artificial road from Gettysburg through Petersburg ( now Littlestown ) to the Maryland state line along the stagecoach route between Baltimore and Chambersburg . Baltimore Pike , as it was known colloquially , was a prominent linear feature during the Battle of Gettysburg as it lay along the side of Cemetery Hill and to the west of Culp 's Hill . Cemetery Hill served as the tip of the Union forces ' " fishhook " defensive formation throughout the three @-@ day battle . Baltimore Pike ran parallel to the Union defensive lines during the Battle of East Cemetery Hill , a Confederate offensive against Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill that started late on July 2 and finished early on July 3 , 1863 . During and in the time after the battle , the turnpike was lined with several field hospitals , many of which were created in the homes and on the land of civilians such as Henry Spangler .
In May 1911 , the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed the Sproul Roads Act , which created the Pennsylvania state road system and allowed the state to take over turnpikes . Baltimore Pike was designated Legislative Route 42 from the Maryland state line northwest to the borough of Gettysburg . The Sproul Roads Act was challenged as being unconstitutional , but the Pennsylvania Supreme Court upheld the legislation on June 27 , 1913 . The state took over the Gettysburg and Petersburg Turnpike and abolished tolls the next day , just in time for the March to Gettysburg ahead of the 1913 Gettysburg reunion . Baltimore Pike was improved as a macadam road from the state line to Gettysburg by 1916 . The highway from the state line to US 15 at the intersection of Baltimore Street and Steinwehr Avenue ( then Emmitsburg Road ) was designated the northernmost part of US 140 in 1927 . US 140 was widened and resurfaced with concrete from Gettysburg to Littlestown between 1941 and 1943 . The remainder of the highway through Littlestown to the Maryland state line was widened and resurfaced with asphalt between 1943 and 1953 . US 140 's interchange with modern US 15 was completed when the then – two @-@ lane US 15 bypass opened in June 1963 , immediately before the centennial of the Battle of Gettysburg .
In 1977 , plans were made for US 140 to be decommissioned , with PA 97 to replace the section in Pennsylvania . This proposal was made in order to eliminate short routes from the United States Numbered Highways system . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials approved the removal of the US 140 designation on October 28 , 1977 . In December 1978 , the borough of Littlestown protested the renumbering of US 140 to PA 97 . When the US 140 designation was retired on January 1 , 1979 , it was replaced by MD 140 from Baltimore to Westminster , and Maryland and Pennsylvania coordinated to have matching routes 97 on both sides of the state line between Westminster and Gettysburg . The northern terminus of PA 97 was located at the US 15 interchange , while the stretch of the former US 140 north into Gettysburg became unnumbered Baltimore Pike . With this change , the US 140 signs were removed from the square in downtown Gettysburg , and no signs directing motorists to PA 97 were put in their place . This move hurt businesses in the Littlestown area as motorists were unable to get to them without a marked route . The state did put signs directing motorists to PA 97 at the US 15 interchange and at the intersection of US 15 Business and Baltimore Street ; however , signs for PA 97 were not placed in the square due to opposition from local officials in Gettysburg who did not want sign clutter in the square . The stretch of Baltimore Pike from the bypass to US 15 Business became State Route 2035 by 1989 . PA 97 and the adjacent portion of Baltimore Pike were widened through the US 15 interchange in 2000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Adams County .
= Henry Wrigley =
Air Vice Marshal Henry Neilson Wrigley , CBE , DFC , AFC ( 21 April 1892 – 14 September 1987 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . A pioneering flyer and aviation scholar , he piloted the first trans @-@ Australia flight from Melbourne to Darwin in 1919 , and afterwards laid the groundwork for the RAAF 's air power doctrine . During World War I , Wrigley joined the Australian Flying Corps and saw combat with No. 3 Squadron on the Western Front , earning the Distinguished Flying Cross ; he later commanded the unit and published a history of its wartime exploits . He was awarded the Air Force Cross for his 1919 cross @-@ country flight .
Wrigley was a founding member of the RAAF in 1921 and held a variety of staff posts in the ensuing years . In 1936 , he was promoted to group captain and took command of RAAF Station Laverton . Raised to air commodore soon after the outbreak of World War II , he became Air Member for Personnel in November 1940 . One of his tasks was organising the newly established Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force and selecting its director , Clare Stevenson , in 1941 . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire the same year . Wrigley served as Air Officer Commanding RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , from September 1942 until his retirement from the military in June 1946 . He died in 1987 at the age of ninety @-@ five . His writings on air power were collected and published posthumously as The Decisive Factor in 1990 .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Wrigley was born on 21 April 1892 in Collingwood , a suburb of Melbourne , to Henry and Beatrice Wrigley . He was educated at Richmond Central School and at Melbourne High School , where he joined the cadets . Studying at the University of Melbourne , he became a state school teacher and a member of the militia prior to the outbreak of World War I. He joined the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) on 5 October 1916 . Wrigley trained as a pilot under the tutelage of Lieutenant Eric Harrison at Central Flying School in Point Cook , Victoria , before departing Melbourne on 25 October aboard a troopship bound for Europe .
After further training in England , Wrigley was posted to France and flew on the Western Front with No. 3 Squadron AFC ( also known until 1918 as No. 69 Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ) . Operating Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8s , the unit was engaged in reconnaissance , artillery @-@ spotting and ground support duties . Having been promoted to captain , Wrigley was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his " exceptional devotion to duty " , in particular his persistence in pressing home an attack against enemy infantry on 29 October 1918 in the face of " intense machine gun and rifle fire " ; the honour was promulgated in the London Gazette on 3 June 1919 . Wrigley later observed that most wartime aircraft were " impossible to fight in " , and that senior officers were " too occupied with coaxing aeroplanes into the air and teaching pilots to bring them down again without breaking their necks " to consider the wider implications of air power .
= = Between the wars = =
Wrigley became No. 3 Squadron 's commanding officer in January 1919 , and returned to Australia on 6 May . Later that year he took part in the first transcontinental flight across Australia , from Melbourne to Darwin , to coincide with the first England to Australia flight . Accompanied by his mechanic and former schoolmate , Sergeant Arthur " Spud " Murphy , Wrigley departed Point Cook on 16 November and arrived in Port Darwin on 12 December , having travelled some 4 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 800 mi ) in forty @-@ seven flying hours . The men flew in a single @-@ engined Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 , with no radio , over unmapped and often hazardous terrain , and surveyed seventeen potential landing fields along the way . Wrigley considered the choice of Murphy as his cohort " a particularly happy one " but called the aircraft they were assigned " an obsolete type , even for training purposes " , while conceding that " it was structurally sound and airworthy . " In recognition of their achievement the men were each awarded the Air Force Cross , gazetted on 12 July 1920 . Such was the perceived danger of the expedition that while making preparations for the flight back they received a telegram from the Defence Department ordering them to dismantle the B.E.2 and return with it by ship .
On 1 January 1920 , Wrigley transferred to the Australian Air Corps ( AAC ) , a temporary organisation formed by the Army following disbandment of the wartime AFC . He was appointed adjutant at Central Flying School the following month . In 1921 , Wrigley joined the newly established Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a flight lieutenant . Popularly known as " Wrig " , he was one of the original twenty @-@ one officers on the Air Force 's strength at its formation that March . For the next seven years he held staff posts at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , beginning with the position of staff officer to the Director of Personnel and Training . On 5 July 1922 , Wrigley married Marjorie Rees ; the couple had a son and a daughter . The same month , he replaced Flight Lieutenant Frank McNamara as Staff Officer ( Operations and Intelligence ) . He served as RAAF Training Officer from March 1923 to April 1925 — during which time he was promoted to squadron leader — before being appointed Director of Organisation and Staff Duties . In November 1927 , he took part in an attempt to make the first night flight from Sydney to Melbourne . Taking off from RAAF Station Richmond in an Airco DH.9 , Wrigley and his co @-@ pilot were in the air for six hours and covered 345 miles ( 555 km ) when a broken fuel line forced them to land for repairs ; they completed the journey the following day .
Wrigley travelled to England in 1928 to attend RAF Staff College , Andover , becoming one of the first RAAF officers to complete the course . Remaining in England , he was appointed Australian Air Liaison Officer to the Air Ministry in 1929 . That October , he initiated correspondence with the British Air Council to discuss a proposal for the RAAF to adopt as its own the Royal Air Force 's motto Per Ardua Ad Astra ; informal approval was granted by letter to Wrigley in March 1930 . Returning to Australia , he became Director of Operations and Intelligence at RAAF Headquarters in October 1930 , and Director of Organisation and Staff Duties in December 1931 . He was promoted to wing commander in December 1932 . In 1935 he published his history of No. 3 Squadron , The Battle Below , which was considered an authoritative treatment on the subject of army co @-@ operation . He was promoted group captain in July 1936 , and that October took over as commanding officer of RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , from Group Captain McNamara . Wrigley handed over the station 's command to Group Captain Adrian Cole in February 1939 . In May 1939 , Wrigley served as the senior expert assessor on the panel of an inquiry into three recent accidents involving Avro Ansons ; the full report handed down in October found that training on the type followed the syllabus , but that pilots needed more practical experience in dealing with in @-@ flight incidents , as human error was the likely explanation for at least one crash .
= = World War II = =
As part of the RAAF 's reorganisation following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Group was formed under Wrigley 's command in Melbourne on 20 November 1939 , to oversee the operations of air bases and units in Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania . Promoted air commodore , in 1940 Wrigley served as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Southern Area , the successor organisation to No. 1 Group , before taking up the position of Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) in November that year . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1941 New Year Honours . As AMP , Wrigley 's responsibilities included organising the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) , established on 25 March 1941 as the first uniformed women 's branch of an armed service in the country . He believed that recruiting servicewomen was essential to augment the many ground staff required to support the war effort , and considered that while such an organisation should be constitutionally separate from the RAAF , its members should be closely integrated within the current force structure .
The Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) was at this time an RAF officer , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , who hoped to see his daughter Sybil @-@ Jean , a veteran of Britain 's Women 's Auxiliary Air Force , take charge of the WAAAF . Wrigley successfully argued against this , telling Burnett that there had already been " enough public outcry " over a non @-@ Australian being named CAS , and there would be " a further public outcry " if anyone other than an Australian was appointed WAAAF Director . On 21 May , he selected Berlei executive Clare Stevenson as WAAAF Director , passing over temporary appointee Mary Bell , wife of a serving RAAF group captain . Wrigley chose Stevenson on the basis of her management background and because she was not a " socialite " . Bell , who was offered the position of Deputy Director , chose to resign from the WAAAF on learning of Stevenson 's appointment , but Wrigley later convinced her to rejoin . Meanwhile , Wrigley played a leading part in the development of the Air Training Corps , formed in April 1941 to facilitate basic training for youths aged sixteen to eighteen who hoped to become RAAF aircrew .
Wrigley 's promotion to acting air vice marshal was announced in May 1941 , making him only the third member of the RAAF — after Richard Williams and Stanley Goble — to attain this rank . In September 1942 , he was posted to London to take over from Frank McNamara as AOC RAAF Overseas Headquarters . For a time , he was involved in a tug @-@ of @-@ war with Air Marshal Williams over just who was in charge . Williams , who commanded Overseas Headquarters at its inception in December 1941 , with McNamara as his deputy , had subsequently been appointed as the RAAF 's representative to Washington , DC , leaving McNamara in charge of the London office until Wrigley arrived . The Minister for Air , Arthur Drakeford , was in favour of Williams commanding the RAAF offices in both the US and UK while Wrigley acted for him in London , despite Wrigley having been appointed AOC . Wrigley 's diary recorded that when Williams returned to London in October 1942 to attend a conference , he began " throwing his weight around " and " intriguing to have himself made AOC , and possibly AOC in C [ Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief ] of all RAAF units and personnel outside Australia and the SW Pacific " . Although Williams departed England in January 1943 , the matter was only fully laid to rest in mid @-@ 1943 , when the CAS , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , advised Williams that it was impractical for him to command offices in both Washington and London .
As AOC RAAF Overseas Headquarters , Wrigley was responsible for looking after the interests of RAAF aircrew stationed in the European and the Middle Eastern theatres , liaising between the British Air Ministry and the Australian government regarding technical developments and information on the war in the Pacific , and negotiating revisions to the terms of the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The role had little influence on the deployment of Australian personnel for the air offensive in Europe , who were subject to RAF policy and strategy even when they belonged to RAAF squadrons . According to the official history of Australia in the war , Wrigley and his predecessors could hardly do more than " retard the centrifugal forces affecting Australian disposition , and repair the worst administrative difficulties arising from wide dispersion " . Nevertheless , Wrigley became a familiar and popular figure for the thousands of Australian airmen who passed through London during the war , and was known to take off his jacket and tend bar at Codgers , the headquarters ' watering hole . An EATS graduate later remarked that " under Air Vice @-@ Marshal Wrigley we got tremendous service ... I was in North Africa , Italy , Sardinia , Corsica and then back in the United Kingdom . We got our mail , we got our comforts ... Not only that , when some cow went and pinched 100 quid from me when I was on leave in London , the next day , with a shaking hand , I was able to sign for another 100 quid and have a good time . "
In March 1943 , following negotiations that had begun the previous year , Wrigley signed a revision of EATS that finally recognised Australia 's " national aspirations " regarding concentration of her airmen in RAAF squadrons as opposed to them being scattered throughout RAF units , reasonable prospects of promotion and rotation for staff , and pay and other conditions of service confirmed as being per RAAF stipulations . The official history contended that " for the most part Australia was still left chasing a dream rather than a reality " , as many clauses in the agreement were " subject to operational exigencies " and to be adhered to only " as far as possible " . Wrigley toured the Mediterranean in September , visiting No. 459 Squadron in the Middle East , and travelling to Sicily to interview ground staff of No. 450 Squadron over their grievances concerning lack of promotion and leave ; his presence was considered to have defused this situation .
Wrigley 's son Ronald enlisted in the Royal Australian Navy in September 1944 , and served until his demobilisation in 1946 . The end of hostilities in Europe on 7 May 1945 raised a major logistical challenge for Wrigley as the senior officer responsible for some 13 @,@ 500 RAAF personnel spread across Britain , the Mediterranean , and the continent , only a minority of whom were in nominally Australian squadrons , the bulk serving with RAF establishments . " The task was energetically met " , according to the official history ; fewer than 1 @,@ 000 RAAF personnel remained in RAF units by 1 September , although repatriation continued through into the new year .
= = Retirement and legacy = =
Wrigley was summarily retired from the RAAF in 1946 , along with other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , ostensibly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers . Keenly disappointed with the decision , Wrigley was officially discharged on 6 June . He found it difficult to secure civilian employment because , " by the time I got back , all the worthwhile jobs round Australia had been snapped up by people , not only air force people but other people on the spot " . After an unsuccessful attempt to run his own retail business , he " eventually earned a living by taking on some administrative jobs which carried on for a few years " . Wrigley was made an honorary air vice marshal in July 1956 . In 1966 he became executive officer of the Victorian Overseas Foundation , and later a trustee . He published Aircraft and Economic Development : The RAAF Contribution through the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1969 . In March 1971 , he was among a select group of surviving founding members of the RAAF who attended a celebratory dinner at the Hotel Canberra to mark the service 's Golden Jubilee ; his fellow guests included Air Marshal Sir Richard Williams , Air Vice Marshal Bill Anderson , Air Commodore Hippolyte De La Rue , and Wing Commander Sir Lawrence Wackett . After the death of his first wife , Marjorie , Wrigley married Zenda Edwards on 5 January 1972 . In December 1979 , he was the guest of honour at celebrations marking sixty years of flying at Darwin ; the RAAF flew him from Point Cook to Darwin to commemorate his historic 1919 flight with Arthur Murphy . Wrigley wrote a history of the Victorian branch of the United Services Institution in 1980 . Aged ninety @-@ five , he died in Melbourne on 14 September 1987 .
Throughout his life , Wrigley was an " inveterate note @-@ taker " who compiled extensive documentation concerning the theory and practice of air power , on which he lectured among colleagues in the RAAF during the 1920s . The concepts that he propagated included air superiority , the need for an air force to be separate from the other branches of the armed services , control of the air as a means of carrying out offensive strikes , and the substitution of aerial forces for ground troops . While arguing for the independence of the air arm , Wrigley was quick to dispel any notion that it would simply " arrive from God knows where , drop [ its ] bombs God knows where , and go off again God knows where " ; rather it should act in concert with the army and navy in furtherance of government policy . He is thus credited with laying the foundations for the RAAF 's modern air power doctrine , which would eventually be codified as the Air Power Manual in 1990 . Wrigley 's widow bequeathed twenty volumes of his writings , maps and photographs to the RAAF Museum at Point Cook after his death ; they were edited and published by Air Commodore Brendan O 'Loghlin and Wing Commander Alan Stephens in 1990 as The Decisive Factor : Air Power Doctrine by Air Vice @-@ Marshal H.N. Wrigley . In 1996 , Wrigley 's former residence as commanding officer of RAAF Station Laverton prior to World War II was christened Wrigley House in his honour . His name is also borne by Henry Wrigley Drive , approaching Darwin International Airport . In March 2010 the Chief of Air Force , Air Marshal Mark Binskin , established the AVM H.N. Wrigley Prize for air power analysis , as part of the annual Chief of Air Force Essay Competition .
= Green Knight =
The Green Knight is a character in the 14th @-@ century Arthurian poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and the related work The Greene Knight . His true name is revealed to be Bercilak de Hautdesert in Sir Gawain , while The Greene Knight names him " Bredbeddle " . The Green Knight later appears as one of Arthur 's greatest champions in the fragmentary ballad " King Arthur and King Cornwall " , again under the name " Bredbeddle " . In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , Bercilak is transformed into the Green Knight by Morgan le Fay , a traditional adversary of King Arthur , in order to test his court . In The Green Knight he is transformed by a different woman for the same purpose . In both stories he sends his wife to seduce Gawain as a further test . " King Arthur and King Cornwall " portrays him as an exorcist and one of the most powerful knights in Arthur 's court .
In Sir Gawain , the Green Knight is so called because his skin and clothes are green . The meaning of his greenness has puzzled scholars since the discovery of the poem , who identify him variously as the Green Man , a vegetation being in medieval art ; a recollection of a figure from Celtic mythology ; a Christian symbol ; or the Devil himself . The medieval scholar C. S. Lewis said the character was " as vivid and concrete as any image in literature . " J. R. R. Tolkien called him the " most difficult character " to interpret in the introduction to his edition of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . His major role in Arthurian literature includes being a judge and tester of knights , and as such the other characters see him as friendly but terrifying and somewhat mysterious .
= = Historical context = =
The earliest appearance of the Green Knight is in the late 14th century alliterative poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , which survives in only one manuscript along with other poems by the same author , the so @-@ called Pearl Poet . This poet was a contemporary of Geoffrey Chaucer , writer of The Canterbury Tales , although the two wrote in different parts of England . The later poem , The Greene Knight , is a late medieval rhyming romance that likely predates its only surviving copy : the 17th @-@ century Percy Folio . The other work featuring the Green Knight , the later ballad " King Arthur and King Cornwall " , also survives only in the Percy Folio manuscript . Its date of composition is conjectural ; it may be a version of an earlier story , though it is also possibly a product of the 17th century .
= = Role in Arthurian literature = =
In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , the Green Knight appears before Arthur 's court during a Christmas feast , holding a bough of holly in one hand and a battle axe in the other . Despite disclaim of war , the knight issues a challenge : he will allow one man to strike him once with his axe , under the condition that he return the blow the following year . At first , Arthur takes up the challenge , but Gawain takes his place and decapitates the Green Knight , who retrieves his head and tells Gawain to meet him at the Green Chapel at the stipulated time .
The next time the Knight appears , he appears as Bercilak de Hautedesert , lord of a large castle , Gawain 's host before his arrival at the Green Chapel . At Bercilak 's castle , Gawain is submitted to tests of his loyalty and chastity , wherein Bercilak sends his wife to seduce Gawain and arranges that each time Bercilak gains prey in hunting , or Gawain any gift in the castle , each shall exchange his gain for the other 's . At New Year 's Day , Gawain departs to the Green Chapel , and bends to receive his blow , only to have the Green Knight feint two blows , then barely nick him on the third . He then reveals that he is Bercilak , and that Morgan le Fay had given him the double identity to test Gawain and Arthur .
The Greene Knight tells the same story as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , with a few differences . Notably , the knight , here named " Bredbeddle " , is only wearing green , not green @-@ skinned himself . The poem also states the knight has been asked by his wife 's mother ( not Morgan in this version ) to trick Gawain . He agrees because he knows his wife is secretly in love with Gawain , and hopes to deceive both . Gawain falters in accepting a girdle from her , and the Green Knight 's purpose is fulfilled in a small sense . In the end , he acknowledges Gawain 's overall ability and asks to accompany him to Arthur 's court .
In King Arthur and King Cornwall , the Green Knight again appears as Bredbeddle , and is depicted as one of Arthur 's knights . He offers to help Arthur fight a mysterious sprite ( under the control of the magician , King Cornwall ) which has entered his chamber . When physical attacks fail , Bredbeddle uses a sacred text to subdue it . The Green Knight eventually gains so much control over the sprite through this text that he convinces it to take a sword and strike off its master 's head .
= = Etymologies = =
The name " Bertilak " may derive from bachlach , a Celtic word meaning " churl " ( i.e. rogueish , unmannerly ) , or from " bresalak " , meaning " contentious " . The Old French word bertolais translates as " Bertilak " in the Arthurian tale Merlin from the Lancelot @-@ Grail Cycle of Arthurian legend . Notably , the ' Bert- ' prefix means ' bright ' , and the ' -lak ' can mean either ' lake ' or " play , sport , fun , etc " . " Hautdesert " probably comes from a mix of both Old French and Celtic words meaning " High Wasteland " or " High Hermitage " . It may also have a connection with desirete meaning " disinherited " ( i.e. from the Round Table ) .
= = Similar or derivative characters = =
= = = Green Knights in other stories = = =
Characters similar to the Green Knight appear in several other works . In Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d 'Arthur , for example , Gawain 's brother Gareth defeats four brothers in different coloured armour , including a " Grene Knyght " , Sir Partolope . The three who survive the encounter eventually join the Round Table and appear several further times in the text . The stories of Saladin feature a certain " Green Knight " ; a Sicilian warrior in a shield vert and a helmet adorned with stag horns . Saladin tries to make him part of his personal guard . Similarly , a " Chevalier Vert " appears in the Chronicle of Ernoul during the recollection of events following the capture of Jerusalem in 1187 ; here , he is identified as a Spanish knight who earned this nickname from the Muslims due to his eccentric apparel .
Taking this into consideration , scientists have considered a connection to Islamic tales . The figure of Al @-@ Khidr ( Arabic : الخضر ) in the Qur 'an is called the " Green Man " . He tests Moses three times by doing seemingly evil acts , which are eventually revealed to be noble deeds to prevent greater evils or reveal great goods . Both the Arthurian Green Knight and Al @-@ Khidr serve as teachers to holy and upright men ( Gawain / Moses ) , who thrice put their faith and obedience to the test . It has been suggested that the character of the Green Knight may be a literary descendant of Al @-@ Khidr , brought to Europe with the Crusaders and blended with Celtic and Arthurian imagery .
= = = Characters fulfilling similar roles = = =
The beheading game appears in a number of tales , the earliest being the Middle Irish tale Bricriu 's Feast . The challenger in this story is named " Fear " , a bachlach ( churl ) , and is identified as Cú Roí in disguise . He challenges three warriors to his game , only to have them run from the return blow , until the hero Cú Chulainn takes the challenge . With Cú Chulainn under his axe , this antagonist also feints three blows before letting the hero go . In the Irish version , the cloak of the churl is described as grey ( glas ) , which may also mean green . In the Life of Caradoc , a Middle French narrative embedded in the anonymous First Continuation of Chrétien de Troyes ' Perceval , the Story of the Grail , another similar challenge is issued . In this story , a notable difference is that Caradoc 's challenger is his father in disguise , come to test his honour . The French romances La Mule sans Frein and Hunbaut and the Middle High German epic poem Diu Crone feature Gawain in beheading game situations.Hunbaut furnishes an interesting twist : Gawain cuts off the man 's head , and then pulls off his magic cloak before he can replace it , causing his death . A similar story , this time attributed to Lancelot , appears in the 13th century French work Perlesvaus .
The 15th @-@ century The Turke and Gowin begins with a Turk entering Arthur 's court and asking , " Is there any will , as a brother , To give a buffett and take another ? " Gawain accepts the challenge , and is then forced to follow the Turk until he decides to return the blow . Through the many adventures they have together , the Turk , out of respect , asks the knight to cut off the Turk 's head , which Gawain does . The Turk , surviving , then praises Gawain and showers him with gifts . Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle contains a scene in which the Carl , a lord , orders Gawain to strike him with his spear , and bends over to receive the blow . Gawain obliges , the Carl rises , laughing and unharmed , and , unlike in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , no return blow is demanded or given . Among all these stories , Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the only one with a completely green character , and the only one tying Morgan le Fay to his transformation .
Several stories also feature knights struggling to stave off the advances of voluptuous women , including Yder , the Lancelot @-@ Grail Cycle , Hunbaut , and The Knight of the Sword . The Green Knight parallel in these stories is a King testing a knight as to whether or not he will remain chaste in extreme circumstances . The woman he sends is sometimes his wife ( as in Yder ) , if he knows that she is unfaithful and will tempt other men ; in The Knight of the Sword the king sends his beautiful daughter . All characters playing the Green Knight 's role kill unfaithful knights who fail their tests .
= = Significance of the colour green = =
In English folklore and literature , green has traditionally been used to symbolize nature and its embodied attributes , namely those of fertility and rebirth . Oftentimes it is used to embody the supernatural or spiritual other world . In British folklore , the devil was sometimes toned green which may or may not play into the concept of the Green Man / Wild Man dichotomy of the Green Knight . Stories of the medieval period also portray the colour as representing love and the amorous in life , and the base , natural desires of man . Green is also known to have signified witchcraft , devilry and evil for its association with the fairies and spirits of early English folklore and for its association with decay and toxicity . The colour , when combined with gold , is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth . In the Celtic tradition , green was avoided in clothing for its superstitious association with misfortune and death . Green can be seen in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight as signifying a transformation from good to evil and back again ; displaying both the spoiling and regenerative connotations of the colour . Given these varied and even contradictory interpretations of the colour green , its precise meaning in the poem remains ambiguous .
= = = Interpretations = = =
Of the many characters similar to him , the Green Knight of Sir Gawain is the first to be green . Because of his strange colour , some scholars believe him to be a manifestation of the Green Man figure common in medieval art , or as a representation of both the vitality and fearful unpredictability of nature . That he carries a green holly branch , and the comparison
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the two reactors . The turbines power the four bronze screws , each with a diameter of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) and a weight of 66 @,@ 000 pounds ( 30 t ) . Behind these are the two rudders which are 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) long , and each weigh 110 @,@ 000 pounds ( 50 t ) . The Nimitz @-@ class ships constructed since USS Ronald Reagan also have bulbous bows in order to improve speed and fuel efficiency by reducing Wave @-@ making resistance . As a result of the use of nuclear power , the ships are capable of operating continuously for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years .
= = = Armament and protection = = =
In addition to the aircraft carried on board , the ships carry defensive equipment for use against missiles and hostile aircraft . These consist of either three or four NATO RIM @-@ 7 Sea Sparrow missile launchers designed for defense against aircraft and anti @-@ ship missiles as well as either three or four 20 mm Phalanx CIWS missile defense cannon . USS Ronald Reagan has none of these , having been built with the RIM @-@ 116 Rolling Airframe Missile system , two of which have also been installed on USS Nimitz and USS George Washington . These will be installed on the other ships as they return for Refueling Complex Overhaul ( RCOH ) . Since USS Theodore Roosevelt , the carriers have been constructed with 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) Kevlar armor over vital spaces , and earlier ships have been retrofitted with it : Nimitz in 1983 – 1984 , Eisenhower from 1985 – 1987 and Vinson in 1989 .
The other countermeasures the ships use are four Sippican SRBOC ( super rapid bloom off @-@ board chaff ) six @-@ barrel MK36 decoy launchers , which deploy infrared Flare ( countermeasure ) and chaff to disrupt the sensors of incoming missiles ; an SSTDS torpedo defense system ; and an AN / SLQ @-@ 25 Nixie torpedo countermeasures system . The carriers also use AN / SLQ @-@ 32 ( V ) Radar jamming and deception systems to detect and disrupt hostile radar signals in addition to the electronic warfare capabilities of some of the aircraft on board .
The presence of nuclear weapons on board U.S. aircraft carriers since the end of the Cold War has neither been confirmed nor denied by the U.S. government . As a result of this , as well as concerns over the safety of nuclear power , the presence of a U.S. aircraft carrier in a foreign port has occasionally provoked protest from local people , for example when USS Nimitz docked in Chennai , India , in 2007 . At that time , the Strike Group commander Rear Admiral John Terence Blake stated that : " The U.S. policy is that we do not routinely deploy nuclear weapons on board Nimitz . "
In May 2013 , George H.W. Bush conducted the first carrier @-@ borne end @-@ to @-@ end at @-@ sea test of the Surface Ship Torpedo Defense System ( SSTDS ) . The SSTDS combines the passive detection of the Torpedo Warning System ( TWS ) that finds , classifies , and tracks torpedoes with the hard @-@ kill capability of a Countermeasure Anti @-@ Torpedo ( CAT ) , an encapsulated miniature torpedo designed to locate , home in on , and destroy hostile torpedoes . This increases protection against wake @-@ homing torpedoes like the Type 53 that don 't respond to acoustic decoys . The pieces of the SSTDS are engineered to locate and destroy incoming torpedoes in a matter of seconds . Each system includes one TWS and 8 CATs . Initial operational capability ( IOC ) is planned for 2019 and all aircraft carriers are to be outfitted by 2035 .
= = = Carrier air wing = = =
In order for a carrier to deploy , it must embark one of ten Carrier Air Wings ( CVW ) . The carriers can accommodate a maximum of 130 F / A @-@ 18 Hornets or 85 – 90 aircraft of different types , but current numbers are typically 64 aircraft . Although the air wings are integrated with the operation of the carriers they are deployed to , they are nevertheless regarded as a separate entity . As well as the aircrew , the air wings are also made up of support personnel involved in roles including maintenance , aircraft and ordnance handling and emergency procedures . Each person on the flight deck wears color @-@ coded clothing to make his role easily identifiable .
A typical carrier air wing can include 12 – 14 F / A @-@ 18E or F Super Hornets as strike fighters ; two squadrons of 10 – 12 F / A @-@ 18C Hornets , with one of these often provided by the U.S. Marine Corps ( VMFA ) , also as strike fighters ; 4 – 6 EA @-@ 6B Prowlers or EA @-@ 18G Growlers for electronic warfare ; 4 – 6 E @-@ 2C or D Hawkeyes for airborne early warning ( AEW ) , C @-@ 2 Greyhounds used for logistics ( to be replaced by MV @-@ 22 Ospreys ) ; and a Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron of 6 – 8 SH @-@ 60F and HH @-@ 60H Seahawks . Aircraft that have previously operated from Nimitz @-@ class carriers include F @-@ 4 Phantoms , RA @-@ 5C Vigilantes , RF @-@ 8G Crusaders , F @-@ 14 Tomcats , S @-@ 3 Vikings , A @-@ 7 Corsair II and A @-@ 6E Intruder aircraft .
= = = Flight deck and aircraft facilities = = =
The flight deck is angled at nine degrees , which allows for aircraft to be launched and recovered simultaneously . This angle of the flight deck was reduced slightly in relation to previous carriers , as the current design improves the air flow around the carrier . Four steam catapults are used to launch fixed @-@ wing aircraft , and four arrestor wires are used for recovery . The two newest carriers , Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush , have only three arrestor wires each , as the fourth was used infrequently on earlier ships and was therefore deemed unnecessary . This CATOBAR arrangement allows for faster launching and recovery as well as a much wider range of aircraft that can be used on board compared with smaller aircraft carriers , most of which use a simpler STOVL arrangement without catapults or arrestor wires . The ship 's aircraft operations are controlled by the air boss from Primary Flight Control or Pri @-@ Fly . Four large elevators transport aircraft between the flight deck and the hangars below . These hangars are divided into three bays by thick steel doors that are designed to restrict the spread of fire .
= = = Strike groups = = =
When an aircraft carrier deploys , it takes a Strike Group , made up of several other warships and supply vessels which allow the operation to be carried out . The armament of the Nimitz class is made up only of short range defensive weapons , used as a last line of defense against enemy missiles and aircraft . The other vessels in the Strike Group provide additional capabilities , such as long range Tomahawk missiles or the Aegis Combat System , and also protect the carrier from attack . A typical Strike Group may include , in addition to an aircraft carrier : up to six surface combatants , including frigates , guided missile cruisers and guided missile destroyers ( used primarily for anti @-@ aircraft warfare and anti @-@ submarine warfare ) ; one or two attack submarines ( for seeking out and destroying hostile surface ships and submarines ) ; and an ammunition , oiler , and supply ship of Military Sealift Command to provide logistical support . The precise structure and numbers of each type of ship can vary between groups depending on the objectives of the deployment .
= = = Design differences within the class = = =
While the designs of the final seven ships ( beginning with USS Theodore Roosevelt ) are slightly different from those of the earlier ships , the U.S. Navy considers all ten carriers as a single class . When the older carriers come in for Refueling and Complex Overhaul ( RCOH ) , their nuclear power plants are refueled and they are upgraded to the standards of the later carriers . Other modifications may be performed to update the ships ' equipment . The ships were initially classified only as attack carriers but have been constructed with anti @-@ submarine capabilities since USS Carl Vinson . These improvements include better radar systems and facilities which enable the ships to operate aircraft in a more effective Anti @-@ submarine warfare role , including the fitting of common undersea picture ( CUP ) technology which uses sonar to allow for better assessment of the threat from submarines . The changes included better support for S @-@ 3 Viking ASW patrol planes and SH @-@ 60F Seahawk helicopters with dipping sonar systems .
USS Theodore Roosevelt and later carriers have slight structural differences from the earlier Nimitz carriers such as improved protection for ordnance stored in their magazines . Other improvements include upgraded flight deck ballistic protection , first installed on USS George Washington , and the high @-@ strength low @-@ alloy steel ( HSLA @-@ 100 ) used for constructing ships starting with USS John C. Stennis . More recently , older ships have had their flight decks upgraded with a new non @-@ slip material fitted on new @-@ build ships , to improve safety for both crew members and aircraft .
The final carrier of the class , USS George H.W. Bush , was designed as a " transition ship " from the Nimitz class to the replacement Gerald R. Ford class . Bush incorporates new technologies including improved propeller and bulbous bow designs , a reduced Radar cross @-@ section and electronic and environmental upgrades . As a result , the ship 's cost was $ 6 @.@ 2 billion . The earlier Nimitz @-@ class ships each cost around $ 4 @.@ 5 billion . To lower costs , some new technologies and design features were also incorporated into USS Ronald Reagan , the previous carrier , including a redesigned island .
= = Ships in class = =
The United States Navy lists the following ten ships in the Nimitz class :
= = Service history = =
= = = 1975 – 1989 = = =
One of the first major operations in which the ships were involved was Operation Eagle Claw launched by USS Nimitz in 1980 after she had deployed to the Indian Ocean in response to the taking of hostages in the U.S. embassy in Tehran . Although initially part of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet , Eisenhower relieved Nimitz in this operation after her service in the Mediterranean Sea . Nimitz conducted a Freedom of Navigation exercise alongside the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal in August 1981 in the Gulf of Sidra , near Libya . During this exercise , two of the ship 's F @-@ 14 Tomcats shot down two Libyan aircraft in what became known as the Gulf of Sidra incident . In 1987 , Vinson participated in the first U.S. carrier deployment in the Bering Sea , and Nimitz provided security during the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul .
= = = 1990 – 2000 = = =
The two most significant deployments the Nimitz class was involved in during the 1990s were the Gulf War and its aftermath , and Operation Southern Watch in southern Iraq . All active vessels were engaged in both of these to some extent , with Operation Southern Watch continuing until 2003 . However , most carriers in operation in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm played supporting roles , with only Roosevelt playing an active part in combat operations . Throughout the 1990s and more recently , Nimitz @-@ class carriers have been deployed as part of humanitarian missions . While deployed in the Gulf War , Lincoln was diverted to the Indian Ocean to participate alongside 22 other ships in Operation Fiery Vigil , evacuating civilians following the eruption of Mt . Pinatubo on Luzon Island in the Philippines . In October 1993 , Lincoln deployed to Somalia to assist UN humanitarian operations there , spending four weeks flying patrols over the area around Mogadishu while supporting U.S. troops during Operation Restore Hope . The same ship also participated in Operation Vigilant Sentinel in the Persian Gulf in 1995 . Roosevelt flew patrols in support of the Kurds over northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort in 1991 . In 1996 , George Washington played a peacekeeping role in Operation Decisive Endeavor in Bosnia and Herzegovina . In 1999 , Roosevelt was called to the Ionian Sea to support Operation Allied Force alongside other NATO militaries .
= = = 2001 – present = = =
Harry S. Truman 's maiden deployment was in November 2000 . The carrier 's air wing flew 869 combat sorties in support of Operation Southern Watch , including a strike on Iraqi air defense sites on 16 February 2001 , in response to Iraqi surface @-@ to @-@ air missile fire against United Nations coalition forces .
After the 11 September attacks , Carl Vinson and Theodore Roosevelt were among the first warships to participate in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan . Carl Vinson sailed towards the Persian Gulf intending to support Operation Southern Watch in July 2001 . This changed in response to the attacks , and the ship changed course to travel towards the North Arabian Sea , where she launched the first airstrikes in support of the operation on 7 October 2001 . Following the attacks , John C. Stennis and George Washington participated in Operation Noble Eagle , carrying out homeland security operations off the West Coast of the United States . All active ships have been involved to some extent in Iraq and Afghanistan since that time . This included the invasion in 2003 , as well as providing subsequent support for Operation Iraqi Freedom since then .
The carriers have also provided aid after natural disasters ; in 2005 , Abraham Lincoln supported Operation Unified Assistance in Indonesia after the December 2004 tsunami , and Truman provided aid after Hurricane Katrina later in 2005 . The Reagan Carrier Strike Group performed humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations in the Philippines in June 2008 after Typhoon Fengshen , which killed hundreds from the central island regions and the main island of Luzon . In January 2010 Vinson operated off Haiti , providing aid and drinking water to earthquake survivors as part of the U.S. led Operation Unified Response , alongside other major warships and hospital ship Comfort . In 2013 , the USS Nimitz and other Nimitz class carriers are near Syria .
= = = Refueling Complex Overhaul = = =
In order to refuel their nuclear power plants , the carriers each undergo a Refueling and Overhaul ( RCOH ) once in their service lives . This is also the most substantial overhaul the ships undergo while in service and involves bringing the vessels ' equipment up to the standards of the newest ships . The ship is placed in dry dock , and essential maintenance is carried out including painting of the hull below the waterline and replacement of electrical and mechanical components such as valves . Because of the large time periods between the ships ' constructions , the armament and designs of the newer ships are more modern than those of the older ships . In RCOH , the older ships are refitted to the standards of the newer ships , which can include major upgrades to the flight deck , aircraft catapults and combat systems as well as other upgrades such as improved radar systems , although precise details can vary significantly between the ships . The improvements normally take around four years to complete . The RCOH for USS Theodore Roosevelt , which began in 2009 , will reportedly cost US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion . Planned Incremental Availability is a similar procedure , although it is less substantial and does not involve refueling of the nuclear power plants .
= = = Symbolic and diplomatic roles = = =
Because of their status as the largest warships in the U.S. Navy , the deployment of an aircraft carrier can fulfill a symbolic role , not just in terms of a deterrent to an enemy , but often as a diplomatic tool , in strengthening relations with allies and potential allies . The latter of these functions can take place either as a single visit to a country , in which senior naval officers are allowed to observe the operating of the carrier and to interact with its senior officers , or as part of an international task force . This can be in combat operations , such as NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 , or other deployments involving training , such as Exercise RIMPAC . In addition , carriers have participated in international Maritime security operations , combating piracy in the Persian Gulf and off the coast of Somalia .
= = = Accidents and incidents = = =
As on most large warships , there have been several incidents involving the death or injury of one or more crew members , although most have involved freak accidents or failures , such as a man overboard as a result of poor weather . One of the highest @-@ profile incidents was on 26 May 1981 , when an EA @-@ 6B Prowler crashed on the flight deck of Nimitz , killing 14 crewmen and injuring 45 others . Forensic testing of the personnel involved showed that several tested positive for marijuana . While this in itself was not found to have directly caused the crash , the findings of the investigation prompted the introduction of mandatory drug testing of all service personnel .
In cases of ditched aircraft , pilots have been able to eject safely in several cases . However , fatal aircraft crashes have occurred ; in 1994 , Lt. Kara Hultgreen , the first female F @-@ 14 Tomcat pilot , was killed while attempting to land on board Abraham Lincoln during a training exercise .
Fires have also caused damage to the ships ; in May 2008 , while rotating through to her new homeport at Yokosuka Naval Base in Yokosuka , Japan , George Washington suffered a serious fire which cost $ 70 million in repairs , injured 37 sailors and led to the ship undergoing three months of repairs at San Diego ; this led to its having to miss the 2008 RIMPAC exercises and delayed the final withdrawal from service of USS Kitty Hawk . The fire was caused by unauthorized smoking in an area near improperly stored flammable refrigerant .
= = Future = =
Nimitz @-@ class carriers were designed to have a 50 @-@ year service life . At the end of the service life , ships will be decommissioned . This process will first take place on Nimitz and is estimated to cost from $ 750 to $ 900 million . This compares with an estimate of $ 53 million for a conventionally powered carrier . Most of the difference in cost is attributed to the deactivation of the nuclear power plants and safe removal of radioactive material and other contaminated equipment . A new class of carriers , the Gerald R. Ford class , is being constructed to replace previous vessels after decommissioning . Ten of these are expected , and the first will enter service in 2016 to replace the previous USS Enterprise ( CVN @-@ 65 ) . Most of the rest of these new carriers are to replace the oldest Nimitz ships as they reach the end of their service lives . The new carriers will have a similar design to George H.W. Bush ( using an almost identical hull shape ) and technological and structural improvements .
= Market Forces =
Market Forces is a science fiction thriller novel by Richard Morgan . Set in 2049 , the story follows Chris Faulkner as he starts his new job as a junior executive at Shorn Associates , working in their Conflict Investment division where the company supports foreign governments in exchange for a percentage of the country 's gross domestic product . Contracts are awarded , and promotions are given to employees , through driving duels in which combatants race vehicles on empty roads and often kill their opponents . With the Shorn @-@ supported Colombian dictator Echevarria expected to transfer power to his son , who is supported by a competing firm , Chris allies Shorn with a rebel group to overthrow the government , though other executives attempt to sabotage his plans .
First published in 2004 by Victor Gollancz Ltd , the book is Morgan 's third novel , the first two being part of the Takeshi Kovacs series . Market Forces satirises corporate practices and globalisation and carries the theme of competition throughout the story . Violence is used as a metaphor for the mechanisms underlying capitalism and assumptions about haves and have @-@ nots are challenged . It won the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel in 2005 and was nominated for the Arthur C. Clarke Award . Though book reviewers gave it a mixed reception , Morgan 's descriptive writing and action sequences received praise .
= = Background = =
Market Forces was science fiction author Richard K. Morgan 's third novel . His first two novels , Altered Carbon ( 2002 ) and Broken Angels ( 2003 ) , were the first two parts of a trilogy later completed with Woken Furies ( 2005 ) . That Takeshi Kovacs trilogy , hardboiled detective fiction set in the 25th century , gave Morgan a reputation for writing excellent action sequences along with a Philip K. Dick Award . Before the third part of the trilogy was published , Morgan worked on his idea for Market Forces , which he conceived of as a short story , then developed as a film script , then as a novel . At the time , Morgan was 38 years old living in Glasgow , Scotland . He has sold the filming rights to Altered Carbon to Warner Bros. ( he would also sell the rights to Market Forces to Warner Bros. ) allowing him to leave his job as an English teacher at the University of Strathclyde to focus on his writing career .
= = Plot = =
In 2049 , Chris Faulkner is recruited by Shorn Associates , an investment firm in London.There he befriends Mike Bryant , a fellow junior executive in the " Conflict Investment " division . Conflict Investment provides resources to incumbent or rebel factions in exchange for promised share of the nation 's gross domestic product . CI members often toast to continued " small wars " as their primary source of income for themselves and their investors .
Executive advancement in 2049 is not based on merit or politics alone , rather executives can issue challenges to each other which are held on highways emptied of cars and usually fought to the death , in a fashion similar to Mad Max , a source cited as inspiration by the author in the acknowledgements of the book . Chris Faulkner gains recognition and small celebrity for a particularly brutal win over a much older and more seasoned member of his firm , from which he is head @-@ hunted by Shorn to join their team . Within the media landscape , business executives have fame on the order of sports stars or movie actors and their driving duels are analysed and covered as sporting events . Chris ' wife Carla is also his mechanic , a vital role where an executive 's car is the difference between promotion and death . She is not a fan of the way he makes his living , but they have an initially strong relationship .
During a night out in the one of the Zones – the cordoned off zone of decaying ghettos surrounding the City of London – Mike introduces Chris to journalist Liz Linshaw , who is also Mike 's former mistress . Before they leave the Zones , Mike brutally executes several gang members who attempt to steal his car . Back at work , Mike brings Chris in to use contacts and analysis from his prior firm to assist into a project regarding propping up the ageing Colombian dictator General Hernan Echevarria . With Shorn 's contract due for renewal they are challenged by competing agencies Nakamura and Acropolitic . The challenge is settled by a driving duel in which the Shorn team eliminates the two competing teams . Chris ' profile is greatly increased with this victory , including appearances on TV and magazines as the latest star from a line of Shorn executives . As Chris becomes famous for his driving performance , he begins an affair with Liz Linshaw . With Echevarria 's son , Francisco , who is aligned with a competing American firm , preparing to take over , Chris believes that a long @-@ time rebel leader might be a better option than Francisco . Vincente Barranco , the rebel leader chosen by Chris , is signed to a contract with Shorn and brought to London to shop for arms to bring his small force the resources they need to overthrow Hernan before Francisco takes over . However , other Shorn executives sabotage Chris 's efforts by arranging for Barranco to overhear a Shorn executive negotiate with the Echevarrias . When challenged by Barranco that he is not truly committed to his cause , Chris reacts by spontaneously beating Hernan to death in a conference room . Shorn concocts a coverup and pins Hernan 's death on an otherwise unknown terrorist group . The killing is also concealed from most of Shorn 's employees , but the senior partner of CI agrees that while a completely unorthodox act , it 's the sort of rule bending which is sometimes needed to return the maximum for their clients . While his actions convince Barranco that he is in fact committed to his side , Chris is removed from the Columbia job which is handed over to a senior partner , Hamilton , who takes a more pragmatic view and moves to align with Hernan 's son .
As it is clear that the demands of his job are taking a toll on Chris , Carla becomes increasingly uncomfortable with the brutal competition among firms and the violence they incite in other countries . Seeking an escape from Shorn and to save their marriage , Carla , with the help of her father , who lives in the London Zones , and her mother in Sweden , secures a position at the United Nations as an Ombudsman , a sort of outside auditor / investigator who attempts to enforce the UN 's mandate across the world . This position is viewed as honourable but ultimately ineffective as neither the US nor UK recognise the UN 's authority and run roughshod over them in their pursuit of profits . After an initially frosty meeting , Chris ' conditions are agreed on , but with the requirement that he stay in place at Shorn through the end of the current conflict in Cambodia , in which Shorn is backing a rebel leader .
As the conflict in Columbia tilts in favour of the son , Hamilton goes outside of the normal chain of command to plan the execution of Barranco and the elimination of the local Shorn representative in a gladiatorial duel . Faulkner finds out about this and barges into a video conference Hamilton is having with Francisco , telling him that he in fact killed his father with his bare hands . He then beats Hamilton and breaks his neck . He is duly captured and placed in a Corporation operated jail . In jail , Chris is offered a choice : be convicted of murder and have his organs harvested after being subject to capital punishment or participate in face @-@ saving ( for Shorn ) farce by saying he had legally issued a challenge to Hamilton for his position in the firm . Conditions of this agreement are steep however as he must drive against Mike Bryant , who he had grown to be truly close with , but who is now completely done with him with revelation of Chris ' affair with Liz Linshaw and Chris ' brutal killings outside of the bounds of the challenge process . The night prior to the challenge , the UN representative returns with the chance for Chris to escape and reunite with his estranged wife , who has left the country . He declines . Mike is the superior driver but using a creative interpretation of challenge rules , Chris forces Mike to drive off a bridge and into the Zones . Chris finds the badly injured Mike and kills him just before a gang , who had watched the duel on television , finds them . The gang beats Chris but he survives when the gang is gunned down by Driver Control authorities , the sanctioning body for duels . The story ends with Chris , as the new senior executive , giving the new dictator Francisco Echevarria 48 hours to flee his country in favour of installing Barranco .
= = Style and themes = =
Market Forces is a science @-@ fiction thriller set nearly fifty years after its writing featuring a protagonist who fights lethal battles to win contracts for his company and to retain his position within the company . While the story is fictional , the author included a bibliography section that informed the story 's satire of globalisation and modern corporate practices . Morgan extrapolates trends in free market capitalism out fifty years to a point where corporations are unfettered by domestic governments . It is a dystopian vision where large corporations constantly battle to rule entire countries using humans as pawns . The protagonist , Chris Faulkner , can be viewed as a personification of the story 's take on the development of its economic system ; the character is written to be likeable but becomes increasing brutal as he invests himself deeper into the corporate culture .
The review in The New York Times compared the corporate culture and market mechanisms that led to the Enron scandal with the fictional background of the novel . The same reviewer compared Market Forces to Robert Stone 's A Flag for Sunrise which also concerns political and social issues but in a fictional Central American country . The story 's use of social commentary is similar to the works of science fiction authors Frederik Pohl and Cyril M. Kornbluth in the 1950s . Book reviewer Nisi Shawl wrote that this story could be part of a subgenre of stories using life @-@ in @-@ a @-@ corporation as a background , along with Eileen Gunn 's " Stable Strategies for Middle Management " , Kelley Eskridge 's " Solitaire " , and Charles Stross ' Accelerando . Morgan 's use of action sequences and car chases led to several comparisons to similar movie sequences , and specifically to Jerry Bruckheimer and Michael Bay movies .
= = = Competition = = =
The physical violence in the story is a metaphor for the mechanisms behind capitalism . Morgan uses competition as theme throughout novel , punctuated by the " portrayal of a society governed by extreme violence , ruthlessness and with no account for law , morals or humanity " . Violent competition , where the losers die , is the norm and comes in the form of businesses competing for contracts , employees competing for promotions , foreign governments fighting insurgents , and other stand @-@ offs between characters . Non @-@ violent competition is viewed as a novelty or ineffective , like playing chess or publishing opinion essays . The existence of winners and losers and the duality of " haves and the have @-@ nots " are contrasted . By illustrating how the First World exploits the Third World and the corporate executive 's use of the ghetto areas , the novel challenges the idea that the have @-@ nots are there by choice or that they competed and lost .
= = Publication and reception = =
Market Forces was published by Gollancz in United Kingdom and Del Rey Books in North America . The hardcover was released simultaneously in 2004 along with the ebook and audiobook versions . The audiobook , read unabridged by Simon Vance was published by Tantor Media in CD and mp3 formats . A tradepaperback version was released by the same publishers in 2007 . The book was awarded the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel in 2005 and nominated for the Arthur C. Clarke Award for best science fiction novel first published in the United Kingdom .
Numerous reviewers commented on the action sequences and violence with several noting they were better suited to a theatrical version rather than literature . While reviewers variously called it a " high @-@ octane , stomach @-@ churning terror ride " and " turbo @-@ injected with moral ambiguity " , others noted that the action eventually grows tiresome . Reviewers also noted that the " action sequences [ are used to ] keep the critique from becoming preachy " or otherwise too serious . In The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , the reviewer wrote " As a motorhead , I liked a lot of elements in this novel . On the other hand , I found a lot of the corporate and corp @-@ rat behavior ranged from disturbing to disgusting . " The reviewer in The Mercury concluded , " This is not comfortable or enjoyable bedtime reading . The inventive language , punk dialogue and feverish action create sustained tension throughout ... It 's hell @-@ on @-@ wheels fiction — entertainment that will appeal to many , particularly those who are hot car enthusiasts . "
Numerous reviewers commented on Morgan 's writing and story . In The Seattle Times , journalist and science fiction author Nisi Shawl tied the writing quality to the action scenes , " Morgan 's talent for tension @-@ building is matched by the clarity with which he describes the sideswiping , rubber @-@ burning , rear @-@ end @-@ ramming , full @-@ contact racing scenes . And both these skills are quietly eclipsed by his word @-@ for @-@ word writing ability . Apt metaphors and similes abound . " However , science fiction critic Robert K. J. Killheffer , in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction , wrote " it 's not his best – it lacks the dense and evocative background of his Takeshi Kovacs books , and Morgan is not as sure @-@ handed with near @-@ future situations and characters – but it takes chances and largely succeeds . " Likewise , in the San Francisco Chronicle the reviewer wrote " In its present form , the novel feels bloated and obvious , despite the sharpness of the descriptive writing and a couple of first @-@ rate fight sequences . With the right artist , Market Forces might still make a compelling — and necessarily shorter — graphic novel . " The Library Journal review ended with a recommendation : " Morgan 's sf suspense belongs in most sf collections . " The reviewer in Booklist concluded " It 's not a particularly pleasant future , but Morgan paints it in broad strokes , drawing us into his future world and making it feel like a natural outgrowth of today 's corporate chicanery . The novel might have been unremittingly bleak if it weren 't for the moral center provided by Faulkner , who is a genuinely likable guy . Fans of Morgan 's gritty , noirish brand of sf will flock to this one . "
= Antone Davis =
Antone Eugene Davis ( born February 28 , 1967 ) is an American former college and professional football player who was an offensive tackle and guard in the National Football League ( NFL ) for seven seasons during the 1990s . He played one year of football for Peach County High School in Fort Valley , Georgia , and was recruited out of high school by the Tennessee Military Institute , for whom he played one year of college football . He earned a full scholarship to the University of Tennessee the following year and started at left guard during his sophomore year in 1988 . He was moved to right offensive tackle before his junior year as a Tennessee Volunteer and earned unanimous All @-@ American honors as a senior in 1990 . He finished as a finalist for the 1990 Outland Trophy as well , and was drafted by the NFL 's Philadelphia Eagles as the eighth overall selection in the 1991 NFL Draft .
Davis played for five seasons with the Eagles , who traded two first @-@ round draft picks to pick Davis . In his rookie season in 1991 , he started in fifteen games , missing one start in week seven due to his benching . He started in fifteen games again in 1992 , missing one game due to a knee sprain . Davis started in every game for the Eagles in 1993 at right tackle , but was moved inside to left guard in 1994 following the team 's pick of tackle Bernard Williams in the 1994 NFL Draft . Davis struggled at his new position and was benched again for the final two games of the season . He began the 1995 season as a backup , but injuries forced him to start in the final thirteen games of the season . Considered a draft bust in Philadelphia , Davis signed with the Atlanta Falcons in 1996 and spent two seasons with the team . After his retirement from football , he worked in the food industry as a restaurant owner and manager . He finished as the runner @-@ up on the twelfth season of The Biggest Loser .
= = Early years = =
Davis grew up as the youngest of eight children in Fort Valley , Georgia , and attended Peach County High School in Fort Valley . His father , Milton Trice , was raised in North Philadelphia , and moved when he was seventeen years old to Georgia . Davis worked many jobs in high school , including work in the high school cafeteria . He had attendance issues that caused him to be held back in ninth grade . He weighed about 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) at the age of fourteen . Unable to play football as a sophomore because of his grades , Davis refocused and brought his grades up . He played football as a junior , but could not play as a senior due to his class graduating the year prior .
= = College career = =
Davis played college football for one season in 1986 at the Tennessee Military Institute , a preparatory school near Sweetwater , Tennessee , that recruited him out of high school after graduation . He received a full scholarship to the University of Tennessee the next year . Following the 1987 season and the graduation of Tennessee 's two starting offensive guards , Harry Galbreath and John Bruhin , Davis was expected to start for the Volunteers at left guard in 1988 as a sophomore . An ankle injury suffered during the season @-@ opener against Georgia on September 3 caused him to miss the next four games , before he was able to return against Alabama on October 15 . Before the start of the 1989 season , Davis was moved to right offensive tackle . In the 1990 season , he helped running back Tony Thompson lead the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) in rushing with 1 @,@ 261 yards . He was named as a finalist for the Outland Trophy in November 1990 as a senior , but lost out to defensive tackle Russell Maryland from Miami . Davis earned unanimous All @-@ America honors , receiving first @-@ team honors from the Associated Press , United Press International , Walter Camp Football Foundation , American Football Coaches Association , Football Writers Association of America , Scripps – Howard Newspapers , Football News , and The Sporting News . He also earned All @-@ SEC honors . Following the 1990 season , Davis won the Jacobs Blocking Trophy in January 1991 , as the best blocker in the SEC . He played in the Hula Bowl on January 18 , 1991 , for the East squad .
Davis earned the University of Tennessee 's Chancellor Citation for his community service efforts during his college career , including his contributions with the " Just Say No " campaign , the American Cancer Society , Big Brothers Big Sisters of America , and the Knoxville Community Parks Association . He graduated from the University of Tennessee with a degree in urban studies in December 1990 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia Eagles = = =
= = = = 1991 season = = = =
At the NFL Scouting Combine in February 1991 , Davis arrived weighing 338 pounds ( 153 kg ) ( 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) overweight ) . He ran a 5 @.@ 2 @-@ second 40 yard dash , but received criticism for weight issues and his up @-@ and @-@ down personality . He had 26 repetitions in the bench press . Before the draft , analyst Mel Kiper , Jr. said , " Davis has slipped a bit . He 's still a Top 10 pick , but his recent workouts haven 't been good . " John Butler , the Buffalo Bills ' director of player personnel said Davis was " a blueprint tackle , with size and everything else . "
Davis was selected by the Philadelphia Eagles as the eighth overall selection in the 1991 NFL Draft , one pick after former Tennessee teammate Charles McRae was selected by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . It was the first time in NFL history that two former college teammates who played the same position were drafted back @-@ to @-@ back . Davis was the first draft pick by new Eagles head coach Rich Kotite . The Eagles traded up from the 19th pick with the Green Bay Packers to select Davis , giving Green Bay the 19th selection ( which was used on cornerback Vinnie Clark ) and a first @-@ round pick in the 1992 NFL Draft . The pick in 1992 ended up being the 17th selection , and the Packers traded it to the Atlanta Falcons for quarterback Brett Favre on February 10 , 1992 . The Falcons then traded the pick to the Dallas Cowboys ( who used it to select cornerback Kevin Smith ) and received the 19th selection ( used to select running back Tony Smith ) and a fourth round pick ( used to select cornerback Frankie Smith ) .
After holding out for 21 days , Davis was signed initially to a contract designed as a temporary compromise in order to get him into training camp on August 5 , 1991 . It was speculated that the reason behind Davis ' holdout and the temporary compromise was that Davis and his agent wanted to see what McRae , who also held out with the Buccaneers , signed for first . Davis was not allowed to practice with the team until he was under contract , thus the compromise contract enabled him to practice while still work to get a long @-@ term deal done . The compromise was a one @-@ year contract with an option for a second year , and Davis received $ 600 @,@ 000 in signing the first contract . He was able to play against the Cincinnati Bengals in the Eagles ' third preseason game on August 10 . Davis was projected to be the Eagles ' starting right offensive tackle for the 1991 season . Davis suffered a sprained ankle while running laps around JFK Stadium and tripping over a goal post support on August 19 . Due to the injury , he was taken out of the preseason game against the Indianapolis Colts on August 23 at halftime by Kotite . The Eagles and Davis finalized a five @-@ year contract worth $ 4 @.@ 6 million on September 6 following the first week of the season . Davis changed his jersey number from 77 to 78 after signing the contract . He had his best game of the season in week four against the Pittsburgh Steelers on September 22 , as Kotite called more run plays to the right side towards the end of the game . Davis had a key block on a Jim McMahon quarterback sneak touchdown and McMahon gave Davis the ball immediately after to spike in celebration . The Eagles were given a five @-@ yard penalty for the spike , however . In a week five game against the Washington Redskins on September 30 , Davis gave up two sacks against defensive end Charles Mann , who received Pro Bowl honors after the season . Davis gave up a total of ten sacks in the first five games of the season .
Against the Buccaneers in week six on October 6 , Davis was benched in the third quarter after he was called for three holding penalties and was replaced by Bruce Collie . Collie suffered a knee injury in his second play , and Davis re @-@ entered the game . The day after the game , Kotite said about Davis : " He certainly played poorly yesterday without question . If you 've got eyes you could see that . " Ron Heller moved from left tackle to replace Davis at right tackle the next week against the New Orleans Saints . Daryle Smith , after being waived in training camp , was re @-@ signed to play left tackle . Due to a groin injury suffered by Smith , Davis regained his starting job at right tackle with Heller moving back to left tackle against the San Francisco 49ers in week nine . Davis gave up two sacks against Charles Haley in the game and was called for holding once , but Kotite said Davis improved from his previous start . Davis started in every game at right tackle after his benching in 1991 . Kotite praised Davis after the Giants game on November 4 , saying that he " played very well . "
= = = = 1992 season = = = =
Davis improved as a blocker in his second season with the Eagles . At the start of training camp in 1992 , Davis vowed to refuse all requests for interviews by the media in an attempt to focus on getting better . In the season @-@ opener against the New Orleans Saints , Davis helped the Eagles lead the NFC in rushing for the week with 186 yards . Against the Washington Redskins in week seven on October 18 , 1992 , he suffered a knee sprain after quarterback Randall Cunningham ran into him . He was listed as doubtful before the following game against the Phoenix Cardinals , and did not play in the game . He was listed as doubtful again before the game against the Dallas Cowboys in week nine . Otho Davis , the team 's head athletic trainer , said Davis was not working hard enough to rehabilitate his knee . Antone Davis was upgraded to questionable two days before the game , and started against the Cowboys on November 1 . In the wild card playoff game against the Saints on January 3 , 1993 , Davis gave up a sack against Rickey Jackson , which caused a Cunningham fumble . Davis started in all 15 games he played during the regular season , and started in both of the team 's playoff games . Pro Football Weekly rated Davis as the 26th @-@ best offensive tackle in the league for the season .
= = = = 1993 season = = = =
Davis played through a shoulder injury early in the 1993 season . Defensive end Reggie White , who signed with the Green Bay Packers following the 1992 season after spending eight seasons with the Eagles and earned seven Pro Bowl selections , said that he believed he destroyed Davis ' confidence as a rookie and second @-@ year player , as Davis had to go up against White in practice every week . White said " there are some guys who get very discouraged because they can 't block you . I think that was the situation at times with Antone . " Davis , however , disputed White 's statements as the Eagles played against the Packers in the second week of the season . Dave Goldberg , a writer for the Associated Press , named Davis to his " all @-@ unsung " team after his performance against White . Davis started in every game for the Eagles at right tackle in 1993 .
= = = = 1994 season = = = =
With the Eagles pick of offensive tackle Bernard Williams in the first round of the 1994 NFL Draft , Davis moved inside to play left offensive guard in the 1994 season . Davis was ejected from a week thirteen game against the Atlanta Falcons on November 27 , along with Lester Holmes , for fighting on the field with defensive tackle Pierce Holt of the Falcons . Davis was benched in favor of rookie Joe Panos before a week sixteen game against the New York Giants after committing seven penalties in his previous fourteen starts . Davis played in the final two games of the season . Head coach Rich Kotite was fired after the season .
= = = = 1995 season = = = =
Under new coach Ray Rhodes , Davis was moved back to right tackle in 1995 . Rhodes said that after looking at the 1994 season 's game footage , he determined Davis ' " best position for [ the Eagles ] is at tackle . " The Eagles signed former Packer Joe Sims on April 14 , 1995 , to compete with Davis for the starting right tackle job . The team reportedly tried to trade Davis in order to move up in the first round of the 1995 NFL Draft , but no team would take their offer . Due to left tackle Bernard Williams ' six game suspension from the NFL , Sims moved over to the left , with Davis staying at right tackle before the preseason . However , due to his performance in training camp , Davis was benched before a preseason game against the Pittsburgh Steelers on August 24 , in favor of Lester Holmes . Holmes suffered a knee injury during the second week of the season and was replaced by Davis . Davis replaced him in week three against the San Diego Chargers and started in the remaining thirteen games of the season and two playoff games thereafter . In a week fourteen game against the Seattle Seahawks , Moe Elewonibi played in place of Davis for two series in a move , as Rhodes explained , aimed at giving reserve players experience in case of injury . Davis gave up three sacks against Alonzo Spellman of the Chicago Bears in the final regular season game . He gave up seven total sacks in his fourteen regular season starts . Davis suffered a mild concussion in a wild card playoff game against the Detroit Lions after he was kicked in the head . He gave up two sacks against Tony Tolbert in a divisional round playoff loss to the Cowboys . His rookie contract expired following the season and he made $ 1 million for the season . He was considered a draft bust after being taken in the first round in 1991 .
= = = Later career = = =
Davis was not re @-@ signed by the Eagles following the 1995 season and became an unrestricted free agent . He worked out for the Atlanta Falcons on April 25 , 1996 . After disagreeing on the terms of the contract , Davis signed with the Falcons on May 13 and agreed to a two @-@ year contract worth $ 1 @.@ 9 million . The contract contained a $ 200 @,@ 000 signing bonus and a $ 300 @,@ 000 workout bonus to go along with a $ 1 @.@ 4 million base salary , and up to $ 300 @,@ 000 in incentives based on playing time . He began the 1996 season as a backup behind David Richards at right tackle . Davis started in place of the injured Richards for a week five game against the San Francisco 49ers on September 29 . Richards came back from his injury in week six , but he and Davis split playing time in weeks seven and eight against the Houston Oilers and Dallas Cowboys , respectively . Richards was waived on October 23 by the Falcons , who decided to go with Davis at right tackle for the remainder of the year . Davis suffered a right ankle sprain in a week sixteen game against the St. Louis Rams on December 15 .
The Falcons proposed a restructured contract to Davis , reportedly worth $ 3 million for three years in March 1997 . After starting the first three games at right tackle in 1997 , Davis was benched in favor of backup Matt Willig on September 18 . Davis did not play in the remaining thirteen games of the season , and was waived by the team on February 11 , 1998 .
The Green Bay Packers signed Davis on January 22 , 1999 , reuniting him with new Packers coach Ray Rhodes . His tenure with the Packers was short @-@ lived , however , as Green Bay released him in June .
Davis finished his seven @-@ year NFL career with 87 starts in 97 games and recovered a fumble in 1997 .
= = After football = =
Davis owned a restaurant called " Gridiron Grill " in Clermont , Florida , for a short time after his career ended . He worked as a manager of a Chili 's restaurant prior to going on The Biggest Loser in 2011 , but was fired after his boss requested that he go back to work immediately after returning home for an interim period . As of 2012 , he is married with four children and resides in Murfreesboro , Tennessee .
Davis was a contestant on the twelfth season of The Biggest Loser , which premiered on September 20 , 2011 , and ended on December 13 , 2011 . He struggled with his weight after his football career ended , and he weighed 476 pounds ( 216 kg ) before he decided to go on The Biggest Loser . Additionally , he saw several former college and professional teammates die due to their weights , including Reggie White and Harry Galbreath , and decided to seek change . He began the show weighing 447 pounds ( 203 kg ) , and he weighed 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) in the season finale , for a total loss of 202 pounds ( 92 kg ) , or 45 @.@ 19 % , and finished as the runner @-@ up behind John Rhode .
The University of Tennessee announced on August 28 , 2012 , that Davis had been hired as the Vol for Life ( VFL ) Coordinator for the school 's football program .
= Watch the Throne =
Watch the Throne is a collaborative studio album by American rappers Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West , released on August 8 , 2011 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records , Roc Nation , and Def Jam Recordings . Before the album , Jay @-@ Z and West had collaborated on their respective singles and with West as a producer on Jay @-@ Z 's work . As longtime friends , they originally sought out to record a five @-@ song EP together , but the project eventually evolved into a full @-@ length album . Recording sessions took place at various locations and began in November 2010 . The album was produced by West , 88 Keys , RZA , Swizz Beatz , Jeff Bhasker , and Mike Dean , among others .
Expanding on the dense production style of West 's 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , Watch the Throne incorporates orchestral and progressive rock influences , unconventional samples , and dramatic melodies in its sound . Jay @-@ Z and West 's braggadocio lyrics exhibit themes of opulence , fame , materialism , power , and the burdens of success , as well as political and socioeconomic context . The album expresses other topics such as Jay @-@ Z 's thoughts on fatherhood , West 's reflection on being deemed a social villain , and their legacy as performers . Music writers interpreted the subject matter to concern the rappers ' plight as African Americans struggling with financial success in America .
The album produced seven singles , including " H • A • M " , " Otis " , " Lift Off " , " No Church in the Wild " , and the Billboard Hot 100 top five " Niggas in Paris " , which all received music videos . Jay @-@ Z and West promoted the album with the Watch the Throne Tour that spanned October 2011 to June 2012 and became the highest grossing hip @-@ hop concert tour in history . Watch the Throne debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 436 @,@ 000 copies its first week . While some critics found the album 's lyrical content uninspiring , its production and the rappers ' performances were highly praised . Many critics and publications placed the album in their year @-@ end best @-@ of lists . It also earned Jay @-@ Z and West seven Grammy Award nominations . The album is certified platinum in the US .
= = Background = =
Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West first worked together on the song " This Can 't Be Life " , from Jay @-@ Z 's 2000 album The Dynasty : Roc La Familia , produced by West , then on Jay @-@ Z 's 2001 album The Blueprint , which showcased West 's distinctive style of hip hop production at the time . West 's early production work on Jay @-@ Z 's music helped raise his profile in the music industry . While originally only viewed as a producer , West eventually was seen as both a viable rapper and producer thanks to the success of his debut album The College Dropout and its singles . West continued to be one of Jay @-@ Z 's main producers on subsequent albums such as The Black Album and Kingdom Come . Jay @-@ Z appeared on Kanye 's first two albums as well , and the two frequently collaborated . Further collaborative work by the two included singles such as " Swagga Like Us " from rapper T.I. ' s Paper Trail , " Run This Town " from Jay @-@ Z 's The Blueprint 3 , and " Monster " from West 's My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy .
During the promotional stages of West 's My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , a remix of the song " Power " surfaced featuring Jay @-@ Z. Following this , West announced on Twitter his intention to drop a five @-@ track EP with Jay @-@ Z , titled Watch the Throne . Also according to the rapper , the track " Monster " was intended for the EP , though that failed to surface . It was later revealed by West that the project had been expanded into a full @-@ length album in an October 2010 interview for MTV . He said in the interview that they planned to record in the south of France .
= = Recording = =
Recording sessions for the album took place at Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii ; Barford Estate in Sydney , Australia ; Electric Lady Studios ; the Mercer Hotel ; MSR Studios ; and Tribeca Grand Hotel in New York , New York ; Le Meurice in Paris , France ; and Real World Studios in Wiltshire , England . Production began in November 2010 in England and continued during available times in Jay @-@ Z 's and West 's schedules at locations in Australia , Paris , Abu Dhabi , New York City , and Los Angeles . In an interview for Billboard , Jay @-@ Z said that they often recorded in hotel rooms and that the album went through three iterations , as he and West had scaled back from their original musical direction . He noted difficulties in the recording process , including arguments with West regarding their direction . Following the release of lead single , " H • A • M " in January 2011 , Jay @-@ Z stated that the less @-@ than @-@ stellar reception caused a change in the production of the album . Jay @-@ Z announced that it was unlikely that the track would ultimately make the album . The issues at the beginning of production had caused a delay in the release . In an interview for Rolling Stone , Jay @-@ Z discussed their insistence on recording in person and attributed it to the delay in releasing the album , stating " If we were gonna do it , we were gonna do it together . No mailing it in " .
The album 's earlier sessions produced a little material that has made the final cut . West had brought a majority of his usual production crew onto the project , the same crew that had assisted in the creation of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . One of the main exceptions was producer No I.D. , who felt that the two artists weren 't pushing forward enough with the music . In an interview with Complex , No I.D. commented about the project that " you ’ re going to sell , because you ’ re already big . But you guys are important to push this forward . Push intelligence and decadence and all of the above forward in a creative manner . ” While his advice was acknowledged to a degree , he ultimately had very little part in the finished project . In January 2011 , they regrouped and rented a block of rooms at the Mercer Hotel in New York City and invited a select group of producers and recording artists . Chauncey " Hit @-@ Boy " Hollis , who produced the track " Niggas in Paris " , said of recording at the hotel , " There was music going on in every room . I had a room where I was cranking out beats , and then I ’ d go into the main room with Jay and [ Kanye ] and play beats for them . Kanye is really hands @-@ on . I would come in with a beat and he ’ d be like , ‘ Take this out , slow it down . ’ It would make it sound 100 times better . Jay would then mumble different flows to the beat " .
Parts of the album were recorded in New York City 's Tribeca Grand Hotel . Recording artist and producer Ryan Leslie also confirmed his involvement in the recording of Watch the Throne . Producer 88 @-@ Keys reportedly played 20 of his beats to West and Jay , who only eventually used one on the finished album . The Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's RZA , who had worked on West 's previous album , is credited as a producer on the track " New Day " . Watch the Throne was mastered by producer and engineer Mike Dean at the Mercer Hotel .
Jay @-@ Z and West worked with several guest recording artists , including Beyoncé , Frank Ocean , and Mr Hudson . " No Church in the Wild " , the last song recorded for the album , was conceived by Jay @-@ Z , West , and the song 's producer 88 @-@ Keys throughout most of June . Producer and recording artist The @-@ Dream sings a verse on the track using AutoTune . The song features R & B singer Frank Ocean , who released his debut mixtape nostalgia , ULTRA in early 2011 to critical acclaim . The release of the mixtape interested Jay @-@ Z and West . Jay @-@ Z 's wife Beyoncé recommended the involvement of the singer in particular , who appears on both " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America . " Ocean admitted that Jay @-@ Z has intentionally intimidated him during recording sessions but declared his enjoyment of working with the two . Ocean mused about the project :
“ I rarely do collabs , so that ’ s just one of the ones you absolutely do . It ’ s like a no @-@ brainer . I didn ’ t really think about any of it . The last thing on my mind was working with artists who I ’ ve held in high esteem for years . [ ... ] I worked with Jay on his solo album before I did the Watch the Throne sessions . The second time I went it was Barry Weiss , Jay , Beyoncé , Kanye , couple other people , it was a pretty heavy room . ”
" Lift Off " was recorded in Sydney , Australia . In early May 2011 , rumors arose that " Lift Off " was to feature Bruno Mars who had recorded vocals . It was reported that the song would be released as the lead single from the album . However , Mars never appeared on the song and Knowles sang several lines during the chorus instead . Additional vocalists Elly Jackson , " Uncle " Charlie Wilson , Connie Mitchell , and Justin Vernon provide the hook on " That 's My Bitch . " Swizz Beatz , who produced " Welcome to the Jungle " , also provided background vocals to the track , and Kid Cudi contributed additional vocals to " The Joy " and " Illest Motherfucker Alive , " bonus tracks on the album 's deluxe edition . One of the tracks that was recorded but didn 't make the cut for the album was " Living So Italian . " It apparently sampled Andrea Bocelli 's " Con te partirò " and was described as catchy but for unknown reasons , the song never made it onto the album .
In 2013 , Jay @-@ Z released his twelfth studio album Magna Carta ... Holy Grail , in an interview he revealed that two songs on the album were initially recorded for Watch the Throne , the song " Oceans " which features Frank Ocean and the song " Holy Grail " which went on to feature Justin Timberlake ( Although Timberlake 's contribution to the track was not anticipated at the time , until the duo collaborated on Timberlake 's 2013 comeback single " Suit & Tie " and " Murder " from The 20 / 20 Experience and The 20 / 20 Experience 2 of 2 respectively ) . West and Jay @-@ Z argued for four days about having them included on the Watch the Throne , however West eventually relented and the duo recorded " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " . In an interview with Zane Lowe , Jay @-@ Z said : " [ There were ] no lyrics on ' Holy Grail ' and I recorded ' Oceans ' and I played those records for Kanye , ” Jay explained . “ And he was like , ' No those have to go on Watch the Throne , ' so we spent four days arguing about those records and I was explaining to him why it wasn 't right for this project and I had a whole idea for making this album called Magna Carta ... Holy Grail , the " Holy Grail " part of the name came after . "
= = Music = =
Julian Benbow of The Boston Globe writes that the album 's music is as " massive , dour , and relentlessly unconventional " as that of West 's previous 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . Music writer Robert Christgau describes West 's production as " a funkier and less ornate variant of the prog @-@ rap of 2010 's acclaimed My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy " . Music journalist Jody Rosen characterizes the music as " vast , dark and booming , " commenting that West " continues in the sonic vein he introduced in My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , lacing the songs with rock dynamics , layering his beats with eerie vocal chorales , piling on proggy flourishes . " Conversely , Matthew Cole of Slant Magazine finds West 's " knack for dramatic , melodically sophisticated tracks [ ... ] channeled away from the Olympian scale " of his previous album " and toward the more commercial vein of Jay @-@ Z 's recent work , " which he attributes to West splitting production work with several other producers . On the songs ' structure , Cole states , " every track eschews the standard verse @-@ hook @-@ repeat format in favor of more dynamic material . "
Music journalist Alexis Petridis comments that the album incorporates " unlikely samples . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times writes that its production " can be roughly segmented into three categories , " noting " Southern @-@ inflected tracks " such as " Niggas in Paris " and " H • A • M " , " moody and harsh numbers " like " Who Gon Stop Me " and " Why I Love You " , and " the nostalgia that creeps over much of this album , giving it a sonic through @-@ line and mission statement . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan perceives " pure orchestral excess " on some of its songs and describes the album 's musical scope as " a tribute to [ West 's ] distinctive taste and sense of style . " An interlude that appears after " No Church in the Wild " , " New Day " and " Welcome to the Jungle " , as well as before " Illest Motherfucker Alive " on the deluxe edition , samples the 1979 song " Tristessa " by Italian jazz @-@ rock fusion band Orchestra Njervudarov .
= = Lyrics = =
The album features themes of opulence , fame , materialism , power , and the burdens of success . Jay @-@ Z 's and West 's lyrics include boasts of obscene wealth , grandiosity , and social commentary . Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Fisher describes Watch the Throne as " an album centered around larger @-@ than @-@ life egos . " Robert Christgau notes " regal grandiosity " and " glory " as primary themes on the album . Andy Kellman of Allmusic characterizes much of the album 's lyrical content as " ruthless flaunting of material wealth and carte blanche industry resources . " Ross Green of Tiny Mix Tapes describes it as " luxury rap " , noting Jay @-@ Z 's and West 's " whimsy and braggadocio . " Rob Harvilla of Spin views that their lyrics express elitism , narcissism , " relentless capitalism , " and " smug yet undeniable greatness . "
Music critic Greg Kot views that the album is about " mutual admiration " and writes of the rappers ' respective personas , " Jay @-@ Z is about imperious flow , bridging his gritty past life on the streets with his current status as a cultural tastemaker and business mogul . [ ... ] West is more desperate , transparent , awkward , vulnerable . " Music critic Nathan Rabin states that Jay @-@ Z and West " are a study in contrasts : the businessman and the bohemian , the faithful husband and the drugged @-@ up playboy , the walking press release and the loose cannon . Jay @-@ Z is tidy . Kanye is nothing but rough edges . " Jon Caramanica writes similarly , " breaking [ ... ] old barriers is a means to acceptance and stability " for Jay @-@ Z , while " West sounds lonely " with his fame , adding that " For Mr. West every flash of Dionysian extreme is tempered by the realization of its hollowness . " In his article " Brag Like That " for Barnes & Noble , Robert Christgau comments that " Jay @-@ Z is a grown man and Kanye West is not " on the album and elaborates on their lyrics , stating :
Both co @-@ kings flaunt their arrogance even by the standards of a genre where braggadocio is the main event , and neither is shy about pretending that the line of succession from Otis Redding and Martin Luther King is paved with their gold . [ ... ] One could venture that maybe Watch the Throne divvies up the way it does for rhetorical purposes — that one king plays the hero and the other the hedonist , two equally royal hip @-@ hop archetypes .
Their lyrics also exhibit political and socioeconomic context , which Jody Rosen denotes as " serious , sober , weighty . " Nitsuh Abebe of New York views that the album is " about the relationship of black American men to wealth , power , and success . [ ... ] a portrait of two black men thinking through the idea of success in America . " He compares it to Yinka Shonibare 's 1998 piece Diary of a Victorian Dandy , " in which the artist luxuriates in all the genteel pleasures of the time . " Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times notes " musings on the spoils of riches and the chaos that accompanies it , " adding that " [ the ] tension between worshiping the spirit and celebrating the bounty drives Watch the Throne [ ... ] The record questions faith while clinging to heritage and family , places this moment in an historical context , wonders on the mystery , power and confusion of the gilded life — while rolling around in amulets . " Writer Kitty Empire interprets it to be about " black power [ ... ] conceived as a swaggering taunt of achievement , in line with both men 's previous works , which routinely double as shopping guides . [ ... ] [ T ] hey need to humanise all the conspicuous consumption . " Claire Suddath of Time views the rappers ' " bacchanal celebration of the finer things in life " as secondary to the theme of " two men grappling with what it means to be successful and black in a nation that still thinks of them as second class . "
= = Songs = =
The opening track " No Church in the Wild " features a cinematic production style . Singers Frank Ocean and The @-@ Dream lend their voices to the album 's grim opener , which sets the mood with a gnarled guitar sample . Over the rock @-@ centric , rolling production , both rappers muse over familiar themes of loyalty , sexuality and maternal solidarity . The pop @-@ oriented " Lift Off " features baroque strings and a chorus sung by Beyoncé Knowles , accompanied with synthesizers . The song contains horns and martial drums as Knowles sings , " We gon ' take it to the moon / Take it to the stars . " " Niggas in Paris " incorporates staccato orchestration and fizzing industrial noise , topping it all off with a menacing beat and icy synthesizer notes . The track features an unusual sampling of dialogue from the 2007 film Blades of Glory , notably the " we 're gonna skate to one song and one song only " line . West and Jay @-@ Z 's lyrics frame their rags to riches story on the song .
" Otis " samples Otis Redding 's 1966 song " Try a Little Tenderness " , manipulating it into a rhythm track with Redding 's vocals and grunts . The sample is used in a way that is reminiscent to past Kanye productions , like the tracks found on his album The College Dropout . Redding 's vocals are chopped up so thoroughly that his voice serves as a mere melodic riff on the track , with both rappers promptly rapping over it in a braggadocio fashion . " Gotta Have It " , produced by The Neptunes , incorporates chopped @-@ up James Brown vocal samples and Eastern flute melodies . The song contains haunting backing vocals and an accompanying tambourine with the two rappers trading verses with the vocal riff playing over them . Much like " Otis " , the track features sliced @-@ up vocal snippets and an aggressive bass backing , with the two rappings trading lines and making references to the Yung Chris song " Racks " and other contemporary rap trends .
On " New Day " , they address future sons about fame . It references the line " me and the RZA connect " from Raekwon 's 1995 song " Incarcerated Scarfaces " , which was also produced by RZA . The track incorporates a sample of Nina Simone 's 1965 song " Feeling Good " through an Auto @-@ Tune voice processor . Both rappers discuss their futures as fathers on the track , flowing smoothly over mellow , lightly psychedelic synthesizer tones . Both Justin Vernon and La Roux appear on " That 's My Bitch " , spitting off hooks over a quick , melodic beat , with West at his most abrasive lyrically . On " Welcome to the Jungle " , Jay @-@ Z laments personal losses and overcoming struggles . Sharing the name with a Guns N ' Roses track , Jay describes himself as the " black Axl Rose " over a jittery , treble @-@ heavy Swizz Beatz production .
" Who Gon Stop Me " features bombastic production and samples Flux Pavilion 's 2011 song " I Can 't Stop " , reinforced with heavy synthesizer and tone shifts . The song utilizes an often experimental , bass @-@ driven and dub @-@ step influenced style of composition , with West forcefully rapping lines like " this is something like the Holocaust " . " Murder to Excellence " addresses black @-@ on @-@ black crime and limited social mobility for African Americans . Midway through the song the beat switches up , with Kanye musing over the horrors of black @-@ on @-@ black violence in the first half , and Jay @-@ Z delivering equally meditated comments on black excellence on the more choir heavy second half . A sample from Indiggo 's " LA LA LA " can be heard on the song . At 5 minutes in length , the complete " Murder to Excellence " is the longest track on the album .
" Made in America " has themes of family life and the American Dream , with Jay @-@ Z and West discussing their respective rises to fame , while acknowledging those who helped and inspired them . The song has been described as an understated soft @-@ pop track with influence from Michael Jackson and his 1985 charity single " We Are the World " . Ocean 's hook pays tribute to Martin Luther King , Jr . , Coretta Scott King , Malcolm X , Betty Shabazz and Jesus on one of the album 's more serene tracks . Jay @-@ Z muses on his drug @-@ dealing past with lines like " our apple pie was supplied by Arm & Hammer " , with West 's verse describing his conflict with fame . " Why I Love You " has Jay @-@ Z lamenting betrayal and how his past protégés failed to maintain without him . The track contains a " sledgehammer beat " which is built around French house duo Cassius ' 2010 single " I < 3 U So " . West 's production continues in the sonic vein he introduced in My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , lacing the song with rock dynamics , layering the beat with eerie vocal chorales in the style of progressive rock songs .
= = Release and promotion = =
Watch the Throne was released by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records , Roc Nation , and Def Jam Recordings , Jay @-@ Z 's and West 's respective record labels . On July 4 , 2011 it was made available to pre @-@ order on Life + Times , Jay @-@ Z 's lifestyle webzine , which redirected to Island Def Jam 's website that featured the deluxe version available for $ 16 @.@ 99 , standard CD for $ 13 @.@ 99 , a deluxe digital version for $ 14 @.@ 99 , and standard digital album for $ 11 @.@ 99 . On July 22 , its pre @-@ order was made available on the iTunes Store . Internationally the album was released digitally on August 8 exclusively through iTunes , while its physical release was made available on August 12 . Its deluxe CD edition was sold exclusively by Best Buy through August 23 , when it became available at other retailers . The sales strategy received criticism from other retailers , who accused the labels of giving preferential treatment to iTunes and Best Buy . One of the most anticipated releases in 2011 , Watch the Throne became one of the few major label albums in the Internet age to avoid a leak .
On July 7 , 2011 , Jay @-@ Z hosted a private listening session at the Mercer Hotel in New York City , previewing the album 's songs from his MacBook Pro for a select group of reporters and music journalists . It was also exclusive to two teenage fans who had won access to the session for being the first people to pre @-@ order the album through Jay @-@ Z 's Life + Times website . The album 's cover and artwork , both designed by Italian designer Riccardo Tisci , were also premiered at the session . Benjamin Meadows @-@ Ingrim of Billboard , who attended the session , said of the previewed material , " The songs were dramatic and boastful , with Jay @-@ Z often taking the lead lyrically , and the collection showcased the differences between the two artists - Jay @-@ Z , the technical marksman , and Kanye , the emotive chest beater . " On August 1 , Jay @-@ Z and West held a listening session for the album at the Rose Center for Earth and Space in New York City 's American Museum of Natural History . The session premiered the album in its entirety and featured attendance from journalists , models , industry types , and recording artists such as Busta Rhymes , 88 @-@ Keys , and Beyoncé Knowles .
Jay @-@ Z and West promoted Watch the Throne with a 34 @-@ date , North American concert tour produced by Live Nation , which began on October 29 and concluded on December 18 , 2010 . By the end of 2011 the tour had grossed $ 48 @.@ 3 million making it the highest grossing hip @-@ hop tour and the eighth highest grossing tour of 2011 . By its conclusion , the tour had become the highest grossing concert tour ever by a hip @-@ hop act .
= = Singles = =
Watch the Throne spawned seven official singles , with varying degrees of success . Following West 's announcement via his Twitter account , " H • A • M " was officially released as a digital download in January 2011 as the lead single . It charted at number 23 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . In July 2011 , " Otis " became the second single when it was premiered on Funkmaster Flex 's Hot 97 radio show and subsequently leaked to the Internet . It was sent to rhythmic contemporary and urban contemporary radio on August 9 . Its cover art was created by Riccardo Tisci . " Otis " reached number 12 on the Hot 100 . A music video for the song was filmed by director Spike Jonze in Los Angeles . Third single " Lift Off " was sent to US urban radio on August 23 of the same year . The track peaked on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at position 6 .
The album 's fourth and fifth singles were released simultaneously ; in September 2011 , " Why I Love You " was sent to US rhythmic radio , and " Niggas in Paris " was sent to both rhythmic and urban radio . " Why I Love You " served as a European @-@ centric single while " Niggas in Paris " was promoted as a domestic single . " Niggas in Paris " peaked at number five on the Hot 100 . " Niggas in Paris " was sent to Top 40 / Mainstream radio on November 8 . By February 2012 , it had reached digital sales of two million in the US . The song was promoted with a music video directed by West himself , featuring concert footage .
The sixth single was " Gotta Have It " , which impacted Urban radio on December 6 , 2011 , and Rhythmic radio on January 31 , 2012 . Seventh and final single " No Church in the Wild " impacted Urban radio on March 20 , 2012 . Romain Gavras directed a music video for " No Church " though it featured none of the featured performers . " Gotta Have It " peaked at position 69 on the Hot 100 , with " No Church in the Wild " peaking at 72 . Though not released as a single , " Who Gon Stop Me " peaked at 44 on the chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Watch the Throne received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 76 , based on 42 reviews . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club wrote that " exhilarating messiness and go @-@ for @-@ broke spontaneity infect Jay @-@ Z and push him outside his comfort zone and into a realm of intense emotional reflection . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan felt that it " works best when Jay and Kanye are just talking about how great they are , " adding that " Kanye is this album 's obvious guiding force ... He displays levels of unequaled audacity . " Claire Suddath of Time called it " a beautifully decadent album by two of hip @-@ hop 's finest artists — men with a lot of things to say and a lot of money to spend . " Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph praised West 's " attention to detail " and found their " wit and absurdity [ ... ] entirely suited to the epic scale of productions . " Kitty Empire of The Observer stated , " Some find this sort of branded gloating distasteful , but at their best both rappers can still make you laugh . "
Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times found its production " captivating " , despite " a relative lack of structural variety within the songs , " and called the album " a cocksure , fiery , smart , if problematic , collaboration that showcases the pair 's distinct lyrical skills . " Julian Benbow of The Boston Globe observed " an undeniable synergy that they embraced for this project . " Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole praised West 's " powerhouse production " and called it an album " that requires you to tolerate the artists ' self @-@ mythologizing and put up with their sometimes awkward attempts at experimentation . " Despite noting a " lack of thematic consistency , " David Amidon of PopMatters commended " the entire conceit of the album ’ s framework " and added that it " succeeds [ ... ] in giving us both sides of both artists — the braggadocio and the social consciousness — in nearly equal measure . " Allmusic editor Andy Kellman called it " an audacious spectacle of vacuous pomposity as well as one of tremendous lyrical depth . "
In a mixed review , Andy Gill of The Independent found their rapping " pretty mediocre " and stated , " Too often here their complacent , back @-@ slapping laxity leaves tracks floundering . " Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot criticized Jay @-@ Z and West 's " self @-@ regard " , writing that " they urge listeners to ' watch the throne , ' and gaze in awe on their good fortune . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone felt that " on a record this ambitious , this sonically bold , it 's a shame two of music 's greatest storytellers don 't extend their gaze beyond their own luxe lives . " Rob Harvilla of Spin commented that " fame and wealth and pissed greatness [ ... ] permeate [ s ] everything " and called the album " garish and glorious , exquisite and exasperating . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times wrote that " as a whole it 's not totally legible ; there are too many ideas ... an album with several phenomenal moments , even if it doesn ’ t quite add up to a phenomenal album . " Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker stated , " Weed the album down to a healthy ten , and [ it ] doesn 't become either classic or coherent , but it does work as an entertaining document of two wildly creative , not particularly wound @-@ up friends . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Watch the Throne was one of the top @-@ ranked albums in year @-@ end lists by music critics and publications . Q ranked the album number six in its list of the Top 50 Albums of 2011 . Rolling Stone named it the second @-@ best album in its year @-@ end list , commenting that " What could have been a crash @-@ and @-@ burn anticlimax turned out to be as fun as any record in a dog 's age . From the cinematic ' No Church in the Wild ' to the Stax @-@ soul update ' Otis , ' Throne testifies to Kanye West 's talent for beats both iconoclastic and pop @-@ savvy . " Claire Suddath of Time ranked it number three on her top @-@ 10 albums list and called it " a beautifully decadent album " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post ranked it number two on his list and stated , " Instead of blushing over their embarrassment of riches , pop 's most intriguing partnership delivered a self @-@ congratulatory opus that was adventurous enough to remind us that they ’ re rap visionaries first , 1 percent bazillionaires second . The A.V. Club ranked the it number nine on its year @-@ end list , commenting that " Watch The Throne thrives on the bristling tension between Kanye 's live @-@ wire energy and rule @-@ breaking abandon , and Jay @-@ Z 's innate cautiousness . It ’ s an album of the moment — a point underlined by the presence of Frank Ocean on two tracks — yet it has the substance to endure . " Stereogum placed Watch the Throne at number 10 on its list of the " Top 50 albums of 2011 " while Pitchfork Media placed the album at number 21 on its list . In 2012 , Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the last decade . In January 2015 , the album was placed at number 8 on Billboard 's list of " The 20 Best Albums of the 2010s ( So Far ) " .
Watch the Throne was nominated for Grammy Awards for Best Rap Album and Best Recording Package , presented at the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012 . It lost the award to West 's My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , which took home three of the awards for which it was nominated . The song " Otis " was nominated for Best Rap Performance and Best Rap Song , winning the former . " Otis " lost the latter award to West 's Twisted Fantasy single " All of the Lights " . At the 55th Grammy Awards in 2013 , the album received three additional nominations , with the song " Niggas in Paris " winning awards for Best Rap Performance and Best Rap Song , and " No Church in the Wild " winning Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 436 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It serves as Jay @-@ Z 's 12th number @-@ one album and West 's fifth number @-@ one album in the US . Its debut week serves as the second highest debut week of 2011 , while its first week digital sales of 321 @,@ 000 downloads serve as the second highest one @-@ week sales tally in digital history . Watch the Throne had the biggest one @-@ week digital tally ever for a rap album and broke the United States iTunes Store 's one @-@ week sales record when it sold nearly 290 @,@ 000 downloads in the first week via the retailer . It reached number one on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts . The album remained at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 177 @,@ 000 copies in its second week . It sold 94 @,@ 000 copies in its third week . In its fourth week , the album sold 80 @,@ 000 copies . On September 15 , 2011 , Watch the Throne was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of one million copies in the US . As of July 2013 , it has sold 1 @,@ 573 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
In Canada , it debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling 25 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In its second week , it remained at number one on the chart and sold 15 @,@ 900 copies . In addition , Watch the Throne peaked at number one on the Australian Urban Albums Chart , the Norwegian Albums Chart , the Swiss Albums Chart and on the UK R & B Albums Chart . By September 2011 , the album had shipped 35 @,@ 000 copies in Australia . The album peaked at number two on the Australian Albums Chart , the German Albums Chart the Danish Albums Chart , and at number three on both the Scottish Albums Chart and the UK Albums Chart . It debuted within the top 10 on the Belgian Albums Chart , the Dutch Albums Chart , the French Albums Chart , the Irish Albums Chart , the Russian Albums Chart and the New Zealand Albums Chart .
= = Track listing = =
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
^ [ b ] signifies an additional producer .
^ [ c ] signifies an additional vocal producer .
Sample credits
" No Church in the Wild " contains samples from " K @-@ Scope " performed by Phil Manzanera , " Sunshine Help Me " performed by Spooky Tooth and " Don 't Tell a Lie About Me and I Won 't Tell the Truth About You " performed by James Brown .
" Niggas in Paris " contains samples from the Rev. W.A. Donaldson recording " Baptizing Scene " and dialogue between Will Ferrell and Jon Heder from the film Blades of Glory .
" Otis " contains samples from " Try a Little Tenderness " performed by Otis Redding , " Don 't Tell a Lie About Me and I Won 't Tell the Truth About You " performed by James Brown and " Top Billin ' " performed by Audio Two .
" Gotta Have It " contains samples from " Don 't Tell a Lie About Me and I Won 't Tell the Truth About You " , " People Get Up and Drive Your Funky Soul " and " My Thang " performed by James Brown .
" New Day " contains samples from " Feeling Good " performed by Nina Simone .
" That 's My Bitch " contains samples from " Get Up , Get Into It , Get Involved " performed by James Brown and " Apache " performed by Incredible Bongo Band .
" Who Gon Stop Me " contains samples from " I Can 't Stop " performed by Flux Pavilion .
" Murder to Excellence " contains samples from " La La La " performed by Indiggo Twins and " Celie Shaves Mr. / Scarification " performed by Quincy Jones .
" Why I Love You " contains samples from " I Love You So " performed by Cassius .
" Primetime " contains samples from " Action " performed by Orange Krush .
" The Joy " contains samples from " The Makings of You ( Live ) " performed by Curtis Mayfield and " Different Strokes " performed by Syl Johnson .
The interlude on each of these track was found , after " No Church in the Wild " , " New Day " and " Welcome to the Jungle " , as well as before " Illest Motherfucker Alive " contains samples from " Tristessa " performed by Orchestra Njervudarov .
Additional notes
" Lift Off " features additional vocals by Seal , Mr Hudson , Don Jazzy , Bankulli and Ricardo Lewis .
" Gotta Have It " features additional vocals by Kid Cudi .
" That 's My Bitch " features additional vocals by Elly Jackson , Connie Mitchell and Justin Vernon .
" Welcome to the Jungle " features additional vocals by Swizz Beatz and Acapella Soul .
" Who Gon Stop Me " features additional vocals by Mr Hudson , Swizz Beatz and Verse Simmonds .
" Murder to Excellence " features additional vocals by Kid Cudi .
" Illest Motherfucker Alive " features additional vocals by Kid Cudi , Bankulli and Aude Cardona .
" H • A • M " features additional vocals by Aude Cardona and Jacob Lewis Smith .
" The Joy " features additional vocals by Kid Cudi , Charlie Wilson and Pete Rock .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Watch the Throne adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Primary line constants =
The primary line constants are parameters that describe the characteristics of conductive transmission lines , such as pairs of copper wires , in terms of the physical electrical properties of the line . The primary line constants are only relevant to such lines and are to be contrasted with the secondary line constants , which can be derived from them , and are more generally applicable . The secondary line constants can be used , for instance , to compare the characteristics of a waveguide to a copper line , whereas the primary constants have no meaning for a waveguide .
The constants are conductor resistance and inductance , and insulator capacitance and conductance , which are by convention given the symbols R , L , C , and G respectively . The constants are enumerated in terms of per unit length . The circuit representation of these elements requires a distributed element model and consequently calculus must be used to analyse the circuit . The secondary constants of characteristic impedance and propagation constant can be derived in this way .
A number of special cases have particularly simple solutions and important practical applications . Low loss cable requires only L and C to be included in the analysis , useful for short lengths of cable . Low frequency applications , such as twisted pair telephone lines , are dominated by R and C only . High frequency applications , such as RF co @-@ axial cable , are dominated by L and C. Lines loaded to prevent distortion need all four elements in the analysis , but have a simple , elegant solution .
= = The constants = =
There are four primary line constants , but in some circumstances some of them are small enough to be ignored and the analysis can be simplified . These four , and their symbols and units are as follows :
R and L are elements in series with the line ( because they are properties of the conductor ) and C and G are elements shunting the line ( because they are properties of the dielectric material between the conductors ) . G represents leakage current through the dielectric and in most cables is very small . The word loop is used to emphasise that the resistance and inductance of both conductors must be taken into account . For instance , if a line consists of two identical wires that have a resistance of 25 mΩ / m each , the loop resistance is double that , 50 mΩ / m . Because the values of the constants are quite small , it is common for manufacturers to quote them per kilometre rather than per metre ; in the English @-@ speaking world " per mile " can also be used .
The word " constant " can be misleading since there is some variation with frequency . In particular , R is heavily influenced by the skin effect . Furthermore , while G has virtually no effect at audio frequency , it can cause noticeable losses at high frequency with many of the dielectric materials used in cables due to a high loss tangent . Avoiding the losses caused by G is the reason many cables designed for use at UHF are air @-@ insulated or foam @-@ insulated ( which makes them virtually air @-@ insulated ) . The actual meaning of constant in this context is that the parameter is constant with distance . That is the line is assumed to be homogenous lengthwise . This condition is true for the vast majority of transmission lines in use today .
= = Typical values for some common cables = =
† Manufacturers commonly omit a value for inductance in their data sheets . Some of these values are estimated from the figures for capacitance and characteristic impedance by <formula> .
= = Circuit representation = =
The line constants cannot be simply represented as lumped elements in a circuit ; they must be described as distributed elements . For instance " pieces " of the capacitance are in between " pieces " of the resistance . However many pieces the R and C are broken into , it can always be argued they should be broken apart further to properly represent the circuit , and after each division the number of meshes in the circuit is increased . This is shown diagramtically in figure 1 . To give a true representation of the circuit , the elements must be made infinitesimally small so that each element is distributed along the line . The infinitesimal elements in an infinitesimal distance <formula> are given by ;
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
It is convenient for the purposes of analysis to roll up these elements into general series impedance , Z , and shunt admittance , Y elements such that ;
<formula> and ,
<formula>
Analysis of this network ( figure 2 ) will yield the secondary line constants : the propagation constant , <formula> , ( whose real and imaginary parts are the attenuation constant , <formula> , and phase change constant , <formula> , respectively ) and the characteristic impedance , <formula> , which also , in general , will have real , <formula> , and imaginary , <formula> , parts , making a total of four secondary constants to be derived from the four primary constants . The term constant is even more misleading for the secondary constants as they all usually vary quite strongly with frequency , even if the frequency dependence of the primary constants is ignored . This is because the reactances in the circuit ( <formula> and <formula> ) introduce a dependence on <formula> . It is possible to choose specific values of the primary constants that result in <formula> and <formula> being constant ( the Heaviside condition ) but even in this case there is still <formula> which is directly proportional to <formula> . As with the primary constants , the meaning is that the secondary constants do not vary with distance along the line , not that they are independent of frequency .
= = Characteristic impedance = =
The characteristic impedance of a transmission line , <formula> , is defined as the impedance looking into an infinitely long line . Such a line will never return a reflection since the incident wave will never reach the end to be reflected . When considering a finite initial length of the line , the remainder of the line can be replaced by <formula> as its equivalent circuit . This is so because the remainder of the line is still infinitely long . Considering just the first section of the equivalent circuit of the line ( this is an L @-@ network consisting of one element each of <formula> and <formula> ) the remainder can be replaced by <formula> . This results in the network shown in figure 3 , which can be analysed for <formula> using the usual network analysis theorems ,
<formula>
which re @-@ arranges to ,
<formula>
Taking limits of both sides
<formula>
and since the line was assumed to be homogenous lengthwise ,
<formula>
= = Propagation constant = =
The ratio of the line input voltage to the voltage a distance <formula> further down the line ( that is , after one section of the equivalent circuit ) is given by a standard voltage divider calculation . The remainder of the line to the right , as in the characteristic impedance calculation , is replaced with <formula> ,
<formula>
Each infinitesimal section will multiply the voltage drop by the same factor . After <formula> sections the voltage ratio will be ,
<formula>
At a distance <formula> along the line , the number of sections is <formula> so that ,
<formula>
In the limit as <formula> ,
<formula>
The second order term <formula> will disappear in the limit , so we can write without loss of accuracy ,
<formula>
and comparing with the mathematical identity ,
<formula>
yields ,
<formula>
From the definition of propagation constant ,
<formula>
Hence ,
<formula>
= = Special cases = =
An ideal transmission line will have no loss , which implies that the resistive elements are zero . It also results in a purely real ( resistive ) characteristic impedance . The ideal line cannot be realised in practice , but it is a useful approximation in many circumstances . This is especially true , for instance , when short pieces of line are being used as circuit components such as stubs . A short line has very little loss and this can then be ignored and treated as an ideal line . The secondary constants in these circumstances are ;
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = = Twisted pair = = =
Typically , twisted pair cable used for audio frequencies or low data rates has line constants dominated by R and C. The dielectric loss is usually negligible at these frequencies and G is close to zero . It is also the case that , at a low enough frequency , <formula> which means that L can also be ignored . In those circumstances the secondary constants become ,
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
The attenuation of this cable type increases with frequency , causing distortion of waveforms . Not so obviously , the variation of <formula> with frequency also causes a distortion of a type called dispersion . To avoid dispersion the requirement is that <formula> is directly proportional to <formula> . However , it is actually proportional to <formula> and dispersion results . <formula> also varies with frequency and is also partly reactive ; both these features will be the cause of reflections from a resistive line termination . This is another undesirable effect . The nominal impedance quoted for this type of cable is , in this case , very nominal , being valid at only one spot frequency , usually quoted at 800 Hz or 1 kHz .
= = = Co @-@ axial cable = = =
Cable operated at a high enough frequency ( VHF radio frequency or high data rates ) will meet the conditions <formula> and <formula> . This must eventually be the case as the frequency is increased for any cable . Under those conditions R and G can both be ignored ( except for the purpose of calculating the cable loss ) and the secondary constants become ;
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = = Loaded line = = =
Loaded lines are lines designed with deliberately increased inductance . This is done by adding iron or some other magnetic metal to the cable or adding coils . The purpose is to ensure that the line meets the Heaviside condition , which eliminates distortion caused by frequency @-@ dependent attenuation and dispersion , and ensures that <formula> is constant and resistive . The secondary constants are here related to the primary constants by ;
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = Velocity = =
The velocity of propagation is given by ,
<formula>
Since ,
<formula> and <formula>
then ,
<formula>
In cases where β can be taken as ,
<formula>
the velocity of propagation is given by ,
<formula>
The lower the capacitance the higher the velocity . With an air dielectric cable , which is approximated to with low @-@ loss cable , the velocity of propagation is very close to c , the speed of light in vacuo .
= 731 ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" 731 " is the tenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 1 , 1995 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz . " 731 " featured guest appearances by Stephen McHattie , Steven Williams and Don S. Williams . The episode helps explore the series ' overarching mythology . " 731 " earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 , being watched by 17 @.@ 68 million people in its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder risks his life infiltrating a train carrying a human @-@ alien hybrid . Meanwhile , Scully tries to uncover the truth about her abduction . " 731 " is a two @-@ part episode , continuing the plot from the previous episode , " Nisei " .
The production of " 731 " involved several stunts , including the explosion of a retired railway car . The episode 's production was successful for two members of the crew — earning director of photography John Bartley an American Society of Cinematographers award nomination for his work , and securing Bowman the job of directing the series ' subsequent film adaptation , The X @-@ Files .
= = Plot = =
In Quinnimont , West Virginia , a team of soldiers arrives at an abandoned leprosy research compound , rounding up most of the patients . One patient , Escalante , hides beneath a trapdoor during the arrival and follows the group to a secluded field nearby . He watches as the soldiers shoot the other patients , including apparent alien @-@ human hybrids , into a mass grave .
Fox Mulder loses his cell phone after jumping on top of the moving train , losing contact with Dana Scully . When questioned by Scully , X tells her to analyze her implant , saying that it will give her answers about the train and her sister Melissa 's murder . Meanwhile , Mulder enters the train and finds that the secret railcar is quarantined and protected by a security system . He searches for Zama , enlisting the train conductor for help . In Zama 's compartment , they find hand @-@ written journals in Japanese . However , elsewhere on the train , the Red @-@ Haired Man intercepts and strangles Zama .
Scully sees Pendrell , who tells her that the implant contains highly advanced technology that can replicate the brain 's memory functions and enable someone to know a person 's very thoughts . The manufacturer of the chip was Zama , who created the implant at the West Virginia compound . Scully travels there , meeting a group of deformed patients who have eluded the " death squads . " Escalante tells her that the patients were experimented on by Zama , who departed long ago ; since then , the death squads have set out to massacre them . Escalante shows her the mass grave but is killed when soldiers arrive to capture Scully . She is brought before the First Elder .
Mulder returns to the railcar , seeing its door ajar ; an alien @-@ human test subject is locked in a room inside . The Red @-@ Haired Man attacks Mulder , causing the conductor to lock them both in the car . The Red @
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. This " hoax " plot device would later be revisited in both the fourth season finale " Gethsemane " and the fifth season 's opening two @-@ part episodes " Redux and Redux II " , although to a much lesser degree of effectiveness .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 731 " premiered on the Fox network on December 1 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 30 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 with a 21 share , meaning that roughly 12 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 21 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 17 @.@ 68 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
= = = Reviews = = =
" 731 " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , reviewer Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , calling it " terrific " . However , Handlen felt that the version of events told to Scully in this episode was perhaps a better explanation for the series ' mythology than its eventual resolution , noting that it might have offered " a conclusion whose emotional impact would 've lived up to the intensity of early mythology episodes " such as this . In a retrospective of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , " 731 " was rated a B. The review noted that the episode was " strangely tension @-@ free " , though it derided Scully 's stubbornness to believe what the series had established as truth . Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the second " greatest " episode of the series , stating it is " arguably the greatest of The X @-@ Files ' many mythology episodes " and a " high @-@ octane mix of action and intrigue , with the production values and pacing of a Hollywood blockbuster " .
Director Rob Bowman called the episode one of his all time favorites . Actor Steven Williams felt that his portrayal of X in this episode helped endear him more to the show 's viewers .
= = = Awards = = =
Director of Photography John Bartley earned a nomination for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in a Regular Series by the American Society of Cinematographers for his work on this episode .
= Conservapedia =
Conservapedia / kənˈsɜːrvəˈpidiə / is an English @-@ language wiki encyclopedia project written from an American conservative , Young Earth creationist , and Christian fundamentalist point of view . The website was started in 2006 by American homeschool teacher and attorney Andrew Schlafly , son of conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly , to counter what he perceived as a liberal bias present in Wikipedia . It uses editorials and a wiki @-@ based system to generate content .
Examples of Conservapedia 's ideology include its accusations against and strong criticism of U.S. President Barack Obama , the Democratic Party , evolution , and Wikipedia 's alleged liberal bias , as well as views of the theory of relativity as promoting moral relativism , claims of a proven link between abortion and breast cancer , praise for a number of Republican politicians , support of celebrities and artistic works that it views as promoting moral standards in line with Christian family values , and acceptance of fundamentalist Christian doctrines such as Young Earth creationism . Conservapedia 's " Conservative Bible Project " is a crowd @-@ sourced version of the Bible which Conservapedia claims will be " free of corruption by liberal untruths " .
The site has received negative reactions from the mainstream media , as well as from notable political figures , including commentators and journalists , and has been criticized for bias and inaccuracies .
= = Background = =
Conservapedia was created in November 2006 by Andrew Schlafly , a Harvard- and Princeton @-@ educated attorney and a homeschool teacher . He started the project after reading a student 's assignment written using Common Era dating notation rather than the Anno Domini system that he preferred . Although he was " an early Wikipedia enthusiast , " as reported by Shawn Zeller of Congressional Quarterly , Schlafly became concerned about bias after Wikipedia editors repeatedly undid edits to the article about the 2005 Kansas evolution hearings . Schlafly expressed hope that Conservapedia would become a general resource for American educators and a counterpoint to the liberal bias that he perceived in Wikipedia .
The " Eagle Forum University " online education program , which is associated with Phyllis Schlafly 's Eagle Forum organization , uses material for various online courses , including U.S. history , stored on Conservapedia . Editing of Conservapedia articles related to a particular course topic is also a certain assignment for Eagle Forum University students .
Running on MediaWiki software , the site was founded in 2006 , with its earliest articles dating from November 22 . By January 2012 , Conservapedia contained over 38 @,@ 000 pages , not counting pages intended for internal discussion and collaboration , minimal " stub " articles , and other miscellany . Regular features on the front page of Conservapedia include links to news articles and blogs that the site 's editors consider relevant to conservatism . Editors of Conservapedia also maintain a page titled " Examples of Bias in Wikipedia " that compiles alleged instances of bias or errors on Wikipedia pages . It was , at one point , the most @-@ viewed page on the site .
= = Editorial viewpoints and policies = =
Conservapedia has editorial policies designed to prevent vandalism and what Schlafly sees as liberal bias . According to The Australian , although the site 's operators claim that the site " strives to keep its articles concise , informative , family @-@ friendly , and true to the facts , which often back up conservative ideas more than liberal ones " , on Conservapedia " arguments are often circular " and " contradictions , self @-@ serving rationalizations and hypocrisies abound . "
= = = Comparison to Wikipedia = = =
Shortly after its launch in 2006 , Schlafly described the site as being competition for Wikipedia , saying " Wikipedia has gone the way of CBS News . It 's long overdue to have competition like Fox News . " Many editorial practices of Conservapedia differ from those of Wikipedia . Articles and other content on the site frequently include criticism of Wikipedia as well as criticism of its alleged liberal ideology .
Launching the online encyclopedia project , Schlafly asserted the need for an alternative to Wikipedia due to editorial philosophy conflicts . The site 's " Conservapedia Commandments " differ from Wikipedia 's editorial policies . Wikipedia 's policies include following a neutral point of view and avoiding original research . In response to Wikipedia 's core policy of neutrality , Schlafly has stated : " It 's impossible for an encyclopedia to be neutral . I mean let 's take a point of view , let 's disclose that point of view to the reader " , and " Wikipedia does not poll the views of its editors and administrators . They make no effort to retain balance . It ends up having all the neutrality of a lynch mob " .
In a March 2007 interview with The Guardian , Schlafly stated , " I 've tried editing Wikipedia , and found it and the biased editors who dominate it censor or change facts to suit their views . In one case my factual edits were removed within 60 seconds — so editing Wikipedia is no longer a viable approach " . On March 7 , 2007 , Schlafly was interviewed on BBC Radio 4 's flagship morning show , Today , opposite Wikipedia administrator Jim Redmond . Schlafly raised several concerns : that the article on the Renaissance does not give any credit to Christianity , that Wikipedia articles apparently prefer to use non @-@ American spellings even though most users are American , that the article on American activities in the Philippines has a distinctly anti @-@ American bias , and that attempts to include pro @-@ Christian or pro @-@ American views are removed very quickly . Schlafly also claimed that the Wikipedia policy of allowing both Common Era and Anno Domini notation was anti @-@ Christian bias .
= = = Licensing of content = = =
Conservapedia allows users to " use any of the content on this site with or without attribution . " The copyright policy also states , " This license is revocable only in very rare instances of self @-@ defense , such as protecting continued use by Conservapedia editors or other licensees . " It also does not permit " unauthorized mirroring . " Wikipedia co @-@ founder Jimmy Wales has raised concerns about the fact that the project is not licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License ( GFDL ) or a similar copyleft license , stating that " [ p ] eople who contribute [ to Conservapedia ] are giving them full control of the content , which may lead to unpleasant results . "
= = = Vandalism = = =
The site has stated that it prohibits unregistered users from editing entries due to concerns over vandalism , disruption or defamation . Brian Macdonald , a Conservapedia editor , commented that vandalism was intended to " cause people to say , ' That Conservapedia is just wacko . ' " Macdonald has spent many hours daily reverting , in the words of Stephanie Simon of the Los Angeles Times , " malicious editing " . Vandals had inserted " errors , pornographic photos and satire . " For example , U.S. Attorney General Alberto R. Gonzales was said to be " a strong supporter of torture as a law enforcement tool for use against Democrats and third world inhabitants " .
= = = Other editorial policies = = =
Conservapedia states on its " Manual of Style " page that " American English spellings are preferred but Commonwealth spellings , for de novo or otherwise well @-@ maintained articles are welcome . " It prefers that articles about the United Kingdom use British English , while articles about the United States use American English , to resolve editorial disputes . Initially , Schlafly and other Conservapedia editors considered Wikipedia 's policy allowing British English spelling to be anti @-@ American bias .
The " Conservapedia Commandments " also require edits to be " family @-@ friendly , clean , concise , and without gossip or foul language " and that users make most edits on their site quality edits to articles ; accounts that engage in what it considers " unproductive activity , such as 90 % talk and only 10 % quality edits " may be blocked . The commandments also cite the United States Code as justification for legal action against edits that contain obscenities or are vandalism or spam . Conservapedia policies encourage its users to choose usernames " based on [ their ] real name or initials " , and users that have usernames deemed " frivolous " by the admins are blocked ; one of the site 's criticisms of Wikipedia is " silly administrator names " , which is claimed to reflect Wikipedia 's " substantial anti @-@ intellectual element " .
= = Conflict with scientific views = =
Various Conservapedia articles contradict established fields of science . On March 19 , 2007 , the British free newspaper Metro ran the article " Weird , wild wiki on which anything goes " , articulating the dismissal of Conservapedia by the Royal Society , saying " People need to be very careful about where they look for scientific information " . A Los Angeles Times journalist noted Conservapedia 's critics voiced concern that children stumbling on the site may assume Conservapedia 's scientific content is accurate .
= = = Creation = = =
Although not all Conservapedia contributors subscribe to a young @-@ earth creationist point of view — former administrator Terry Koeckritz stated to the Los Angeles Times that he did not take the Genesis creation account literally — sources have attributed the poor science coverage to an overall editorial support of the young @-@ earth creationist perspective and an over @-@ reliance on Christian creationist home @-@ schooling textbooks . In an analysis in early 2007 , science writer Carl Zimmer found evidence that much of what appeared to be inaccurate or inadequate information about science and scientific theory could be traced back to an over @-@ reliance on citations from the works of home @-@ schooling textbook author Jay L. Wile .
= = = Evolution = = =
Conservapedia 's article on evolution presents evolution as a naturalistic theory that lacks support and that conflicts with evidence in the fossil record that creationists perceive to support creationism . The entry also suggests that sometimes the Bible has been more scientifically correct than the scientific community . Schlafly has defended the statement as presenting an alternative to evolution .
= = = Environmentalism = = =
According to Conservapedia , global warming is a " liberal hoax " . An entry on the " Pacific Northwest Arboreal Octopus " has received particular attention , although Schlafly has asserted that this page was intended as a parody of environmentalism . As of March 4 , 2007 , the entry has been deleted .
= = = Abortion = = =
Conservapedia asserts that there is a proven link between abortion and breast cancer , while the scientific consensus is that the best studies indicate that there is no such association .
= = = Relativity = = =
Conservapedia has also received criticism for its articles regarding the theory of relativity , particularly on their entry titled " Counterexamples to relativity " , an article that lists examples purportedly demonstrating that the theory is incorrect . Attention was drawn to the article by a Talking Points Memo posting , in which they reported on Conservapedia 's entry and stated that Andy Schlafly , Conservapedia 's founder , " has found one more liberal plot : the theory of relativity " . New Scientist , a science magazine , criticized Conservapedia 's views on relativity and responded to several of Conservapedia 's arguments against it . Against Conservapedia 's statements , New Scientist stated that one is unlikely to find a single physicist that would claim that the theory of general relativity is the whole answer to how the universe works , and said that the theory of relativity has passed every test it has been put through .
University of Maryland physics professor Robert L. Park has also criticized Conservapedia 's entry on the theory of relativity , arguing that its criticism of the principle as " heavily promoted by liberals who like its encouragement of relativism and its tendency to mislead people in how they view the world " confuses a physical theory with a moral value . Similarly , New Scientist stated at the end of their article that :
In the end there is no liberal conspiracy at work . Unfortunately , humanities scholars often confuse the issue by misusing the term " relativity " . The theory in no way encourages relativism , regardless of what Conservapedia may think . The theory of relativity is ultimately not so much about what it renders relative — three @-@ dimensional space and one @-@ dimensional time — but about what it renders absolute : the speed of light and four @-@ dimensional space @-@ time .
In October 2010 , Scientific American criticized Conservapedia 's attitude towards the Theory of Relativity , assigning them a zero score on their 0 to 100 fallacy @-@ versus @-@ fact " Science Index " , describing Conservapedia as " the online encyclopedia run by conservative lawyer Andrew Schlafly , [ which ] implies that Einstein 's theory of relativity is part of a liberal plot . "
Another claim is that " Albert Einstein 's work had nothing to do with the development of the atomic bomb " , and that Einstein was only a minor contributor to the theory of relativity .
= = Ideology = =
The Guardian of the United Kingdom has referred to Conservapedia 's politics as " right @-@ wing " , although it is sometimes described as far @-@ right or New Right .
= = = Liberalism = = =
Many Conservapedia articles criticize values that its editors associate with " liberal ideology " . The article " Liberal " once began with text originating from Schlafly personally : " A liberal ( also leftist ) is someone who rejects logical and biblical standards , often for self @-@ centered reasons . There are no coherent liberal standards ; often a liberal is merely someone who craves attention , and who uses many words to say nothing . " Leonard Pitts quoted it in a critical comment saying " You may judge Conservapedia 's own bias by reading its definition of liberal " . Conservapedia 's entry on ' Liberal ' has since been changed to begin with :
A liberal is someone who favors censorship of Christianity plus increased government spending and power , as in ObamaCare . Increasingly liberals side with the homosexual agenda , including same @-@ sex marriage . Many liberals favor a welfare state where people receive endless entitlements without working . Liberals are often anti @-@ Christian , or otherwise disagree with moral or social principles held by many American Christians . The liberal ideology has worsened over the years and degenerated into economically delusional views and intolerant ideology . Some liberals simply support , in knee @-@ jerk fashion , the opposite of conservative principles without having any meaningful values of their own .
= = = Partisan politics = = =
Schlafly said in an interview with National Public Radio that Wikipedia 's article on the history of the Democratic Party is an " attempt to legitimize the modern Democratic Party by going back to Thomas Jefferson " and that this statement is " specious and worth criticizing " . He also has claimed that Wikipedia is " six times more liberal than the American public " , a claim that has been labeled " sensational " by Andrew Chung of the Canadian newspaper the Toronto Star .
John Cotey of the St. Petersburg Times observed that the Conservapedia article about the Democratic Party contained a criticism about the party 's alleged support for same @-@ sex marriage , and associated the party with the homosexual agenda .
The Conservapedia entries on former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and President Barack Obama are critical of their respective subjects . During the 2008 presidential campaign , its entry on Obama asserted that he " has no clear personal achievement that cannot be explained as the likely result of affirmative action " . Some Conservapedia editors urged that the statement be changed or deleted , but Schlafly , a classmate of Obama , responded by asserting that the Harvard Law Review , the Harvard University legal journal for which Obama and Schlalfy worked together , uses racial quotas and stated : " The statement about affirmative action is accurate and will remain in the entry " . In addition , Hugh Muir of the British newspaper The Guardian mockingly referred to Conservapedia 's assertion that Obama has links to radical Islam as " dynamite " and an excellent resource for " US rightwingers " .
In contrast , the articles about conservative politicians , such as former U.S. Republican president Ronald Reagan and former British Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , have been observed as praising their respective subjects . Mark Sabbatini of the Juneau Empire considered the Conservapedia entry on Sarah Palin , the Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate for the 2008 U.S. presidential election , a " kinder , gentler " and " far shorter and less controversial " reference for one wishing to learn about Palin in contrast with the corresponding Wikipedia entry , which Sabbatini found to be plagued by disputes over inclusion of potentially controversial details about her life .
= = = Atheism = = =
In July 2008 , American Prospect associate editor Ezra Klein derided the Conservapedia article on atheism in his weekly column : " As Daniel DeGroot notes , you 've got to wonder which ' unreasonable ' explanations they rejected when formulating that entry " .
The website sometimes adopts a strongly critical stance against figures that it perceives as political or ideological opponents . For instance , in May 2009 , Vanity Fair and The Spectator reported that Conservapedia 's article on atheist Richard Dawkins featured a picture of Adolf Hitler at the top .
= = Reception = =
The Conservapedia project has come under significant criticism for numerous factual inaccuracies and factual relativism . Wired magazine noted that Conservapedia was " attracting lots of derisive comments on blogs and a growing number of phony articles written by mischief makers " . Iain Thomson in Information World Review wrote that " leftist subversives " may have been creating deliberate parody entries . Conservapedia has been compared to CreationWiki , a wiki written from a creationist perspective , and Theopedia , a wiki with a Reformed theology focus . Fox News obliquely compared it with other new conservative websites competing with mainstream ones , such as MyChurch , a Christian version of social networking site MySpace , and GodTube , a Christian version of video site YouTube .
Tom Flanagan , a conservative professor of political science at the University of Calgary , has argued that Conservapedia is more about religion , specifically Christianity , than conservatism and that it " is far more guilty of the crime they 're attributing to Wikipedia " than Wikipedia itself . Matt Millham of the military @-@ oriented newspaper Stars and Stripes called Conservapedia " a Web site that caters mostly to evangelical Christians " . Its scope as an encyclopedia , according to its founders , " offers a historical record from a Christian and conservative perspective " . APC magazine perceives this to be representative of Conservapedia 's own problem with bias . Conservative Christian commentator Rod Dreher has been highly critical of the website 's " Conservative Bible Project " , an ongoing retranslation of the Bible which Dreher attributes to " insane hubris " on the part of " right @-@ wing ideologues " .
The project has also been criticized for promoting a false dichotomy between conservatism and liberalism and for promoting relativism with the implicit idea that there " often are two equally valid interpretations of the facts " . Matthew Sheffield , writing in the conservative daily newspaper The Washington Times , argued that conservatives concerned about bias should contribute more often to Wikipedia rather than use Conservapedia as an alternative since he felt that alternative websites like Conservapedia are often " incomplete " . Author Damian Thompson asserts that the purpose of Conservapedia is to " dress up nonsense as science " .
Bryan Ochalla , writing for the LGBT magazine The Advocate , referred to the project as " Wikipedia for the bigoted " . On the satirical news program The Daily Show , comedian Lewis Black lampooned its article on homosexuality . Writing in The Australian , columnist Emma Jane described Conservapedia as " a disturbing parallel universe where the ice age is a theoretical period , intelligent design is empirically testable , and relativity and geology are junk sciences . "
Opinions criticizing the site rapidly spread throughout the blogosphere around early 2007 . Schlafly appeared on radio programs Today on BBC Radio 4 and All Things Considered on NPR to discuss the site around that time . In May 2008 , Schlafly and one of his homeschooled students appeared on the CBC program The Hour for the same purpose .
Stephanie Simon of the Los Angeles Times quoted two Conservapedia editors who commented favorably about Conservapedia . Matt Barber , policy director for the conservative Christian political action group Concerned Women for America , praised Conservapedia as a more family @-@ friendly and accurate alternative to Wikipedia .
Wired magazine , in an article entitled " Ten Impressive , Weird And Amazing Facts About Wikipedia " , highlighted several of Conservapedia 's articles , including those on " Atheism and obesity " and " Hollywood values " , amongst others . It also highlighted Conservapedia 's " Examples of bias in Wikipedia " article , which encourages readers to contact Jimmy Wales and tell him to " sort it out . "
Conservapedia 's use of Wikipedia 's format to create a conservative Christian alternative encyclopedia has been mirrored by other sites , such as Tangle.com ( formerly GodTube ) , QubeTV and MyChurch , which adopted the format of the more prominent Facebook , YouTube and MySpace , respectively .
Wikipedia 's co @-@ creator Jimmy Wales said about Conservapedia that " free culture knows no bounds " and " the reuse of our work to build variants [ is ] directly in line with our mission " . Wales denied Schlafly 's claims of liberal bias in Wikipedia .
= = = RationalWiki = = =
In April 2007 , Peter Lipson , a doctor of internal medicine , repeatedly attempted to edit Conservapedia 's article on breast cancer to include evidence arguing against Conservapedia 's claim that abortion was a major cause of the disease . Conservapedia administrators " questioned his credentials and shut off debate " . Several editors whose accounts were blocked by Conservapedia administrators , including Lipson , started another website , RationalWiki , a sometimes satirical and sometimes serious wiki website with articles written from a secular , progressive perspective .
RationalWiki 's self @-@ stated purpose is to analyze and refute " pseudoscience " , the " anti @-@ science movement " , and " crank ideas " , as well as to conduct " explorations of authoritarianism and fundamentalism " and explore " how these subjects are handled in the media . "
According to an article published in the Los Angeles Times in 2007 , RationalWiki members " monitor Conservapedia . And — by their own admission — engage in acts of cyber @-@ vandalism . "
= = = Lenski dialogue = = =
On June 9 , 2008 , New Scientist published an article describing Richard Lenski 's 20 @-@ year E. coli experiment , which reported that the bacteria evolved the ability to metabolize citrate . Schlafly contacted Lenski to request the data . Lenski explained that the relevant data was in the paper and that Schlafly fundamentally misunderstood it . Schlafly wrote again and requested the raw data . Lenski replied again that the relevant data was already in the paper , that the " raw data " were living bacterial samples , which he would willingly share with qualified researchers at properly equipped biology labs , and that he felt insulted by letters and comments on Conservapedia which he saw as brusque and offensive , including claims of outright deceit . The Daily Telegraph later called Lenski 's reply " one of the greatest and most comprehensive put @-@ downs in scientific argument " .
The exchange , recorded on a Conservapedia page entitled " Lenski dialog " , was widely reported on news @-@ aggregating sites and web logs . Carl Zimmer wrote that it was readily apparent that " Schlafly had not bothered to read [ Lenski 's paper ] closely " , and PZ Myers criticized Schlafly for demanding data despite having neither a plan to use it nor the expertise to analyze it . During and after the Lenski dialogue on Conservapedia , several users on the site were blocked for " insubordination " for expressing disagreement with Schlafly 's stance on the issue .
The dialogue between Lenski and Conservapedia is noted in Richard Dawkins ' The Greatest Show on Earth : The Evidence for Evolution in a chapter concerning Lenski 's research .
= = Conservative Bible Project = =
Conservapedia hosts the " Conservative Bible Project " , a project aiming to rewrite the English translation of the Bible in order to remove terms described as " liberal bias " . The project intends to remove sections of the Bible which are judged by Conservapedia 's founder to be later liberal additions . These include the story of the adulteress in the Gospel of John in which Jesus declares " Let him who is without sin cast the first stone " . The project also intends to remove Jesus 's prayer on the cross , " Father , forgive them , for they do not know what they are doing " , since it appears only in the Gospel of Luke and since , according to Schlafly , " the simple fact is that some of the persecutors of Jesus did know what they were doing . This quotation is a favorite of liberals but should not appear in a conservative Bible " .
The Bible project has met with extensive criticism , including from fellow evangelistic Christian conservatives . Rod Dreher , a conservative editor and columnist , described the project as " insane hubris " and " crazy " ; he further described the project as " It 's like what you 'd get if you crossed the Jesus Seminar with the College Republican chapter at a rural institution of Bible learnin ' " . Ed Morrissey , another conservative Christian writer , wrote that bending the word of God to one 's own ideology makes God subservient to an ideology , rather than the other way around . Joseph Farah , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of WorldNetDaily , stated : " I 've seen some incredibly stupid and misguided initiatives by ' conservatives ' in my day , but this one takes the cake " and " There 's certainly nothing ' conservative ' about rewriting the Bible " . Creation Ministries International wrote " Forcing the Bible to conform to a certain political agenda , no matter if one happens to agree with that agenda , is a perversion of the Word of God and should therefore be opposed by Christians as much as ' politically correct ' Bibles . "
On October 7 , 2009 , Stephen Colbert called for his viewers to incorporate him into the Conservapedia Bible as a Biblical figure and viewers responded by editing the Conservapedia Bible to include his name . This was followed by an interview between Colbert and Schlafly on December 8 , 2009 .
= Effects of Hurricane Isabel in New York and New England =
The effects of Hurricane Isabel in New York and New England were relatively minor and primarily limited to wind damage . Hurricane Isabel formed from a tropical wave on September 6 , 2003 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania the next day .
Damage in New York totaled $ 90 million ( 2003 USD , $ 105 million 2008 USD ) , with Vermont reporting about $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 117 @,@ 000 in 2008 USD ) . Falling trees from moderate winds downed power lines across the region , causing sporadic power outages . Two people died as a result of the hurricane , both due to the rough surf from Isabel .
= = Preparations = =
Hours before Isabel made landfall on North Carolina , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for a portion of the southern Long Island coastline from the New Jersey / New York border to Moriches . About a day before the hurricane moved ashore , forecasters estimated the hurricane possessed a 10 % chance of passing within 75 miles ( 120 km ) of New York City . Other portions of southern New England were estimated to have similar probabilities , with the same forecast predicting a 3 % chance for it passing within 75 miles ( 120 km ) of Eastport , Maine . By about two days before Isabel struck land until several hours after it moved ashore , forecasters predicted the storm to pass over western New York as a transitioning tropical cyclone before passing into Canada as an extratropical cyclone .
New York Governor George Pataki urged residents to purchase emergency supplies and to fill cars with gasoline . The State Emergency Management Office began preparing for the hurricane about a week before it moved ashore . The office also issued a Level 1 emergency activation , with a planning unit readying contingency plans and in coordinating the efforts of other state offices . The state 's National Guard began preliminary preparations for possible support efforts by reviewing the list of personnel able to be mobilized in the event of an emergency . Army and Air National Guard officials identified needed equipment in the event of an emergency , such as helicopters , generators , high @-@ axle vehicles , and communications equipment . State police officers established contingency plans for personnel and equipment to assist as needed . The State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation ensured needed equipment were operational , and also secured buildings with sandbags to prevent flooding . Seven airlines allowed travelers potentially affected by the hurricane to reschedule their flights to a later date .
= = Impact = =
The pressure gradient between a ridge and Isabel produced strong northeast winds of at least tropical storm force across southeastern New York . Shinnecock Inlet recorded a peak gust of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) . A station at LaGuardia Airport recorded a wind gust of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) , where airplane flights averaged a 90 @-@ minute delay . The strongest winds occurred in the outer rainbands , during which many trees , tree limbs , and power lines fell across the region . In the New York metropolitan area , moderate winds downed 640 trees and 801 tree limbs . A man driving through Great Neck Estates was critically injured when a tree limb fell onto the car . Additionally , a falling tree branch hit a man in the head , resulting in a serious head injury . In and around New York City , about 1 @.@ 1 million customers were left without power , though most outages were fixed by the day after the hurricane passed through the region . Offshore of Long Beach , rough waves killed a man while bodysurfing . Further to the northwest the winds were not as severe , though in some places in the south @-@ central portion of the state the winds downed some trees . A falling tree hit and damaged a car in Cobleskill . The winds also knocked out power to about 3 @,@ 000 customers in the Schoharie and eastern Mohawk Valleys . In the northeast portion of the state , a few trees and power lines were blown down in Moriah , Westport , and Lewis . Precipitation was generally light in the state , with a few scattered locations reporting over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . In Livingston County , the rainfall overflowed the reservoir , causing moderate flood damage . Initially , gasoline futures on the New York Stock Exchange rose in anticipation of a threat from the hurricane , though later dropped when the storm failed to disrupt oil refining facilities . The hurricane brought unusual birds to the western portion of the state , including petrels and shearwaters normally found in salt @-@ water regions or over the open ocean . Most of the birds died within a few days due to the sudden change in habitat . In Cayuga County , downed power lines lit one building on fire , causing minor smoke and water damage though no injuries . Damage in the state totaled $ 90 million ( 2003 USD , $ 105 million 2008 USD ) .
Rainfall reached 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in portions of western Connecticut and Massachusetts . Strong surf from Isabel caused a man to drown after losing his footing along the beach near Narragansett , Rhode Island , and being swept out to sea . Officials in Connecticut contacted a water company in Watertown and a grocer in Cheshire for donations to assist the residents affected in North Carolina . A few days after Isabel moved ashore , the officials sent a tractor trailer truck with 2 @,@ 000 gallons ( 7570 l ) of water and 25 @,@ 000 pounds ( 11 @,@ 340 kg ) of ice to North Carolina . In Vermont , the strong pressure gradient produced a peak wind gust of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) in Pleasant Valley , causing sporadic downed trees and power lines throughout the state . In Richmond , trees fell on and damaged three trucks , and in Salisbury a falling tree damaged a car . Damage in the state totaled about $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD , $ 117 @,@ 000 in 2008 USD ) . Rainfall reached 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in various portions of New Hampshire and Maine .
= Overloaded : The Singles Collection =
Overloaded : The Singles Collection is the first greatest hits album of English girl group Sugababes . It was released on 10 November 2006 — almost one year following the departure of founding member Mutya Buena and the introduction of her replacement , Amelle Berrabah . Overloaded features twelve of the group 's singles , four of which reached number one in the UK . The Sugababes collaborated with members from Orson to produce two new tracks for the album , " Easy " and " Good to Be Gone " . Overloaded received positive reviews from critics , who generally praised it as a reflection of the group 's success .
The album peaked at number three on the UK Albums Chart and was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . By October 2008 , it had sold 600 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . Overloaded also reached the top twenty on the record charts of Ireland and Portugal , and the top forty on the charts in Austria , Denmark , Germany , the Netherlands , Norway and Switzerland . Its lead single " Easy " was released one week prior to the album 's release , and reached the top ten on the singles charts of Slovakia and the United Kingdom . To promote Overloaded , the Sugababes performed at the 100 Club in London and embarked on the album 's accompanying tour in the UK and Ireland from March to April 2007 .
= = Background = =
Shortly following the release of the Sugababes ' fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways , it was announced in December 2005 that founding group member Mutya Buena had left the band . Two singles were subsequently released from the album featuring new group member Amelle Berrabah , who was announced as Buena 's replacement 24 hours after her departure . In June 2006 , the Sugababes began working on their fifth studio album which was confirmed for release in 2007 . However , group member Heidi Range also revealed that a greatest hits album would be released in time for Christmas 2006 , which would include all of the group 's hits . When rumours arose that the release of the album was premature , band member Keisha Buchanan stated that the group had already started to plan a greatest hits album . She explained how it was essential for the album to be released following Buena 's departure , saying : " When Mutya left , we decided it was even more important , we should do this as closure so we don 't have to relive history all the time . " Group member Heidi Range also reflected upon this , saying : " When Mutya was still in the band the greatest hits was always planned for this time anyway . But when she left it seemed even more appropriate . "
= = Release and content = =
Overloaded was released in the UK on 13 November 2006 . In addition , a remix album titled Overloaded : The Remix Collection and a greatest hits DVD , Overloaded : The Videos Collection were released on the same day . Overloaded was not released in the United States , despite being reported that it would be available in the country on 5 December 2006 . According to Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian , the group looks " positively regal " on the album cover . The album contains twelve of the group 's previous singles , four of which reached number one in the UK : " Freak Like Me " , " Round Round " , " Hole in the Head " and " Push the Button " .
The Sugababes collaborated with members from Orson to produce two brand new tracks for the album , " Easy " and " Good to Be Gone " . Buchanan spoke upon the collaboration , saying : " When we started working with the Orson guys the sound just blew us away – it 's so fresh , but has the same qualities as the biggest songs of our career . It 's perfect for this album . " Range , however , explained how she initially did not like the song in comparison to " Good to Be Gone " . After leaving the studio , she called the other members of the group and spoke of her dissatisfaction with " Easy " . Range realised she enjoyed the song after listening to it the following day , and later named it one of her favourite songs by the group . Despite being titled The Singles Collection , the album does not contain all of the group 's previous singles ; " New Year " , " Soul Sound " , " Angels with Dirty Faces " and " Follow Me Home " are omitted , although " Run for Cover " is included as a bonus track on the UK version . " Red Dress " was re @-@ recorded to feature the vocals of Berrabah instead of Buena following the latter 's departure from the group .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Overloaded received positive reviews from critics , who praised the album as a reflection of the group 's success . Andy Kellman of AllMusic rated the album four and a half stars out of five . He praised the tracks as " an ideal introduction " to the Sugababes , and noted that the new songs recorded with Berrabah " indicate that the group hasn 't lost any of its momentum " . Daily Record writer Rick Fulton gave the album a full five @-@ star rating , saying : " Changing members can 't dampen the winning formula of Sugababes – sassy vocals over electro beats " . He concluded that Overloaded proves the group as the UK 's best . Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian gave the album a four out of five star rating and wrote that the group 's longevity " practically makes them the Status Quo of the genre " .
The Herald Sun 's Cameron Adams noted that Overloaded is a reminder of " what a good pop act " the Sugababes are , although he was less favourable of the new tracks . Stuart McCaighy of This Is Fake DIY concluded that Overloaded is " awash with hits " and is indicative of why the group was named the most successful female act of the 21st century . Tim Fenney from Pitchfork Media rated Overloaded eight and a half out of ten ; he praised the more emotional tracks on the album , writing : " While people may remember the group for their frothy pop , their greatest hits collection Overloaded is equally impressive for its devastatingly earnest balladry " . Gigwise 's Jenna Churchley @-@ Burton described the album as " pure pop perfection at its very best " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Overloaded became a commercial success in the UK . It debuted and peaked at number three on the UK Albums Chart , selling 57 @,@ 284 copies in its first week of release , becoming the Sugababes ' fourth consecutive top three album . The following week , it dropped to number eight on sales of 45 @,@ 991 . In its third week on the chart , Overloaded dropped seven places to number 15 , although rebounded to number 11 in its fourth week on sales of 66 @,@ 956 . Overloaded was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . By October 2007 , the album had sold approximately 500 @,@ 000 copies in the UK alone . In October 2008 , Music Week confirmed that the album had sold close to 600 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . Overloaded debuted and peaked at number 12 on the Irish Albums Chart 16 November 2006 . It was later certified Platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association , denoting shipments of 15 @,@ 000 copies .
Overloaded also achieved commercial success in various other countries . It debuted on the Portuguese Albums Chart at number 28 and peaked at number 15 two weeks later , becoming the group 's only record to chart in Portugal . The album entered the Norwegian Albums Chart at number 40 and reached number 21 two weeks later . Overloaded debuted at number 35 on the Austrian Albums Chart on 24 November 2006 and reached its peak position of number 25 on 8 December 2006 . It spent nine weeks on the chart . The album debuted and peaked at number 29 on the Swiss Albums Chart and lasted nine weeks on the chart . Overloaded reached number 37 on the Dutch Mega Album Top 100 chart , number 38 on the German Albums Chart , and number 43 on the Belgium ( Flanders ) Ultratop chart . Overloaded peaked at number 34 on the Danish Albums Chart on 24 November 2006 and was certified Gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry , indicating shipments of 20 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
" Easy " was released on 6 November 2006 as the lead single from Overloaded , one week prior to the album 's release . The song was written by Jason Pebworth and George Astasio in collaboration with the group 's members — Buchanan , Range and Berrabah . It was produced by Pebworth , Astasio and Brio Taliaferro . This Is Fake DIY 's Stuart McCaighy commended the song 's production and seductive lyrics . " Easy " went top ten in Slovakia and the UK , and reached the top forty in almost every other country it charted in . " Good to Be Gone " was due to be released as the second and final single from the album in early 2007 , although this was soon cancelled after the Sugababes collaborated with fellow girl group Girls Aloud on the Comic Relief single , " Walk This Way " . The song went to number one in the UK .
= = = Album launch and tour = = =
The album launch for Overloaded was held on 3 October 2006 at the 100 Club on Oxford Street , London . The 80 @-@ minute show experienced a power cut and technicians were called to the scene , in which the performance resumed one hour later . Backed by a live band , every track featured on the album was performed . Betty Clarke of The Guardian gave the performance a three out of five star rating , describing them " as glossy as thoroughbreds , styled like Topshop mannequins " , although acknowledging , " when the singing stops , the cracks appear " . A journalist for MTV UK wrote , " Looking fab but not over @-@ styled in skinny jeans , the girls still have the unpolished edge we love ' em for " .
In November 2006 , the Sugababes announced that they would embark on a tour in 2007 to promote Overloaded . The tour comprised 13 show dates in the UK and Ireland , starting from 27 March 2007 in Dublin Point , and ending at the London Wembley Arena on 13 April 2007 , the latter of which was their first headline performance . Amongst the cities they visited included Manchester , Sheffield and Nottingham . The tour also featured a merchandise stall that sold T @-@ shirts with the slogan " I 'm the Next Sugababe " . A journalist for Daily Mirror wrote : " From the still @-@ brilliant ' Overload ' to the tender ' Too Lost in You ' , the hits kept on coming as the crowd screeched louder with every song . " During the tour , the Sugababes performed a cover version of " Rocks " by Scottish alternative rock band , Primal Scream .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Suharto =
Suharto ( Javanese : ꦯꦸꦲꦂꦠ ; Gêdrìk : Suhartå ; O @-@ Javanese : Suharta ; pronunciation ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008 ) was the second President of Indonesia , holding the office for 31 years from the ousting of Sukarno in 1967 until his resignation in 1998 .
Suharto was born in a small village , Kemusuk , in the Godean area near the city of Yogyakarta , during the Dutch colonial era . He grew up in humble circumstances . His Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth , and he was passed between foster parents for much of his childhood . During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia , Suharto served in Japanese @-@ organised Indonesian security forces . Indonesia 's independence struggle saw his joining the newly formed Indonesian army . Suharto rose to the rank of Major General following Indonesian independence . An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by Suharto @-@ led troops and was blamed on the Indonesian Communist Party . The army subsequently led an anti @-@ communist purge which the CIA described as " one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century " and Suharto wrested power from Indonesia 's founding president , Sukarno . He was appointed acting president in 1967 and President the following year . He then mounted a social propaganda campaign known as De @-@ Soekarnoization in an effort to reduce the former President 's influence and prestige . Support for Suharto 's presidency was strong throughout the 1970s and 1980s but eroded following a severe financial crisis that led to widespread unrest and his resignation in May 1998 . Suharto died in 2008 .
The legacy of Suharto 's 31 @-@ year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad . Under his " New Order " administration , Suharto constructed a strong , centralised and military @-@ dominated government . An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti @-@ Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War . For most of his presidency , Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation , dramatically improving health , education and living standards . Indonesia 's invasion and occupation of East Timor during Suharto 's presidency resulted in at least 100 @,@ 000 deaths . By the 1990s , the New Order 's authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent .
According to Transparency International , Suharto is the most corrupt leader in modern history , having embezzled an alleged $ 15 – 35 billion during his rule . In the years after his presidency , attempts to try him on charges of corruption and genocide failed because of his poor health and because of lack of support within Indonesia for moves to bring charges against him .
= = Early life = =
Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Dutch East Indies era , in a plaited bamboo walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk , a part of the larger village of Godean . The village is 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) west of Yogyakarta , the cultural heartland of the Javanese . Born to ethnic Javanese parents , he was the only child of his father 's second marriage . His father , Kertosudiro , had two children from his previous marriage , and was a village irrigation official . His mother , Sukirah , a local woman , was distantly related to Sultan Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine .
Five weeks after Suharto 's birth , his mother suffered a nervous breakdown and he was placed in the care of his paternal great @-@ aunt , Kromodirjo . Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto 's life and both later remarried . At the age of three , Suharto was returned to his mother , who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies . In 1929 , Suharto 's father took him to live with his sister , who was married to an agricultural supervisor , Prawirowihardjo , in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low @-@ yielding farming area near Wonogiri . Over the following two years , he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father .
Prawirowihardjo took to raising the boy as his own , which provided Suharto a father @-@ figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro . In 1931 , he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school , living first with Prawirohardjo 's son Sulardi , and later with his father 's relative Hardjowijono . While living with Hardjowijono , Suharto became acquinted with Darjatmo , a dukun ( " guru " ) of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing . The experience deeply affected him and later , as president , Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language . Difficulties in paying the fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk , where he continued studying at a lower @-@ fee Muhammadiyah middle school in the city of Yogyakarta until 1939 .
Like many Javanese , Suharto had only one name . In religious contexts in recent years he has sometimes been called " Haji " or " el @-@ Haj Mohammed Suharto " but these names were not part of his formal name or generally used . The spelling " Suharto " reflects modern Indonesian spelling , although the general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned . At the time of his birth , the standard transcription was " Soeharto " and he preferred the original spelling . The international English @-@ language press generally uses the spelling ' Suharto ' while the Indonesian government and media use ' Soeharto ' .
Suharto 's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such as Sukarno in that he is believed to have had little interest in anti @-@ colonialism , or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings . Unlike Sukarno and his circle , Suharto had little or no contact with European colonizers . Consequently , he did not learn to speak Dutch or other European languages in his youth . He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into the Dutch military in 1940 .
= = Military career = =
= = = World War II and Japanese occupation = = =
Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro . He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes . Following a spell of unemployment , he joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( KNIL ) in June 1940 , and undertook basic training in Gombong near Yogyakarta . With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies , the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese . Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal , graduated from a short training course at KNIL Kaderschool in Gombong to become a sergeant , and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion in Cisarua .
Following the Dutch surrender to the invading Japanese forces in March 1942 , Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro . After months of unemployment , he then became one of thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese @-@ organised security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force . In October 1943 , Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese @-@ sponsored militia , the PETA ( Defenders of the Fatherland ) in which Indonesians served as officers . In his training to serve with the rank of shodancho ( platoon commander ) he encountered a localised version of the Japanese bushido , or " way of the warrior " , used to indoctrinate troops . This training encouraged an anti @-@ Dutch and pro @-@ nationalist thought , although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists . The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto 's own way of thinking .
Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defence battalion at Wates , south of Yogyakarta , until he was admitted for training for company commander ( chudancho ) in Bogor from April to August 1944 . As company commander , he conducted training for new PETA recruits in Surakarta , Jakarta , and Madiun . The Japanese surrender and Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area ( on the slopes of Mount Wilis ) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by the Japanese in the aftermath of the failed PETA rebellion of February 1945 in Blitar , led by Supriyadi .
= = = Indonesian National Revolution = = =
Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific , independence leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence , and were appointed President and Vice @-@ President respectively of the new Republic . Suharto disbanded his regiment in accordance with orders from the Japanese command , and returned to Yogyakarta . As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence , Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army . On the basis of his PETA experience , he was appointed deputy commander , and subsequently a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organised in October 1945 . Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops around Magelang and Semarang , and was subsequently appointed head of a brigade as lieutenant @-@ colonel , having earned respect as a field commander . In the early years of the War , he organised local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I ; Suharto was promoted Major and became Battalion X 's leader .
The arrival of the Allies , under a mandate to return the situation to the status quo ante bellum , quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces , i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces . Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by the Dutch T ( " Tiger " ) Brigade on 17 May 1946 . It earned him the respect of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo , who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters ( MPP ) , a body created to organise and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces . The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring . By August 1946 , Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III ( the " Diponegoro Division " ) stationed in Yogyakarta . In late 1946 , the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for defence of the west and southwest of Yogyakarta from Dutch forces . Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable ; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of opium through the territory he controlled , to generate income . In September 1948 , Suharto was dispatched to meet Musso , chairman of the Indonesian Communist Party ( PKI ) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of the communist uprising in Madiun .
In December 1948 , the Dutch launched " Operation Crow " , which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capital Yogyakarta . Suharto was appointed to lead the Wehrkreise III , consisting of two battalions , which waged guerilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south of Yogyakarta . In dawn raids on 1 March 1949 , Suharto 's forces and local militia recaptured the city , holding it until noon . Suharto 's later accounts had him as the lone plotter , although other sources say Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogyakarta , and the Panglima of the Third Division , ordered the attack . However , General Abdul Nasution said that Suharto took great care in preparing the " General Offensive " ( Indonesian Serangan Umum ) . Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war . Internationally , the United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations , which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949 . Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949 .
During the Revolution , Suharto married Siti Hartinah ( known as Madam Tien ) , the daughter of a minor noble in the Mangkunegaran royal house of Solo . The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive , lasting until Tien 's death in 1996 . The couple had six children : Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ( Tutut , born 1949 ) , Sigit Harjojudanto ( born 1951 ) , Bambang Trihatmodjo ( born 1953 ) , Siti Hediati ( " Titiek Suharto " , born 1959 ) , Hutomo Mandala Putra ( Tommy , born 1962 ) , and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish ( Mamiek , born 1964 ) . Within the Javanese upper class , it was considered acceptable for the wife to pursue genteel commerce to supplement the family budget , allowing her husband to keep his dignity in his official role . The commercial dealings of Tien , her children and grandchildren became extensive and ultimately undermined Suharto 's presidency .
= = = Post @-@ Independence military career = = =
In the years following Indonesian independence , Suharto served in the Indonesian National Army , primarily in Java . In 1950 , as a Colonel , he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing the Makassar Uprising , a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch @-@ established State of East Indonesia and its federal entity , the United States of Indonesia . During his year in Makassar , Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours , the Habibie family , whose eldest son BJ Habibie was later Suharto 's vice @-@ president , and went on to succeed him as President . In 1951 – 1952 , Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic @-@ inspired rebellion of Battalion 426 in the Klaten area of Central Java . Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953 , he organised their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti @-@ bandit operations in the Mount Merapi area . He also sought to stem leftist sympathies amongst his troops . His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism .
Between 1956 and 1959 , he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based in Semarang , responsible for Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces . His relationship with prominent businessmen Liem Sioe Liong and Bob Hasan , which extended throughout his presidency , began in Central Java , where he was involved in a series of " profit generating " enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning . Army anti @-@ corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal . Relieved of his position , he was transferred to the army 's Staff and Command School ( Seskoad ) in the city of Bandung . While in Bandung , he was promoted to brigadier @-@ general , and in late 1960 , promoted to army deputy chief of staff . In 1961 , he was given an additional command , as head of the army 's new Strategic Reserve ( later KOSTRAD ) , a ready @-@ reaction air @-@ mobile force based in Jakarta .
In January 1962 , Suharto was promoted to the rank of major general and appointed to lead Operation Mandala , a joint army @-@ navy @-@ air force command based in Makassar . This formed the military side of the campaign to win western New Guinea from the Dutch , who were preparing it for its own independence , separate from Indonesia . In 1965 , Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno 's Konfrontasi , against the newly formed Malaysia . Fearful that Konfrontasi would leave Java thinly covered by the army , and hand control to the 2 million @-@ strong Indonesian Communist Party ( PKI ) , he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer , Ali Murtopo , to open secret contacts with the British and Malaysians .
= = Overthrow of Sukarno ( 1965 ) = =
= = = Background = = =
Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965 , when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI ’ s proposal for a " fifth armed force " consisting of armed peasants and workers . However , this idea was rejected by the army ’ s leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces . In May , the " Gilchrist Document " aroused Sukarno 's fear of a military plot to overthrow him , a fear which he mentioned repeatedly during the next few months . On his independence day speech in August , Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti @-@ imperialist alliance with China and other communist regimes , and warned the Army not to interfere .
While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics , the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger , while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled . Sukarno 's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars , the military and the communists . The military , nationalists , and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno 's protection . They feared imminent establishment of communist state in Indonesia . By 1965 , the PKI had 3 million members , and were particularly strong in Central Java and Bali . PKI has become the strongest political party in Indonesia .
= = = Abortive coup and anti @-@ communist purge = = =
Before dawn on 1 October 1965 , six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard , Diponegoro Division , and Brawidjaja Division . Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace , the national radio station , and telecommunications centre . At 7 : 10 am Untung bin Sjamsuri announced on radio that the " 30 September Movement " had forestalled a coup attempt on Sukarno by " CIA @-@ backed power @-@ mad generals " , and that it was " an internal army affair " . The 30 September Movement never made any attempt on Suharto 's life . Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three @-@ year @-@ old son Tommy who had a scalding injury . It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief , a key member of 30 September Movement and close family friend of Suharto . According to Latief 's later testimony , the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno @-@ loyalist , hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals , upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality .
Upon being told of the killings , Suharto went to KOSTRAD headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square . He mobilized KOSTRAD and RPKAD ( now Kopassus ) special forces to seize control of the centre of Jakarta , capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance . Suharto announced over the radio at 9 : 00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by " counter @-@ revolutionaries " and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno . He said he was in control of the army , and that he would crush the 30 September Movement and safeguard Sukarno . Suharto issued an ultimatum to Halim Air Force Base , where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno , air force commander Omar Dhani and PKI chairman Dipa Nusantara Aidit had gathered , causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the air base on 2 October after short fighting . With the failure of the poorly organised coup , and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security , Suharto 's faction was firmly in control of the army by 2 October ( he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October ) . On 5 October , Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals ' bodies .
Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup 's organisers and their aims . The army 's version , and subsequently that of the " New Order " , was that the PKI was solely responsible . A propaganda campaign by the army , and Islamic and Catholic student groups , convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt , and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes . The army in alliance with religious civilian groups led a campaign to purge Indonesian society , government , and armed forces of the communist party and leftist organisations . The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country . ( see : Indonesian killings of 1965 – 1966 ) . The most widely accepted estimates are that at least half a million were killed . As many as 1 @.@ 5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another . As a result of the purge , one of Sukarno 's three pillars of support , the Indonesian Communist Party , was effectively eliminated by the other two , the military and political Islam .
= = = Power struggle = = =
Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population , and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup . For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement , there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno , including student agitation , stacking of parliament , media propaganda and military threats .
In January 1966 , university students under the banner of KAMI , begin demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of PKI and control of hyperinflation . The students received support and protection with the army , with Suharto often engaging in coordination meetings with student leaders . Street fights broke out between the students and pro @-@ Sukarno loyalists with the pro @-@ Suharto students prevailing due to army protection .
In February 1966 , Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant @-@ general ( and to full general in July 1966 ) . The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno 's order for the disbandment of KAMI in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president . On 11 March 1966 , the appearance of unidentified troops around Merdeka Palace during a cabinet meeting ( which Suharto had not attended ) forced Sukarno to flee to Bogor Palace ( 60 km away ) by helicopter . Three Suhartoist generals , Major @-@ General Basuki Rahmat , Brigadier @-@ General M Jusuf , and Brigadier @-@ General Amirmachmud went to Bogor to meet Sukarno . There , they secured a presidential decree ( see Supersemar ) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security .
Using the Supersemar letter , Suharto ordered the banning of PKI the following day , and proceeded to purge pro @-@ Sukarno elements from the parliament , the government and military , accusing them of being communist sympathisers . The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appoint a new cabinet consisting of Suharto supporters . The army arrested pro @-@ Sukarno and pro @-@ communist members of the MPRS ( parliament ) , and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy , air force , and the police force with his supporters , who then began an extensive purge within each services .
In June 1966 , the now @-@ purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning of Marxism @-@ Leninism , ratifying the Supersemar , and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life . Against the wishes of Sukarno , the government ended Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations ( Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year ) . Suharto did not seek Sukarno 's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president amongst elements of the armed forces .
By January 1967 , Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces , and the MPRS decided to hold another session to impeach Sukarno . On 22 February 1967 , Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency , and on 12 March , the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power and named Suharto acting president . Sukarno was placed under house arrest in Bogor Palace ; little more was heard from him , and he died in June 1970 . On 27 March 1968 , the MPRS appointed Suharto for the first of his five @-@ year terms as President .
= = The " New Order " ( 1967 – 1998 ) = =
= = = Ideology = = =
Suharto promoted his " New Order " , as opposed to Sukarno 's " Old Order " , as a society based on the Pancasila ideology . After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi @-@ religious cult , Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organisations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as basic principle . He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians , from primary school students to office workers . In practice , however , the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto 's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as " anti @-@ Pancasila " .
The New Order also implemented the Dwifungsi ( " Dual Function " ) policy enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of Indonesian government , economy , and society .
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
Having been appointed president , Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere primus inter pares and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti @-@ communist purge . Suharto , aided by his " Office of Personal Assistants " ( Aspri ) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division , particularly Ali Murtopo , began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives .
Having successfully stood @-@ down MPRS chairman General Nasution 's 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority , Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972 . In 1967 , generals Hartono Rekso Dharsono , Kemal Idris , and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo ( dubbed " New Order Radicals " ) opposed Suharto 's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non @-@ ideological two @-@ party system similar to those found in many Western countries . Suharto then proceeded to send Dharsono overseas as ambassador , while Kemal Idris and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo were sent to distant North Sumatera and South Sulawesi as regional commanders .
Suharto 's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his regime . While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement ( Angkatan ' 66 ) were successfully co @-@ opted into the regime , Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections ( " Golput " movement ) , the costly construction of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park ( 1972 ) , the domination of foreign capitalists ( Malari Incident of 1974 ) , and lack of term limits of Suharto 's presidency ( 1978 ) . The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists ( such as future national figures Dorodjatun Kuntjoro @-@ Jakti , Adnan Buyung Nasution , Hariman Siregar , and Sjahrir ) and even sending army units to occupy university campus of ITB ( Bandung Institute of Technology ) from January – March 1978 . In April 1978 , Suharto moved decisively by issuing decree on " Normalization of Campus Life " ( NKK ) which prohibited political activities on @-@ campus not related to academic pursuits .
On 15 – 16 January 1974 , Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out in Jakarta during visit of Japanese prime minister Kakuei Tanaka . Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors was encouraged by General Sumitro , deputy commander of armed forces . Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto 's Aspri inner circle . It was reported to Suharto that the riots were engineered by Sumitro who wished to destabilize the regime utilizing the student unrest , resulting in Sumitro 's dismissal and forced retirement . This incident is referred as Malari Incident ( Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari / Disaster of 15 January ) . However , Suharto also disbanded Aspri to appease popular dissent .
In 1980 , fifty prominent political figures signed the Petition of Fifty which criticised Suharto 's use of Pancasila to silence his critics . Suharto refused to address the petitioners ' concerns , and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements .
= = = Domestic politics and security = = =
To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections , as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967 , Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations . The law provided for a parliament ( Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat / MPR ) with the power to elect presidents , consisting of a lower house ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat / DPR ) and regional representatives . 100 of the 460 members of DPR will be directly appointed by the government , while the remaining seats were allocated to political parties based on results of general election . This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs , particularly the appointment of presidents .
To participate in the elections , Suharto realized the need to align himself with a political party . After initially considering alignment with Sukarno 's old party the PNI , in 1969 Suharto decided to take @-@ over control of an obscure military @-@ run federation of NGOs called Golkar ( " Functional Group " ) and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right @-@ hand man Ali Murtopo . The first general election was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants ; consisting of Golkar , four Islamic parties , as well as five nationalist and Christian parties . Campaigning on a non @-@ ideological platform of " development " , and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics , Golkar managed to secure 62 @.@ 8 % of the popular vote . The March 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly appointed Suharto to second @-@ term in office with Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX as vice @-@ president .
It is not the military strength of the Communists but their fanaticism and ideology which is the principal element of their strength . To consider this , each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists . But a national ideology is not enough by itself . The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology .
On 5 January 1973 , to allow better control , the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge into PPP ( Partai Persatuan Pembangunan / United Development Party ) while the five non @-@ Islamic parties were fused into PDI ( Partai Demokrasi Indonesia / Indonesian Democratic Party ) . The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership , while establishing the " re @-@ call " system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions . Using this system dubbed the " Pancasila Democracy " , Suharto was re @-@ elected unopposed by the MPR in 1978 , 1983 , 1988 , 1993 , and 1998 . Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election , ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition . For all intents and purposes , he held all governing power in the nation .
Suharto proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de @-@ politicized " floating mass " supportive of the national mission of " development " , a concept similar to corporatism . The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs . For instance , the government created Korpri ( Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia ) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty , organized the FBSI ( Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia ) as the only legal labour union in February 1973 , and established the MUI in 1975 to control Islamic clerics . In 1966 to 1967 , to promote assimilation of the influential Chinese @-@ Indonesians , the Suharto government passed several laws as part of so @-@ called " Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem " , whereby only one Chinese @-@ language publication ( controlled by the army ) was allowed to continue , all Chinese cultural and religious expressions ( including display of Chinese characters ) were prohibited from public space , Chinese schools were phased @-@ out , and the ethnic @-@ Chinese were encouraged to take @-@ up Indonesian @-@ sounding names . In 1968 , Suharto commenced the very successful family @-@ planning program ( Keluarga Berentjana / KB ) to stem the huge population growth rate and hence increasing per @-@ capita income . A lasting legacy from this period is the spelling reform of Indonesian language decreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972 .
Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security , organized by the Kopkamtib ( Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order ) and BAKIN ( State Intelligence Coordination Agency ) . To maintain strict control over the country , Suharto expanded the army 's territorial system down to village @-@ level , while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of the Dwifungsi ( " Dual Function " ) of the military . By 1969 , 70 % of Indonesia 's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers . Suharto authorized Operasi Trisula which destroyed PKI @-@ remnants trying to organize a guerilla base in Blitar area in 1968 , and ordered several military operations which ended the communist PGRS @-@ Paraku insurgency in West Kalimantan ( 1967 – 1972 ) . Attacks on oil workers by the first incarnation of Free Aceh Movement separatists under Hasan di Tiro in 1977 led to dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement 's members to flee abroad . Notably , in March 1981 , Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to end hijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight by Islamic extremists at Don Muang Airport in Bangkok .
To comply with New York Agreement of 1962 which required a plebiscite on integration of West Irian into Indonesia before end of 1969 , the Suharto government begin organizing for a so @-@ called " Act of Free Choice " scheduled for July – August 1969 . The government sent RPKAD special forces under Sarwo Edhie Wibowo which secured the surrender of several bands of former Dutch @-@ organized militia ( Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK ) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 , while sending Catholic volunteers under Jusuf Wanandi to distribute consumer goods to promote pro @-@ Indonesian sentiments . In March 1969 , it was agreed that the plebiscite will be channeled via 1 @,@ 025 tribal chiefs , citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population . Using the above strategy , the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia , which was duly noted by United Nations General Assembly in November 1969 .
= = = Economy = = =
To stabilize the economy and to ensure long @-@ term support for the New Order , Suharto ’ s administration enlisted a group of mostly American @-@ educated Indonesian economists , dubbed the " Berkeley Mafia " , to formulate significant changes in economic policy . By cutting subsidies , decreasing government debt , and reforming the exchange rate mechanism , inflation was lowered from 660 % in 1966 to 19 % in 1969 . The threat of famine was alleviated by influx of USAID rice aid shipments in 1967 to 1968 .
With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth , the New Order reversed Sukarno 's economic self @-@ sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment though the 1967 Foreign Investment Law . Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia . The first foreign investors to re @-@ enter Indonesia included mining companies Freeport Sulphur Company / International Nickel Company . Following government regulatory frameworks , domestic entrepreneurs ( mostly Chinese @-@ Indonesians ) emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the import @-@ substitution light @-@ manufacturing sector such as Astra Group and Salim Group .
From 1967 , the government secured low @-@ interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter @-@ Governmental Group on Indonesia ( IGGI ) to cover its budget deficit . With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the 1973 oil crisis , the government invested in infrastructure under a series of five @-@ year plans , dubbed REPELITA ( Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun ) I to VI from 1969 to 1998 .
Outside the formal economy , Suharto created a network of charitable organizations ( " yayasan " ) run by the military and his family members , which extracted " donations " from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits . While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes , much of the money was re @-@ cycled as slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order .
In 1975 , the state @-@ owned oil company , Pertamina , defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto ’ s close ally , Ibnu Sutowo . The government bail @-@ out of the company nearly doubled the national debt .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Upon assuming power , Suharto government adopted policy of neutrality in the Cold War , but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc ( including Japan and South Korea ) with the objective of securing support for Indonesia 's economic recovery . Western countries , impressed by Suharto 's strong anti @-@ communist credentials , were quick to offer their support . Diplomatic relations with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in 30 September Movement ( diplomatic relations was only restored in 1990 ) . Due to Suharto 's destruction of PKI , Soviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia . However , from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister Adam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states . Regionally , having ended confrontation with Malaysia in August 1966 , Indonesia became a founding member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) in August 1967 . This organization is designed to establish peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as ongoing Vietnam War .
In 1974 , the neighbouring colony of Portuguese Timor descended into civil war after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following the Carnation Revolution , whereby the left wing populist Fretilin ( Frente Revolucionária de Timor @-@ Leste Independente ) emerged triumphant . With approval from Western countries ( including from US president Gerald Ford and Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam during their visits to Indonesia ) , Suharto decided to intervene claiming to prevent establishment of a communist state . After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groups UDT and APODETI , Suharto authorized full @-@ scale invasion of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia 's 27th province of East Timor in July 1976 . The " encirclement and annihilation " campaigns of 1977 – 1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands , although continuing guerilla resistance caused the government to maintain strong military force in the half @-@ island until 1999 . An estimated minimum of 90 @,@ 800 and maximum of 213 @,@ 600 conflict @-@ related deaths occurred in East Timor during Indonesian rule ( 1974 – 1999 ) ; namely , 17 @,@ 600 – 19 @,@ 600 killings and 73 @,@ 200 to 194 @,@ 000 ' excess ' deaths from hunger and illness , although Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70 % of the violent killings .
= = = Socio @-@ economic progress and growing corruption = = =
Real socio @-@ economic progress sustained support for Suharto 's regime across three decades . By 1996 , Indonesia 's poverty rate has dropped to around 11 % compared with 45 % in 1970 . From 1966 to 1997 , Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5 @.@ 03 % pa , pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US $ 806 to US $ 4 @,@ 114 . In 1966 , manufacturing sector made @-@ up less than 10 % of GDP ( mostly industries related to oil and agriculture ) . By 1997 , manufacturing had risen to 25 % of GDP whereby 53 % of exports consisted of manufactured products . The government invested into massive infrastructure development ( notably the launching of series of Palapa telecommunication satellites ) , consequently Indonesian infrastructure in the mid @-@ 1990s was considered at par with China . Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his regime , and an MPR resolution in 1983 granted him the title of " Father of Development " .
Suharto government 's health @-@ care programs ( such as the Puskesmas program ) increased life expectancy from 47 years ( 1966 ) to 67 years ( 1997 ) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60 % . The government 's Inpres program launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrollment ratio reaching 90 % by 1983 while almost eliminating education gap between boys and girls . Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia reaching rice self @-@ sufficiency by 1984 , an unprecedented achievement which earns Suharto a gold medal from FAO in November 1985 .
In the early 1980s , Suharto government responded to fall in oil exports due to the 1980s oil glut by successfully shifting pillar of the economy into export @-@ oriented labour @-@ intensive manufacturing , made globally competitive by Indonesia 's low wages and a series of currency devaluations . Industrialization was mostly undertaken by ethnic @-@ Chinese companies which evolved into immense conglomerates dominating the nation 's economy . The largest conglomeracies are the Salim Group led by Liem Sioe Liong ( Sudono Salim ) , Sinar Mas Group led by Oei Ek Tjong ( Eka Tjipta Widjaja ) , Astra Group led by Tjia Han Poen ( William Soeryadjaya ) , Lippo Group led by Lie Mo Tie ( Mochtar Riady ) , Barito Pacific Group led by Pang Djun Phen ( Prajogo Pangestu ) , and Nusamba Group led by Bob Hasan . Suharto decided to support the growth of small number of Chinese @-@ Indonesian conglomerates since they cannot pose political challenge due to their ethnic @-@ minority status , but from his past experience he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country . In exchange for Suharto 's patronage , the conglomerates provided vital financing for his " regime maintenance " activities .
In the late 1980s , Suharto government decided to de @-@ regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing domestic source of financing required for growth . Suharto decreed the " October Package of 1988 " ( PAKTO 88 ) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit ; resulting in a 50 % increase in number of banks from 1989 to 1991 . To promote savings , the government introduced the TABANAS program to the populace . Jakarta Stock Exchange , re @-@ opened in 1977 , recorded bull @-@ run due to spree of domestic IPOs and influx of foreign funds after deregulation in 1990 . The sudden availability of credit fueled strong economic growth in the early 1990s , but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997 which eventually destroyed Suharto 's regime .
The growth of the economy is coincided by rapid expansion in corruption , collusion , and nepotism ( Korupsi , Kolusi , dan Nepotisme / KKN ) . In the early 1980s , Suharto 's children , particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ( " Tutut " ) , Hutomo Mandala Putra ( " Tommy " ) , and Bambang Trihatmodjo , had grown into greedy adults . Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies . Examples include the toll @-@ expressway market which was monopolized by Tutut , national car project monopolized by Bambang and Tommy , and even the cinema market monopolized by 21 Cineplex owned by Suharto 's cousin Sudwikatmono . The family is said to control about 36 @,@ 000 km ² of real estate in Indonesia , including 100 @,@ 000 m ² of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40 % of the land in East Timor . Additionally , Suharto 's family members received free shares in 1 @,@ 251 of Indonesia 's most lucrative domestic companies ( mostly run by Suharto 's ethnic @-@ Chinese cronies ) , while foreign @-@ owned companies were encouraged to establish " strategic partnerships " with Suharto family 's companies . Meanwhile , the myriad of yayasans run by Suharto family grew even larger , levying millions of dollars in " donations " from the public and private sectors each year .
In early 2004 , the German anti @-@ corruption NGO Transparency International released a list of what it believes to be the ten most self @-@ enriching leaders in the past two decades ; in order of amount allegedly stolen USD , the highest ranking of these was Suharto and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $ 15 billion – $ 35 billion .
= = = The New Order in the 1980s and 1990s = = =
By the 1980s , Suharto 's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society , engineered elections , and use of the military 's coercive powers . Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976 , Suharto undertook a re @-@ organisation of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president . In March 1983 , he appointed General Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani as head of the armed forces who adopted a hardline on elements who challenged the administration . As a Roman Catholic , he was not a political threat to Suharto .
From 1983 to 1985 , army squads killed up to 10 @,@ 000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate ( see " Petrus Killings " ) . Suharto 's imposition
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Video conception sprang forward with the idea to resemble the scene in Grease where John Travolta sings " Sandy " . In the scene , Travolta exits from a car and walks over to a jungle gym , where he sits on a swing and performs the song as projections are displayed in the background . To render homage to her parents ' courting days , Cyrus and Applebaum named a drive @-@ in theater in the video Corral Drive @-@ In after a Kentucky drive @-@ in where Cyrus ' parents had a date . " In addition , Miley 's mom Tish used to drive ' 79 black Pontiac Trans Am , Smokey and the Bandit ( 1977 ) style , and obviously that 's the car that Miley arrives in " , Applebaum said .
The video commences by showing a drive @-@ in theater in the day . Cyrus later arrives in a black 1979 Pontiac Trans Am , clothed by a black tank top , distressed hot pants , cowboy boots and a black vest . Cyrus and several female extras make their way to a blue pick @-@ up truck , where Cyrus sings using a digital microphone and the extras accompany her . In the song 's second verse , Cyrus lies against a wall depicting the drive @-@ in 's name , " Corral Drive @-@ In " . Then , an American flag unravels before a single wall in a vacant landscape , where she performs as sparkled confetti drops from above . Later , she , standing on a swing in the center , and numerous backup dancers appear in a jungle gym during the evening . For the song 's last refrain , Cyrus performs with four backup dancers on a stage , where the background portrays the American flag and letters above it that spell " USA " . Cut @-@ scenes feature people entering the drive @-@ in theater , Cyrus walking throughout the drive @-@ in alone , or her and the backup dancers performing in the jungle gym . The video ends with Cyrus flipping her hair in the stage setting .
A 90 @-@ second snippet was shown on September 23 , 2009 , on Dancing with the Stars . Subsequently that day , the video premiered online on ABC 's Music Lounge . Jocelyn Vena of MTV said , " The video is reminiscent of Cyrus ' performance of the track on the Teen Choice Awards over the summer — minus the pole dancing . " According to a survey held by MTV , responses for the music video varied from populations who were " not feeling it " for various reasons to those who enjoyed " the video 's energy and thought that the added bit of sexiness was a healthy progression for Cyrus . " At the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards , the video won the MuchMusic Video Award for Best International Artist Video and was nominated for the MuchMusic Video Award for People 's Choice : Favourite International Video , but lost to Adam Lambert 's video for " Whataya Want From Me " . The video has amassed over 520 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus ' first live performance of " Party in the U.S.A. " at the Teen Choice Awards held on August 10 , 2009 . Clothed by a tank top that revealed a portion of her bra , black hot pants and leather boots , Cyrus and backup dancers appeared from a trailer . Midway through the performance , Cyrus danced atop an ice cream pushcart with a pole ( which was suggested to be a dance pole by numerous critics ) for approximately forty seconds . Cyrus described the performance to be about her heritage : " [ My ] performance tonight is funny , but I wanted it to be about [ something more ] . I 'm like , ' This is to represent where I am from . I 'm so proud of it . ' All the girls trying to be Hollywood and stuff with their big glasses , me shooing them away . " The performance was met with a media uproar in regards to her dancing being too suggestive and sexual for a teen @-@ oriented event , which caused The Walt Disney Company to issue a statement distancing themselves from the performance . Ian Drew , senior editor of US Weekly said , " She already has this risque image , so it really wasn 't much of a stretch . That 's how Britney [ Spears ] took off . She was the good girl gone bad , and it looks to be working for Miley as well . " Other contemporary critics used negative comparisons to Spears , but Cyrus welcomed the comparisons via a post on her official Twitter account . Child psychologist Wendi Fischer told Newsday : Cyrus was communicating to her fans that it is acceptable to pole dance , which , according to Fischer , was unacceptable . " Miley 's only 16 . Why is she rushing it ? " , she concluded . Other critics defended Cyrus . Apryl Duncan of About.com said viewers should have fixated on her accomplishments that night , winning six awards , rather than the sexuality of the performance . Following the backlash of the performance , Cyrus replaced the ice cream pushcart with a luggage cart while touring .
In 2009 Cyrus continued promotion for the single and The Time of Our Lives , performing " Party in the U.S.A. " on The Today Show and VH1 Divas in the United States . In the winter , she promoted the track in the United Kingdom at 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball , the annual gala for British Royal Family , Royal Variety Performance , and Alan Carr : Chatty Man , as well as in Ireland on The Late Late Show . Cyrus performed the song on all venues of her first world concert tour , the Wonder World Tour , which extended from September to December 2009 . During each performance , Cyrus was costumed by a black tank top , black hot pants , black leather boots and a blue jean vest as images on the overhead screens depicted an abundance of sites in and representations of the United States . She roamed throughout the stage with numerous backup dancers and , mid @-@ performance , entered a luggage cart that escorted her throughout the stage again . The lyrics ' reference to Jay @-@ Z was replaced with one for Michael Jackson in all live performances . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times , who attended the September 22 , 2009 , concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California , believed " Cyrus managed a reasonable approximation of a rapper " in the performance . Dave Paulson of The Tennessean reported that the song 's performance at the November 25 , 2009 , concert at the Sommet Center in Nashville , Tennessee , " received cheers at Jonas Brothers – worthy decibel levels . "
In 2010 , while promoting her Can 't Be Tamed album , Cyrus performed " Party in the U.S.A. " at Rock in Rio concerts in Lisbon , Portugal , and Madrid , Spain , the 1515 Club in Paris , France , G @-@ A @-@ Y club in London , England , Good Morning America , 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards , and a concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles , California , which was streamed across over thirty websites owned by MTV Networks . In 2011 she performed the song in her second and third world concert tours , the Gypsy Heart Tour
In 2013 Cyrus sang " Party in the U.S.A. " during her performances held to promote Bangerz album . She performed the single on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , 2013 iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas , The Today Show , and the series of Jingle Ball concerts in December ( including Jingle Bell Ball in Los Angeles ) . In 2014 she included this song on her Bangerz Tour . While singing " Party in the U.S.A. " , Cyrus wore a cropped blonde wig , a leotard with red , white , and blue sequins , a white cowboy hat , star spangled boots , and a set of fake teeth during the performance . The backup dancers were dressed as American monuments . Her performance received positive reviews from critics . Théoden Janes of The Charlotte Observer wrote , " She turned a verse of Party in the U.S.A. into a cool , cocky rap " and John J. Moser of The Morning Call said that the performance resonated with the audience , even though Cyrus was lifted atop a huge pedestal . Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun wrote , " She went for a big ending , with fireworks , confetti , an elevating stage and dancers dressed as Abe Lincoln , Mount Rushmore , the Liberty Bell and The Statue of Liberty for the final older song Party in the U.S.A. " A critic from Nashville Scene wrote , " Party in the U.S.A. was sung by Miley and screamed back by every person in the crowd . Cue red @-@ white @-@ and @-@ blue confetti . Cue fireworks . Pack the Bangerz Tour up and put the circus back on the road . Fans in other cities need to party , too . " Cyrus also performed the song during the musical festival on June 21 , 2014 , Summertime Ball at Wembley Stadium of London , in front of 80 @,@ 000 people .
= = Cover versions = =
On a season six episode of The Office , " Sabre " , Ed Helms ( portraying Andy Bernard ) and Ellie Kemper ( portraying Erin Hannon ) performed a parody of " Party in the U.S.A. " for the coordinating director of Sabre , using an acoustic guitar . The parody was themed about the city which the series is set in , Scranton , Pennsylvania . Due their boss mispronouncing the word " Sabre " , it ended without a rhyme . Kelly West of Cinema Blend wrote , " Still , it was adorable seeing the two sing together . Unfortunately , the rhythm of their flirtation is just as awkward ( and equally charming ) as the rhythm of the song they attempted to perform . " On the May 26 , 2011 episode of talk show Late Night with Jimmy Fallon , " Party in the U.S.A. " was covered in the style of Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young , a recurrent bit on the show . Host Jimmy Fallon sang lead ( impersonating Neil Young ) , while playing an acoustic guitar and harmonica . Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young members David Crosby and Graham Nash joined to Fallon with vocal harmonies . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone described it as " a sad , beautifully harmonized folk rendition of Miley Cyrus ' ' Party in the U.S.A. ' that manage [ d ] to make the joyful tween anthem sound like a vintage Sixties protest song . " A parody titled " Party in the CIA " was included on " Weird Al " Yankovic 's 13th studio album , Alpocalypse ( 2011 ) . Prior to the 2012 London Olympics , the United States women 's national soccer team made a video of the players lip @-@ synching to the song ; the video became very popular .
= = Social impact = =
Following the death of terrorist Osama bin Laden on May 2 , 2011 , a resurgence in the popularity of " Party in the U.S.A. " video occurred . The official YouTube video was flooded with comments regarding the death of bin Laden and it was immediately deemed a celebratory anthem for the event . Moreover , the song 's association to his death continued on other social medias , like Facebook and Twitter , and it was played as individuals celebrated outside of the White House . About it becoming an anthem for bin Laden 's death , Nitsuh Abebe of New York magazine wrote , " I have to confess that my list of reactions to the news did not get anywhere near ' watch a Miley Cyrus video . ' The reason it occurred to others is surely as simple as it seems : This is a recent hit song whose title is dominated by the words " party " and " U.S.A. " Looking for anything more apt would be overthinking it . Cyrus ' video [ ... ] is stocked with a great many of those things we like and do well : a drive @-@ in theater , trucks and muscle cars , Daisy Dukes , giant flags . It is , just like bin Laden 's death , another convenient opportunity to celebrate ourselves . "
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Lamb of God ( band ) =
Lamb of God ( sometimes abbreviated as LoG ) is an American heavy metal band from Richmond , Virginia . Formed in 1994 ( as Burn the Priest ) , the group consists of vocalist Randy Blythe , guitarists Mark Morton and Willie Adler , bassist John Campbell , and drummer Chris Adler . The band is considered a significant member of the New Wave of American Heavy Metal movement .
Since their formation , Lamb of God has released eight studio albums , one live album , one compilation album and three DVDs . The band 's cumulative sales equal almost two million in the United States , including one album certified Gold by the RIAA . In 2010 and 2011 the band received Grammy nominations for songs from their 2009 album Wrath . They also received a nomination in 2016 for their song " 512 " . Lamb of God has toured with the Ozzfest twice . Other appearances include Download Festival and Sonisphere Festival in the UK , Soundwave Festival , Mayhem Festival 2010 and Gigantour . From 2008 to 2010 they toured as part of Metallica 's World Magnetic Tour .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Burn the Priest ( 1994 – 1999 ) = = =
In 1994 , guitarists Mark Morton and Matt Conner , bassist John Campbell and drummer Chris Adler started a band named Burn the Priest . The band members knew each other from the college they were all attending , Virginia Commonwealth University , in Richmond , Virginia . Morton and Conner left the band soon after its inception to pursue master 's degrees . Adler and Campbell replaced Morton with Abe Spear . For the next five years , the band practiced in Richmond and around Virginia . In 1995 , the band released its self @-@ titled first demo . After the demo , Burn the Priest recorded two split EPs with Agents of Satan and ZED respectively . After the band 's first three demos , Burn the Priest added vocalist Randall Blythe to its line up .
In 1997 , Morton returned to the band . Two years later , the band released its first full @-@ length self @-@ titled album , Burn the Priest , through Legion Records . Mikey Brosnan of Legion Records saved up $ 2 @,@ 500 for the recording and then broke them in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania through DIY shows . The album was produced by Today Is the Day guitarist and vocalist Steve Austin . Spear left the band , leaving an open position for a guitarist . Adler 's younger brother Willie became the band 's second guitarist a year later , and a deal with Prosthetic Records was signed . Contrary to rumour , the band did not change their name to Lamb of God after being banned from venues ; these bans occurred afterwards . They changed their name because of the altered line @-@ up , and to avoid being mistaken for a satanic metal band .
= = = New American Gospel and As the Palaces Burn ( 2000 – 2003 ) = = =
With a new name and label , the band released its second album , New American Gospel , in September 2000 . Patrick Kennedy of Allmusic compared the band to Pantera stating , " The essential signatures of post @-@ Pantera metal are in abundance on Lamb of God 's inaugural album . New American Gospel provides a mighty oak upon which gritty American metal 's faith is maintained , effectively bridging the ' 90s ' insistence upon drill @-@ sergeant technicality and the old school 's determined focus on riff construction . " Chris Adler commented : " This is a classic record . We had all the elements come together to make one of the heaviest , yet contagious records of our career . It was difficult to contain us — we didn 't even understand at the time what we had created . "
Lamb of God toured for two years before releasing their third studio album , As the Palaces Burn , on May 6 , 2003 . Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars , writing that " unlike many of their overreaching , Slipknot @-@ influenced contemporaries , Lamb of God deliver a meticulously crafted metal assault . " The album was voted the number one album of 2003 by both Revolver Magazine and Metal Hammer . The band was part of the first Headbangers Ball tour , where they recorded a DVD including live performances and a documentary , titled Terror and Hubris . The DVD was a success , debuting at number 31 on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart .
= = = Ashes of the Wake ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
Lamb of God released Ashes of the Wake in August 2004 , which debuted at number 27 on the Billboard 200 , and sold over 35 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album was distributed through the band 's new record label , Epic Records . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic praised the album , saying " With the genre getting clogged by PVC goofs and Alice in Chains impersonators , Lamb of God balances the equation of power , rage , tradition , and craft . It kills the filler . " The title track of the album featured Testament guitarist Alex Skolnick and ex – Megadeth guitarist Chris Poland .
The band supported Ashes of the Wake with extensive touring , including a second stage slot on Ozzfest in 2004 , and the 2005 Sounds of the Underground tour . The band was awarded 2nd Best Album of the Year by Revolver magazine behind Mastodon 's Leviathan , and was awarded Best Music Video for " Laid to Rest " ( 2005 ) . While on tour , the band recorded a performance and released it with the name of Killadelphia . The release was made available as a DVD and a CD . The DVD was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2007 .
In 2006 , a cover version of the first single from the album , " Laid to Rest " , was featured as a playable track in Guitar Hero II . The original version was released for Guitar Hero Smash Hits in 2009 . The original version is also available as downloadable content for Rock Band .
= = = Sacrament ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
In August 2006 Lamb of God released its fifth studio album , Sacrament . The album debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 and sold nearly 65 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales , nearly doubling the first week sales of Ashes of the Wake .
The album received generally positive reviews , with Cosmo Lee of Stylus Magazine stating , " Sacrament has the band 's most memorable songs to date . Musically , there 's no fat . The band plays with laser precision and songs move smoothly through riffs and transitions . " Ed Thompson of IGN referred to Sacrament " one of the best metal albums of 2006 " , and Jon Pareles of Blender called it a " speed rush all the way through " .
The band appeared on major tours to support the album , including The Unholy Alliance with Slayer , Mastodon , Children of Bodom , and Thine Eyes Bleed , Gigantour , supporting Megadeth ; main stage at Ozzfest ; an appearance at the Download Festival , and an exclusive co @-@ headlining tour with Killswitch Engage , Soilwork , and DevilDriver , where Killswitch Engage and Lamb of God shared headlining spots alternately each show . Lamb of God was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 2007 Grammy Awards for " Redneck " , but lost out to Slayer 's " Eyes of the Insane " .
In December 2007 , the band re @-@ released the album as Sacrament : Deluxe Producer Edition . The release contained all of the original songs from Sacrament on the first disc , and the second disc was a CD @-@ ROM featuring all of the vocal , bass , guitar , and drum tracks in 192kbit / s MP3 format , enabling the buyer to produce their own interpretation of the songs . Blythe stated , " you sometimes have to do something special to get kids to even buy an album these days rather than download it . " The band took a break to write new material throughout 2008 and prepare a new record for release , slated for 2009 . The band negotiated for a new record label to distribute records outside the United States . Chris Adler stated Epic Records in the United States " couldn 't be more perfect " , but wants a different label for international releases .
= = = Walk with Me in Hell and Wrath ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =
On May 2 , Lamb of God announced via MySpace their new DVD , Walk with Me in Hell , would be released on July 1 , 2008 . The DVD is a double @-@ disc and has nearly five hours of footage , containing the feature documentary Walk with Me in Hell and multiple live performance extras from the Sacrament World Tour . At the end of the Walk with Me in Hell documentary the members stated that they are more excited than ever to write new material .
In August , 2008 , it was announced , by studio producer Cole Higley , that the band had commenced work on the follow @-@ up to Sacrament , and that its release was scheduled for February , 2009 . Josh Wilbur was also named as the producer for the record . They also toured with Metallica as a direct support act starting in December 2008 .
The recording process of the new record was made available to view online live through the band 's website , with two webcams installed in the studio ( specifically in the drum room and mixing room ) .
On February 23 , 2009 , the band released their sixth studio album internationally via Roadrunner Records , titled Wrath and one day later in America via Epic Records . The album is dedicated to Mikey Bronsnan , who helped them get started in Philadelphia , PA . In November 2008 , Bronsnan was killed by a drunk driver . According to drummer Chris Adler , " Without Mikey , we 'd very well might not be a band today . " Drummer Chris Adler was quoted saying " This album is going to surprise a lot of people . Typically bands that get to where we are in our career begin to slack off , smell the roses and regurgitate . We chose a different path . No one wants to hear another band member hyping a new record . ‘ Wrath ’ needs no hype . We have topped ourselves and on February 24 you will feel it . " " Wrath " debuted on the Billboard 200 at number two , selling over 68 @,@ 000 copies in its first week .
In support of Wrath , the band in spring of 2009 embarked on the first leg of their world tour , No Fear Energy Tour headlined by themselves with main support from Children of Bodom and As I Lay Dying , and rotating opening slots with God Forbid and Municipal Waste . The band played in Europe in the summer to perform with Metallica on the World Magnetic Tour along with Mastodon , while also playing headlining shows of their own and performing at major European festivals . For the final six dates of the tour , Unearth 's Buz McGrath filled in for Mark Morton , as he left early to be with his wife and his first child .
Lamb of God were announced to also serve as Metallica 's direct support for the North American leg of their 2009 world tour , as well as finishing the year off by headlining shows in Australia and New Zealand with Shadows Fall and DevilDriver .
= = = Resolution and Blythe 's arrest ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
Lamb of God performed for the first time in the Philippines for the annual PULP Summer Slam on April 17 , 2010 with thrash metal band Testament and performed there again on February 18 , 2012 . The band also played in India for the first time on May 15 , 2010 , headlining the Summer Storm festival in Bangalore . They played for their Turkish fans at Kucukciftlik Park , Istanbul , on May 17 . Lamb of God was featured on the 2010 Mayhem Festival , playing on the main stage alongside Korn , Rob Zombie , and Five Finger Death Punch . Paul Waggoner , guitarist for Between the Buried and Me , filled in for Lamb of God guitarist Mark Morton during the Mayhem Festival . In June , 2010 , the band played on the main stage at the Download Festival . It was their third appearance at Download Festival .
On April 19 , 2010 , IGN released a ' making of ' video that features Lamb of God working on their next single , " Hit the Wall " . The single is featured in the Iron Man 2 video game . On February 15 , 2011 , Lamb of God announced that " Hit the Wall " would be available to buy via digital download . The band was also featured on the soundtrack for Namco Bandai Games ' 2010 remake of Splatterhouse . Lamb of God was announced as one of the bands ( the other being Baroness ) to support Metallica on their Australian tour in late 2010 . In a September 2010 interview , drummer Chris Adler mentioned that Lamb of God will enter the studio in February 2011 to begin work on a seventh album . In November , Chris also mentioned that the band will work with producer Josh Wilbur again .
Lamb of God was nominated for a Grammy in 2010 for Best Metal Performance , but lost out to Judas Priest 's " Dissident Aggressor " . The band was once again nominated in 2011 , at the 53rd Grammy Awards , but lost , this time to Iron Maiden 's " El Dorado " .
On October 31 , 2011 , it was announced that the band is set to release their seventh studio album , Resolution , on January 24 , 2012 . The band also revealed the album 's track list and cover art . On January 19 , 2012 , Lamb of God released a second music video for the single ' Ghost Walking ' , the first video being the lyric video . The video , which is completely animated , depicts a man fleeing from assassins in order to enter the abort codes for a large unidentified weapon . All the animation was completed by Moreframes Animation , and it was premiered on the music channel Vevo and YouTube .
In February 2012 Lamb of God played the Soundwave Festival in Australia and the Download Festival on the main stage in June .
On June 27 , 2012 the Czech police arrested Randy Blythe for his actions during a 2010 concert in Prague . Blythe was charged , in the Prague 8 district court , with committing intentional bodily harm after an incident in which a 19 @-@ year @-@ old fan climbed up onto the stage with him . Blythe pushed the teen who then hit his head on the floor when he fell and later died of the injury . Lamb of God canceled their upcoming tour but resumed touring 38 days later when Blythe was released on bail . Blythe was indicted on the charges in December 2012 . According to a verdict delivered by the Municipal Court in Prague on March 5 , 2013 , Blythe had thrown Nosek off the stage and had moral responsibility for the fan 's death but he was not criminally liable . The decision was appealed , and upheld by the Prague High Court in June 2013 .
= = = Hiatus and VII : Sturm und Drang ( 2014 – present ) = = =
Despite statements from bandmembers , that Lamb of God planned to enter the studio in 2014 to begin recording their eighth studio album , hoping to complete it by the end of the same year , Chris Adler said in an interview with The Virginian @-@ Pilot that besides the large amount legal fees the band encountered from Randy Blythe 's trial , the band 's inactivity during the trial meant no new income coming in , which eventually depleted the band 's funds .
On January 26 , 2014 , Randy Blythe posted a picture and a statement on his Instagram saying he would be taking a long break from Lamb of God . The band , after the then @-@ current album cycle would be on hiatus , except for some summer festival appearances .
During an interview in September 2014 , Randy Blythe revealed that he was planning to release his upcoming book in early 2015 , along with a new Lamb of God record , which uses lyrics he had written while he was incarcerated .
The band began teasing a new album , with the placeholder title Lamb of God VII via Instagram and Twitter in late April 2015 . A website , lambofgodvii.com , initially comprising an empty black screen , went online in early May . The " VII " ( the roman numeral for the number seven ) refers to the album being the band 's seventh , and does not take into account the first of their albums , released with a slightly different line @-@ up as Burn the Priest .
On May 15 , 2015 , it was announced that the title of the new album VII : Sturm und Drang , and would be released in July via Epic and Nuclear Blast Entertainment . The first song , " Still Echoes " was made available for streaming on LambofGodVII.com , and available for digital download on May 18 . On June 12 , the band released a video for the song " 512 " .
= = As The Palaces Burn documentary = =
In February 2014 , a documentary film featuring Lamb of God entitled As The Palaces Burn was released world @-@ wide . The documentary , directed by Don Argott , began filming in 2012 and was set to focus on fans of the band but drastically altered its scope following the arrest of lead singer Randy Blythe on charges of committing intentional bodily harm stemming from the death of a fan following a concert in Prague two years earlier . The film has been met with positive reviews by critics .
= = Genre = =
Although Lamb of God 's genre is a major point of disagreement among fans and critics alike , they are mainly considered groove metal . John Campbell , on the Walk With Me in Hell DVD , says that Lamb of God is " a punk band that plays heavy metal " , while Chris Adler refers to Sacrament as a speed metal album . Burn the Priest and early Lamb of God has been called a fusion thrash metal , death metal and hardcore punk , as well as " grindcore and death metal for the hardcore kids " . The band incorporates thrash metal elements , which was shown as a direction on Resolution and Wrath . The band has been described by a few critics as metalcore .
= = Members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
As Burn the Priest :
Burn the Priest ( 1999 )
As Lamb of God :
New American Gospel ( 2000 )
As the Palaces Burn ( 2003 )
Ashes of the Wake ( 2004 )
Sacrament ( 2006 )
Wrath ( 2009 )
Resolution ( 2012 )
VII : Sturm und Drang ( 2015 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = = Spike Guys ' Choice Awards = = =
= = = Revolver Golden Gods Awards = = =
= = = Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards = = =
= 7th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 7th Infantry Division is an infantry division of the United States Army . Today , it exists as a unique 250 @-@ man deployable headquarters based at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord overseeing several units , though none of the 7th Infantry Division 's own historic forces are active .
The division was first activated in December 1917 in World War I , and based at Fort Ord , California for most of its history . Although elements of the division saw brief active service in World War I , it is best known for its participation in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II where it took heavy casualties engaging the Imperial Japanese Army in the Aleutian Islands , Leyte , and Okinawa . Following the Japanese surrender in 1945 , the division was stationed in Japan and Korea , and with the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 was one of the first units in action . It took part in the Inchon Landings and the advance north until Chinese forces counter @-@ attacked and almost overwhelmed the scattered division . The 7th later would fight in the Battle of Pork Chop Hill and the Battle of Old Baldy . From 1953 to 1971 , the 7th Infantry Division defended the Korean Demilitarized Zone . Its main garrison was Camp Casey , South Korea . During these occupation duties , the division saw a complete reorganization in compliance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan . The division 's former headquarters company grew into the 1st Brigade , 7th Infantry Division while the 13th Infantry Brigade was reactivated as the 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . The 14th Infantry Brigade was reactivated as the 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . In 1965 the division received its distinctive unit insignia , which alluded to its history during the Korean War . On 2 April 1971 , the division returned to the United States and was inactivated at Fort Lewis , Washington . In October 1974 the 7th reactivated at its former garrison , Fort Ord. [ 133 ] In the late 1980s , it briefly saw action overseas in Operation Golden Pheasant in Honduras and Operation Just Cause in Panama . In the early 1990s , it provided domestic support to the civil authorities in Operation Green Sweep and during the 1992 Los Angeles Riots . The division 's final role was as a training and evaluation unit for Army National Guard brigades , which it undertook until its inactivation in 2006 .
On 26 April 2012 , the Department of Defense announced the 7th Infantry Division headquarters would be reactivated as an administrative unit . This was done on 10 October 2012 at Joint Base Lewis McChord . On 23 December 2014 , it was announced the Headquarters will reorganize into a deployable unit in response to increasing demands for " readily available , high @-@ level leadership cadres drawn from divisional headquarters " .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 7th Infantry Division was created during World War I and was activated on 6 December 1917 as the 7th Division of the regular army at Camp Wheeler , Georgia . One month later , it prepared to deploy to Europe as a part of the American Expeditionary Force . Two brigades were assigned to the division , the 13th Infantry Brigade and the 14th Infantry Brigade . Most of the division sailed to Europe aboard the SS Leviathan .
While on the Western Front , the 7th did not see action at full divisional strength , though its infantry and reconnaissance elements did engage German forces . On 11 October 1918 , it first came under shell fire and later , at Saint @-@ Mihiel , came under chemical attack . Elements of the 7th probed up toward Prény near the Moselle River , capturing positions and driving German forces out of the region . It was at this time that the division first received its shoulder sleeve insignia .
In early November , the 7th began preparing for an assault on the Hindenburg Line as part of the Second Army . The division launched a reconnaissance in force on the Voëvre plain , but the main assault was never conducted as hostilities ended on 11 November 1918 with the signing of the armistice . During its 33 days on the front line , the 7th Division suffered 1 @,@ 709 casualties , including 204 killed in action and 1 @,@ 505 wounded in action. and was awarded a campaign streamer for Lorraine . The division then served on occupation duties as it began preparations to return to the continental United States . The 7th Division arrived home in late 1919 , and was gradually demobilized at Camp Meade , Maryland until on 22 September 1921 , when it was inactivated .
= = = World War II = = =
On 1 July 1940 , the 7th Division was reactivated at Camp Ord , California , under the command of Major General Joseph W. Stilwell . The 12th and 13th Brigades did not reactivate as part of an army @-@ wide elimination of brigade commands within its divisions . The division was instead centered around three infantry regiments ; the 17th Infantry Regiment , the 32nd Infantry Regiment , and the 53rd Infantry Regiment . Also assigned to the division were the 31st , 48th , 49th and 57th Field Artillery Battalions , as well as the 7th Signal Company , the 707th Ordnance Company , the 7th Quartermaster Company , the 7th Reconnaissance Troop , the 13th Engineer Battalion , the 7th Medical Battalion , and the 7th Counter Intelligence Detachment . Most of the troops in the division were selective service soldiers , conscripted as a part of the US Army 's first peacetime military draft .
The 7th Division was assigned to III Corps of the Fourth United States Army , and transferred to Longview , Washington , in August 1941 to participate in tactical maneuvers . Following this training , the division moved back to Fort Ord , California , where it was located when the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor caused the United States to declare war . The formation proceeded almost immediately to San Jose , California , arriving 11 December 1941 to help protect the west coast and allay civilian fears of invasion . The 53rd Infantry Regiment was removed from the 7th Division and replaced with the 159th Infantry Regiment , newly deployed from the California Army National Guard . For the early parts of the war , the division participated mainly in construction and training roles . Subordinate units also practiced boat loading at the Monterey Wharf and amphibious assault techniques at the Salinas River in California .
On 9 April 1942 , the division was formally redesignated as the 7th Motorized Division. and transferred to Camp San Luis Obispo on 24 April 1942 . Three months later , divisional training commenced in the Mojave Desert in preparation for its planned deployment to the African theater . It was again designated the 7th Infantry Division on 1 January 1943 , when the motorized equipment was removed from the unit and it became a light infantry division once more , as the Army eliminated the motorized division concept fearing it would be logistically difficult and that the troops were no longer needed in North Africa . The 7th Infantry Division began rigorous amphibious assault training under US Marines from the Fleet Marine Force , before being deployed to fight in the Pacific theater instead of Africa . USMC General Holland Smith oversaw the unit 's training .
= = = = Aleutian Islands = = = =
Elements of the 7th Infantry Division first saw combat in the amphibious assault on Attu Island , the western @-@ most Japanese entrenchment in the Aleutian islands chain . Elements landed on 11 May 1943 , spearheaded by the 17th Infantry Regiment . The initial landings were unopposed , but Japanese forces mounted a counteroffensive the next day , and the 7th Infantry Division fought an intense battle over the tundra against strong Japanese resistance . The division was hampered by its inexperience and poor weather and terrain conditions , but was eventually able to coordinate an effective attack . The fight for the island culminated in a battle at Chichagof Harbor , when the division destroyed all Japanese resistance on the island on 29 May , after a suicidal Japanese bayonet charge . During its first fight of the war , 600 soldiers of the division were killed , while killing 2 @,@ 351 Japanese and taking 28 prisoners . After American forces secured the island chain , the 159th Infantry Regiment was ordered to stay on the island , and the 184th Infantry Regiment took its place as the 7th Division 's third infantry regiment . The 184th Infantry remained with the division until the end of the war . The 159th Infantry Regiment stayed on the island for some time longer until returning to the United States , where it remained until the end of the war .
American forces then began preparing to move against nearby Kiska island , termed Operation Cottage , the final fight in the Aleutian islands campaign . In August 1943 , elements of the 7th Infantry Division took part in an amphibious assault on Kiska with a brigade from the 6th Canadian Infantry Division , only to find the island deserted by the Japanese . It was later discovered that the Japanese had withdrawn their 5 @,@ 000 @-@ soldier garrison during the night of 28 July , under cover of fog .
= = = = Marshall Islands = = = =
After the campaign , the division moved to Hawaii where it trained in new amphibious assault techniques on the island of Maui , before returning to Schofield Barracks on Oahu for brief leave . It was reassigned to V Amphibious Corps , a US Marine Corps command . The division left Pearl Harbor on 22 January 1944 , for an offensive on Japanese territory . On 30 January 1944 , the division landed on islands in the Kwajalein Atoll in conjunction with the 4th Marine Division , code named Operation Flintlock . The 7th Division landed on the namesake island while the 4th Marine Division forces struck the outlying islands of Roi and Namur . The Division made landfall on the western beaches of the island at 09 : 30 on 1 February . It advanced halfway through the island by nightfall the next day , and reached the eastern shore at 1335 hours on 4 February , having wrested the island from the Japanese . The victory put V Amphibious Corps in control of all 47 islands in the atoll . The 7th Infantry Division suffered 176 killed and 767 wounded . On 7 February , the division departed the atoll and returned to Schofield Barracks .
Elements took part in the capture of Engebi in the Eniwetok Atoll on 18 February 1944 , code named Operation Catchpole . Because of the speed and success of the attack on Kwajalein , the attack was undertaken several months ahead of schedule . After a week of fighting , the division secured the islands of the atoll . The division then returned to Hawaii to continue training . There , in June 1944 , General Douglas MacArthur and President Franklin Roosevelt personally reviewed the division .
= = = = Leyte = = = =
The 7th Infantry Division left Hawaii on 11 October , heading for Leyte and include the Filipino troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary were aided against the Japanese . At this time it was under the command of XXIV Corps of the Sixth United States Army . On 20 October 1944 , the division made an assault landing at Dulag , Leyte , initially only encountering light resistance . Following a defeat at sea on 26 October , the Japanese launched a large , uncoordinated counteroffensive on the Sixth Army . After heavy fighting , the 184th Infantry secured airstrips at Dulag , while the 17th Infantry secured San Pablo , and the 32nd Infantry took Buri . The 17th Infantry troops moved north to take Dagami on 29 October , in intense jungle warfare that produced high casualties . The division then shifted to the west coast of Leyte on 25 November and attacked north toward Ormoc , securing Valencia on 25 December . An amphibious landing by the 77th Infantry Division effected the capture of Ormoc on 31 December 1944 . The 7th Infantry Division joined in the occupation of the city , and engaged the 26th Japanese Infantry Division , which had been holding up the advance of the 11th Airborne Division . The 7th Division 's attack was successful in allowing the 11th Airborne Division to move through , however , Japanese forces proved difficult to drive out of the area . As such , operations to secure Leyte continued until early February 1945 . Afterward , the division began training for an invasion of the Ryukyu island chain throughout March 1945 . It was relieved from the Sixth Army and the Philippine Commonwealth military , which went on to attack Luzon .
= = = = Okinawa = = = =
The division was reassigned to XXIV Corps , Tenth United States Army , a newly formed command , and began preparations for the assault on Okinawa . The Battle of Okinawa began on 1 April 1945 , L @-@ Day , when the 7th Infantry Division participated in an assault landing south of Hagushi , Okinawa alongside the 96th Infantry Division , and the 1st , and 6th Marine Divisions. of III Amphibious Corps . These divisions spearheaded an assault that would eventually land 250 @,@ 000 men ashore . The 7th Division quickly moved to Kadena , taking its airfield , and drove from the west to the east coast of the island on the first day . The division then moved south , encountering stiff resistance from fortifications at Shuri a few days later . The Japanese had moved 90 tanks , much of their artillery , and heavy weapons away from the beaches and into this region . Eventually , XXIV Corps destroyed the defenses after a 51 @-@ day battle in the hills of southern Okinawa , which was complicated by harsh weather and terrain . During the operation , the division was bombarded with tens of thousands of rounds of field artillery fire , encountering Japanese armed with spears as it continued its fight across the island . Japanese also fought using irregular warfare techniques , relying on hidden cave systems , snipers , and small @-@ unit ambushes to delay the advancing 7th Infantry Division . After the fight , the division began capturing large numbers of Japanese prisoners for the first time in the war , due to low morale , high casualties , and poor equipment . It fought for five continuous days to secure areas around the Nakagusuku Wan and Skyline Ridge . The division also secured Hill 178 in the fighting . It then moved to Kochi Ridge , securing it after a two @-@ week battle . After 39 days of continuous fighting , the 7th Infantry Division was sent into reserve , having suffered heavy casualties .
After the 96th Infantry Division secured Conical Hill , the 7th Infantry Division returned to the line . It pushed into positions on the southern Ozato Mura hills , where Japanese resistance was heaviest . It was placed on the extreme left flank of the Tenth Army , taking the Ghinen peninsula , Sashiki , and Hanagusuku , fending off a series of Japanese counterattacks . Despite heavy Japanese resistance and prolonged bad weather , the division continued its advance until 21 June 1945 , when the battle ended , having seen 82 days of combat . The island and surrendering troops were secured by the next day . During the Battle of Okinawa , the soldiers of the 7th Infantry Division killed between 25 @,@ 000 and 28 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers and took 4 @,@ 584 prisoners . Balanced against this , the 7th Division suffered 2 @,@ 340 killed and 6 @,@ 872 wounded for a total of 9 @,@ 212 battle casualties during 208 days of combat . The division was slated to participate in Operation Downfall as a part of XXIV Corps under the First United States Army , but these plans were scrapped after the Japanese surrendered following the use of nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
During World War II , soldiers of the 7th Infantry Division were awarded three Medals of Honor , 26 Distinguished Service Crosses , one Distinguished Service Medal , 982 Silver Star Medals , 33 Legion of Merit Medals , 50 Soldier 's Medals , 3 @,@ 853 Bronze Star Medals , and 178 Air Medals . The division received four campaign streamers and a Philippine Presidential Unit Citation during the war . The three Medals of Honor were awarded to Leonard C. Brostrom , John F. Thorson , and Joe P. Martinez .
= = = = Occupation of Japan = = = =
A few days after V @-@ J Day , the division moved to Korea to accept the surrender of the Japanese Army in South Korea . After the war , the division served as an occupation force in Korea and Japan . Seven thousand , five hundred members of the unit returned to the United States , and the 184th Infantry Regiment was reassigned to the California Army National Guard , cutting the division to half its combat strength . To replace it , the 31st Infantry Regiment was assigned to the division . The 7th Infantry Division remained on occupation duty in Korea patrolling the 38th parallel until 1948 , when it was reassigned to occupation duty in Japan , in charge of northern Honshū and all of Hokkaido . During this time , the US Army underwent a drastic reduction in size . At the end of World War II , it contained 89 divisions , but by 1950 , the 7th Infantry Division was one of only 10 active divisions in the force . It was one of four understrength divisions on occupation duty in Japan alongside the 1st Cavalry Division , 24th Infantry Division , and 25th Infantry Division , all under control of the Eighth United States Army .
= = = Korean War = = =
At the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 , the 7th Infantry Division commander , Major General David G. Barr , assembled the division at Camp Fuji near Mount Fuji . The division was already depleted due to post @-@ war shortages of men and equipment and further depleted as it sent large numbers of reinforcements to strengthen the 25th Infantry Division and 1st Cavalry Division , which were sent into combat in South Korea in July . The division was reduced to 9 @,@ 000 men , half of its wartime strength . To replenish the ranks of the understrength division , the Republic of Korea assigned over 8 @,@ 600 poorly trained Korean soldiers to the division . With the addition of priority reinforcements from the US , the division was eventually increased to 25 @,@ 000 when it entered combat . Also fighting with the 7th Infantry Division for much of the war were members of the three successive Kagnew Battalions sent by Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia as part of the UN forces .
The division paired with the 1st Marine Division under X Corps to participate in the Inchon Landing , code named Operation Chromite . The two divisions would be supported by the 3rd Infantry Division in reserve . Supported by 230 ships of the US Navy , X Corps began landing at Inchon on 15 September 1950 , catching the North Korean Army by surprise . The 7th Infantry Division began landing on 18 September , after the 1st Marine Division , securing its right flank . X Corps quickly advanced to Seoul , and the 1st Marine Division attacked the 20 @,@ 000 defenders of the city from the north and southwest , while the 7th Infantry Division 's 32nd Infantry Regiment attacked from the southeast . The 31st Infantry followed behind . Seoul fell to the Americans after suffering moderate casualties , particularly for the Marines . The division then began advancing south to cut off North Korean supply routes . The 32nd Infantry crossed the Han River on 25 September to create a bridgehead , and the next day , the division advanced to 30 miles south of Seoul and linked up with the 1st Cavalry Division at Osan . Radio miscommunication and attack from nearby North Korean forces caused a miscommunication , the soldiers of the 1st Cavalry and 7th Infantry briefly engaged in a small @-@ arms firefight with one another , unable to communicate . Seoul was liberated one day later with the help of air assets from the 1st Cavalry Division . The combined forces of the Eighth Army cut off and captured retreating North Korean troops from Pusan . X Corps was kept separate from the rest of the Eighth Army to avoid placing a burden on the logistical system . It withdrew back through the ports of Inchon and Pusan , as part of a plan to conduct another amphibious assault in North Korea . The entire battle for Inchon and Seoul cost the division 106 killed , 411 wounded and 57 missing American soldiers , and 43 killed , 102 wounded South Korean soldiers .
By mid @-@ October , the North Korean army had been almost completely destroyed , and US President Harry S. Truman ordered General MacArthur to advance all units into Korea as quickly as possible to end the war . The 7th Infantry Division , still part of X Corps , participated in a second amphibious assault on the east coast of North Korea , landing at Wonsan on 26 October , and Iwon on 29 October . The landing was delayed due to the presence of mines , and by the time X Corps arrived , South Korean forces were already occupying the ports . The division advanced to Hyesanjin , on the China – North Korea border by the Yalu River , one of the northernmost advances for UN soldiers of the war . Much of X Corps followed behind . On 21 November , the 17th Infantry reached the bank of the Yalu river . The advance went quickly for the 7th Infantry Division and South Korean troops while the Marines were not able to advance as quickly . The division halted its advance until 24 November while other units of the Eighth Army 's IX Corps and South Korean II Corps caught up and supply lines were established . During this time , the 7th Division 's regiments were spread out on the front line . The 31st Infantry Regiment remained at the Chosin Reservoir with the 1st Marine Division while the 32nd and 17th Infantry Regiments were much further to the northeast , closer to the South Korean I Corps . It was during this time that the division was served by a new type of unit , the 1st Mobile Army Surgical Hospital ( M.A.S.H. ) .
= = = = Chinese intervention = = = =
On 25 November , Chinese forces entered the war against the United Nations , advancing across the Yalu border and attacking the Eighth Army 's IX Corps and South Korean II Corps in the west and X Corps in the east . X Corps found itself under attack from the 20th , 26th and 27th Chinese field armies , commanding a total of 12 divisions . During the furious action that followed , the 7th Infantry Division 's spread out regiments were unable to resist the overwhelming Chinese forces . Three of the Division 's infantry battalions were attacked from all sides the next day . 1st Battalion , 32nd Infantry ( nicknamed Task Force Faith ) was trapped with two other battalions by the 80th and 81st Chinese infantry divisions from the 27th Field Army . In the subsequent Battle of Chosin Reservoir , the three battalions were destroyed by overwhelming Chinese forces suffering over 2 @,@ 000 casualties . The 31st Infantry suffered heavy casualties trying to fight back the Chinese forces further north , but the 17th Infantry was spared of heavy attack , retreating along the Korean coastline , out of range of the offensive . By the time X Corps ordered a retreat , most of the 7th Infantry Division , save the 17th Infantry Regiment , had suffered 40 percent casualties . The scattered elements of the division saw repeated attacks as they attempted to withdrawal to the port of Hungnam in December 1950 . These attacks cost the division another 100 killed before it was fully evacuated . The division suffered 2 @,@ 657 killed and 354 wounded during the retreat . Most of the dead were members of Task Force Faith .
The division returned to the front lines in early 1951 , spearheaded by the 17th Infantry , which had suffered the fewest casualties from the Chinese offensive . Division elements advanced through Tangyang in South Korea , and blocking enemy offensives from the northwest . The division reached full strength and saw action around Cheehon , Chungju , and Pyeongchang as part of an effort to push the North Korean and Chinese forces back above the 38th parallel and away from Seoul . The 7th Infantry Division engaged in a series of successful " limited objective " attacks in the early weeks of February , a series of small unit attacks and ambushes between the two sides . It would continue slowly advancing and clearing enemy hilltop positions through April . By April the entire Eighth Army was advancing north as one line stretching across the peninsula , reaching the 38th parallel by May . The division , assigned to IX Corps , then assaulted and fought a fierce three @-@ day battle culminating with the recapture of the terrain that had been lost near the Hwachon Reservoir just over the 38th parallel in North Korea . In capturing the town bordering on the reservoir it cut off thousands of enemy troops . The division fought on the front lines until June 1951 when it was assigned to the reserve for a brief rest and refitting .
= = = = Stalemate = = = =
When the division returned to the lines in October , after another assignment in reserve , it moved to the Heartbreak Ridge sector recently vacated by the 2nd Infantry Division , where it was supported by the 3rd Infantry Division and 1st Cavalry Division . During this new deployment the division fought in the Battle for Heartbreak Ridge , to take an area of staging grounds for the Korean and Chinese armies . It remained static in the region until 23 February 1952 when it was sent into reserve and relieved by the 25th Infantry Division . The next year saw the 7th Division engaged in an extended campaign for nearby land , the Battle of Old Baldy . The 7th Division continued to defend " Line Missouri " through September 1952 , though it became known as the " Static Line " as UN forces made few meaningful gains in the time .
The 7th Infantry Division 's Operation Showdown launched in the early morning hours of 14 October 1952 , with the 31st Infantry and 32nd Infantry at the head of the attack . The target of the assault was the Triangle Hill complex northeast of Kumhwa . The 7th Infantry Division remained in the Triangle Hill area until the end of October , when it was relieved by the 25th Infantry Division . The 7th Infantry Division was highly praised by commanders for its tenacity through the fight .
The division continued patrol activity around Old Baldy Hill and Pork Chop Hill into 1953 , digging tunnels and building a network of outposts and bunkers on and around the hill . In April , the North Korean Army began stepping up offensive operations against UN forces . During the Battle of Porkchop Hill , the Chinese 67th and 141st divisions overran Pork Chop Hill using massed infantry and artillery fire . The hill had been under the control of the 31st Infantry . The 31st counterattacked with reinforcements from the 17th Infantry and recaptured the area the next day . On 6 July the North Koreans and Chinese launched a determined attack against Pork Chop resulting in five days of fierce fighting with few meaningful results . By the end of July , five infantry battalions from the 31st and 17th were defending the hill , while a Chinese division was in position to attack it . During this standoff , the UN ordered the 7th Infantry Division to retreat from the hill in preparation for an armistice , which would end major hostilities .
During the Korean War , the division saw a total of 850 days of combat , suffering 15 @,@ 126 casualties , including 3 @,@ 905 killed in action and 10 @,@ 858 wounded . For the next few years , the division remained on defensive duty along the 38th parallel , under the command of the Eighth Army . Thirteen members of the division received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the Korean War : Charles H. Barker , Raymond Harvey , Einar H. Ingman , Jr . , William F. Lyell , Joseph C. Rodriguez , Richard Thomas Shea , Daniel D. Schoonover , Jack G. Hanson , Ralph E. Pomeroy , Edward R. Schowalter , Jr . , Benjamin F. Wilson , Don C. Faith , Jr . , and Anthony T. Kahoʻohanohano .
= = = Cold War = = =
From 1953 to 1971 , the 7th Infantry Division defended the Korean Demilitarized Zone . Its main garrison was Camp Casey , South Korea . During these occupation duties , the division saw a complete reorganization in compliance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan . The division 's former headquarters company grew into the 1st Brigade , 7th Infantry Division while the 13th Infantry Brigade was reactivated as the 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . The 14th Infantry Brigade was reactivated as the 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . In 1965 the division received its distinctive unit insignia , which alluded to its history during the Korean War . On 2 April 1971 , the division returned to the United States and was inactivated at Fort Lewis , Washington .
In October 1974 the 7th reactivated at its former garrison , Fort Ord. The unit did not see any action in Vietnam or during the post @-@ war era , but was tasked to keep a close watch on South American developments . It trained at Fort Ord , Camp Roberts , Fort Hunter Liggett and Fort Irwin . On 1 October 1985 the division was redesignated as the 7th Infantry Division ( Light ) , organized again as a light infantry division . It was the first US division specially designed as such . The various battalions of the 31st , and 32nd regiments moved from the division , replaced by battalions from other regiments , including battalions from the 21st Infantry Regiment , the 27th Infantry Regiment , and the 9th Infantry Regiment . The 27th and 9th infantry regiments participated in Operation Golden Pheasant in Honduras .
In 1989 the 7th Infantry Division participated in Operation Just Cause in Panama , briefly occupying the country in conjunction with the 82nd Airborne Division . Elements of the 7th Infantry Division landed in the northern areas of Colón Province , Panama , securing the Coco Solo Naval Station , Fort Espinar , France Field , and Colón while the 82nd Airborne and U.S. Marines fought in the more heavily populated southern region . Once Panama City was under U.S. control , the 82nd quickly re @-@ deployed and left the city under the control of the 7th Division 's 9th Infantry Regiment until after the capture of Manuel Noriega . It suffered four killed and three wounded in the operation .
In 1991 the Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended the closing of Fort Ord due to the escalating cost of living on the central California coastline . By 1994 , Fort Ord closed and the 7th Infantry Division subsequently relocated to Fort Lewis , Washington . Elements of the division including the 2nd Brigade participated in one final mission in the United States before inactivation ; quelling the 1992 Los Angeles Riots , called Operation Garden Plot . The division 's soldiers patrolled the streets of Los Angeles to act as crowd control and supported the Los Angeles Police Department and California National Guard in preventing the riots from escalating in violence . It was part of a force of 13 @,@ 000 troops called into the city .
In 1993 the division was slated to be inactivated as part of the post @-@ Cold War drawdown of the US Army . The 1st Brigade relocated to Fort Lewis and was later reflagged as the 2nd Brigade of the 2nd Infantry Division while the 2nd Brigade and the 3rd Brigade of the 7th was inactivated at Fort Ord. The division headquarters was formally inactivated on 16 June 1994 at Fort Lewis .
= = = Organization in 1988 . = = =
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 7th Infantry Division
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 1st Brigade
2nd Battalion , 9th Infantry Regiment
3rd Battalion , 9th Infantry Regiment
4th Battalion , 9th Infantry Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 2nd Brigade
4th Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment
3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 3rd Brigade
3rd Battalion , 17th Infantry Regiment
4th Battalion , 17th Infantry Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery , Division Artillery ( DIVARTY )
6th Battalion , 6th Field Artillery Regiment ( 18 x M119 105mm towed howitzer )
2nd Battalion , 8th Field Artillery Regiment
6th Battalion , 8th Field Artillery Regiment
5th Battalion , 15th Field Artillery Regiment ( 24 x M198 155mm towed howitzer ) ( I @-@ Corps Unit - attached to Division )
7th Battalion , 15th Field Artillery Regiment ( I @-@ Corps Unit - attached to Division )
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , Aviation Brigade
2nd Squadron , 9th Cavalry Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Company , Division Support Command ( DISCOM )
7th Medical Battalion
7th Supply & Transportation Battalion
707th Maintenance Battalion
2nd Battalion , 62nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment
13th Engineer Battalion
127th Signal Battalion
107th Military Intelligence Battalion
7th Military Police Company
= = = National Guard training command and Fort Carson = = =
At the end of the Cold War , the US Army considered new options for the integration and organization of active duty , Army Reserve and Army National Guard units in training and deployment . Two division headquarters activated in the active duty component for training National Guard units . The 7th Infantry Division and the 24th Infantry Division headquarters were selected . The subordinate brigades of the divisions did not activate so they could not be deployed as divisions , however their active duty status would allow the headquarters to focus on the national guard units under them full @-@ time .
The headquarters company of the 7th Infantry Division ( Light ) formally reactivated on 4 June 1999 , at Fort Carson , Colorado , as the first Active Component / Reserve Component division . The reserve formations that made up the 7th Infantry Division included the 39th Infantry Brigade Combat Team of the Arkansas National Guard , the 41st Infantry Brigade Combat Team of the Oregon National Guard and the 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team of the Oklahoma National Guard . Fort Carson became the new headquarters for the division .
The division headquarters also provided training assistance in preparation for small @-@ scale National Guard operations , Joint Readiness Training Center rotations , leadership training for National Guard commanders , and annual summer training for the three brigades . As a part of this commitment , the 7th Infantry Division headquarters would deploy a command element to serve as higher headquarters for large @-@ scale training and field exercises , evaluating and coordinating the units as they trained . It would also conduct quarterly status checks with the three brigades to discuss readiness and resource issues affecting those units , ensuring that they were at peak performance should they be needed .
To expand upon the concept of Reserve component and National Guard components , the First Army activated Division East and Division West , two commands responsible for training reserve units ' readiness and mobilization exercises . Division West , activated at Fort Carson . This transformation was part of an overall restructuring of the US Army to streamline the organizations overseeing training . The Division West took control of reserve units in 21 states west of the Mississippi River , eliminating the need for the 7th Infantry Division headquarters . As such it was subsequently inactivated for the last time on 22 August 2006 at Fort Carson .
= = = Inactivation = = =
Though it was inactivated , the division was identified as the highest priority inactive division in the United States Army Center of Military History 's scheme based on age , campaign participation credit , and unit decorations . All of the division 's flags and heraldic items were moved to the National Infantry Museum at Fort Benning , Georgia following its inactivation . Should the U.S. Army decide to activate more divisions in the future , the center will most likely suggest the first new division be the 7th Infantry Division , the second be the 9th Infantry Division , the third be the 24th Infantry Division , the fourth be the 5th Infantry Division , and the fifth be the 2d Armored Division .. This proved to be correct with the activation of the 7th Infantry Division Headquarters at FT Lewis Washington .
= = = Administrative headquarters reactivation = = =
On 26 April 2012 , Secretary of the Army John M. McHugh announced the 7th Infantry Division headquarters would be reactivated at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord in October 2012 . The headquarters element of about 250 would not activate any subordinate brigades . Instead , it filled an administrative role as a non @-@ deployable unit . In the announcement , McHugh noted the base is home to I Corps , which until then had directly overseen 10 subordinate brigades on the base , while other bases with similar corps headquarters had active division commands for intermediate oversight . The unit oversees the 2nd and 3rd Brigade Combat Teams of the 2nd Infantry Division , as well as the 17th Field Artillery Brigade , 201st Battlefield Surveillance Brigade , 16th Combat Aviation Brigade , and 555th Engineer Brigade , about 21 @,@ 000 personnel . The mission of the headquarters primarily focuses on making sure soldiers are properly trained and equipped , and that order and discipline is maintained in its subordinate brigades .
In the announcement , McHugh denied that the move was made in response to several high @-@ profile misconduct allegations leveled against soldiers from the base in the Afghanistan War such as the Maywand District murders and the Kandahar massacre . Major General Stephen R. Lanza , the Army 's chief of public affairs , was tapped to lead the division . It activated on the base on 10 October 2012 . Lanza became Commanding General of I Corps in 2014 .
= = Structure = =
7th Infantry Division based at Fort Lewis , Washington
1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team , 2nd Infantry Division based at Fort Lewis , Washington
Headquarters Company
1st Squadron , 14th Cavalry Regiment ( RSTA )
2nd Battalion , 3rd Infantry Regiment ( Stryker )
5th Battalion , 20th Infantry Regiment ( Stryker )
1st Battalion , 23rd Infantry Regiment ( Stryker )
1st Battalion , 37th Field Artillery Regiment
23rd Brigade Engineer Battalion
296th Brigade Support Battalion
2nd Stryker Brigade Combat Team , 2nd Infantry Division based at Fort Lewis , Washington
Headquarters Company
8th Squadron , 1st Cavalry Regiment ( RSTA )
2nd Battalion , 1st Infantry Regiment ( Stryker )
1st Battalion , 17th Infantry Regiment ( Stryker )
4th Battalion , 23rd Infantry Regiment ( Stryker )
2nd Battalion , 17th Field Artillery Regiment
14th Brigade Engineer Battalion
2nd Brigade Support Battalion
Division Artillery , 2nd Infantry Division based at Fort Lewis , Washington
Headquarters and Headquarters Company
16th Combat Aviation Brigade
Headquarters and Headquarters Company
4th Squadron , 6th Cavalry Regiment ( Attack @-@ Reconnaissance )
1st Battalion , 229th Aviation Regiment ( Attack )
2nd Battalion , 158th Aviation Regiment ( Assault )
1st Battalion , 52nd Aviation Regiment ( General Support ) - based in Alaska to support United States Army Alaska
46th Aviation Support Battalion
17th Field Artillery Brigade
Headquarters & Headquarters Battery
256th Signal Company
Battery F , 26th Field Artillery Regiment ( Target Acquisition )
5th Battalion , 3rd Field Artillery Regiment ( HIMARS )
1st Battalion , 94th Field Artillery Regiment ( HIMARS )
5th Battalion , 5th Air Defense Artillery Regiment ( Counter Rocket Artillery and Mortar ) - attached battalion of the 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade
308th Brigade Support Battalion ( Brigade )
555th Engineer Brigade
Headquarters & Headquarters Company
864th Engineer Battalion
3rd Ordnance Battalion ( EOD ) , operational control : 71st Ordnance Group ( EOD )
110th Chemical Battalion , operational control : 48th Chemical Brigade
201st Military Intelligence Brigade
Headquarters and Headquarters Company
109th Military Intelligence Battalion
502nd Military Intelligence Battalion
63rd Network Support Company
602nd Forward Support Company
Associate Unit
81st Armored Brigade Combat Team
= = Honors = =
The 7th Infantry Division was awarded one campaign streamer in World War I , four campaign streamers and two unit decorations in World War II , and ten campaign streamers and two unit decorations in the Korean War , for a total of fifteen campaign streamers and four unit decorations in its operational history .
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= The Wolf and the Lion =
" The Wolf and the Lion " is the fifth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones , first aired on May 15 , 2011 . It was written by the show creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , and directed by Brian Kirk .
The events of the episode primarily deal with Lord Eddard Stark 's investigations into the death of the previous Hand . In the city of King 's Landing , the Tourney of the Hand comes to an end while the various factions that plot for power are revealed to the viewer . This delicate balance is undone when news arrives that Tyrion Lannister has been arrested by Catelyn Stark . The title of the episode refers to the fact that the Starks , whose sigil is a wolf , may soon be at war with the Lannisters , whose sigil is the lion .
With this episode the season hits its halfway mark and the action picks up considerably . Despite being a topic of discussion at King 's Landing , Daenerys and Jorah Mormont do not themselves appear in this episode . Jon Snow and all characters on the Wall are also absent , and Robb Stark does not appear in Winterfell scenes . Accordingly , Emilia Clarke , Iain Glen , Harry Lloyd , Richard Madden and Kit Harington all have their names omitted from the opening titles . The Eyrie appears as a new location between King 's Landing and Winterfell on the opening 's map .
First airing viewership increased by approximately 80 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous week 's episode , continuing the series ' upward trend . The episode was also particularly well @-@ received critically , with multiple critics praising the omission of the Wall and Dothraki plotlines giving this episode a relatively more focused feel .
= = Plot = =
= = = In the Vale = = =
Lady Catelyn Stark ( Michelle Fairley ) leads her entourage east through the Mountains of the Moon to get to the Vale , with Tyrion Lannister ( Peter Dinklage ) as her prisoner . However , they are soon attacked by barbarian tribesmen . During the fight , Tyrion saves Catelyn 's life , attacking and killing a barbarian with a shield . The party arrives at the Eyrie , ruled by Lord Jon Arryn 's widow , Lysa ( Kate Dickie ) , who is also Catelyn 's sister . However , when the two meet for the first time in five years , it becomes apparent that Lysa is mentally unstable and fears the Lannisters ' power . Catelyn also meets her nephew , Robin Arryn ( Lino Facioli ) , the heir to the Eyrie - an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy whom Lysa still breast @-@ feeds . Tyrion is consigned to the Eyrie 's version of a dungeon , the " sky cells , " prison cells with an open wall and slanted floors that slope down to a precipice . Meanwhile Lysa prepares to pass judgment on Tyrion as an accomplice in her husband 's murder .
= = = In the North = = =
At Winterfell , Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) grows jealous of Tyrion after his favorite prostitute Ros ( Esmé Bianco ) taunts him with the judgment that Tyrion is a better lover and from a richer family . Meanwhile , Bran ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) is depressed over his paralysis and the fact that his mother left him while he was in a coma . To cheer him up , Maester Luwin ( Donald Sumpter ) decides to teach Bran the Dothraki art of horseback archery .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
After Eddard Stark ( Sean Bean ) convinces King Robert ( Mark Addy ) not to join the tourney , the crowd watches a jousting match between the fearsome Ser Gregor " The Mountain " Clegane , brother of the Hound , and Ser Loras Tyrell , the " Knight of Flowers " . The Mountain is a formidable opponent , but Loras cleverly defeats him in the joust by riding a mare in heat , distracting Clegane 's stallion . Furious , Clegane beheads his horse and attempts to kill Loras . Sandor " The Hound " Clegane comes to Tyrell 's rescue and defends him against his brother until Robert orders them to stop . Grateful for being rescued , Loras calls Sandor a hero when he is cheered by the crowd .
Later , Varys ( Conleth Hill ) reveals to Ned that Jon Arryn was killed for asking questions , succumbing to a poison called the " Tears of Lys " . He also suggests that Lord Arryn 's former squire , the recently slain Ser Hugh of the Vale , was the poisoner .
Meanwhile , Arya ( Maisie Williams ) , as part of her training , chases a cat through the Red Keep and stumbles upon a secret conversation between two men ( Varys and Illyrio ) , who appear to be plotting against the throne . Arya tries to warn her father , but is unable to identify the two plotters and fumbles her words . They are interrupted by the arrival of Yoren ( Francis Magee ) , who informs Ned of his wife 's arrest of Tyrion .
The news of Daenerys 's pregnancy reaches the Small Council , delivered by one of Varys 's spies . Fearing a possible invasion by the Targaryen / Dothraki alliance , Robert orders that she and her unborn child , along with Viserys , be assassinated . Ned refuses to obey such a dishonorable order since Robert 's hatred for Targaryens is clouding his judgment and ordering such an assassination will make him no better than the Mad King . When Robert 's mind is clearly made , Ned resigns the office of Hand of the King , much to Robert 's anger . As Robert drinks in sorrow over his fight with Ned , Cersei ( Lena Headey ) visits Robert and he explains why he takes the Dothraki threat seriously . Meanwhile , Robert 's youngest brother Renly ( Gethin Anthony ) is with his lover , Ser Loras . Loras convinces Renly that he should be king because Loras believes that Renly would be a better ruler than either his brothers or nephews .
Before he can leave the capital , Littlefinger offers to take Ned to the last person Jon Arryn spoke to before his death . It turns out to be a prostitute , Mhaegan ( Antonia Christophers ) , the mother of a baby daughter , who is another of Robert 's illegitimate children . Littlefinger reveals Jon Arryn had been searching for Robert 's bastards for an unknown reason . When Ned and his guards try to leave , they are ambushed by Jaime Lannister ( Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau ) and his men , who want answers for Tyrion 's arrest . Ned claims responsibility for Tyrion 's arrest , which leads to a brutal fight between his and Jaime 's men . In the end , Ned 's guards are killed , including his captain Jory Cassel ( Jamie Sives ) , whom Jaime stabs through the eye with a dagger . Ned duels with Jaime but is speared through the leg by one of Jaime 's guards before Stark and Lannister can finish the fight on their own . Jaime knocks out the guard who interrupted the fight and decides to let Ned live but warns that he wants his brother back . Jaime storms away , leaving Ned bleeding in the dirt , who quickly faints .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Wolf and the Lion " was
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Payne 2 , calling it an " outstanding " game that " keeps alive the sense of atmosphere and engaging gunplay @-@ oriented action that was so exciting in the first release . " He lauded the game for better production values compared to the first game , including its more polished story , more professional scripts , and better acting and graphics . The complexity of Max 's character was a welcomed element by Polak , who found that games often created heroes that were simplistic . The Sydney Morning Herald 's Dan Toose described the game 's experience as " brutal , yet beautiful gun @-@ blazing gaming " .
Jon Minifie of The New Zealand Herald appreciated the game 's story , calling it an " entertainingly dark third @-@ person shooter with a well @-@ crafted , noir storyline " . In particular , Minifie praised Remedy for what he deemed a successful port of the game to consoles , especially for the Xbox , noticing that the version features visuals that look similar to those on the PC . However , he found that the PlayStation 2 port was only " an okay job " that resulted in quality that was " considerably less easy on the eye " , and asserted that it is outperformed by more powerful platforms . The Sunday Times 's Steven Poole observed that Max Payne 2 does " exactly the same [ things as the first game ] , only better . " He found that enemies react convincingly to damage taken from bullets , thanks to the physics engine . Ultimately , however , Poole described the game as " entertaining but not earth @-@ shattering " .
The Toronto Sun 's Steve Tilley , who believed that Remedy did a " killer job " on Max Payne 2 , felt that the company kept what was great about the previous game , " while everything else has been tweaked , overhauled and juiced up " . He was a fan of the Bullet Time from the first game , and therefore appreciated seeing it return in the sequel , with " even more impressive " visuals . Tilley found that the game 's " lifelike physics engine " was easily its best aspect , and noted that while playing the game , he threw a grenade across a room , which resulted in an explosion that sent enemies flying through the air in a realistic fashion . In addition , Tilley applauded Remedy for listening to fan complaints and resolving issues from the previous game , including improved dream sequences in Max Payne 2 . He was , however , disappointed with the general linearity of the game , and noted that players who are not interested in film noir themes will not enjoy them in Max Payne 2 . Concluding , Tilley commented that the game " has enough polish , cinematic flair and outright mayhem to thrill those who like their Sopranos with a dash of John Woo and a touch of Frank Miller . "
The game 's action was praised by several reviewers . GameZone called it cinematic and action @-@ packed , noting that the final scene was worthy of the big screen . Similarly , GameSpy described the action as " adrenaline @-@ pumping " , and considered it comparable to what was available in film . The story was both applauded and criticized . Tom McNamara of IGN enjoyed playing in the film noir setting and believed that it adds dramatic depth to Max and Mona 's story , " somehow [ making ] what 's going on more important and interesting . Wreaking havoc is nice , but it 's great to also have a love interest complicating things , and Mona Sax is definitely up to the task . " However , he was turned off by some of the " hammy " dialogue . In contrast , 1UP.com cited the final boss as an ending that inadequately completed an otherwise excellent game , and the Sunday Times ' Poole called the story " pungently cheesy " . Max Payne 2 's length disappointed critics , including GameSpot and IGN , which complained about the short story . Toose of the Sydney Morning Herald was also critical of the short single @-@ player experience , but found that the higher difficulty levels and special " survivor " modes helped improve the game 's replay value .
= Sophie Blanchard =
Sophie Blanchard ( 25 March 1778 – 6 July 1819 ) was a French aeronaut and the wife of ballooning pioneer Jean @-@ Pierre Blanchard . Blanchard was the first woman to work as a professional balloonist , and after her husband 's death she continued ballooning , making more than 60 ascents . Known throughout Europe for her ballooning exploits , Blanchard entertained Napoleon Bonaparte , who promoted her to the role of " Aeronaut of the Official Festivals " , replacing André @-@ Jacques Garnerin . On the restoration of the monarchy in 1814 she performed for Louis XVIII , who named her " Official Aeronaut of the Restoration " .
Ballooning was a risky business for the pioneers . Blanchard lost consciousness on a few occasions , endured freezing temperatures and almost drowned when her balloon crashed in a marsh . In 1819 , she became the first woman to be killed in an aviation accident when , during an exhibition in the Tivoli Gardens in Paris , she launched fireworks that ignited the gas in her balloon . Her craft crashed on the roof of a house and she fell to her death . She is commonly referred to as Madame Blanchard and is also known by many combinations of her maiden and married names , including Madeleine @-@ Sophie Blanchard , Marie Madeleine @-@ Sophie Blanchard , Marie Sophie Armant and Madeleine @-@ Sophie Armant Blanchard .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Sophie Blanchard was born Marie Madeleine @-@ Sophie Armant to Protestant parents at Trois @-@ Canons , near La Rochelle . Little is known of her life before her marriage to Jean @-@ Pierre Blanchard , the world 's first professional balloonist . The date of her marriage is unclear ; sources quote dates as early as 1794 or 1797 , but most state 1804 , the year of her first ascent . Blanchard had abandoned his first wife , Victoire Lebrun , and their four children to travel round Europe pursuing his ballooning career , and she later died in poverty . Variously described as Blanchard 's " small , ugly , nervous wife " , " small with sharp bird @-@ like features " and later as " small and beautiful " , Sophie was more at home in the sky than on the ground , where her nervous disposition meant she was easily startled . She was terrified of loud noises and of riding in carriages , but was fearless in the air . She and her husband were in an accident on a joint flight in 1807 ( her 11th ascent , possibly his 61st ) , in which they crashed and he sustained a head injury . The shock apparently left her mute for a while .
Sophie made her first ascent in a balloon with Blanchard in Marseilles on 27 December 1804 . The couple faced bankruptcy as a result of Blanchard 's poor business sense , and they believed a female balloonist was a novelty that might attract enough attention to solve their financial problems . She described the feeling as an " incomparable sensation " ( " sensation incomparable " ) . Sophie made a second ascent with Blanchard and for her third ascent on 18 August 1805 , she flew solo from the garden of the Cloister of the Jacobins in Toulouse .
She was not the first woman balloonist . On 20 May 1784 , the Marchioness and Countess of Montalembert , the Countess of Podenas and a Miss de Lagarde had taken a trip on a tethered balloon in Paris . Neither was she the first woman to ascend in an untethered balloon : in Blanchard 's time , Citoyenne Henri , who had made an ascent with André @-@ Jacques Garnerin in 1798 , was widely credited with that ballooning first , although the honour actually belonged to Elizabeth Thible . Thible , an opera singer , had made an ascent to entertain Gustav III of Sweden in Lyon on 4 June 1784 , fourteen years before Citoyenne Henri . Blanchard was , however , the first woman to pilot her own balloon and the first to adopt ballooning as a career .
In 1809 , her husband died from injuries sustained when he fell from his balloon in the Hague after suffering a heart attack . After his death , Sophie continued to make ascents , specialising in night flights , often staying aloft all night .
= = = Solo career = = =
Sophie conducted experiments with parachutes as her husband had , parachuting dogs from her balloon , and as part of her entertainments she launched fireworks and dropped baskets of pyrotechnics attached to small parachutes . Other aeronauts were making names for themselves by demonstrating parachute jumps from the baskets of balloons , in particular the family of André @-@ Jacques Garnerin , whose wife , daughter and niece all performed regularly . His niece , Élisa Garnerin , was Blanchard 's chief rival as a female aeronaut , and it was rare for a suitable event to lack a performance by one or the other . Blanchard may have given some demonstrations of parachuting herself , but her primary interest was in ballooning .
The couple had still been in debt at the time of Blanchard 's death , so to minimise her expenses Sophie was as frugal as possible in her choice of balloon . She used a hydrogen @-@ filled gas balloon ( or Charlière ) , as it allowed her to ascend in a basket little bigger than a chair , and there was no requirement for the volume of material necessary for a hot air balloon . A hydrogen balloon also freed her from having to tend a fire to keep the craft airborne . Because she was small and light , she was able to cut back on the amount of gas used to inflate the balloon . Sophie had used , or at least owned , a hot air balloon ; Colonel Francis Maceroni recorded in his memoirs that she sold it to him in 1811 for £ 40 .
She became a favourite of Napoleon , and he appointed her to replace André @-@ Jacques Garnerin in 1804 . Garnerin had disgraced himself by failing to control the balloon that he had sent up to mark Napoleon 's coronation in Paris ; the balloon eventually drifted as far as Rome , where it crashed into the Lago di Bracciano and became the subject of many jokes at Napoleon 's expense . The title given to her by Napoleon is unclear : he certainly made her " Aeronaut of the Official Festivals " ( " Aéronaute des Fêtes Officielles " ) with responsibility for organising ballooning displays at major events , but he may have also made her his Chief Air Minister of Ballooning , in which role she is reported to have drawn up plans for an aerial invasion of England .
She made ascents for Napoleon 's entertainment on 24 June 1810 from the Champ de Mars in Paris and at the celebration mounted by the Imperial Guard for his marriage to Marie @-@ Louise of Austria . On the birth of Napoleon 's son , Blanchard took a balloon flight over Paris from the Champs de Mars and threw out leaflets proclaiming the birth . She performed at the official celebration of his baptism at the Château de Saint @-@ Cloud on 23 June 1811 , with a firework display launched from the balloon , and again at the " Féte de l 'Emperor " in Milan on 15 August 1811 . She made an ascent in bad weather over the Campo Marte in Naples to accompany the review of the troops by Napoleon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Joachim Murat , the King of Naples , in 1811 . When Louis XVIII entered Paris on 4 May 1814 after being restored to the French throne , Blanchard ascended in her balloon from the Pont Neuf as part of the triumphal procession . Louis was so taken with her performance that he dubbed her " Official Aeronaut of the Restoration " .
Known throughout Europe , Blanchard drew large crowds for her ascents . In Frankfurt she was apparently the cause of the poor reception of Carl Maria von Weber 's opera Silvana on its opening night , 16 September 1810 : the people of the city flocked to see her demonstration while only a few attended the opera 's debut . She gave many displays in Italy . In 1811 she travelled from Rome to Naples , splitting the journey in half with a stop after 60 miles ( 97 km ) , and later ascended again from Rome to a height of 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 660 m ) where she claimed that she fell into a profound sleep for a while before landing at Tagliacozzo . In the same year she again lost consciousness after having to ascend to avoid being trapped in a hailstorm near Vincennes . She spent 14 ½ hours in the air as a result . Sophie crossed the Alps by balloon , and on a trip to Turin on 26 April 1812 the temperature dropped so low that she suffered a nose bleed and icicles formed on her hands and face . She almost died on 21 September 1817 when , on a flight from Nantes ( her 53rd ) , she mistook a marshy field for a safe landing spot . The canopy of her balloon became caught in a tree which caused the chair to tip over ; Blanchard , entangled in the rigging , was forced into the water of the marsh and would have drowned had not help arrived soon after her landing . Sympathising with Marie Thérèse de Lamourous who was attempting to run a shelter for " fallen women " ( La Miséricorde ) in Bordeaux , she offered to donate the proceeds from one of her ascents to the venture . De Lamourous refused the offer on the grounds that she could not be the cause of another risking their life .
= = = Death = = =
On 6 July 1819 , while making an ascent to start a display over the Tivoli Gardens in Paris , her hydrogen @-@ filled balloon caught fire and Blanchard , entangled in the surrounding net , fell to her death . She was reported to be unusually nervous before starting this ascent .
Blanchard had performed regularly at the Tivoli Gardens , making ascents twice a week when she was in Paris . She had been warned repeatedly of the danger of using fireworks in her exhibitions . This display was to be a particularly impressive one with many more pyrotechnics than usual , and it appears that the warnings had made an impression on her . Some spectators implored her not to make the ascent , but others , eager to see the show , urged her on . One report suggested that she finally made up her mind and stepped into her chair with the words " Allons , ce sera pour la dernière fois " ( " Let 's go , this will be for the last time " ) .
At about 10 : 30 p.m. ( accounts differ as to the exact time ) , Blanchard began her ascent , carrying a white flag and wearing a white dress and a white hat topped with ostrich plumes . The wind was blowing strongly , and it appears the balloon struggled to rise . By shedding ballast Blanchard managed to get some lift , but the balloon brushed through the trees as it ascended . Once she had cleared the treetops Blanchard began the display by waving her flag . The balloon was illuminated by baskets containing " Bengal fire " , a slow @-@ burning , coloured pyrotechnic .
A few moments after beginning the display , and while still ascending , the balloon was seen to be in flames . Some reports say that the balloon momentarily disappeared behind a cloud and that when it reappeared it was on fire — whatever the circumstances , the gas in the balloon was burning . Blanchard began to descend rapidly , but the balloon , caught in the wind , continued to move off from the pleasure gardens even as it went down . Some spectators thought these events were part of the show and applauded and shouted their approval . The balloon had not risen very high and , although the escaping gas was burning , the gas within the balloon maintained sufficient lift for a while to prevent the craft plummeting directly to the ground . By rapidly shedding ballast Blanchard was able to slow the descent . Most reports say she appeared to be calm during the descent , but she was said to be wringing her hands in despair as the craft approached the ground . Rumours later circulated that she had gripped the chair of her craft so tightly that " several arteries had snapt through the effort . "
Just above the rooftops of the Rue de Provence the balloon 's gas was exhausted , and the craft struck the roof of a house . It was thought likely that she would have survived had that been the end of the incident , but the ropes holding the chair to the body of the balloon may have burnt through , or the impact may have thrown her forwards , with the result that Blanchard , trapped in the netting of the balloon , pitched over the side of the roof into the street below . John Poole , an eyewitness , described her final moments :
There was a terrible pause , then Mme Blanchard caught up in the netting of her balloon , fell with a crash upon the slanting roof of a house in the Rue de Provence , and then into the street , where she was taken up a shattered corpse .
Some reports credit her with crying out " À moi ! " ( " help " , or literally , " to me " ) , as she struck the roof . Although the crowds rushed to her assistance and attempts were made to save her , she had either died instantly , from a broken neck , or at most ten minutes later .
The most likely cause of the accident seemed to be that the fireworks attached to her balloon had been knocked out of position by a tree as she ascended ; possibly the balloon was heavily loaded and failed to rise quickly enough . When she had lit the fuses the fireworks headed towards the balloon instead of away from it ; one of them burned a hole in the fabric , igniting the gas . One man reportedly spotted the problem and shouted to her not to light the fuses , but his cries were drowned out by the cheering of the crowd . Later reports suggested she had left the gas valve open , allowing sparks to ignite the gas and set fire to the balloon , or that her balloon was of poor construction and allowed gas to escape throughout the ascent .
= = = Legacy = = =
Norwich Duff , who had witnessed Blanchard 's ascent and the accident , recorded :
The effect of so shocking an accident on the minds of several thousand people assembled for amusement , and in high spirits , may easily be imagined ...
On hearing she had died , the proprietors of the Tivoli Gardens immediately announced that the admission fees would be donated for the support of her children , and some spectators stood at the gates appealing to the citizens of Paris for donations . The appeal raised 2 @,@ 400 francs , but after the collection it was discovered that she had no surviving children , so the money was used instead to erect a memorial , topped with a representation of her balloon in flames , above her grave in Père Lachaise Cemetery . Her tombstone was engraved with the epitaph " victime de son art et de son intrépidité " ( " victim of her art and intrepidity " ) . The remainder of the money , about 1 @,@ 000 francs , was donated to the Lutheran Église des Billettes which Blanchard had attended . Though not rich , at the time of her death she had cleared the debts left to her by her husband and was financially secure . Each of her ascents had cost her around 1 @,@ 000 francs , not including the cost of maintenance of the balloon . In her will she left property worth between 1 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 francs to the daughter of some acquaintances . In total , she had made 67 balloon ascents .
The story of her death was recounted throughout Europe . Jules Verne mentioned her in Five Weeks in a Balloon and , in The Gambler , Fyodor Dostoevsky likened the thrill of committing oneself in gambling to the sensation that Blanchard must have felt as she fell . For others , her death proved a cautionary tale , either as an example of a woman exceeding her station ( as with Grenville Mellen , who said that it proved " a woman in a balloon is either out of her element or too high in it " ) or as the price of vanity for attempting such spectacular shows . Charles Dickens commented " The jug goes often to the well , but is pretty sure to get cracked at last " . With the advent of powered flight , ballooning and Blanchard 's story were relegated to the margins of aviation history . A novel inspired by Blanchard 's story , Linda Donn 's The Little Balloonist , was published in 2006 .
= Pilot ( Smash ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the television series Smash , which premiered on NBC in the United States on February 6 , 2012 . The episode was written by series creator Theresa Rebeck and was directed by Michael Mayer . The show revolves around a group of characters who come together to put on a Broadway musical based on the life of Marilyn Monroe . The episode featured a mix of original songs and cover songs , the former being written by series composers Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman .
In the episode , world @-@ renowned songwriting duo Julia Houston ( Debra Messing ) and Tom Levitt ( Christian Borle ) are inspired to create a new Broadway musical on the life of Marilyn Monroe — instantly attracting the attention of tenacious producer Eileen Rand ( Anjelica Huston ) and brilliant yet temperamental director Derek Wills ( Jack Davenport ) . As the four search for their leading lady , veteran actress Ivy Lynn ( Megan Hilty ) becomes obsessed with winning them over and native Iowan waitress Karen Cartwright ( Katharine McPhee ) becomes desperate to make her theatrical dreams a reality .
The series received a large amount of promotion before its premiere and several ads were put into the commercial breaks for Super Bowl XLVI which aired on NBC . The episode was also released online before its original American broadcast . The episode was viewed by an estimated 11 @.@ 44 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 10 share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , making it the highest @-@ rated NBC drama series premiere in four years and the third highest new drama debut of the 2011 – 12 television season . Despite this , viewership between the first and second half @-@ hour dropped , significantly . The episode received positive reviews from critics and was named among the best pilots of the aforesaid television season .
= = Plot = =
Noted songwriting duo Julia Houston ( Debra Messing ) and Tom Levitt ( Christian Borle ) get inspiration for a new Broadway show after Tom 's personal assistant Ellis Tancharoen ( Jaime Cepero ) reveals his love for Marilyn Monroe . The two decide to cut a demo with Broadway veteran Ivy Lynn ( Megan Hilty ) which Ellis videotapes . He sends the tape to his mother who uploads it online . Julia and Tom grow angry towards this , fearing that theater critic Michael Riedel will write a harsh review of the song . They decide to fire Ellis , until they learn Riedel loved the song and approved of the idea of a Marilyn Monroe musical . They rehire Ellis and they quickly receive interest from producer Eileen Rand ( Anjelica Huston ) , who brings on director Derek Wills ( Jack Davenport ) , who had a strained relationship with Tom . Derek demands to audition for the main role while Tom wants Ivy to play Marilyn . Meanwhile , a waitress named Karen Cartwright ( Katharine McPhee ) , who came from a small town in Iowa to make her theatrical dreams a reality hears the original demo song and decides to audition . Karen makes a good impression on the producers , leading to both Karen and Ivy getting a callback . Later on , Derek calls Karen to have a meeting at his loft late at night .
At Derek 's loft , he tells Karen he needs to see " everything you 've got , " a come @-@ on that momentarily panics Karen . Derek accuses her of playing the innocent and pretending not to know why she was invited to the director 's loft in the middle of the night . She retreats to the bathroom and gathers her nerves . When she comes back , she is in nothing but his shirt and , singing " Happy Birthday , Mr. President " as Marilyn , she climbs into his lap , straddling him , then pulls away and says " not gonna happen " . The next day , Karen and Ivy go to their callback singing " Let Me Be Your Star " , which closes out the episode .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Development began in 2009 at Showtime by then @-@ Showtime entertainment president Robert Greenblatt and Steven Spielberg , from an idea by Spielberg , who had been working on the concept for years . The original concept was that each season would follow the production of a new musical , if any of them were " stage @-@ worthy " , Spielberg would make them into an actual Broadway musical . The series was mainly inspired by The West Wing and Upstairs , Downstairs . Spielberg hired Theresa Rebeck to create the series after watching her play , " The Understudy " and receiving a recommendation from executive producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron . Before the series could be produced , Greenblatt was named chairman of NBC Entertainment after Comcast took control of newly rechristened NBCUniversal . Greenblatt brought the series with him and NBC ordered production of a pilot in January 2011 for the 2011 – 12 television season . The pilot reportedly cost $ 7 @.@ 5 million to produce . The series was then picked up for the first season on May 11 , 2011 for 15 episodes .
The pilot episode was written by series creator Theresa Rebeck . She joined the series when it was initially going to be on Showtime . Due to the change in networks , 20 minutes worth of material was taken from the pilot and put into the following episodes , due to the timeslot . Also , the language and explicitness of the show was toned down . While initially coming up with characters , she decided to give some characters two jobs on the musical , for example Derek Wills is both the director and choreographer . This was done in order " to keep the creative team from sprawling " and in order to gain a larger audience . Despite this , she also said she wasn 't forced to make the series any more " mainstream " .
= = = Casting = = =
The first cast onto the series was Debra Messing , with her role initially being the lead character , according to Deadline.com. Smash marks the first regular television role for Anjelica Huston , who normally appears in films . She cited , in an interview with The Huffington Post , that the script , the cast and producers for the series were the reason she joined it , saying she 'd " be a fool not to participate " .
= = = Music = = =
The episode features both original and cover songs sung on @-@ screen by the characters . The original songs were written by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman . Executive producers Zadan and Meron immediately suggested the two composers to the series after signing onto the series . The pilot episode features three original songs ( " Never Give All the Heart " , " The National Pastime " , and " Let Me Be Your Star " ) , and a cover of Christina Aguilera 's " Beautiful " , the choice for the latter being used to extend the show 's brand to iTunes . Three singles were released from the episode : " Beautiful " sung by McPhee , " The National Pastime " sung by Hilty , and " Let Me Be Your Star " sung by McPhee and Hilty .
= = Release = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast feedback and marketing = = =
Before the series had premiered , some media critics stated that the series had potential to become a ratings hit and possibly raise NBC from being the fourth highest @-@ rated network out of five . Greenblatt has also stated that he has high hopes for the series . In order to make it more likely the series will be a success , NBC picked the series up for 15 episodes and opted to hold the show for mid @-@ season in order to pair it up with the hit reality show The Voice on Monday nights . Despite this , other media critics have said unless the series receives a rating above a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , it will be considered a failure , and only two other NBC series ranked above a 3 @.@ 0 rating at the time ; Fear Factor and The Office . The series has also been put on Monday nights against CBS , with Monday featuring Two and a Half Men , one of the highest @-@ rated shows of the season . Also , musical shows have a known record for failures , like Cop Rock .
NBC used several forms of advertising to promote the series , airing several promos on sister channels like E ! and Bravo . There were also several ads for the series during Super Bowl XLVI , which aired on NBC . Due to the already positive buzz surrounding the show , NBC offered early viewings of the pilot on different platforms . For example , from January 15 through January 30 , 2012 , it was screened on select flights of American Airlines . Also , from January 23 to February 6 , 2012 , it was also streamed online at NBC.com and hulu . The marketing price has been put as high as $ 22 million , although NBC Entertainment marking president Len Fogge has denied this , saying it cost less than $ 10 million .
= = = Ratings = = =
The pilot episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 6 , 2012 . The episode was seen by 11 @.@ 44 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 10 share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . It initially began with a 4 @.@ 2 rating , but dropped to a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the second half @-@ hour . Despite the drop in ratings , the episode ranked first in its timeslot , defeating the CBS police procedural drama , Hawaii Five @-@ 0 and the ABC comedy @-@ drama television series , Castle . The episode also ranked as the highest @-@ rated drama series premiere for NBC since Life . It was also the third @-@ highest @-@ rated new drama debut of the 2011 – 2012 television season , behind Once Upon a Time and Touch , and delivered the biggest 10 p.m. rating of any drama in this television season . The program also had the highest 18 @-@ 49 rating and viewership for an NBC series in the time @-@ slot since November 2008 . " Pilot " was the twelfth most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 and seventeenth among overall viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The pilot episode has received positive reviews from critics . Review aggregator Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 of reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 79 based on 32 reviews . In June 2011 , Smash was one of eight honorees in the " Most Exciting New Series " category at the Critics ' Choice Television Awards , voted by journalists who had seen the pilots . Matt Mitovich of TVLine called the cast " pretty damn perfect " and complimented the musical numbers . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times called the show a " triumph " and also went on to say that the creator Theresa Rebeck as well as her team , " have managed to capture the grand and sweeping gesture that is musical theater and inject it with the immediate intimacy of television . " In The Chicago Tribune she also compared the episode to Glee and A Chorus Line . Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post called it one of the strongest new shows of the season . Another Huffington Post writer Karen Ocamb praised the writing and the creativity of the series . She also complemented the New York City setting of the series saying " you feel as if you 're walking down noisy and beloved Times Square with the characters " . Tim Goodman from The Hollywood Reporter called the episode an " Excellent , a bar @-@ raiser for broadcast networks " and called it superior to Glee . He also praised writing and acting for the series , comparing it to the quality of a cable television series .
HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall complemented the series for its cast and music , but said that he didn 't understand the hype towards the series . He also criticized the battle for the main @-@ role of Marilyn for the musical , writing that " the show keeps trying to position Karen and Ivy as equally @-@ deserving of the part , when Hilty very thoroughly outclasses McPhee whenever the production numbers start " . Despite this , he called the pilot , " smart and slick " , and that he would keep on watching future episodes . He ultimately gave the episode a B. In a podcast with Sepinwall and fellow HitFix writer Dan Feinberg , the two were very negative towards Jaime Cepero 's performance as Ellis Tancharoen , with Sepinwall comparing it to a failed version of " All About Eve " . They also criticized the writing for Messing 's character , Julia Houston and Hilty 's character , Ivy Lynn . Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker praised Messing 's performance calling her " funny and charming " and a dialed down version of her Will and Grace character Grace Adler . He later went on to criticize the storyline between McPhee and Hilty , believing that Hilty was " obviously superior " to McPhee and that the storyline felt " strained " . He also went on to write that he hoped the series became a ratings success . Tanner Stransky , also of Entertainment Weekly , ranked the pilot episode as the 8th best television episode of 2012 saying , " After we watched the subsequent 14 episodes of Smash with a mixture of fascination and dismay ( seriously , did Debra Messing ’ s Julia wear a men ’ s pajama top to meet her lover ? ) , it was difficult to recall that the pilot was positively magical . But it was . In fact , that episode @-@ ending performance of ” Let Me Be Your Star ” ( featuring dueling divas Megan Hilty and Katharine McPhee ) was among TV ’ s most watchable and gleeful three minutes of the year . Rare is the series whose high @-@ water mark is its pilot , and Smash is a shining example . "
David Wiegand of The San Francisco Chronicle , gave the program a rave review and saying that , " [ It 's so ] good you can 't help wondering why no one thought of it before , a compelling mix of credible real @-@ life melodrama with a fictionalized approximation of what it takes to get a Broadway show from the idea stage to opening night . Robert Bianco of USA Today wrote that " Unless you 're allergic to musicals in general and Broadway in particular , you should find that a compelling central story , a strong cast , an out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ procedural @-@ mold premise and some rousing , roof @-@ raising numbers more than compensate for any lingering problems . " He ultimately gave it three and a half stars out of four . The A.V. Club reviewer Noel Murray praised the cast and Eileen 's divorce storyline . He mainly criticized the staging and arrangement of the musical numbers saying they threatened the realism of the show and wrote they weren 't completely " digetic " . He ultimately gave the episode a B. Another A.V. Club reviewer Todd VanDerWerff criticized the series for not avoiding clichés but also wrote " the show is so damned sincere about how much it embraces the clichés of the backstage Broadway story that those inclined to like this sort of thing — and I 'm very much one of them — will forgive it some of these excesses " . He also criticized the adoption storyline . Despite this , he went on to compare the series to Hill Street Blues , ER and The West Wing .
= = Accolades = =
Smash won a 2012 Primetime Emmy Award for Josh Bergasse for choreography . The choreography for " The National Pastime " song in this episode was one of the routines that were part of the show 's submission in the Choreography category .
= Katharine Hepburn =
Katharine Houghton Hepburn ( May 12 , 1907 – June 29 , 2003 ) was an American actress . Known for her fierce independence and spirited personality , Hepburn was a leading lady in Hollywood for more than 60 years . She appeared in a range of genres , from screwball comedy to literary drama , and she received four Academy Awards for Best Actress — a record for any performer . In 1999 , Hepburn was named by the American Film Institute as the greatest female star of Classic Hollywood Cinema .
Raised in Connecticut by wealthy , progressive parents , Hepburn began to act while studying at Bryn Mawr College . After four years in the theatre , favorable reviews of her work on Broadway brought her to the attention of Hollywood . Her early years in the film industry were marked with success , including an Academy Award for her third picture , Morning Glory ( 1933 ) , but this was followed by a series of commercial failures which led her to be labeled " box office poison " in 1938 . Hepburn masterminded her own comeback , buying out her contract with RKO Radio Pictures and acquiring the film rights to The Philadelphia Story , which she sold on the condition that she be the star . In the 1940s , she was contracted to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , where her career focused on an alliance with Spencer Tracy . The screen @-@ partnership spanned 25 years and produced nine movies .
Hepburn challenged herself in the latter half of her life , as she regularly appeared in Shakespearean stage productions and tackled a range of literary roles . She found a niche playing middle @-@ aged spinsters , such as in The African Queen ( 1951 ) , a persona the public embraced . Three more Oscars came for her work in Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner ( 1967 ) , The Lion in Winter ( 1968 ) , and On Golden Pond ( 1981 ) . In the 1970s , she began appearing in television films , which became the focus of her career in later life . She remained active into old age , making her final screen appearance in 1994 at the age of 87 . After a period of inactivity and ill health , Hepburn died in 2003 at the age of 96 .
Hepburn famously shunned the Hollywood publicity machine and refused to conform to society 's expectations of women . She was outspoken , assertive , athletic , and wore trousers before it was fashionable for women to do so . She married once , as a young woman , but thereafter lived independently . A 26 @-@ year affair with her co @-@ star Spencer Tracy was hidden from the public . With her unconventional lifestyle and the independent characters she brought to the screen , Hepburn epitomized the " modern woman " in the 20th @-@ century United States and is remembered as an important cultural figure .
= = Early life and education = =
Hepburn was born in Hartford , Connecticut , on May 12 , 1907 , the second of six children . Her parents were Thomas Norval Hepburn ( 1879 – 1962 ) , a urologist at Hartford Hospital , and Katharine Martha Houghton ( 1878 – 1951 ) , a feminist campaigner . Both parents fought for social change in the US : Thomas Hepburn helped establish the New England Social Hygiene Association , which educated the public about venereal disease , while the elder Katharine headed the Connecticut Woman Suffrage Association and later campaigned for birth control with Margaret Sanger . As a child , Hepburn joined her mother on several " Votes For Women " demonstrations . The Hepburn children were raised to exercise freedom of speech and encouraged to think and debate on any topic they wished . Her parents were criticized by the community for their progressive views , which stimulated Hepburn to fight against barriers she encountered . Hepburn said she realized from a young age that she was the product of " two very remarkable parents " , and credited her " enormously lucky " upbringing with providing the foundation for her success . She remained close to her family throughout her life .
The young Hepburn was a tomboy who liked to call herself Jimmy , and cut her hair short like a boy 's . Thomas Hepburn was eager for his children to use their minds and bodies to the limit , and taught them to swim , run , dive , ride , wrestle , and play golf and tennis . Golf became a passion of Katharine 's ; she took daily lessons and became very adept , reaching the semi @-@ final of the Connecticut Young Women 's Golf Championship . She loved swimming in Long Island Sound , and took ice @-@ cold baths every morning in the belief that " the bitterer the medicine , the better it was for you . " Hepburn was a fan of movies from a young age , and went to see one every Saturday night . She would put on plays and perform for her neighbors with friends and siblings for 50 cents a ticket to raise money for the Navajo people .
On April 3 , 1921 , while visiting friends in Greenwich Village , Hepburn discovered the body of her adored older brother , Tom , dead from an apparent suicide . He had tied a sheet around a beam and hanged himself . The Hepburn family denied it was suicide and maintained that Tom 's death must have been an experiment that had gone wrong . The incident made the teenage Hepburn nervous , moody , and suspicious of people . She shied away from other children , dropped out of Oxford School , and began receiving private tutoring . For many years she used Tom 's birthday ( November 8 ) as her own . It was not until her 1991 autobiography , Me : Stories of My Life , that Hepburn revealed her true birth date .
In 1924 Hepburn gained a place at Bryn Mawr College . She attended the institution primarily to satisfy her mother , who had studied there , and recalled disliking the experience . It was the first time she had been in school for several years , and she was self @-@ conscious and uncomfortable with her classmates . She struggled with the scholastic demands of university , and once was suspended for smoking in her room . Hepburn was drawn to acting , but roles in college plays were conditional on good grades . Once her marks had improved , she began performing regularly . She performed the lead role in a production of The Woman in the Moon in her senior year , and the positive response it received cemented Hepburn 's plans to pursue a theatrical career . She graduated with a degree in history and philosophy in June 1928 .
= = Career = =
= = = Breaking into theatre ( 1928 – 32 ) = = =
Hepburn left university determined to become an actress . The day after graduating , she traveled to Baltimore to meet Edwin H. Knopf , who ran a successful stock theatre company . Impressed by her eagerness , Knopf cast Hepburn in his current production , The Czarina . She received good reviews for her small role , and the Printed Word described her performance as " arresting " . She was given a part in the following week 's show , but her second performance was less well received . She was criticized for her shrill voice , and so left Baltimore to study with a voice tutor in New York City .
Knopf decided to produce The Big Pond in New York and appointed Hepburn the understudy to the leading lady . A week before opening , the lead was fired and replaced with Hepburn , which gave her a starring role only four weeks into her theatre career . On opening night , she turned up late , mixed her lines , tripped over her feet , and spoke too quickly to be comprehensible . She was immediately fired , and the original leading lady rehired . Undeterred , Hepburn joined forces with the producer Arthur Hopkins and accepted the role of a schoolgirl in These Days . Her Broadway debut came on November 12 , 1928 , at the Cort Theatre , but reviews for the show were poor and it closed after eight nights . Hopkins promptly hired Hepburn as the lead understudy in Philip Barry 's play Holiday . In early December , after only two weeks , she quit to marry Ludlow Ogden Smith , a college acquaintance . She planned to leave the theatre behind , but began to miss the work and quickly resumed the understudy role in Holiday , which she held for six months .
In 1929 , Hepburn turned down a role with the Theatre Guild to play the lead in Death Takes a Holiday . She felt the role was perfect , but again she was fired . She went back to the Guild and took an understudy role for minimum pay in A Month in the Country . In the spring of 1930 , Hepburn joined a theatre company in Stockbridge , Massachusetts . She left halfway through the summer season , and continued studying with a drama tutor . In early 1931 , she was cast in the Broadway production of Art and Mrs. Bottle . She was released from the role after the playwright took a dislike to her , saying " She looks a fright , her manner is objectionable , and she has no talent " , but then rehired when no other actress could be found . It went on to be a small success .
Hepburn appeared in a number of plays with a summer stock company in Ivoryton , Connecticut , and she proved to be a hit . During the summer of 1931 , Philip Barry asked her to appear in his new play , The Animal Kingdom , alongside Leslie Howard . They began rehearsals in November , Hepburn feeling sure the role would make her a star , but Howard disliked the actress and again she was fired . When she asked Barry why she had been let go , he responded , " Well , to be brutally frank , you weren 't very good . " This unsettled the self @-@ assured Hepburn , but she continued to look for work . She took a small role in an upcoming play , but as rehearsals began she was asked to read for the lead in the Greek fable The Warrior 's Husband .
The Warrior 's Husband proved to be Hepburn 's breakout performance . Biographer Charles Higham states that the role was ideal for the actress , requiring an aggressive energy and athleticism , and she enthusiastically involved herself with its production . The play opened March 11 , 1932 , at the Morosco Theatre on Broadway . Hepburn 's first entrance called for her to leap down a narrow stairway with a stag over her shoulder , wearing a short silver tunic . The show ran for three months , and Hepburn received positive reviews . Richard Garland of the New York World @-@ Telegram wrote , " It 's been many a night since so glowing a performance has brightened the Broadway scene . "
= = = Hollywood success ( 1932 – 34 ) = = =
A scout for the Hollywood agent Leland Hayward spotted Hepburn 's appearance in The Warrior 's Husband , and asked her to test for the part of Sydney Fairfield in the upcoming RKO film A Bill of Divorcement . Director George Cukor was impressed by what he saw : " There was this odd creature , " he recalled , " she was unlike anybody I 'd ever heard . " He particularly liked the manner in which she picked up a glass : " I thought she was very talented in that action . " Offered the role , Hepburn demanded $ 1 @,@ 500 a week , a large amount for an unknown actress . Cukor encouraged the studio to accept her demands and they signed Hepburn to a temporary contract with a three @-@ week guarantee . RKO head David O. Selznick recounted that he took a " tremendous chance " in casting the unusual actress .
Hepburn arrived in California in July 1932 , at 25 years old . She starred in A Bill of Divorcement opposite John Barrymore , but showed no sign of intimidation . Although she struggled to adapt to the nature of film acting , Hepburn was fascinated by the industry from the start . The picture was a success and Hepburn received positive reviews . Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times called her performance " exceptionally fine ... Miss Hepburn 's characterization is one of the finest seen on the screen " . The Variety review declared , " Standout here is the smash impression made by Katharine Hepburn in her first picture assignment . She has a vital something that sets her apart from the picture galaxy . " On the strength of A Bill of Divorcement , RKO signed the actress to a long @-@ term contract . George Cukor became a lifetime friend and colleague — he and Hepburn made ten films together .
Hepburn 's second film was Christopher Strong ( 1933 ) , the story of an aviatrix and her affair with a married man . The picture was not commercially successful , but Hepburn 's reviews were good . Regina Crewe wrote in the Journal American that although her mannerisms were grating , " they compel attention , and they fascinate an audience . She is a distinct , definite , positive personality . " Hepburn 's third picture confirmed her as a major actress in Hollywood . For playing aspiring actress Eva Lovelace — a role intended for Constance Bennett — in Morning Glory , she won an Academy Award for Best Actress . She had seen the script on the desk of producer Pandro S. Berman and , convinced that she was born to play the part , insisted that the role be hers . Hepburn chose not to attend the awards ceremony — as she would not for the duration of her career — but was thrilled with the win . Her success continued with the role of Jo in the film Little Women ( 1933 ) . The picture was a hit , one of the film industry 's biggest successes to date , and Hepburn won the Best Actress prize at the Venice Film Festival . Little Women was one of Hepburn 's personal favorites and she was proud of her performance , later saying , " I defy anyone to be as good [ as Jo ] as I was " .
By the end of 1933 Hepburn was a respected film actress , but she yearned to prove herself on Broadway . Jed Harris , one of the most successful theatre producers of the 1920s , was going through a career slump . He asked Hepburn to appear in the play The Lake , which she agreed to do for a low salary . Before she was given leave , RKO asked that she film Spitfire ( 1934 ) . Hepburn 's role in the movie was Trigger Hicks , an uneducated mountain girl . It is widely considered one of her worst films , and Hepburn received poor reviews for the effort . She kept a picture of Hicks in her bedroom throughout her life to " [ keep ] me humble . "
The Lake previewed in Washington , D.C. , where there was a large advance sale . Harris 's poor direction had eroded Hepburn 's confidence , and she struggled with the performance . Despite this , Harris moved the play to New York without further rehearsal . It opened at the Martin Beck Theatre on December 26 , 1933 , and Hepburn was roundly panned by the critics . Dorothy Parker quipped , " She runs the gamut of emotions all the way from A to B. " Already tied to a ten @-@ week contract , she had to endure the embarrassment of rapidly declining box office sales . Harris decided to take the show to Chicago , saying to Hepburn , " My dear , the only interest I have in you is the money I can make out of you . " Hepburn refused , and paid Harris $ 14 @,@ 000 to close the production instead . She later referred to Harris as " hands @-@ down the most diabolical person I have ever met " , and claimed this experience was important in teaching her to take responsibility for her career .
= = = Career setbacks ( 1934 – 38 ) = = =
After the failure of Spitfire and The Lake , RKO cast Hepburn in The Little Minister ( 1934 ) , based on a Victorian novel by James Barrie , in an attempt to repeat the success of Little Women . There was no such recurrence , and the picture was a commercial failure . The romantic drama Break of Hearts ( 1935 ) with Charles Boyer was poorly reviewed and also lost money . After three forgettable films , success returned to Hepburn with Alice Adams ( 1935 ) , the story of a girl 's desperation to climb the social ladder . Hepburn loved the book and was delighted to be offered the role . The film was a hit , one of Hepburn 's personal favorites , and gave the actress her second Oscar nomination . She received the second most votes , after winner Bette Davis .
Given the choice of her next feature , Hepburn decided to star in George Cukor 's new project , Sylvia Scarlett ( 1935 ) , which paired her for the first time with Cary Grant . Her hair was cut short for the part , as her character masquerades as a boy for much of the film . Critics disliked Sylvia Scarlett and it was unpopular with the public . She next played Mary Stuart in John Ford 's Mary of Scotland ( 1936 ) , which met with a similarly poor reception . A Woman Rebels ( 1936 ) followed , a Victorian era drama where Hepburn 's character defied convention by having a child out of wedlock . Quality Street ( 1937 ) also had a period setting , this time a comedy . Neither movie was popular with the public , which meant she had made four unsuccessful pictures in a row .
Alongside a series of unpopular films , problems arose from Hepburn 's attitude . She had a difficult relationship with the press , with whom she could be rude and provocative . When asked if she had any children , she snapped back , " Yes I have five : two white and three colored . " She would not give interviews and denied requests for autographs , which earned her the nickname " Katharine of Arrogance " . The public was also baffled by her boyish behavior and fashion choices , and she became a largely unpopular figure . Hepburn sensed that she needed to leave Hollywood , so she returned east to star in a theatrical adaptation of Jane Eyre . It had a successful tour , but , uncertain about the script and unwilling to risk failure after the disaster of The Lake , Hepburn decided against taking the show to Broadway . Towards the end of 1936 , Hepburn vied for the role of Scarlett O 'Hara in Gone with the Wind . Producer David O. Selznick refused to offer her the part because he felt she had no sex appeal . He reportedly told Hepburn , " I can 't see Rhett Butler chasing you for twelve years . "
Hepburn 's next feature , Stage Door ( 1937 ) , paired her with Ginger Rogers in a role which mirrored her own life — that of a wealthy society girl trying to make it as an actress . Hepburn was praised for her work at early previews , which gave her top billing over Rogers . The film was nominated for Best Picture at the Academy Awards , but it was not the box @-@ office hit RKO had hoped for . Industry pundits blamed Hepburn for the small profit , but the studio continued its commitment to resurrecting her popularity . She was cast in Howard Hawks ' screwball comedy Bringing Up Baby ( 1938 ) , where she played a flighty heiress who loses a leopard while trying to woo a palaeontologist ( Cary Grant ) . She approached the physical comedy of the film with confidence , and took tips on comedic timing from her costar Walter Catlett . Bringing Up Baby was acclaimed by critics , but it was nevertheless unsuccessful at the box office . With the genre and Grant both hugely popular at the time , biographer A. Scott Berg believes the blame lay with moviegoers ' rejection of Hepburn .
After the release of Bringing up Baby , the Independent Theatre Owners of America included Hepburn on a list of actors considered " box office poison " . Her reputation at a low , the next film RKO offered her was Mother Carey 's Chickens , a B movie with poor prospects . Hepburn turned it down , and instead opted to buy out her contract for $ 75 @,@ 000 . Many actors were afraid to leave the stability of the studio system at the time , but Hepburn 's personal wealth meant she could afford to be independent . She signed on for the film version of Holiday ( 1938 ) with Columbia Pictures , pairing her for the third time with Grant , to play a stifled society girl who finds joy with her sister 's fiancé . The comedy was positively reviewed , but it failed to draw much of an audience , and the next script offered to Hepburn came with a salary of $ 10 @,@ 000 — less than she had received at the start of her film career . Reflecting on this change in fortunes , Andrew Britton writes of Hepburn , " No other star has emerged with greater rapidity or with more ecstatic acclaim . No other star , either , has become so unpopular so quickly for so long a time . "
= = = Revival ( 1939 – 42 ) = = =
Following this decline in her career , Hepburn took action to create her own comeback vehicle . She left Hollywood to look for a stage project , and signed on to star in Philip Barry 's new play , The Philadelphia Story . It was tailored to showcase the actress , with the character of socialite Tracy Lord incorporating a mixture of humor , aggression , nervousness , and vulnerability . Howard Hughes , Hepburn 's partner at the time , sensed that the play could be her ticket back to Hollywood stardom and bought her the film rights before it even debuted on stage . The Philadelphia Story first toured the United States , to positive reviews , and then opened in New York at the Schubert Theatre on March 28 , 1939 . It was a big hit , critically and financially , running for 417 performances and then going on a second successful tour .
Several of the major film studios approached Hepburn to produce the movie version of Barry 's play . She chose to sell the rights to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , Hollywood 's number one studio , on the condition that she be the star . As part of the deal she also received the director of her choice , George Cukor , and picked James Stewart and Cary Grant ( to whom she ceded top @-@ billing ) as co @-@ stars . Before filming began , Hepburn shrewdly noted , " I don 't want to make a grand entrance in this picture . Moviegoers ... think I 'm too la @-@ di @-@ da or something . A lot of people want to see me fall flat on my face . " Thus the film began with Grant knocking the actress flat on her backside . Berg describes how the character was crafted to have audiences " laugh at her enough that they would ultimately sympathize with her " , which Hepburn felt was crucial in " recreating " her public image . The Philadelphia Story was one of the biggest hits of 1940 , breaking records at Radio City Music Hall . The review in Time declared , " Come on back , Katie , all is forgiven . " Herb Golden of Variety stated , " It 's Katharine Hepburn 's picture ... The perfect conception of all flighty but characterful Main Line socialite gals rolled into one , the story without her is almost inconceivable . " Hepburn was nominated for her third Academy Award for Best Actress , and won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress .
Hepburn was also responsible for the development of her next project , the romantic comedy Woman of the Year about a political journalist and sports journalist whose relationship is challenged by her independence . The idea for the film was proposed to her by Garson Kanin in 1941 , who recalled how Hepburn contributed to the script . She presented the finished product to MGM and demanded $ 250 @,@ 000 — half for her , half for the authors . Her terms accepted , Hepburn was also given the director and co @-@ star of her choice , George Stevens and Spencer Tracy . Released in 1942 , Woman of the Year was another success . Critics praised the chemistry between the stars , and , says Higham , noted Hepburn 's " increasing maturity and polish " . The World @-@ Telegram commended two " brilliant performances " , and Hepburn received a fourth Academy Award nomination . During the course of the movie , Hepburn signed a star contract with MGM .
= = = Slowing in the 1940s ( 1942 – 49 ) = = =
In 1942 , Hepburn returned to Broadway to appear in another Philip Barry play , Without Love , which was also written with the actress in mind . Critics were unenthusiastic about the production but with Hepburn 's popularity at a high it ran for 16 sold @-@ out weeks . MGM was eager to reunite Tracy and Hepburn for a new picture , and settled on Keeper of the Flame ( 1942 ) . A dark mystery with a propaganda message on the dangers of fascism , the film was seen by Hepburn as an opportunity to make a worthy political statement . It received poor notices but was a financial success , confirming the popularity of the Tracy – Hepburn pairing .
Since Woman of the Year , Hepburn had committed to a romantic relationship with Tracy and dedicated herself to helping the star , who suffered from alcoholism and insomnia . Her career slowed as a result , and she worked less for the remainder of the decade than she had done in the 1930s — notably by not appearing on @-@ stage again until 1950 . Her only appearance in 1943 was a cameo in the morale @-@ building wartime film Stage Door Canteen , playing herself . She took an atypical role in 1944 , playing a Chinese peasant in the high @-@ budget drama Dragon Seed . Hepburn was enthusiastic about the film , but it met with a tepid response and she was described as miscast . She then reunited with Tracy for the film version of Without Love ( 1945 ) , after which she turned down a role in The Razor 's Edge to support Tracy through his return to Broadway . Without Love received poor reviews , but a new Tracy – Hepburn picture was a big event and it was popular on release , selling a record number of tickets over Easter @-@ weekend 1945 .
Hepburn 's next film was Undercurrent ( 1946 ) , a film noir with Robert Taylor and Robert Mitchum that was poorly received . A fourth film with Tracy came in 1947 : a drama set in the American Old West entitled The Sea of Grass . Similarly to Keeper of the Flame and Without Love , a lukewarm response from critics did not stop it from being a financial success both at home and abroad . The same year , Hepburn portrayed Clara Wieck Schumann in Song of Love . She trained intensively with a pianist for the role . By the time of its release in October , Hepburn 's career had been significantly affected by her public opposition to the growing anti @-@ communist movement in Hollywood . Viewed by some as dangerously progressive , she was not offered work for nine months and people reportedly threw things at screenings of Song of Love . Her next film role came unexpectedly , as she agreed to replace Claudette Colbert only days before shooting began on Frank Capra 's political drama State of the Union ( 1948 ) . Tracy had long been signed to play the male lead , and so Hepburn was already familiar with the script and stepped up for the fifth Tracy – Hepburn picture . Critics responded positively to the film and it performed well at the box @-@ office .
Tracy and Hepburn appeared onscreen together for a third consecutive year in the 1949 film Adam 's Rib . Like Woman of the Year , it was a " battle of the sexes " comedy and was written specifically for the duo by their friends Garson Kanin and Ruth Gordon . A story of married lawyers who oppose each other in court , Hepburn described it as " perfect for [ Tracy ] and me " . Although her political views still prompted scattered picketing at theatres around the country , Adam 's Rib was a hit , favorably reviewed and the most profitable Tracy – Hepburn picture to date . The New York Times critic Bosley Crowther was full of praise for the film and hailed the duo 's " perfect compatibility " .
= = = Professional expansion ( 1950 – 52 ) = = =
The 1950s saw Hepburn take on a series of professional challenges , and stretch herself further than at any other point in her life at an age when most other actresses began to retreat . Berg describes the decade as " the heart of her vast legacy " and " the period in which she truly came into her own . " In January 1950 , Hepburn ventured into Shakespeare , playing Rosalind in As You Like It . She hoped to prove that she could play already established material , and said , " It 's better to try something difficult and flop than to play it safe all the time . " It opened at the Cort Theatre in New York to a capacity audience , and was virtually sold out for 148 shows . The production then went on tour . Reviews for Hepburn varied , but she was noted as the only leading @-@ lady in Hollywood who was performing high @-@ caliber material onstage .
In 1951 , Hepburn filmed The African Queen , her first movie in Technicolor . She played Rose Sayer , a prim spinster missionary living in German East Africa at the outbreak of World War I. Costarring Humphrey Bogart , The African Queen was shot mostly on location in the Belgian Congo , an opportunity Hepburn embraced . It proved a difficult experience , however , and Hepburn became ill with dysentery during filming . Later in life , she released a memoir about the experience . The movie was released at the end of 1951 to popular support and critical acclaim , and gave Hepburn her fifth Best Actress nomination at the Academy Awards . The first successful film she had made without Tracy since The Philadelphia Story a decade earlier , it proved that she could be a hit without him and fully reestablished her popularity .
Hepburn went on to make the sports comedy Pat and Mike ( 1952 ) , the second film written specifically as a Tracy – Hepburn vehicle by Kanin and Gordon . She was a keen athlete , and Kanin later described this as his inspiration for the film : " As I watched Kate playing tennis one day ... it occurred to me that her audience was missing a treat . " Hepburn was under pressure to perform several sports to a high standard , many of which did not end up in the film . Pat and Mike was one of the team 's most popular and critically acclaimed films , and it was also Hepburn 's personal favorite of the nine films she made with Tracy . The performance brought her a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy .
In the summer of 1952 , Hepburn appeared in London 's West End for a ten @-@ week run of George Bernard Shaw 's The Millionairess . Her parents had read Shaw to her when she was a child , which made the play a special experience for the actress . Two years of intense work had left her exhausted , however , and her friend Constance Collier wrote that Hepburn was " on the verge of a nervous breakdown " . Widely acclaimed , The Millionairess was brought to Broadway . In October 1952 it opened at the Shubert Theatre , where despite a lukewarm critical response it sold out its ten @-@ week run . Hepburn subsequently tried to get the play adapted into a film : a script was written by Preston Sturges , and she offered to work for nothing and pay the director herself , but no studio picked up the project . She later referred to this as the biggest disappointment of her career .
= = = Spinsters and Shakespeare ( 1953 – 62 ) = = =
Pat and Mike was the last film Hepburn completed on her MGM contract , making her free to select her own projects . She spent two years resting and traveling , before committing to David Lean 's romantic drama Summertime ( 1955 ) . The movie was filmed in Venice , with Hepburn playing a lonely spinster who has a passionate love affair . She described it as " a very emotional part " and found it fascinating to work with Lean . At her own insistence , Hepburn performed a fall into a canal and developed a chronic eye infection as a result . The role earned her another Academy Award nomination and has been cited as some of her finest work . Lean later said it was his personal favorite of the films he made , and Hepburn his favorite actress . The following year , Hepburn spent six months touring Australia with the Old Vic theatre company , playing Portia in The Merchant of Venice , Kate in The Taming of the Shrew , and Isabella in Measure for Measure . The tour was successful and Hepburn earned significant plaudits for the effort .
Hepburn received an Academy Award nomination for the second year running for her work opposite Burt Lancaster in The Rainmaker ( 1956 ) . Again she played a lonely woman empowered by a love affair , and it became apparent that Hepburn had found a niche in playing " love @-@ starved spinsters " that critics and audiences enjoyed . Hepburn said of playing such roles , " With Lizzie Curry [ The Rainmaker ] and Jane Hudson [ Summertime ] and Rosie Sayer [ The African Queen ] — I was playing me . It wasn 't difficult for me to play those women , because I 'm the maiden aunt . " Less success that year came from The Iron Petticoat ( 1956 ) , a reworking of the classic comedy Ninotchka , with Bob Hope . Hepburn played a cold @-@ hearted Soviet pilot , a performance Bosley Crowther called " horrible " . It was a critical and commercial failure , and Hepburn considered it the worst film on her resume .
Tracy and Hepburn reunited on screen for the first time in five years for the office @-@ based comedy Desk Set ( 1957 ) . Berg notes that it worked as a hybrid of their earlier romantic @-@ comedy successes and Hepburn 's spinster persona , but it performed poorly at the box @-@ office . That summer , Hepburn returned to Shakespeare . Appearing in Stratford , Connecticut , at the American Shakespeare Theatre , she repeated her Portia in The Merchant of Venice and played Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing . The shows were positively received .
After two years away from the screen , Hepburn starred in a film adaptation of Tennessee Williams ' controversial play Suddenly , Last Summer ( 1959 ) with Elizabeth Taylor and Montgomery Clift . The movie was shot in London , and was " a completely miserable experience " for Hepburn . She clashed with director Joseph L. Mankiewicz during filming , which culminated with her spitting at him in disgust . The picture was a financial success , and her work as creepy aunt Violet Venable gave Hepburn her eighth Oscar nomination . Williams was pleased with the performance , writing , " Kate is a playwright 's dream @-@ actress . She makes dialogue sound better than it is by a matchless beauty and clarity of diction " . He wrote The Night of the Iguana ( 1961 ) with Hepburn in mind , but the actress , although flattered , felt the play was wrong for her and declined the part , which went to Bette Davis .
Hepburn returned to Stratford in the summer of 1960 to play Viola in Twelfth Night and Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra . The New York Post wrote of her Cleopatra , " Hepburn offers a highly versatile performance ... once or twice going in for her famous mannerisms and always being fascinating to watch . " Hepburn herself was proud of the role . Her repertoire was further improved when she appeared in Sidney Lumet 's film version of Eugene O 'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey Into Night ( 1962 ) . It was a low @-@ budget production , and she appeared in the film for a tenth of her established salary . She called it " the greatest [ play ] this country has ever produced " and the role of morphine @-@ addicted Mary Tyrone " the most challenging female role in American drama " , and felt her performance was the best screen work of her career . Long Day 's Journey Into Night earned Hepburn an Oscar nomination and the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival . It remains one of her most praised performances .
= = = Success in later years ( 1963 – 70 ) = = =
Following the completion of Long Day 's Journey Into Night , Hepburn took a break in her career to care for ailing Spencer Tracy . She did not work again until 1967 's Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner , her ninth film with Tracy . The movie dealt with the subject of interracial marriage , with Hepburn 's niece , Katharine Houghton , playing her daughter . Tracy was dying by this point , suffering the effects of heart disease , and Houghton later commented that her aunt was " extremely tense " during the production . Tracy died 17 days after filming his last scene . Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner was a triumphant return for Hepburn and her most commercially successful picture to that point . She won her second Best Actress Award at the Oscars , 34 years after winning her first . Hepburn felt the award was not just for her , but was also given to honor Tracy .
Hepburn quickly returned to acting after Tracy 's death , choosing to preoccupy herself as a remedy against grief . She received numerous scripts and chose to play Eleanor of Aquitaine in The Lion in Winter ( 1968 ) , a part she called " fascinating " . She read extensively in preparation for the role , in which she starred opposite Peter O 'Toole . Filming took place in Montmajour Abbey in the south of France , an experience she loved despite being — according to director Anthony Harvey — " enormously vulnerable " throughout . John Russell Taylor of The Times suggested that Eleanor was " the performance of her ... career " , and proved that she was " a growing , developing , still surprising actress " . The movie was nominated in all the major categories at the Academy Awards , and for the second year running Hepburn won the Oscar for Best Actress ( shared with Barbra Streisand for Funny Girl ) . The role , combined with her performance in Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner , also received a British Academy Film Award ( BAFTA ) for Best Actress . Hepburn 's next appearance was in The Madwoman of Chaillot ( 1969 ) , which she filmed in Nice immediately after completing The Lion in Winter . The picture was a failure critically and financially , and reviews targeted Hepburn for giving a misguided performance .
From December 1969 to August 1970 , Hepburn starred in the Broadway musical Coco , about the life of Coco Chanel . She admitted that before the show , she had never sat through a theatrical musical . She was not a strong singer , but found the offer irresistible and , as Berg puts it , " what she lacked in euphony she made up for in guts " . The actress took vocal lessons six times a week in preparation for the show . She was nervous about every performance , and recalled " wondering what the hell I was doing there . " Reviews for the production were mediocre , but Hepburn herself was praised and Coco was popular with the public — with its run twice extended . She later said Coco marked the first time she accepted that the public was not against her , but actually seemed to love her . Her work earned a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical .
= = = Film , television , and theatre ( 1971 – 83 ) = = =
Hepburn stayed active throughout the 1970s , focusing on roles described by Andrew Britton as " either a devouring mother or a batty old lady living [ alone ] " . First she traveled to Spain to film a version of Euripides ' The Trojan Women ( 1971 ) alongside Vanessa Redgrave . When asked why she had taken the role , she responded that she wanted to broaden her range and try everything while she still had time . The movie was poorly received , but the Kansas City Film Critics Circle named Hepburn 's performance the best from an actress that year . In 1971 she signed on to star in an adaptation of Graham Greene 's Travels with My Aunt , but was unhappy with early versions of the script and took to rewriting it herself . The studio disliked her changes , so Hepburn abandoned the project and was replaced with Maggie Smith . Her next film , an adaptation of Edward Albee 's A Delicate Balance ( 1973 ) directed by Tony Richardson , had a small release and received generally unfavorable reviews .
In 1973 , Hepburn ventured into television for the first time , starring in a production of Tennessee Williams ' The Glass Menagerie . She had been wary of the medium but it proved to be one of the main television events of the year , scoring high in the Nielsen ratings . Hepburn received an Emmy Award nomination for playing wistful Southern mother Amanda Wingfield , which opened her mind to future work on the small screen . Her next project was the television movie Love Among the Ruins ( 1975 ) , a London @-@ based Edwardian drama with her friend Laurence Olivier . It received positive reviews and high ratings , and earned Hepburn her only Emmy Award .
Hepburn made her only appearance at the Academy Awards in 1974 , to present the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award to Lawrence Weingarten . She received a standing ovation , and joked with the audience , " I 'm very happy I didn 't hear anyone call out ' It 's about time ' . " The following year , she was paired with John Wayne in the western Rooster Cogburn , a sequel to his Oscar @-@ winning film True Grit . Echoing her African Queen character , Hepburn again played a deeply religious spinster who teams up with a masculine loner to avenge a family member 's death . The movie received mediocre reviews . Its casting was enough to draw some people to the box office , but it did not meet studio expectations and was only moderately successful .
In 1976 , Hepburn returned to Broadway for a three @-@ month run of Enid Bagnold 's play A Matter of Gravity . The role of eccentric Mrs. Basil was deemed a perfect showcase for the actress , and the play was popular despite poor reviews . It later went on a successful nationwide tour . During its Los Angeles run , Hepburn fractured her hip , but she chose to continue the tour performing in a wheelchair . That year , she was voted " Favorite Motion Picture Actress " by the People 's Choice Awards . After three years away from the screen , Hepburn starred in the 1978 film Olly Olly Oxen Free . The adventure comedy was one of the biggest failures of her career — the screenwriter James Prideaux , who worked with Hepburn , later wrote that it " died at the moment of release " and referred to it as her " lost film " . Hepburn claimed the main reason she had done it was the opportunity to ride in a hot @-@ air balloon . The television movie The Corn Is Green ( 1979 ) , which was filmed in Wales , followed . It was the last of ten films Hepburn made with George Cukor , and gained her a third Emmy nomination .
By the 1980s , Hepburn had developed a noticeable tremor , giving her a permanently shaking head . She did not work for two years , saying in a television interview , " I 've had my day — let the kids scramble and sweat it out . " During this period she saw the Broadway production of On Golden Pond , and was impressed by its depiction of an elderly married couple coping with the difficulties of old age . Jane Fonda had purchased the screen rights for her father , actor Henry Fonda , and Hepburn sought to play opposite him in the role of quirky Ethel Thayer . On Golden Pond was a success , the second @-@ highest grossing film of 1981 . It demonstrated how energetic the 74 @-@ year @-@ old Hepburn was , as she dived fully clothed into Squam Lake and gave a lively singing performance . The movie won her a second BAFTA and a record fourth Academy Award . Homer Dickens , in his book on Hepburn , notes that it was widely considered a sentimental win , " a tribute to her enduring career . "
Hepburn also returned to the stage in 1981 . She received a second Tony nomination for her portrayal in The West Side Waltz of a septuagenarian widow with a zest for life . Variety observed that the role was " an obvious and entirely acceptable version of [ Hepburn 's ] own public image . " Walter Kerr of The New York Times wrote of Hepburn and her performance , " One mysterious thing she has learned to do is breathe unchallengeable life into lifeless lines . " She hoped to make a film out of the production , but nobody purchased the rights . Hepburn 's reputation as one of America 's best loved actors was firmly established by this point , as she was named favorite movie actress in a survey by People magazine and again won the popularity award from People 's Choice .
= = = Focus on television ( 1984 – 94 ) = = =
In 1984 , Hepburn starred in the dark @-@ comedy Grace Quigley , the story of an elderly woman who enlists a hitman ( Nick Nolte ) to kill her . Hepburn found humor in the morbid theme , but reviews were negative and the box @-@ office was poor . In 1985 , she presented a television documentary about the life and career of Spencer Tracy . The majority of Hepburn 's roles from this point were in television movies , which did not receive the critical praise of her earlier work in the medium but remained popular with audiences . With each release , Hepburn would declare it her final screen appearance , but she continued to take on new roles . She received an Emmy nomination for 1986 's Mrs. Delafield Wants to Marry , then two years later returned for the comedy Laura Lansing Slept Here , which allowed her to act with her grandniece , Schuyler Grant .
In 1991 , Hepburn released her autobiography , Me : Stories of my Life , which topped best @-@ seller lists for over a year . She returned to television screens in 1992 for The Man Upstairs , co @-@ starring Ryan O 'Neal , for which she received a Golden Globe nomination . In 1994 she worked opposite Anthony Quinn in This Can 't Be Love , which was largely based on Hepburn 's own life , with numerous references to her personality and career . These later roles have been described as " a fictional version of the typically feisty Kate Hepburn character " and critics have remarked that Hepburn was essentially playing herself .
Hepburn 's final appearance in a theatrically released film , and her first since Grace Quigley ten years earlier , was Love Affair ( 1994 ) . At 86 years old , she played a supporting role alongside Annette Bening and Warren Beatty . It was the only film of Hepburn 's career , other than the cameo appearance in Stage Door Canteen , in which she did not play a leading role . Roger Ebert noted that it was the first time she had looked frail , but that the " magnificent spirit " was still there and said her scenes " steal the show " . The New York Times made similar observations as they reflected on the actress 's final big @-@ screen appearance , stating that " if she moved more slowly than before , in demeanor she was as game and modern as she had ever been " . Hepburn filmed one final role in the television movie One Christmas ( 1994 ) , for which she received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination at 87 years old .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Public image and character = = =
Hepburn was known for being fiercely private , and would not give interviews or talk to fans for much of her career . She distanced herself from the celebrity lifestyle , uninterested in a social scene she saw as tedious and superficial , and she wore casual clothes that went strongly against convention in an era of glamour . She rarely appeared in public , even avoiding restaurants , and once wrestled a camera out of a photographer 's hand when he took a picture without asking . Despite her zeal for privacy , she enjoyed her fame , and later confessed that she would not have liked the press to ignore her completely . The protective attitude thawed as she aged ; beginning with a two @-@ hour @-@ long interview on The Dick Cavett Show in 1973 , Hepburn became increasingly open with the public .
Hepburn 's relentless energy and enthusiasm for life is often cited in biographies , while a headstrong independence became key to her celebrity status . This self @-@ assuredness meant she could be controlling and difficult ; her friend Garson Kanin likened her to a schoolmistress , and she was famously blunt and outspoken . Katharine Houghton commented that her aunt could be " maddeningly self @-@ righteous and bossy " . Hepburn confessed to being , especially early in life , " a me me me person " . She saw herself as having a happy nature , reasoning " I like life and I 've been so lucky , why shouldn 't I be happy ? " A. Scott Berg knew Hepburn well in her later years , and said that while she was demanding , she retained a sense of humility and humanity .
The actress led an active private life , reportedly swimming and playing tennis every morning . In her eighties she was still playing tennis regularly , as indicated in her 1993 documentary All About Me . She also enjoyed painting , which became a passion later in life . When questioned about politics , Hepburn told an interviewer , " I always just say be on the affirmative and liberal side . Don 't be a ' no ' person . " The anti @-@ communist attitude in 1940s Hollywood prompted her to political activity , as she joined the Committee for the First Amendment . Her name was mentioned at the hearings of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee but Hepburn denied being a communist sympathizer . Later in life , she openly promoted birth control and supported abortion . She practiced Albert Schweitzer 's theory of " Reverence for Life " , but did not believe in religion or the afterlife . In 1991 , Hepburn told a journalist , " I 'm an atheist , and that 's it . I believe there 's nothing we can know except that we should be kind to each other and do what we can for other people . " Her public declarations of these beliefs led the American Humanist Association to award her the Humanist Arts Award in 1985 .
= = = Relationships = = =
Hepburn 's only husband was Ludlow Ogden Smith , a socialite @-@ businessman from Philadelphia whom she met while a student at Bryn Mawr . The couple married on December 12 , 1928 , when she was 21 and he was 29 . Hepburn had Smith change his name to S. Ogden Ludlow so that she would not be known as " Kate Smith " , which she considered too plain . She never fully committed to the marriage and prioritized her career . The move to Hollywood in 1932 cemented the couple 's estrangement , and in 1934 , she traveled to Mexico to get a quick divorce . Hepburn often expressed her gratitude toward Smith for his financial and moral support in the early days of her career , and in her autobiography called herself " a terrible pig " for exploiting his love . The pair remained friends until his death in 1979 .
Soon after moving to California , Hepburn began a relationship with her agent , Leland Hayward , although they were both married . Hayward proposed to the actress once they had each divorced but she declined , later explaining , " I liked the idea of being my own single self . " They were involved for four years . In 1936 , while she was touring Jane Eyre , Hepburn began a relationship with entrepreneur Howard Hughes . She had been introduced to him a year earlier by their mutual friend Cary Grant . Hughes wished to marry her , and the tabloids reported their impending nuptials , but Hepburn was too focused on resurrecting her failing career . They separated in 1938 , when Hepburn left Hollywood after being labeled " box office poison " .
Hepburn stuck to her decision not to remarry , and made a conscious choice not to have children . She believed that motherhood should be a full @-@ time commitment , and said it was not one she was willing to make . " I would have been a terrible mother , " she told Berg , " because I 'm basically a very selfish human being . " She felt she had partially experienced parenthood through her much younger siblings , which fulfilled any need to have children of her own . Rumors have existed since the 1930s that Hepburn may have been a lesbian or bisexual , which she often joked about . In 2007 , William J. Mann released a biography of the actress in which he argued this was the case . In response to this speculation about her aunt , Katharine Houghton said , " I 've never discovered any evidence whatsoever that she was a lesbian . "
= = = = Spencer Tracy = = = =
The most significant relationship of Hepburn 's life was with Spencer Tracy , her co @-@ star in nine films . In her autobiography she wrote , " It was a unique feeling that I had for [ Tracy ] . I would have done anything for him . " Lauren Bacall , a close friend , later wrote of how " blindingly " in love Hepburn was with the actor . The relationship has subsequently received much publicity , and it is often cited as one of Hollywood 's legendary love affairs . Meeting when she was 34 and he was 41 , Tracy was initially wary of Hepburn , unimpressed by her dirty fingernails and suspecting that she was a lesbian , but Hepburn said she " knew right away that I found him irresistible . " Tracy remained married throughout their relationship ; although he and his wife Louise had been living separate lives since the 1930s , there was never an official split and neither party pursued a divorce . Hepburn did not interfere , and never fought for marriage .
With Tracy determined to conceal the relationship with Hepburn from his wife , it had to remain private . They were careful not to be seen in public together , and maintained separate residences . Tracy was an alcoholic and was frequently depressed ; Hepburn described him as " tortured " , and she devoted herself to making his life easier . Reports from people who saw them together describe how Hepburn 's entire demeanor changed when around Tracy . She mothered and obeyed him , and Tracy became heavily dependent on her . They often spent stretches of time apart due to their work , particularly in the 1950s when Hepburn was largely abroad for career commitments .
Tracy 's health declined significantly in the 1960s , and Hepburn took a five @-@ year break in her career to care for him . She moved into Tracy 's house for this period , and was with him when he died on June 10 , 1967 . Out of consideration for Tracy 's family , she did not attend his funeral . It was only after Louise Tracy 's death , in 1983 , that Hepburn began to speak publicly about her feelings for her frequent co @-@ star . In response to the question of why she stayed with Tracy for so long , despite the nature of their relationship , she said , " I honestly don 't know . I can only say that I could never have left him . " She claimed to not know how he felt about her and that they " just passed twenty @-@ seven years [ sic ] together in what was to me absolute bliss . "
= = = Final years and death = = =
Hepburn stated in her eighties , " I have no fear of death . Must be wonderful , like a long sleep . " Her health began to deteriorate not long after her final screen appearance . In the winter of 1996 she was hospitalized with pneumonia . By 1997 she had become very weak , was speaking and eating very little , and it was feared she would die . She showed signs of dementia in her final years . In May 2003 , an aggressive tumor was found in Hepburn 's neck . The decision was made not to medically intervene , and she died on June 29 , 2003 , at the Hepburn family home in Fenwick , Connecticut . She was 96 years old and was buried in Cedar Hill Cemetery in Hartford . Hepburn requested that there be no memorial service .
Hepburn 's death received considerable public attention . Many tributes were held on television , and newspapers and magazines dedicated issues to the actress . American president George W. Bush said Hepburn " will be remembered as one of the nation 's artistic treasures . " In honor of her extensive theatre work , the lights of Broadway were dimmed for the evening of July 1 , 2003 . In 2004 , in accordance with Hepburn 's wishes , her belongings were put up for auction with Sotheby 's in New York City . The event garnered $ 5 @.@ 8 million , which Hepburn willed to her family .
= = Performances : technique and analysis = =
According to reports , Hepburn was not an instinctive actor . She liked to study the text and character carefully beforehand , making sure she knew them thoroughly , and then to rehearse as much as possible and film multiple takes of a scene . With a genuine passion for the industry she committed heavily to each role and insisted on learning any necessary skills and performing stunts herself . She was known to learn not only her own lines but also those of her costars . Commenting on her motivation , Stanley Kramer said , " Work , work , work . She can work till everyone drops . " Hepburn involved herself in the production of each of her films , making suggestions for the script and stating her opinion on everything from costumes to lighting to camerawork .
The characters Hepburn played were , with very few exceptions , wealthy and intelligent , and often strong and independent . These tough characters tended to be humbled in some form and revealed to have a hidden vulnerability . Garson Kanin described what he called " the formula for a Hepburn success : A high @-@ class , or stuck @-@ up ... girl is brought down to earth by an earthy type , or a lowbrow ... or a cataclysmic situation . It seems to have worked time and time again . " Due to this repeated character arc , Britton sees Hepburn as embodying the " contradictions " of the " nature and status of women " , as the strong females she depicts are eventually " restored to a safe position within the status quo " . Film critic Molly Haskell has commented on the importance of this to Hepburn 's career : with an intimidating presence , it was necessary that her characters " do some kind of self @-@ abasement , to stay on the good side of the audience . "
Hepburn is one of the most celebrated American actresses , but she has also been criticized for a lack of versatility . Her on @-@ screen persona closely matched her own real personality , something Hepburn admitted herself . In 1991 she told a journalist , " I think I 'm always the same . I had a very definite personality and I liked material that showed that personality . " Playwright and author David Macaray has said , " Picture Katharine Hepburn in every movie she ever starred in and ask yourself if she 's not playing , essentially , the same part over and over ... Icon or no icon , let 's not confuse a truly fascinating and unique woman with a superior actress . " Another repeated criticism is that her demeanor was too cold .
= = Legacy = =
Hepburn is considered an important and influential cultural figure . Ros Horton and Sally Simmons included her in their book Women Who Changed The World , which honors 50 women who helped shape world history and culture . She is also named in Encyclopædia Britannica 's list of " 300 Women Who Changed the World " , Ladies Home Journal 's book 100 Most Important Women of the 20th century , Variety magazine 's " 100 Icons of the Century " , and she is number 84 on VH1 's list of the " 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons of All Time " . In 1999 , the American Film Institute named Hepburn the " greatest American screen legend " among females .
Regarding Hepburn 's film legacy , broadcaster Sheridan Morley said she " broke the mold " for women in Hollywood , where she brought a new breed of strong @-@ willed females to the screen . Film academic Andrew Britton wrote a monograph studying Hepburn 's " key presence within classical Hollywood , a consistent , potentially radical disturbance " , and pinpoints her " central " influence in bringing feminist issues to the screen . Maryann Pasda DiEdwardo has claimed that Hepburn 's performances fostered a " decisiveness toward a new vision of women . "
Off screen , Hepburn lived in a manner ahead of her time ; she thus came to symbolize the " modern woman " and played a part in changing attitudes towards the gender . Horton and Simmons write , " Confident , intelligent and witty , four @-@ time Oscar winner Katharine Hepburn defied convention throughout her professional and personal life ... Hepburn provided an image of an assertive woman whom [ females ] could watch and learn from . " After Hepburn 's death , film historian Jeanine Basinger stated , " What she brought us was a new kind of heroine — modern and independent . She was beautiful , but she did not rely on that . " Mary McNamara , an entertainment journalist and reviewer for the Los Angeles Times wrote , " More than a movie star , Katharine Hepburn was the patron saint of the independent American female . " She was not universally revered by feminists , however , who were angered by her public declarations that women " cannot have it all , " meaning a family and a career .
Hepburn 's legacy extends to fashion , where she was a pioneer for wearing trousers at a time when it was radical for a woman to do so . She contributed towards making trousers acceptable for women , as fans began to imitate her clothing . In 1986 she received a lifetime achievement award from the Council of Fashion Designers of America in recognition of the influence she played in women 's fashion .
A number of Hepburn 's films have become classics of American cinema , with four of her pictures ( The African Queen , The Philadelphia Story , Bringing Up Baby , and Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner ) featured on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 Greatest American Films of all time . Adam 's Rib and Woman of the Year were included in the AFI 's list of the Greatest American Comedies . Her clipped , patrician voice is considered one of the most distinctive in film history . [ Sample , from Stage Door ( 1937 ) ]
= = = Memorials = = =
Hepburn has been honored with several memorials . The Turtle Bay community in Manhattan , New York City , where she maintained a residence for over 60 years , dedicated a garden in her name in 1997 . After Hepburn 's death in 2003 , the intersection of East 49th Street and 2nd Avenue was renamed " Katharine Hepburn Place " . Three years later Bryn Mawr College , Hepburn 's alma mater , launched the Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center . It is dedicated to both the actress and her mother , and encourages women to address important issues affecting their gender . The center awards the annual Katharine Hepburn Medal , which " recognizes women whose lives , work and contributions embody the intelligence , drive and independence of the four @-@ time @-@ Oscar @-@ winning actress " . The Katharine Hepburn Cultural Arts Center was opened in 2009 in Old Saybrook , Connecticut , the location of the Hepburn family beach home which she loved and later owned . The building includes a performance space and a Katharine Hepburn museum .
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences library and the New York Public Library hold collections of Hepburn 's personal papers . Selections from the New York collection , which documents Hepburn 's theatrical career , were presented in a five @-@ month exhibition , Katharine Hepburn : In Her Own Files , in 2009 . Other exhibitions have been held to showcase Hepburn 's career . One Life : Kate , A Centennial Celebration was held at the National Portrait Gallery in Washington from November 2007 to September 2008 . Kent State University exhibited a selection of her film and theatre costumes from October 2010 to September 2011 in Katharine Hepburn : Dressed for Stage and Screen . Hepburn has also been honored with her own postal stamp as part of the " Legends of Hollywood " stamp series . In 2015 , the British Film Institute held a two @-@ month retrospective of Hepburn 's work .
= = = Characterizations = = =
Hepburn is the subject of a one @-@ woman play , Tea at Five , written by Matthew Lombardo . The first act features Hepburn in 1938 , after being labeled " box office poison " , and the second act in 1983 , where she reflects on her life and career . It was first performed in 2002 at the Hartford Stage . Hepburn has been portrayed in Tea at Five by Kate Mulgrew , Tovah Feldshuh , Stephanie Zimbalist , and Charles Busch . Feldshuh also appeared as Hepburn in The Amazing Howard Hughes , a 1977 television movie , while Mearle Ann Taylor later portrayed her in The Scarlett O 'Hara War ( 1980 ) . In Martin Scorsese 's 2004 biopic of Howard Hughes , The Aviator , Hepburn was portrayed by Cate Blanchett , who won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance . This marked the first instance where the portrayal of an Academy Award @-@ winning actress was turned into an Academy Award @-@ winning role .
In 2014 , two Hepburn biopics were announced to be in development . The first deals with her relationship with Spencer Tracy , and the second covers her early years in Hollywood ( based on William Mann 's account ) .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Hepburn won four Academy Awards , the record number for a performer , and a total of 12 Oscar nominations for Best Actress — a number surpassed only by Meryl Streep . Hepburn also holds the record for the longest time span between first and last Oscar nominations , at 48 years . She received two awards and five nominations from the British Academy Film Awards , one award and six nominations from the Emmy Awards , eight Golden Globe nominations , two Tony Award nominations , and awards from the Cannes Film Festival , Venice Film Festival , the New York Film Critics Circle Awards , the People 's Choice Awards , and others . Hepburn was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 1979 . She also won a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Screen Actors Guild in 1979 and received the Kennedy Center Honors , which recognize a lifetime of accomplishments in the arts , in 1990 .
Hepburn was recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the following performances :
6th Academy Awards ( 1934 ) : Best Actress , win , for Morning Glory
8th Academy Awards ( 1936 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for Alice Adams
13th Academy Awards ( 1941 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for The Philadelphia Story
15th Academy Awards ( 1943 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for Woman of the Year
24th Academy Awards ( 1952 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for The African Queen
28th Academy Awards ( 1956 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for Summertime
29th Academy Awards ( 1957 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for The Rainmaker
32nd Academy Awards ( 1960 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for Suddenly , Last Summer
35th Academy Awards ( 1963 ) : Best Actress , nomination , for Long Day 's Journey into Night
40th Academy Awards ( 1968 ) : Best Actress , win , for Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner
41st Academy Awards ( 1969 ) : Best Actress , win , for The Lion in Winter ( shared with Barbra Streisand for Funny Girl )
54th Academy Awards ( 1982 ) : Best Actress , win , for On Golden Pond
= = Filmography and theatre credits = =
During her 66 @-@ year career , Hepburn appeared in 44 feature films , 8 television movies , and 33 plays . Her movie career covered a range of genres , including screwball comedies , period dramas , and adaptations of works by top American playwrights . She appeared on the stage in every decade from the 1920s to the 1980s , performing plays by Shakespeare and Shaw , and a Broadway musical .
Select filmography :
Select theatre roles :
= Move ( MercyMe song ) =
" Move " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by MercyMe and Dan Muckala , " Move " is a dance @-@ rock song with a sound similar to that of pop rock band Maroon 5 . The theme of the song 's lyrics is perseverance through adversity . Released on May 23 , 2011 as the third single from MercyMe 's 2010 album The Generous Mr. Lovewell , " Move " was received with positive critical reviews , especially for the arrangement of the song . " Move " attained success as a single , peaking atop Billboard magazine 's Christian Songs , Hot Christian AC , and Christian AC Indicator charts , as well as at No. 6 on the Billboard Christian CHR chart and No. 20 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Background and composition = =
" Move " was written by MercyMe and Dan Muckala . It was produced by Brown Bannister and Muckala , and was recorded by F. Reid Shippen at Sonic Ranch in El Paso , Texas . Overdubs were recorded by Muckala , Bannister , and Billy Whittington at Towsensend Sound and Glomo Studio . The song was mixed by Shippen at Robot Lemon in Nashville , Tennessee and was mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound in New York .
" Move " is a dance @-@ rock song with a length of two minutes and fifty @-@ eight seconds . It is set in the key of A minor and has a tempo of 100 beats per minute , with a vocal range spanning from G4 @-@ G5 . The musical feel of " Move " has been compared to that of Maroon 5 , particularly their songs " This Love " and " Makes Me Wonder " . Lyrically , the song is about perseverance through adversity , with the
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alignment as it turned ahead of Cazenovia Lake . NY 20N , NY 20SY , and NY 92 gradually approached the lake and ultimately followed the western lakeshore as the roadway approached the village of Cazenovia . The three routes never actually reached the village , however , as all three designations ended at an intersection with US 20 ( the Cherry Valley Turnpike ) 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) west of the village limits and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the village center .
= = History = =
NY 20SY was assigned in 1951 as an alternate route of US 20 in the Syracuse area . While US 20 bypassed the city of Syracuse to the south , NY 20SY veered north to serve Downtown Syracuse and the eastern and western suburbs of the city . It was the second alternate route of US 20 near Syracuse ; the first , NY 20N , was also a northern alternate route of US 20 but it followed a more southerly routing than NY 20SY . Most of NY 20SY was concurrent to other , pre @-@ existing state highways in the Syracuse area , namely NY 321 , NY 5 , NY 92 , NY 173 , and NY 20N . NY 5 was assigned in 1924 ; NY 92 , NY 173 , and NY 321 were assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; and NY 20N was assigned c . 1938 .
While most of NY 20SY was concurrent with at least one other state highway , there were two segments where NY 20SY followed an independent routing . One was in the town of Camillus , where NY 20SY followed a previously unnumbered highway between NY 321 and NY 5 ; the other was southwest of the village of Fayetteville , where NY 20SY used a previously unnumbered highway to bypass the village while NY 92 passed through it .
When NY 20SY was first assigned , it entered downtown Syracuse on NY 5 and followed NY 5 and US 11 through downtown before leaving the area on NY 92 . It was realigned by 1954 to follow only NY 5 through downtown . The route left its original alignment at the junction of US 11 and NY 5 in downtown Syracuse and rejoined it at the western terminus of the NY 5 / NY 92 overlap in DeWitt .
Both NY 20N and NY 20SY were removed c . 1962 . The independent section of NY 20SY that bypassed Fayetteville became a realignment of NY 92 upon the removal of NY 20SY . The other independent section in Camillus became a realignment of NY 321 in the late 1980s .
= = Major intersections = =
= A Very Glee Christmas =
" A Very Glee Christmas " is the tenth episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee , and the thirty @-@ second episode overall . It was written by series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan , directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , and premiered on Fox on December 7 , 2010 . It served as the mid @-@ season finale of season two — nearly two months elapsed before the next episode was aired — and featured Artie ( Kevin McHale ) trying to keep his girlfriend Brittany 's ( Heather Morris ) belief in Santa Claus intact , and Sue ( Jane Lynch ) rigging the faculty Secret Santa gift exchange so she gets all the gifts , though she later becomes a Grinch when the gifts are repossessed .
The episode features seven songs , two of which come from the television special How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! . The creators of Glee received permission from the estate of Dr. Seuss for the use of characters from How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! , but were not allowed to use them in promotional photographs . Most of the songs featured in the episode had been released on Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album four weeks prior to airing , including " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , which debuted at number fifty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 after the episode aired , despite not having been released separately as a single . " Welcome Christmas " , the other song to chart after the episode aired , was the only song from the episode not on the album , but it was released as a single , and it debuted at number thirty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 .
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics , most of whom seemed to have judged it with different criteria from their normal because it was a holiday episode , while the music fared somewhat better , especially the rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " as a duet between Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , which was extensively praised . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by a hair under 11 @.@ 07 million American viewers and received a 4 @.@ 4 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down from the previous episode , " Special Education " , which was watched the week before by over 11 @.@ 68 million American viewers and received a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
The William McKinley High School faculty hold a Secret Santa gift exchange , but cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) tampers with the selection process to ensure that she receives all the gifts . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) sends the club , New Directions , to carol around the school to raise money for a local homeless charity , but they are met with abuse from students and staff alike , and return empty @-@ handed . At Dalton Academy in Westerville , Ohio , former New Directions member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) sings a duet of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " with his friend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) to help him rehearse it for the Kings Island Christmas Spectacular . Will visits Kurt to seek his advice on a gift for Sue , and Kurt reveals that he has fallen in love with Blaine .
Glee club co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) twice attempts to make amends with her estranged boyfriend Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) , who is still upset that she cheated on him with his best friend Puck ( Mark Salling ) , and he officially ends their relationship . Club member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) discovers that his girlfriend Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) still believes in Santa Claus , and encourages the other members to visit a Christmas grotto to help reinforce her belief . To Artie 's dismay , Brittany asks the grotto 's Santa to restore Artie 's ability to walk , which he agrees to do . Hoping to maintain her faith , Artie convinces football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) to go to Brittany 's house dressed as Santa and explain that this particular wish cannot be granted . Santa 's visit is not a success , and Brittany loses her Christmas spirit , but she later finds a gift for Artie underneath her Christmas tree — a ReWalk mobility device that allows him to stand and walk with the assistance of forearm crutches — which he demonstrates for the glee club . As Brittany tells the group that it must have come from Santa , Coach Beiste secretly observes the demonstration and smiles .
Will and the other faculty members discover Sue 's deception and reclaim their gifts with the intention of donating them to the homeless charity . Incensed , Sue dresses as the Grinch , with her favorite cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) as Max , and steals back the presents while she vandalizes the choir room 's Christmas decorations . The club members are stunned by the theft and destruction , but Will encourages them to give a private performance for the faculty , which proves successful and garners many charitable donations . Sue overhears their performance of " Welcome Christmas " , and she comes to regret her actions . She returns the presents to Will at his apartment , and brings the New Directions members to decorate a new Christmas tree and spread holiday cheer .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon . The creators of Glee received permission from the estate of Dr. Seuss for the use of characters from How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! , but were not allowed to use them in promotional photographs .
Recurring characters in this episode include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) and Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , school bullies Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) and Azimio ( James Earl ) , football coach Shannon Beiste , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , and Blaine , lead singer of the Dalton Academy Warblers .
" A Very Glee Christmas " features cover versions of seven Christmas songs : " The Most Wonderful Day of the Year " from Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer , performed by New Directions ; " We Need a Little Christmas " from Mame , with Amber Riley on lead vocals ; Frank Loesser 's " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , sung by Criss and Colfer ; " Merry Christmas Darling " by The Carpenters , sung by Michele , " Last Christmas " by Wham ! , sung by Michele and Monteith ; and " Welcome Christmas " from How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! , also by New Directions . Another song from How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! is heard in the episode — an arrangement of " You 're a Mean One , Mr. Grinch " , soundtracked by k.d. lang , and with the lyric " Mister Grinch " modified to " Sue the Grinch " . " Last Christmas " had been released previously as a charity single in late 2009 , and is included on Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album . " Welcome Christmas " was released as a single , available for digital download , separately from the album , which otherwise includes all remaining tracks and six additional songs not heard in the episode ; a different version of " You 're a Mean One , Mr. Grinch " was recorded for the album , which featured Morrison along with lang and used the original " Mister Grinch " lyric .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" A Very Glee Christmas " was first broadcast on December 7 , 2010 in the United States on Fox . It earned a 4 @.@ 4 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received a hair under 11 @.@ 07 million American viewers during its initial airing . It won the 18 – 49 demographic against an NCIS rerun on CBS , Minute to Win It on NBC , the A Charlie Brown Christmas special on ABC , and One Tree Hill on CW . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down from those of the previous episode , " Special Education " , which was watched by over 11 @.@ 68 million American viewers and received a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic upon first airing on television on November 30 , 2010 .
In Canada , 2 @.@ 37 million viewers watched the episode , which ranked fifth for the week . This was a slight increase over the 2 @.@ 32 million viewers who watched the " Special Education " the previous week , though it had ranked second in that week . In Australia and the UK , the episode aired after Christmas , in the new year . The episode 's Australian broadcast , on February 7 , 2011 , drew 769 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the seventeenth most @-@ watched program of the night ; it failed to place in the top fifty in the weekly viewership rankings . Here , viewership registered a steep 23 % fall from the previous episode , " Special Education , which attracted 1 @.@ 02 million viewers when it aired on January 31 , 2011 , and ranked twenty @-@ seventh for the week . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 20 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 89 million on E4 , and 315 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , which made it the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , but the lowest @-@ viewed episode of the season so far , and down over 15 % from " Special Education " in the previous week , which received 2 @.@ 60 million viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics , most of whom seemed to have judged it on different criteria from their normal because it was a holiday episode . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon may have called it " sickly oversweet " , but maintained " that 's exactly what you want at Christmas " . His colleague Patrick Burns wrote , " Holiday episodes tread a dangerous line between sweet and saccharine , but this episode splits the difference perfectly . " The title of the article they wrote with Meghan Brown , " Glee Does Christmas : Cheesy but Charming " , found echoes in other reviews : both Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times and Anthony Benigno of the Daily News also thought the episode was quite cheesy , but Benigno characterized it as " the good kind of cheese ; the kind you 'll eat for antipasti before grandma and grandpa bring out the roast beef on Christmas dinner " , and Reiter 's bottom line was that it " may not have been the most wonderful episode of the year , but it did feature moments that twinkled and shined like the lovingly trimmed family tree . " Time 's James Poniewozik was less enthusiastic when he noted that Glee delivered an episode " that touched on all the requisite holiday bases but that felt perfunctory " , and added that it was " generally ho @-@ ho @-@ hum " . Robert Canning of IGN gave it a " great " 8 out of 10 , but stated that " the episode as a whole was lacking just a bit to turn it into an absolute classic " , and The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave the episode a " B − " and wrote , " I guess I 'd say that I thought the episode worked moment @-@ to @-@ moment , without working as an overall narrative " , but also stated that it was " positively filled with stupid moments " .
Joel Keller of AOL TV wrote that " the linchpin of the hour was Brittany 's belief in Santa Claus . " The New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman called it " adorably realized by actress Heather Morris " , and Canning said she " perfectly played up Brittany 's innocence and joy surrounding everything Santa " . Brown was less enthusiastic , and wrote that she was tiring of the " look how dumb yet kind @-@ hearted Brittany is " plots . Keller approved of the Artie and Brittany coupling , and said it was " way more fun to watch than Rachel and Finn and all their angst " , and Canning felt that the episode 's heart was Artie working to keep Brittany from becoming disillusioned about Santa . He also wrote , " shining in this storyline was Dot Jones as Coach Bieste . Her scene as Santa , and then her knowing expression as she watched Artie walk , were the best moments of the episode . " Burns agreed : " Coach Bieste 's performance as the Santa Claus bearer of harsh reality was quite moving . It 's nice to see her get to show her acting chops and refreshing to see her character 's vulnerability . " Poniewozik also agreed , and said Jones " has been remarkable " , " taking every ridiculous moment Glee has thrown at her and finding the true emotion at the core of the absurdity , which is what Glee at its best does . " However , he was disappointed by how the storyline played out : " it didn 't feel right that after the story the episode built around Brittany , it then felt that we needed to see Artie on his feet for it to be a truly happy ending . "
Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle was critical of the " really tedious Rachel / Finn back and forth " , and Canning wrote that the " only thing that really dragged the episode down was Rachel trying to win Finn back " . Keller asked rhetorically , " Do we still care about Rachel and Finn at this point ? " , and later stated , " nice as ' Last Christmas ' was , I 'm glad Finn didn 't fall for it . " Benigno noted that Finn 's few lines in the episode really counted .
Critics had widely divergent views of Sue 's storyline . Keller wrote , " They made Sue Sylvester into a cartoon character . " Though he called Sue 's destruction of the choir room " a fun little parody to watch " , he added , " in the grand scheme of what was a pretty damn good episode , it was too much of a distraction " , and worried that the role of Sue was becoming " a big fat joke " . While Canning also noted the shift in tone " from despicable Sue to cartoony evil Sue " , he enjoyed her " attempt to hijack Secret Santa " , and said it was " another fun reason to love to hate Sue Sylvester " . Hankinson felt that the Grinch was " the perfect touchstone for the heartless Ms. Sylvester and Jane Lynch 's lanky frame made the physical humor ( think gliding around the base of the tree on her belly ) really sing . " Poniewozik called Sue 's transformation " pretty amusing to watch " , admitted that he doubted he would " have been able to resist the urge to put the rangy Jane Lynch in that classic role " and called Brittany as Cindy Lou Who " unexpected , clever and surprisingly touching " . Several reviewers commented favorably on Becky playing Max , including Canning , who wrote " it was all worth it to realize Becky is and always will be the Max to Sue 's Grinch " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack declared , " I totally love how Becky is becoming Sue ’ s little minion . It ’ s both adorable and hilarious . "
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances received generally good marks , though some more than others . Canning described it as " an average song selection " , and wrote : " There are literally thousands of holiday songs to choose from and the ones sung in ' A Very Glee Christmas ' could have used some more of Santa 's magic . " Some reviewers commented on the songs themselves rather than the performances , including Wham ! ' s " Last Christmas " , which Canning described as " a terrible song in any season " , while Jen Harper of BuddyTV stated that she loved Wham !
Benigno called " The Most Wonderful Day of the Year " a " perfectly pleasant opening that the Gleeks sing while they decorate their tree " . Canning deemed it " the episode 's most successful song " and added that it " would have been a great tone setter if the rest of the episode hadn 't focused on heartbreak , hate and grinches " . Harper said that the song " got the episode off on the right holiday foot " , and Stack gave it a " B " and wrote that its performance " almost felt like the beginning of a real holiday musical . It was a little cheesy but also kind of charming and sweet . " The next song , " We Need a Little Christmas " , Benigno declared " fun but too short " . He added , " If there 's one thing this number teaches us , it 's that Mercedes is being woefully misused on this show and can carry a number as well , if not better than she can finish one . " Stack said that the " little taste " included in the show " sounded promising " , and Harper " totally loved this song " .
Kurt and Blaine 's duet on " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " received many more reviews than the other songs , and the greatest praise . Wieselman called it his " far and away favorite " song of the episode . Stack declared it the " complete and total highlight of the episode and one of the best moments of the second season " . He gave it an " A + " . Hankinson said it was the show 's " best musical number " , and described it as " well @-@ performed , sweet and wonderfully choreographed " ; he added : " It was bold , without being gimmicky " . The Atlantic 's Meghan Brown and Patrick Burns were both enthusiastic : Brown said " Kurt 's sweetly sexy duet with Blaine was near @-@ perfect " and " the vocals and choreography gave Chris Colfer and Darren Criss a real chance to shine " , while Burns called it " adorable " . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone wrote that it was " full of sweet harmonies and has an ideal undercurrent of romantic tension " , though Harper " wasn 't feeling any chemistry between them " ; she felt the performance was " a little overacted " , but noted that " their voices seem to like each other " . Benigno was also less enthusiastic ; he gave the song a " B − " and felt there was " something missing " from the rendition : " these two could have sang this number in their sleep and it kind of sounds like they did " .
Rachel 's performance of " Merry Christmas , Darling " had a good reception , but with caveats . Futterman wrote that " she nails the sentiment with her restrained take — but we 'd love to move past Rachel 's phase of singing Lite @-@ FM ballads while watching everyone in bliss around her " . Benigo called it " nice and fun " and Michele 's voice " still a thing of wonder " , and he gave the song an " A − " , but added he was weary of " Rachel In Anguish Face " . Stack gave it a " B " and said Michele " did a great job as usual " , but noted it wasn 't a favored holiday song . Of the reviewers who actually discussed Rachel and Finn 's performance of " Last Christmas " , both Benigno and Stack were enthusiastic and gave grades of " B + " and " A − " respectively . The former called it " one of the more fun songs " in the episode , and the latter described the performance as " really fun and had great production design " . Futterman felt that Michele 's vocals were " a bit diva @-@ esque for the simple pop tune " , but noted that there were " sweet moments " .
Of the two songs from How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! featured in the episode , the first , a voiceover vocal of " You 're a Mean One , Mr. Grinch " sung by k.d. lang , based on a version of the song by artist Aimee Mann , as Sue wreaks havoc on the choir room , confused some reviewers , who thought that it was sung by Lynch herself . Benigno was one of these , though he said it was " thoroughly enjoyable " , gave the song a " B + " , and approved of the change in lyrics from " Mr. Grinch " to " Sue the Grinch " . Harper also approved of the change , and admitted she thought Lynch had sung it until Google set her straight . Futterman called the song a " weirdly fitting moment " that " nevertheless fell a bit short of being fully realized " . The second song , " Welcome Christmas " , was welcomed by reviewers : Benigno described it as " really , really lovely " and gave it an " A " . Harper cheered , and noted that the song " was sung very much like a real glee club , without people getting to showboat individually " . Futterman characterized it as a " note @-@ perfect performance " , and wrote : " The layered harmonies and simple sentiment — ' Christmas will always be , just so long as we have glee ! ' — tie the episode up with a bow , smoothing out the bumps that came before it . "
= = = Chart history = = =
Most of the Christmas songs featured in the episode had been released on Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album four weeks prior to airing . There were two exceptions : " Welcome Christmas " did not appear on the album but was released as a single , and " Last Christmas " , which was on the album but had originally been released as a charity single a full year before the episode aired . The top song from the show on the Billboard Hot 100 was neither of these : " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " debuted at number fifty @-@ seven once the episode aired , despite not having been released separately as a single ; it had jumped from number one hundred thirty to number twenty @-@ seven on Billboard 's Digital Song chart that same week , and debuted at number fifty @-@ three on the Canadian Hot 100 . " Welcome Christmas " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine on the Hot 100 , and at number thirty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 . " Last Christmas " , when it charted in December 2009 , debuted at number sixty @-@ three on the Hot 100 , and number sixty @-@ two on the Canadian Hot 100 , but in December 2010 reappeared at number thirty @-@ five on the Digital Songs chart alongside " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , " Welcome Christmas " , and two other songs from the episode . The album itself reached number three on the Billboard 200 chart ; it sold over one million copies , and was certified platinum .
= Blackburn Meadows =
Blackburn Meadows is an area of land just inside the Sheffield city border at Tinsley . It became the location of the main sewage treatment works for the city in 1884 , and is now one of the largest treatment works in Britain . The treatment process was rudimentary , with sludge being removed to ponds and then to drying beds , after which it was used as manure or transferred by rail to a tip at Kilnhurst . The works progressively expanded to improve the quality of effluent discharged to the River Don and was a pioneer in the use of bio @-@ aeration , following experiments by the works manager during the First World War . This process became known as the " Sheffield System " , and was demonstrated to visitors from Great Britain and abroad . Despite these improvements , ammonia levels in the river below the works were high , and fish populations did not survive .
The works had its own internal standard gauge railway for over 100 years , which used three steam and three diesel locomotives over the course of its existence , until its replacement by road vehicles in the 1990s . During the 1926 general strike , the locomotives hauled trains over the main line , delivering wagons to Kilnhurst tip under a special dispensation . By the 1960s , the Sheffield sewer system was inadequate for the volume of effluent produced , and the Don Valley Interceptor Sewer was tunnelled beneath the city to the works , enabling 26 storm sewage overflows into the river to be shut down . Water quality was further improved by a new treatment process installed in 1992 to reduce ammonia levels , enabling fish stocks to be re @-@ established in the lower River Don . Subsequent improvements have been made so that the works complies with the Waste Incineration Directive and the Freshwater Fish Directive . The works was inundated by flood water on 25 June 2007 , when the Don burst its banks , but was recommissioned in just 18 days .
A power station was operational on the southern part of the site from 1921 , supplying electricity to the steel works of the Lower Don Valley . Although it closed in the 1970s , two of its cooling towers which were designed by L. G. Mouchel and Partners in 1937 , remained until 2008 , as demolition was difficult because of their proximity to Tinsley Viaduct , which carries the M1 motorway across the Don valley . Following extensive upgrading of the treatment works , to improve the quality of discharges to the river still further , the sludge beds became redundant , and have been turned into a nature reserve , providing habitat for migrating birds .
= = Sewage Treatment Works = =
Blackburn Meadows is the lowest point within Sheffield City Council area . The River Don flows out of the city under Templeborough railway bridge past a benchmark set at 96 feet ( 29 @.@ 27 m ) above sea level . The meadows therefore formed a good site for a sewage treatment works , and Blackburn Meadows works was opened in 1886 . It is located on a site to the north of the Don , and to the east of Tinsley Viaduct . In 2006 it was claimed to be the second largest treatment works in the United Kingdom , processing 79 million gallons ( 360 @,@ 000 m3 ) of effluent each day , with only the works at Leeds processing more .
= = = History = = =
As the population of Sheffield increased , Sheffield Corporation bought 23 acres ( 9 @.@ 3 ha ) of land at Blackburn Meadows , on which to build a sewage treatment works . In August 1884 , William Bissett and Son won the contract for its construction , which was overseen by Thomas West , who acted as Clerk of Works . 100 feet ( 30 m ) of standard gauge railway track connected the limeshed to a junction with the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway . Bissetts had completed their work by January 1886 , and although £ 2 @,@ 462 had been spent on extras , their final bill came to £ 23 @,@ 933 , which was £ 27 cheaper than the original contract value . Savings were made by using concrete for the foundations and bottoms of tanks , rather than brick and puddle clay .
By mid @-@ 1886 , the works was complete , and the Mayor , J. W. Pye @-@ Smith Esq , officially opened it on 2 June . The event was witnessed by members of the Council , and by invited guests , which included a representative from the London Metropolitan Board of Works . Reports at the time indicated that the sewage passed through catch pits by gravity , allowing solids to settle , which were removed weekly . Milk of lime was then added as it flowed through mixing channels , after which it entered rectangular settling tanks . Next it passed on to a number of precipitating tanks , each holding 50 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 230 m3 ) , where after 30 minutes of settling , it passed over aerating weirs . Finally it ran through coke filters and was discharged into the river . Around 100 long tons ( 100 t ) of sludge was removed from the precipitating tanks each day , to be pumped into ponds . Once the water had drained off , it was moved to drying beds , and was then used as manure by farmers , or was taken by rail to a tip at Kilnhurst , near Rotherham . Initially , there were 30 precipitating tanks and 60 aerating or filtering tanks .
The railway also developed , with the acquisition of 250 yards ( 230 m ) of portable track and six tipping wagons in 1889 , a steam crane later the same year , and more wagons in 1891 and 1892 . The first locomotive arrived in 1898 , after its purchase from the Yorkshire Engine Company . It was an 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 saddle tank , which had been built in 1875 for use as a contractor 's engine , and had been refurbished by the manufacturer . A maintenance contract for the wagons lapsed in 1900 , as the men at the works had become proficient at repairs .
In parallel with the construction of the works , trunk sewers were built to convey sewage from the city to the works . These was a major programme of expansion to the sewer network in 1910 , to ensure that it could cope with the expected volumes of effluent produced . Because British sewers are also expected to handle rainwater , a series of storm sewage overflows were provided , which resulted in diluted sewage being discharged into the River Don in times of heavy rainfall .
= = = Expansion = = =
The quality of the effluent discharged into the Don was soon giving rise to concern , as the treatment process was unsatisfactory . An act of Parliament was obtained in 1900 , which allowed Sheffield Corporation to buy an additional 105 acres ( 42 ha ) , on which contact beds would be built , so that the effluent could be better treated before discharge . The initial plan was costed at £ 367 @,@ 355 , which was reduced to £ 270 @,@ 369 when secondary contact beds were removed from the scheme . The Local Government Board approved the plans on 13 May 1905 , paving the way for the construction of a biological treatment system , instead of the system using lime . Logan and Hemmingway , who were contractors based at Nottingham , won the initial contract for excavations , and also the subsequent one for the construction of six settling tanks , 24 contact tanks , and Jordan bridge , which would carry the internal railway line over the River Don Navigation . The contract was worth £ 41 @,@ 046 , and further contracts followed , which included £ 36 @,@ 500 for 36 more contact beds and three settling tanks , £ 5 @,@ 000 for excavating 40 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 31 @,@ 000 m3 ) of earth , and £ 36 @,@ 484 for storm beds and other work , which was subsequently raised to £ 39 @,@ 184 , so that they could pay their workers at the same rate as Sheffield Corporation paid their own workmen .
The Lord Mayor opened the first part of the new works on 28 October 1909 , and Sheffield Council increased the amount of land they owned for sewage treatment to 226 @.@ 5 acres ( 91 @.@ 7 ha ) by buying another 81 acres ( 33 ha ) , on which contact beds could be constructed if required at a later date . Discharges to the river were still of poor quality , and a secondary treatment process was designed , although its implementation was delayed by the onset of the First World War . However , John Haworth became works manager in 1914 , and began to experiment with ways to treat the effluent . A continuous narrow channel was constructed within a tank , and paddles were used to agitate the liquid . This allowed it to become oxygenated , which supported bacteria , allowing them to digest the sewage . The process was called bio @-@ aeration , but became known as the " Sheffield System " , and a steady stream of people came to inspect the works , both from local authorities in Great Britain and from overseas . Many of the contact beds were converted to use the new system between 1922 and 1927 . The treatment process significantly reduced the biochemical oxygen demand of the effluent discharged to the river , but was not good at removing ammonia , which was a major contributor to the poor water quality of the river below the works , and the destruction of the fish populations . The effluent regularly contained more than 20 mg / l of ammonia , which resulted in levels of over 10 mg / l in the river . Few fish can survive in concentrations of over 2 mg / l .
In 1915 , the Corporation had made enquiries about purchasing a second @-@ hand steam engine , approaching six locomotive manufacturers , but eventually acquired a new 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 saddle tank from Peckett and Sons Ltd , which was built at their Bristol works in 1918 . The original engine became a spare , but was hired out to the Blackburn Meadows power station in March 1936 . A year later it was condemned by the insurance company , and was sold for scrap to Maden and McKee Ltd , who were based in Liverpool . A replacement was sought , and a third 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 saddle tank , made by Hudswell Clarke in 1914 , was bought from the Olympia Oil and Cake Company at Selby . It was coupled into a goods train , and arrived at the works in July 1937 . At the works , as at Selby , it carried the name Olympia , painted on the tanks . The Peckett was overhauled by the Yorkshire Engine Company at Meadow Hall Works between 1945 and 1946 . Because there was a statutory obligation to keep the treatment works operational , a special dispensation was obtained during the 1926 general strike , to allow this engine to run over the main line , delivering wagons to Kilnhurst tip . Kilnhurst tip eventually became full , and in January 1948 , regular tipping operations ceased , after a new tip at Thrybergh opened . Tipping continued at Kilnhurst sporadically , until it was closed in 1959 . During its operational life up to 1948 , 2 @,@ 917 @,@ 480 tons of sewage sludge was dumped at the site , and following closure , it was sold to the National Coal Board in 1961 .
= = = Modernisation = = =
The entire works was upgraded between 1956 and 1969 , in five distinct phases . The plan was announced in January 1956 , and was expected to cost £ 1 million . The first phase was the construction of a filter pressing plant , for which the main contractor was Norwest Construction Co Ltd , while the actual presses and other plant were supplied by S. H. Johnson and Co Ltd . This phase was completed in 1962 , and was officially opened by the Lord Mayor on 14 May 1963 . The second phase consisted of a preliminary treatment plant , a storm sewage separation plant , and metering of the flows within the plant . This was completed in 1965 . The third phase was split into two parts , which initially involved the building of new primary sedimentation tanks . Once these were operational in 1969 , the old sedimentation tanks were converted to become temporary storm sewage tanks . This fourth phase was called phase 3b , and was completed in 1970 . The final phase was the construction of a sludge incinerator , which was completed in 1969 and meant that the pressed sewage cake did not have to be taken to Thrybergh to be dumped .
The railway was also upgraded at this time . Thomas Ward Ltd supplied replacement track in 1955 , and a new 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 diesel electric shunter was ordered from Ruston and Hornsby Ltd in 1959 . It was delivered from Lincoln on a low @-@ loader in 1960 , and was so successful that a second engine of the same type was ordered the following year . The Hudswell Clarke steam engine was cut up on site in 1962 , but the Corporation wrote to Peckett 's to see if they would convert the Peckett engine to diesel hydraulic transmission . Peckett 's declined , and so the engine was converted at the works , by cutting off the boiler and saddle tank , and fitting a Perkins diesel engine removed from a crane . It was completed on 12 May 1962 , and worked well , although it spent most of its subsequent life working at Thrybergh tip . It returned to Blackburn Meadows in 1967 , and was cut up later that year . A prototype steel side @-@ tipping wagon was ordered from Robert Hudson Ltd of Leeds in 1955 , and a further 22 followed in 1957 , to replace the original wooden wagons . Charles Roberts and Co Ltd of Wakefield supplied 12 more in 1958 , and a further 35 in 1961 , with Hudsons supplying the final 6 in 1963 .
In 1976 , a new diesel shunting locomotive , made by Thomas Hill of Rotherham was purchased . It was built at Kilnhurst , and driven along the ex @-@ Great Central Railway line from there to the works . The first Ruston and Hornsby engine was partially dismantled , and eventually cut up in January 1978 . The connection between the works and the British Rail network was cut in 1984 , and the system became one of a very small number of isolated standard gauge railways . By 1986 , the track layout had been simplified , and the track across Jordan bridge had been lifted . When rail operation ceased in the 1990s , one of the Hudson tipping wagons went to the National Railway Museum at Shildon , and the Thomas Hill engine , after several changes of ownership , is now located on the Peak Rail preserved railway at Matlock .
By the 1960s , the Sheffield sewers were inadequate for the volume of effluent , and overflowed into the river during periods of light rainfall and sometimes when there was no rainfall . Some of them had been in use for 80 years , and inspection revealed that major reconstruction was required . The solution adopted was to tunnel the Don Valley Interceptor Sewer through the Carboniferous rock beneath the existing sewers . Work began of the first phase in 1979 , when 1 @.@ 33 miles ( 2 @.@ 14 km ) of 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) tunnel were built from the works to a drop shaft in Hawke Street . A new pumping station was required at Blackburn Meadows , and this phase was completed in July 1983 . Over the next decade , four further phases were completed , involving the tunnelling of 1 @.@ 39 miles ( 2 @.@ 24 km ) of sewer with a diameter of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) to a drop shaft near Furnival Road , a new sewer from Furnival Road to the Whitbread Brewery with another from the Sheaf Valley sewer to the central bus station , extension of the Don Valley sewer to Gilpin Street , and finally extension from Gilpin Street to Livesey Street in Hillsborough . As a result of this work , the capacity of the sewers was greatly increased , and 26 storm sewage overflows were closed , resulting in significant improvement to water quality in the river .
= = = Improvements = = =
In 1992 , the problem of ammonia levels in the final effluent was addressed by the construction of a system using anoxic zones and diffuse air activated sludge treatment . This dramatically reduced ammonia levels , and was the most significant factor in the re @-@ establishment of fish stocks in the lower River Don . In 1990 , the outdated filter presshouse and incineration plant were replaced by a new sludge @-@ dewatering plant and a fluidized @-@ bed incinerator . The new plant made the old sludge beds , situated to the east of the River Don and on the island formed by the Don and the Holmes Cut , redundant , and these have now become a nature reserve . Further improvements to the process were completed by 2005 . These included an upgrade to the wet scrubbing system , in order to remove heavy metals and acid gases such as sulphur dioxide , hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride from the flue gases produced by the incinerator , and the addition of a tertiary adsorption filter , which removes mercury and dioxins . The improvements were designed to ensure that the plant met the standards set out in the Waste Incineration Directive .
The outflow from the works , which passes under the River Don Navigation and joins the river beside Jordans weir , has in the past been a major contributor to the pollution of the River Don , but some £ 70 million has been invested in upgrading the plant , to ensure that discharges to the river meet the requirements of the Freshwater Fish Directive . In dry weather , the outfall discharges 30 million gallons ( 136 @,@ 000 m3 ) of treated water each day , more than doubling the flow in the river at this point .
The works was shut down on 25 June 2007 , after the Don burst its banks , and the entire site was engulfed by several feet of water . It remained submerged for over a week , with much of the equipment suffering catastrophic damage . Once the water subsided , imaginative ways had to be found to return it to operation within a reasonable time . The analyser which measures emissions from the incinerator plant had been completely destroyed , and in order to mitigate a 16 @-@ week delivery time , the manufacturers removed one from a training centre at Telford , and it was hired by Yorkshire Water until a new unit could be supplied . The plant was recommissioned and operational just 18 days after its inundation .
In 2012 , a contract for the construction of a mesophilic anaerobic digestion facility was awarded , including the construction of buildings and various other pieces of equipment required for the treatment of sludge . Mesophilic anaerobic digestion enables the breaking down of biodegradable materials using micro @-@ organisms under moderate temperatures . The new sludge treatment facility enables the recycled sludge to be used on neighbouring farmlands as manure , and also enables Yorkshire Water to generate 1.9MW of renewable energy using combined heat and power units .
= = Power Station = =
In 1921 , Sheffield Corporation built a coal @-@ fired power station on spare land at the south west corner of Blackburn Meadows . At the time there was no national grid , and the steelworks which occupied much of the Lower Don Valley needed additional electrical power . The chosen site was close to the steel works , was near the river , which supplied cooling water , and was well @-@ served by railway lines , to deliver coal . The station was modified between 1937 and 1942 , when its capacity was increased to 72 Megawatts , and remained operational until the 1970s . When the rest of the power station was demolished in the 1980s , two of its seven cooling towers were left standing due to their close proximity to the M1 motorway , and the risk that their demolition might cause Tinsley Viaduct to be damaged . The 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) towers were hyperbolic in shape , and were designed by L. G. Mouchel and Partners , who had also been responsible for the first such towers erected at Liverpool in 1925 . The Blackburn Meadows towers were built between 1937 and 1938 . English Heritage considered whether they should be designated as listed structures , but ruled against it because the internal cooling structures had been removed , and there was no context for them , as the rest of the station no longer existed . On 24 August 2008 , at 3 am , the two landmark towers were finally demolished with explosives , without damaging the motorway .
= = Nature Reserve = =
In 1993 Sheffield City Council negotiated with Yorkshire Water and leased an unused part of the former sewage works for 99 years , at an annual rent of one peppercorn , to enable it to be reclaimed and turned into a nature reserve . In order to manage the project , a consortium was formed , with representation from Sheffield City Council , Sheffield Wildlife Trust , South Yorkshire Forest and Yorkshire Water . It now provides habitat for migrating birds , for which it is an area of European significance . The Wildlife Trust run an active programme of school education visits . In 2005 the City Council exercised an option to increase the size of the reserve by taking over additional land from Yorkshire Water .
= Washington State Route 432 =
State Route 432 ( SR 432 ) is a 10 @.@ 32 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 61 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving the cities of Longview and Kelso in Cowlitz County . The highway travels east along the Columbia River from an intersection with SR 4 in West Longview through the Port of Longview and the termini of SR 433 and SR 411 in Longview . SR 432 crosses the Cowlitz River on a divided highway and ends at an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in Kelso . SR 432 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering as SR 832 , replacing a branch of Primary State Highway 12 ( PSH 12 ) that had been routed through Longview and Kelso since 1937 . SR 432 was established in 1968 and originally routed on Nichols Boulevard within Longview and was re @-@ aligned onto its current route in 1991 after the opening of Industrial Way .
= = Route description = =
SR 432 begins at an intersection with the Ocean Beach Highway , signed as SR 4 , in West Longview in Cowlitz County . The two @-@ lane highway travels southeast as Willow Grove Connection Road and Industrial Way around Mount Solo and into the city of Longview . The four @-@ lane SR 432 parallel to a Columbia and Cowlitz Railway line and the Columbia River through the Port of Longview and intersects the northern terminus of SR 433 , which travels on Oregon Way and the Lewis and Clark Bridge to Rainier , Oregon . The highway turns northeast onto 3rd Avenue and crosses a BNSF rail line before it intersects the Tennant Way divided highway and the southern terminus of SR 411 in a partial cloverleaf interchange . The SR 432 designation travels onto four @-@ lane Tennant Way grade @-@ separated highway and continues southeast , parallel to a BNSF rail yard , before intersecting Dike Road in a partial cloverleaf interchange and crossing over the Cowlitz River into Kelso . The highway travels south of Southwest Washington Regional Airport and intersects Talley Way in a partial cloverleaf interchange before intersecting I @-@ 5 . The partial cloverleaf interchange , nicknamed the Longview Wye , serves as the eastern terminus of SR 432 while the roadway continues south as the Old Pacific Highway .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 432 is the bridge over the Cowlitz River , serving 30 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busy section is the western terminus at SR 4 in West Longview , serving 3 @,@ 500 vehicles . The entire route of SR 432 is designated as an Intermodal Connector within the National Highway System , a highway system that includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility ; and as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington . SR 432 forms part of the Seattle to Portland Bicycle Classic , serving as the link between Longview and the Lewis and Clark Bridge via 3rd Avenue on the 202 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 325 km ) bicycle race held annually .
= = History = =
SR 432 has been part of the Washington state highway system since 1937 , when it was designated as a branch of PSH 12 . The Longview – Kelso branch of PSH 12 traveled 5 @.@ 47 miles ( 8 @.@ 80 km ) east from an intersection with the Ocean Beach Highway , signed as PSH 12 and U.S. Route 830 ( US 830 ) , onto Nichols Boulevard around Lake Sacajawea and Tennant Way in Longview and crossed the Cowlitz River to Kelso , where the highway ended at an intersection with the Pacific Highway , signed as PSH 1 and US 99 . The Longview – Kelso branch of PSH 12 was replaced by SR 832 during the 1964 highway renumbering and existed until US 830 was decommissioned in 1967 , as SR 432 was established as an auxiliary route of SR 4 before the highway system was codified in 1970 . SR 432 was re @-@ aligned onto its present route , Industrial Way , in 1991 to end at SR 4 in West Longview and to serve the Port of Longview . The eastern terminus of SR 432 , an interchange with I @-@ 5 nicknamed the Longview Wye , was reconstructed by WSDOT beginning in December 2009 . WSDOT removed the northwest loop ramp , which connected Old Pacific Highway to southbound I @-@ 5 , and replaced it with an improved interchange with Talley Way that opened on October 28 , 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Cowlitz County .
= Sky Ferreira =
Sky Tonia Ferreira ( born July 8 , 1992 ) is an American singer , songwriter , model , and actress . As a teenager , Ferreira began uploading videos on Myspace of herself singing songs she had written , which led to her discovery by producers Bloodshy & Avant and an eventual recording contract with Parlophone in 2009 . She released her first extended play , As If ! , in 2011 , which combined elements of electropop and dance music . Ferreira 's second extended play Ghost ( 2012 ) , however , incorporated pop with more stripped @-@ down song structures and featured collaborations with Jon Brion and Shirley Manson , as well as the critically acclaimed track " Everything Is Embarrassing " , which she composed with Dev Hynes .
After multiple delays and disputes with her record label , Ferreira 's debut studio album Night Time , My Time was released on October 29 , 2013 , and marked a departure from her former style , incorporating more experimental indie rock with synthpop elements . The album was preceded by its lead single " You 're Not the One " . That year , she ventured into the film industry after appearing in Eli Roth 's The Green Inferno and garnered media attention after being arrested for drug possession . She was exposed to a mainstream audience after having been announced as an opening act for the international Bangerz Tour , headlined by Miley Cyrus , which began on February 14 , 2014 .
Ferreira 's earlier work incorporated elements of dance @-@ pop , while her recent projects experiment with acoustic , new wave and primarily indie rock musical styles . Her lyrical content originally incorporated themes of rebellion and teenage romance , and has since evolved to discuss personal insecurities and more mature romantic themes . Outside of her work in the entertainment industry , she has modeled for several brands and magazines , including serving as the spokeswoman for the hair care brand Redken in 2014 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and career beginnings = = =
Sky Tonia Ferreira was born on July 8 , 1992 in Venice Beach , Los Angeles , California . About her mixed background , Ferreira has stated that “ My dad is Brazilian and Portuguese and my mom is Native American . It ’ s funny because I came out looking like , pretty white . ”
Ferreira was largely raised by her grandmother , who had been Michael Jackson 's personal hairstylist for over 30 years . She commented , saying : " I was raised around him , I always saw him [ and ] had holidays with him and stuff like that " , adding that she was unaware of his fame until she was 13 years old . Ferreira expressed interest in singing as a child and , with Jackson 's encouragement , Ferreira 's grandmother enrolled her in opera lessons . Ferreira has stated that she was sexually assaulted in her adolescence twice , firstly involving a neighbor , and secondly in an incident that involved a stranger who had broken into her home . In an interview with Rookie , Ferreira said : " I ’ ve never said anything [ about this publicly ] because I don ’ t want it to define me , but I feel like it 's appropriate to say something [ here ] . People feel like it defines you , and it doesn 't . It ’ s really unfortunate and disgusting and traumatizing , but it doesn 't make you who you are . " Ferreira dropped out of high school after completing her sophomore year .
Ferreira later began maintaining a Myspace profile where she uploaded demo versions of self @-@ written tracks . Shortly before her 15th birthday , she wrote a letter to producers Bloodshy & Avant requesting that they offer a recording contract to her , which she says happened " kind of right off the bat " after they came across her profile . In 2009 , she was signed to Parlophone , and began finalizing the debut studio album that she says was first begun when she was 14 years old . In 2010 , she ventured into the film and modelling industries after starring in the independent film Putty Hill and appearing in the magazines Dazed & Confused and Interview .
= = = 2011 – 12 : As If ! and Ghost = = =
After releasing the tracks " 17 " and " One " , the latter having peaked at number 64 on the UK Singles Chart , Ferreira announced that her debut studio album would be released on January 11 , 2011 . Its planned lead single " Obsession " had first appeared on the compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 35 in 2010 , and peaked at number 37 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . These plans never came to fruition , and were substituted for the extended play ( EP ) As If ! and its lead single " Sex Rules " that March . A writer for MuuMuse spoke favorably of her " vocal and musical versatility " and commended the project as a " rock solid 5 @-@ track collection of next @-@ level crunchy pop cuts . " During this time , Ferreira was featured in the advertising campaign for the Calvin Klein " CK One " product line alongside Cassie Ventura . The following year , she was photographed by Ellen von Unwerth for the cover of Vs . , and appeared in the Adidas " Originals " commercial with rappers Big Sean and Snoop Dogg .
In November 2011 , Ferreira announced that her debut studio album would be released in 2012 , with a lead single planned to precede its release that February . She was later revealed to have been working with Jon Brion , Greg Kurstin , and Shirley Manson on the project . In early 2012 , Ferreira revealed Wild at Heart as the title of her record , and confirmed " 24 Hours " and " Swamp Girl " for its track listing . " Lost in My Bedroom " , described by Ferreira as " the most electro pop [ song ] on the album " , surfaced online that March . After releasing the music video for the track " Red Lips " in June , she stated that she renamed the record I 'm Not Alright .
With her debut studio album still unreleased , Ferreira announced that her second extended play Ghost would be released in October . It respectively peaked at numbers 8 and 71 on the U.S. Billboard Top Heatseekers and Alternative Albums component charts to the Billboard 200 . Its lead single " Everything is Embarrassing " was described by Katherine St. Asaph of Pitchfork Media as the track where Ferreira " could well have her breakout moment " , complimenting it for beginning with " snappy , crisply sung dance @-@ pop about long @-@ awaited moments " and eventually transitioning into " what should be a buoyant chorus " . In her debut television performance , Ferreira performed the track on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon in January 2013 . The previously leaked track " Lost in My Bedroom " was included on Ghost , and was featured on an episode of ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy in December .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Night Time , My Time and support touring = = =
In June 2013 , Ferreira starred in the short film IRL playing Angel , which has been described as " an eye @-@ opening look into the reality of young life in New York " . That month , she again renamed her debut studio album I Will , and stated that it would be released " later this summer " . She noted that it would be composed of " ten up @-@ tempo songs , all still pretty electronic , although for some reason it comes across more pop @-@ rocky live . " It was again renamed Night Time , My Time , and announced to be released on October 29 , 2013 by Capitol Records . Upon its release , it received favorable reviews from music critics ; at Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 79 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on 30 reviews . Rolling Stone listed it as the fifth @-@ best debut album of 2013 , noting its potent blending of synthpop elements with a more grunge @-@ inspired indie rock sound . The album was also listed as the 25th best overall album of the year by Complex . The record debuted at number 45 on the U.S. Billboard 200 . " You 're Not the One " was released as the lead single from Night Time , My Time on September 24 , 2013 .
In September , Ferreira starred as Kaycee in the independent film The Green Inferno . In the early morning of September 14 , she and her boyfriend , DIIV frontman Zachary Cole Smith , were arrested at a traffic stop in Saugerties , New York for drug possession . Ferreira , who was in possession of ecstasy tablets , was arrested on drug possession and resisting arrest ; Smith was in possession of heroin . She bailed herself out of $ 1 @,@ 500 with her American Express credit card . In October , Ferreira cancelled the final week of her tour with Vampire Weekend after sustaining a hemorrhage to her vocal cords , which she later added was caused by a vocal node that was repeatedly misdiagnosed as laryngitis . In November , Ferreira and Icona Pop were announced as the opening acts for Miley Cyrus ' Bangerz Tour , which began on February 14 , 2014 . Later that month , she released her third extended play , Night Time , My Time : B @-@ Sides Part 1 . In December , Ferreira was announced as the spokeswoman for hair care brand Redken .
On February 20 , 2014 , during the third performance opening for the Bangerz Tour , Ferreira fell and split open her shin onstage . After completing the performance , Ferreira was taken by ambulance to an Anaheim hospital and treated with 60 stitches . As a result of the injury , she was forced to temporarily pull out of support for the tour , but returned shortly after . On November 20 , 2014 , while on her North American tour , Ferreira debuted a new track called " Guardian " .
= = = 2015 – present : Masochism and upcoming film roles = = =
On July 16 , 2014 , Ferreira announced via Twitter that she was working on her second album . She described the sound of the album as " more aggressive " and is working with Ariel Rechtshaid and Justin Raisen , with whom she produced Night Time , My Time , as well as Bobby Gillespie and Andrew Innes of Scottish band Primal Scream . Ferreira also expressed the wish to collaborate with Gesaffelstein . She also appeared in the 2016 comedy @-@ drama film Elvis & Nixon , directed by Liza Johnson , and has joined the cast of The Trust , which stars Nicolas Cage and Elijah Wood , and is directed by Benjamin and Alex Brewer .
Following fan speculation , Ferreira confirmed on April 7 that her upcoming second studio album will be titled Masochism . On May 12 , 2015 , the singer announced that she would be releasing a film co @-@ written and directed by her frequent collaborator Grant Singer accompanied by a new single with the album scheduled to be released later in the year . Jimmy Choo revealed on June 4 that Ferreira would be the face of their newest fragrance named " Illicit " . She collaborated with Primal Scream on the song " Where the Light Gets In " , which was released on February 1 , 2016 as the lead single from the band 's eleventh studio album , Chaosmosis . On April 25 , 2016 , it was announced that Ferreira will star in the 2017 sequel to David Lynch 's 1990s television series Twin Peaks .
= = Musical style = =
Ferreira is primarily a synthpop singer , but her earlier work incorporated elements of dance @-@ pop and electropop , most notably seen in tracks from As If ! and Ghost , this one also included elements of acoustic and new wave . Her lyrical content originally incorporated themes of rebellion and teenage romance ; Andrew Unterberger from Popdust opined that " 17 " " plays the girl @-@ gone @-@ wild tale as a near @-@ horror story , clearly meant to shock and upset " , while noting that " One " " instead features a robo ’ d out Sky bemoaning the breakdown of connection in a relationship , and her own inability to feel anything as a result . " As her career progressed , Ferreira more frequently experimented with elements of indie rock , which were commonly heard in her first album Night Time , My Time .
Julianne Escobedo Shepberd from Rolling Stone wrote that Ferreira 's " songs are catchy , but they ’ re also thickly glazed with fuzz and synths , evoking influences like Suicide , Siouxsie Sioux and the krautrock group Harmonia " . Karolina Ramos from The GW Hatchet compared Ferreira to New Zealand recording artist Lorde , both of whom she felt " tackle contemporary love , desire and insecurity with depth , composure and frankness . " She compared her musical style to 1980s pop music , and noted that " her throaty , sultry vocals call to mind Lana del Rey , abandoning brightness and vivacity for a colder tone . Still , Ferreira can drop the edge , with gentler tracks like " Sad Dream " showcasing her vocal range and seldom @-@ observed softness . " Andrew Unterberger stated that " through a variety of singles , EPs , guest features and live appearances , Sky has proven herself one of the most talented singers , creative songwriters and savvy collaborators currently working in the genre " , but blamed " bad marketing , label disputes and her own perfectionism " for the extended delay of Night Time , My Time ; he also stated that the repeated renaming of the record itself " should give you some idea of the musical identity issues she ’ s suffered over the years . "
After establishing a friendship with recording artist Miley Cyrus in 2013 , Gregory E. Miller from New York Post noted that the media and general public would continue " following her every move " . Ferreira commented that " [ Miley ’ s ] obviously way bigger and all eyes [ are ] on her , but I feel like we ’ re kind of going through a similar thing where everyone ’ s trying to say that we ’ re trying to make ourselves objects , but really , everyone else is making it more like that — sensationalizing sex and reading into things . It ’ s nice to have someone that gets it . " Ferreira had also generated a minor controversy after appearing topless on the cover for Night Time , My Time , to which she responded " there ’ s nothing about that photo that ’ s pornographic ; we came on this earth nude . " Ferreira is also a feminist , which has influenced her work ; she has said " I feel like I ’ m doing a bad job of being a feminist if I ’ m not making someone angry . "
= = = Influences = = =
Ferreira has cited Madonna , Prince , Fiona Apple , Gwen Stefani , Alice Cooper , Nancy Sinatra , Cat Power , Hole , Elliott Smith , Carly Simon , Françoise Hardy , Kate Bush , Britney Spears , and the Runaways as musical influences .
= = Philanthropy = =
In July 2014 , Ferreira performed at the Music Hall of Williamsburg in New York City to benefit the David Lynch Foundation . Ferreira announced that the funds raised would " go towards Transcendental Meditation ( TM ) programs for at @-@ risk students ; veterans with PTSD ; women who are survivors of domestic violence ; American Indians suffering from diabetes ; the homeless and incarcerate . " Of her own practice she said , " TM sort of saved my life . "
= = Discography = =
Night Time , My Time ( 2013 )
Masochism ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
= = Tours = =
Opening act
Bangerz Tour ( 2014 )
= Zaprešić =
Zaprešić ( pronounced [ zâːpreʃitɕ ] ) is a city in Zagreb County in Croatia . Its population is 19 @,@ 644 inhabitants for the city proper , and over 51 @,@ 000 for its seven @-@ municipality metropolitan area . Zaprešić is the third @-@ largest , and most densely populated division of the county . It is located northwest of the Croatian capital Zagreb , and near the Slovenian border . It is centered on plains north of the Sava River , and is bordered by Medvednica Mountain to the east , and the Marija Gorica Hills to the west .
The first human settlement in , and near Zaprešić dates from the Neolithic , and several Roman roads were constructed in the area . The first records of the modern town date from 1334 . Since that date , the town 's history includes being a part of a feudal estate to operating the first meat packaging plant in Croatia . However , it was not formally established as a city until 1995 . The city is governed by a mayor , a city government of seven members ( upper house ) , and a city council of twenty one ( lower house ) . The current ruling party is the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , and the current mayor is Željko Turk . Zaprešić has its own fire department , but police coverage is provided by the city of Zagreb . Komunalno poduzeće Zaprešić manages all utilities except electricity . Tap water in Zaprešić is of high quality .
Due to its many rail , and road transport corridors , Zaprešić has been dubbed the " northwestern gate to Zagreb County " . It lies directly next to the A2 highway connecting Zagreb to Central Europe . It also is adjacent to the main railway leading northwest out of Zagreb . Centered on the tertiary sector , the city 's economy is booming due to a large population influx .
Zaprešić 's educational facilities range from kindergartens to centers of higher education . The city is home to four elementary schools , one high school , and two universities . The Zaprešić metropolitan area contains six castles that together make up what is known as the " palace path . " The town also has a museum and an art gallery . The most popular sport in the region is football , and the local team is NK Inter Zaprešić , a member of the First Football League of Croatia . Other sports are also present in Zaprešić , and the city is home to a golf resort .
= = History = =
The first records of human inhabitants in the Zaprešić metropolitan area date back to the Neolithic , evident through stone axes found in Brdovec , and axes from the Copper Age found in Marija Gorica . Halstatt culture traces were uncovered in the area of Sveti Križ . The Romans left their imprints on Zaprešić in the form of the Siscia – Neviodunum – Emona road , which followed Sava River on its left bank through the Zaprešić area , passing near modern settlements .
After a lack of records from the first millennium , Zaprešić again became known in the late 11th century . In 1094 , following the formation of the Zagreb Diocese , Ača , an advisor of the Croato – Hungarian King Ladislav I , was granted land west and east of the Medvednica Mountain to protect the newly formed diocese . Zaprešić became part of the Susedgrad – Stubica manor , the second @-@ biggest estate in the Croato @-@ Hungarian Zagreb County . In 1334 , the parish church of St. Peter was founded in Zaprešić , marking the first evidence of the modern settlement of Zaprešić . The settlement developed rapidly , which is attributed to its position on important trade and transit routes . This was corroborated by the route of the first railway in Croatia , which passes through Zaprešić .
During 15th and 16th centuries , refugees from Lika came to Zaprešić to escape the Ottomans . Some of these refugees were the so @-@ called Brdovec Franciscans , for whom Lord Zylagy of Susedgrad built an abbey in Marija Gorica . The refugees brought the Ikavian accent , which was preserved for a long time in some small Zaprešić communities , although the Zaprešić area has historically been Ekavian Kajkavian ( yat being [ e ] or [ ɛ ] rather than [ i ] ) . The area was hit hard by the 1573 peasant revolt , led by Matija Gubec , who , according to historian Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski , managed the estate of Jablanovec , part of modern Zaprešić . One of the revolt leaders was Ilija Gregorić , a resident of Marija Gorica .
Two years later , the large manor of Susedgrad and Stubica started to disperse into many small estates owned by low @-@ level members of the nobility . Dozens of simple diocesan curia houses serve as a reminder of this nobility . After the First World War , the oldest meat industry in Croatia , the Industrija mesnih proizvoda , was founded .
Zaprešić was formally established for the first time in 1952 , when the Municipality of Zaprešić ( Croatian : Općina Zaprešić was formed . The municipality operated as part of the Zagreb kotar and later City of Zagreb . The City of Zaprešić ( Grad Zaprešić ) was incorporated on 30 November 1995 . On that day , parts of the surrounding municipalities of Pušća , and Hruševec Kupljenski ( which was disbanded , leaving only a namesake settlement ) and the City of Zagreb were incorporated into a new City of Zaprešić . The settlement of Merenje came under the jurisdiction of Zaprešić on 17 January 1997 .
= = Geography = =
Zaprešić is a part of the metropolitan area of Croatia 's capital and largest city , Zagreb . It is located 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) northwest of Zagreb , lying near the confluence of the Krapina River , and the Sava River . The small Lužnica River marks the western city border of Zaprešić . The Zaprešić metropolitan area consists of Zaprešić and seven surrounding municipalities : Brdovec , Bistra , Dubravica , Jakovlje , Luka , Marija Gorica , and Pušća . It is formed by the northwestern part of Zagreb County , bordered on the south by the Sava River , on the east by Zagreb , and the Medvednica Mountain , and on the west by the Sutla River , and the Slovenian border . According to the official website , three distinct geographic areas make up the Zaprešić area : the western part of the Medvednica Mountain , the Marija Gorica Hills and the plains that lie between . The western part of the Medvednica Mountain is fairly lightly inhabited , with no settlements except at the base of the mountain . These include the Bistra municipality and the Zaprešić settlement of Jablanovec . The Marija Gorica Hills are located mainly in the Marija Gorica municipality between the rivers of Krapina , and Sutla . The third area , the plains , is the area where the Zaprešić itself is located . Zaprešić has a lake , Lake Zajarki , situated between the town and the Sava River in the south . It is colloquially known as Bager ( Croatian word for excavator ) . The lake is currently still used as a gravel pit , although it is a known destination for Zaprešić swimmers and beach goers .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census , the town of Zaprešić has 25 @,@ 223 inhabitants , 19 @,@ 644 of whom live in the Zaprešić settlement ( naselje ) . This makes Zaprešić urban area at 1 @,@ 036 inhabitants per square kilometer ( 2 @,@ 683 per square mile ) the most densely populated in the whole of Zagreb County . The town is administratively divided into nine settlements , the largest of which is also called Zaprešić , covering a third of the town 's area . The metropolitan area of Zaprešić had 54 @,@ 640 inhabitants in 2011 , an increase from 51 @,@ 040 inhabitants in 2001 . About 96 % of inhabitants are Croats and 98 @.@ 3 % speak Croatian as their mother tongue . The sex ratio is 90 @.@ 63 men to 100 women , and the median age is 39 @.@ 9 years , which makes Zaprešić one of the younger towns in Zagreb County .
= = Economy = =
Due to its accessible location with favorable conditions for expansion , and a very high net migration , and population growth rates ( estimated to be 29 persons per 1 @,@ 000 per year ) , Zaprešić is expecting an economic boom . Despite the ongoing financial crisis that hit many cities in Croatia , including the capital , the town operates without loans and expects a yearly budget increase in the range of 20 to 30 percent . The tertiary sector is dominant with mainly retailing , and hospitality , and a smaller presence of tourism , as well as souvenir manufacturing ) and financial services . The secondary sector is also present with ceramic industry ( Inker ) , metalworking ( Karbon Nova , Lanac , and Unija metali ) and chemical industry ( Messer Croatia plin , Montkemija ) . The primary sector mainly consists of agriculture , and is expected to continue shrinking . There are currently 3 @,@ 040 hectares ( 7 @,@ 512 acres ) of arable land for agricultural use , but the town 's general urban plan anticipates an economic shift will lower the amount of agricultural use to 930 hectares ( 2 @,@ 298 acres ) by 2015 , thus speeding the process of suburbanization started by the expansion of Zagreb . The future of Zaprešić 's economy is seen in the development of small , and mid @-@ sized businesses , tourism , and food @-@ related industries . The city income tax rate is 12 percent . The city budget in 2008 amounted to HRK 198 million .
The Shopping City Zagreb ( also called West Gate Shopping Center ) is a shopping mall planned to create a major job demand in the Zaprešić region . Located next to the Krapina River and A2 highway , the center will serve 2 @.@ 3 million residents in the Zagreb region . It will also be the largest in the Zagreb metropolitan area with 100 @,@ 000 square meters ( 1 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of gross leasable area . Construction started in late 2007 . It was opened in October 2009 .
= = Culture and media = =
Zaprešić 's cultural heritage includes a series of six historic castles and palaces known as " the palace path " ( Croatian : staza dvoraca ) : Lužnica mansion , Januševac palace , Laduč mansion , Oršić family mansion , Jakovlje palace , and Novi Dvori . Of these , Oršić and Januševec are in the zeroth category of cultural heritage preservation of UNESCO , Lužnica is in the first category of the Croatian Ministry of Culture , and Laduč and Novi Dvori are in the second category of the Ministry of Culture . Jakovlje palace is not involved in any cultural preservation program . Novi Dvori ( also known as Novi Dvori Jelačićevi – New Jelačić Palace ) is known for being the residence of Josip Jelačić , one of the most famous Croatian bans . However , before that it was inhabited by five families ( the last one being Erdödy ) after its construction in 1611 as a simple two @-@ story house . It remains a well @-@ preserved example of a manorial estate . The palace was left to the state in 1934 by Josip Jelačić 's nephew and nieces .
The town is home to the Museum of Matija Skurjeni ( opened in 1984 ) , a gallery of works by the renowned painter . It is located in the former granary of Novi Dvori . The art gallery Razvid , that opened in 1991 , has held exhibitions of works by many important Croatian artists , such as Franjo Ferenčak , Ivan Lovrenčić , Drago Grgas , Davor Vuković ( a native of Zaprešić ) and Krešimir Trumbetaš . The Zaprešić main library , " Ante Kovačić " , is a part of the association of Zagreb City Libraries ( Croatian : Knjižnice Grada Zagreba , KGZ ) , and has 5 @,@ 541 members with access to 78 @,@ 385 books . Albin Bonzelli , an employee of Baron Levin Rauch , founded the first library in Zaprešić area in 1921 in Brdovec . A more recent library was founded in 1958 , and moved to its present location in 1986 .
Zaprešić contains the ornithological reserve Zaprešić @-@ Sava , which is located south of the city , at Lake Zajarki . The reserve is covered mainly with woods and thick low vegetation , and criss @-@ crossed by fluvial marshes . Zaprešić operates a hunting office , which is made of eight clubs : Zaprešić , Kuna , Vidra , Fazan , Srnjak , Šljuka ( offices in Luka , and Bistra ) and Vepar . A radio station operates in Zaprešić : Radio Zaprešić ( also known as Round Wave Station Zaprešić , Croatian : Krugovalna postaja Zaprešić ) . The station broadcasts a FM signal at 96 @.@ 0 and 99 @.@ 5 MHz , 24 hours each weekday . It was founded on 15 January 1987 . The local monthly newspaper Prigorski Kaj has its seat in the nearby settlement of Šenkovec in the Brdovec municipality .
= = Sports and recreation = =
Organized sports in Zaprešić started in 1926 , with the first football match between unregistered teams from Zaprešić and Savski Marof . The football club NK Sava ( now called NK Inter Zaprešić ) was soon formed in 1929 . There are 20 sport clubs and associations in Zaprešić , and the most popular ones are association football , basketball , handball , bowling , tennis , table tennis , chess , cycling , taekwondo , and bocce . Zaprešić is the home to several influential sports clubs , such as NK Inter Zaprešić ( football ) , KK Fortuna Zaprešić ( basketball ) , RK Zaprešić ( handball ) , KK Zaprešić ( bowling ) and others . NK Inter Zaprešić currently plays in Croatian Second Football League . It is currently the best @-@ placed football club in the county . Most of the sports clubs in Zaprešić are members of the Town of Zaprešić Sports Society ( Croatian : Zajednica športskih udruga Grada Zaprešića ) . The main sports venue is the ŠRC Zaprešić ( Sports and Recreation Center Zaprešić ) , which encompasses a football stadium and a gym . There are other sports courts in Hruševec Kupljenski , Ivanec , Jablanovec , Kupljenovo , and Pojatno . NK Inter Zaprešić 's home stadium is ŠRC Zaprešić , located in the northwest part of the town and handling up to 5 @,@ 528 visitors .
The 140 @-@ hectare ( 346 @-@ acre ) golf resort " Novi dvori " was opened on 16 October 2004 , with Prime Minister Ivo Sanader being the first to tee off . However , as of 2009 , only a few parts are in use , with a 27 @-@ hole course currently under construction . Nine of these holes will be reserved for practice and eighteen for tournament play . The center operates a driving range with two practice courses of different sizes , and an area to practice putting green play . One practice course is sheltered from weather conditions and the whole golf course has night lighting . In terms of normal play , three par 3 holes are currently operational and friendly par 9 tournaments are often held at the course . The course also has other amenities , such as a restaurant and the proximity to the Novi Dvori palace . When the construction ends , the golfers will have access to a conference room , a business center , a fitness club , a sauna , and a massage parlor .
= = Government = =
Despite the settlement of Zaprešić 's long history , only with the founding of the Town of Zaprešić on 30 November 1995 did it have its own elected representatives . The towns administration includes two tiers of power : a mayor and a city council . The city council is elected each four years . The mayor ( Croatian : gradonačelnik ) has executive power . He is elected directly by the voters . Current Mayor is Željko Turk ( Croatian Democratic Union — HDZ , elected in 2006 , re @-@ elected 2009 and 2013 ) , whose deputys are Damir Benčević and Alan Labus . Zaprešić is part of the 1st Croatian electoral district , which consists of western Zagreb , and the Zaprešić metropolitan area .
The city council ( Croatian : gradsko vijeće ) has the legislative power over the town . It represents the residents of Zaprešić and manages city budget , and it is composed of twenty one members with one presiding and two vice @-@ presiding members .
= = Education = =
The Town of Zaprešić provides education ranging from pre @-@ school to higher education . These include four registered kindergartens ( stationed on seven locations ) , four elementary schools , one high school , and one college . Elementary schools located in Zaprešić include Antun Augustinčić , Ljudevit Gaj , and Kupljenovo elementary schools , and a branch of the Bistra elementary school from the Bistra municipality . The Ban Josip Jelačić High School is located on the Franjo Tuđman Square in the northwestern part of the town . Zaprešić has a college for business and management , named after the Croatian historian and theologian Baltazar Adam Krčelić , and located in the town center on Novak Street . The open university in Zaprešić ( Croatian : Pučko otvoreno učilište Zaprešić ) offers various courses in languages , computer science , and musical instruments , as well as vocational training .
= = Infrastructure = =
Zaprešić is covered mostly by the postal code " 10290 Zaprešić " , and Croatian Mail operates four post offices in the city : in Ivanec Bistranski , Lužnica , Šibice and Zaprešić . The city proper overlaps with the areas of postal codes " 10294 Donja Pušća " ( Pojatno ) , " 10295 Kupljenovo " ( Hruševec Kupljenski , Kupljenovo , Merenje ) and " 10298 Donja Bistra " ( Jablanovec ) . Zaprešić has its own police station , PP Zaprešić , a Zagreb County branch of the City of Zagreb Police Department responsible for all of the Zaprešić metropolitan area . Fire coverage is provided by the City of Zaprešić Fire Department ( Croatian : Javna vatrogasna postrojba grada Zaprešića ) , which also serves the complete seven @-@ municipality metropolitan area . There are six volunteer fire brigades in Zaprešić proper , all members of the Zaprešić Firefighting Community ( Croatian : Vatrogasna zajednica Grada Zaprešića ) . Zaprešić also has a municipal court .
All utilities except electricity are managed by Komunalno poduzeće Zaprešić ( English : Utility company Zaprešić ) . Zaprešić 's electricity is , as in the rest of Croatia , provided by Hrvatska elektroprivreda , and distributed by Elektra Zagreb , a company managing access to electricity in Zagreb , and Zagreb County . Zaprešić receives tap water from underground water reserves through a water pump in the settlement of Šibice . The water from the water pump is of drinking quality . However , local factories Pliva , and Kvasac produce waste water , which is released into the Sava River through the Harmica @-@ Pliva @-@ Zaprešić water treatment plant . Before the construction of the treatment plant , the polluted water was piped into the Gorjak Creek , endangering the tap water quality . Possible consequences of releasing waste water into the Sava will be dealt with by the construction of the Zajarki water purification system for screening the used water . The ecological problem is multiplied by the fact that the utility company received only 400 requests to clean septic tanks in 2007 , although most households in the relatively rural surroundings of Zaprešić use septic systems . There are plans of constructing four hydroelectric power plants around Zagreb with one being in Zaprešić ( HE Zaprešić , also known as HE Podsused ) as a part of a system of exploiting natural resources of the Sava River .
= = Transport = =
The town is a major transport hub for the area of Zagreb County and Zagreb itself . It is thus known as the " northwestern gate to Zagreb County . " The Zagreb bypass , and the tolled A2 highway ( Zagreb – Macelj , toward Austria ; part of European Route E59 , and pan @-@ European corridor Xa ) pass through the eastern part of Zaprešić , providing Zaprešić with highway access at a cloverleaf interchange . The State Route D225 is a major arterial road in Zaprešić . It forms the Pavao Lončar and Marshal Tito Streets , leading west towards Brdovec , Marija Gorica and Slovenia , and east towards western Zagreb , Jablanovec , and Stubica . According to the current city urbanistic plan , the traffic on the D225 will be re @-@ routed through two city bypasses along the northern and western railway lines to clear the center of Zaprešić of 25 @,@ 000 daily commuters driving on a two @-@ lane road .
Mass transit provides intra @-@ city and inter @-@ city connections in form of bus and rail . Zaprešić is a major railway intersection , with railways leading west to Slovenia ( Corridor X ) , north to Zabok , and Kumrovec ( Corridor Xa ) and east to the main regional railway hub Zagreb . Croatian Railways services the Zaprešić train station with major interstate trains going to the west , but also with the suburban line Savski Marof – Zagreb Main Station – Dugo Selo . The town is serviced by two bus companies : the regional Zagrebački električni tramvaj ( ZET ) and local Meštrović prijevoz . ZET operates line 172 to Zaprešić , which starts at the Črnomerec bus terminal in Zagreb and runs every 8 to 15 minutes during day , and at irregular intervals during the night . Lines 176 and 177 run to the Zaprešić suburban municipality of Bistra . Meštrović prijevoz , the main intra @-@ city bus company of Zaprešić , operates bus lines connecting Zaprešić and all municipalities in its metropolitan area .
Zaprešić lies along the left bank of the Sava River , but it does not have any bridges that would connect the town to Samobor , on the other bank , as the nearest bridge is the Podsused bridge , located in the Podsused – Vrapče district of Zagreb . However , two ferries connect Zaprešić with the roads in Medsave and Samoborski Otok , small villages near Samobor . The widest river in the area , the Sava River , used to be navigable up to Krško , Slovenia in Roman times . However , it is , as of 2009 , navigable only up to Rugvica , leaving Zaprešić with no more possibility of river transport . The city does not have a port on any of its rivers .
To establish better transport capabilities , and create a solid ground for the emerging air sports that are already available in the town ( e.g. hang gliding or paragliding ) , an airport is planned northeast of the city , between the Krapina River and the railroad . The land at this location is unused , uninhabited , and administratively selected for sports and recreation . The arrangement of the runways , taxiways , air traffic control building , hangar , and other necessary buildings have already been determined . The airport is intended to serve primarily as a sports airport , for teaching flying , and for charter flights . As of January 2009 the date when the construction starts had not yet been announced .
= = Notable inhabitants = =
A known historical resident of Zaprešić was Count Josip Jelačić of Bužim ( 1801 – 59 ) , the Ban of Croatia from 1848 until his death . Although born in Novi Sad , Serbia ( then Croatia ) , he received an estate in Zaprešić together with his title . He is responsible for abolishing serfdom in Croatia in 1848 , but also for an infamous suppression of Croatian intelligentsia , and the Illyrian movement during his reign under the orders of Baron Alexander von Bach , and Emperor Franz Joseph I. A statue of Jelačić riding a horse was constructed by Anton Dominik Fernkorn , and placed on the Zagreb 's central square , Ban Jelačić Square . The statue has been repeatedly removed , and reinstated during changes in political power and orientation in Croatia , from monarchist , through ultra @-@ nationalist , and communist , up to democratic . After the Croatian declaration of independence , marking the start of the democratic era , the statue was returned to the square , and Zaprešić credits Jelačić with a major arterial road named in his honor .
Baltazar Adam Krčelić ( 1715 – 78 ) , a historian , theologian , legal expert , and a canon in Zagreb , lived in what became the Zaprešić metropolitan area . Actually born in Šenkovec , Brdovec , he was the rector of the Croatian language course in Vienna . He wrote 757 books in Latin , and the Kajkavian dialect of Croatian .
The Illyrian movement of Slavic independence in Croatia can also be traced to Zaprešić through two of its citizens : Ivan Perkovac ( 1826 – 71 ) , publicist from Harmica , Brdovec , editor of Vijenac and Pozor , secretary of Matica hrvatska , and a member of Sabor , the Croatian parliament ; and Pavao Štoos ( 1806 – 62 ) , a poet , a priest , and an important member of the Illyrian movement from Dubravica . Ante Kovačić ( 1854 – 89 ) from Marija Gorica lived in the aftermath of the Illyrian movement , but nevertheless became a fruitful writer . His most important work is U registraturi ( English : In the Registry ) , a novel following the life of Ivica Kičmanović , a peasant who is raised in a village and goes to live in a large city .
Zaprešić 's recent history includes several known Croatian public figures , such as Matija Skurjeni ( 1898 – 1990 ) , a Croatian naïve painter who lived in Zaprešić from 1953 until his death . He was a co @-@ founder of the Croatian Society of Naïve Painters . An art gallery with his works was opened in Zaprešić in 1987 . This art gallery changed to a museum in 2000 . Other well @-@ known inhabitants include Davor Gobac ( b . 1964 ) , the frontman of Psihomodo Pop . Although he was born in Karlovac , he is a resident of Zaprešić ; Davor Vuković ( b . 1951 ) , a painter and poet from Herceg Novi , residing in Zaprešić ; and Mira Vlahović , an opera singer . Vlahović sang at the Croatian National Theater . The music scene in Zaprešić includes Connect , a hip hop band formed in Zaprešić . Connect is the creator of the Croatian football hip hop hymn " Samo je jedno " .
= Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country =
Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country is a 1991 American science fiction film . It is the sixth feature film based on Star Trek , a sequel to 1989 's Star Trek V : The Final Frontier and the last film featuring the entire cast of the original series . After the destruction of the moon Praxis leads the Klingon Empire to pursue peace with their long @-@ time adversary the Federation , the crew of the USS Enterprise must race against unseen conspirators with a militaristic agenda .
The sixth film in the series was initially planned as a prequel to the original series , with younger actors portraying the crew of the Enterprise while attending Starfleet Academy , but the idea was discarded because of negative reaction from the original cast and the fans . Faced with producing a new film in time for Star Trek 's 25th anniversary , Nicholas Meyer , the director of Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , and Denny Martin Flinn wrote a script based on a suggestion from Leonard Nimoy about what would happen if " the Wall came down in space " , touching on the contemporary events of the Cold War .
Principal photography took place between April and September 1991 . The production budget was smaller than anticipated because of the critical and commercial disappointment of The Final Frontier . Because of a lack of sound stage space on the Paramount lot , many scenes were filmed around Hollywood . Meyer and cinematographer Hiro Narita aimed for a darker and more dramatic mood , subtly altering sets originally used for the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Producer Steven @-@ Charles Jaffe led a second unit that filmed on an Alaskan glacier that stood in for a Klingon gulag . Cliff Eidelman produced the film 's score , which is intentionally darker than previous Star Trek offerings .
The film was released in North America on December 6 , 1991 . The Undiscovered Country garnered positive reviews , with publications praising the lighthearted acting and facetious references . The film performed strongly at the box office . It posted the largest opening weekend gross of the series before going on to earn $ 96 @,@ 888 @,@ 996 worldwide . The film earned two Academy Award nominations , for Best Makeup and Best Sound Effects , and is the only Star Trek movie to win the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film . A special collectors ' edition DVD version of the film was released in 2004 , to which Meyer had made minor alterations . Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry died shortly before the movie 's premiere , just days after viewing the film . The film marked the final appearance together of the original series ' cast .
= = Plot = =
As a Klingon moon , Praxis , explodes without warning , the starship USS Excelsior , commanded by Captain Hikaru Sulu , is struck by the shock wave and its crew discovers that much of the moon has been obliterated . The loss of their key energy production facility and the destruction of the Klingon homeworld 's ozone layer throws the Klingon Empire into turmoil . No longer able to maintain a hostile footing , the Klingons sue for peace with their longstanding enemy , the United Federation of Planets . Accepting the proposal before the Klingons revert to a more belligerent approach , Starfleet sends the USS Enterprise @-@ A to meet with the Klingon Chancellor , Gorkon , and escort him to negotiations on Earth . Enterprise 's captain , James T. Kirk , whose son David was murdered by Klingons years earlier , opposes the negotiations and resents his assignment .
After a rendezvous between Enterprise and Gorkon 's battlecruiser they continue towards Earth , with the crews sharing a tense meal aboard Enterprise . Later that night , Enterprise appears to fire on the Klingon ship with a pair of photon torpedoes , disabling the artificial gravity aboard the Klingon vessel . During the confusion , two figures wearing Starfleet suits and gravity boots beam aboard the Klingon ship and grievously wound Gorkon before beaming away . Kirk surrenders to avoid a fight , and beams aboard the Klingon ship with Doctor Leonard McCoy to attempt to save Gorkon 's life . The chancellor dies , and Gorkon 's chief of staff , General Chang , puts Kirk and McCoy on trial for his assassination . The pair are found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment on the frozen asteroid Rura Penthe . Gorkon 's daughter , Azetbur , becomes the new chancellor , and continues diplomatic negotiations ; for reasons of security , the conference is relocated and the new location is kept secret . While several senior Starfleet officers want to rescue Kirk and McCoy , the Federation president refuses to risk full @-@ scale war . Azetbur likewise refuses to invade Federation space , stating that only Kirk and McCoy will pay for her father 's death .
Kirk and McCoy arrive at the Rura Penthe mines and are befriended by a shapeshifter named Martia , who offers them an escape route ; in reality , it is a ruse to make their arranged deaths appear accidental . Once her betrayal is revealed , Martia transforms into Kirk 's double and fights him , but she is killed by the prison guards to silence any witnesses . Just before the prison warden reveals who set them up , Kirk and McCoy are beamed aboard Enterprise by Captain Spock , who had assumed command and undertaken an investigation in Kirk 's absence . Determining that Enterprise did not fire the torpedoes but that the assassins are still aboard , the crew begins looking for them . The two assassins are found dead , but Kirk and Spock trick their accomplice into believing they are still alive . When the culprit arrives in Sickbay to finish off the assassins , Kirk and Spock discover that the killer is Spock 's protégé , Valeris . To discover the identity of the conspirators , Spock initiates a forced mind @-@ meld , and learns that a group of Federation , Klingon , and Romulan officers plotted to sabotage the peace talks , fearing the changes their success might bring ( the titular " undiscovered country " ) , and Chang is one of the conspirators . The torpedoes that struck Gorkon 's cruiser came from a prototype Bird of Prey that can fire while cloaked , and hovered just below Enterprise at the time of the assassination .
The crew contacts Sulu , who informs them the conference is being held at Camp Khitomer . Both ships head for the talks as fast as they can . As Enterprise nears the planet , Chang 's cloaked Bird of Prey moves to intercept . With Enterprise unable to track his ship 's position , Chang inflicts severe damage on Enterprise and then Excelsior . At the suggestion of Uhura , the Enterprise 's communication officer , Spock and McCoy modify a photon torpedo to home in on the exhaust emissions of Chang 's vessel , using equipment originally intended to study gaseous anomalies . The torpedo impact reveals Chang 's location , and Enterprise and Excelsior destroy the Bird of Prey with a volley of torpedoes . Crew from both ships beam to the conference and halt an attempt on the Federation president 's life . Kirk pleads for those present to continue the peace process . Having saved the peace talks , Enterprise is ordered back to Earth by Starfleet Command to be decommissioned , but the crew decide to take their time on the return voyage . As Enterprise cruises towards a nearby star , Kirk proclaims that though this mission is the final cruise of Enterprise under his command , others will continue their voyages .
= = Cast = =
The Undiscovered Country 's cast includes the final group @-@ appearance of the major characters from the original television series , and new actors and characters . Casting director Mary Jo Slater loaded the film with as many Hollywood stars as the production could afford , including a minor appearance by Christian Slater , her son , as an Excelsior officer ; Cinefantastique considered the cameo a likely attempt to lure younger audiences . Meyer was interested in casting actors who could project and articulate feelings , even through alien makeup . Producer Ralph Winter said , " We were not looking for someone to say ' Okay , I 'll do it ' , but people who were excited by the material [ ... ] and would treat it as if it was the biggest picture ever being made . "
William Shatner plays Captain James T. Kirk ; Shatner felt that though dramatic , the script made Kirk look too prejudiced . Kirk 's second @-@ in @-@ command , the Vulcan Spock , is portrayed by Leonard Nimoy . DeForest Kelley plays Leonard McCoy , the chief medical officer of the Enterprise ; Kelley 's appearance as the doctor in The Undiscovered Country was to be his last . With Leonard Nimoy the film 's executive producer , the 71 @-@ year @-@ old Kelley was paid US $ 1 million for the role , assuring a comfortable retirement for the veteran actor . Kelley and Shatner shot their prison scenes over the course of six to eight nights ; the two actors got to know each other better than they ever had .
Other members of the Enterprise crew include James Doohan as chief engineer Montgomery Scott , Walter Koenig as navigator Pavel Chekov , and Nichelle Nichols as Uhura , the communications officer . Uhura was supposed to give a dramatic speech in Klingon during the film , but midway through production the element was scrapped and a scene where Uhura is speaking garbled Klingon , surrounded by books , was added for extra humor . Nichols protested the scene , wondering why there were still books in the 23rd century , but accepted the change since it would be the last Star Trek film she would appear in . Nichols was more uncomfortable with some of the dialogue 's racial undertones . Her character was originally to speak the line , " Guess who 's coming to dinner , " as the Klingons arrive on the Enterprise , but refused to say the part and it was given to Koenig 's character instead . Nichols also refused to say the line " yes , but would you like your daughter to marry one [ a Klingon ] " , and it was dropped from the film altogether . George Takei also returned as former helmsman Hikaru Sulu , though his character is now commander of the USS Excelsior , which includes former Enterprise yeoman Janice Rand ( again played by Grace Lee Whitney ) as a communications officer .
Kim Cattrall plays Valeris , the Enterprise 's new helmsman and the first Vulcan to graduate at the top of her class at Starfleet Academy . Valeris becomes the protégé of Captain Spock , who intends her to be his replacement . Initially , the character of Saavik , who appeared in the second through fourth Star Trek films , was intended to be the traitor , but Gene Roddenberry objected to making a character loved by fans into a villain . Cattrall was unwilling to be the third actress to play Saavik ( a part she had originally auditioned for ) , but accepted the role when she became a different character . Cattrall chose the Eris element of the character 's name , for the Greek goddess of strife , which was Vulcanised by the addition of the " Val " at the behest of director Nicholas Meyer . Cinefantastique reported that during filming , Cattrall participated in a photo shoot on the empty Enterprise bridge , where she wore nothing but her Vulcan ears . The story claimed Nimoy personally ripped up all of the photographs and negatives when he learned about the unauthorized photo session , because he feared harm to the franchise if it ever came to light .
The main Klingons are portrayed by Christopher Plummer as Chang , David Warner as Gorkon , and Rosanna DeSoto as Azetbur . Plummer and Shatner had performed together in various productions in Montreal . Meyer wrote the role for Plummer , who was initially reluctant to accept it . The role of Gorkon was initially offered to Jack Palance . Warner had appeared in Meyer 's first film , the 1979 science @-@ fiction film Time After Time , and had played a human ambassador in The Final Frontier . The actor 's make @-@ up was made to resemble Abraham Lincoln , as another way of humanizing the otherwise alien Klingon leader . When filming his character 's death , a large lamp exploded and rained down in pieces on Warner and Kelley ; one heavy piece barely missed striking Warner 's head , which Kelley was sure would have killed him .
Iman plays the role of Martia , a shapeshifting alien on the prison planet Rura Penthe who leads Kirk and McCoy into a trap . When Flinn originally developed the character , he had in mind a space pirate which he described as the " dark side of Han Solo " . Flinn imagined an actress like Sigourney Weaver in the role , who was " as different as night and day " from Iman . Meyer described Martia as " Kirk 's dream woman " , and when the makeup artists learned Iman was cast for the role they decided to enhance her graceful bird @-@ like appearance with feathers . Yellow contact lenses completed the look .
Other Starfleet officers include Brock Peters as Fleet Admiral Cartwright , a high @-@ ranking officer in Starfleet who vehemently protests Klingon entry into Federation space . Peters had previously appeared as Cartwright in Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home . Director Nicholas Meyer chose Peters for Star Trek VI partly based on his acting as the wrongly convicted black man Tom Robinson in To Kill a Mockingbird . Meyer thought that Cartwright 's vitriolic speech would be particularly chilling and meaningful coming from the mouth of a recognized minority . The content of the speech was so repugnant to Peters that he was unable to deliver it in one take . Peters later went on to play Joseph Sisko , father of Benjamin Sisko in the series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . John Schuck also reprised his Voyage Home role as a Klingon ambassador . Kurtwood Smith appeared as the Federation President . René Auberjonois plays Colonel West , the would @-@ be assassin of the Federation President . Meyer was a friend of Auberjonois and offered him a chance to cameo months before filming . His part was cut from the theatrical version but reinstated on home video . Auberjonois would later portray security chief Odo on the series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Also , in a nod to the Next Generation series , Michael Dorn plays Colonel Worf , an ancestor of his Worf character who defends Kirk and McCoy at their trial .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Final Frontier , the previous film in the series , was a critical and financial disappointment ; the cast and crew were worried that the franchise would not be able to recover from the blow . With the looming 25th anniversary of the original series in 1991 , producer Harve Bennett revisited an idea Ralph Winter had for the fourth film : a prequel featuring young versions of Kirk and Spock at Starfleet Academy . The prequel was designed to be a way of keeping the characters , if not the actors , in what was called " Top Gun in outer space " . Bennett and The Final Frontier writer David Loughery wrote a script entitled The Academy Years , where Dr. Leonard McCoy talks about how he met Kirk and Spock while addressing a group of Academy graduates . The script shows Kirk and Spock 's upbringing , their meeting McCoy and Montgomery Scott at the Academy and defeating a villain before parting ways . The script would have established that George Kirk , James T. Kirk 's father , was a pilot who went missing — presumed dead — during a warp experiment with Scott . The script is set before the " enlightenment " of the Federation ; slavery and racism are common , with Spock being bullied because he is the only Vulcan student . Nurse Christine Chapel cameos in the script 's climax .
Actor James Doohan claimed that Paramount chief Frank Mancuso had fired Bennett following negative reaction from the core cast , Roddenberry , and fans . Bennett claimed that after he rewrote the script to include Shatner and Nimoy , Paramount had still rejected it and that he decided it was time he left the franchise . He said , " My term was up . I was offered $ 1 @.@ 5 million to do Star Trek VI and I said ' Thanks , I don 't want to do that . I want to do the Academy . ' " Actor Walter Koenig approached Mancuso with a new script outline codenamed " In Flanders Fields " ; in it , the Romulans join the Federation and go to war with the Klingons . The Enterprise crew , except Spock , are forced to retire for not meeting fitness tests . When Spock and his new crew are captured by a monstrous worm @-@ like race of aliens ( which Koenig described as " things that the monsters in Aliens evolved from " ) , the old crew must rescue them . In the end , all of the characters except McCoy and Spock die .
Mancuso asked Leonard Nimoy to conceive the new film to serve as a swan song for the original cast . Nimoy , Mark Rosenthal and Lawrence Konner suggested Kirk meeting Jean @-@ Luc Picard , but Star Trek : The Next Generation 's producers refused to end their show . Nicholas Meyer , who directed The Wrath of Khan and co @-@ wrote The Voyage Home was also approached for an idea for the sixth film , but had none . Ralph Winter was brought on to the project as producer shortly after Bennett 's departure , and said Paramount 's mandate was to produce a 25th anniversary film that would not cost a lot of money .
Nimoy visited Meyer 's house and suggested , " [ What if ] the wall comes down in outer space ? You know , the Klingons have always been our stand @-@ ins for the Russians ... " Meyer recalled that he replied " ' Oh , wait a minute ! Okay , we start with an intergalactic Chernobyl ! Big explosion ! We got no more Klingon Empire ... ! ' And I just spilled out the whole story ! " The story deliberately included references to the contemporary political climate ; the character of Gorkon was based on Mikhail Gorbachev , while the assassination storyline was Meyer 's idea . He thought it was plausible that the Klingon leader who turned soft towards the enemy would be killed like similar peacemakers throughout history : Anwar El Sadat , Gandhi , and Abraham Lincoln . Nimoy 's hiring of Meyer was not only beneficial because Meyer knew the material and could write fast ( having produced The Wrath of Khan 's screenplay in twelve days ) , but if Meyer was to direct it would offset any acrimony from Shatner , whose ire would have been aroused if Nimoy returned to direct his third Star Trek feature after The Search for Spock and The Voyage Home . Meyer said that when he started work on the screenplay it did not occur to him that he would direct the film . Meyer 's wife was the first person to suggest that he should direct .
= = = Writing = = =
Meyer and his friend Denny Martin Flinn wrote the screenplay by the nascent means of e @-@ mail ; Meyer lived in Europe while Flinn was based in Los Angeles . The pair worked out a system where Flinn would write all day and then send the draft to Meyer , who would read and make revisions . The script constantly changed because of demands made not only by the core cast , but also the supporting players . Flinn was aware that the film would be the last to feature the cast of the original television series , so he wrote an opening that embraced the passage of time . In the opening , each of the crew was to be rounded up out of unhappy retirement for one final mission .
Flinn recalled that " the scenes demonstrated who [ the characters ] were and what they did when they weren 't on the Enterprise . [ ... ] It added some humanity to the characters . In early drafts , Spock plays Polonius in a Vulcan version of Hamlet , while Sulu drives a taxicab in an overcrowded metropolis . The revised opening featured Captain Sulu bringing his friends out of their retirement : Spock 's whereabouts are classified ; Kirk was to have married Carol Marcus ( played by Bibi Besch in The Wrath of Khan ) , the mother of his late son , leading a settled life before a special envoy arrives at his door . McCoy is drunk at a posh medical dinner ; Scott is teaching Engineering while the Bird of Prey from The Voyage Home is pulled from San Francisco Bay ; Uhura hosts a call @-@ in radio show and is glad to escape ; and Chekov is playing chess at a club .
The opening was rejected as too expensive to film ; Flinn mentioned the exotic locales would have pushed the budget to $ 50 million . While they tried to hold on to the opening as long as they could , Paramount threatened to cancel pre @-@ production unless a few million dollars were cut from the budget .
The script was finished by October 1990 , five months after Nimoy was approached to write the story . Several months were spent working out the budget ; because of the disappointing box office returns of The Final Frontier , Paramount wanted to keep the sixth film 's budget approximately the same as the previous installment , although the script called for space battles and new aliens . Shatner , Nimoy , and Kelley 's salaries were cut with the understanding that they would share in box office profits . Meyer estimated that almost two months were spent fighting with the studio about the budget . " To some degree , almost every area of the production was affected by the cuts — but the script was the one thing that did not become a casualty , " Meyer said . The original budget hovered around $ 41 million . While not expensive for a Hollywood production , this would have presented a risk due to Star Trek films ' niche audience and lower international appeal . The final budget came in at $ 27 million .
Star Trek 's creator , Gene Roddenberry , who wielded significant influence despite his ill health , hated the script . Meyer 's first meeting with Roddenberry resulted in Meyer storming out of the room within five minutes . As with Meyer 's previous Star Trek film ( The Wrath of Khan ) , the script had strong military overtones , with a naval theme present throughout . Far from being idealized , the characters were shown as bigoted and flawed . In contrast to Roddenberry 's vision of the future , Meyer thought there was no evidence that bigotry would disappear by the 23rd century . When Roddenberry protested about the villainization of Saavik , Meyer replied that " I created Saavik . She was not Gene 's . If he doesn 't like what I plan on doing with her , maybe he should give back the money he 's made off my films . Maybe then I 'll care what he has to say . " After the stormy first meeting , a group including Meyer , Roddenberry , and producer Ralph Winter discussed the revised draft . Roddenberry would voice his disapproval of elements of the script line by line , and he and Meyer would square off about them while Winter took notes . Overall , the tone of the meeting was conciliatory , but the producers ultimately ignored many of Roddenberry 's concerns . By February 13 , 1991 , the film was officially put into production with the agreement it would be in theaters by the end of the year .
= = = Design = = =
As he had when he directed The Wrath of Khan , Meyer attempted to modify the look of Star Trek to fit his vision . Cinematographer Hiro Narita 's previous work had been on effects films such as The Rocketeer , where he had time and money to make a lavish period fantasy ; with The Undiscovered Country , he was constantly under time and budgetary pressures . Though Narita confessed that he knew nothing about Star Trek , Meyer replied that he did not want him to have any preconceived notions about the look of the series .
Effects supervisor Scott Farrar said that Narita did a " good job of keeping [ the set ] dark . When you get into a stage situation of aluminum walls and shiny metal , it can be a problem . But by keeping the light down , you see a little less and it becomes more textural . Hiro was very keen to avoid that over @-@ bright stage look . " The budget meant that many of the Enterprise sets were redresses of those used in Star Trek : The Next Generation . Meyer and production designer Herman Zimmerman were only able to make minor adjustments to these sets , as the television series was still in production at the time of filming .
The set used for Spock 's quarters was the same as the one for Kirk 's , but with the addition of a central column . The set was being used at the time for Data 's room in The Next Generation , and had originally been built as Kirk 's quarters for Star Trek : The Motion Picture in 1979 . The transporter room set was also reused from The Next Generation , with alterations that included the addition of a glowing pattern along the transporter 's walls inspired by one of Zimmerman 's sweaters ; the set had previously been used on The Final Frontier . The galley was the set used for Deanna Troi 's office , while the Federation president 's office was a redesign of the Ten @-@ Forward lounge , the exterior doors to which accidentally retained their USS Enterprise @-@ D markings . Alien costumes in the Rura Penthe prison were reused from The Next Generation 's premiere episode , "
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Encounter at Farpoint " . The Excelsior bridge was a redress of Enterprise 's command center , with consoles taken from the battle bridge of the Enterprise @-@ D to convey the impression that the Excelsior was a more advanced ship .
Meyer had never been happy with the brightly lit corridors and feel of the Enterprise , a dissatisfaction that extended to his work on The Wrath of Khan . For The Undiscovered Country , Meyer wanted the Enterprise interiors to feel grittier and more realistic ; the metal was worn around the edges to look used without looking beat up . Narita 's plans to transform the look of the Enterprise on a scale not seen since The Wrath of Khan were complicated by the necessary use of existing sets .
The corridors were reduced in width and included angled bulkhead dividers , with exposed conduits added to the ceiling to convey a claustrophobic feel reminiscent of the submarine film The Hunt for Red October . Narita changed the bright , smooth look of the Enterprise bridge that had been created by Zimmerman for The Final Frontier by lighting the set as spottily as possible . " I didn 't want to use too much smoke on the Enterprise , because I didn 't want it to end up looking too much like the Klingon starship . For that reason I decided to keep the look of the Enterprise pretty clean , but with a little more contrasty lighting , " Narita said . Meyer acknowledged that had he been the creator of the franchise , " I would have probably designed a much more claustrophobic world because it 's much more dramatic . "
The director was insistent that panel labels contain descriptive instructions that might be found on a starship , rather than made @-@ up gibberish , greeking , or gag text . Designer Michael Okuda had finished a schematic of the Enterprise 's decks when Nimoy pointed out he had misspelled " reclamation " ; while Okuda was fairly certain no one else would notice the single spelling error on the print , he had to fix it . Meyer also made a contentious decision to feature a kitchen in the film , a move that attracted fan controversy . Although the original series mentioned a galley in the episode " Charlie X " , only machines able to synthesize food had been shown before .
= = = Props and models = = =
Paramount made a decision early on to use existing ship models for filming , meaning the old models — some more than a decade old — had to be refurbished , adapted , and reused . As some ships had not been examined for some time , electrical problems had developed . The Klingon cruiser first seen in 1979 's The Motion Picture was altered to suggest an important flagship , with a flared design applied to the underside of the vessel . Effects supervisor William George wanted to make it distinct from the earlier ships , since it was one of the few models that could be altered : " We did some research into military costuming , and came up with the concept that when these ships return victorious from battle , the Klingons build some sort of epaulet onto their wings or paint a new stripe on . " The model was repainted brown and red and etched with brass .
Despite representing a new vessel , the Enterprise @-@ A was the same model that had been used since 1979 . Poorly regarded by earlier effects artists because of its complicated wiring and bulk , the Enterprise 's hairline cracks were puttied and sanded down , and the internal circuitry was redone . The new model 's running lights were matched to similar intensities , saving the effects artists time because the lights would look correct with only a single pass , instead of three passes required previously ( for the sensor dome , running lights , and window lights ) . One unfortunate byproduct of the fixes was the loss of the model 's distinctive pearlescent finish . The elaborate sheen was never visible on screen ( lighting schemes prevented reflections while filming so the ship could be properly inserted into effects shots ) and so when the model was repainted with conventional techniques the effect was lost . The Bird of Prey had been damaged from work in The Voyage Home , where the ship was supposed to fly around the sun . To suggest singes , the model had been painted with black @-@ tinged rubber cement , with the expectation that this application would rub off . The cement instead sat on the model and baked itself to the model surface , and had to be scrubbed off .
Greg Jein , best known as the builder of the alien mothership from Close Encounters of the Third Kind , was called on to build props for the film . Jein was a longtime Star Trek fan who had constructed the props for The Final Frontier , but was forced to remake props that had since mysteriously disappeared . Jein added references to the original television series and other science fiction franchises throughout the prop designs ; the Rura Penthe warden 's staff contained parts of a spaceship from Buck Rogers , while the frong was detailed with a prop from Buckaroo Banzai . Elements from The Final Frontier were modified and reused ; a medical implement from the film became Chekov 's blood tester , and the assault phasers first seen in The Final Frontier became standard issue . Gorkon 's staff was intended to be a massive bone from an alien creature he had killed , with the designs shaped out of green foam and approved by Meyer . Two copies were strong enough to support David Warner 's weight ; another two were designed to be light enough to be hung from wires for the zero gravity scenes . Since the Klingon phasers were redesigned for the third film , the original holsters no longer fit the weaponry ; as a result , no Klingons had ever been seen drawing a phaser . Meyer was adamant about having the actors be able to unholster their weapons , so the existing pistols had to be redesigned . The Klingon sniper rifle was broken into sections , with parts modeled from real weapons .
= = = Makeup = = =
The Klingons received the first major revision in design since their appearance in The Motion Picture . Dodie Shepard designed new red and black uniforms for Chancellor Gorkon and his staff , as it was judged that it would be unseemly for the chancellor to wear common warrior garb . Another concern was that there was not enough of designer Robert Fletcher 's The Motion Picture uniforms for all the Klingons in the film . While the important Klingons were given multi @-@ layered prosthetics and unique head ridges , background characters wore ready @-@ made masks , with minor touch @-@ ups on the eyes and mouth . Since it was important for the actors ' expressions to be visible through the makeup , the appliances were made thin using the latest glues and paints . Transforming an actor into a Klingon took three and a half hours . Hairstylist Jan Alexander designed braids and jewelry that suggested a tribal people with a long and treasured heritage .
The main reason for the diversity of Klingon designs , hairstyles , and appliances stemmed from the fact that there were more Klingons featured than in all the previous films combined . Eighteen unique designs were used for the main characters , with another thirty " A " makeups , forty " B " foam latex makeups , and fifty polyurethane plastic masks for background extras . Makeup artist Richard Snell was in charge of the principal Klingon actors ' appliances . The designs for the foreheads came from Snell 's own ideas and co @-@ workers , but the actors were also allowed input into their character 's appearances . Christopher Plummer requested his character 's forehead have more subdued spinal ridges than Klingons in previous films , to look unique and to humanize his character . During makeup tests , Snell was about to apply Plummer 's wig when the actor muttered that he wanted no wig , with Chang 's small amount of hair swept back into a warrior 's topknot .
Snell worked through several nights to redesign the back of Chang 's head and add more detail . This design change meant only Plummer 's front could be photographed during the first few days of filming while the makeup department created appliances to cover the back of his head . Azetbur , portrayed by Rosanna DeSoto , was initially conceived as barbaric , but Meyer insisted on a more refined look . Like Plummer , DeSoto requested more subdued ridges , and the result was , according to artist Kenny Myers , a " very regal woman who just happened to be Klingon " .
The design changes forced Kenny Myers to abdicate his other makeup job , that of Warner 's Gorkon , to Margaret Bessera . Gorkon 's appearance was of special concern to Meyer , who had two specific role models : Ahab and Abraham Lincoln . " [ Meyer ] loves to play the classics , " Kenny Myers explained , " and incorporating these two images was really genius on his part . He wanted there to be uncertainty about Gorkon 's true intentions . Did he want peace , or was there something sinister in his mind ? From his appearance , it was impossible to tell if he was friend or foe . Subliminally , there were aspects of both . "
Along with Klingon cosmetics , makeup supervisor Michael J. Mills was kept busy preparing the large number of other aliens called for in the script . Mills and his team created the largest makeup endeavor ever seen in a Star Trek film until then ; custom makeup was applied to 22 principal actors , and as many as 126 prosthetic makeups each day . Because the alien creatures played such an important role in the film , there was a concerted push to provide enough money to the makeup department to make sure the complex work was finished . According to Mills , " [ if ] we could prove to [ Ralph Winter ] that we needed something to get the shot done , then we 'd have it . " The makeup lab employed a staff of 25 and produced over 300 prosthetics , from Klingon foreheads to Vulcan and Romulan ears . Work on the many extras began as early as one o 'clock in the morning to be ready for the eight o 'clock call .
The large , hulking form the shapeshifter Martia assumes while on the surface of Rura Penthe was dubbed " The Brute " by the production team . The creature 's Yeti @-@ like appearance was based on a Smithsonian cover of a marmoset . Also created for the Rura Penthe shoot was a frozen Klingon with a horrified expression . Makeup artist Ed French found a spare Klingon headpiece in Richard Snell 's possession and attached it to his own head . A cast of his tortured expression was used as the foundation for the dummy used on location . The designers used striking colors and new techniques for some of the aliens ; ultraviolet pigments were used to create a particularly hostile alien that fights Kirk in Rura Penthe .
As it was intended to be Nimoy 's last portrayal of Spock , the actor was adamant that his appearance be faithful to the original 1960s Fred Phillips and Charlie Schram design of the character . Mills consulted photos from the original television series as reference , and created five ear sculptings before Nimoy was satisfied . The result was tall ears with the tips pointing forward — considerably different from Richard Snell 's swept @-@ back look for The Voyage Home . The character of Valeris was designed to be more ivory @-@ hued than Spock 's yellow tone , with sleeker eyebrows and a severe haircut favored by Meyer . " We went to great pains to establish that this is the way a Vulcan woman — a sexy Vulcan woman — would look , " said Mills .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place between April 16 , 1991 and September 27 , 1991 , using a mix of fixed sets and on @-@ location footage . The production suffered from a lack of available set space because of shortages ; the Starfleet Headquarters set was actually built a few blocks away from Paramount Pictures at the Hollywood Presbyterian Church . Meyer copied a technique used during filming of Citizen Kane , where the filmmakers let the set fall into darkness to save money on construction . The film was shot in Super 35 instead of anamorphic format , because of the former 's greater flexibility in framing and lens selection , larger depth of field , and faster lenses .
Because of budget cuts , plans for filming were constantly revised and reduced , but sometimes this proved to be an asset rather than a hindrance . Meyer would often say that " art thrives on restrictions " , and Zimmerman agreed , saying that the design and filming created a rich environment that supported and enhanced the action .
The dinner scene was shot in a revamped version of the Enterprise @-@ D 's observation lounge . Along the wall are portraits of historical figures including Abraham Lincoln , Spock 's father Sarek ( Mark Lenard ) , and an unnamed Andorian ambassador . The food prepared for the scene was colored blue so it would look alien . None of the actors wanted to eat the unappetizing dishes ( especially after they grew ripe under hot studio lights ) , and it became a running joke among the crew during filming to make them sample their food .
Because of the multiple angles and takes required for a single mouthful of food , Meyer offered a bounty of $ 20 per every shot of a character eating . For Shatner , the incentive was enough that he became the only cast member to consume purple @-@ dyed squid . The shoot lasted several days because of what Plummer called the " horror " of filming the dinner .
The Klingon courtroom where Kirk and McCoy are sentenced was designed like an arena , with high walls and a central platform for the accused . Originally planned for construction on the largest soundstage , cutbacks in location footage for Rura Penthe forced a smaller set to be constructed . Sixty @-@ six Klingons were used for the scene , with six actors in custom makeups and an additional fifteen in " A @-@ level " makeup ; the high quality designs were used for the Klingons in the first row of the stands , while those actors to the rear used masks .
The illusion of endless rows of Klingons was created by brightly lighting the accused in the center of the room with a bright blue light , then letting the rest of the set fall into shadow . To give the set a larger appearance , a shot from high above the courtroom was created using miniatures . Inspired by a scene in Ben @-@ Hur , matte supervisor Craig Barron used two hundred commercially available Worf dolls sent by Ralph Winter . Angry Klingons were created by rocking the dolls back and forth with motors , waving sticks lit by twelve @-@ volt light bulbs dyed red . The resulting courtroom miniature was ten feet long .
Flinn conceived the penal colony Rura Penthe as on an arid , undeveloped world with odorous aliens ; Meyer suggested that it be turned into an ice world instead . The exterior shots of Martia , Kirk , and McCoy traveling across the frozen wastes were filmed on top of a glacier in Alaska , forty minutes east of Anchorage . Because of budget and time constraints , the second unit was tasked with getting the footage . The location was accessible only by helicopter , and was scouted months before filming began .
The main problem the crew faced was the cold ; in the morning , the temperatures peaked at around − 22 ° F , while by mid @-@ afternoon it often dropped to − 50 ° . The stuntmen , dressed in woolen costumes , were in danger of catching pneumonia . Ice caverns producer Jaffe had scouted partially melted before filming ; with only two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ third days of time to film , the crew had to do the best they could . Batteries drained after minutes of filming in the cold , and the lack of snow was compensated by dropping fake precipitation into the scene by helicopter .
Scenes featuring the main characters at Rura Penthe were filmed on a soundstage . Massive fans blew dusty fake snow that , according to Shatner , got into " every orifice " , as well as into the camera . Creating a fake blizzard was challenging ; two types of plastic snow were mixed together to provide flakes and powdery accumulation . Camera magazines were changed off the stage so that there was no chance the snow could get into the film ; crewmembers found the snow in their socks for weeks afterwards .
The underground prison was shot in real caves left by mining at Griffith Park , in the Bronson Canyon , previously used as the Batcave and in the 1930s Flash Gordon serial . Shots of the interior of the mine were captured at night so it appeared like the setting was underground . Since Narita and his crew weren 't allowed to drill holes for lights in mine shafts , illumination had to come from practical lights that appeared to be part of the set . The elevator descent into the bowels of the mine was simulated by pasting fake rocks to a canvas being cranked in the background of the scene . While Zimmerman believed Shatner would hate the fight between Kirk and his doppelgänger , the actor enjoyed the theatrical sequence , and contributed to the choreography with his knowledge of judo and karate .
The battle above Khitomer was one of the last sequences to be shot , which proved fortuitous as the bridge of the Enterprise was damaged by the simulated sparks and explosions . The officer 's mess set was blown up for a sequence where the Enterprise 's hull is compromised by a torpedo . When the set was rebuilt for use on The Next Generation , the forward wall was rebuilt and redesigned . While the Khitomer conference interior and exteriors were filmed at the Brandeis @-@ Bardin Institute in California , the window from which Colonel West prepares to assassinate the president was a separate set built at Paramount . Footage from Brandeis , matte paintings , and the backlot were combined to create an open outdoor view .
The division of labor for shooting the starship models was decided early on by effects cameramen Peter Daulton and Pat Sweeney . There was an equal amount of work if one crew did all the Enterprise shots and another did the Bird of Prey , Klingon cruiser and Excelsior shots , so the cameramen flipped to decide who worked on which models . Old and new techniques were applied to shooting the models . To make sure the vessels were seamlessly inserted into star fields in post @-@ production , the crew filmed second passes in overexposed yellow light , which reduced light spillage onto the bluescreen backdrop . The yellow overcast was removed by filtration in the optical process , with the result being a clean edge around the ships .
Using a technique pioneered on Back to the Future Part II , another shot with a different lighting scheme was filmed . By combining separate key light and fill light passes , optical effects could generate any amount of contrast they wanted without causing spillage . Because Paramount continued to add new shots to the busy schedule and tight budget , some elements were flipped for reuse , including the star fields and a shot of the Bird of Prey firing . Whenever possible , the ships were filmed from below to reinforce the nautical theme , with their movements intended to remind the audience of galleons or other large seafaring vessels .
The approach to Spacedock was filmed from below the station model , which Bill George found visually interesting and appropriate . He felt that the tracking of a shuttle from the planet evoked 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The shuttle used in the scene was the only new model created for the film . It measured twelve inches and was fabricated in less than a week . The shot of the Enterprise leaving Spacedock was difficult to produce because the interior dock miniature had disappeared . Stock footage from The Voyage Home was used for one shot to compensate . Since the only other shot needed was the Enterprise 's point of view leaving Spacedock through the doors , it was the only section recreated for the film .
The last scene in the film was arranged for the last day of filming . Initially , the language was supposed to be more somber and classical , but Meyer made some last minute changes . Flinn said that Meyer " was in an optimistic mood " , and the director suggested that Kirk quote Peter Pan for the last lines : " Second star to the right , and straight on ' til morning . " Emotions ran high as the last shots of the cast were captured ; Shatner said , " By the time we finished the last scene , which extended longer than we expected , there was a sense of irritation . We raised a glass of champagne , but everybody was actually a little antsy . "
= = = Effects = = =
The majority of the visual effects were created by Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) under the supervision of Scott Farrar ( who served as visual effects cameraman on the first three Star Trek films ) and animator Wes Takahashi . After receiving the script , ILM created storyboards for the effects sequences before meeting Meyer and producers Winter and Steven @-@ Charles Jaffe to discuss the planned scenes . These discussions began before the film was greenlit . ILM 's initial cost estimates were over Paramount 's budget , so to save money the filmmakers redesigned some shots and outsourced some to other companies .
Elements of the zero gravity scenes were handled by Pacific Data Images , while phaser beams and transporter effects were generated by Visual Concept Engineering , an offshoot of ILM that had contributed to The Wrath of Khan and The Final Frontier . Despite the overall count of effects shots being dropped from over 100 to 51 , the project was still large , and required virtually the entire ILM staff to complete . Farrar 's goal was to economize the remaining effects ; if three shots were similar , they would try to tell the story with only one . Cheap animatics provided Meyer with placeholders to cut into the film and avoid costly surprises . Stock footage from previous films were used whenever possible , but it was often infeasible to do so ; as the original USS Enterprise had been destroyed in The Search for Spock , all shots of the USS Enterprise @-@ A had to feature the updated ship registry .
ILM 's computer graphics division was responsible for creating three sequences , including the explosion of Praxis . Meyer 's idea for the effect was influenced by The Poseidon Adventure ; Farrar used imagery of an immense wave hitting the Poseidon to inform the scale of their shock wave . The department built on a lens flare simulation to create a plasma burst composed of two expanding disc shapes with swirling detail texture mapped to the surface .
Farrar settled on the preliminary look of the wave , and graphics supervisor Jay Riddle used Adobe Photoshop on a Macintosh to establish the final color scheme . Initially the team thought they would be able to use the same methods to create the wave that hits the Excelsior , but found that it did not convey the scale of the wave — in Riddle 's words , " this thing had to look really enormous . " The shot was created by manipulating two curved pieces of computer geometry , expanding them as they approached the camera 's view . Textures that changed every frame were added to the main wave body and over the top of it to give the impression of great speed . Motion control footage of the Excelsior was then scanned into the computer system and made to interact with the digital wave . ILM 's " Praxis effect " shockwave became a common feature in science fiction films depicting the destruction of large objects .
Meyer came upon the idea of having assassins in special boots kill a weightless Gorkon after searching for a novel way to " blow away " the character in space that had not been seen before . The final sequence married physical effects and stuntwork with computer graphics . Responsibility for shooting the live action footage fell to the second unit under Jaffe 's direction . While the sequence read well on paper , there was not enough time or money to do the effects " the right way " — for example , shooting the actors on a bluescreen and then inserting them into the Klingon corridors .
Jaffe noted that the low @-@ tech method of suspending actors by wires helped the final effect , because as photographed by John Fante , few wires had to be removed digitally in post @-@ production ; sets were constructed so that the harsh lighting obscured wires , and entire sets were constructed on their sides so that by pulling actors up and down on the rotated sets , the characters appeared to float sideways . These sets were on gimbals so that the movement of the actors and sets created a floating effect . The shot of two Klingons killed and thrown back down a corridor by phaser blasts was simulated by positioning the camera at the bottom of a corridor set . The set was placed on its end in the tallest soundstage at Paramount , so that the camera looked up towards the ceiling . In this position , the wires were hidden by the actors as they ascended the corridor .
The blood that spurts out of the Klingon 's wounds was created using computer generated imagery ; the animators had to make sure that the blood floated in a convincing manner while still looking interesting and not too gory . The effects artist looked at NASA footage of floating globules of water to inform the physics of the blood particles . Initially , the blood was to be colored green , but the filmmakers realized that McCoy had referred to Spock as green @-@ blooded .
The final color was violet , a color Meyer disliked but had to go ahead with , because his first choice — red — would almost certainly earn the film an " R " rating from the MPAA . The initial killing of the Klingon in the transporter room as the assassins beam aboard was the testing ground for tweaking the color of the blood and how it would move around the room . Most of the blood droplets were " blobbies " , groups of spheres smoothed together by computer , creating a continuous shape . The further apart the spheres , the more the shape could stretch and even break apart . The phasers used in the scene and throughout the film were redesigned versions of earlier models and were first used in The Final Frontier . The props featured blue lights that turned on when the trigger was pressed , so effects artists knew when to add the phaser beam effects .
For the zero gravity sequences , the ILM team matched Visual Concepts Engineering 's phaser blasts by hand @-@ painting the effect in Photoshop . ILM also did minor touchup to the scenes as required , adding clothing tears where the phaser blasts hit the actors and adding the hazy Klingon atmosphere to the computer @-@ rendered objects . These zero gravity scenes were the most expensive sequences to complete .
Rura Penthe was created with a mixture of on @-@ set and location shots , along with an establishing sequence created by Matte World . The characters were shot on a San Francisco beach , with a white plastic underfoot . Sun elements were layered onto the shot along with a double @-@ exposed snow effect . Additional passes were made on fiberfill clouds with lights behind them to create a lightning storm underway in the background .
Martia was not the first shapeshifter on Star Trek , but the character was the first to be created using computer @-@ generated digital morphing technology . The effects , dubbed " morfs " , were more advanced revisions of the technology used for films such as Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . Animator John Berton attempted new , more complicated morfs , including moving the camera and morphing two characters talking ; special care had to be taken to line up the characters properly in plate photography . Martia becomes Kirk while talking , requiring similar line deliveries from Iman and Shatner ; Farrar supervised the set photography for the morfs and had the actors speak their lines in sync via a loudspeaker .
Kirk 's fight scene with Martia in the form of Kirk was mostly filmed with a double dressed in similar clothes ; in the majority of the shots the camera allowed only one of the combatants ' faces to be seen . When Kirk talked with his double directly , two separate takes of Shatner facing opposite directions were combined , with the camera motion carefully controlled so that the resulting image looked realistic .
For the final space battle , Bill George redesigned the photon torpedoes to have a hotter core and larger flare , because he felt that the weapons in earlier films looked " too pretty " . The torpedoes also moved like guided missiles rather than cannonballs . George told Farrar that he had always wanted to see something penetrate the thin saucer section of the Enterprise , so a replica of the saucer was recreated and blown up ; the model was hung upside down so that the explosion could be flipped to approximate the zero gravity effects . Rather than destroy the Bird of Prey model in the climax , pyrotechnic footage was reduced and placed in the appropriate locations to simulate rippling explosions throughout the vessel .
A special " pyro model " was created from a rubber cast of the Bird of Prey and exploded instead , with a lap dissolve making the transition from the motion control ship to the pyro vessel . ILM knew that there was already footage of Chang reacting to the torpedo hit , but knew Meyer was unhappy with the result . Using footage of Plummer as reference , the effects team created a dummy that was detonated in the same position . Steve Jaffe said , " [ Editor ] Ron Roose and I pored through the footage to find what amounted to three usable frames that we could use to tell the audience ' we got him ! ' "
= = = Music = = =
Meyer 's original plan for the score was to adapt Gustav Holst 's orchestral suite The Planets . The plan proved unfeasibly expensive , so Meyer began listening to demo tapes submitted by composers . Meyer described most of the demos as generic " movie music " , but was intrigued by one tape by a young composer named Cliff Eidelman . Eidelman , then 26 , had made a career in composing for ballets , television , and film , but despite work on fourteen features , no film had been the hit needed to propel Eidelman to greater fame .
In conversations with Eidelman , Meyer mentioned that since the marches that accompanied the main titles for the previous Star Trek films were so good , he had no desire to compete with them by composing a bombastic opening . He also felt that since the film was darker than its predecessors , it demanded something different musically as a result . He mentioned the opening to Igor Stravinsky 's The Firebird as similar to the foreboding sound he wanted . Two days later Eidelman produced a tape of his idea for the main theme , played on a synthesizer . Meyer was impressed by the speed of the work and the close fit to his vision . Meyer approached producer Steven Charles @-@ Jaffe with Eidelman 's CD , which reminded Jaffe of Bernard Herrmann ; Eidelman was given the task of composing the score .
Eidelman 's previous project had been creating a compilation of music from the past five Star Trek films , and he consciously avoided taking inspiration from those scores . " [ The compilation ] showed me what to stay away from , because I couldn 't do James Horner [ composer for The Wrath of Khan and The Search for Spock ] as well as James Horner , " he said . Since he was hired early on in production , Eidelman had an unusually long time to develop his ideas , and he was able to visit the sets during filming . While the film was in early production Eidelman worked on electronic drafts of the final score , to placate executives who were unsure about using a relatively unknown composer .
Eidelman stated that he finds science fiction the most interesting and exciting genre to compose for , and that Meyer told him to treat the film as a fresh start , rather than drawing on old Star Trek themes . Eidelman wanted the music to aid the visuals ; for Rura Penthe , he strove to create an atmosphere that reflected the alien and dangerous setting , introducing exotic instruments for color . Besides using percussion from around the world , Eidelman treated the choir as percussion , with the Klingon language translation for " to be , or not to be " ( " taH pagh , taHbe " ) being repeated in the background . Spock 's theme was designed to be an ethereal counterpart to the motif for Kirk and the Enterprise , aimed at capturing " the emotional gleam in the captain 's eye " . Kirk 's internal dilemma about what the future holds was echoed in the main theme : " It 's Kirk taking control one last time and as he looks out into the stars he has the spark again [ ... ] But there 's an unresolved note , because it 's very important that he doesn 't trust the Klingons . He doesn 't want to go on this trip even though the spark is there that overtook him . " For the climactic battle , Eidelman starts the music quietly , building the intensity as the battle progresses .
The soundtrack was released on December 10 , 1991 through MCA Records and features thirteen tracks of score with a running time of forty @-@ five minutes . In 2005 , a bootleg copy of the soundtrack also surfaced with thirty @-@ six tracks of score and a running time of nearly seventy minutes . Intrada Records released a two @-@ disc set in 2012 . The first disc is made up of the complete score and four extra cues . The second disc contains the material from the original MCA release .
= = Themes = =
The Undiscovered Country 's Cold War allegory and references to literary history were recognized among researchers and cultural historians . According to scholar Larry Kreitzer , The Undiscovered Country has more references to William Shakespeare than any other Star Trek work until at least 1996 . The title itself alludes to Hamlet , Act III , Scene 1 . Meyer had originally intended The Wrath of Khan to be called The Undiscovered Country . Whereas the undiscovered country referred to in Hamlet ( and its intended meaning in The Wrath of Khan ) is death , Star Trek VI 's use of the phrase refers to a future where Klingons and humans coexist in peace .
A phrase from The Tempest is mentioned by Gorkon as representing the new galactic order , that of a " brave new world " . Chang recites most of the lines from Shakespeare used in the film , including quotes from Romeo and Juliet and Henry IV , Part 2 in his parting words to Kirk after dinner . During Kirk 's trial , Chang also mocks Kirk with lines from Richard II . The final battle above Khitomer contains seven references to five of Shakespeare 's plays . Two references are drawn from the title character 's lines in King Henry V ( " Once more unto the breach " / " The game 's afoot " ) , while two more quotations are from Julius Caesar ( " I am as constant as the Northern Star " / " Cry ' havoc ! ' and let slip the dogs of war " ) . There is a single reference to Prospero from The Tempest ( " Our revels now are ended " ) , and Chang shortens the wronged Shylock 's speech from The Merchant of Venice : " Tickle us , do we not laugh ; prick us , do we not bleed ; and wrong us , shall we not revenge ? "
The final lines spoken by Chang before he is obliterated by torpedo fire are lifted from Hamlet 's famous soliloquy : " to be , or not to be ... " Flinn was initially unsure about the numerous classical quotations , but when Plummer was cast , Meyer enthusiastically added more . He said , " Whether it 's pretentious or not , I think it depends on how it 's used . [ ... ] I don 't quite agree with using too much of that sort of thing , but once you get Plummer , suddenly it 's working . "
Scholars have noted that the Klingons , not humans , are the ones who quote Shakespeare ; Gorkon claims at one point in the film that " You have not experienced Shakespeare until you have read him in the original Klingon . " Translating Shakespeare into Klingon proved problematic because Marc Okrand had not created a verb for " to be " when he developed the language . Shakespeare scholar Paul A. Cantor argues that this association is appropriate — the warlike Klingons find their literary matches in the characters Othello , Mark Antony , and Macbeth — but that it also reinforces a claim that the end of the Cold War means the end of heroic literature such as Shakespeare 's . Meyer said the idea for having the Klingons claim Shakespeare as their own was based on Nazi Germany 's attempt to claim the Bard as German before World War II . According to Kay Smith , the use of Shakespeare has meaning in itself and also derives new meaning ( underscoring cultural politics in the film ) by its rearticulation in a new form .
The association of General Chang with the politics of the Munich Agreement that involved attempted appeasement of Nazi Germany are brought up twice in the film . The first is with Chang with other Klingon officials at a dinner with Kirk and Federation officers , where Chang declares that the Klingon Empire needs " breathing room " , to which Kirk responds by imitating Spock 's earlier quoting of Hamlet , saying that Chang 's reference is " Earth , Hitler , 1938 " . Later when Kirk confronts Chang 's warship , Chang mocks the historic British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain who attempted to appease Hitler ; with Chang saying that there will be " no peace in our time " .
A major theme of the film is change , and people 's response to that change . Meyer considered Valeris and Chang " frightened people , who are frightened of change " , who cling to old ways despite the changing world . He hoped that the fictionalization of a current events story allowed for an objective look at the issues , rather than being blinded by personal bias . At the beginning of the film , Kirk operates under a similar bias , calling the Klingons " animals " and putting him at odds with Spock . The Vulcan sees the Gorkon peace initiative as logical , responding to the sudden change in the status quo in a collected manner ; he even opens the peace dialog at the behest of his father .
Kirk , meanwhile , is willing to " let them ( the Klingons ) die " , unwilling to listen to Spock 's words because of his biased understanding . Kirk undergoes a transformation through the film by way of his incarceration ; realizing that his hatred is outmoded he allows for a cleansing that restores his son to him in some way .
While Star Trek in general features few overt references to religion , there is a clear recognition that a laying aside of past hurts is necessary for peace , similar to the concept of shalom in Judaism . Shatner regretted that Kirk 's angst at being outmoded was minimized in the final print . A scene where Spock asks Kirk if they have grown so old and inflexible they have outlived their usefulness had two meanings : it was as much Nimoy asking Shatner as it was their characters .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
The Undiscovered Country was released in North America on December 6 , 1991 . The film was initially planned for release a week later on December 13 . To promote the film and the 25th anniversary of Star Trek , Paramount held marathon screenings of the previous five films in 44 select U.S. and Canadian cities . The 12 @-@ hour showings also included footage of The Undiscovered Country . The day before the film 's release , the core cast was inducted into Grauman 's Chinese Theatre , and signed their names on Hollywood Boulevard . Nimoy , who had earlier requested $ 1 million to cameo on The Next Generation , appeared in the two @-@ part episode " Unification " that aired during November 1991 to increase interest in the feature film . The previous five films were released in collectors ' box sets with new packaging ; retailers were offered the chance to photograph their retail setups for a chance to win an expenses @-@ paid tour of The Next Generation 's set and tickets to an advance screening of The Undiscovered Country .
Roddenberry did not live to see the film 's release , dying of heart failure on October 24 , 1991 . Before the film 's release he viewed a near @-@ final version of The Undiscovered Country , and according to the film 's producer and Kelley 's biographer , approved a final version of the film . In contrast , Nimoy and Shatner 's memoirs report that after the screening he called his lawyer and demanded a quarter of the scenes be cut ; the producers refused , and within 48 hours he was dead . Paramount considered spending close to $ 240 @,@ 000 to send Roddenberry 's ashes into space — a move that had the backing of fans — but decided against it ; his remains would make it into space along with 22 others in 1997 . The film 's opening included a note to Roddenberry 's memory ; at early showings , the crowds of Star Trek fans applauded loudly . While the producers had begun work on the film anticipating it as the last film , by the premiere it was obvious the film would make money and that a Star Trek VII would soon be in the works . The cast was split on the possibility of a sequel ; Shatner , Nimoy and Kelley said that the film would be their last , while the supporting cast strongly lobbied for another film . The consensus was for the next film to star the cast of The Next Generation . The seventh Star Trek feature , Star Trek Generations ( 1994 ) , would blend the old and new cast .
The Undiscovered Country opened in 1 @,@ 804 theaters in North America and grossed $ 18 @,@ 162 @,@ 837 in its opening weekend ; the showing was a record for the film series and was the top @-@ grossing film of the weekend . The film grossed $ 74 @,@ 888 @,@ 996 in North America , for a total of $ 96 @,@ 888 @,@ 996 worldwide . The Undiscovered Country 's strong showing was one of the big successes of 1991 , a year in which the film industry experienced disappointing box office results overall . The film was nominated in the Sound effects editing and Makeup categories at the 64th Academy Awards . The film also won a Saturn Award for best science fiction film , making it the only Star Trek film to win the award . The film 's novelization by J.M. Dillard was also a commercial success , reaching the Publishers Weekly mass market paperback bestsellers list .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Undiscovered Country received a much kinder reception from reviewers and audiences than The Final Frontier . Critics approved of the blend of humor and adventure in the film . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 83 % of critics have given the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 48 , with an average score of 6 @.@ 8 / 10 .
The Herald Sun reported that " those who found The Final Frontier weighed down by emotional gravity and over @-@ the @-@ top spiritualism [ welcomed ] the follow @-@ up with its suspense , action and subtle good humor . " The dialogue and banter was considered a positive and defining aspect of the film ; Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that " Star Trek VI is definitely colorful , but even more of its color comes from conversation , which can take some amusingly florid turns . " Critic Hal Hinson commented that Meyer " [ is ] capable of sending up his material without cheapening it or disrupting our belief in the reality of his yarn , " and called the one @-@ liners an organic part of the film 's " jocular , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek spirit " . Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today said that with Meyer directing , " this last mission gets almost everything right — from the nod to late creator Gene Roddenberry to in @-@ jokes about Kirk 's rep as an alien babe magnet . "
The acting of the main cast was conflictingly received . Lloyd Miller of the St. Petersburg Times said the characters " return to their original roles with a vigor and wit unseen in earlier episodes of the film series " . Rob Salem of The Toronto Star quipped that though the actors looked silly on occasion , this was a benefit ; " as their capacity for action has diminished , their comedic talents have blossomed [ ... ] they have all become masters of self @-@ deprecating self @-@ parody . " The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert called the actors ' performances " photocopies " of previous films : " Shatner and Nimoy are respectable , but lack energy . There 's nowhere else to go with their roles , and they know it . DeForest Kelley is oddly out of it . " Plummer and Warner 's portrayals of their Klingon characters were well @-@ received ; Maslin commented that " whenever a skilled actor [ ... ] manages to emerge from behind all this [ makeup ] with his personality intact , it 's a notable accomplishment . " The other supporting characters received similar praise ; H.J. Kirchhoff , writing for The Globe and Mail , said that the guest stars joined the " family fun " of the film as " zesty , exotic and colorful good guys and bad guys " . A Cinefantastique retrospective review considered the film to have the finest guest stars ever assembled for a Star Trek film .
The Cold War allegory and the whodunit aspects of the film were less positively received . Mary Boson of the Sydney Morning Herald considered the comparisons to real @-@ world situations timely , and praised the plot for exploring the reactions of those who have invested themselves in a life of belligerence . David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor felt that the film veered away from the intriguing Cold War allegory premise to unsatisfying results . Instead of maintaining suspense , The Washington Times 's Gary Arnold noted the Rura Penthe sideplot offered " scenic distraction without contributing significantly to the whodunit crisis [ ... ] The crime itself has a promising ' closed @-@ room ' aspect that never gets elaborated adequately [ ... ] You look forward to a cleverly fabricated solution . " Arnold felt that instead of developing this mystery , the filmmakers defused the potential for suspense by shifting away from the search of the Enterprise . Brian Lowry of Variety felt Rura Penthe dragged down the film 's pace , and that Meyer paid so much attention to one @-@ liners that there was a lack of tension in the film , a complaint echoed by John Hartl of the Seattle Times .
The special effects were alternately lauded and criticized ; USA Today called them " just serviceable " , though Wloszczyna 's review for the paper said the Klingon assassination sequence was " dazzling " , with " fuchsia blood spilling out in Dalí @-@ esque blobs " . Desson Howe , writing for The Washington Post 's Weekend section , said that " the Klingons ' spilled blood floats in the air in eerily beautiful purplish globules ; it 's space @-@ age Sam Peckinpah . " Maslin considered some effects garish , but appreciated the filmmakers ' tirelessness " in trying to make their otherworldly characters look strange " .
= = = Home media = = =
The Undiscovered Country was released on VHS and in widescreen and pan and scan formats on Laserdisc in June 1992 ; the release added a few minutes of new footage to the film . Because of a trend in supermarket video sales and rentals , Paramount offered rebates for the home video release of The Undiscovered Country through boxes of Kellogg 's Frosted Mini @-@ Wheats . The Laserdisc version of the film was the tenth highest @-@ selling video during 1992 . The home video cut was later released for the film 's 1999 DVD debut .
As with the other nine Star Trek films , The Undiscovered Country was re @-@ released on DVD as a Special Edition in 2004 . Meyer , who stated he dislikes director 's cuts , nevertheless found " a couple of moments that I thought were not clear " , and re @-@ edited them as " I suddenly saw how to make them clear . " Among the elements added for home video were a briefing with the Federation president where Admiral Cartwright and Colonel West unveil their plan for rescuing Kirk and McCoy , and a scene where Spock and Scott inspect the torpedoes . Some shots were reordered or replaced , with wide @-@ angle shots replacing close angles and vice versa . The special features included a commentary track with Meyer and Flinn , featurettes detailing the special effects , production , and historical inspiration of the film , and a tribute to actor DeForest Kelley .
The film 's original theatrical cut was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature , along with the other five films featuring the original crew in Star Trek : Original Motion Picture Collection . The Undiscovered Country was remastered in 1080p high @-@ definition from the 2000 DVD transfer . The film , like the others in the set , features 7 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD audio . The disc also contains a new commentary track by Star Trek screenwriters Larry Nemecek and Ira Steven Behr .
= Sean Combs =
Sean John Combs ( born November 4 , 1969 ) , also known by his stage names Puff Daddy , Puffy , Diddy , and P. Diddy , is an American hip hop recording artist , record producer , entrepreneur and actor . He was born in Harlem and grew up in Mount Vernon , New York . He worked as a talent director at Uptown Records before founding his label Bad Boy Entertainment in 1993 . His debut album No Way Out ( 1997 ) has been certified seven times platinum and was followed by successful albums such as Forever ( 1999 ) , The Saga Continues ... ( 2001 ) , and Press Play ( 2006 ) . In 2009 Combs formed the musical group Diddy – Dirty Money and released the critically well @-@ reviewed and commercially successful album Last Train to Paris ( 2010 ) .
Combs has won three Grammy Awards and two MTV Video Music Awards , and is the producer of MTV 's Making the Band . His non @-@ music business ventures include the clothing lines Sean John and " Sean by Sean Combs " – for which he earned a Council of Fashion Designers of America award – a movie production company , and two restaurants . In 2015 Forbes estimated Combs ' net worth at $ 735 million .
= = Early life = =
Sean John Combs was born in a public housing project in Harlem , New York City , and brought up in Mount Vernon , New York . His mother , Janice ( Smalls ) , was a model and teacher 's assistant and his father , Melvin Earl Combs , was an associate of convicted New York drug dealer Frank Lucas . At age 33 , he was shot to death while sitting in his car on Central Park West , when Combs was a child .
Combs graduated from the Roman Catholic Mount Saint Michael Academy in 1987 . He played football for the academy , and his team won a division title in 1986 . Combs said that he was given the nickname " Puff " as a child , because he would " huff and puff " when he was angry .
= = Career = =
= = = 1990 – 96 : Career beginnings = = =
After dropping out of Howard University in 1990 , after two years as a business major , Combs became an intern at New York 's Uptown Records . While talent director at Uptown , he helped develop Jodeci and Mary J. Blige . In his college days Combs had a reputation for throwing parties , some of which attracted up to a thousand participants . In 1991 , Combs promoted an AIDS fundraiser with Heavy D held at the City College of New York ( CCNY ) gymnasium , following a charity basketball game . The event was oversold , and a stampede occurred in which nine people died .
In 1993 , after being fired from Uptown , Combs established his new label Bad Boy Entertainment as a joint venture with Arista Records , taking then @-@ newcomer The Notorious B.I.G. with him . Both The Notorious B.I.G. and Craig Mack quickly released hit singles , followed by successful LPs , particularly The Notorious B.I.G. ' s Ready to Die . Combs signed more acts to Bad Boy , including Carl Thomas , Faith Evans , 112 , Total , and Father MC . The Hitmen , his in @-@ house production team , worked with Jodeci , Mary J. Blige , Usher , Lil ' Kim , TLC , Mariah Carey , Boyz II Men , SWV , Aretha Franklin , and others . Mase and The Lox joined Bad Boy just as a widely publicized rivalry with the West Coast 's Death Row Records was beginning . Combs and The Notorious B.I.G. were criticized and parodied by Tupac Shakur and Suge Knight in songs and interviews during the mid @-@ 1990s . During 1994 – 1995 , Combs produced several songs for TLC 's CrazySexyCool , which finished the decade as number 25 on Billboard 's list of top pop albums of the decade .
= = = 1997 – 98 : " Puff Daddy " and No Way Out = = =
In 1997 , under the name Puff Daddy , Combs recorded his first commercial vocal work as a rapper . His debut single , " Can 't Nobody Hold Me Down " , spent 28 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , peaking at number one . His debut album , No Way Out , was released on July 1 , 1997 , through Bad Boy Records . Originally titled Hell up in Harlem , the album underwent several changes after The Notorious B.I.G. was killed on March 9 , 1997 . Several of the label 's artists made guest appearances on the album . No Way Out was a significant success , particularly in the United States , where it reached number one on the Billboard 200 in its first week of release , selling 561 @,@ 000 copies . The album produced five singles : " I 'll Be Missing You " , a tribute to The Notorious B.I.G. , was the first rap song to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 ; it remained at the top of the chart for eleven consecutive weeks and topped several other charts worldwide . Four other singles ; " Can 't Nobody Hold Me Down " , " It 's All About the Benjamins " , " Been Around the World " , and " Victory " , were also released . Combs collaborated with Jimmy Page on the song " Come with Me " for the 1998 film Godzilla .
The album earned Combs five nominations at the 40th Grammy Awards in 1998 , winning the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album . On September 7 , 2000 , the album was certified septuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over 7 million copies . In 1997 , Combs was sued for landlord neglect by Inge Bongo . Combs denied the charges . By the late 1990s , he was being criticized for watering down and overly commercializing hip hop , and for using too many guest appearances , samples , and interpolations of past hits in his new songs .
= = = 1999 – 2000 : Forever and Club New York = = =
In April 1999 Combs was charged with assault as a result of an incident with Steve Stoute of Interscope Records . Stoute was the manager for Nas , with whom Combs had filmed a video earlier that year for the song " Hate Me Now " . Combs was concerned that the video , which featured a shot of Nas and Combs being crucified , was blasphemous . He asked for the video to be pulled , but after it aired on MTV on April 15 , Combs visited Stoute 's offices and injured Stoute . Combs was charged with second @-@ degree assault and criminal mischief , and was sentenced to attend an anger management class .
Forever , Combs ' debut solo studio album , was released by Bad Boy Records on August 24 , 1999 , in North America , and in the UK on the following day . It reached number two on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , where it remained for one week before being knocked off by Mary J. Blige 's fourth album , Mary . The album received positive to mixed reviews from music critics and spawned three singles that have charted on the Billboard charts . It peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart , Combs ' highest @-@ charting album in that country .
On December 27 , 1999 , Combs and his then @-@ girlfriend Jennifer Lopez were at Club New York in Manhattan when gunfire broke out . After a police investigation , Combs and fellow rapper Shyne were arrested for weapons violations and other charges . Combs was charged with four weapons @-@ related charges and bribing his driver , Wardel Fenderson , to claim ownership of his gun .
With a gag order in place , the highly publicized trial began . Combs ' attorneys were Johnnie L. Cochran Jr. and Benjamin Brafman . Combs was found not guilty on all charges ; Shyne was convicted on five of his eight charges and sentenced to ten years in prison . Combs and Lopez broke up shortly after . A lawsuit filed by Fenderson , who said he suffered emotional damage after the shooting , was settled in February 2004 . Lawyers for both sides , having agreed to keep the settlement terms secret , said that the matter was " resolved to the satisfaction of all parties " .
= = = 2001 – 04 : " P. Diddy " and The Saga Continues = = =
Combs changed his stage name from " Puff Daddy " to " P. Diddy " in 2001 . The gospel album , Thank You , which had been completed just before the beginning of the weapons trial , was released that March . He appeared as a drug dealer in the film Made and starred with Halle Berry and Billy Bob Thornton in Monster 's Ball ( both in 2001 ) . He was arrested for driving on a suspended license in Florida . Combs began working with a series of unusual ( for him ) artists . For a short period of time , he was the manager of Kelis ; they have a collaboration titled " Let 's Get Ill " . He was an opening act for ' N Sync on their Spring 2002 Celebrity Tour , and he signed California @-@ based pop girl group Dream to his record label . Combs was a producer of the soundtrack album for the film Training Day ( 2001 ) .
In June 2001 , Combs ended Bad Boy Entertainment 's joint venture with Arista Records , gaining full control of Bad Boy , its catalogue , and its roster of artists . The Saga Continues ... , released on July 10 in North America , was the last studio album released by the joint venture . The album reached number two on the Billboard 200 and the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums charts , and was eventually certified as Platinum . It is the only studio album under the P. Diddy name , and the first album by Sean Combs not to feature any guest appearances by Jay @-@ Z or Lil Kim . Combs was executive producer of the reality TV show Making the Band , which appeared on MTV from 2002 to 2009 . The show involved interviewing candidates and creating musical acts that would then enter the music business . Acts that got their start this way include Da Band , Danity Kane , Day26 , and Donnie Klang .
In 2003 Combs ran in the New York City Marathon , raising $ 2 million for the educational system of the city of New York . On March 10 , 2004 he appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show to discuss the marathon , which he finished in four hours and eighteen minutes . In 2004 Combs headed the campaign " Vote or Die " for the 2004 presidential election . On February 1 , 2004 , Combs ( as P. Diddy ) performed at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show .
= = = 2005 – 09 : " Diddy " and Press Play = = =
On August 16 , 2005 , Combs announced on Today that he was altering his stage name yet again ; he would be calling himself " Diddy " . Combs said that fans didn 't know how to address him , which led to confusion . In November 2005 , London @-@ based musical artist and DJ Richard Dearlove , who had been performing under the name " Diddy " since 1992 – nine years before Combs started using even " P. Diddy " – sought an injunction in the High Court of Justice in London . He accepted an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of £ 10 @,@ 000 in damages and more than £ 100 @,@ 000 in costs . Combs can no longer use the name Diddy in the UK , where he is still known as P. Diddy . An assault charge against Combs filed by Michigan television host Rogelio Mills was resolved in Combs ' favor in 2005 .
Combs starred in the 2005 film Carlito 's Way : Rise to Power . He played Walter Lee Younger in the 2004 Broadway revival of A Raisin in the Sun and the television adaptation that aired in February 2008 . In 2005 Combs sold half of his record company to the Warner Music Group . He hosted the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards and was named one of the 100 Most Influential People of 2005 by Time magazine . He was mentioned in the country song " Play Something Country " by Brooks & Dunn : the lyricist says he " didn 't come to hear P. Diddy " , which is rhymed with " something thumpin ' from the city . "
In 2006 , when Combs refused to release musician Mase from his contractual obligations to allow him to join the group G @-@ Unit , 50 Cent recorded a dis song , " Hip @-@ Hop " . The lyrics imply that Combs knew the identity of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s murderer . The two later resolved the feud .
Combs released his first album in four years , Press Play , on October 17 , 2006 , on the Bad Boy Records label . The album , featuring guest appearances by many popular artists , debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart with sales of over 173 @,@ 009 . Its singles " Come to Me " and " Last Night " both reached the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 . The album became available to preview on MTV 's The Leak on October 10 , 2006 , a week before being sold in stores . Press Play received mixed to positive reviews from critics , and was certified Gold on the RIAA ratings . On September 18 , 2007 , Combs teamed up with 50 Cent and Jay @-@ Z for the " Forbes I Get Money Billion Dollar Remix " .
In March 2008 the Los Angeles Times claimed that The Notorious B.I.G. and Combs orchestrated the 1994 robbery and shooting of Tupac , substantiating the claim with supposed FBI documents ; the newspaper later retracted the story , acknowledging that the documents had been fabricated . Dexter Isaac , an associate of record management executive Jimmy Henchman , confessed in 2012 that he shot Tupac on Henchman 's orders .
In June 2008 Combs ' representative denied rumors of another name change . Combs ventured into reality television in August 2008 with the premiere of his VH1 series I Want to Work for Diddy . After the season finale of Making The Band 4 , Combs said he would be heading back into the studio to record his next album . In an interview with The Daily Mail , he said , " I had Christina Aguilera on my last album , but it 's all about Leona Lewis on my next . " He appeared — credited under his real name — in two episodes of Season 7 of CSI : Miami : " Presumed Guilty " and " Sink or Swim " , in the role of lawyer Derek Powell .
= = = 2010 – 13 : Dirty Money and acting = = =
Combs created a rap supergroup in 2010 known as The Dream Team . The group consists of Combs , Rick Ross , DJ Khaled , Fat Joe , Busta Rhymes , Red Café , and Fabolous . Combs made an appearance at comedian Chris Gethard 's live show in January 2010 at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in New York City . In June 2010 Combs played a role ( credited as Sean Combs ) in the comedy film Get Him to the Greek , as Sergio Roma , a record company executive . An Entourage series representative announced that Combs would guest star on an episode during the 2010 season .
Last Train to Paris was released by Combs ' group Diddy – Dirty Money on December 13 , 2010 . The release was preceded by four singles " Angels " , " Hello Good Morning " , " Loving You No More " , and " Coming Home " , which experienced mixed success on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Coming Home " was the most successful of the songs , peaking at number twelve on the U.S. Hot 100 , number four in the UK , and number seven in Canada . On March 10 , 2011 Diddy – Dirty Money performed " Coming Home " live on American Idol .
On April 18 , 2011 , Combs appeared in season one of Hawaii Five @-@ 0 , guest starring as an undercover NYPD detective . In November 2012 Combs appeared in an episode of the eighth season of the American sitcom It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia .
= = = 2014 – present : MMM ( Money Making Mitch ) and No Way Out 2 = = =
On February 26 , 2014 , Combs premiered " Big Homie " , featuring Rick Ross and French Montana , as the first single from his mixtape MMM ( Money Making Mitch ) , which was originally scheduled to be released that year . The song was released for digital download on March 24 , and two days later the trailer for the music video was released . The full version of the music video was released on March 31 . Combs is using his former stage name Puff Daddy for the album . MMM was released as a free mixtape album of 12 tracks on November 4 , 2015 . In 2014 Puff and Guy Gerber announced that their joint album 11 11 will be available for free download . A new single called " Finna Get Loose " featuring Combs and Pharrell Williams was released on June 29 , 2015 .
In July 2015 , Bad Boy Entertainment artist Gizzle told the press that she is collaborating with Combs on what she describes as his last album , titled No Way Out 2 , a sequel to his 1997 debut . She describes the music as unique : " The mindset is to just be classic and to be epic . And to really live up to that ... we know it 's a tall order , but we welcome the challenge . " In April 2016 , Combs announced that after this last album and tour , he plans to retire from the music industry to focus on acting .
= = Business career = =
Fortune magazine listed Combs at number twelve on their top 40 of entrepreneurs under 40 in 2002 . Forbes Magazine estimates that for the year ending May 2012 , Combs earned $ 45 million , ranking him fifteenth among musicians . In 2015 his estimated net worth was $ 735 million .
= = = Sean John = = =
In 1998 , Combs started a clothing line , Sean John . It was nominated for the Council of Fashion Designers of America ( CFDA ) award for Menswear Designer of the Year in 2000 , and won in 2004 . The clothing line became the subject of controversy in 2003 , when the National Labor Committee revealed that factories producing the clothing in Honduras were violating Honduran labor laws . Among the accusations were that workers were subjected to body searches and involuntary pregnancy tests . Bathrooms were locked and access tightly controlled . Employees were forced to work overtime and were paid sweatshop wages . Charles Kernaghan of the National Labor Committee told The New York Times that " Sean Puff Daddy obviously has a lot of clout , he can literally do a lot overnight to help these workers . "
Combs responded with an extensive investigation , telling reporters " I 'm as pro @-@ worker as they get " . On February 14 , 2004 , Kernaghan announced that improvements had been implemented at the factory , including adding air conditioning and water purification systems , firing the most abusive supervisors , and allowing the formation of a labor union . In late 2006 , the department store Macy 's removed Sean John jackets from their shelves when they discovered that the clothing was made using dog fur ( from a species called raccoon dog ) . Combs had not known the jackets were made with dog fur , but as soon as he was alerted , he had production stopped .
In November 2008 , Combs added a men 's perfume called " I Am King " to the Sean John brand . The fragrance , dedicated to Barack Obama , Muhammad Ali , and Martin Luther King , featured model Bar Refaeli in its advertisements .
= = = Other ventures = = =
In addition to his clothing line , Combs owned two restaurants called Justin 's , named after his son . The original New York location closed in September 2007 ; the Atlanta location closed in June 2012 . He is the designer of the Dallas Mavericks alternate jersey . In October 2007 Combs agreed to help develop the Cîroc vodka brand for a 50 percent share of the profits . Combs acquired the Enyce clothing line from Liz Claiborne for $ 20 million on October 21 , 2008 . Combs has a major equity stake in Revolt TV , a television network that also has a film production branch . It began broadcasting in 2014 . In February 2015 , Combs teamed up with actor Mark Wahlberg and businessman Ronald Burkle of Yucaipa Companies to purchase a majority holding in Aquahydrate , a calorie @-@ free beverage for athletes . John Cochran , former president of Fiji Water , is CEO of the company .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Combs is the father of six children . His first child , Justin , was born in 1993 to his high @-@ school sweetheart , designer Misa Hylton @-@ Brim . Justin attends UCLA on a football scholarship . Combs had an on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with Kimberly Porter , which lasted from 1994 to July 2007 . He adopted and raised Quincy ( born 1991 ) , Porter 's son from a previous relationship with singer / producer Al B. Sure . Together they had son Christian ( born 1998 ) and twin daughters D 'Lila Star and Jessie James ( born December 21 , 2006 ) . Five months before the birth of his twins , his daughter Chance was born to Sarah Chapman . He took legal responsibility for Chance in October 2007 .
Combs ' sons Quincy and Justin both appeared on MTV 's My Super Sweet 16 . Combs threw Quincy a celebrity @-@ studded party and gave him two cars as his sixteenth birthday present . For Justin 's sixteenth birthday , Combs presented him with a $ 360 @,@ 000 Maybach car , complete with chauffeur .
Combs owns a home in Alpine , New Jersey , which he purchased for a reported $ 7 million .
= = = Charity work and honors = = =
Combs founded Daddy 's House Social Programs , an organization to help inner city youth , in 1995 . Programs include tutoring , life skills classes , and an annual summer camp . Along with Jay @-@ Z , he pledged $ 1 million to help support victims of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , and donated clothing from his Sean John line to victims . He has donated computers and books to New York schools .
Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley named October 13 , 2006 , as " Diddy Day " in honor of Combs ' charity work . In 2008 Combs was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
In 2014 , Combs received an honorary doctorate from Howard University , where he served as the keynote speaker for its 146th commencement ceremony . In his speech , Combs acknowledged that his experiences as a Howard student positively influenced his life .
= = = Wardrobe style = = =
Combs describes his wardrobe style as " swagger , timeless , diverse " . On September 2 , 2007 , Combs held his ninth annual " White Party " , at which guests are limited to an all @-@ white dress code . The White Party , which has also been held in St. Tropez , was held in his home in East Hampton , Long Island . Combs stated , " This party is up there with the top three that I 've thrown . It 's a party that has legendary status . It 's hard to throw a party that lives up to its legend . "
= = = Legal troubles = = =
On June 22 , 2015 , Combs was arrested for assault with a deadly weapon by the University of California , Los Angeles Police Department . He was accused of assaulting one of his son 's football coaches after witnessing the coach yell at his son . His son , Justin Combs , plays football for the UCLA Bruins .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
No Way Out ( 1997 )
Forever ( 1999 )
The Saga Continues ... ( 2001 )
Press Play ( 2006 )
Last Train to Paris ( 2010 )
MMM ( 2015 )
No Way Out 2 ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
Made ( 2001 )
Monster 's Ball ( 2001 )
2005 MTV Video Music Awards ( 2006 )
Seamless ( 2005 )
Carlito 's Way : Rise to Power ( 2005 )
A Raisin in the Sun ( 2008 )
Get Him to the Greek ( 2010 )
Draft Day ( 2014 )
Muppets Most Wanted ( 2014 )
= = Accolades = =
= = = NAACP Image Awards = = =
2009 , Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie , Mini @-@ Series or Dramatic Special , A Raisin in the Sun ( Winner )
= = = BET Awards = = =
2007 , Best Male Hip Hop Artist ( Nominated )
= = = MTV Video Music Awards = = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = = Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ( albums executive produced by Sean Combs ) = = =
= Tommy ( album ) =
Tommy is the fourth studio album by the English rock band The Who , a double album first released in May 1969 . The album was mostly composed by guitarist Pete Townshend as a rock opera that tells the story about a deaf , dumb and blind boy , including his experiences with life and his relationship with his family .
Townshend came up with the concept of Tommy after being introduced to the work of Meher Baba , and attempted to translate Baba 's teachings into music . Recording on the album began in September 1968 , but took six months to complete as material needed to be arranged and re @-@ recorded in the studio . Tommy was acclaimed upon its release by critics , who hailed it as the Who 's breakthrough . Its critical standing diminished slightly in later years ; nonetheless , several writers view it as an important and influential album in the history of rock music . The Who promoted the album 's release with an extensive tour , including a live version of Tommy , which lasted throughout 1969 and 1970 . Key gigs from the tour included appearances at Woodstock , the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival , the University of Leeds , the Metropolitan Opera House and the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival . The live performances of Tommy drew critical praise and rejuvenated the band 's career .
Subsequently , the rock opera developed into other media , including a Seattle Opera production in 1971 , an orchestral version by Lou Reizner in 1972 , a film in 1975 , and a Broadway musical in 1992 . The original album has sold 20 million copies and has been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . It has been reissued several times on CD , including a remix by Jon Astley in 1996 , a deluxe Super Audio CD in 2003 , and a super deluxe box set in 2013 , including previously unreleased demos and live material .
= = Synopsis = =
Tommy has never had a definitive plot , but the following synopsis was published following the original album 's release .
British Army Captain Walker goes missing during an expedition and is believed dead ( " Overture " ) . His widow , Mrs. Walker , gives birth to their son , Tommy ( " It 's a Boy " ) . Years later , Captain Walker returns home and discovers that his wife has found a new lover . The Captain murders this man in an altercation as Tommy watches . Tommy 's mother convinces him that he did not see or hear the incident and must never tell anyone about it ; as a result , he becomes deaf , dumb , and blind to the outside world ( " 1921 " ) . Tommy now relies on his sense of touch and imagination , developing a fascinating inner psyche ( " Amazing Journey / Sparks " ) .
A quack claims his wife can cure Tommy ( " The Hawker " ) , while Tommy 's parents are increasingly frustrated that he will never find religion in the midst of his isolation ( " Christmas " ) . They begin to neglect him , leaving him to be tortured by his sadistic " Cousin Kevin " and molested by his uncle Ernie ( " Fiddle About " ) . The Hawker 's drug addicted wife , " The Acid Queen , " gives Tommy a dose of LSD , causing a hallucinogenic experience that is expressed musically ( " Underture " ) .
As Tommy grows older , he discovers that he can feel vibrations sufficiently well to become an expert pinball player ( " Pinball Wizard " ) . His parents take him to a respected doctor ( " There 's a Doctor " ) , who determines that the boy 's disabilities are psychosomatic rather than physical . Tommy is told by the Doctor to " Go to the Mirror ! " , and his parents notice he can stare at his reflection . After seeing Tommy spend extended periods staring at a mirror in the house , his mother smashes it out of frustration ( " Smash the Mirror " ) . This removes Tommy 's mental block , and he recovers his senses , realising he can become a powerful leader ( " Sensation " ) . He starts a religious movement ( " I 'm Free " ) , which generates fervor among its adherents ( " Sally Simpson " ) and expands into a holiday camp ( " Welcome " / " Tommy 's Holiday Camp " ) . However , Tommy 's followers ultimately reject his teachings and leave the camp ( " We 're Not Gonna Take It " ) . Tommy retreats inward again ( " See Me , Feel Me " ) with his " continuing statement of wonder at that which encompasses him " .
= = Background = =
Townshend had been looking at way of progressing beyond the standard three minute pop single format since 1966 . Co @-@ manager Kit Lambert shared Townshend 's views and encouraged him to develop musical ideas , coming up with the term " rock opera " . The first use of the term was applied to a suite called " Quads " , set in a future where parents could choose the sex of their children . A couple want four girls but instead receive three girls and a boy , raising him as a girl anyway . The opera was abandoned after writing a single song , the hit single , " I 'm a Boy " . When the Who 's second album , A Quick One ran short of material during recording , Lambert suggested that Townshend should write a " mini @-@ opera " to fill the gap . Townshend initially objected , but eventually agreed to do so , coming up with " A Quick One , While He 's Away " , which joined short pieces of music together into a continuous narrative . During 1967 , Townshend learned how to play the piano and began writing songs on it , taking his work more seriously . That year 's The Who Sell Out included a mini @-@ opera in the last track , " Rael " , which like " A Quick One ... " was a suite of musical segments joined together .
By 1968 , Townshend was unsure about how the Who should progress musically . The group were no longer teenagers , but he wanted their music to remain relevant . His friend , International Times art director Mike McInnerney , told him about the Indian spiritual mentor Meher Baba , and Townshend became fascinated with Baba 's values of compassion , love and introspection . The Who 's commercial success was on the wane after the single " Dogs " failed to make the top 20 , and there was a genuine risk of the band breaking up . Live performances remained strong , and the group spent most of the spring and summer touring the US and Canada but their stage act relied on Townshend smashing his guitar or Moon demolishing his drums , which kept the group in debt . Townshend and Lambert realised they needed a larger vehicle for their music than hit singles , and a new stage show , and Townshend hoped to incorporate his love of Baba into this concept . He decided that the Who should record a series of songs that stood well in isolation , but formed a cohesive whole on the album . He also wanted the material performed in concert , to counteract the trend of bands like the Beatles and the Beach Boys , whose studio output was not designed for live performance .
In August 1968 , Townshend gave an important interview to Rolling Stone 's Jann Wenner . He talked about a new rock opera , which had the working title of Deaf , Dumb and Blind Boy , and described the entire plot in great detail , which ran to 11 pages . Who biographer Dave Marsh subsequently said the interview described the narrative better than the finished album . Townshend later regretted publishing so much detail , as he felt it forced him to write the album according to that blueprint . The rest of the Who , however , were enthusiastic about the idea , and let him have artistic control over the project .
= = Recording = =
The Who started recording the album at IBC Studios on 19 September 1968 . There was no firm title at this point , which was variously referred to as Deaf , Dumb and Blind Boy , Amazing Journey , Journey into Space , The Brain Opera and Omnibus . Townshend eventually settled on Tommy because it was a common British name , and a nickname for soldiers in World War I. Lambert took charge of the production , with Damon Lyon @-@ Shaw as engineer . Sessions were block booked from 2pm – 10pm , but recording often spilled over into the early morning .
The album was recorded onto eight track tape , which allowed various instruments to be overdubbed . Townshend used several guitars in the studio , but made particular use of the Gibson J @-@ 200 acoustic and the Gibson SG . As well as their usual instruments , Townshend played piano and organ and bassist John Entwistle doubled on french horn . Keith Moon used a new double bass drum kit owned by roadie Tony Haslam , after Premier had refused to loan him any more equipment due to continual abuse . Though Townshend wrote the majority of the material , the arrangements came from the entire band . Singer Roger Daltrey later said that Townshend often came in with a half @-@ finished demo recording , adding " we probably did as much talking as we did recording , sorting out arrangements and things . " Townshend asked Entwistle to write two songs ( " Cousin Kevin " and " Fiddle About " ) that covered the darker themes of bullying and abuse . " Tommy 's Holiday Camp " was Moon 's suggestion of what religious movement Tommy could lead . Moon got the songwriting credit for suggesting the idea , though the music was composed and played by Townshend . A significant amount of material had a lighter style than earlier recordings , with greater prominence put on the vocals . Moon later said , " It was , at the time , very un @-@ Wholike . A lot of the songs were soft . We never played like that . "
Some of the material had already been written for other projects . " Sensation " was written about a girl Townshend had met on the Who 's tour of Australia in early 1968 , " Welcome " and " I 'm Free " were about peace found through Meher Baba and " Sally Simpson " was based on a gig with the Doors which was marred by violence . Other songs had been previously recorded by the Who and were recycled ; " It 's A Boy " was derived from " Glow Girl " , an out @-@ take from The Who Sell Out , while " Sparks " and " Underture " re @-@ used and expanded one of the instrumental themes in " Rael " . " Amazing Journey " was , according to Townshend , " the absolute beginning " of the opera and summarised the entire plot . " The Hawker " was a cover of Mose Allison 's " Eyesight to the Blind " . A cover of Mercy Dee Walton 's " One Room Country Shack " was also recorded but was scrapped from the final track listing as Townshend could not figure out a way to incorporate it in the plot .
Recording at IBC was slow , due to a lack of a full plot and a full selection of songs . The group hoped that the album would be ready by Christmas , but sessions dragged on . Melody Maker 's Chris Welch visited IBC studios in November and while he was impressed with the working environment and the material , the project still did not have a title and there was no coherent plotline . The Who 's US record company got so impatient waiting for new product that they released the compilation album Magic Bus : The Who on Tour which received a scathing review from Greil Marcus in Rolling Stone over its poor selection of material and misleading name ( as the album contained studio recordings and was not live ) .
The Who took a break from recording at the end of 1968 to tour , including a well received appearance at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus on 10 December . They resumed sessions at IBC in January 1969 , block booking Monday to Thursday , but had to do gigs every weekend to stop going further into debt . A major tour was booked for the end of April , and the group 's management insisted that the album would have to be finished by then , as it had been well over a year since The Who Sell Out . Lambert wrote a script , Tommy ( 1914 – 1984 ) which he professionally printed , and gave copies to the band , which helped them focus the storyline , and also decide to make the album a double . The group were still coming up with new material ; Lambert insisted that the piece should have a proper overture , while Townshend wrote " Pinball Wizard " so that Nik Cohn , a pinball fan , would give the album a favourable review in the New York Times . Lambert wanted an orchestra to appear on the album , but Townshend was strongly against the idea , and time and budget constraints meant it could not happen anyway .
By March 1969 , some songs had been recorded several times , yet Townshend still thought there were missing pieces . Entwistle had become fed up with recording , later saying " we had to keep going back and rejuvenating the numbers ... it just started to drive us mad . " The final recording session took place on 7 March , the same day that " Pinball Wizard " was released as a single . The group started tour rehearsals and promotional activities for the single and Lambert went on holiday in Cairo . The mixing was left to Lyon @-@ Shaw and assistant engineer Ted Sharp , who did not think IBC was well suited for the task . The album overshot its April deadline , as stereo mastering continued into the end of the month .
= = Release = =
Tommy was finally released on 17 May 1969 in the US , and 23 May in the UK , due to delays with the cover . The original double album was configured with sides 1 and 4 on one disc , and sides 2 and 3 on the other , to facilitate record changers .
The album was commercially successful , reaching No. 2 in the UK album charts , and No. 4 in the US . It sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in the first two weeks in the US alone , and was awarded a gold record for sales of 500 @,@ 000 on August 18 . " Pinball Wizard " , " I 'm Free " and " See Me , Feel Me " were released as singles and received airplay on the radio . " Pinball Wizard " reached the top 20 in the US and the top five in the UK . " See Me , Feel Me " reached the top 20 in the US and " I 'm Free " reached the top 40 . An EP of selections from the album was planned to be released in the UK in November 1970 , but was withdrawn . As of 2012 , Tommy has sold 20 million copies worldwide .
When it was released , critics were split between those who thought the album was a masterpiece , the beginnings of a new genre , and those that felt it was exploitative . The album had a hostile reception with the BBC and certain US radio stations , with Tony Blackburn describing " Pinball Wizard " as " distasteful " . Nevertheless , BBC Radio 1 received an advance copy of the album at the start of May and gave the material its first airplay on Pete Drummond 's show on 3 May . Townshend promoted the album 's release with interviews in which he attempted to explain the plotline . Unfortunately , because it fundamentally dealt with the abstract concept of Baba 's spiritual precepts , the interviews often gave confusing and contradicting details .
= = Critical reception = =
The initial critical reaction to Tommy was positive . Chris Welch , writing for Melody Maker , went to the press launch show at Ronnie Scott 's and although the volume left his ears ringing for 20 hours , he concluded " we wanted more . " Disc and Music Echo ran a front @-@ page headline saying " Who 's Tommy : A Masterpiece " . Critics and fans were confused by the storyline , but Lambert pointed out this made Tommy no less confusing than the operas of Richard Wagner or Giacomo Puccini a century earlier .
In a 1969 column for The Village Voice , music critic Robert Christgau said that , apart from The Mothers of Invention 's We 're Only in It for the Money , Tommy is the first successful " extended work " in rock music , but Townshend 's parodic side is more " profound and equivocal " than Frank Zappa . He praised Townshend for deliberately constructing the album so that each song can be enjoyed individually and felt that he is determined to " give his audience what it wants without burying his own peculiarity " . Albert Goldman , writing in Life magazine , said that The Who play through " all the kinky complications " of the narrative in a hard rock style that is the antithesis of most contemporary " serious " rock . Goldman asserted that , based on innovation , performance , and " sheer power " , Tommy surpasses anything else in studio @-@ recorded rock . Christgau named Tommy the best album of 1969 in his year @-@ end list for Jazz & Pop magazine .
According to music journalist Richie Unterberger , Tommy was hailed by contemporary critics as the Who 's breakthrough , but its critical standing diminished slightly in the subsequent decades , because of its occasionally pretentious concept and flimsy songs that functioned as devices to " advance the rather sketchy plot . " Christgau wrote in 1983 , " Tommy 's operatic pretensions were so transparent that for years it seemed safe to guess that Townshend 's musical ideas would never catch up with his lyrics . " In his review for AllMusic , Unterberger said that , despite its slight flaws , the album has " many excellent songs " permeated with " a suitably powerful grace " , while Townshend 's ability to devise a lengthy narrative introduced " new possibilities to rock music . " Uncut wrote that the album " doesn 't quite realise its ambitions , though it achieves a lot on the way " , and felt it was not as well developed as their later album , Quadrophenia . Mark Kemp , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , felt that " in retrospect , Tommy isn 't quite the masterpiece it was originally hyped to be " , suggesting The Who Sell Out was better , though because of Townshend , it produced several " bona fide classic songs " .
In 1998 , the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for " historical , artistic and significant value " . In 2003 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked Tommy number 96 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The album is one of several by the Who to appear in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
According to music critic Martha Bayles , Tommy did not mix rock with classical music , as its " rock opera " title may have suggested , but instead was " dominated by the Who 's mature style : ponderous , rhythmically monotonous hard rock " . Bayles argued that it was more acceptable to audiences than the art rock " concoctions " of the time because of the cultural climate during the late 1960s : " Tommy was considered more authentic , precisely because it consists of hard rock , rather than doctored @-@ up Mussorgsky ... and avoids the typical pseudoromantic themes of art rock ( fairy @-@ tale bliss and apocalyptic angst ) in favor of the more up @-@ to @-@ date subject of popular culture itself . " High Fidelity magazine also characterized the Who 's album as a " reasonably hard @-@ rock version " of the opera .
Marsh thought the problem with the album 's narrative is that there isn 't enough transitional material provided by the lyrics . There are no stage directions , no cast , and narration is restricted to key phrases ( such as " Tommy can you hear me ? " ) Key problems included an unclear explanation of what Tommy didn 't hear or see in " 1921 " , how or why he plays pinball , why " Smash the Mirror " leads into " I overwhelm as I approach you " ( the opening line in " Sensation " ) , why Tommy tells his followers in " We 're Not Gonna Take It " they cannot drink or smoke but can play pinball , and what the " you " is in " Listening to you , I get the music " .
= = Editions and cover art = =
= = = Original edition = = =
Tommy was originally released as a two @-@ LP set with artwork designed by McInnerney , which included a booklet including lyrics and images to illustrate parts of the story . The cover is presented as part of a triptych @-@ style fold @-@ out cover , and the booklet contained abstract artwork that outlined the story . Although the album included lyrics to all the songs , indicating individual characters , it did not outline the plot , which led to a concert programme being prepared for shows , that carried a detailed synopsis .
Townshend thought McInnerney , a fellow follower of Baba , would be a suitable choice to do the cover . As recording was near completion , McInnerney received a number of cassettes with completed songs and a brief outline for the story , which he immediately recognised as being based on Baba 's teachings . He wanted to try and convey the world of a deaf , dumb and blind boy , and decided to " depict a kind of breaking out of a certain restricted plane into freedom . " The finished cover contained a blue and white web of clouds , a fist punching into the black void to the left of it . The inner triptych , meanwhile , showed a hand reaching out to light and a light shining in a dark void . Townshend was too busy finishing the recording to properly approve the artwork , but Lambert strongly approved of it , and said it would work . The final step was for record company approval , who decided the cover was more sensible than The Who Sell Out , though making one concession that pictures of the band should appear on the cover . These were added to the web on the front .
= = = Reissues = = =
Tommy was first released on CD in 1984 as a two disc set . Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab subsequently released a special single @-@ disc edition of the album in 1990 , featuring an alternate take of " Eyesight to the Blind " and a low volume extensive break on the glass in " Smash The Mirror " . It was also remastered by Erick Labson for single disc release in 1993 .
MCA released a newly remastered version on single disc in 1996 , which had been remixed by Jon Astley . Astley was able to access the original 8 track tapes and bring out instruments that had been buried , such as the guitar in " Christmas " , the French Horn in " Sparks " , the cymbals in " The Acid Queen " and the organ in " We 're Not Gonna Take it " . This release came with McInnerney 's complete artwork and a written introduction by Richard Barnes .
In 2003 Tommy was made available as a deluxe two @-@ disc hybrid Super Audio CD with a 5 @.@ 1 multi @-@ channel mix . The remastering was done under the supervision of Townshend and also includes related material not on the original album , including " Dogs @-@ Part 2 " ( the B @-@ Side to " Pinball Wizard " ) , " Cousin Kevin Model Child " and " Young Man Blues " , plus demos for the album and other unreleased songs that were dropped from the final running order .
In 2013 , a super deluxe version of Tommy was released as a 3 @-@ CD / Blu @-@ ray disc box set . As well as the original album , the package includes additional demos , and a live performance mostly taken from the Who 's show at the Capital Theatre , Ottawa , Canada on 15 October 1969 . The live disc was significant , as it debunked a long @-@ standing myth that the tapes for the tour were burned in preference for the Leeds University show in February 1970 that made up Live at Leeds .
= = Live performances = =
The Who had planned to perform Tommy live since starting the project . The group spent April 1969 rehearsing a live version of the show at the Hanwell Community Centre in Ealing including a final run down of the entire stage piece on 23 April . The running order was changed , and four songs ( " Cousin Kevin " , " Underture " , " Sensation " and " Welcome " ) were dropped entirely . Townshend later said the group " did the whole thing from start to finish and that was when we first realized we had something cohesive and playable . " Daltrey 's voice had improved substantially since the group 's early tours , and they realised their new live act could completely change their career .
After a few warm up gigs towards the end of April , the group gave a preview concert to the press at Ronnie Scotts , London on 1 May . Realising the opera 's narrative was difficult to understand , Townshend explained a synopsis of the story , before the Who played Tommy all the way through at full stage volume . The next day , the group flew out to New York to start the US tour , with the first gig on 9 May at the Grande Ballroom , Detroit . At the end of May , the group played four nights at the Kinetic Playground , Chicago , and they noticed the audience would all stand up at the same time , and stay standing . This indicated that live performances of Tommy had a significant positive response .
The group continued to play large halls in the US , organised by tour promoter Frank Barsalona , and generally avoided festivals , but made an important exception with the Woodstock Festival on 16 August . After spending all night arguing with Barsalona , the band agreed to perform at Woodstock for $ 12 @,@ 500 . The festival ran late and the Who did not take to the stage until the early morning of 17 August . During " Pinball Wizard " , Abbie Hoffman took to the stage to protest about the imprisonment of John Sinclair before being kicked offstage by Townshend , while during " See Me , Feel Me " , the sun rose , almost as if on cue . Two weeks later , the group played the second Isle of Wight Festival , using one of the largest live PAs available . Though media attention was on Bob Dylan playing his first major live concert since 1966 , the Who stole the show . Townshend later said , " We know that the stage act we had , with Tommy in it , would work under any circumstances , because it had worked many times on tour . "
Tommy remained in the Who 's live set through the rest of the year and into 1970 . In October 1969 , The Who played six shows at the Fillmore East , where Leonard Bernstein praised them for their new music . The group 's show on 14 December at the Coliseum Theatre , London , was filmed for a possible future Tommy feature . Lambert was keen for Tommy to be taken seriously and wanted the Who to perform at opera houses . In June 1970 , the group performed two shows at the Metropolitan Opera House , which was the first time Townshend announced the show as being the " last Tommy ever " . The group made a second trip to the Isle of Wight , appearing at the 1970 festival on 29 August , before an audience of 600 @,@ 000 . The last live performance for 1970 was at The Roundhouse , London on 20 December . Townshend said " This is the very last time we 'll play Tommy on stage " , to which Moon promptly cried , " Thank Christ for that ! "
Public reaction to the Who 's concerts that included Tommy was overwhelmingly positive . The touring helped keep the album in the public eye , and cleared the band 's debts . Several live recordings of Tommy from the Who 's 1969 – 70 tours have been released . A complete performance is available on the 2002 Deluxe Edition of the live album Live at Leeds , recorded on 14 February 1970 . The second Isle of Wight performance is available on Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 , released in 1996 . The Coliseum Theatre gig is available on the 2007 video release At Kilburn 1977 + Live at the Coliseum . Portions of the Woodstock performance of Tommy were released on the Woodstock film and later on The Kids Are Alright . The complete show was recorded , but has never been officially released .
The Who continued to play a smaller selection of Tommy live in subsequent tours throughout the 1970s . They revived Tommy as a whole for its twentieth anniversary during their 1989 reunion tour , reinstating the previously overlooked " Cousin Kevin " and " Sensation " but still omitting " Underture " and " Welcome " . Recordings from this tour can be found on the Join Together live album and the Tommy and Quadrophenia Live DVD . The Los Angeles version of this show featured Phil Collins as Uncle Ernie , Patti LaBelle as the Acid Queen , Steve Winwood as the Hawker , Elton John as the Pinball Wizard and Billy Idol as Cousin Kevin .
= = Other incarnations = =
= = = 1970 Les Grands Ballets Canadiens = = =
In 1970 Ferdinand Nault of the Montreal ballet group Les Grands Ballets Canadiens created the first dance @-@ based adaptation of Tommy . The ballet performance toured New York in April 1971 , which included a light show and accompanying films by the Quebec Film Bureau .
= = = 1971 Seattle Opera production = = =
In 1971 , the Seattle Opera under director Richard Pearlman produced the first ever fully staged professional production of Tommy at Seattle 's Moore Theater . The production included Bette Midler playing the role of the Acid Queen and Mrs. Walker , and music by the Syracuse , New York band Comstock , Ltd .
= = = London Symphony Orchestra version = = =
On 9 December 1972 , entrepreneur Lou Reizner presented a concert version of Tommy at the Rainbow Theatre , London . There were two performances that took place on the same evening . The concerts featured the Who , plus a guest cast , backed by the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by David Measham . The concerts were held to promote the release of Reizner 's new studio recording of this symphonic version of Tommy .
The album and concerts featured an all @-@ star cast , including Graham Bell ( as The Lover ) , Maggie Bell ( as The Mother ) , Sandy Denny ( as The Nurse ) , Steve Winwood ( as The Father ) , Rod Stewart ( as The Local Lad ) , Richie Havens ( as The Hawker ) , Merry Clayton ( as The Acid Queen ) and Ringo Starr ( as Uncle Ernie ) . Townshend played some guitar , but otherwise the music was predominantly orchestral . Richard Harris played the role of the specialist on the record , but he was replaced by Peter Sellers for the stage production . The stage show had a second run on 13 and 14 December 1973 with a different cast including David Essex , Elkie Brooks , Marsha Hunt , Vivian Stanshall , Roy Wood , and Jon Pertwee .
The orchestral version was also performed twice in Australia on 31 March 1973 at Melbourne 's Myer Music Bowl and on 1 April at Sydney 's Randwick Racecourse . Moon appeared as Uncle Ernie ( in Melbourne only ) , Graham Bell as the Narrator , with local stars Daryl Braithwaite ( as Tommy ) , Billy Thorpe , Doug Parkinson , Wendy Saddington , Jim Keays , Broderick Smith , Colleen Hewett , Linda George , Ross Wilson , Bobby Bright , Ian Meldrum ( as Uncle Ernie in Sydney ) , and a full orchestra . The Melbourne concert was videotaped , then televised by Channel 7 on 13 April 1973 .
= = = 1975 film = = =
In 1975 Tommy was adapted as a film , produced by expatriate Australian entrepreneur Robert Stigwood and directed by British auteur Ken Russell . The movie version starred Daltrey as Tommy , and featured the other members of the Who , plus a supporting cast that included Ann @-@ Margret as Tommy 's mother , Oliver Reed as " the Lover " , with appearances by Elton John , Tina Turner , Eric Clapton , Arthur Brown , and Jack Nicholson . Russell insisted on having a known cast , though Townshend wanted people who could sing the material , and was particularly disappointed at not being allowed to cast Stevie Wonder as the Pinball Wizard . In several cinemas , the film supported a multi @-@ track soundtrack billed as quintaphonic sound , which placed speaker banks in the four quadrants of the house and directly behind the centre of the screen .
Townshend also oversaw the production of a soundtrack album , on which the unrecorded orchestral arrangements Lambert had envisaged for the original Tommy LP were realised by the extensive use of synthesizer . He started work on the soundtrack album immediately after the Who 's 1973 US tour in December , and worked on it almost continuously for the next four months . As well as the Who , the film 's music track and the original soundtrack LP also employed several session musicians including Caleb Quaye , Ronnie Wood , Nicky Hopkins , Chris Stainton , and longtime Who associate John " Rabbit " Bundrick . Due to Moon 's commitments with the filming of Stardust , Kenney Jones ( who would take over as the Who 's drummer after Moon 's death in 1978 ) played drums on much of the soundtrack album .
" Pinball Wizard " was a major hit when released as a single . This sequence in the film depicts Elton being backed by the Who ( dressed in pound @-@ note suits ) ; the band portrayed the Pinball Wizard 's band for filming , but on the music track and soundtrack album , the music was performed entirely by him and his regular touring band . Most of the extras were students at Portsmouth Polytechnic and were paid with tickets to a Who concert after filming wrapped .
The film and its soundtrack album featured six new songs , all written by Townshend , and an alteration to the running order compared to the original album . The CD reissue of the film soundtrack also included an additional Overture .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
In 1991 , Townshend broke his wrist in a cycling accident and could not play guitar . Looking for alternative work while recuperating , he responded to a request from the PACE Theatrical Group for the rights to a Broadway musical adaptation of Tommy . The group introduced him to La Jolla Playhouse director Des McAnuff , and the pair began to develop the musical together . It opened at La Jolla in summer 1992 , and was an immediate commercial success . Townshend wrote a new song , " I Believe My Own Eyes " , to explain the relationship between Tommy 's parents , but otherwise tried to be faithful to the music on the original album .
The musical had a mixed response from critics , while Daltrey and Entwistle thought the show was too passive . Anthony DeCurtis , writing in Rolling Stone , said the orchestra drummer had " the thankless task of having to reproduce Keith Moon 's parts " . Townshend and McAnuff rewrote parts of the musical when it moved from La Jolla to Broadway , to show a darker side for the title character . McAnuff won a Tony Award in 1993 for Best Director , while Wayne Cilento won the award for Best Choreographer . The Broadway run lasted from 1993 to 1995 . McAnuff revisited Tommy during the 2013 season of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival .
= = = Bluegrass = = =
In 2015 , bluegrass band The Hillbenders released a cover of the album , arranged by Jim Rea and produced by Louis Jay Meyers . The group have informed Townshend and Daltrey in order to get official blessing . The performance of the bluegrass version has been critically praised , with Rolling Stone marking the Hillbenders appearance at South by Southwest one of the " 50 Best Things We Saw At SXSW 2015 " . Townshend met with the group after the band 's May 2015 performance in Nashville .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Standard editions = = =
All songs written and composed by Pete Townshend , except where noted .
Though later released as a single , " See Me , Feel Me " was not a track in its own right on the original album , and is included as the latter half of " We 're not Gonna Take It " .
= = = Deluxe editions = = =
2003 rerelease bonus disc
The first twelve tracks are out @-@ takes and demos and the last five are stereo @-@ only demos .
" I Was " – 0 : 17
" Christmas " ( Outtake 3 ) – 4 : 43
" Cousin Kevin Model Child " – 1 : 25
" Young Man Blues " ( Version one ) ( Allison ) – 2 : 51
" Tommy Can You Hear Me ? " ( Alternate version ) – 1 : 59
" Trying to Get Through " – 2 : 51
" Sally Simpson " ( Outtake ) – 4 : 09
" Miss Simpson " – 4 : 18
" Welcome " ( Take two ) – 3 : 44
" Tommy 's Holiday Camp " ( Band 's version ) – 1 : 07
" We 're Not Gonna Take It " ( Alternate version ) – 6 : 08
" Dogs ( Part Two ) " ( Moon ) – 2 : 26
" It 's a Boy " – 0 : 43
" Amazing Journey " – 3 : 41
" Christmas " – 1 : 55
" Do You Think It 's Alright " – 0 : 28
" Pinball Wizard " – 3 : 46
2013 reissue live disc
" Overture " ( Including Introduction ) – 7 : 00
" It 's A Boy " – 0 : 39
" 1921 " – 2 : 29
" Amazing Journey " – 5 : 07
" Sparks " – 2 : 49
" The Hawker ( Eyesight To The Blind ) " – 1 : 54
" Christmas " – 3 : 11
" The Acid Queen " – 3 : 30
" Pinball Wizard " – 2 : 47
" Do You Think It 's Alright ? " – 0 : 21
" Fiddle About " – 1 : 12
" Tommy , Can You Hear Me ? " – 0 : 55
" There 's A Doctor " – 0 : 24
" Go To The Mirror ! " – 3 : 12
" Smash The Mirror " – 1 : 10
" Miracle Cure " – 0 : 12
" Sally Simpson " – 4 : 01
" I 'm Free " – 2 : 12
" Tommy 's Holiday Camp " – 0 : 48
" We 're Not Gonna Take It " – 3 : 28
" See Me , Feel Me " – 7 : 51
All tracks are from the Capitol Theatre , Ottawa , Canada , 15 October 1969 , except for " I 'm Free " , " Tommy 's Holiday Camp " , " We 're Not Gonna Take It " and " See Me , Feel Me " which are from Swansea City Football Club , 12 June 1976 .
= = Sales chart performance = =
Album
Singles
= = Sales certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
The Who
Roger Daltrey – Vocals and harmonica
John Entwistle – Bass , French horn and vocals
Keith Moon – Drums
Pete Townshend – Guitar , keyboards and vocals
= Taylor v. Illinois =
Taylor v. Illinois , 484 U.S. 400 , is a United States Supreme Court decision in which the Court held that defense witnesses can be prevented from testifying under certain circumstances , even if that hurts the defense 's case . Taylor was the first case to hold that there is no absolute bar to blocking the testimony of a surprise witness , even if that is an essential witness for the defendant , a limitation of the broad right to present a defense recognized in Washington v. Texas .
Taylor was the first Compulsory Process Clause case since Washington v. Texas to provide a specific limitation on the right of defendants to force their witnesses to testify . In that case , the Court construed a defendant 's right very broadly in his ability to present a defense . Here , however , the Court restricted that ability to comply with court rules , especially if those rules were of equal consequence upon both the prosecution and the defense . This decision was reached over the dissent of three Justices , all of whom felt a defendant 's case should not be limited based on an error solely by the defendant 's attorney to list appropriate witnesses .
= = Background = =
= = = History of discovery rules = = =
Discovery procedures for defendants began with adoption of state laws in the 1920s . In the following decades , courts began instituting new procedures . In 1962 , for example , the California Supreme Court ordered reciprocal discovery rules , without an initial law requiring it . However , a series of problems surfaced with this judicially imposed system . Not only did both sides refuse to share intended testimony , but no ' alibi notice rule ' was fashioned , leading to an unworkable position for both sides . In 1974 , the California Supreme Court ordered the legislature to create the discovery system , ending the state 's experiment with judicial discovery rule @-@ making .
In 1970 , the United States Supreme Court first set down principles in terms of the constitutionality of discovery rules . In Williams v. Florida , the Court held that Florida 's ' notice @-@ of @-@ alibi ' rule did not violate the Fifth Amendment . While the rule in Williams was reciprocal , it was not for another three years before the Court mandated that discovery rules had to be reciprocal as a general principle . The decision articulated the " two @-@ way street " approach , that " trials be run as a ' search for truth ' " without either side maintaining " ' poker game ' secrecy for its own witnesses " .
Along with these decisions that were specific to the discovery process , the Supreme Court broadened the general constitutional rights for defendants in the 1967 ruling of Washington v. Texas . In Washington , the Court incorporated the Compulsory Process Clause against the states , holding that " the Constitution is violated by arbitrary rules that prevent whole categories of defense witnesses from testifying " . Despite this , the Court did not rule specifically on whether the preclusion sanction was appropriate , instead applying the constitutional standard for
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in violence and deaths , Larsen portrays race as fluid , identity politics as complex .
= = Critical reception = =
Passing was published in April 1929 by Knopf in New York City . Sales of the book were modest — Knopf produced three small print runs each under 2 @,@ 000 copies . While early reviews were primarily positive , it received little attention beyond New York City . Reviewers writing for mostly black audiences praised the book much more than reviewers writing for mostly white audiences . Comparing it to Larsen 's previous novel Quicksand , Alice Dunbar @-@ Nelson 's review in The Washington Eagle began by declaring that " Nella Larsen delights again with her new novel " . Writer and scholar W. E. B. Du Bois hailed it as the " one of the finest novels of the year " , and believed that its limited success was due to its treating a " forbidden subject " : the marriage of a white man to a mixed @-@ race girl who did not reveal her ancestry .
A common criticism of the novel is that it ends too suddenly , without a full exploration of the issues . Mary Rennels , writing in the New York Telegram , said that " Larsen didn 't solve the problem [ of passing ] . Knocking a character out of a scene doesn 't settle a matter . " An anonymous reviewer for the New York Times Book Review similarly concluded that " the most serious fault with the book is its sudden and utterly unconvincing close " , but otherwise considered it an effective treatment of the topic . On the other hand , Dunbar @-@ Nelson found that the ending confirmed to the reader that " you have been reading a masterpiece all along . "
In modern scholarship , Larsen is recognized as one of the central figures in the African @-@ American , feminist and modernist canons , a reputation that is based on her two novels — Passing and Quicksand — and some short stories . As of 2007 , Passing is the subject of more than two hundred scholarly articles and more than fifty dissertations , which offer a range of critical interpretations . It has been hailed as a text helping to " create a modernist psychological interiority ... challenging marriage and middle @-@ class domesticity , complexly interrogating gender , race , and sexual identity , and for redeploying traditional tropes — such as that of the tragic mulatta — with a contemporary and critical twist " . However , literary critic Cheryl A. Wall summarizes the critical response to Passing as less favorable than to Larsen 's first novel Quicksand . On the one hand the significance of sexual jealousy in the story has been seen to detract from the topic of racial passing ; conversely , even if racial passing is accurately treated in the novel , it is considered a historically specific practice , and therefore Passing appears dated and trivial .
= Help at Any Cost =
Help at Any Cost : How the Troubled @-@ Teen Industry Cons Parents and Hurts Kids is a non @-@ fiction book by Maia Szalavitz analyzing the controversy surrounding the tough love behavior modification industry . The book was published February 16 , 2006 , by Riverhead Books . Szalavitz focuses on four programs : Straight , Incorporated , a copy of the Straight Inc. program called KIDS , North Star wilderness boot camp , and the World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools . She discusses the background , history and methodology of the troubled @-@ teen industry , including techniques drawn from attack therapy and Synanon . She uses first @-@ person accounts and court testimony in her research , and states that no evidence exists proving that these programs are effective . The book also includes advice for parents and an appendix with additional resources on how to get responsible help for teenagers .
The book received positive reviews in academic journals , literary journals , and in the media . Psychologist Steve K. D. Eichel reviewed the book for Cultic Studies Review and called it a " must read " , psychologist and psychiatrist Robert John McAllister described it as " an excellent and informative book on the subject of the ' troubled @-@ teen industry ' " in his book Emotions : Mystery Or Madness , and a review in Psychology Today described Szalavitz 's work as " a meticulously reported and thoughtful investigation " . The book also received positive reviews in Publishers Weekly , Booklist , and Newsday . The book later led to an investigation into the troubled @-@ teen industry by the United States House Committee on Education and Labor of the United States House of Representatives , and Representative George Miller held hearings on the matter in October 2007 and April 2008 .
= = Background = =
Teenagers have been participating in tough love behavior modification programs since the 1960s . Many of these programs take place in the wilderness in the style of military recruit training ( also known as boot camps ) and the teenagers are subjected to rigid discipline , including mandatory marches , physical abuse , solitary confinement , and deprivation of food and sleep . These programs have little to no oversight from the United States federal or state governments . Teenagers ' claims of abuse at these facilities have not been investigated because the programs are not regulated .
= = Author = =
Maia Szalavitz is a senior fellow at the Statistical Assessment Service ( stats.org ) , a media watchdog organization which monitors news coverage of statistics and science . She has served as a researcher for journalist Bill Moyers , a part @-@ time contributor to Psychology Today , and has written articles for The New York Times , The Washington Post , Reason , and The American Prospect . Szalavitz is the co @-@ author of Recovery Options : The Complete Guide with Joseph Volpicelli , and The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog with Bruce D. Perry .
= = Contents = =
In Help at Any Cost Szalavitz investigates the teen rehabilitation industry and focuses on four programs : Straight , Incorporated , a copy of the Straight Inc. program called KIDS of Bergen County , North Star wilderness boot camp , and the World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools . Some of these programs cost parents over US $ 2 @,@ 000 per month . She discusses the history of the troubled @-@ teen industry and its origins in a controversial group founded in 1958 called Synanon . Synanon claimed that it could cure addiction to heroin , and its methodologies such as attack therapy , forced confessions , and imposed powerlessness spread throughout the United States . After a rattlesnake was placed in the mailbox of an attorney suing Synanon , the group 's founder was convicted of conspiracy to commit murder . Synanon later went bankrupt , but Szalavitz maintains that it influenced organizations related to the troubled @-@ teen industry .
Szalavitz notes that according to a 2004 statement released by the National Institutes of Health , teen programs using " fear and tough treatment " are not successful and evidence shows that they can worsen existing behavioral problems . Many of the children that enter these programs suffer from mental illness , and already have a history of prior trauma and abuse . Szalavitz uses first @-@ person accounts from teenagers that participated in these programs , and asserts that the programs have potentially serious negative consequences , including post @-@ traumatic stress and deaths .
An emotional story in the book recounts the death of 16 @-@ year @-@ old Aaron Bacon . Bacon suffered from a treatable ulcer , and died after being out in the wilderness in Utah for weeks while in the care of the group North Star . Bacon lost 23 pounds ( 10 kg ) in 20 days , but was called " gay " and a " faker " when he complained of abdominal pain , and was punished by North Star supervisors — his sleeping bag and food were taken away from him . The individuals responsible for Bacon were charged with negligent homicide , but did not serve any jail time .
In addition to these first @-@ person accounts , she also incorporates court reports and testimony in her research . Szalavitz highlights controversial practices used by these tough love teen industry programs which the Geneva Convention banned as being too extreme for prisoners of war . She states that there is no evidence that any of the programs are effective . Portions of the book are addressed to parents and provide resources and advice on how to select better choices instead of programs in the tough love teen industry , and the book includes an appendix aimed at educating parents on how to find help for their teenagers .
= = Reception = =
In his book Emotions : Mystery Or Madness , psychologist and psychiatrist Robert John McAllister highly recommended Help at Any Cost , and called it " an excellent and informative book on the subject of the ' troubled @-@ teen industry ' " , and " important reading for any parent who is considering sending a teenager to a tough love program , a boot camp , or a wilderness program . " In a review of the book in Library Journal , Linda Beck commented : " This book is excellent owing to its whistle @-@ blowing approach : it exposes an unregulated industry and alerts adults to the severe harm inflicted by these ' schools . ' " She called the book " chilling " and " Highly recommended for public libraries . "
In a review in Mother Jones , Nell Bernstein highlighted the sources given for parents at the back of the book , commenting : " Help at Any Cost winds up with an appendix that helpfully outlines " evidence based " alternatives to the tough @-@ love approach . " Steve Weinberg of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch gave the book a positive review , and described Szavalitz as " a talented , relentless investigator " . He noted : " Her outrage surfaces frequently as children die , as once @-@ loving families are atomized and as troubled @-@ teen entrepreneurs escape criminal prosecution while using legal maneuvers to prevail in civil court lawsuits seeking damages " , and characterized Help at Any Cost as " an important book about an industry that sometimes helps troubled youth but causes harm way too often . "
A review in Psychology Today called the book " An alarming exposé of the burgeoning business of boot camps and drug rehab centers that promise to reform troubled teens " , and described Szalavitz 's work as " a meticulously reported and thoughtful investigation " . Vanessa Bush of Booklist characterized the book as " a revealing , at times horrifying look at the troubled @-@ teen industry . " Publishers Weekly noted : " With a useful appendix discussing when and how to get responsible help for a troubled teen , this book , filled with first @-@ person accounts , should be required reading in Parenting 101 " , calling the work " a courageous — if horrifying — study of the tough @-@ love industry " .
Karen Karbo , author of The Stuff of Life , gave the book a positive review in Newsday , writing : " Maia Szalavitz 's brisk investigation of America 's so @-@ called " tough love " treatment programs , which bill themselves as the last hope for out @-@ of @-@ control , drug @-@ taking teens , would be the stuff of a bad TV movie , if it weren 't so smart , well @-@ researched and even @-@ handed . " Mark Sauer of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune noted : " Some of the stories reveal physical and psychological abuse that rivals tales from Iraq 's Abu Ghraib Prison . "
= = Aftermath = =
Help at Any Cost succeeded in bringing attention to deaths related to medical neglect and child abuse in the troubled @-@ teen industry . On October 10 , 2007 , the United States House Committee on Education and Labor of the United States House of Representatives held a full committee investigative hearing chaired by Representative George Miller on " Cases of Child Neglect and Abuse at Private Residential Treatment Facilities " . The Government Accountability Office presented findings from an investigation into the troubled @-@ teen industry , and parents of teens who died under care of these organizations testified at the hearing . Maia Szalavitz attended the hearing as well .
After the book 's publication , Szalavitz continued to write about the controversy surrounding the troubled @-@ teen industry for Statistical Assessment Service , The New York Times , The Washington Post , Reason , and The American Prospect . The House Committee on Education and Labor held additional hearings on the matter on April 24 , 2008 , again chaired by Representative George Miller .
= I Don 't Remember =
" I Don 't Remember " is a song by Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger , from the album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It made its radio debut on 9 July 2007 on Australian radio stations , and was subsequently released as a single and digital download on 4 August 2007 in Australia , 3 September 2007 in New Zealand , and 13 August 2007 in the United States .
The song was written by Powderfinger lead singer Bernard Fanning , and influenced by bassist John Collins . The riff was then developed by guitarist Ian Haug . The song is about reconciling difficulties and arguments , rather than shifting the blame .
" I Don 't Remember " was lauded by some reviewers , who appreciated its energy , while other reviewers were more critical , dubbing it an " advertisement song " . The music video also received critical acclaim , especially for the parodies it contained . Despite the reviews , the single charted poorly , reaching number 42 on the ARIA Singles Chart .
= = Background , writing , and recording = =
The song was written by the band 's lead singer , Bernard Fanning , following a night he spent drinking with bassist John Collins towards the end of the recording phase of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . The song was written by Fanning on guitar , but he later wrote the main riff on piano , which was then converted into a lead guitar riff performed by Ian Haug . The guitars for the song are all tuned down one step ; while the guitar finger positioning is played as though in the key of C major , the detuning brings the key of the song down to Bb , with the song leading off with Bb 's relative minor , G minor . During the recording phase , Fanning suggested " softening " the main riff by returning it to the piano , and even recorded this concept ; however this piano version did not end up in the final album mix , nor was it included as a B @-@ side on the single .
" I Don 't Remember " was recorded in Los Angeles during pre @-@ production for Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It contains a simple acoustic riff , similar to several songs on previous albums including Vulture Street . While recording the song in January 2007 , Fanning said in an interview that :
It 's a song about making mistakes and trying to reconcile what they were — but then in the end , in the wash up — it doesn 't really matter whose fault it was , as long as it gets reconciled .
This meaning was also evident in the song 's lyrics . In the second line , Fanning states that " I made a mistake that I 'll never surpass " , before explaining that it does not matter whose fault it is , in saying " I know you needed someone to take the fall / I know you needed someone to blame it on " . In the second verse , Fanning again reiterates that he feels pain in the mistake that was made , when he says " I found my heart and it broke like glass / I made that mistake that I 'll never surpass " .
John Collins said of the song :
I hope the song sounds exciting , without sounding ... big rock ? Without sounding country , and sound interesting , ' cause I think that the basis of the song if you play it on the acoustic is there , and it 's up to us [ Powderfinger ] to stuff it up now .
When Powderfinger first played the song to Benmont Tench , who would feature in a piano role throughout the album , he remarked that it reminded him of Buffalo Springfield , who was an inspiration of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers . Fanning replied that " we were thinking more of the Heartbreakers " , indicating the musical style intended in " I Don 't Remember " , but also paying homage to Tench , whom the band would work with extensively . Tench performed with the band on the album version of the song .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " I Don 't Remember " was made by Fifty Fifty Films , who had previously collaborated with the band on the videos for " Like a Dog " , " ( Baby I 've Got You ) On My Mind " , and " Lost and Running " , all nominated for ARIA Awards .
The music video starts on a school bus with children playing and throwing things , and features a young boy who then selects the track " I Don 't Remember " on his iPod and closes his eyes . He then dreams about a school concert for a band called " Littlefinger " , a parody of the band for which he is the lead singer " Bernie " , a parody of Bernard Fanning . The band and audience are composed of primary school students . Children are seen offering a chocolate milk called smilo , a take on Milo , and a camera crew for " Channel [ Z ] " and reporter " Su @-@ Mi " . This is a parody of Yumi Stynes , a presenter from Australian music station Channel V. The end of the clip shows that it was a dream being had by the student who played the lead singer for " Littlefinger " .
Many elements of " I Don 't Remember " ' s video received positive critical response for the usage of children in it . Kathy McCabe of The Daily Telegraph summarised critical feelings towards the video , by suggesting in her review that " [ maybe ] bands should get kids to play them in videos forever " .
= = = Parodies = = =
Powderfinger portrayed as " Littlefinger " .
Yumi Stynes portrayed as " Su @-@ Mi " .
Channel V portrayed as " Channel Z " .
News Ltd portrayed as " News Unlimited " on a T @-@ shirt .
Big Day Out portrayed as " Little Day Out " .
A sign posted says " Sshhh ! Jackson sleeping " , a parody of Australian band Sleepy Jackson .
Milo portrayed as " Smilo " .
Silverchair portrayed as " Hi Chair " on a T @-@ shirt .
Wolfmother portrayed as " Wolfmummy " on a T @-@ shirt .
Tony Mott , an Australian concert photographer is portrayed as " Tony Mop " on a T @-@ shirt with the actor also holding a SLR camera .
Cocaine and cigarettes portrayed as children 's candies Wizz Fizz and Fadds .
= = Response = =
In his review of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , Herald Sun HiT journalist Cameron Adams claimed that " I Don 't Remember " was more of an advertisement style song , similar to " Lost and Running " , the first single released from the album . Adams stated that " ' I Don 't Remember ' is not the next single without reason — it does everything you expect a Powderfinger single to , perhaps a more appropriate ' ad ' for this album . " Sputnikmusic contributor James Bishop described " I Don 't Remember " as unoriginal , but at the same time said that it proved Powderfinger " haven 't forgotten how to write a good song " .
Allmusic reviewer Clayton Bolger , however , described it positively as a " stadium anthem " and stating that it was a good example of the " trademarks of classic Powderfinger " showcased on the album . The review labeled the song a " pick " . Web Wombat 's review of the album also treated the song positively , dubbing it " classic Powderfinger . " Reviewer Andrew Tijs from CitySearch Brisbane stated that the song is " a smoothly emotive jangle @-@ rock tune with a purposeful chorus and Fanning 's inimitable vocal " , though provides mixed reviews when compared with other songs by the group , noting that " It 's no eerie ballad like ' The Day You Come ' , nor does it have ' Like a Dog ' ' s snarl , nor ' On My Mind ' ' s pub rock shudder . "
" I Don 't Remember " was performed regularly on the Across the Great Divide Tour , generally with positive responses . FasterLouder reviewer gumbuoy stated that " The new songs are excellent live ; I Don 't Remember has more energy than its recorded counterpart ( Lost and Running ) " , following by praising the album and performance as a whole .
= = = Chart history = = =
" I Don 't Remember " entered the Australian Singles Chart at # 43 , then slid to # 47 in its second week , but then reached its pinnacle position of # 42 in its third week . It then remained in the charts for the following three weeks in the upper forties , and then dropped off the chart . It was released as a single in New Zealand and the United States also , but failed to chart , despite moderate airplay in New Zealand . " I Don 't Remember " charted at # 66 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 2007 .
= = Track listings = =
= = = CD single = = =
" I Don 't Remember " – 3 : 41
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " – ( live at Brisbane Powerhouse )
" My Kind of Scene " – ( live at Brisbane Powerhouse )
= = = iTunes digital download = = =
" I Don 't Remember " – 3 : 41
" Black Tears " ( Live ) – ( early release exclusive )
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
= 6B ( Fringe ) =
" 6B " is the 14th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 57th episode overall . In the episode , the fringe team investigates mysterious deaths at an apartment building , the result of a merging between the prime and parallel universes ; while there , they encounter a woman who claims to be able to see the ghost of her deceased husband .
Story editors Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta co @-@ wrote " 6B " , while cinematographer Thomas Yatsko directed . The episode featured appearances from recurring actors Ryan McDonald and Seth Gabel as well as one @-@ time guest stars Phyllis Somerville and Ken Pogue . The episode first aired in the United States on February 18 , 2011 on the Fox network , and was watched by an estimated 4 @.@ 1 million viewers . Television critics gave the episode generally mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
Six partygoers simultaneously fall to the sidewalk outside the Rosencrantz apartment building in Brooklyn , apparently having jumped from a seventh floor balcony along with the balcony 's furniture . When the Fringe team investigates , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Walter ( John Noble ) determine by the location of the bodies that they seem to have fallen through the balcony , as if it momentarily ceased to exist . From other stories of strange phenomena occurring throughout the building , Walter concludes that the same cracks in reality that have harmed the parallel universe are starting to appear in the prime one , with the building occupying a weak spot between universes .
Peter and Olivia ( Anna Torv ) are sent by Walter to observe the building as he monitors seismic equipment from the lab . Peter and Olivia go to a bar while waiting , where Olivia tries to kiss Peter but becomes uncomfortable , knowing of the influence of her parallel universe doppelganger , Fauxlivia ( Torv ) , on Peter . Her emotional reaction triggers her ability to see once again the " shimmer " around Peter that marks him as a native of the parallel universe . She excuses herself and steps outside for some fresh air , followed by Peter . Olivia notices a similar glow emanating from the windows of apartment 6B in the Rosencrantz building , owned by the widow Mrs. Alice Merchant ( Phyllis Somerville ) . When Olivia and Peter enter the apartment , Olivia ( but not Peter ) can see a shimmering figure that Alice claims is the ghost of her late husband Derek ( Ken Pogue ) . Walter surmises that the figure is a parallel Derek seen across a crack between the universes . If the crack widens , Walter predicts they would see occurrences of the same singularities that have plagued the parallel universe , and suggests the use of the same amber @-@ like compound they had previously recovered ( " The Ghost Network " ) to limit the damage . With Massive Dynamic 's resources , they are able to recreate the amber and a release system to encase the building , but hold it in reserve as a last resort only .
Olivia suggests the possibility that the effect is due to quantum entanglement between Alice in the prime universe and Derek in the parallel one . Alice previously told Olivia that Derek died recently from trying to replace a faulty fuse after they flipped a coin to decide who would replace it , and Walter surmises that the parallel universe Alice died in a similar fashion due to a different outcome of the coin flip . Alice 's connection to the parallel universe Derek is causing the crack . As the building starts to exhibit the initial signs of a singularity and Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) prepares to release the amber , Olivia and Peter attempt to persuade Alice that the man she sees is not really her husband . Alice does not believe them until Derek starts to refer to their children . Alice , who is childless , realizes Peter and Olivia are telling the truth ; the connection is broken and the effects on the building ebb away .
Though they did not need to deploy the amber , Walter realizes how close he was to making the same decisions that Walternate ( Noble ) , Walter 's doppelganger in the parallel universe , had to make to save his universe ; Nina ( Blair Brown ) helps to counsel him . Meanwhile , Olivia and Peter attempt to reconcile and rekindle their relationship . Though still cautious about moving forward , Olivia and Peter kiss and head to the bedroom upstairs at the Bishops ' home .
In the parallel universe , Fauxlivia and Lincoln ( Seth Gabel ) investigate reports of a Fringe event in the Rosencrantz building , and speak with Derek , who tells them he has not noticed anything out of the ordinary . The two leave , and Derek is left paging sadly through a photo album filled with pictures of him and his late wife and their daughters .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by story editors Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta , while being directed by cinematographer and Fringe director of photography Thomas Yatsko . The last credit Whitman and Chiappetta received was for the season 's sixth episode , " 6955 kHz " . Yatsko last directed the second season episode " White Tulip " . Alluding to the week the episode broadcast , executive producer Jeff Pinkner called " 6B " " our Valentine ’ s Day episode . It ’ s all different versions of a love story . "
While filming , first assistant director Brian Giddens summarized the episode as " the fringe team [ finding ] out there 's been an accident on a balcony " . The focus of " 6B " centered on the idea of ghosts , which was affirmed by actor Joshua Jackson , who called it " a Fringe ghost story " . Referring to the episode 's intensity level , Jackson noted that " on a scale of chile peppers , I 'd say it 's high habanero " . Pinkner remarked that " 6B " and the following episode " Subject 13 " would " tell deep and meaningful sides of the Olivia and Peter story . One in the present [ " 6B " ] and one in the past [ " Subject 13 ] . "
The episode guest starred Phyllis Somerville , known for her recent work on the Showtime series The Big C that ended in her character 's death . Somerville expressed hope that the science fiction nature of Fringe would convince The Big C writers to hire her back , commenting " maybe I can get those sci @-@ fi folks to hook me up with a good gadget that will allow Marlene to come back to life and bug Laura Linney some more . " " 6B " featured recurring guest actors Ryan McDonald and Seth Gabel as Massive Dynamic scientist Brandon Fayette and Agent Lincoln Lee , respectively . The episode also featured one @-@ time guest star Ken Pogue as Alice 's husband Derek .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " 6B " , with the intention of having " students learn about spectroscopy and how it can be used to determine certain characteristics of things . "
= = Cultural references = =
Some critics believed that the name of the apartment building , as well as Walter 's coin tosses coming up heads , are references to the 1966 tragicomedy Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead , which in turn derives from the characters of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , two minor characters in Shakespeare 's Hamlet .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 6B " was watched by an estimated 4 @.@ 1 million viewers on its first broadcast , earning a ratings share of 1 @.@ 5 , up 7 percent from the previous week 's episode . It led other shows in the same timeslot by more than 20 percent for the 18 @-@ 34 adult viewership market , and second only to Kitchen Nightmares for the night . Three days of time shifted viewing increased the 18 @-@ 49 adult rating to 2 @.@ 3 , a 52 percent increase from its previous rating of 1 @.@ 5 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Entertainment Weekly staff writer Ken Tucker thought it was not " the best Fringe episode " , primarily because of " its Twilight Zone construction , with a supernatural event serving as a big , obvious metaphor for ... the rift between lovers ( Peter and Olivia ; the elderly couple Alice and Derek ) " . Tucker disliked Olivia 's return to " season @-@ one @-@ Olivia poker @-@ faced dolorousnes " and also " worr [ ied ] about the imbalance between the series ’ romantic , family , and mythology ingredients " . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times felt that the episode 's emphasis on emotions ( instead of plain science ) was " turning its back on the science that made [ Fringe ] great " . Hanson also wished the parallels between Walter and Walternate 's decisions had been explored further .
The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode a B- , explaining that , despite the " nice moments ( including a strong start and a sweet finish ) " , the plot was minimal and there were many moments he was exasperated with the Peter @-@ Olivia relationship . For Murray , the episode was " saved " by its small touches , such as when Alice is finally convinced the ghost is not her husband when he mentions " the girls miss you " .
In her 2011 book Into the Looking Glass : Exploring the Worlds of Fringe , author Sarah Clarke Stuart found parallels between the episode and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , which occurred several weeks after " 6B " aired . Items of comparison included the " cracks " in the universe and shifting tectonic plates , and the " vortex " and the tsunami swallowing up entire villages . Clarke Stuart noted that " because of its destabilizing character , the natural world is often depicted as the antagonist in science fiction and adventure narratives " like Fringe .
= Manny Ramirez =
Manuel Arístides " Manny " Ramírez Onelcida ( born May 30 , 1972 ) is a Dominican @-@ American professional baseball outfielder who played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for parts of 19 seasons . He played with the Cleveland Indians , Boston Red Sox , Los Angeles Dodgers , Chicago White Sox , and Tampa Bay Rays before playing one season in the Chinese Professional Baseball League . Ramírez is recognized for having had great batting skill and power . He was a nine @-@ time Silver Slugger and was one of 25 players to hit 500 career home runs . His 21 grand slams are third all @-@ time , and his 29 postseason home runs are the most in MLB history . He appeared in 12 All @-@ Star Games , with a streak of eleven consecutive games beginning in 1998 that included every season that he played with the Red Sox .
Ramirez was born in Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic . When he was 13 years old , he moved to New York City with his parents , Onelcida and Aristides . He attended George Washington High School and became a baseball standout . A wide variety of coaches and scouts took notice of Ramirez 's talent , especially his batting strength . He was drafted by the Cleveland Indians in the 1991 MLB draft . He made his MLB debut on September 2 , 1993 .
In 1994 , Ramirez became a powerhouse hitter , batting .269 hitting , 17 home runs , and 60 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . That year , he finished second in voting for the Rookie of the Year Award . The following season , he played his first MLB All @-@ Star Game . He led the Indians to three more playoff stints in 1996 , 1997 , and 1998 , including an appearance in the 1997 World Series . In 1999 , Ramirez set the Indians ' single @-@ season RBIs record with 165 RBIs in 1999 . In 2000 , he signed with the Boston Red Sox . During his time in Boston , Ramirez and his teammate David Ortiz were allegedly among a group of 104 major league players who tested positive for performance @-@ enhancing drugs during 2003 . He led the Red Sox to World Series Championships in 2004 and 2007 . In 2008 , Ramirez was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers in a three @-@ way trade deal with the Red Sox , Dodgers , and Pirates . He was named National League ( NL ) Player of the Month in August 2008 and was fourth in the voting for the 2008 NL MVP Award , behind Albert Pujols , Ryan Howard and Ryan Braun .
In 2009 Ramirez was suspended 50 games for violating baseball 's drug policy by taking human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG ) , a women 's fertility drug that is often taken after steroids . In the spring of 2011 , Ramirez was informed by MLB of another violation of its drug policy , which would result in a 100 @-@ game suspension . He chose to retire on April 8 rather than face a 100 @-@ game suspension .
In September 2011 , Ramirez wished to be reinstated and in December he agreed with the league to a reduced 50 @-@ game suspension . He signed a deal with the Oakland Athletics in February 2012 and was eligible to play May 30 , 2012 . On June 15 , Ramirez was released . He played with the EDA Rhinos for the 2012 – 13 offseason . On July 3 , 2013 , Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Texas Rangers . He was released on August 13 due to his decreased batting power and speed . On May 25 , 2014 , he signed a minor league deal with the Chicago Cubs to be a coach / part @-@ time player for the AAA Iowa Cubs .
= = Early life = =
Ramirez was born in Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic and spent thirteen years living there . As a child , Ramirez was obsessed with baseball . When he was eight years old , his grandmother got him a Dodgers uniform with the number 30 on the back , which he considers to be one of his most prized possessions . In 1985 , he moved to the Washington Heights , Manhattan , a neighborhood of New York City , with his parents . He would often play ball at the nearby Snake Hill , the same place Lou Gehrig played during his childhood . Despite living just a short distance from Yankee Stadium , Ramirez rooted for the Toronto Blue Jays and would come watch games when the Blue Jays were in town .
Ramirez attended George Washington High School from 1987 to 1991 , leaving at the age of 19 years without graduating . During his time on the team , GWHS was seeing a large increase in the number of immigrants . This was apparent , as GWHS 's baseball team was composed entirely of Dominicans . As a youth , Ramirez preferred to not be the center of attention and was often very modest .
During his time at GWHS , he led his team to three straight division championships . He was a three @-@ time all @-@ city selection in baseball , and as a high school senior was named New York City Public School Player of the Year in 1991 , hitting for a .650 batting average with 14 home runs in 22 games . He was inducted into the New York City Public School Athletic Hall of Fame in 1999 .
= = Career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The Cleveland Indians selected Ramirez with the 13th pick of the 1991 draft and assigned him to the Rookie @-@ level Burlington Indians for his professional debut . He was named the Appalachian League MVP and was selected by Baseball America as short @-@ season Player of the Year while slugging 19 homers and driving in 63 runs in 59 games , while leading the league in slugging and total bases .
With the Single @-@ A Kinston Indians in 1992 , Ramirez battled injuries but still hit .278 with 23 homers and 93 RBIs in 81 games and was named as the number three prospect and the " Most Exciting Player in the Carolina League " by Baseball America . In 1993 , Ramirez was named " Minor League Player of the Year " by Baseball America while hitting .333 with 31 homers and 145 RBIs in 129 combined games with the Double @-@ A Canton – Akron Indians and Triple @-@ A Charlotte Knights .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1993 – 2000 ) = = =
= = = = 1993 – 1994 = = = =
Ramirez made his major league debut on September 2 , 1993 against the Minnesota Twins , going hitless in four at bats as the designated hitter . The following day , when the Indians took on the New York Yankees , Ramirez went 3 for 4 with his first two home runs , with many of Ramirez 's family and friends in attendance at Yankee Stadium . His first career homer was against Mélido Pérez .
In 1994 , his first full season in the majors , Ramirez had a strong start to the season , hitting six home runs during the month of April . Despite a weak start to May , he rebounded in the latter half of the month , finishing the month with a .300 batting average . During the season , the Indians were chasing the Chicago White Sox for first place in the American League Central ( AL Central ) division all the way until the end of the season . However , the team fell short of qualifying for the playoffs and their season ended in August due to the 1994 MLB strike . Ramirez finished second in the Rookie of the Year award voting after batting .269 with 17 home runs and 60 RBIs in 91 games .
= = = = 1995 – 1997 = = = =
Ramirez 's breakout season came in 1995 , when he batted .308 with 31 home runs and 107 RBIs . In July , he was selected to his first All @-@ Star Game and won his first career Silver Slugger Award following the season . That year , the Indians reached the postseason , and Ramirez hit two home runs in the 1995 American League Championship Series against the Mariners , which the Indians won in six games . The Indians then took on the Atlanta Braves in the World Series , and Ramirez batted .222 with one home run in the Indians ' six @-@ game loss . In December 1995 , Ramirez agreed to a $ 10 @.@ 15 million , four @-@ year contract .
Ramirez continued to hit well in 1996 , batting .309 with 33 home runs and 112 RBIs . The Indians again reached the playoffs , and Ramirez batted .375 with 2 home runs in the Indians ' loss to the Orioles in the 1996 American League Division Series . In 1997 , Ramirez 's contact continued to improve , though his power dipped slightly , as he hit .328 with 26 home runs and 88 RBIs . This year , the Indians again reached the World Series , and Ramirez batted .154 with two home runs as the Indians lost to the Florida Marlins in seven games .
= = = = 1998 – 2000 = = = =
In 1998 , Ramirez experienced a great increase in power , batting .294 with 45 home runs and 145 RBIs . He was selected to his second All @-@ Star Game , in which he recorded a sacrifice fly . Ramirez batted .357 with 2 home runs during the ALDS versus the Red Sox , which the Indians won in four games . In the ALCS against the Yankees , Ramirez batted .333 with two home runs , but the Indians lost in six games . Following the season , Ramirez came in sixth place for the AL MVP .
Ramirez began the 1999 season on a hot streak , hitting .337 with 7 home runs in the month of April . Ramirez 's hot hitting continued , as he batted .364 in May and reached the All @-@ Star break with 25 home runs . On September 30 , 1999 Ramirez set the Indians ' single @-@ season record for RBIs at 164 , beating Hal Trosky 's 1936 record of 162 . He finished the season with 165 RBIs in 1999 , the highest total by any player since Jimmie Foxx ( 1938 ) . That season , he was third in the voting for the American League MVP award .
In 2000 , Ramirez was limited to 118 games due to injuries , but recorded a career @-@ high .351 batting average , along with 38 home runs and 122 RBIs . His return is believed to have started a major comeback that led the Indians to a final record of 90 – 72 and cut the number of games they were behind the leader of the AL Central , the Chicago White Sox , from 11 @.@ 5 games down to 7 @.@ 5 games in just a month . Because of his return , Robbie Alomar , Omar Vizquel , and Kenny Lofton all started getting better pitches to hit , which also significantly increased their batting averages . Despite the comeback , the Indians failed to make the postseason , finishing 5 games behind the White Sox in the AL Central .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2001 – 2008 ) = = =
= = = = 2001 – 03 = = = =
In November 2000 , the Indians offered Ramirez a seven @-@ year , $ 119 million contract . While this would have made Ramirez the highest @-@ paid player in baseball , the deal was rejected by Ramirez and his agent , Jeff Moorad , who were seeking a ten @-@ year , $ 200 million contract . Ramirez was reportedly pursued by the New York Yankees and Seattle Mariners , but in December agreed to an eight @-@ year , $ 160 million deal with the Boston Red Sox , with $ 20 million options for 2009 and 2010 , pushing the total value of the contract to $ 200 million for 10 years .
Ramirez immediately delivered for the Red Sox , hitting .408 in April 2001 . His final season stats were a .306 batting average with 41 home runs and 125 RBI . On June 23 , Ramirez hit two monstrous home runs against the Toronto Blue Jays at Fenway Park , with the second one hitting the very top of the light tower in left field . Its length was officially listed at 501 feet , second @-@ longest by a Red Sox player in Fenway Park 's history , just short of Ted Williams ' 1946 record of 502 feet .
Ramirez only played in 120 games in 2002 due to a hamstring injury that put him on the disabled list ( DL ) from mid @-@ May to the end of June . Despite this , Ramirez won the AL batting title , hitting .349 , and his .647 slugging percentage was second in the league behind Jim Thome 's .677 . Ramirez hit his 300th career home run on August 26 against the Angels ' Ramón Ortiz . It was the first of two home runs of the night for Ramirez , as he went 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 overall .
In the summer of 2003 , Ramirez missed several games with pharyngitis . He was spotted in a bar ( in the hotel where he lived ) with a close friend , Yankees infielder Enrique Wilson , when Ramirez was supposedly too ill to play in the Yankees series . Boston manager Grady Little benched him for one game . Despite his strong play in the 2003 postseason , the Red Sox lost to the Yankees in a seven @-@ game showdown in the ALCS . In that series , he was at the center of a bench @-@ clearing brawl . Roger Clemens threw high and inside and Manny charged the mound . The new Red Sox ownership and management , trying to rid themselves of his massive contract , put Ramirez on irrevocable waivers , thus making him available to any team willing to assume the remainder of his contract . However , all 29 other teams passed on the opportunity to claim Ramirez .
According to the New York Times , in 2003 Ramirez tested positive for performance @-@ enhancing drugs from the " survey " drug test , in which MLB players were tested to see if drugs were being used . Players faced no penalties or sanction for testing positive .
= = = = 2004 = = = =
In 2004 , Ramirez led the AL in home runs ( 43 ) , slugging percentage ( .613 ) and OPS ( 1 @.@ 009 ) ; he finished second in errors committed as a left fielder ( 7 ) , third in RBIs ( 130 ) , fourth in doubles ( 44 ) and total bases ( 348 ) , sixth in on @-@ base percentage ( .397 ) , eighth in walks ( 82 ) , tenth in runs ( 108 ) , and posted a .308 batting average . He also led the AL in salary , at $ 22 @.@ 5 million .
In addition , Ramirez and David Ortiz became the first pair of AL teammates to hit 40 home runs , have 100 RBIs , and bat .300 since the Yankees ' Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig in 1931 . Together they hit back @-@ to @-@ back home runs six times , tying the major league single @-@ season mark set by the Detroit Tigers ' Hank Greenberg and Rudy York and later matched by the Chicago White Sox 's Frank Thomas and Magglio Ordóñez .
In the 2004 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , Ramirez hit a two @-@ run home run off Roger Clemens in the top of the first inning , giving his teammates a 3 – 0 lead . Ramirez , Derek Jeter ( with a single ) , Ichiro Suzuki ( with a double ) and Iván Rodríguez ( with a triple ) became the first All @-@ Star quartet to hit for the cycle during the same inning . His season was capped off by being named the MVP of the World Series as the Red Sox won their first title since 1918 .
= = = = 2005 – 06 = = = =
On May 15 , Ramirez hit his 400th home run off Gil Meche of the Seattle Mariners . On July 5 , Ramirez hit his 20th career grand slam — and his third of the season — off Chris Young of the Texas Rangers . On defense , however , he tied for the lead among all major league left fielders in errors , with 7 .
Off the field , this season was one of much conflict for Ramirez . Persistent trade rumors ( generally involving the New York Mets ) dogged him all season . After the Red Sox were eliminated in the first round of that year 's playoffs by the eventual World Series champion Chicago White Sox , Ramirez once again expressed a wish to be traded . This included a threat to not show up for spring training if his latest demand was not met by Red Sox GM Theo Epstein . Toward this end , in December 2005 , Ramirez put his Ritz @-@ Carlton condominium up for sale .
Trade rumors circulated with Ramirez possibly going to the Baltimore Orioles or the New York Mets , but no deal was reached . By January 5 , 2006 , Ramirez changed his mind , stating that he was dropping the demand . His agents , in turn , insisted their client was still open to a trade .
On June 10 , Ramirez became the 31st player in history to hit 450 home runs , with a solo home run off Francisco Cordero of the Texas Rangers . Three weeks later , on July 1 , he collected his 2000th hit . Beginning in mid @-@ July , he had a 28 @-@ game hitting streak , including 12 multi @-@ hit games , 8 HR , and 28 RBIs , but then missed 28 games from mid @-@ August on with soreness in his right knee .
= = = = 2007 – 08 = = = =
On April 22 , 2007 , Ramirez was the first of four Red Sox batters to homer in consecutive at bats in a game against the New York Yankees , tying a league record . All of the home runs were against Chase Wright . On April 29 , Ramirez became the fifth player to hit 50 career home runs against the Yankees .
Ramirez finished with a .296 batting average , 20 home runs , and 88 RBIs . His season was cut short when he strained his left oblique in late August during a Yankees series , but he did return to the lineup for the final homestand of the season . In 2007 , he had the highest fielding percentage ( .990 ) among left fielders in the AL , tied for second in the major leagues ; he was ranked sixth @-@ highest in range factor of all AL left fielders , 1 @.@ 72 , 16th in both leagues , but had the lowest zone rating among MLB left fielders with 100 + games ( .713 ) . He made two errors during the 2007 season in left field , and tied for fifth overall in the major leagues in assists from left field .
In the postseason , Ramirez hit a walk @-@ off three @-@ run home run in Game 2 of the American League Division Series against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . In the fourth inning of the series ' final game , Ramirez combined with teammate David Ortiz to hit back @-@ to @-@ back home runs off pitcher Jered Weaver . The home run tied him with Bernie Williams for first place all @-@ time in postseason home runs . On October 13 , Ramirez hit his 23rd postseason home run , passing Williams for the most all @-@ time . He helped the Red Sox to reach and win the 2007 World Series , where they swept the Colorado Rockies . In the 2007 postseason , Ramirez batted .348 with 4 home runs and 16 RBIs .
On May 31 , 2008 , Ramirez hit his 500th home run , against Baltimore Orioles pitcher Chad Bradford at Camden Yards in the seventh inning on the first pitch . He became the 24th player in MLB history to do so . He joined two other Red Sox players , Jimmie Foxx and Ted Williams , in the exclusive home run club .
A heated altercation between Ramirez and teammate Kevin Youkilis took place on June 5 , during a game at Fenway Park against the Tampa Bay Rays . The Boston Globe speculated that Youkilis was angry that Ramirez has been slow to join a bench @-@ clearing brawl earlier in the game . The altercation may have also been caused by Ramirez objecting to what he believed was excessive complaining by Youkilis about the strike zone , as well as the first baseman 's penchant for sometimes throwing his helmet in frustration after making an out . Before the fifth inning , Ramirez was caught on NESN cameras taking a swing at Youkilis . Ramirez and Youkilis yelled at each other and had to be separated by teammates , coaches , and training staff . Youkilis headed out to the field still yelling at Ramirez , while Ramirez was escorted into the tunnel leading to the clubhouse by bench coach Brad Mills and trainer Paul Lessard .
Later in the season , during a series with the Houston Astros , Ramirez had a physical altercation with elderly Red Sox traveling secretary Jack McCormick . The two were arguing over McCormick 's inability to fill Ramirez 's large game @-@ day request for 16 tickets to the game in Houston . Ramirez pushed the 64 @-@ year @-@ old McCormick to the ground after telling him " Just do your job . " The two were quickly separated and Ramirez later offered a public apology but did not apologize to McCormick in person until 2014 . The matter was dealt with internally , and Ramirez was fined $ 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 .
On July 25 , after sitting out one game against the Seattle Mariners with a sore knee , Ramirez was slated to start against the Yankees . Several minutes before the game , however , he informed manager Terry Francona , through a bench coach , that he would not be playing . During the series Ramirez was directed to an area hospital for MRIs on both his knees ; the results showed no damage . When back in action , Ramirez frequently failed to run out ground balls . Assuming that this was due to his displeasure about his contract situation , many Red Sox fans and reporters , including Dan Shaughnessy of the Boston Globe , called for Ramirez to be traded .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =
On July 31 , 2008 , Ramirez was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers in a three @-@ way deal . The Boston Red Sox acquired outfielder Jason Bay and minor league infielder Josh Wilson , and the Pittsburgh Pirates got infielder Andy LaRoche and pitching prospect Bryan Morris from the Dodgers and outfielder Brandon Moss and pitcher Craig Hansen from the Red Sox . Ramirez had always worn uniform number 24 , but the Dodgers retired that number in honor of Hall of Fame manager Walter Alston . Ramirez instead chose to wear number 99 with the Dodgers .
Ramirez was named the NL Player of the Month for August 2008 . He hit .415 ( 44 @-@ for @-@ 106 ) with seven doubles , nine home runs , 25 RBIs and 21 runs scored during the month . He finished the season with the Dodgers hitting a .396 batting average , 17 home runs , and 53 RBI .
Ramirez finished the season with 37 home runs and 121 runs batted in . Among all major leaguers , he finished third in batting average , second in slugging percentage , and third in OPS . With Ramirez in the line @-@ up , the Dodgers won the NL West , then swept the Chicago Cubs in a division series before losing the NLCS to the eventual World Series winner Philadelphia Phillies in five games . During the playoffs , Ramirez hit .520 with 4 home runs , 2 doubles , 11 walks and 10 RBIs .
Ramirez was fourth in the voting for the 2008 NL MVP award , with 138 points , behind Albert Pujols , Ryan Howard , and Ryan Braun . After the Dodgers lost in the playoffs , Ramirez was asked about his future . " Gas is up , and so am I " , was his reply , indicating that he expected to be valued highly in the free agent market . After long and contentious negotiations that dragged into the start of spring training , Ramirez signed a two @-@ year $ 45 million contract with Los Angeles on March 4 .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On May 7 , 2009 , Ramirez was suspended 50 games for violating the Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program established by MLB and the MLB Players Association in 2004 . In the announcement by MLB , Ramirez was suspended for unspecified violation of the agreement section 8.G.2. Shortly afterward , Ramirez stated that a physician had unknowingly prescribed a banned medication . After consulting with the players association , Ramirez waived his right to challenge the suspension . According to an ESPN report , the drug used by Ramirez was human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG ) , a women 's fertility drug typically used by steroid users to restart their body 's natural testosterone production as they come off a steroid cycle . It is similar to Clomid , the drug Jason Giambi and others used as clients of BALCO . Testing revealed artificial testosterone , too . As a condition for returning from the suspension , Ramirez was subject to three additional drug tests per year in addition to the minimum of two per player .
During his suspension , Ramirez was allowed to work out at the Dodgers ' facilities and he trained with Dodger coach Manny Mota . To get back into shape he was allowed a short rehab stint in the minor leagues . Ramirez played two games with the AAA Albuquerque Isotopes , where his appearance led to record crowds for the Isotopes . He played several games with the Single @-@ A Inland Empire 66ers , homering in his first at @-@ bat with the 66ers . Ramirez returned from his suspension and reclaimed his starting role with the Dodgers on July 3 against the San Diego Padres .
On July 21 , Ramirez hit his 537th career home run , passing Mickey Mantle for 15th place on the all @-@ time home run list . On July 30 , The New York Times reported that Ramirez tested positive for performance @-@ enhancing drugs during Major League Baseball 's 2003 survey testing . Ramirez , a member of the Boston Red Sox at the time , was among 104 major league players to test positive .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
On April 10 , 2010 , Ramirez recorded his 2,500th career base hit with an infield single against the Florida Marlins . On April 18 against the San Francisco Giants , Ramirez hit his 548th career home run to tie Mike Schmidt for the 14th place on the all @-@ time home run list . He hit his 549th to pass Schmidt on May 28 against the Colorado Rockies . On June 19 , he hit a home run in his second game back at Fenway Park .
In 2010 , Ramirez had three separate stints on the disabled list . When he returned from the third trip on August 21 , he apparently had lost his starting job to Scott Podsednik . As a pinch hitter , he was ejected on August 29 by home plate umpire Gary Cederstrom one pitch into his at @-@ bat for arguing a strike call . That appearance was his final one in a Dodger uniform .
= = = Chicago White Sox ( 2010 ) = = =
Ramirez was claimed on waivers by the Chicago White Sox . The Dodgers awarded Ramirez to the White Sox on August 30 , receiving no prospects , but with the White Sox assuming the $ 3 @.@ 8 million remaining on Ramirez 's salary . He hit .261 with only one home run in his 24 games with the White Sox and then became a free agent at the conclusion of the season .
= = = Tampa Bay Rays ( 2011 ) = = =
On January 21 , 2011 , Ramirez agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 2 million deal with the Tampa Bay Rays , while the Rays also signed his former Red Sox teammate Johnny Damon in a package deal suggested by agent Scott Boras .
The 38 @-@ year @-@ old Ramirez abruptly retired on April 8 , 2011 , after batting .059 ( 1 @-@ for @-@ 17 ) in just five games . Ramirez reportedly tested positive for a banned performance @-@ enhancing drug in his spring training drug test . His first sample , or A sample , was retested and again returned a positive result . Ramirez filed a notice to appeal , and a second sample , or B sample , was tested under observation by Ramirez ' representatives . When the B sample also tested positive , he dropped the appeal and told MLB that he would immediately retire .
MLB issued a statement that Ramirez had been informed of an issue under the Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment program , and chose to retire rather than continue with the appeal process . Ramirez was facing a 100 @-@ game suspension , which would still apply if Ramirez decided to return to the MLB in the future . Neither Ramirez nor the players association issued a statement about the sudden retirement . Ramirez apparently did not personally inform the Rays about his decision . The team announced that they had been informed of his retirement by the MLB Commissioner 's Office .
= = = Reinstatement = = =
In September 2011 , reports surfaced that Ramirez was planning on playing in the Dominican Winter League for the Cibao Eagles . In a statement , the team said that Ramirez hoped to motivate other MLB stars to play in the country . However , the MLB Commissioner 's Office issued a statement that since the Dominican League is affiliated with MLB , Ramirez would not be eligible to play without first serving his mandated suspension .
Upon hearing that his plans to play in the winter league would not work , Ramirez decided to formally request reinstatement with MLB and that he was willing to serve his 100 game suspension for the second violation of the drug policy . He stated that he was not prepared for retirement and that he will be available for any MLB team and if none show interest , then he will " play in Japan or some other place . "
On December 4 it was announced that Ramirez had formally filed the papers with the league to be reinstated to baseball and that an agreement had been reached between MLB and the Players Association that he would only need to serve a 50 game suspension instead of the original 100 games .
= = = Oakland Athletics ( 2012 ) = = =
On February 20 , 2012 , Ramirez signed a minor league contract with the Oakland Athletics . The deal called for a $ 500 @,@ 000 salary if he made the MLB roster . However , he needed to serve the 50 @-@ game suspension before he could play for the team . He was eligible to play again on May 30 , 2012 , when his suspension was completed . With the Sacramento River Cats he hit .302 in 17 games , but had no homers and only a .349 slugging percentage . On June 15 , Ramirez requested and was given his outright release by the Athletics .
= = = EDA Rhinos ( 2013 ) = = =
Ramirez played in the Dominican Professional Baseball League during the 2012 – 13 offseason , registering a .793 OPS for the Águilas Cibaeñas . He signed with the newly renamed EDA Rhinos of the Chinese Professional Baseball League in Taiwan for the 2013 season . He made his debut on March 27 against Brother Elephants . In 49 games , Ramirez batted .352 with eight home runs and 43 RBIs , placing him in the top three in all categories . On June 19 , 2013 , Ramirez opted out of his contract with the Rhinos , stating that he wanted to be closer to his family .
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2013 ) = = =
Ramirez signed a minor league deal on July 3 , 2013 with the Texas Rangers . He was assigned to the Round Rock Express of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) . After noticing a decrease in Ramirez ' bat speed , which resulted in a lack of power , the Rangers released Ramirez on August 13 .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 2014 ) = = =
Ramirez signed a minor league deal with the Chicago Cubs on May 25 , 2014 , to serve as a player @-@ coach for the Iowa Cubs , Chicago 's Class AAA affiliate in the PCL . Ramirez hit a two @-@ run home run in his first Iowa home game at Principal Park on June 30 , 2014 . Cubs prospects Arismendy Alcántara and Javier Báez credited Ramirez for his help with their swings . Baez also viewed Ramirez as a good mentor because of how Ramirez comforted him after the loss of his uncle . On August 23 , Ramirez sustained a knee injury . A week later , Iowa manager Marty Pevey announced that Ramirez was going to Arizona for an MRI . With only four games left in Iowa 's season , Pevey said that Ramirez was no longer going to coach and play for the team . Pevey said that he was uncertain as to what Ramirez would do next season , as he thought that Ramirez disliked the travel associated with Class AAA baseball .
On February 24 , 2015 , the Cubs announced that Ramirez was hired as a batting consultant , and that he would split time between Chicago and AAA Iowa .
= = Personal life = =
On May 11 , 2004 , Ramirez missed a Red Sox game to become an American citizen . He entered the next game running onto the field to a standing ovation while carrying a small American flag held in his hand . He planted the flag in the left outfield corner of the field , in the shadow of the Green Monster , where it remained for the entire game .
Ramirez has three sons . Manny Ramirez , Jr . ( born 1995 ) is his son from a previous relationship , while he had Manuelito " Manny " Ramirez ( born 2003 ) and Lucas Ramirez ( born February 2006 ) with his wife Juliana . As of August 2015 , he and his family reside in Weston , Florida .
Ramirez has often attracted attention on and off the field for his quirky behavior and attitude . These incidents are colloquially known as " Manny Moments " or more commonly , " Manny Being Manny " . Instances of this behavior include inducing his Red Sox teammates , including Ellis Burks , to drink alcohol which he had spiked with Viagra , wearing Oakley THUMP while playing the outfield , disappearing through a door in the Green Monster and selling his barbecue grill on eBay . The first known documented usage of the phrase " Manny Being Manny " is attributed to then @-@ Indians manager Mike Hargrove , quoted in a 1995 Newsday article .
= = Career highlights = =
Honors
12x All @-@ Star ( 1995 , 1998 – 2008 )
9x Silver Slugger Award ( 1995 , 1999 – 2006 )
2x Hank Aaron Award ( 1999 , 2004 )
World Series MVP Award ( 2004 )
Member of Major League Baseball 's Latino Legends Team
Led League
League Top @-@ Ten
Career rankings on All @-@ Time lists ( as of April 8 , 2011 , when he retired )
Post @-@ season
2x World Series Champion ( Boston , 2004 , 2007 )
Tied with Pete Rose for longest LCS hitting streak ( 15 )
Other
9 straight seasons of at least 30 HRs and 100 RBIs ( 1998 – 2006 , tied for 3rd @-@ longest in history )
27 @-@ game hitting streak in 2006
Hit 500th home run on May 31 , 2008 , vs. Baltimore Orioles off Chad Bradford .
= = Miscellaneous = =
Ramirez was featured on the cover of the EA Sports video game MVP Baseball 2005 .
= The Other Woman ( 2014 film ) =
The Other Woman is a 2014 American comedy film directed by Nick Cassavetes and written by Melissa Stack . The film stars Cameron Diaz , Leslie Mann , Kate Upton and Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau , with Nicki Minaj , Taylor Kinney and Don Johnson in supporting roles . The film follows three women — Carly ( Diaz ) , Kate ( Mann ) , and Amber ( Upton ) — who are all romantically involved with the same man , Mark ( Coster @-@ Waldau ) . After finding out about each other , the trio decide to take revenge on Mark .
Development of The Other Woman began in January 2012 , when 20th Century Fox hired Stack to write the script , based on the original idea from 1996 comedy The First Wives Club . Casting was done between November 2012 and June 2013 . Filming began on April 29 , 2013 , in New York City , in locations including Manhattan , Long Island , The Hamptons , Dockers Waterside Restaurant on Dune Road in Quogue and The Bahamas , and it concluded on August 27 , 2013 . Aaron Zigman composed the score and LBI Productions produced the film .
The film was released on April 25 , 2014 , in the United States , and distributed worldwide by 20th Century Fox . It received negative reviews , with criticism primarily focusing on the film 's script , directing , acting , and plot . The film has been a box office success , becoming number one at the box office during its opening weekend and grossing over $ 196 million worldwide against a budget of $ 40 million . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on July 29 , 2014 , and earned more than $ 13 million in home media sales .
= = Plot = =
Carly , an attorney , has just started a relationship with Mark , a man she had sex with eight weeks prior . She is upset when Mark tells her he has to go out of town but decides to go over to his house to seduce him . She is horrified to meet Mark 's wife , Kate , whom she 'd assumed to be Mark 's housekeeper . While initially hostile , the two women befriend one another . Kate then discovers that he is seeing another woman , whom she initially believes to be Carly , but both she and Carly discover that Mark is seeing a third woman , Amber .
Carly and Kate travel to the beach , where Kate has a run @-@ in with Amber , and the two women inform her that Mark has been cheating on all of them . All three women then decide to take revenge on him together . They spike Mark 's drinks with estrogen to swell his nipples and a laxative to cause him to defecate heavy diarrhea ; and add hair @-@ removal cream into his shampoo . In the course of carrying out of their pranks , they discover that Mark has been embezzling money from various companies at his workplace . Meanwhile , Carly begins to connect romantically with Kate 's brother Phil . In addition , Amber confides to Carly that she is seeing someone else as well . However , their camaraderie begins to fall apart when Kate finds herself falling in love with Mark again after an investor 's dinner . Carly exposes Mark 's fraud , upsetting Kate .
Later , when Mark goes to the Bahamas on a supposed business trip , Kate decides to follow him there and expose him . She finds Carly and Amber at the airport , who explain what Mark has been up to – using Kate as the owner of the companies he defrauded , which if discovered , would result in her going to prison . She also finds out that Mark has been seeing yet another woman : someone he has met on this trip . This , and the possibility of facing prison , motivate Kate to take action with the help of Carly 's legal expertise .
When Mark returns from vacation , he visits Carly at her office . He is locked in the clear glass conference room by Carly 's assistant and friend , Lydia , and is shocked to see all three women sitting together . They proceed to confront him with his infidelities and embezzlement . With Carly as her attorney , Kate presents divorce papers and a list of their assets . She reveals that she has returned the embezzled money to the companies , which saves him from prison time and leaves Mark bankrupt , much to his shock and hysterical outrage . Additionally , his business partner Nick arrives and fires Mark . In his anger and rush to leave , he smashes into the glass office . Severely injured with ripped clothes , Mark excuses himself from the women . He then finds his car being towed away and earns a punch in the face from Carly 's father , Frank . Appreciating Kate 's honesty , Nick offers her the chance to take over Mark 's job .
In the film 's epilogue , Carly and Phil fall in love , and the couple are expecting a child ; Amber marries Frank ; and Kate works as a CEO with Mark 's former business partners , with the company making a profit under her leadership .
= = Cast = =
Cameron Diaz as Carly Whitten , an attorney who finds out that her boyfriend Mark is already married and has another girlfriend .
Leslie Mann as Kate King , a housewife who discovers that her husband Mark is cheating on her with two women .
Kate Upton as Amber , an Amazon swimsuit supermodel , Mark 's second girlfriend .
Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau as Mark King , a wealthy businessman who is cheating on his wife Kate and two girlfriends Carly and Amber , at the same time .
Nicki Minaj as Lydia , Carly 's assistant .
Taylor Kinney as Phil , Kate 's brother who becomes romantically involved with Carly
Don Johnson as Frank Whitten , Carly 's father who dates women half his age .
David Thornton as Nick
Olivia Culpo as Raven @-@ Haired Beauty and one of Mark 's conquest in the Caribbean .
Radio Man ( Craig Castaldo ) as himself
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
On January 16 , 2012 , it was announced that 2007 Black Listed screenwriter Melissa Stack was hired by 20th Century Fox to write an untitled female revenge comedy , which Julie Yorn would produce through LBI Productions . The film 's script was described as the original idea from the 1996 film The First Wives Club , but with younger leads . The film 's title was revealed to be The Other Woman on November 13 . In January of the following year , Nick Cassavetes signed on to direct the film .
= = = Casting = = =
On November 13 , 2012 , TheWrap reported that Cameron Diaz was in talks for the lead role . Diaz 's representative also revealed that actress Kristen Wiig was under consideration for the wife role . As of March 13 , 2012 , Leslie Mann and Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau were in talks to join the film , while Diaz was confirmed for her role . On April 15 , Kate Upton joined the film . The same day , Taylor Kinney was announced to be in talks for a role . In April , Nicki Minaj signed on to make her feature film debut . On June 5 , Don Johnson also joined the film to play Diaz 's character 's father .
= = = Filming = = =
In March 2013 , the shooting was set to begin late @-@ spring or early summer 2013 in New York . Later it was told that the production would begin in May 2013 . Principal photography for the movie began on April 29 , 2013 and filming was completed by August 27 , 2013 . Much of filming took place in parts of New York , including Long Island , The Hamptons , and Westhampton Beach . In the late @-@ June , some scenes were also shot in Chinatown and at Dockers Waterside Restaurant on Dune Road Quogue . From July 18 – 23 , filming took place in New Providence , where Nassau , The Bahamas was used as the filming location . The Atlantis Paradise Island was also used as the shooting location . Isola Trattoria and Crudo Bar at Mondrian Hotel in SoHo , Manhattan was used for the scene in which the women met for a celebration toast at the end of the film .
= = = Music = = =
The Other Woman 's music was composed by Aaron Zigman , who was reportedly set to score the film on May 31 , 2013 . The film featured songs from various artists including Etta James , Ester Dean , Morcheeba , Cyndi Lauper , Britt Nicole , Patty Griffin , Lorde , Keyshia Cole and Iggy Azalea .
= = Release = =
On March 31 , 2014 , the film had a world premiere in Amsterdam , and the next day on April 1 , it had a UK premiered at Curzon Mayfair Cinema in London . The film later had a US premiere on December 21 in Westwood , California .
On March 25 , 2014 , Fox appealed the R @-@ rating , which Motion Picture Association of America gave the film for sexual references . However the studio wanted a PG @-@ 13 rating . So on April 9 , the MPAA 's rating appeals board took back the R and gave the film with a PG @-@ 13 ; the sources confirmed that there were no changes made to get the film PG @-@ 13 . The Other Woman was released on April 25 in the United States .
= = = Box office = = =
The film was a box office hit earning over five times its production costs . The Other Woman opened at number 1 in North America on April 25 , 2014 in 3 @,@ 205 theaters debuting atop the weekend box office with earnings of $ 24 @.@ 7 million across the three days . The film has grossed $ 83 @,@ 911 @,@ 193 in America and $ 112 @,@ 870 @,@ 000 in other countries for a worldwide total of $ 196 @,@ 781 @,@ 193 .
= = = Home media = = =
The Other Woman was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on July 29 , 2014 . The Blu @-@ ray edition features the Gag Reel , " Giggle Fit , " Gallery and deleted scenes . In the United States , the film has grossed $ 9 @,@ 592 @,@ 336 from DVD sales and $ 4 @,@ 163 @,@ 463 from Blu @-@ ray sales , making a total of $ 13 @,@ 755 @,@ 799 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Other Woman received negative reviews from critics . On film aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , it has a rating of 23 % , based on 145 reviews , with an average rating of 4 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " The Other Woman definitely boasts a talented pedigree , but all that skill is never fully brought to bear on a story that settles for cheap laughs instead of reaching its empowering potential . " Another website , Metacritic , gave the film an average score of 39 out of 100 , based on 35 critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " .
Justin Chang of Variety said , " Beneath the wobbly pratfalls and the scatological setpieces , there 's no denying the film 's mean @-@ spirited kick , or its more @-@ than @-@ passing interest in what makes its women tick . " The Hollywood Reporter 's critic Todd McCarthy said , " It would have helped if director Nick Cassavetes had something resembling a sure hand at comedy . " Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film grade C- , saying " All of a sudden , a spotted Great Dane squats in the middle of a Manhattan apartment and out plop several gleaming , glistening CGI turds . It 's one of those cases where a Hollywood movie inadvertently summarizes itself in a single shot . " Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " Line to line , it 's fresher than any number of guy @-@ centric " Hangover " -spawned affairs , despite director Cassavetes ' lack of flair for slapstick . " The Boston Globe 's Ty Burr gave the film one out of four stars and said , " It 's " The First Wives Club " rewritten for younger , less demanding audiences , or a " 9 to 5 " with absolutely nothing at stake . " Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice said , " The Other Woman doesn 't give these actresses much to do except look ridiculous , if not sneaky and conniving . "
Michael Sragow of Orange County Register gave the film grade C , saying that film is " a coarse , rickety comedy . " Richard Corliss wrote For the magazine Time , " All three women are less watchable and amusing than Nicki Minaj as Carly 's legal assistant Lydia . " Film critic Stephen Holden of The New York Times said that the film is " so dumb , lazy , clumsily assembled and unoriginal , it could crush any actor forced to execute its leaden slapstick gags and mouth its crude , humorless dialogue . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews wondered , " Has it come to this for director Nick Cassavetes ? " , comparing his negatively to that of his father , John Cassavetes . Berardinelli elaborated , " what a comedown to find him in charge of such an unfocused , unfunny , scatologically @-@ obsessed ' comedy . ' " Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.Com gave the film two out of four stars and said , " While " The Other Woman " raises some thoughtful questions about independence , identity and the importance of sisterhood , ultimately it would rather poop on them and then throw them through a window in hopes of the getting the big laugh . " Wesley Morris of Grantland said , " No one knows which takes are funny and which aren 't . More than once , all three women , especially poor Upton , are caught looking like they don 't know what they 're doing . "
Bilge Ebiri of the magazine New York said , " You can 't shake the feeling that in a just world , all these women – even Kate Upton – would have better material than this . " Connie Ogle of The Miami Herald gave the film three out of four stars and called the film a " goofy , ridiculous , with more gross @-@ out humor than is strictly necessary but still funny . It falls into the category of Girlfriend Films – as in , go with your girlfriends and leave your date / partner / spouse at home with the PlayStation or the NBA playoffs . " Colin Covert of Star Tribune gave the film three out of four stars , saying " It 's an escapist women 's empowerment comedy like many others , but elevated by the simple virtue of being , for most of its length , very , very funny . " Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four , saying " A movie as generic and forgettable as the sofa @-@ size art on its characters ' walls . " Linda Holmes wrote for NPR , calling the film " a conceptually odious , stupid @-@ to @-@ the @-@ bone enterprise ... " Betsy Sharkey of Los Angeles Times gave the advice to guys to " Step away from the vehicle , because The Other Woman is out of control and intent on running down a certain kind of male . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= New Jersey Route 33 =
Route 33 is a state highway in the US state of New Jersey . The highway extends 42 @.@ 03 miles ( 67 @.@ 64 km ) , from Trenton at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and Route 129 to an intersection with Route 71 in Neptune Township . The speed limit on Route 33 differs in zones . The highest is 55 mph ( 85 km / h ) in Zone 9 . There are several intersections on 33 with future developments .
Route 33 begins in Trenton on a two @-@ lane road . It passes through central Mercer County , joining northbound U.S. Route 130 in Robbinsville Township . It leaves the U.S. highway in East Windsor and becomes a local town road into the borough of Hightstown . It turns east again as it passes the east end of the Hightstown Bypass , where it becomes a divided arterial with four lanes as it makes its way through Monmouth County toward the shore . Around Freehold , it becomes a freeway . It then crosses the Garden State Parkway 's Exit 100 in Tinton Falls and Route 18 in Neptune . Here , it is locally known as Corlies Avenue . Route 33 ends at Route 71 in Neptune . It has two concurrencies along the route , one with Route 34 and the second with US 130 .
= = Route description = =
On its way across central New Jersey , Route 33 traverses three counties : Mercer , Middlesex , and Monmouth . Beginning in Trenton as Greenwood Avenue , Route 33 is a two @-@ lane road , with one lane in each direction . Once it merges with U.S. Route 130 in Robbinsville Township , Route 33 has two lanes in each direction . After crossing into East Windsor Township , Route 33 veers off and becomes a local road going into Hightstown . After passing through the center of town , Route 33 again enters East Windsor Township where it becomes an avenue with a total of at least four lanes , with two lanes in each direction underneath the Turnpike overpass . Before leaving Mercer County , the road intersects with an interchange at Route 133 that provides access to Exit 8 of the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) . Route 33 then crosses into Monroe Township , where it is slowly becoming a residential access road for new communities . It then continues into Millstone Township as a rural avenue . Continuing into Manalapan Township , the avenue again becomes a residential access road . At the ramp for Route 33 Business , the avenue turns into a freeway bypass , known as the Freehold Bypass . Route 33 bypasses Freehold Borough to the south staying within Freehold Township . Within Freehold Borough , Route 33 Business is the original alignment of Route 33 before the bypass was built .
The bypass of Freehold is the partial alignment of what would have been a Route 33 freeway from Neptune to Trenton . As time went on , a scaled @-@ back version of just a bypass was agreed upon . The western start of the freeway is just east of County Route 527 , and was built from Route 33 Business to U.S. Route 9 in the 1970s . The next section was built from U.S. Route 9 across Route 79 to Halls Mill Road ( County Route 55 ) , and this remained its terminus from the late 1980s until January 17 , 2003 , when the final leg of the bypass was opened . East of Halls Mills Road , it is a two @-@ lane freeway with a westbound entrance at Howell Road , and full access from Fairfield Road .
The Howell Road eastbound exit ramp has been closed since the bypass opened because of safety concerns . The interchange was originally planned to be a partial cloverleaf , but residents near Howell Road were concerned by sprawl and forced the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) to scale back the plans . Instead , a diamond interchange was built . This forced drivers wishing to head northbound on Howell Road to make a left turn , which proved to be dangerous because of the limited sight distance caused by the overpass . Now because the NJDOT does not want to pay to fix the problem , the exit has been barricaded since the freeway 's extension was opened . The ramp has guardrails blocking access and the NJDOT intends to bulldoze what is left .
Passing the Fairfield exit , it crosses over Business 33 and the two roads merge as a two @-@ lane road . Route 33 passes along the southern section of the Naval Weapons Station Earle and then becomes a residential access road . The road then runs concurrent with Route 34 and becomes a divided four @-@ lane avenue as it travels into Wall Township . Routes 33 / 34 come upon a roundabout and they both split as Route 33 continues east thru a rural section into Tinton Falls . It goes past the intersection with Route 66 , past the interchange with the Garden State Parkway , across the highway and into Neptune Township . The road passes through suburban and rural sections until it comes upon the interchange with Route 18 . Immediately past the exit , Route 33 borders Neptune City on the south and Neptune Township on the north for a brief stretch before completely re @-@ entering Neptune Township . After it crosses Route 35 , the avenue ends and becomes a two @-@ lane road for a brief stretch . Route 33 then ends at Route 71 , just west of Ocean Grove .
= = History = =
Route 33 originally was part of the 1920s New Jersey Route 1 in parts of the road south of Hightstown , and Route 7 from Hightstown to its terminus at Route 71 . Both roads were changed into Route 33 in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering .
Route 33 was originally planned as a freeway from U.S. Route 1 in Trenton across New Jersey to Route 18 in Neptune . However , in 1967 , the NJDOT scaled back proposals to the current seven @-@ mile ( 11 km ) Freehold Bypass . The bypass from near County Route 527 in Manalapan to Halls Mills Road in Freehold was completed and opened in segments from 1971 to 1988 ; however , the remainder of the bypass east to Fairfield Road in Howell was not completed until 2003 . The project cost $ 33 @.@ 7 million in 2003 USD .
For such a small freeway , the Route 33 bypass has more abandoned segments than any other state freeway in New Jersey . Comparatively , Routes 15 , 18 , 21 and 24 each only have one abandoned portion to them . Here are the three segments on Route 33 , in eastbound order .
The cloverleaf ramp from Route 79 southbound to Route 33 freeway eastbound has been mostly destroyed , to make way for a new reverse jughandle for U.S. Route 9 northbound to Schanck Road . The merging part of the ramp still remains abandoned along the right side of the eastbound freeway .
The original alignment for the freeway east of Halls Mills Road ( CR 55 ) can be seen now as an NJDOT maintenance shed . The new alignment curves to the left after the interchange , in order to avoid what the NJDOT believed to be a suspected ( but never identified ) turtle bog habitat . The pavement is accessible from the eastbound on @-@ ramp , but is fenced off .
Howell Road was never given access from Route 33 eastbound and thus the ramp still remains barricaded off , slowly decaying .
Up until late 1988 , Route 33 westbound ran underneath US 130 , then merged with 130 's southbound lanes . This was because Route 33 ran alongside some railroad tracks at that point , and a massive overpass carried US 130 over both . ( Route 33 eastbound also ascended the bridge approach about halfway before branching off like an exit ramp — a sign with flashing lights read " Hightstown , Shore Points " at the fork . ) But this Hightstown – Windsor rail segment was actually abandoned back in the 1960s . So by 1989 , the bridge over Route 33 and the trackbed was removed , with its approaches flattened to grade . Route 33 now meets US 130 at the north end of the multiplex with a traffic signal .
At the southern end of the 33 / 130 multiplex , where Route 33 heads west , an old and narrow bridge used to carry the highway over the aforementioned railroad tracks . In 2009 , this overpass was leveled to grade and replaced with a new wide and linear roadway for 33 . No railroad grade crossing has been built , as the Robbinsville – Windsor rail segment is out of service .
Until 2003 , the 33 / 130 junction in Robbinsville was configured as an at @-@ grade wye interchange , employing curved ramps for the directional movements . The junction has since been modified to a signalized intersection with ordinary turning lanes . It has also been converted from a T @-@ intersection to a 4 @-@ way , with the construction of a new road on the southeast side of US @-@ 130 .
On December 31 , 2006 , the Turnpike Authority released its proposals regarding Interchange 8 . The old Interchange 8 was to be demolished and replaced with a new interchange . The new Exit 8 would end at the intersection with Route 33 , Milford Road , and the 133 bypass ( on the east side of the expressway , instead of the west ) . This new Exit 8 would grant direct access to the bypass ( without going through any traffic lights ) , as well as to 33 , using grade @-@ separated interchanges . The new toll gate was to feature a total of 10 lanes at the new facility . The new interchange opened in January 2013 .
= = Future = =
There are many future developments for Route 33 . Heavy traffic and recent studies hint at a possible widening of Route 33 all the way to Route 34 in Wall Township , however this is still only in the proposal phase . Monmouth County is performing a corridor study on Route 33 to determine if any action should happen . There is a planned Route 33 bypass of Robbinsville Township that will run from Washington Boulevard and link up with U.S. Route 130 at South Gold Drive . The former alignment of Route 33 will likely become a Main Street for the new Washington Town Center . Route 33 is being widened from Route 35 to Route 71 in Neptune to provide a center turning lane as well as shoulders . Signals will be modified to provide proper movements .
Monmouth County recently gave a tour to DOT officials , stressing the need to improve the Wemrock Road exit off the Route 33 freeway . They also wanted the intersection with Business 33 to be rebuilt . County officials believe that both projects would help with future traffic flow emanating from the planned Freehold Raceway Mall connector road .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business route = =
Route 33 Business is a short state highway in New Jersey that is the original alignment of Route 33 before a freeway was built as a bypass of Freehold . This business route stretches 6 @.@ 89 miles ( 11 @.@ 09 km ) through Manalapan Township , Freehold Township , Freehold Borough and Howell Township . The highway holds the distinction of being the only business route state highway in all of New Jersey .
Route 33 Business begins at the interchange with Route 33 , its parent route , in Manalapan Township , New Jersey . A short distance after , the interchange from Route 33 eastbound merges into Route 33 Business , and the route passes to the south of Monmouth Battlefield State Park and enters Freehold Township . Soon after entering the borough of Freehold , Route 33 Business interchanges with U.S. Route 9 . Route 33 Business turns to the southeast , passing to the north of Freehold Raceway . A short distance later , Route 33 Business intersects at a traffic light with New Jersey Route 79 ( South Street ) in downtown Freehold . At the intersection with Fairfield Road , Route 33 Business enters the interchange with Route 33 and the freeway , where the designation terminates .
Route 33 Business originates as an alignment of Route 33 , designated across the state in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering as a replacement to Routes 1 and 7 , which were assigned in the 1920s . The route remained intact for several decades , continuing as the proposals for the crosstown Route 33 Freeway during the 1960s were drawn up . The new Route 33 Freeway was to be 39 miles ( 63 km ) long , starting at U.S. Route 1 in Trenton , crossing through Princeton and into Hightstown , where it would connect with the current @-@ day New Jersey Route 133 , heading eastward , where it would connect with the unbuilt Driscoll Expressway in Freehold . The freeway would continue , interchanging with the Garden State Parkway near Exit 100 in Neptune and terminate at the Route 18 freeway in Neptune . However , the next year , the New Jersey Department of Transportation had to scale down the project to a new bypass of Freehold , and prevent the congestion of traffic through the borough . Design studies began that year , and the entire bypass was constructed during the 70s and 80s , with most of the freeway finished in 1988 . This new bypass was designated as Route 33 Bypass from 1965 until Route 33 was re @-@ aligned off the local roads onto the new freeway in 1990 , which at that time , Route 33 Business was designated on the former alignment .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Monmouth County .
= = Related routes = =
Route 133
= The Time Is Now ( Millennium ) =
" ' The Time Is Now " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 15 , 1998 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " The Time Is Now " featured guest appearances by Kristen Cloke and Glenn Morshower .
In this episode , Millennium Group profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) confronts the onset of an apocalyptic viral outbreak , dealing with the duplicity of the Group 's foreknowledge of , and preparation for , such an event .
The episode 's script went through several variations , taking shape after series creator Chris Carter suggested killing off the character of Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) . The episode has earned positive responses from critics , and was seen by approximately 4 @.@ 8 million households during its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Continuing from " The Fourth Horseman " , several Millennium Group members in biohazard suits clear out a house full of bodies , victims of a viral outbreak ; outside , dozens of bird corpses litter the ground .
Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) returns home with his wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) and daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) . Black realizes that the family home holds painful memories and decides to find somewhere else to settle ; the post that day contains a deed from his late father , who had left him a cabin in the woods . Later , Blacks meets with Richard Gilbert ( Glenn Morshower ) , who is trying to convince Black to join his corporate security firm . Black reaffirms his commitment to the Group , however , Gilbert warns that their lives may be threatened by the Group 's activities . The next day , Black learns that Gilbert died in a car accident ; he believes the vehicle may have been tampered with .
Later , fellow Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) tells Black that he has uncovered computer files from the Group , indicating that a virus discovered by bio @-@ weapons scientists in the Soviet Union has been living dormant in bird species since the end of the Cold War , and may now be making a resurgence in the United States . Watts reveals that a vaccine has been developed by the Group , but only in sufficient quantities for its members ; Watts and Black have already been inoculated without having realized at the time . Black tells Watts to locate Lara Means ( Kristen Cloke ) , another Group member , as he hopes to keep them safe in the cabin until the crisis resolves .
Watts arrives at Means ' home , but is confronted by other Group members and assaulted . Means is inside , experiencing a prolonged hallucination . She considers suicide , instead writing something and sealing it in an envelope . Black finds her home , accompanied by paramedics who take her away . She gives Black the envelope — containing a phial of vaccine — and he thanks her , unable to discover what happened to Watts .
Black takes his family to the woodland cabin , where he and Catherine decide that the dose of vaccine should be given to Jordan . Black and Catherine discuss how they would handle infection ; Catherine asks to be euthanized , Black states he would wander off to die alone . That night , Catherine wakes up , experiencing symptoms of the disease . She quietly leaves the cabin and walks into the forest . The next morning , Black wakes up , and finding blood on Catherine 's pillow , realizes she has gone . He cradles his daughter as the screen flashes images of the collapse of society , interspersed with video noise .
= = Production = =
" The Time Is Now " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong . The duo would pen a total of fifteen episodes throughout the series ' run . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season . " The Time Is Now " was directed by Thomas J. Wright , who helmed a total of twenty @-@ six episodes across all three seasons . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files .
The episode 's script went through several different versions before a final plot was decided upon , as Morgan and Wong believed the series would not be renewed for a third season and wished to write a suitable ending . The decision to kill off the character of Catherine Black was based on a suggestion by Chris Carter , the series ' creator . Morgan and Wong discussed the idea with actress Megan Gallagher , who felt that it was an interesting decision to have Catherine give her life after seeing Frank Black sacrifice so much for their family throughout the previous episodes . The idea of depicting an apocalyptic scenario as being the result of a virus came from Morgan 's research into possible end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ world scenarios , and was influenced by the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the United Kingdom .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Time Is Now " was first broadcast on the Fox network on May 15 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 9 during its original broadcast , meaning that 4 @.@ 9 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 4 @.@ 8 million households , and left the episode the seventy @-@ second most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
" The Time Is Now " received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode — along with the preceding episode " The Fourth Horseman — an " A " . VanDerWerff felt that it " may be one of the four or five best cinematic depictions of the end of the world ever filmed " , praising the uncommon approach of depicting the world ending , rather than just showing the aftermath . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 out of 5 . Gibron felt that the two @-@ part episodes were " a one @-@ two punch that many dramatic series would die for " , finding the conclusion to have been effectively hinted at throughout the season . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Time Is Now " five stars out of five . Shearman felt that the episode would have been " the best end to the show imaginable " , had the series not produced a third season . He considered the episode 's writing and conclusion to have been a brave decision , potentially alienating its viewers but producing " a thrilling and unforgettable piece of television " ; he also considered the season as a whole to be less consistent but more daring than the first season .
= Reşadiye @-@ class battleship =
The Reşadiye class was a group of two dreadnought battleships ordered by the Ottoman Empire from Britain in the 1910s . The design for the ships was based on the British King George V @-@ class battleships , although it incorporated several significant improvements . They carried the same 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) main battery guns as the British ships , but their secondary battery consisted of 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns , compared to the British vessels ' 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) pieces . The first ship , Reşadiye , was laid down in 1911 and completed in August 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I ; she was seized by the British Royal Navy and commissioned as HMS Erin . The second ship , Fatih Sultan Mehmed , had only been ordered in April 1914 and little work had been done by the start of the war , so she was quickly broken up for scrap .
Erin served with the Grand Fleet for the duration of the war , and saw action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She holds the dubious distinction of being the only British capital ship engaged in the battle to not fire its main battery . The vessel served briefly as the flagship of The Nore in 1919 , but her career was cut short by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . She was scrapped under the terms of the treaty in 1922 – 23 .
= = Background = =
The Ottoman Navy had languished since the 1870s , the result of decades of little funding for new ships , poor maintenance of existing vessels , and no serious training regimen . Efforts to modernize the fleet had occurred in fits and starts during the period , including the failed attempt to build the pre @-@ dreadnought Abdül Kadir in the 1890s , and a major reconstruction program launched in the aftermath of the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 , which had highlighted the poor condition of the fleet . Starting in 1909 , the Ottoman government began to seriously look for warships to purchase from foreign shipbuilders to counter the growing strength of the Greek Navy , particularly the armored cruiser Georgios Averof . As a stopgap measure , two German Brandenburg @-@ class battleships , Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , were purchased in 1910 .
The Ottoman government then began looking for newer vessels to buy in late 1911 , and first contacted Armstrong Whitworth about the possibility of acquiring the dreadnought Rio de Janeiro , then under construction for the Brazilian Navy , along with Minas Geraes , which had been commissioned into the Brazilian fleet in 1910 . These deals fell through , so the Ottomans contacted Vickers to order two new battleships . Douglas Gamble , who had previously served as a naval adviser to the Ottoman government , prepared two designs , the first of which was ordered as Mehmed Reşad V ; during construction , this ship was renamed Reşadiye . A second ship , to be named Fatih Sultan Mehmed , was ordered in April 1914 .
Ordering the Reşadiye class started a significant naval arms race between the Ottoman Empire and Greece . The Greek Navy ordered the battleship Salamis in 1912 in response , which prompted the Ottomans to resume their bid for Rio de Janeiro . The contract to purchase the ship , to be renamed Sultân Osmân @-@ ı Evvel , was signed in January 1914 . This in turn provoked the Greeks to order a second battleship , Vasilefs Konstantinos , which required a third Ottoman battleship to be ordered ; this was the second Reşadiye @-@ class ship , Fatih Sultan Mehmed .
= = Design = =
The design for the Reşadiye was based on the contemporary British King George V class , with some improvements that had been incorporated into the subsequent Iron Duke class then under construction . Compared to the British ships , the Reşadiyes carried their amidships main battery turret one deck higher , which improved its ability to be fired in heavier seas . They also carried a heavier secondary battery , composed of 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns instead of the 4 in ( 100 mm ) weapons in the King George V class . The hull was shorter and wider than the British ships , which improved her turning radius , but the lower displacement forced compromises in armor protection and coal capacity .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The Reşadiye design was 525 feet ( 160 m ) long between perpendiculars and 559 ft 6 in ( 170 @.@ 54 m ) long overall . The ships had a beam of 28 ft 10 in ( 8 @.@ 79 m ) , with a designed displacement of 23 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 000 long tons ; 25 @,@ 000 short tons ) . In service , Erin displaced 22 @,@ 780 t ( 22 @,@ 420 long tons ; 25 @,@ 110 short tons ) normally and up to 25 @,@ 250 t ( 24 @,@ 850 long tons ; 27 @,@ 830 short tons ) at full load . Erin was completed with a single tripod mast atop the conning tower , fitted with a spotting top to aid in gun @-@ laying . She had a crew of 1 @,@ 070 officers and enlisted men .
The ships were powered by four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by fifteen Babcock & Wilcox mixed coal and oil @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into a pair of closely spaced funnels directly aft of the conning tower . The engines were rated at 26 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Erin carried 2 @,@ 120 t ( 2 @,@ 090 long tons ; 2 @,@ 340 short tons ) of coal and 710 t ( 700 long tons ; 780 short tons ) of fuel oil , and she had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 400 km ; 5 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As designed , the Reşadiye class was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber guns and sixteen 6 in ( 150 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber guns , and four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . The 13 @.@ 5 in guns were the Mark VI type manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth , and they were mounted in five twin turrets , all on the centerline . The first two were in a superfiring pair forward , one amidships directly aft of the funnels , and the last two were in another superfiring pair , aft of the rear conning tower . The 6 in guns were mounted individually in casemates along the upper deck , eight to each beam . The torpedo tubes were submerged in the hull , two on each side of the ship . As completed , a number of smaller guns were added to Erin , including six 6 @-@ pounder 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns and two 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Mk I anti @-@ aircraft guns .
The ships were protected with an armored belt that was 12 in ( 300 mm ) thick in the central portion , and reduced to 4 in ( 100 mm ) on either end of the ship . The transverse bulkheads that connected the ends of the belt were 8 in ( 200 mm ) thick . Horizontal protection consisted of an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick over the central part of the ship , where it covered the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces , and reduced to 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick elsewhere . The forward conning tower had 12 in thick sides . The main battery gun turrets had 11 in ( 280 mm ) thick faces , while the barbettes that supported them had 10 in ( 250 mm ) thick sides , with the lower section behind the main belt reduced to 3 in .
= = Ships = =
The first ship of the class , Reşadiye , was ordered on 8 June 1911 . Work stopped in 1912 following the start of the First Balkan War due to the probability that the Ottoman government would run out of funds . Work resumed in May 1913 following the conclusion of the conflict . The second ship , Fatih Sultan Mehmed , was ordered on 29 April 1914 in response to the Greek order for Vasilefs Konstantinos in early 1914 . The British government ordered work to stop in late July 1914 , as a result of the growing tensions that culminated in the outbreak of World War I on the 28th ; what material that had been assembled was dismantled on the slipway in August .
There is some confusion over the number and name of ships that were part of the Reşadiye class . Some sources report Reşadiye and Mehmed Reşad V as having been different ships ; these were in fact the same vessel , ordered originally under the latter name . Similarly , Fatih Sultan Mehmed is sometimes listed as Fatik or Fatih . Another ship , Reshad @-@ i Hammiss , is sometimes reported to have been ordered in 1911 and cancelled in 1912 , though according to Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Güleryüz in their authoritative The Ottoman Steam Navy , the Ottomans initially only had ordered one vessel .
= = Service history = =
By 21 July 1914 , the British had postponed delivery of Reşadiye and Sultan Osman @-@ ı Evvel as tensions flared in Europe following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June . This action prompted a protest by Djemal Pasha , the Ottoman naval minister , via France , in the hopes of securing the ships ' delivery . A transport ship carrying crews for the two battleships departed Constantinople on 4 August , only to be recalled on 7 August after the Ottoman government was informed that the dreadnoughts would not be delivered . First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill ordered the Royal Navy to detain the two ships on 29 July and prevent Ottoman naval personnel from boarding them ; two days later , British sailors boarded the ships and formally seized them . Since Britain was not yet at war , these
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Las Vegas , Nevada and part @-@ time in Hobe Sound , Florida . Her nickname was given to her by a relative when she sold shares of herself to enter a $ 25 @,@ 000 buy @-@ in event in a manner reminiscent of the eponymous hero of the 1994 Western movie Maverick .
= = Poker career = =
She built her first stake at Hard Rock sit and go 10 @-@ player tables , where first prize was $ 250 . From there , she was able to save for a $ 1 @,@ 500 entry fee in Atlantic City in late 2005 , which she parlayed into $ 17 @,@ 500 . This enabled her to afford entry into the World Poker Tour event at the Bellagio Vegas . She has been televised numerous times on both ESPN and The Travel Channel . She has made several appearances on the Poker After Dark television program . She has also been televised as part of the World Poker Tour . She is known for wearing a cap , headphones and designer sunglasses .
Her first win in a professional event came on June 13 , 2005 in Las Vegas , Nevada during the No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Summer Series . At the 2005 World Series of Poker , she placed 45th in a field of 601 in the Event 26 , $ 1 @,@ 000 Ladies No @-@ Limit Texas hold ' em event won by Jennifer Tilly two weeks later ( on June 26 , 2005 ) .
On February 12 , 2006 , Rousso placed fifth at the final table of the 195 @-@ entrant $ 1 @,@ 500 No Limit Hold 'em WSOP Circuit event at Harrah 's Atlantic City . This appearance at the final table established a record at 23 years , 7 days as the youngest female player at the time to reach a World Series of Poker circuit final table .
Rousso joined the professional poker tour in April 2006 and by October was among the top 80 in earnings that year . In her first year of playing , Rousso had multiple in the money tournament finishes , including a seventh @-@ place finish in a field of 605 at the $ 25 @,@ 000 April 26 , 2006 World Poker Tour ( Season four ) No @-@ Limit Hold 'em championship event in which she earned $ 263 @,@ 625 in prize money . By that time she was spending Tuesday through Thursday taking her law school classes , spending the rest of the week playing in poker tournaments and fielding endorsement offers from online poker clubs . On September 13 , 2006 she won $ 285 @,@ 450 with a first @-@ place finish at the 173 @-@ entrant $ 5 @,@ 000 no limit hold ' em event at the 4th Borgata Open . At 2006 World Series of Poker she had three in the money finishes . She finished 80th in a field of 1068 in Event 4 , $ 1 @,@ 500 Limit Hold 'em , 63rd in a field of 824 in Event 5 , $ 2500 Short Handed No @-@ Limit Hold 'em , and she placed 8th of 507 in the Event 30 , $ 5000 Short Handed No @-@ Limit Hold 'em event .
By 2007 , Rousso was a notable poker star . In October 2007 , Rousso was part of a contingent of poker industry representatives and leaders of the 800 @,@ 000 @-@ member Poker Players Alliance who flew to Washington , DC to attempt to convince the United States Congress to overturn the 2006 Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act . The law compels financial institutions to monitor and stop their customers ' cash transfers to unlawful online gaming sites . The group met with both the United States House Committee on the Judiciary and the United States House Committee on Financial Services . She spoke in favor of a proposal by Barney Frank to license and regulate online gambling . The alliance also spoke in favor of the Skill Game Protection Act proposed by Robert Wexler to exempt poker , mah @-@ jongg , chess , bridge and other games where contestants compete against each other rather than the " house " from the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act . In May 2009 , Frank , who had become the chairman of the House Committee on Financial Services in 2007 , continued his efforts to " establish a framework to allow licensed gambling operators to process bets from players in the United States , " with the support of the Poker Players Alliance and Harrah 's Entertainment among others .
In 2007 , she earned $ 700 @,@ 782 @.@ 50 , her largest career payday at that time , during the World Championship of Online Poker NL Hold 'em Main Event with a second @-@ place finish in the 2998 @-@ entrant field . She had originally placed third in the event , but the winner was found to have violated the Pokerstars terms of service , which caused a disqualification ruling and caused all contestants to be elevated one place in the rankings . The tournament is run online by Rousso 's sponsor , PokerStars , and she had originally earned the third place prize of $ 463 @,@ 940 @.@ 50 . At 2008 World Series of Poker she again had three in the money finishes . She placed 57 of 605 in Event 38 , $ 2000 Pot Limit Hold 'em , placed 44 of 2693 in Event 52 , $ 1500 No Limit Hold 'em , and 625 of 6844 in the Main event 54 , $ 10 @,@ 000 No Limit Hold 'em .
In January 2009 , Rousso just missed the televised six @-@ handed WPT final table while playing at the World Poker Tour Season VII Southern Poker Championship , She finished in seventh place and earned $ 79 @,@ 117 . In the head @-@ to @-@ head single @-@ elimination 2009 National Heads @-@ Up Poker Championship tournament , Rousso made it to the finals of the 64 @-@ person field before losing to Huck Seed . Along the way to her runner @-@ up finish , she defeated Doyle Brunson , Phil Ivey , Paul Wasicka , Daniel Negreanu and Bertrand Grospellier . Previously , Shannon Elizabeth 's 2007 semi @-@ final appearance had been the best female finish in the annual event . The March 6 – 8 tournament was broadcast on NBC over six consecutive Sundays from April 12 – May 17 , 2009 . As of July 2011 , her tournament winnings exceed $ 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 . In May 2009 , Rousso won the 79 @-@ entrant € 25 @,@ 000 EPT High Roller Championship , which had a first prize of 720 @,@ 000 Euros . However , at the final table , the three final contestants elected to chop chips at € 420 @,@ 000 and leave € 150 @,@ 000 for the winner . The € 570 @,@ 000 win , which converts to $ 749 @,@ 467 , represents the highest payday of her career . The win propelled Rousso to sixteenth place on the 2009 earnings list as of May 5 .
In 2009 , Rousso spoke in favor of changes to Florida gambling laws that would remove caps on buy @-@ ins and wagers on poker in the state . She felt the gambling limitations precluded more strategic skilled deeper stack competition and said that Florida gamblers " don 't have enough chips in front of them to play out the bets and raises that are required in the skillful aspect of the game " . In 2007 , a $ 100 cap replaced a $ 2 / bet limit . This cap still prohibits large tournaments with multi @-@ thousand dollar buy @-@ ins from occurring in Florida .
Rousso had her own April 2009 poker instructional camp in South Florida . The camp related poker @-@ playing and strategies to the strategies of military conflict in Sun Tzu 's book , The Art of War . She called her camp " Big Slick boot camp " and charged a $ 399 participation fee . The camp 's website makes the analogy of the Art of War and the Art of Poker .
At the 2009 World Series of Poker she had four in the money finishes : She placed 27 of 201 in Event 2 , $ 40 @,@ 000 No Limit Hold 'em , placed 17 of 147 in Event 8 , $ 2500 No Limit 2 @-@ 7 Draw Lowball , placed 19 of 770 in Event 31 , $ 1 @,@ 500 H.O.R.S.E. , and 15 of 275 in the Event 45 , $ 10 @,@ 000 World Championship Pot @-@ Limit Hold 'em . In the main event , she busted out on day 6 ( officially known as day 2B ) . Rousso will be hosting Stars of Poker in France . On January 9 , 2010 , she finished first among 91 entrants to earn $ 24 @,@ 725 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 No Limit Hold 'em – Ladies Event at the PokerStars Caribbean Adventure .
At the 2010 World Series of Poker she has had two in the money finishes : She placed 421 of 4345 in Event 3 , $ 1 @,@ 000 No Limit Hold 'em , and was eliminated in the quarter @-@ final round of 256 entries , earning $ 92 @,@ 580 in the $ 10 @,@ 000 Heads @-@ Up No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Championship . On December 8 , 2010 , she finished 3rd in a field of 438 at the $ 10 @,@ 000 World Poker Tour No Limit Hold 'em Doyle Brunson Five Diamond World Poker Classic and won by Antonio Esfandiari , earning $ 358 @,@ 964 .
= = = World Series of Poker = = =
= = Endorsements = =
Rousso was formerly sponsored by the PokerStars online poker cardroom under the screenname LadyMaverick as part of their Team PokerStars . Her sponsorship with PokerStars ended in February 2015 .
Pokerstars approached Sports Illustrated about including a poker player in their Swimsuit edition . Rousso was sent to the Bahamas to be photographed by Sports Illustrated , but she appears in an advertisement in a bikini bottom and cutoff wetsuit top rather than in the editorial portion of the magazine . Rousso announced on her January 4 , 2009 vlog that Sports Illustrated asked her to be a part of its Swimsuit Edition and a photo shoot took place at time of the 2009 EPT PCA event in Nassau , Bahamas . Rousso confirmed on January 15 , 2009 that she would appear in the February 10 , 2009 issue . Rousso 's thoughts on the Sports Illustrated publicity was that " It was a great opportunity for poker in general and for me in particular . " Rousso had previously been featured in Maxim , written on game theory in American Poker Player , and flown to Las Vegas , Nevada to teach poker to the Forbes 100 Most Powerful Women .
In March 2009 , Rousso signed to promote internet domain names by GoDaddy , a sponsor of the 2009 National Heads @-@ Up Championship . Rousso signed with GoDaddy on March 5 , the day before the tournament began . Rousso , along with IndyCar racer Danica Patrick , became an official GoDaddy Girl and acted as a spokesperson for the site . GoDaddy 's full lineup of spokespersons included Rousso , Patrick , Candice Michelle , Dale Earnhardt Jr . , Anna Rawson and Brad Keselowski . Rousso and Keselowski replaced Amanda Beard and Chad Johnson as spokespersons . Rousso is regarded as one of the sexiest poker players in the world , ranking 18th by Bleacher Report in 2010 , and in the top 20 by Maxim in 2010 .
= = Non @-@ poker activities = =
Rousso appeared on Million Dollar Challenge in 2009 . She was a celebrity judge on Bank of Hollywood where she helped award some of her own money to contestants . She was a contestant on season 17 of the reality television show Big Brother in 2015 , finishing in third place .
Rousso has become a music producer and DJ and has forming a DJ Duo called Girl on Girl with her life partner Melissa Ouellet .
= = Personal life = =
She met her future husband Chad Brown at the final table of the $ 25 @,@ 000 April 26 , 2006 World Poker Tour event . She was engaged to Brown in 2008 , and the couple eloped in early 2009 , making them the first married couple to be featured on the same major online poker team . The couple separated in 2012 . The reasons for the separation were not stated , however , Rousso and Brown made comments to their followers on Twitter , announcing the breakup . Vanessa wrote " Despite great mutual fondness and respect , Chad and I have separated . "
At the wrap party for Big Brother , Vanessa announced her engagement to her long @-@ term girlfriend Melissa Ouellet .
= Roscoe Charles Wilson =
Roscoe Charles Wilson ( 11 June 1905 – 21 August 1986 ) was a United States Air Force general who was Commandant of the Air War College from 1951 to 1954 and Deputy Chief of Staff , Development , from 1958 to 1961 .
A 1928 graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point , Wilson was commissioned into the United States Army as a second lieutenant in the field artillery but underwent flying training and , on receiving his pilot 's wings , transferred to the United States Army Air Corps in 1929 . He attended the Air Corps Engineering School at Wright @-@ Patterson Field , Ohio and was assigned to the Aircraft Design Section of the Aircraft Laboratory there , where he worked on the development of the XB @-@ 15 , B @-@ 17 and XB @-@ 19 .
During World War II , Wilson was Chief of Development Engineering at United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) headquarters , and was the USAAF liaison officer to the Manhattan Project . In December 1944 he became Chief of Staff of the 316th Bombardment Wing . Its B @-@ 29s deployed to Okinawa in June 1945 , and he participated in the last air raids on Japan . After the war ended he was involved in a survey of the damage done by the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In 1947 , he became one of the Deputy Chiefs of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project .
From October 1951 to May 1954 Wilson was Commandant of the Air War College at Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama . He then became commander of the Third Air Force in the United Kingdom . He was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 July 1958 when he became Deputy Chief of Staff , Development . He retired from the Air Force in 1961 and became President and Chairman of Allied Research .
= = Early life and career = =
Roscoe Charles Wilson was born in Centralia , Pennsylvania , on 11 June 1905 , the son of an Army officer , Colonel Everett R. Wilson . He entered the United States Military Academy at West Point as a cadet on 1 July 1924 and graduated 48th in the class of 1928 . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the field artillery on 9 June 1928 , but on 8 September he commenced flight training at Brooks Field , Texas . After further training at the Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field , Texas he received his pilot 's wings , and transferred to the United States Army Air Corps on 21 November 1929 .
Wilson 's first posting was to the 1st Observation Squadron at Mitchel Field , New York . In 1929 he married Elizabeth Robinson , a Vassar College graduate from Harrods Creek , Louisville , Kentucky in a ceremony at Christ Church Cathedral in Louisville . Their son Charles E. Wilson would also attend West Point , graduating with the class of 1954 .
Wilson attended the Air Corps Engineering School at Wright @-@ Patterson Field , Ohio from July 1932 to June 1933 . After graduating , he was assigned to the Aircraft Design Section of the Aircraft Laboratory there , where he worked on the development of the P @-@ 39 , XB @-@ 15 , B @-@ 17 and XB @-@ 19 . He was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 February 1934 , and was Director of the Special Research and Test Laboratory and Director of Accessory Design and Test Laboratory .
Wilson came back to West Point in July 1937 as an instructor in the Department of Natural and Experimental Philosophy , as the Science Department was then known . He was promoted to captain on 9 July 1938 . From May to August 1939 , he attended the Air Corps Tactical School , after which he returned to West Point as an assistant professor . While there he built a wind tunnel , and wrote a book , entitled Preliminary Airplane Design , which was published in 1941 .
= = World War II = =
In June 1940 , Wilson was posted back to Wright Field as Assistant Chief of the Air Laboratory of the Air Materiel Command , where he was promoted to major on 31 January 1941 , lieutenant colonel on 1 February 1942 , and colonel on 1 March 1942 . He became Assistant Chief of Development Engineering at United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Headquarters in Washington , DC , on 1 May 1942 , and then its Chief on 2 June 1943 . As such , he reported to Major General Oliver P. Echols , the head of the Air Material Command .
The Chief of USAAF , General Henry H. Arnold , designated Echols as the USAAF liaison with the Manhattan Project . In turn , Echols designated Wilson as his alternative , and it was Wilson who became Manhattan Project 's main USAAF contact . The director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie Groves later wrote that :
[ Wilson ] was a most fortunate choice , for his personality and professional competence ensured the smooth co @-@ operation essential to our success . Through his efforts , the necessary air support was always provided by the subordinate Air Force commands , if not willingly , at least without delay .
While I can say the same of every other Air Force officer with whom I had any dealings in the project , I have always felt particularly grateful to Wilson , for he had to bear the brunt of all our many minor problems with the Air Force as well as a major responsibility for a number of our principal activities . I am sure that he must have had many difficult moments with his Air Force colleagues , as he denied them , for security reasons , information they considered essential to understand the reasons for his requests .
Wilson was posted to Britain from March to April 1944 , where he was involved in an exchange of technical information with the Royal Air Force . In December 1944 he became Chief of Staff of the 316th Bombardment Wing , which was then based at Colorado Springs , Colorado , but soon moved to Topeka , Kansas . Its B @-@ 29s deployed to Okinawa in June 1945 , and he participated in the last air raids on Japan . After the war ended he was involved in a survey of the damage done by the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
= = Cold War = =
After the war , Wilson served in the Office of the Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Materiel and Supply , the Office of the Deputy Commander of the Army Air Force , and Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Research and Development . On 26 July 1947 , he became one of the Deputy Chiefs of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , with the rank of brigadier general from April 1948 . He also served on the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission . He became Deputy Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff , operations , for Atomic Energy , in July 1948 , and Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff , Operations , for Atomic Energy , in February 1950 , although he remained on the Military Liaison Committee . He was promoted to major general on 11 August 1950 .
From October 1951 to May 1954 Wolson was Commandant of the Air War College at Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama . He then became commander of the Third Air Force in the United Kingdom , also becoming head of the Military Assistance Advisory Group for the United Kingdom on 1 November 1956 . At the time , the Third Air Force was responsible for the only tactical nuclear weapons in Europe , so Wilson was a logical choice as commander . After returning to the United States in July 1957 , he became the Air Force member of the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Development . He was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 July 1958 when he became Deputy Chief of Staff , Development . In a reorganization of the area on 1 July 1961 , he became Deputy Chief of Staff , Research and Technology .
Wilson retired from the Air Force on 1 November 1961 . His decorations included the Legion of Merit with two oak leaf clusters . He became President and Chairman of Allied Research in Concord , Massachusetts , a defense contractor , but retired in 1963 , and moved to Harrods Creek , Louisville , Kentucky . He died on 21 August 1986 , and was buried in Zachary Taylor National Cemetery in Louisville .
= Samuel J. Briskin =
Samuel J. Briskin ( February 8 , 1896 – November 14 , 1968 ) was one of the foremost producers of Hollywood 's Golden Age , who was the head of production during his career of 3 of the " Big 8 " major film studios of its Golden Age : Columbia ( twice ) , Paramount , and RKO . In the late 1950s he would also serve briefly on the board of directors of another major , MGM . During World War II Briskin served in the Army 's Signal Corps as a film producer , attaining the rank of Lieutenant Colonel . After the war he co @-@ founded Liberty Films with Frank Capra , who were later joined by William Wyler and George Stevens . The studio only produced two films , but both are now considered classics : It 's a Wonderful Life and State of the Union . All three of his brothers were also film producers , as well as one of his sons , and his sister was married to the eventual Chairman of Columbia , where Briskin spent the last decade of his life as a vice @-@ president and head of production until his death in 1968 from a heart attack .
= = Early life = =
Briskin was born on February 8 , 1896 in either Riga , Russia or New York City . His Parents were Benjamin and Rose Briskin . Two of his brothers , Irving and Murray also became film producers , while his sister , Ida , married a film studio executive . Briskin also had one other brother , Barnett ( Barney ) , who was also in the film industry as a theater manager and in sales capacities . While some sources have his birthplace is Riga , Russia , others indicate that he was born in New York , after his parents immigrated there . Briskin was a product of the public school system . He obtained his college degree in accounting from the College of the City of New York .
= = Career = =
= = = Silent era = = =
After graduating college , Briskin worked as an accountant . Briskin entered the film industry as an accountant at Cohn @-@ Brandt @-@ Cohn Film Sales in 1920 . In 1924 , when the Cohn brothers incorporated CBC as Columbia Pictures , he left the studio and created an independent production company with George H. Davis named Banner Productions . The company was scheduled to produce 8 films , four on the east coast and four in California . The company was incorporated in May 1924 , and produced over 20 films between 1925 and 1927 . Briskin gave his brother , Irving , his start in the film industry , as an auditor for Banner . Irving would go on to be a film producer in his own right . The company 's first film was The Truth About Women , a 1924 melodrama directed by Burton King , and starring Hope Hampton and Lowell Sherman . The picture was filmed at the Whitman Bennett Studios near Yonkers , New York . The next film Briskin would produce was The Man Without a Heart , again directed by King and filmed at the Bennett Studios , this time starring Kenneth Harlan and Jane Novak . In addition to producing the films , Briskin would also travel around the country making sales deals for the company 's films . In 1925 Briskin would produce the melodrama , The Phantom Express , starring Ethel Shannon and George Periolat . This was followed in 1926 by the film Brooding Eyes , starring the legendary Lionel Barrymore .
1926 saw Briskin take a film crew on location to Sonora , Mexico , shooting for Whispering Canyon , starring Jane Novak and Robert Ellis . Late in 1926 Briskin 's sister , Ida Briskin , was wed to Abe Schneider , an exec at Columbia Pictures . Late in 1926 , George Davis died suddenly , and Briskin dissolved Banner .
= = = The advent of sound and Columbia Pictures = = =
After Banner , Briskin returned to work at Columbia Pictures , where he began producing for them in 1926 , and in 1928 he was given control over 18 of their productions . By 1929 , Briskin had risen to be a top executive at the studio , sharing honors with studio head Harry Cohn , in giving the closing address at Columbia 's annual sales meeting in July 1929 . By the end of 1929 , Briskin was the assistant general manager of Columbia , and on a visit to New York City signed several Broadway playwrights to long @-@ term contracts with the studio , including Elmer Harris , Jo Swerling , and Paul Hervey Fox . Not only was Briskin active in the production office at Columbia , but he also played on Columbia 's baseball team , which competed in the Motion Picture Baseball League . It was while working at Columbia that Briskin met Frank Capra . In 1930 , Briskin 's brother Irving , who he had employed while at Banner , joined him as a producer at Columbia .
By the early 1930s , Briskin had gained a reputation of being a very thrifty producer . However , he was also known for putting the quality of the product over saving money . Joseph Walker , the cinematographer for the 1931 film Dirigible , directed by Frank Capra , explained why the film had not used stock footage of blimps , which would have been much less expensive :
[ Briskin ] , the studio 's general manager , who personally supervised the making of the picture , and who is perhaps more keenly exacting in the matter of getting a full dollar 's worth of production for every dollar spent than any other executive in the business , was wise enough to see that an otherwise superlative production would fall flat if such scenes were made " merely adequate " . Therefore he spared no expense in assuring absolute authenticity in every detail of the production .
In 1931 Harry Cohn became the first studio head to implement the new unit production system , wherein producers were given specific responsibility over individual films , rather than supervising dozens of pictures in a given year . Briskin was one of the first four of this new class of producer selected by Cohn , while still maintaining his assistant general manager status . In 1932 Briskin went from assistant general manager , to general manager at Columbia , the announcement being made by in early June by Sam Cohn .
In February 1933 , Briskin 's home was burglarized , the thieves absconding with $ 24 @,@ 000 ( in 1933 dollars ) in jewels . Also in 1933 , Briskin was appointed as the studios ' representative for the producers @-@ actors code committee . In February 1934 Briskin was named as the chairman of the Research Council of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) . The following month Briskin was also appointed to the finance committee overseeing the Research Council . By 1934 , Briskin 's brother , Irving , was one of the Columbia 's unit producers .
In 1934 Briskin was selected to be one of the personnel representing the film studios in their negotiations with the Motion Picture Theater Owners of America . Among the others representing the producers included Louis B. Mayer , Hal Roach , Jack L. Warner , B. B. Kahane , and Harold Lloyd . By this point , Briskin was considered one of the most important studio executives in the industry , being included a group called by some " the brain trust " , which also included Hal B. Wallis , Jack L. Warner , B. B. Kahane , Harold Lloyd , Hal Roach , and Irving Thalberg . In June 1934 Briskin , acting as a representative for 8 major studios , met with representatives from film camera manufacturers , in an attempt to reach an agreement between the two sides to pool their resources in order to develop a silent film camera . In September 1934 , Briskin signed a new contract with Columbia , after having been courted by Paramount . Later that month , he was elected to the producers branch of AMPAS , as well as being appointed a member of the executive committee . When the 1932 agreement between studios and freelance screenwriters expired in 1935 , Briskin was selected as one of five producers , the others being Sol Wurtzel , Irving Thalberg , Hal Wallis , and Henry Herzbrun , to represent the studios in the negotiations . In addition to representing the producers in their negotiations with the writers , Briskin was also selected as one of six producers to negotiate the new contract with the actors ' guild . In August 1935 Briskin was renegotiating his contract with Columbia . Speculation began that he was being approached by other studios , including MGM .
= = = RKO years = = =
In September 1935 , after seven years , Briskin resigned from Columbia , failing to reach an agreement with Harry Cohn over stock options . For years , many in the film industry knew that Briskin was responsible for many of the successes at Columbia , even though studio head Harry Cohn was taking the credit . Shortly after , reports began to circulate that he was headed to 20th Century @-@ Fox . Shortly after that report , he was offered a front @-@ office position at MGM , but turned it down because he wanted to be more actively involved in film production , which was followed by a denial from Fox that he was headed to that studio . One of the rumors which circulated was that Briskin was part of a group aligned with Consolidated Film Industries , which was attempting a takeover of Universal . By year 's end , Briskin had agreed to a deal with Warner Bros. to produce 12 films , however that deal never reached fruition and Briskin ended up agreeing to a deal with RKO to join the studio as their vice @-@ president in charge of production . The position was newly created especially for Briskin . B. B. Kahane remained as the overall head of RKO Studios , running all aspects other than production , but there was concern that Briskin would have conflict with long @-@ term RKO producer , Pandro S. Berman . Conflict was averted when Berman received a one @-@ year extension on his contract , wherein he had sole authority over his productions , answering only directly to Kahane .
That arrangement did not last long , and by February 1936 , Briskin 's role at the studio was changing . While still with the same title , he was no longer subservient to Kahane , having full control over all RKO production . In February 1936 Briskin was mentioned along with a handful of other producers as being in such demand that they could write their own ticket , the others mentioned included Thalberg , David O. Selznick , Darryl F. Zanuck , Hunt Stromberg , and Sol Wurtzel . By April of that year , Briskin was putting his mark on RKO . He purchased quite a few properties , signed numerous actors , and lured successful producers to the studio , such as Edward Small . Later that year , RKO gained the rights to the successful Irish play , The Plough and the Stars , by playwright Seán O 'Casey . This led to Briskin being responsible for bringing Barry Fitzgerald to Hollywood for his American film debut . Fitzgerald was one of four members of the play 's original cast at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin , who Briskin signed to appear in the film version of the same name . By the middle of the year , RKO was solidly Briskin 's , with the full backing of studio head Leo Spitz , This led to Kahane , who had been with the studio since its inception , resigning in August , several months prior to the expiration of his contract , and heading to a vice @-@ presidency at Columbia . For the upcoming 1936 – 37 production season , Briskin announced that he intended to have at least three star @-@ caliber performers in each film . In September , Briskin was elected to the AMPAS board of governors , along with several others including Clark Gable , Darryl Zanuck , and Cecil B. DeMille . The following month , Briskin initiated a policy wherein the younger players under contract to RKO could appear in stage productions in stock and little theater companies for short periods , in order for the actors to gain experience . Also in October , Briskin was chosen to succeed Louis B. Mayer as chairman of the motion picture community chest . In 1936 Briskin led RKO to its most productive year up to that date . Before the end of the year , a new medium was being introduced , television . When asked about the threat this new entertainment source might pose to the film industry , Briskin thought that TV would actually help films . He felt that it might be the " ... greatest thing that could happen to the industry . " Rationalizing that " ... 10 years ago when radio broadcasting began many feared people would sit at home with earphones and listen to the free radio entertainment . Instead , the movies have had their best years since radio broadcasting came in ... " In December , reports began to surface that he was up for a long term contract at RKO , however , due to an impending reorganization , he was only given a one @-@ year extension , with a promise of a long @-@ term deal once the reorganization was complete . Briskin made the decision to begin color films at RKO . He was also responsible for bringing the Poverty Row producer , Maury M. Cohen , into RKO .
In 1937 Briskin was responsible for bringing Milton Berle to the screen . During a strike by the Federated Motion Picture Crafts union in 1937 , there was concern that they would be joined by members of the Screen Actors Guild . Briskin was one of four producers chosen by the producers guild to negotiate with the actors ' union to head off them joining the walkout . As the new film season started in the summer of 1937 , Briskin announced that RKO would have a significant increase in their overall production budget from $ 14 @.@ 5 million in the 1936 – 37 season , to $ 18 million for the 1937 – 38 season . In mid @-@ July 1937 , it was announced that Briskin had received a long @-@ term extension on his contract , however , several months later it was revealed that the deal had never been finalized , and that Briskin was considering leaving RKO . In early November the change became official when Briskin resigned as RKO 's head of production . Briskin had been offered a three @-@ year deal by the studio , which he rejected . Rumors began to circulate about where Briskin was headed . In early December it was being reported that Briskin would be heading to Paramount , although he denied those reports .
= = = Return to Columbia = = =
As 1938 began , there was much speculation as to where Briskin would go next . He was considered one of the top film executives in the industry . In mid @-@ May , it was reported that Briskin was in negotiations with Sam Cohn to return to his former studio , Columbia , in the role of general manager . However , his name was still being discussed for other major positions throughout the industry , such as the production head at Universal Pictures . On May 26 it was announced that Briskin and Columbia had reached a 7 @-@ year agreement for him to take over as the head of the production at the studio , where he resumed his former position of general manager on May 30 . As part of the agreement , Briskin was issued stock options on 10 @,@ 000 shares of Columbia stock , with a value of $ 13 @.@ 875 per share . Briskin 's return to Columbia would also reunite him with his brother , Irving , who had been a producer at Columbia for several years . Samuel Briskin 's would be one of the top money earners in Hollywood in 1938 , his earnings topping $ 106 @,@ 000 , putting him in the top 10 at Columbia .
Later in 1938 , when there was a pending hearing and lawsuit alleging unfair labor practices by the studios against directors , Briskin was chosen to be one of three producers representing the studios , alongside Darryl Zanuck and E. J. Mannix . Sitting across the table were W. S. Van Dyke , Howard Hawks , and Briskin 's friend , Frank Capra . In 1939 , Briskin was once again involved in potential legal proceedings , being one of a number of producers who were called to testify before the National Labor Relations Board , regarding alleged infractions by the studios against the Screen Writers Guild ( SWG ) . During the hearings , it was alleged that Briskin had opposed the proposed merger between the SWG and the Authors Guild . After the outbreak of hostilities in Europe and Asia at the beginning of World War II , AMPAS created the Motion Picture Defense Committee , which was a sub @-@ committee of the organization 's Research Council . Headed by the council 's chairman , Darryl F. Zanuck , Briskin was one of several producers named to the committee . The group was formed to advise various arms of the U.S. government in the creation and production of training films . Shortly after the committee 's formation , it was decided that the facilities of Hollywood film studios would be made available to the army to use for filming and production . In mid @-@ November 1940 Briskin , along with the committee 's chair Major Nathan Levinson , participated in interviews with members of the Screen Writers Guild , in order to select writers to go to Monmouth , New Jersey to work with army personnel on developing scripts for training films .
= = = The war years = = =
In 1941 the U.S. Government announced an effort to increase cooperation between the different countries in North and South America , through the use of film . Nelson D. Rockefeller chaired the government committee , and requested the help of the Association of Motion Picture Producers . Y. Frank Freeman , the associations chairman , appointed Briskin the chair of the committee on South American Film Facilities . When the Motion Picture Defense Committee was expanded in 1941 , Briskin continued to be one of the six producers . In April 1941 , Harry Cohn promoted Briskin to Head of Production at Columbia . Briskin joined the Army Signal Corps as a reserve officer , commissioned as a major , and was put in charge of the film division of the War Committee . After the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese on December 7 , 1941 , there was concern that film professionals in Hollywood who were officers in the armed forces reserves might be called to active duty . By May 1942 , Briskin was acknowledged as the vice @-@ chair of the Motion Picture Defense Committee . In that month , he and chair Nathan Levinson created a sub @-@ committee in order to find more technicians to enlist in the Signal Corps . In June Briskin was rewarded with a six @-@ year contract by Columbia , at a rate of $ 2000 per week , as well as stock options .
In August 1942 Briskin 's duties at Columbia were divided between Harry Cohn and Sydney Buchman , in anticipation of his being called up to active duty in the Army . Briskin was called to active duty by September , with Buchman resigning his position as President of the Screen Writers Guild to handle Briskin 's responsibilities at Columbia . While on active duty , Columbia continued to keep Briskin under contract , although at a reduced salary of $ 300 per week . One of Briskin 's roles in the Army Signal Corps was recruiting industry personnel to serve as cameramen and photographers for the army . In a report lamenting the loss of talent from Hollywood to the armed services , Briskin was one of four producers cited , along with Darryl Zanuck , Hal Roach , and John Hay Whitney . In late March 1943 Briskin suffered a heart attack while on active military service . Briskin received a medical discharge from the Army Signal Corps in May 1944 . During his military service , Briskin was awarded the Legion of Merit . In July 1944 , Briskin returned to Columbia , detaching from the Army with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel . Shortly after his return to civilian life , Briskin parted ways with Columbia in September 1944 .
= = = Liberty Pictures = = =
Shortly after Briskin left Columbia , it was announced that he would begin a production company with his long @-@ time friend , Frank Capra , the company 's highlight to be an annual Capra film . Because Capra was still on active duty in the Army , Briskin was in charge of opening the company offices , and negotiating distribution deals , preparing the company to begin production as soon as Capra was discharged . Initially , the company was simply known as Capra @-@ Briskin .
As this was happening , Briskin was asked to return to active duty , this time in the Navy , for a brief stint in the beginning of March , 1945 ; he was assigned to the Photographic Sciences Laboratory , where he was to evaluate the Navy 's filming activity . By the end of the month , he had finished his study , and submitted his findings to Captain Gene Markey , head of the Navy 's Photographic Services , after which he returned to Hollywood to continue setting up Capra @-@ Briskin . With Capra still in the service , Briskin incorporated the new film studio , with the name Liberty Films , in late April 1945 . One of the first properties they went after was the hugely successful play , Harvey . In July , they convinced William Wyler to join their fledgling company , and he became part @-@ owner , agreeing to start work for the company as soon as he was discharged from the army , and produce one film per year for the studio . In August , Briskin negotiated a deal with RKO Studios for Liberty Pictures to film 9 movies at the RKO studio , and in September Wyler announced that the company would produce 3 films a year for their deal with RKO . Before the end of the year George Stevens had also become a part owner in the venture .
The company announced in November 1945 that its first production would be James Stewart in It 's a Wonderful Life , produced and directed by Capra . In Spring 1946 it was announced that Liberty would be getting a fifth partner , producer @-@ director Victor Fleming , although that deal never saw fruition . The film was released in November 1946 , but was a financial failure . Although it was in the top 7 % of that year 's films as ranked by box office gross , it was unable to recoup its high production cost of $ 2 @.@ 3 million , much less show a profit . After the film 's release , Briskin became an outspoken advocate for the policy of longer runs for films , allowing them to recoup the cost of production . Without longer runs , he told The Film Daily , the quality of films would decline , as production costs continued to escalate .
While the studio was receiving positive critical reviews , it was struggling financially . In March 1947 , rumors began to circulate regarding the company being taken over by one of the major studios . The studio 's next film , State of the Union , starring Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn , was scheduled to be distributed by MGM . In addition to the MGM deal with Capra , Briskin sought out distribution deals with other major studios , including Paramount . The partners sought a major studio to buy Liberty Films before bank foreclosure , although Wyler and Stevens were " violently opposed " to the idea at first . In April rumors began to circulate that a deal was in the offing for a sale of the company to Paramount Pictures . Those rumors were confirmed the following month when Paramount bought Liberty . The four partners were given a total of between $ 3 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 and $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in Paramount stock , and Capra , Wyler , and Stevens were offered five @-@ picture contracts at Paramount . Briskin was given a studio executive position at Paramount which was specifically created for him , but Stevens decided not to accept the Paramount offer and continued as an independent producer . The deal took several months to reach fruition , finally culminating when the US Treasury signed off on the tax setup in September 1947 . Briskin would stay at Paramount as a senior production executive through 1950 .
= = = The Paramount years = = =
As the new decade dawned , it was speculated that Briskin would sign an agreement with Paramount Studios , in charge of production under Y. Frank Freeman , in the new position , Briskin would function as the de facto head of production for the studio . After accepting the position , his tenure was short lived , as he resigned in January 1951 , due to an undisclosed illness , although he remained employed by the studio . By April , it was announced that Briskin would remain at Paramount , and had signed a five @-@ year contract to produce for the studio . In July 1951 Briskin was selected to head up the " Movie Town U.S.A. " radio advertising campaign for the Council of Motion Picture Companies ( COMPO ) . The Movietime campaign was scheduled to debut on October 8 , 1951 with over 200 acting stars and other Hollywood personalities volunteering their time to make personal appearances in all 48 of the U.S. State capitals , although those locations were later changed to 33 major cities , due to a scheduling conflict with many of the state governors . In addition to his responsibilities at Paramount and with COMPO , in late 1951 Briskin partnered with Sol Lesser to produce 6 films , which were distributed by United Artists . All the films were scheduled for a 1952 release , and Briskin was partly responsible for the financing along with Edward Small , as well as having production oversight . At the time , it was considered a very important independent partnership by the Hollywood community . The partnership , known as Associated Players and Producers , was short @-@ lived , producing only one of the six films agreed to with Universal , Kansas City Confidential , a film noir starring John Payne .
In January 1953 , Briskin was appointed to the executive board of the Screen Producers Guild .
While at Paramount , in 1955 , he produced the highly commercially successful Strategic Air Command , starring James Stewart . After the success of Strategic Air Command , Paramount obtained the rights to The Sons of Katie Elder , and assigned the project to Briskin to produce , with Alan Ladd starring . However , when Ladd brought out the remainder of his contract with Paramount , the film was put on hold , and would not be produced until 1965 , by a different producer , Hal B. Wallis . In May 1956 , Briskin asked to be released from the final two years of his agreement with Paramount , to which the studio agreed . The one condition was that Briskin finish work on his remaining film commitment to the studio , The Joker is Wild , starring Frank Sinatra , which was being produced by an independent film company , A.M.B.L. Productions , under an agreement with Paramount .
= = = MGM controversy and return to Columbia = = =
In 1957 Briskin was embroiled in a controversy related to the control of MGM . As part of a battle between Joseph R. Vogel and Joseph Tomlinson , Briskin was brought in as a member of the Board of Directors of MGM , along with MGM 's former production head , Louis B. Mayer , and also as a producer for the studio . However , the special board meeting which was held to appoint the two executives was held to be illegal by the Delaware Chancery Court , and the Mayer and Briskin appointments were overturned . The conflict continued on throughout the year , until MGM held a stockholders ' meeting in October . During the meeting , the shareholders agreed to expand the board by adding ten new directors . Tomlinson 's group was clearly routed , gaining only a single seat of the ten ; that single seat was Briskin .
His seat on MGM 's board would last less than a year . After the unexpected death of studio head Harry Cohn in late February 1958 , Columbia 's board of directors selected a committee to pursue hiring his replacement . In early April it was confirmed that Briskin was one of those who they were considering . In April 1958 Briskin resigned from MGM , in order to return to Columbia , this time as Vice President in Charge of West Coast Activities . In addition to his executive production roles , Briskin was also made one of 9 members of Fico 's board of directors . Fico was a company formed with the express purpose of buying up shares of Columbia stock on the open market as a way to display confidence in the company . By the end of 1958 , Briskin was Vice President and General Manager of the studio . In April 1959 , Briskin announced an ambitious plan for Columbia , wherein they scheduled 99 films for release over an 18 @-@ month span , and studio head Abe Schneider ( also Briskin 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) tagged Briskin to head the program . Among the films scheduled for production during this span included Anatomy of a Murder , A Raisin in the Sun , and Suddenly , Last Summer . Also in 1959 , Briskin made Glenn E. Miller Productions a Columbia affiliate , the new arm specializing film production for military and defense purposes . Something Briskin had experience in during World War II . In July , Briskin 's brother , Irving , sold his independent television production company to Screen Gems , Columbia 's wholly owned subsidiary . After the sale , he went back to work at Columbia , where he had been prior to forming his own company . Shortly after , Briskin , reunited with his brother , announced that he was re @-@ integrating Screen Gems back into Columbia , and it would no longer operate as a separate entity . Under Briskin , in July 1959 production hit an all @-@ time high at Columbia , with over $ 11 @.@ 5 million in production at one time . In August , despite rising production costs , Briskin took the unprecedented step of lowering the fees Columbia charged independent producers under contract to the studio . In September 1959 it was announced that Briskin had been elected to Columbia 's board of directors , a position he held until his death . At the same time as Briskin was being elected to Columbia 's board , it was announced that his son , Jerry , would be joining him at Columbia , working in the Screen Gems division as the producer for the television series , Manhunt . In December , Briskin 's contract with Columbia was up for renewal by their shareholders .
= = Filmography = =
As the head of production for several film studios , Briskin was in overall charge of all productions at those studios , in an executive producer capacity . However , over his career he would directly produce several films . They are listed below .
= = Personal life and death = =
One of Briskin 's children , Gerald ( Jerry ) , also became a producer in the film industry , working at the same company as his father , Columbia . He also followed his father into the armed services during World War II , becoming a sergeant in the Signal Corps . Through Jerry , Briskin became a grandfather on May 23 , 1944 . Briskin 's wife 's name was Sara , and they had one other child , a son named Bernard . Throughout his life Briskin was a well @-@ known philanthropist , and was quite active in Temple Israel in Los Angeles , as well as Cedars @-@ Sinai Hospital , where he served as president . On Halloween 1968 ( October 31 ) , Briskin had a major heart attack and was admitted in critical condition to the hospital . He died two weeks later on November 14 , 1968 at UCLA Medical Center , where he was under treatment .
= Norid =
Uninett Norid AS , trading as Norid , is the domain name registry for the three Norwegian country code top @-@ level domains ( ccTLD ) .no , .sj and .bv. The non @-@ profit company is based in Trondheim , where it shares offices with its parent company Uninett ; both companies being owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research . Norid operates under contract with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority , supervised by the Norwegian Post and Telecommunications Authority . Uninett took over responsibility for the Norwegian domain in 1987 , and in 2003 it was spun off as a separate company . Only .no is open for registration .
= = History = =
The registry for .no was in 1983 given to Pål Spilling at the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration 's research institute . However , policy @-@ makers wanted the domain to be managed by a non @-@ commercial organization , and the responsibility was transferred to Uninett , a supplier of information and communications technology to Norwegian public universities , colleges and research institutions , on 17 March 1987 . At the time Uninett was administrated as a division of SINTEF , but became a limited company owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research in 1993 . Norid was established as a division within Uninett in 1996 , with the responsibility of managing the .no domain . On 21 August 1997 , Norid was given the responsibility for the newly created .sj and .bv domains . In 1998 , Uninett FAS was established as a subsidiary to manage the technical network and service infrastructure Uninett had established , including operation of the network systems for the universities and colleges . At the same time , Norid was transferred to Uninett FAS . In 1998 , two organizations were established : the Domain Resolution Body , to determine domain disputes , and Norpol , a political advisory board . Domain name registrars were introduced in 1999 to handle aspects that could be provided by a third party . Uninett Norid was made a separate subsidiary of Uninett in 2003 , to secure the management of the domains within an independent organization .
= = Organization = =
Uninett Norid AS is a limited company wholly owned by Uninett , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research . The offices are co @-@ located with Uninett in Trondheim . Norid manages three country ccTLDs : .no , .sj and .bv. The former is the main domain for Norway , and the latter two are not open for registration . The legal right to manage the domains is two @-@ fold , based both on an agreement with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ( IANA ) and regulations via the Telecommunication Act which is supervised by the Norwegian Post and Telecommunications Authority . In 2009 , the company had a revenue of 23 @.@ 1 million Norwegian krone . Norid is a member of the Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries .
= = Policy = =
The policy for use of the domains is regulated by the Regulation Concerning Domain Names Under Norwegian Country Code Top @-@ level Domains , also known as the Domain Regulation . This regulation also regulates .bv and .sj , and would be effective for these , should they later come unto use .
Only organizations with a local presence in Norway and with registration in the Brønnøysund Register Centre are allowed to register domains under .no. Each organization can register 100 directly under the .no domain , but can register further domains under geographical domains or category second @-@ level domains . Domain names must consist of 2 to 63 characters . Permitted characters are the lower @-@ case English letters a through z , digits ( 0 through 9 ) , the three Norwegian letter æ , ø and å , and 20 special Sami letters . Norid also maintains a series of second @-@ level domains for geographic locations and special institutions . There is also a series of domain names that cannot be registered .
The domains .bv and .sj remain reserved for potential future use . Sale of the two unused ccTLDs has not been an item to consider for policymakers , as commercialization of the domain resources is in direct contradiction to Norwegian policy .
= Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia =
Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia ( Russian : Великая Княжна Анастасия Николаевна Романова , Velikaya Knyazhna Anastasiya Nikolayevna Romanova ) ( June 18 [ O.S. June 5 ] 1901 – July 17 , 1918 ) was the youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II , the last sovereign of Imperial Russia , and his wife , Tsarina Alexandra Fyodorovna .
Anastasia was a younger sister of Grand Duchess Olga , Grand Duchess Tatiana , and Grand Duchess Maria , and was an elder sister of Alexei Nikolaevich , Tsarevich of Russia . She was executed with her family in an extrajudicial killing by members of the Cheka , the Bolshevik secret police , on July 17 , 1918 .
Persistent rumors of her possible escape circulated after her death , fueled by the fact that the location of her burial was unknown during the decades of Communist rule . The mass grave near Yekaterinburg which held the remains of the Tsar , his wife , and three of their daughters was revealed in 1991 , and the bodies of Alexei Nikolaevich and the remaining daughter — either Anastasia or her older sister Maria — were discovered in 2007 .
Her possible survival has been conclusively disproven . Forensic analysis and DNA testing confirmed that the remains are those of the imperial family , showing that all four grand duchesses were killed in 1918 . Several women have falsely claimed to have been Anastasia ; the best known impostor is Anna Anderson . Anderson 's body was cremated upon her death in 1984 , but DNA testing in 1994 on available pieces of Anderson 's tissue and hair showed no relation to the DNA of the Romanov family .
= = Biography = =
= = = Life and childhood = = =
When Anastasia was born , her parents and extended family were disappointed that she was a girl . They hoped for a son who would be heir apparent to the throne . Tsar Nicholas II went for a long walk to compose himself before going to visit Tsarina Alexandra and the newborn Anastasia for the first time . One meaning of her name is " the breaker of chains " or " the prison opener . " The fourth grand duchess received her name because , in honor of her birth , her father pardoned and reinstated students who had been imprisoned for participating in riots in St. Petersburg and Moscow the previous winter . Another meaning of the name is " of the resurrection , " a fact often alluded to later in stories about her rumored survival . Anastasia 's title is most precisely translated as " Grand Princess " . " Grand Duchess " became the most widely used translation of the title into English from Russian .
The Tsar 's children were raised as simply as possible . They slept on hard camp cots without pillows , except when they were ill , took cold baths in the morning , and were expected to tidy their rooms and do needlework to be sold at various charity events when they were not otherwise occupied . Most in the household , including the servants , generally called the Grand Duchess by her first name and patronym , Anastasia Nikolaevna , and did not use her title or style . She was occasionally called by the French version of her name , " Anastasie " , or by the Russian nicknames " Nastya " , " Nastas " , or " Nastenka " . Other family nicknames for Anastasia were " Malenkaya , " meaning " little ( one ) " , or " shvibzik , " the Russian word for " imp " .
Living up to her nicknames , young Anastasia grew into a vivacious and energetic child , described as short and inclined to be chubby , with blue eyes and strawberry @-@ blonde hair . Margaretta Eagar , a governess to the four grand duchesses , said one person commented that the toddler Anastasia had the greatest personal charm of any child she had ever seen .
While often described as gifted and bright , she was never interested in the restrictions of the school room , according to her tutors Pierre Gilliard and Sydney Gibbes . Gibbes , Gilliard , and ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting Lili Dehn and Anna Vyrubova described Anastasia as lively , mischievous , and a gifted actress . Her sharp , witty remarks sometimes hit sensitive spots .
Anastasia 's daring occasionally exceeded the limits of acceptable behavior . " She undoubtedly held the record for punishable deeds in her family , for in naughtiness she was a true genius " , said Gleb Botkin , son of the court physician Yevgeny Botkin , who later died with the family at Yekaterinburg . Anastasia sometimes tripped the servants and played pranks on her tutors . As a child , she would climb trees and refuse to come down . Once , during a snowball fight at the family 's Polish estate , Anastasia rolled a rock into a snowball and threw it at her older sister Tatiana , knocking her to the ground . A distant cousin , Princess Nina Georgievna , recalled that " Anastasia was nasty to the point of being evil " , and would cheat , kick and scratch her playmates during games ; she was affronted because the younger Nina was taller than she was . She was also less concerned about her appearance than her sisters . Hallie Erminie Rives , a best @-@ selling American author and wife of an American diplomat , described how 10 @-@ year @-@ old Anastasia ate chocolates without bothering to remove her long , white opera gloves at the St. Petersburg opera house .
Anastasia and her older sister Maria were known within the family as " The Little Pair " . The two girls shared a room , often wore variations of the same dress , and spent much of their time together . Their older sisters Olga and Tatiana also shared a room and were known as " The Big Pair " . The four girls sometimes signed letters using the nickname , OTMA , which was derived from the first letters of their first names .
Despite her energy , Anastasia 's physical health was sometimes poor . The Grand Duchess suffered from painful bunions , which affected both of her big toes . Anastasia had a weak muscle in her back and was prescribed twice @-@ weekly massage . She hid under the bed or in a cupboard to put off the massage . Anastasia 's older sister , Maria , reportedly hemorrhaged in December 1914 during an operation to remove her tonsils , according to her paternal aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia , who was interviewed later in her life . The doctor performing the operation was so unnerved that he had to be ordered to continue by Maria 's mother , Tsarina Alexandra . Olga Alexandrovna said she believed all four of her nieces bled more than was normal and believed they were carriers of the hemophilia gene , like their mother . Symptomatic carriers of the gene , while not hemophiliacs themselves , can have symptoms of hemophilia including a lower than normal blood clotting factor that can lead to heavy bleeding . DNA testing on the remains of the royal family proved conclusively in 2009 that Alexei suffered from Hemophilia B , a rarer form of the disease . His mother and one sister , identified alternatively as Maria or Anastasia , were carriers . Therefore , had Anastasia lived to have children of her own , they may have been afflicted by the disease as well . Alexei 's hemophilia was chronic and incurable ; his frequent attacks caused permanent disability .
= = = Association with Grigori Rasputin = = =
Her mother relied on the counsel of Grigori Rasputin , a Russian peasant and wandering starets or " holy man , " and credited his prayers with saving the ailing Tsarevich on numerous occasions . Anastasia and her siblings were taught to view Rasputin as " Our Friend " and to share confidences with him . In the autumn of 1907 , Anastasia 's aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia was escorted to the nursery by the Tsar to meet Rasputin . Anastasia , her sisters and brother Alexei were all wearing their long white nightgowns . " All the children seemed to like him , " Olga Alexandrovna recalled . " They were completely at ease with him . " Rasputin 's friendship with the imperial children was evident in some of the messages he sent to them . In February 1909 , Rasputin sent the imperial children a telegram , advising them to " Love the whole of God 's nature , the whole of His creation in particular this earth . The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework . "
However , one of the girls ' governesses , Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva , was horrified in 1910 that Rasputin was permitted access to the nursery when the four girls were in their nightgowns and wanted him barred . Nicholas asked Rasputin to avoid going to the nurseries in the future . The children were aware of the tension and feared that their mother would be angered by Tyutcheva 's actions . " I am so afr ( aid ) that S.I. ( governess Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva ) can speak ... about our friend something bad , " Anastasia 's twelve @-@ year @-@ old sister Tatiana wrote to their mother on March 8 , 1910 . " I hope our nurse will be nice to our friend now . "
Tyutcheva was eventually fired . She took her story to other members of the family . While Rasputin 's visits to the children were , by all accounts , completely innocent in nature , the family was scandalized . Tyutcheva told Nicholas 's sister , Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia , that Rasputin visited the girls , talked with them while they were getting ready for bed , and hugged and patted them . Tyutcheva said the children had been taught not to discuss Rasputin with her and were careful to hide his visits from the nursery staff . Xenia wrote on March 15 , 1910 that she couldn 't understand " ... the attitude of Alix and the children to that sinister Grigory ( whom they consider to be almost a saint , when in fact he 's only a khlyst ! ) "
In the spring of 1910 , Maria Ivanovna Vishnyakova , a royal governess , claimed that Rasputin had raped her . Vishnyakova said the empress refused to believe her account of the assault , and insisted that " everything Rasputin does is holy . " Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna was told that Vishnyakova 's claim had been immediately investigated , but instead " they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard . " Vishnyakova was kept from seeing Rasputin after she made her accusation and was eventually dismissed from her post in 1913 .
However , rumors persisted and it was later whispered in society that Rasputin had seduced not only the Tsarina but also the four grand duchesses . The gossip was fueled by ardent , yet by all accounts innocent , letters written to Rasputin by the Tsarina and the four grand duchesses which were released by Rasputin and which circulated throughout society . " My dear , precious , only friend , " wrote Anastasia . " How much I should like to see you again . You appeared to me today in a dream . I am always asking Mama when you will come ... I think of you always , my dear , because you are so good to me ... "
This was followed by circulation of pornographic cartoons , which depicted Rasputin having relations with the Empress , her four daughters and Anna Vyrubova . After the scandal , Nicholas ordered Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg for a time , much to Alexandra 's displeasure , and Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to Palestine . Despite the rumors , the imperial family 's association with Rasputin continued until his murder on December 17 , 1916 . " Our Friend is so contented with our girlies , says they have gone through heavy ' courses ' for their age and their souls have much developed " , Alexandra wrote to Nicholas on December 6 , 1916 .
In his memoirs , A. A. Mordvinov reported that the four grand duchesses appeared " cold and visibly terribly upset " by Rasputin 's death , and sat " huddled up closely together " on a sofa in one of their bedrooms on the night they received the news . Mordvinov recalled that the young women were in a gloomy mood and seemed to sense the political upheaval that was about to be unleashed . Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on its reverse by Anastasia , her mother and her sisters . She attended his funeral on December 21 , 1916 , and her family planned to build a church over the site of Rasputin 's grave . After they were killed by the Bolsheviks , it was discovered Anastasia and her sisters were all wearing amulets bearing Rasputin 's picture and a prayer .
= = = World War I and revolution = = =
During World War I , Anastasia , along with her sister Maria , visited wounded soldiers at a private hospital in the grounds at Tsarskoye Selo . The two teenagers , too young to become Red Cross nurses like their mother and elder sisters , played games of checkers and billiards with the soldiers and tried to lift their spirits . Felix Dassel , who was treated at the hospital and knew Anastasia , recalled that the grand duchess had a " laugh like a squirrel , " and walked rapidly " as though she tripped along . "
In February 1917 , Anastasia and her family were placed under house arrest at the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo during the Russian Revolution . Nicholas II abdicated on March 2 / 15 , 1917 . As the Bolsheviks approached , Alexander Kerensky of the Provisional Government had them moved to Tobolsk , Siberia . After the Bolsheviks seized majority control of Russia , Anastasia and her family were moved to the Ipatiev House , or House of Special Purpose , at Yekaterinburg .
The stress and uncertainty of captivity took their toll on Anastasia as well as her family . " Goodby , " she wrote to a friend in the winter of 1917 . " Don 't forget us . " At Tobolsk , she wrote a melancholy theme for her English tutor , filled with spelling mistakes , about " Evelyn Hope " , a poem by Robert Browning about a young girl : " When she died she was only sixteen years old , " Anastasia wrote . " Ther ( e ) was a man who loved her without having seen her but ( k ) new her very well . And she he ( a ) rd of him also . He never could tell her that he loved her , and now she was dead . But still he thought that when he and she will live [ their ] next life whenever it will be that ... "
At Tobolsk , she and her sisters sewed jewels into their clothing in hopes of hiding them from their captors , since Alexandra had written to warn them that she , Nicholas and Maria had been searched upon arriving in Yekaterinburg , and had items confiscated . Their mother used predetermined code words " medicines " and " Sednev 's belongings " for the jewels . Letters from Demidova to Tegleva gave the instructions . Pierre Gilliard recalled his last sight of the children at Yekaterinburg : " The sailor Nagorny , who attended to Alexei Nikolaevitch , passed my window carrying the sick boy in his arms , behind him came the Grand Duchesses loaded with valises and small personal belongings . I tried to get out , but was roughly pushed back into the carriage by the sentry . I came back to the window . Tatiana Nikolayevna came last carrying her little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise . It was raining and I saw her feet sink into the mud at every step . Nagorny tried to come to her assistance ; he was roughly pushed back by one of the commisars ... " Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden told of her sad last glimpse of Anastasia : " Once , standing on some steps at the door of a house close by , I saw a hand and a pink @-@ sleeved arm opening the topmost pane . According to the blouse the hand must have belonged either to the Grand Duchess Marie or Anastasia . They could not see me through their windows , and this was to be the last glimpse that I was to have of any of them ! "
However , even in the last months of her life , she found ways to enjoy herself . She and other members of the household performed plays for the enjoyment of their parents and others in the spring of 1918 . Anastasia 's performance made everyone howl with laughter , according to her tutor Sydney Gibbes . In a May 7 , 1918 letter from Tobolsk to her sister Maria in Yekaterinburg , Anastasia described a moment of joy despite her sadness and loneliness and worry for the sick Alexei : " We played on the swing , that was when I roared with laughter , the fall was so wonderful ! Indeed ! I told the sisters about it so many times yesterday that they got quite fed up , but I could go on telling it masses of times ... What weather we 've had ! One could simply shout with joy . " In his memoirs , one of the guards at the Ipatiev House , Alexander Strekotin , remembered Anastasia as " very friendly and full of fun " , while another guard said Anastasia was " a very charming devil ! She was mischievous and , I think , rarely tired . She was lively , and was fond of performing comic mimes with the dogs , as though they were performing in a circus . " Yet another of the guards , however , called the youngest grand duchess " offensive and a terrorist " and complained that her occasionally provocative comments sometimes caused tension in the ranks . Anastasia and her sisters helped their maid darn stockings and assisted the cook in making bread and other kitchen chores while they were in captivity at the Ipatiev House .
In the summer , the privations of the captivity , including their closer confinement at the Ipatiev House negatively affected the family . According to some accounts , at one point Anastasia became so upset about the locked , painted windows that she opened one to look outside and get fresh air . A sentry reportedly saw her and fired , narrowly missing her . She did not try again . On July 14 , 1918 , local priests at Yekaterinburg conducted a private church service for the family . They reported that Anastasia and her family , contrary to custom , fell on their knees during the prayer for the dead , and that the girls had become despondent and hopeless , and no longer sang the replies in the service . Noticing this dramatic change in their demeanor since his last visit , one priest told the other , " Something has happened to them in there . " But the next day , on July 15 , 1918 , Anastasia and her sisters appeared in good spirits as they joked and helped move the beds in their shared bedroom so that cleaning women could clean the floors . They helped the women scrub the floors and whispered to them when the guards weren 't watching . Anastasia stuck her tongue out at Yakov Yurovsky , the head of the detachment , when he momentarily turned his back and left the room .
= = = Captivity and death = = =
After the Bolshevik revolution in October 1917 , Russia quickly disintegrated into civil war . Negotiations for the release of the Romanovs between their Bolshevik ( commonly referred to as ' Reds ' ) captors and their extended family , many of whom were prominent members of the royal houses of Europe , stalled . As the Whites ( Anti @-@ Bolshevik forces , though not necessarily supportive of the Tsar ) advanced toward Yekaterinburg the Reds were in a precarious situation . The Reds knew Yekaterinburg would fall to the better manned and equipped White Army . When the Whites reached Yekaterinburg , the imperial family had simply disappeared . The most widely accepted account was that the family had been murdered . This was due to an investigation by White Army investigator Nicholas Sokolov , who came to the conclusion based on items that had belonged to the family being found thrown down a mine shaft at Ganina Yama .
The " Yurovsky Note , " an account of the event filed by Yurovsky to his Bolshevik superiors following the killings , was found in 1989 and detailed in Edvard Radzinsky 's 1992 book The Last Tsar . According to the note , on the night of the deaths the family was awakened and told to dress . They were told they were being moved to a new location to ensure their safety in anticipation of the violence that might ensue when the White Army reached Yekaterinburg . Once dressed , the family and the small circle of servants who had remained with them were herded into a small room in the house 's sub @-@ basement and told to wait . Alexandra and Alexei sat in chairs provided by guards at the Empress 's request . After several minutes , the guards entered the room , led by Yurovsky . Yurovsky quickly informed the Tsar and his family that they were to be executed . The Tsar had time to say only " What ? " and turn to his family before he was killed by several bullets to the chest ( not , as is commonly stated , to the head ; his skull , recovered in 1991 , bears no bullet wounds ) . The Tsaritsa and her daughter Olga tried to make the sign of the cross , but were killed in the initial volley of bullets fired by the executioners . The rest of the Imperial retinue were shot in short order , with the exception of Anna Demidova , Alexandra 's maid . Demidova survived the initial onslaught , but was quickly murdered against the back wall of the basement , stabbed to death while trying to defend herself with a small pillow she had carried into the sub @-@ basement that was filled with precious gems and jewels .
The " Yurovsky Note " further reported that once the thick smoke that had filled the room from so many weapons being fired in such close proximity cleared , it was discovered that the executioners ' bullets had ricocheted off the corsets of two or three of the Grand Duchesses . The executioners later came to find out that this was because the family 's crown jewels and diamonds had been sewn inside the linings of the corsets to hide them from their captors . The corsets thus served as a form of " armor " against the bullets . Anastasia and Maria were said to have crouched up against a wall , covering their heads in terror , until they were shot down by bullets , recalled Yurovsky . However , another guard , Peter Ermakov , told his wife that Anastasia had been finished off with bayonets . As the bodies were carried out , one or more of the girls cried out , and were clubbed on the back of the head , wrote Yurovsky .
= = False reports of survival = =
Anastasia 's supposed escape and possible survival was one of the most popular historical mysteries of the 20th century , provoking many books and films . At least ten women claimed to be her , offering varying stories as to how she had survived . Anna Anderson , the best known Anastasia impostor , first surfaced publicly between 1920 and 1922 . She contended that she had feigned death among the bodies of her family and servants , and was able to make her escape with the help of a compassionate guard who noticed she was still breathing and took sympathy upon her . Her legal battle for recognition from 1938 to 1970 continued a lifelong controversy and was the longest running case ever heard by the German courts , where it was officially filed . The final decision of the court was that Anderson had not provided sufficient proof to claim the identity of the grand duchess .
Anderson died in 1984 and her body was cremated . DNA tests were conducted in 1994 on a tissue sample from Anderson located in a hospital and the blood of Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , a great @-@ nephew of Empress Alexandra . According to Dr Gill who conducted the tests , " If you accept that these samples came from Anna Anderson , then Anna Anderson could not be related to Tsar Nicholas or Tsarina Alexandra . " Anderson 's mitochondrial DNA was a match with a great @-@ nephew of Franziska Schanzkowska , a missing Polish factory worker . Some supporters of Anderson 's claim acknowledged that the DNA tests proving she could not have been the Grand Duchess had " won the day . "
Other lesser known claimants were Nadezhda Ivanovna Vasilyeva and Eugenia Smith . Two young women claiming to be Anastasia and her sister Maria were taken in by a priest in the Ural Mountains in 1919 where they lived as nuns until their deaths in 1964 . They were buried under the names Anastasia and Maria Nikolaevna .
Rumors of Anastasia 's survival were embellished with various contemporary reports of trains and houses being searched for " Anastasia Romanov " by Bolshevik soldiers and secret police . When she was briefly imprisoned at Perm in 1918 , Princess Helena Petrovna , the wife of Anastasia 's distant cousin , Prince John Constantinovich of Russia , reported that a guard brought a girl who called herself Anastasia Romanova to her cell and asked if the girl was the daughter of the Tsar . Helena Petrovna said she did not recognize the girl and the guard took her away . Although other witnesses in Perm later reported that they saw Anastasia , her mother and sisters in Perm after the murders , this story is now widely discredited as nothing more than a rumor . Rumors that they were alive were fueled by deliberate misinformation designed to hide the fact that the family was dead . A few days after they had been murdered , the German government sent several telegrams to Russia demanding " the safety of the princesses of German blood " . Russia had recently signed a peace treaty with the Germans , and did not want to upset them by letting them know the women were dead , so they told them they had been moved to a safer location .
In another incident , eight witnesses reported the recapture of a young woman after an apparent escape attempt in September 1918 at a railway station at Siding 37 , northwest of Perm . These witnesses were Maxim Grigoyev , Tatiana Sitnikova and her son Fyodor Sitnikov , Ivan Kuklin and Matrina Kuklina , Vassily Ryabov , Ustinya Varankina , and Dr Pavel Utkin , a physician who treated the girl after the incident . Some of the witnesses identified the girl as Anastasia when they were shown photographs of the grand duchess by White Russian Army investigators . Utkin also told the White Russian Army investigators that the injured girl , whom he treated at Cheka headquarters in Perm , told him , " I am the daughter of the ruler , Anastasia . " Utkin obtained a prescription from a pharmacy for a patient named " N " at the orders of the secret police . White Army investigators later independently located records for the prescription . During the same time period in mid @-@ 1918 , there were several reports of young people in Russia passing themselves off as Romanov escapees . Boris Soloviev , the husband of Rasputin 's daughter Maria , defrauded prominent Russian families by asking for money for a Romanov impostor to escape to China . Soloviev also found young women willing to masquerade as one of the grand duchesses to assist in deceiving the families he had defrauded .
Some biographers ' accounts speculated that the opportunity for one or more of the guards to rescue a survivor existed . Yakov Yurovsky demanded that the guards come to his office and turn over items they had stolen following the murder . There was reportedly a span of time when the bodies of the victims were left largely unattended in the truck , in the basement and in the corridor of the house . Some guards who had not participated in the murders and had been sympathetic to the grand duchesses were reportedly left in the basement with the bodies .
= = Romanov graves = =
In 1991 , the presumed burial site of the imperial family and their servants was excavated in the woods outside Yekaterinburg . The grave had been found nearly a decade earlier , but was kept hidden by its discoverers from the Communists who were still ruling Russia at the time . The grave only held nine of the expected eleven sets of remains . DNA and skeletal analysis matched these remains to Tsar Nicholas II , Tsarina Alexandra , and three of the four grand duchesses ( Olga , Tatiana and presumably Maria ) . The other remains , with unrelated DNA , correspond to the family 's doctor ( Yevgeny Botkin ) , their valet ( Alexei Trupp ) , their cook ( Ivan Kharitonov ) , and Alexandra 's maid ( Anna Demidova ) . Forensic expert William R. Maples decided that the Tsarevitch Alexei and Anastasia 's bodies were missing from the family 's grave . Russian scientists contested this conclusion , however , claiming that it was the body of Maria that was missing . The Russians identified the body as that of Anastasia by using a computer program to compare photos of the youngest grand duchess with the skulls of the victims from the mass grave . They estimated the height and width of the skulls where pieces of bone were missing . American scientists found this method inexact .
American scientists thought the missing body to be Anastasia because none of the female skeletons showed the evidence of immaturity , such as an immature collarbone , undescended wisdom teeth , or immature vertebrae in the back , that they would have expected to find in a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old . In 1998 , when the remains of the imperial family were finally interred , a body measuring approximately 5 ' 7 " was buried under the name of Anastasia . Photographs taken of her standing beside her three sisters up until six months before the murders demonstrate that Anastasia was several inches shorter than all of them .
The account of the " Yurovsky Note " indicated that two of the bodies were removed from the main grave and cremated at an undisclosed area in order to further disguise the burials of the Tsar and his retinue , if the remains were discovered by the Whites , since the body count would not be correct . Searches of the area in subsequent years failed to turn up a cremation site or the remains of the two missing Romanov children . However , on August 23 , 2007 , a Russian archaeologist announced the discovery of two burned , partial skeletons at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg that appeared to match the site described in Yurovsky 's memoirs . The archaeologists said the bones were from a boy who was roughly between the ages of ten and thirteen years at the time of his death and of a young woman who was roughly between the ages of eighteen and twenty @-@ three years old . Anastasia was seventeen years and one month old at the time of the assassination , while her sister Maria was nineteen years , one month old and her brother Alexei was two weeks shy of his fourteenth birthday . Anastasia 's elder sisters Olga and Tatiana were twenty @-@ two and twenty @-@ one years old respectively at the time of the assassination . Along with the remains of the two bodies , archaeologists found " shards of a container of sulfuric acid , nails , metal strips from a wooden box , and bullets of various caliber . " The site was initially found with metal detectors and by using metal rods as probes .
DNA testing by multiple international laboratories such as the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory and Innsbruck Medical University confirmed that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters , proving conclusively that all family members , including Anastasia , died in 1918 . The parents and all five children are now accounted for , and each has his or her own unique DNA profile . However , as reported in one of the studies :
It should be mentioned that a well publicized debate over which daughter , Maria ( according to Russian experts ) or Anastasia ( according to US experts ) , has been recovered from the second grave cannot be settled based upon the DNA results reported here . In the absence of a DNA reference from each sister , we can only conclusively identify Alexei – the only son of Nicholas and Alexandra .
= = Sainthood = =
In 2000 , Anastasia and her family were canonized as passion bearers by the Russian Orthodox Church . The family had previously been canonized in 1981 by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad as holy martyrs . The bodies of Tsar Nicholas II , Tsarina Alexandra , and three of their daughters were finally interred in the St. Catherine Chapel at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg on July 17 , 1998 , eighty years after they were murdered .
= = Influence on culture = =
The purported survival of Anastasia has been the subject of both cinema and made @-@ for @-@ television films . The earliest , made in 1928 , was called Clothes Make the Woman . The story followed a woman who turns up to play the part of a rescued Anastasia for a Hollywood film , and ends up being recognized by the Russian soldier who originally rescued her from her would @-@ be assassins .
One notable film is the highly fictionalized Anastasia ( 1956 ) starring Ingrid Bergman as Anna Anderson , Yul Brynner as General Bounine ( a fictional character based on several actual men ) , and Helen Hayes as the Dowager Empress Marie , Anastasia 's paternal grandmother . The film tells the story of a refugee who appears in Paris in 1928 and is captured by several Russian émigrés who feed her information so that they can fool Anastasia 's grandmother into thinking she is her granddaughter in an attempt to obtain a Tsarist fortune . As time goes by they begin to suspect that " Madame A. Anderson " really is the missing grand duchess . The story served as the basis for the short @-@ lived 1965 musical Anya , and the 1997 animated musical film Anastasia , with Meg Ryan voicing Anastasia .
In 1986 , NBC broadcast a mini @-@ series loosely based on a book published in 1983 by Peter Kurth called Anastasia : The Riddle of Anna Anderson . The movie , Anastasia : The Mystery of Anna was a two @-@ part series which began with the young Anastasia Nicholaevna and her family being sent to Yekaterinburg , where they are executed by Bolshevik soldiers . The story then moves to 1923 , and while taking great liberties , fictitiously follows the claims of the woman known as Anna Anderson . Amy Irving portrays the adult Anna Anderson .
= = Ancestry = =
= Chain Reaction ( sculpture ) =
Chain Reaction is a peace monument and public art sculpture composed of a metal framework of stainless steel and fiberglass surrounded by concrete , depicting a mushroom cloud created by a nuclear explosion . Designed by American editorial cartoonist Paul Conrad and built by Peter M. Carlson , the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ ton , 8 @-@ meter ( 26 @-@ foot ) high sculpture was installed in 1991 adjacent to the Santa Monica Civic Center in Santa Monica , California .
An inscription at the base of the sculpture reads , " This is a statement of peace . May it never become an epitaph . " The theme of the sculpture reflects the subject of nuclear disarmament . UCLA professor Paul Von Blum places the sculpture in the category of late 20th and early 21st century contemporary American public political artwork in the tradition of commemorative works throughout the United States , calling the work " a powerful warning about the continuing dangers of nuclear war " .
Conrad first expressed interest in building the sculpture in either Beverly Hills or Santa Monica in 1988 . He built the sculpture with the help of an anonymous donation of $ 250 @,@ 000 and donated the sculpture to the city of Santa Monica after it was approved by the city . It was later revealed that the donation came from philanthropist Joan Kroc , widow of Ray Kroc , the founder of the McDonald 's corporation . Joan Kroc spent millions campaigning for nuclear disarmament in the 1980s . In 2012 , the sculpture became the first work of public art designated as a historic landmark in the City of Santa Monica .
= = Background = =
Conrad became the editorial cartoonist at the Denver Post in 1950 . While at the Denver Post he first began to draw cartoons about peace and nuclear weapons . His cartoon depicting the ending of the atmospheric nuclear testing moratorium in 1961 was categorized by Gamson and Stuart ( 1992 ) as falling under the universal “ Common Security ” media frame popularized by the peace movement in the United States . These types of cartoons emphasized progress towards disarmament and “ mutual cooperation , trade , cultural interaction , problem solving , and peacemaking ” towards other nations , such as the Soviet Union .
He joined the Los Angeles Times in 1964 where he spent the next four decades until he retired . After criticizing president Richard Nixon during the Watergate scandal , Conrad was the only cartoonist to appear on Nixon 's Enemies List . In the 1980s , Conrad criticized the military buildup and arms race advocated by president Ronald Reagan , and the involvement of the Reagan administration in the Iran – Contra affair , the illegal covert operation which sold weapons to Iran to secure the release of hostages while funding the contras in Nicaragua with the proceeds from the arms sales .
Conrad later began working as a sculptor , often donating smaller works for fundraisers . After giving a lecture , Conrad was introduced to philanthropist Joan Kroc , widow of Ray Kroc , the founder of the McDonald 's corporation . Kroc was active in the anti @-@ nuclear movement in the United States and was known as a generous patron of the arts . After becoming friends with Conrad and his wife , she anonymously contributed $ 250 @,@ 000 to build the anti @-@ nuclear sculpture that would become Chain Reaction .
= = Proposal = =
Conrad expressed interest in building the sculpture in either Beverly Hills or Santa Monica . In 1988 , he created a two @-@ foot model of the sculpture and proposed his work to the Santa Monica Art Commission . Santa Monica debated the proposal for the next four years . While Santa Monica considered the proposal , Conrad proposed the sculpture to the Beverly Hills Fine Arts Committee in early 1989 . The committee , appointed by the Beverly Hills City Council , deliberated Conrad 's proposed sculpture for three months . During that time , Conrad was attacked as an antisemite by several residents of Beverly Hills because of his recent editorial cartoons depicting the Israeli – Palestinian conflict during the intifada . The Beverly Hills committee eventually turned down the proposal for the Chain Reaction sculpture on April 12 , 1989 , citing the lack of a suitable site in Beverly Hills that could accommodate the structure . " It is a piece of monumental proportions that needs a very large , large area , " committee chairwoman Ellen Byrens told the Los Angeles Times .
At the same time in Santa Monica , 730 Santa Monica residents in an informal survey by the Santa Monica Art Commission expressed their recommendation that the city should not accept the sculpture for display , while 392 agreed that it should be installed . Despite the negative public reaction , the Art Commission voted four separate times to accept the work , with the final vote taking place in 1990 . The City Council finally approved the work in 1991 . Funds were donated to the Santa Monica Arts Foundation to build it and the sculpture was given to the city as a gift . The city 's acceptance of the controversial peace sculpture reflected the progressive history of Santa Monica 's councilmembers , who had become a majority in 1981 just after the conservative Reagan administration took office . At the time of Conrad 's proposal , the councilmembers were known for being aligned with progressive issues , including the " anti @-@ war position " reflected in the theme of Conrad 's sculpture .
= = Location and installation = =
Several locations were initially considered for the sculpture . In 1989 , the Arts Commission approved a site located at 14th Street and Olympic Boulevard , while a site facing the Memorial Park Gymnasium was also considered and approved . Chain Reaction was finally installed in 1991 on the lawn of the Santa Monica Civic Center . It resides on the east side of Main Street between the Santa Monica Courthouse and the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium , across the street from the campus headquarters of the RAND Corporation . The sculpture is located approximately four city blocks away from Santa Monica beach and the Pacific Ocean , just east of the Santa Monica Pier .
Two plaques appear at the base of the sculpture , with one bearing the name of the artist ( Paul Conrad ) , the title of the work and date ( Chain Reaction , 1991 ) , a description of the material used to construct the sculpture ( Copper chain link and stainless steel ) and information about the work ( Collection of the City of Santa Monica . A donation from an anonymous donor . A project of the Santa Monica Arts Commission ) . The inscription on the second plaque reads , " This is a statement of peace . May it never become an epitaph . "
Chain Reaction was formally dedicated the next year at the " Peace Day " festival at the Santa Monica Civic Center on August 1 , 1992 . Hiroshima survivor Kaz Suyeishi spoke at the dedication .
= = Design = =
The sculpture is based on a cartoon sketch by Conrad . According to the Chain Reaction City Landmark Assessment Report by ICF International :
the sculpture has a disheveled quality akin to the sketch @-@ like markings and distorted proportions [ of ] Paul Conrad 's political cartoons ... this quality is conveyed by the ... treatment of the stem , the irregular placement of the links , and a subtle distortion of scale between the tall stem , its pronounced bulges , and a relatively small mushroom cloud . The ability of the large brass links to catch light and define pockets of random shadow in the small spaces between them is similar in effect to the stark treatment of light [ and ] dark that Conrad often employed in his political cartoons .
Custom fabricator Peter M. Carlson , who also created sculptures for artists Ellsworth Kelly , Jeff Koons , Roy Lichtenstein , Robert Rauschenberg , and Charles Ray , assembled the 26 @-@ foot high sculpture depicting an upwardly expanding nuclear mushroom cloud in the form of a " large metal chain " . The look and structure of the chain was created by linking 38 @,@ 000 hollow brass J @-@ shaped pipes used for plumbing fixtures . The pipes are welded together and attached by screws and wire to fiberglass covering a steel frame .
The theme of the sculpture reflects the subject of nuclear disarmament .
= = Maintenance and restoration = =
The sculpture was surveyed and considered " well maintained " by the Smithsonian 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in March 1995 . After Conrad died in 2010 , the city of Santa Monica began to reevaluate the structural integrity of the sculpture . In June 2011 , an inspector observed children climbing the sculpture . Safety tests were performed showing that the underlying structure built using fiberglass and copper chains was stable . However , questions were raised about the long term integrity of the fiberglass . An inspection found rust and corrosion on the steel frame skeleton and the revealed that the anchor bolts holding the sculpture to the base were weakened . Shortly after the inspection , the city installed a safety fence around the sculpture to protect the public .
The city 's Arts Commission voted in February 2012 to allow the work to be removed from public display . The Santa Monica City Council approved the Arts Commission 's recommendation the next month . The city council delayed taking action to allow supporters time to raise funds to cover the cost of repairs . Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight defended the sculpture , citing a 2012 report commissioned by the city from a structural engineer who concluded that " the sculpture is not an imminent hazard nor should it be considered dangerous " .
While fundraising to preserve the work was underway , the city of Santa Monica filed an application in May 2012 to nominate the sculpture for landmark status . After a public hearing in July , the Santa Monica Landmarks Commission selected the sculpture as a landmark . Chain Reaction is the first work of public art named a landmark by the city of Santa Monica .
The City Council set a deadline of February 1 , 2014 , for supporters of the sculpture to contribute to restoration funds , otherwise the sculpture could face decommissioning . Community activists debated how to pay for needed repairs and a series of fundraisers were held to contribute to the restoration project . On February 25 , the Santa Monica City Council voted 6 – 1 to use $ 100 @,@ 000 in public donations to finish refurbishing the work .
= = Reception = =
UCLA professor Paul Von Blum places Conrad and his sculpture in the category of late 20th and early 21st century contemporary American public political artwork , calling it " a powerful warning about the continuing dangers of nuclear war " , in the tradition of American commemorative works about disturbing events . Von Blum compares Conrad 's work to that of American public sculptors such as Beniamino Bufano , George Segal , Luis Jimenez and Maya Lin .
= = Other public sculptures by Conrad = =
Trinity ( Statue , Marymount California University )
Risen Christ ( Altar piece , St. John Fisher Church , Rancho Palos Verdes , CA . )
Otis Chandler ( Bust , Los Angeles Times building )
= Clayton Donaldson =
Clayton Andrew Donaldson ( born 7 February 1984 ) is a Jamaican international footballer who plays as a striker for Championship club Birmingham City .
Donaldson started his career with Hull City in 2002 , scoring on his first team debut in the Football League Trophy later that year . He was sent out on loan to non @-@ League clubs on four occasions , and with chances in the first team at Hull limited , he was released in 2005 and subsequently joined York City . In his first season at the club , he was voted as their Clubman of the Year and his second season saw him finish as the team 's highest scorer and third highest scorer in the league .
He joined Scottish Premier League team Hibernian in July 2007 , after signing a pre @-@ contract agreement with them in January whilst with York . After a season at the club he left to return to England with Crewe Alexandra . After three years with Crewe , being the top goalscorer in League Two in his last season , he joined Brentford in 2011 . He spent three years with the club , helping them gain promotion into the Championship in 2013 – 14 , before signing for Birmingham City at the end of that season when his contract expired . He played internationally for the England National Game XI , who represent England at non @-@ League level , with whom he earned two caps , before accepting an invitation to represent Jamaica in 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Bradford , West Yorkshire , Donaldson grew up in Manningham and attended Manningham Middle School and Rhodesway School . He played football for his school side before joining his hometown club Bradford City , who he supported as a child . Donaldson was released by the club aged 16 , with only one player , Lewis Emanuel , being retained from his age group . He was soon signed by Hull City , having been spotted by their youth team coach Billy Russell .
= = Club career = =
= = = Hull City = = =
Donaldson was a trainee with Hull 's youth system when scoring from close range on his first team debut in Hull 's Football League Trophy 3 – 1 away defeat to Port Vale on 22 October 2002 , having replaced Gary Alexander as a 60th minute substitute . He was sent out on loan to Northern Premier League Premier Division club Harrogate Town in November 2002 , and scored in the 68th minute of his debut , a 3 – 1 away win over Gateshead on 12 November . He stayed with Harrogate for three months , in that time scoring five goals in 10 appearances before returning to Hull . He made his Football League debut for Hull on 8 February 2003 , coming on as an 81st @-@ minute substitute for Damien Delaney in a 1 – 0 defeat at home to Lincoln City . Two days later , he signed a two @-@ year professional contract with Hull . He made one further appearance in the 2002 – 03 season , as a substitute away to Boston United .
In August 2003 , Donaldson joined Football Conference side Scarborough on a one @-@ month loan . His debut came in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Burton Albion on 23 August 2003 , and made only one more appearance before his loan expired . On his return to Hull he made two further appearances , both as a substitute in the Football League Trophy , before joining Football Conference club Halifax Town on a one @-@ month loan in February 2004 . Having made his debut as a 58th @-@ minute substitute for Jake Sagare in a 2 – 0 away defeat at Margate on 8 February 2004 , Donaldson finished his spell at Halifax with four appearances . With little prospect of a first team place at Hull , he rejoined Harrogate on a one @-@ month loan in September 2004 , and scored in the 18th minute of his second debut for the club , a 3 – 0 home win over Lancaster City on 18 September . He was voted the Conference North Player of the Month for October 2004 , having scored three goals from five games in that period . His second loan spell with Harrogate ended having scored four goals from 11 appearances . At the end of the 2004 – 05 season , Donaldson was released by Hull , as manager Peter Taylor was unable to guarantee him first team football .
= = = York City = = =
After his release by Hull , Donaldson was spoken to by Barrow , but was eventually signed by York City in June 2005 , with manager Billy McEwan saying : " He 's a young player who is very hungry for his chance and he 'll bring competition up front " . He made his debut for the team against Crawley Town in August . His first goal came in a 1 – 0 win against Cambridge United in September . During his first season with York , Donaldson scored 18 goals and was awarded the Clubman of the Year award before the final game of the season against Hereford United on 29 April 2006 . He agreed a contract extension with York for the 2006 – 07 season in July .
York manager McEwan compared Donaldson to Paulo Wanchope in September , but following York 's 2 – 0 defeat against Oxford United later that month , McEwan criticised Donaldson 's selfishness in attack , saying it cost them the game . In late 2006 , Donaldson became subject of much transfer speculation . Wolverhampton Wanderers manager Mick McCarthy watched him in York 's 1 – 0 victory over Altrincham , during which he scored his 12th goal of the season , in November 2006 . He was also watched by Scottish Premier League side Hibernian . In response to this speculation , Donaldson said : " I don 't read too much into the speculation . I 've heard it before and nothing has happened so I will just keep my head down and enjoy my football until a point comes when the manager or board come and tell me they have had an offer they want to consider " .
On 18 December 2006 , he rejected the offer of a new contract at York City , meaning he would be out of contact at the club at the end of the season . Scunthorpe United and Peterborough United Director of Football Barry Fry both watched him in December 2006 . Fry tabled a £ 100 @,@ 000 bid for Donaldson , but this failed to meet York 's valuation and they halted their bid at this amount . He was reportedly given a £ 500 @,@ 000 transfer valuation by York in January 2007 . A cash @-@ plus player bid from Accrington Stanley for Donaldson was rejected in January , which according to York was £ 25 @,@ 000 and was termed as an " embarrassment " by York manager McEwan , and Accrington then upped their bid to a six @-@ figure fee , but were told that Donaldson was not for sale .
Donaldson was suspended for three games following his 51st @-@ minute sending off for using his elbow in York 's 2 – 1 defeat at Kidderminster Harriers on 20 January 2007 . York rejected a bid from Scunthorpe for Donaldson , with their approach falling short of York 's valuation , after which Scunthorpe manager Nigel Adkins said he would not pay " stupid money " for Donaldson . Hibernian announced that Donaldson had signed a pre @-@ contract agreement with them for a three @-@ year contract on 29 January 2007 , and as he was 23 years old a month later , York were not entitled to any compensation under FIFA regulations . York later turned down a £ 50 @,@ 000 offer from Hibernian , which would have allowed them to bring Donaldson to the club immediately . York boss McEwan wanted Donaldson to give his complete commitment for York for the rest of the season , who also revealed that the club intended to fight against the " international loophole " that meant Donaldson could join Hibernian for free . Donaldson 's agent , Andy Sprott , said suggestions he deliberately found Donaldson a deal in Scotland so York would not receive any compensation were " not the case " .
Donaldson was to return from his suspension for York 's reserves against Sheffield United at Bootham Crescent on 6 February 2007 , but the game was frozen off , and he eventually returned against Altrincham . His first goal for York since his suspension came against Cambridge United , scoring a hat @-@ trick on 13 March 2007 . He insisted he remained fully committed to York , after speculation concerning his commitment grew in April . He finished the 2006 – 07 season with 26 goals for York , including 24 in the Conference National , resulting in him being third top scorer of the league .
= = = Hibernian = = =
Donaldson scored his first goal for Hibernian in a pre @-@ season friendly against Brechin City on 10 July 2007 . He made his Scottish Premier League debut against Hibs ' rivals Hearts in August 2007 and his first league goal came against Falkirk in September , after winning and scoring a penalty . Donaldson was later sent off in this match , which resulted in a suspension . His first game back was against Motherwell in the Scottish League Cup , who he scored against , after a solo run and shot . He scored his first hat @-@ trick for Hibs against Kilmarnock in the SPL later that month .
He was linked with a move to League One side Crewe Alexandra in February 2008 , after being unable to figure in Mixu Paatelainen 's plans at the club , meaning he was frozen out of the first @-@ team at Hibs . He finished the 2007 – 08 season with 21 appearances and 6 goals , with his last goal of the season coming against Falkirk in December 2007 . Darlington of League Two were believed to be interested in signing Donaldson after the end of the season . He was eventually told that he was available for transfer by Hibs . Crewe were believed to be lining up a bid for him in July , who had money available after selling striker Nicky Maynard to Bristol City for £ 2 @.@ 25 million and held negotiations with Donaldson . The move stalled after a six @-@ figure fee had been agreed but Donaldson later agreed personal terms .
= = = Crewe Alexandra = = =
Donaldson 's move to League One side Crewe Alexandra was completed on 18 August 2008 on a three @-@ year deal for an undisclosed six @-@ figure fee . The contract could not be signed until international clearance was given from the Scottish Football Association , which was received on 22 August 2008 . He made his debut as an 81st @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 victory against Walsall on 23 August 2008 . Donaldson 's former club York made an attempt to re @-@ sign him on loan in October 2008 , but were told to make an inquiry four weeks later , due to him being injured . Despite this , he came on as a substitute in Crewe 's 3 – 0 defeat to Scunthorpe on 11 October 2008 , which was followed by his first start in a 2 – 2 draw with Milton Keynes Dons . He scored his first Crewe goals with a brace against Huddersfield Town in November , in a match that eventually finished as a 3 – 2 defeat . He scored the winner in Crewe 's next game , an FA Cup first round tie against Ebbsfleet United , which saw them progress with a 1 – 0 victory . He displayed the ability of long throw @-@ ins , which he initially developed while in the Hull youth team , on several occasions , including a 3 – 2 victory over Scunthorpe , where he also scored . He scored three goals in four matches later in the season , with the final goal , against Carlisle United , proving to be his last of the 2008 – 09 season . Donaldson finished the season with 43 appearances and 7 goals .
He broke his fibula during August 2009 , which resulted in him being ruled out of playing for eight weeks . He finished the 2009 – 10 season with 39 appearances and 13 goals . His first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season came in the opening game , a 1 – 0 defeat to Hereford on 7 August 2010 , with his first goals coming after scoring twice in a 7 – 0 victory over Barnet on 21 August . He finished the season with 48 appearances and 29 goals , including 28 goals in the league , making him League Two 's top goalscorer .
= = = Brentford = = =
Donaldson signed a three @-@ year contract with League One club Brentford on a free transfer on 1 July 2011 . He was named Brentford 's Player of the Year for the 2012 – 13 season , in which he scored 24 goals from 56 appearances . After helping Brentford gain promotion into the Championship in the 2013 – 14 season as League One runners @-@ up , manager Mark Warburton confirmed that Donaldson would be offered a new deal with the club .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
Donaldson turned down Brentford 's contract offer , and signed a two @-@ year deal with their 2014 – 15 Championship rivals Birmingham City , to begin on 1 July 2014 when his Brentford contract expired . He made his debut as a second @-@ half substitute in the opening @-@ day defeat at Middlesbrough , opened the scoring as Birmingham beat Cambridge United 3 – 1 in the League Cup , and collected Wes Thomas 's through ball to run on and score in a draw with Ipswich Town on 19 August . Although attracting praise for his general play , Donaldson was disappointed with his lack of goals ; by the end of October , he had added only one more .
A change of management and change of formation – Gary Rowett preferred to play Donaldson as a lone striker – brought a change of fortune in front of goal . He scored both goals in a 2 – 1 home win against Watford , who had been on a nine @-@ match unbeaten run , and followed up with the only goal of the visit to Rotherham United , when his shot was parried back out to him and he was alert enough to produce a more accurate and powerful second attempt . Donaldson 's " customary selfless performance " was rewarded with a brace in a 3 – 1 win at Nottingham Forest , and a hat @-@ trick against Wigan Athletic prompted thoughts of a 20 @-@ goal season . An eight @-@ week lean spell put paid to that target – he finished with 16 in all competitions , 15 in the league , – but his efforts for the team were recognised with both Players ' Player and Supporters ' Player of the Season awards .
In the first month of the 2015 – 16 season , Donaldson provided four assists for teammates but did not score himself . At home to Bristol City on 12 September , he completed a first @-@ half hat @-@ trick ; the match ended 4 – 2 . His fifth goal of the season came in a 5 – 2 win at Fulham on 7 November , the last match before he made his international debut for Jamaica . He returned with a groin injury that was predicted to keep him out for six weeks . Rowett suggested the damage could have been less serious had Donaldson not played the whole match despite being obviously unfit , but Jamaica coach Winfried Schäfer denied the accusations , stating that he had wanted to substitute Donaldson but the player insisted on continuing . He returned to first @-@ team action on 26 December , as a late substitute with Birmingham already 3 – 0 down at Sheffield Wednesday .
= = International career = =
Donaldson was named in the England National Game XI team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , in October 2005 , for a European Challenge Trophy game against Belgium . He was named in the initial 35 @-@ man squad for the Four Nations Tournament in May 2006 . He was named in the initial 22 @-@ man squad , then eventually in the final 16 @-@ man squad for the team to play the Netherlands in November . He made his debut in this match , coming on as a substitute in the last 15 minutes , during which he set up Dagenham & Redbridge striker Craig Mackail @-@ Smith for the final goal in a 4 – 1 victory .
He was included in the squad which played Northern Ireland in February 2007 . However , York manager Billy McEwan contemplated withdrawing Donaldson from the game , after Donaldson 's comeback for York against Altrincham in February . He eventually featured after being played from the start against Northern Ireland , but was substituted after 50 minutes for Paul Benson , who scored England 's only goal two minutes after coming on in a 3 – 1 defeat .
In April 2015 , Donaldson stated that he wanted to play for Jamaica , his parents ' country . He had hoped to be selected for the 2015 Copa América or for the Gold Cup , but did not receive his Jamaican passport in time . He was called up for World Cup qualifiers in November against Panama and Haiti , and made his full international debut in the first of those matches , at Independence Park in Kingston on 13
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squadron watched Valletta harbour , to prevent any French effort to resupply and reinforce the garrison . Although small quantities of material reached Valletta from France in early 1799 , by the start of 1800 no ship had arrived for more than seven months , and the garrison was near starvation . In an effort to resupply the garrison , the French sent a convoy from Toulon in February 1800 , but the ships were intercepted off Malta by a squadron under Nelson on 17 February and in the ensuing battle the flagship Généreux was captured and Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Perrée was killed .
Without Perrée 's supplies , the garrison faced continued food shortages , and by March Vaubois and Villeneuve decided to send an urgent request for support to France . For this operation they chose the 80 @-@ gun Guillaume Tell under Captain Saulnier , partly because the condition and size of the ship enabled Vaubois to embark over 900 men aboard , many of whom were sick or wounded . Contre @-@ Admiral Denis Decrès had command of the ship and Vaubois and Villeneuve confirmed the date of departure for 30 March . While the French prepared this expedition , the British maintained their blockade , although without their commander . Nelson , in defiance of specific orders from his commanding officer Lord Keith , had retired to Palermo on Sicily to be with Emma , Lady Hamilton , the wife of the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton with whom Nelson was conducting an adulterous affair . In his absence , command had passed to Captain Sir Thomas Troubridge on HMS Culloden and then to Captain Manley Dixon on HMS Lion .
= = Battle = =
At 23 : 00 on 30 March , with a strong wind from the south , Guillaume Tell sailed from Valletta , Decrés hoping to use the cover of darkness to escape the British blockade . Dixon had deployed his ships around the island , with Valletta watched by the frigate HMS Penelope under Captain Henry Blackwood . At 23 : 55 , Blackwood 's lookouts spotted Guillaume Tell and the captain gave chase , ordering the brig HMS Minorca under Commander George Miller to convey the message to Dixon , whose ships were just visible in the distance . Blackwood also attempted to signal his discovery to his commanding officer as Penelope gave chase .
Blackwood rapidly gained on the ship of the line and by 00 : 30 the frigate was within range , pulling up under the stern of Guillaume Tell and beginning a steady fire to which Decrés could only respond with his stern @-@ chasers , light cannon situated in the stern of the ship . Decrés recognised that if he stopped to engage Penelope then the rest of Berry 's squadron , visible on the horizon to the south , would soon overwhelm him . He therefore continued sailing to the northeast , hoping his heavy ship of the line could outrun the light and speedy frigate . However , Penelope was too fast , and Blackwood handled his ship with considerable skill , managing to pass Decrés ' stern repeatedly and pour several raking broadsides into the French ship .
Blackwood 's attack was so successful that by dawn on 31 March Guillaume Tell had lost its main and mizen topmasts and its main yard , considerably reducing the speed at which Decrés could travel . The French ship had also suffered heavy casualties in the exchange , but Penelope had lost only one man killed and three wounded , and was almost undamaged . British reinforcements were now arriving from the south : the 64 @-@ gun HMS Lion under Captain Dixon had received Minorca 's warning at 01 : 00 and immediately sailed in pursuit , sending the brig on to Captain Sir Edward Berry in HMS Foudroyant , who lay some distance to leeward . By 05 : 00 , Dixon was close enough to engage , passing between Penelope and Guillaume Tell and firing a triple @-@ shotted broadside into the port side of the French ship . Shooting ahead of the now sluggish Guillaume Tell , Lion crossed its opponent 's bows and shot away the jib boom , allowing Dixon to maintain a position across the bow , raking the French ship from one end while Penelope did the same to the other . During these manoeuvres , Dixon 's ship had briefly become entangled with Guillaume Tell 's rigging , and two determined efforts to board the British ship had been driven off as the ships were disentangled .
For half an hour , Lion continued to fire into the larger Guillaume Tell , but Dixon was unable to keep his ship completely out of range of the French broadsides and by 05 : 30 the subsequent damage showed an effect , Lion dropping back and falling behind the French vessel , although remaining within range alongside Penelope . At 06 : 00 , Guillaume Tell came under attack for the third time , when Berry himself caught up with the battling ships in Foudroyant and pulled along the starboard broadside of the French ship of the line . Berry hailed Decrés to demand his surrender , and accompanied the demand with a triple @-@ shotted broadside , to which Decrés responded with fire from his own guns . Foudroyant was flying a full set of sails and therefore suffered severe damage to its rigging in the opening exchange , the additional speed provided by this rig forcing Foudroyant to move ahead of the French vessel . After working back alongside Guillaume Tell , Berry recommenced fire that rapidly tore away much of the remaining French rigging , allowing Lion and Penelope to return to the battle while Foudroyant dropped back to make urgent repairs .
By 06 : 30 the badly outnumbered French ship had lost both its main and mizen masts , Foudroyant returning to the battle in time to collapse the foremast by 08 : 00 . At 08 : 20 , with no means of making sail and with wreckage obscuring most of his gun decks , Decrés surrendered to spare any further , fruitless , loss of life . His ship was in danger : the lack of masts and strong winds caused it to roll so severely that the lower deck gun ports had to be closed to prevent the ship from foundering . Casualties on the French ship numbered more than 200 , from a crew of over 900 , with both Decrés and Saulnier badly wounded . British losses were lighter , with eight killed and 64 wounded , including Berry , in Foudroyant , eight killed and 38 wounded in Lion and one killed and three wounded ( one fatally ) in Penelope . Damage was unevenly spread , Foudroyant suffering most severely , with the hull and all masts damaged , the mizzenmast so badly that it collapsed at approximately 12 : 00 , wounding five more men . Lion was badly hit , although not so severely as Foudroyant while Penelope was only lightly damaged in the masts and rigging . The battle , which had begun within sight of Malta , had concluded roughly 21 nautical miles ( 39 km ) south @-@ west of Cape Passaro on Sicily .
= = Aftermath = =
Both Foudroyant and Lion were too battered to provide an effective tow to the dismasted French ship , and as a result Penelope was left to bring the shattered Guillaume Tell into Syracuse on Sicily . Eventually the ship was repaired sufficiently for the journey to Britain , and there was added to the Royal Navy under the name HMS Malta . Malta was , with HMS Tonnant captured two years earlier at the Nile , the most powerful third rate in the British fleet , and served for many years , participating at the Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1805 .
The British officers were praised for the capture of Guillaume Tell , the last surviving French ship of the line to escape the Battle of the Nile : Nelson , who by his absence had " missed what would indeed have been the crowning glory to his Mediterranean career " , wrote to Berry that " Your conduct and character in the late glorious occasion stamps your fame beyond the reach of envy . " Despite Nelson 's praise however , Berry in particular came in for subsequent criticism , especially from the historian William James , who wrote in his 1827 history of the conflict that :
" Had the Foudroyant , single @-@ handed , met the Guillaume @-@ Tell , the combat would have been between two of the most powerful ships that had ever so met ; and , although the Foudroyant 's slight inferiority of force , being chiefly in number of men , was not that of which a British captain would complain , still the chances were equal , that the Guillaume @-@ Tell , so gallantly manned , and so ably commanded , came off the conqueror . "
James instead attributed most of the praise for the victory to Blackwood and Dixon , whose ships were heavily outmatched by Guillaume Tell , but who successfully pressed their attacks with the intention of delaying the French retreat . He also highly praised Decrés for his conduct in the engagement , stating that " A more heroic defence than that of the Guillaume @-@ Tell is not to be found among the records of naval actions " . First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte reached a similar conclusion , and when Decrés was exchanged soon after the battle he was presented with armes d 'honneur , later converted to membership of the Légion d 'honneur . He was also given the position of maritime prefect of the Biscay port of Lorient .
Aboard Guillaume Tell , the British found evidence of the severity of the food shortages in Valletta : " the only thing found in La Guillaume Tell was the leg of a mule , hung for safety and his especial use of the admiral 's stern @-@ galley " . News of the capture of Guillaume Tell was immediately passed to Vaubois by the British besiegers , along with a demand that he surrender the island . The French general , despite dwindling food supplies , refused , stating " Cette place est en trop bon état , et je suis moi @-@ même trop jaloux de bien servir men payset de conserver mon honneur , por écouter vos propositions . " ( " This place is in too good a situation , and I am too conscious of the service of my country and my honour , to listen to your proposals " ) . Despite Vaubois ' defiance , the garrison was rapidly starving , and although the French commander resisted until 4 September , he was eventually forced to surrender Valletta and all of its military equipment to the British .
= An Adventurous Automobile Trip =
An Adventurous Automobile Trip ( French : Le Raid Paris – Monte @-@ Carlo en automobile or Le Raid Paris – Monte @-@ Carlo en deux heures ) is a 1905 French short silent comedy film directed by Georges Méliès . The film , a spoof of the devil @-@ may @-@ care motoring exploits of King Leopold II of Belgium , features the King engaging in a manic , implausibly fast automobile ride from Paris to Monte Carlo . The singer @-@ comedian Harry Fragson stars as the King , supported by a large cast of stage performers from the Folies Bergère cabaret and other venues , with two cameo appearances from Méliès himself .
Méliès , working in collaboration with the stage director Victor de Cottens , designed An Adventurous Automobile Trip as an innovative Folies Bergère act combining stage performance and film , with a live prologue and epilogue used to frame the filmed sequence . After this version premiered on 31 December 1904 , Méliès adapted the film to be a standalone release for general distribution in 1905 . The lavish film , available in both black @-@ and @-@ white and hand @-@ colored versions , was a popular and critical success both in France and in America . However , the film 's high production values made it too expensive for many exhibitors , one of several factors that sent Méliès 's career into decline .
= = Plot = =
King Leopold , on holiday in Paris , wants to visit Monte Carlo , but does not have time for the seventeen @-@ hour express train ride between the two cities . He happens upon an automobile maker who claims his car can make the distance in just two hours . The King agrees and sets off in the car , with the auto maker acting as chauffeur . A large crowd sees them off from outside the Paris Opera House , including many celebrities from the Paris theatre world . After stopping to fill the car with gas , the King starts it and , from inexperience , accidentally runs it backward over a policeman , who is squashed flat as a pancake . The King starts inflating him with a pump , and then , to save time , lets other onlookers finish the job while he drives off . The onlookers set to the work with gusto , so much so that the overinflated policeman ends up exploding .
The car speeds over the French countryside and into the Alps , leaping between mountains and knocking over a postman as it goes . At the gates of Dijon , town officials try to stop the car to enforce the octroi tax , but the car keeps its course and runs headlong into one of the officials , who explodes in his turn . The car wends its way across the Mediterranean coast , overturning a fruit stand , crashing through a greenhouse , colliding with a tar wagon ( with another explosion ensuing ) , and , finally , arriving at the grandstand of spectators awaiting them at Monte Carlo . The car is now going at such speed that , rather than stopping in front of the grandstand , it somersaults up the stairs and crashes to earth . The King and chauffeur , unharmed by their adventurous race , are greeted warmly .
= = Production = =
For the 1904 Folies Bergère cabaret revue , the director Victor de Cottens approached Méliès — then at the height of his fame as a filmmaker — with the idea of combining theatre and cinema by presenting a short film as one of the fourteen segments of the stage production . The two directors worked out a scenario that would parody the motoring adventures of King Leopold II of Belgium , who was famous for driving , and often crashing , fast cars . In the stage @-@ screen amalgamation devised by Méliès and de Cottens , the segment began as a sketch with live performers before continuing as a film ; at the end of the film , the actor playing the King , as well as other actors playing cheering spectators , returned to the stage to finish the sketch live .
Méliès drew the cast of the film from various sources . Harry Fragson , a London @-@ born singer and comedian who was one of the stars of the Folies Bergère at the time , played the lead role of King Leopold . Louis Maurel , a Paris singer and comedian who had worked with Fragson in the 1903 Folies Bergère revue , was the chauffeur . In the scene in front of the Paris Opera , the celebrities assembled include Jean Noté , a singer at the opera house ; the short actor Little Pich , whose persona was a close imitation of the better @-@ known British comedian Little Tich , and who also acted in films by Pathé Frères and the Gaumont Film Company ; the tall actor Antonich , known as the " Giant Swede ; " Félix Galipaux , who had been a popular music hall monologuist in Paris since the 1880s and who acted in several Méliès films ; Jane Yvon , a Folies Bergère entertainer ; Séverin Cafferra , a popular mime ; and de Cottens himself . Fernande Albany , who also appeared in Méliès 's films The Impossible Voyage , Tunnelling the English Channel , and The Conquest of the Pole , played the plump lady in the Dijon scene , and the Folies Bergère entertainers Blondet and Raiter also made appearances . Méliès himself plays two roles in the film : a mailman who gets knocked over by the car , and the octroi official who explodes . Méliès also cast more extras in the film than was usual for him , sometimes staging them in layered arrangements for visual clarity , and sometimes letting them move at whim to create more disorganized , naturalistic groupings .
In addition to the parody of King Leopold II , Méliès 's scenario for the film features another topical element : the scene with the tar wagon is based on the experiments of Ernest Guglielminetti , who spread tar over a small part of the gravel road to Monaco . This experiment , widely reported by the press , successfully eliminated the dust clouds kicked up by cars on gravel and sand roads .
The film 's special effects were created using stage machinery , miniature models , pyrotechnics , and the editing technique known as the substitution splice . Long shots showing the car were filmed with a miniature car and a landscape rolling past it , creating a multiplane effect . Most scenes , including the detailed and faithful recreation of the Place de l 'Opéra outside the Opera House , were painted studio sets , as was Méliès 's custom . However , the last scene , showing the arrival at Monte Carlo , was filmed not in the studio but outdoors in Méliès 's garden .
= = Release and reception = =
An Adventurous Automobile Trip premiered at the gala opening night of the Folies Bergère revue on 31 December 1904 . It ran for six months at the Folies Bergère , lasting more than 300 performances . Méliès also intended for the film to be shown by exhibitors elsewhere , outside the context of the revue . Thus , after its Folies Bergère run , it was released as a standalone item by Méliès 's Star Film Company and numbered 740 – 749 in its catalogues , where it is advertised as a grande course fantastique funambulesque . As with at least four percent of Méliès 's output , the film was available both in black @-@ and @-@ white and in individually hand @-@ colored prints sold at a higher price .
The film was also released in the United States , by the New York branch of Méliès 's company . During the summer of 1905 , Klaw & Erlanger showed it at the Aerial Gardens , on the rooftop of the New Amsterdam Theatre . In the American release , the scenes were slightly rearranged : the first and second scenes were switched in order , as were the sixth and seventh . In addition , because of a renumbering , ten tableaux were advertised instead of the French catalogue 's twelve , although no scenes were removed . ( The two prints of the film surviving in the Méliès family 's archive , the Cinémathèque Méliès , use the French ordering of the scenes . ) Another discrepancy between the French and American catalogues occurs for political reasons : the American catalog specifies that the protagonist is King Leopold , but the French one keeps the identity anonymous , so as not to offend Belgian audiences . Similarly , the Alps in the film are named as such in the American catalog but are unnamed in the French one .
An Adventurous Automobile Trip was one of Méliès 's most successful films , and ran to acclaim at the Folies Bergère for six months . A notice in The New York Clipper said that the film " is very clever , and keeps the audience in continuous good humor . " The Morning Telegraph concurred , reporting that the film " scored an instant success . Nothing funnier has been seen here in many a day . ... The thing is a scream . "
However , the venture was not as profitable as Méliès had expected ; the high costs of the lavish hand @-@ colored film put it out of the reach of many fairground exhibitors . These financial difficulties , which continued with Méliès 's similarly spectacular film The Merry Frolics of Satan the following year , helped hasten the decline of Méliès 's career .
Portions of at least three prints of the film survive : a complete nitrate print with the car sometimes painted red , given to Méliès 's granddaughter Madeleine Malthête @-@ Méliès by an American collector ; an incomplete hand @-@ colored nitrate print , bought by Malthête @-@ Méliès from a Belgian collector ; and some fragments at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . In his book @-@ length study of Méliès , the film historian John Frazer spoke highly of the film , noting its careful use of continuity of direction and comparing it to Mack Sennett 's slapstick comedies and to the 1968 automobile film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang . Méliès made another film in a similar vein , Le Raid New York – Paris en automobile , in 1908 ; it was also received with success .
= I 'm Breathless =
I 'm Breathless : Music from and Inspired by the Film Dick Tracy is the second soundtrack album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on May 22 , 1990 , by Sire Records to promote and accompany the film Dick Tracy . In the film Madonna starred as Breathless Mahoney and her then @-@ boyfriend Warren Beatty played the title role . After filming was complete , Madonna began work on the film 's soundtrack , with songwriter Stephen Sondheim , producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell . She also worked with producer Shep Pettibone on the album 's first single , " Vogue " . The album was recorded in three weeks , at Johnny Yuma Recording and Ocean Way Studios , in California .
Musically , I 'm Breathless consists predominantly of jazz , swing and pop songs . The tracks reflected Madonna 's showgirl personality and were influenced by her relationship with Beatty . The singer wanted to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the days of the Untouchables law enforcement , and sang the songs accordingly . In some areas she pitched her vocals and belted the notes when necessary . She even smoked cigarettes in order to portray the vocals of her character Breathless . Beatty and singer Mandy Patinkin were featured as duet partners on three of the songs .
In support of both I 'm Breathless and her previous album , Like a Prayer , Madonna embarked on the Blond Ambition World Tour where a section was dedicated to the songs from the album . It was critically acclaimed , winning an award at the 1990 Pollstar Concert Industry Awards . However , due to its use of Catholic imagery , Pope John Paul II called for a boycott of the show . After the tour was over , Madonna performed songs from the album at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards and the 1991 Academy Awards . " Vogue " , the first single from I 'm Breathless , became one of Madonna 's most successful releases , reaching number one in over 30 countries . It was also critically acclaimed and was seen as an influential song , while the video helped to bring vogueing into mainstream popularity . The second and final single , " Hanky Panky " , was a top @-@ ten hit in the United States and the United Kingdom .
The soundtrack received mixed reviews from music critics , who applauded the Sondheim numbers , along with Madonna 's vocals and versatility . However , some deemed the non @-@ film songs to be of little value . " Sooner or Later " , one of the Sondheim tracks , went on to win the Academy Award for Best Original Song . I 'm Breathless was commercially successful , peaking at number one on the European Top 100 Albums , as well as the national charts of Australia , Germany , and Japan — in the later it became the country 's best @-@ selling foreign album of the year . It also reached number two on the US Billboard 200 chart and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . I 'm Breathless has sold more than seven million copies worldwide .
= = Background and development = =
In 1990 , Madonna was part of the film Dick Tracy starring as Breathless Mahoney — a new role introduced for her — with Warren Beatty playing the titular character . Madonna told Premiere magazine that initially she had waited for Beatty to call her for the film . But when he did not , the singer decided to involve herself voluntarily . She pursued the part of Mahoney , but offered to work for minimum wages to avoid favoritism . Principal photography for Dick Tracy began on February 2 , 1989 and ended three months later . The filmmakers considered shooting the film on @-@ location in Chicago , Illinois , but production designer Richard Sylbert believed that Dick Tracy would work better using sound stages and backlots at Universal Studios in Universal City , California . Other filming took place at Warner Bros Studios in Burbank , California . Beatty often encouraged dozens of takes of every scene . The film was released in the United States on June 15 , 1990 , and was the third @-@ highest opening weekend of 1990 . Dick Tracy was the ninth @-@ highest grossing film in the US in 1990 , and number twelve globally . The film also received positive reviews from critics . Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised the matte paintings , art direction and prosthetic makeup design , stating : " Dick Tracy is one of the most original and visionary fantasies I 've seen on a screen " .
Beatty had realized several positive aspects of hiring Madonna as an actress for the film . She would be inclined to develop the soundtrack for Dick Tracy and the film studio would see this as a promotional opportunity before the release of their product , since Madonna was popular as a recording artist . This would also benefit Warner Bros. Records , who would get a reason to release a new Madonna record . According to J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , by the 1980s record labels started to release albums which were closely associated with a film , thereby gaining double promotion . These were mostly termed as soundtracks although many of them were not related to the film . After the shooting for Dick Tracy was over , Madonna started working on the soundtrack . She had begun recording three songs by Stephen Sondheim for the film — " Sooner or Later " , " More " and " What Can You Lose " — which would be part of the album , but also had to write and develop new songs comparable in style to the previous . In her favor , she produced the entire album , including the Sondheim songs . " I want people to think of me as a musical comedy actress . That 's what this album is about for me . It 's a stretch . Not just pop music , but songs that have a different feel to them , a theatrical feel " , she said at the time .
Madonna was in a relationship with Beatty at that time , and her whole acting , recording and singing stemmed from impressing him with the album , which was important to her . Beatty and actor Mandy Patinkin also lent their voices for songs from the album . While I 'm Breathless was being completed , it still needed a lead single . At the same time , Madonna and producer Shep Pettibone decided to compose a new song called " Vogue " to be placed on the B @-@ side of " Keep It Together " , the final single from her fourth studio album , Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) , to ensure that the song would fare better on the charts . When Warner executives heard the song , they decided to release it as an A @-@ side , and was eventually included on I 'm Breathless .
= = Recording and composition = =
I 'm Breathless is a jazz , swing and pop album where Madonna and Sondheim tried to recreate the music of the period portrayed in Dick Tracy . According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the harmonic and melodic styles were more " complex " than the songs which Madonna was accustomed to , hence she found it difficult and demanding . She spoke about the " wilderness " of the tunes , saying that she was not confident of doing justice to the songs , and neither was Sondheim . But he kept on encouraging the singer so that the recording sessions would not be affected . Madonna also recruited producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell to help her with the project . She and Leonard toiled to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the days of the Untouchables law enforcement . According to Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , after Madonna 's split from husband Sean Penn in 1989 , the singer was comfortable in her new relationship with Beatty , which influenced the songs . The singer and Leonard enlisted a ten @-@ piece live band and jazz musicians . The sessions took place at Johnny Yuma Recording and Ocean Way Studios in Los Angeles , California , and concluded by three weeks . The songs on the album reflect Madonna 's showgirl personality where her singing ranged from " rootsy , rocking " in nature to slow , " laid @-@ back and soulful " vocals . A studied approach was evident in most of them , which O 'Brien compared to " an actress playing a part and performing a vocal exercise in technique " . Some of the songs had Madonna pitching her vocals and belting the notes only when necessary . A dryness was prevalent in most of the singing , which was required for the songs and the setting . Guy Pratt , who also played bass , said that the singer " was in character and started smoking . She actually ponced a cigarette off me . Her character smoked , so therefore she did . "
O 'Brien said that the songs on I 'm Breathless had a " coquettish " and " pandering nature " , and was the polar opposite to Madonna 's previous release , Like a Prayer , which had an introspective composition . I 'm Breathless opens with the sound of an intercom and a shuffle , and power ballad " He 's a Man " starts , a song which Madonna sings as if she was a " hooker stalking the boulevard " . Also , Madonna 's " haunting " vocals continue after the music has faded . One of the Sondheim songs , " Sooner or Later " , is a 1930s jazz ballad with comping piano , brushed drum sounds , double bass and horns . Conjuring the atmosphere of a smoky nightclub , the song finds Madonna in her lowest range as the melody shifts continuously . " Hanky Panky " , the third song and second single , deals with sadomasochistic themes and is centered around a girl who celebrates the pleasures of a " good spanking " . It is performed in an almost comical style , and stemmed from a line in the film , where Breathless says to Tracy , " You don 't know whether to hit me or kiss me " .
The following track on the album , " I 'm Going Bananas " , is a Carmen Miranda @-@ ish song done in a Spanish accent . A salsa rhythm is predominant , with Madonna squeezing her vocal cords while singing , backed by percussion and brass . In the fifth track , " Crybaby " , Madonna mimics the vocals of Betty Boop . The melody is heard over the interlining synth strings , horns and trumpets , and a bass . Rooksby explained that Madonna sang about a guy who is " too sensitive and soft " , and the chorus employs a chromatic chord sequence . The next track " Something to Remember " deals with her failed marriage to Penn and was the source of inspiration for naming her 1995 compilation album . Musically , it has melancholy chords and rambling melody , which according to Taraborrelli made it the most compelling song by Madonna .
Mark Coleman from Rolling Stone described " Back in Business " as a " nagging headache " . It contains a " slow @-@ verse @-@ fast @-@ chorus " sequence . According to Rooksby , " the chorus bursts into life , with Madonna clearly relishing the lyrics about good guys finishing last ... the coldness of her delivery is apt for the topic . " Her vocals are accompanied by muted trumpet sounds and a saxophone solo . " More " is the second Sondheim number where Madonna recites the materialistic @-@ themed lyrics with irony , over a bouncy two @-@ beat with tap @-@ dancing during an instrumental break . The track consists of syncopated chord structure , tempo changes and lyrical rhymes . The arrangement switches between slow and fast tempo , requiring proper enunciation by Madonna . The final Sondheim song , " What Can You Lose " , is the duet with Patinkin . It is a torch song where Patinkin supplies the male voice while Madonna sings during the second verse with strings and harmonics .
Madonna sings a two @-@ part duet with Beatty titled " Now I 'm Following You " . With beats atop a riff , Madonna reveals that " Dick " is an " interesting name " . The first part has strings , brass and muted horns , with a tap @-@ dancing sequence during the intermediate piano solo and blues effect . At the last chord , the sound of the record getting stuck is heard , and a needle is drawn across the vinyl , leading into the much faster part two . The word " Dick " is continuously repeated in the main melody structure until the song ends with the sound of a record being snatched off a music player . Bill Meyers , who played piano during the recording , recalled that the song required only one take from Beatty . " Vogue " closes out the album and is musically different from the rest of the tracks . It is a dance number consisting of a " throbbing beat " and lyrically has a theme of escapism . The song talks about Vogueing , a dance form which reproduced poses from high @-@ fashion modelling . The song also has a rap section , where Madonna names various " golden era " Hollywood celebrities , including Greta Garbo , Marilyn Monroe and Marlene Dietrich .
= = Promotion = =
Madonna had first performed " Vogue " at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards , where she and her dancers were clad in 18th century @-@ inspired fashions , inspired by Marie Antoinette . Madonna re @-@ created an 18th @-@ century French court , with sexual innuendo in the performance . At one point the singer flipped open her large skirt , allowing one of her dancers to crawl inside and come out through the other side . Her dancer Carlton Wilborn explained that " [ such ] level of production had never been done on MTV . The costumes , the fans , the drama ... MTV just had no idea , we just came out and rocked . " O 'Brien described the performance as a " moment of inspired brilliance " , while Taraborrelli noted it as a " classic , camp show that elevated the standards of future performances on that program " . It was later ranked by Billboard as the sixth best performance in the history of the award show .
At the 1991 Academy Awards , Madonna appeared with singer Michael Jackson as her date and performed " Sooner or Later " . According to journalist Liz Smith , Madonna had promised to perform at the award show if either " Sooner or Later " or " More " was nominated in the Best Original Song category . She wore a long , tight , white dress designed by Bob Mackie and covered in sequins and pearls . On her neck she wore $ 20 million worth of jewelry from Harry Winston . Taraborrelli recalled that Madonna had appropriated every move and mannerisms of Marilyn Monroe for the performance , making it a tribute to the actress . When she appeared onstage , there was technical difficulty resulting in the microphone not rising from below the stage , and a stage @-@ hand passing it to her . Billboard ranked it as the seventh " most awesome " Oscar performance of all time , saying that " Madonna gave a performance that took us back to the glamorous days of old Hollywood . "
= = = Tour = = =
I 'm Breathless , alongside Madonna 's previous album , Like a Prayer , was majorly promoted in Madonna 's third concert tour , the Blond Ambition World Tour , which visited Asia , North America and Europe . Consisting of 57 dates , the concert was divided into five sections , the first inspired by the 1927 German expressionist film Metropolis , the second by religious themes , the third by Dick Tracy and cabaret , the fourth by Art Deco , and the fifth was an encore . The show contained sexual themes and Catholic imagery , such as in Madonna 's performance of " Like a Prayer " , which was based in church @-@ like surroundings with Madonna wearing a crucifix and her backup dancers dressed like priests and nuns . The concert was criticized for its sexual content and religious imagery ; in Toronto , Canada , Madonna was threatened of being arrested for obscenity , and Pope John Paul II later called for a boycott , with one of the three Italian dates being cancelled . Despite this , the tour was a critical success , winning " Most Creative Stage Production " at the 1990 Pollstar Concert Industry Awards .
The performance of the I 'm Breathless songs began with " Sooner or Later " sung atop a grand piano , followed by " Hanky Panky " , where Madonna stood in front of a microphone and sang it . She was dressed in a striped vaudeville @-@ style corset , playing the part of a nightclub singer . Near the end Madonna joked : " You all know the pleasures of a good spanking , don 't you ? [ ... ] When I hurt people , I feel better , you know what I mean ? " The final song of the segment was " Now I 'm Following You " where Madonna danced and lip @-@ synched with dancer Salim Gauwloos , who was dressed like Dick Tracy . Regarding the " shameless promotion " of Dick Tracy in this segment , O 'Brien said that " along with her yen for artistic expression , Madonna has always had an eye on the bottom dollar ... [ But ] the Dick Tracy section is the least dynamic part of the show " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Vogue " was released as the lead single from the soundtrack , on March 20 , 1990 . A deep house influenced song , it became Madonna 's eighth single to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Play chart . Internationally , " Vogue " reached the top the charts in 30 countries , such as the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Italy and Finland . It became the world 's best @-@ selling single of 1990 , selling over six million copies . " Vogue " has been continuously acclaimed since its release ; reviewers have praised its anthemic nature , calling it a " funky " and " catchy " song , and listed it as one of the singer 's musical highlights .
The music video for " Vogue " , directed by David Fincher , showed Madonna paying homage to various golden era Hollywood actresses . Shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , the video takes stylistic inspiration from the 1920s and 30s ; in it , Madonna and her dancers can be seen voguing different choreographed scenes . Critics noted the way in which Madonna used her postmodern influence to expose an underground subcultural movement to the masses and for making the sex and gender roles ambiguous in its portrayal of people . The video has been ranked as one of the greatest of all times in different critic lists and polls , and won three awards at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards , out of a total of nine nominations .
The album 's second single , " Hanky Panky " , was released on June 30 , 1990 . Critical response for the song was positive , with The New York Times calling it " a calculated bid for outrage " . It enjoyed commercial success , reaching the top ten in Italy , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . In the United States , peaked at number ten in the week of July 28 , 1990 .
= = Critical reception = =
J. Randy Taraborrelli gave I 'm Breathless a favorable review in his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , writing that it was " one of Madonna 's greatest musical moments " , and praising her vocal performance . Authors Allen Metz and Carol Benson wrote in their book The Madonna Companion that the album suited Madonna well , but questioned her decision to make it a subsidiary for Dick Tracy instead of an independent release . Lucky Lara from Manila Standard Today denoted the album as a " surprise career decision " for Madonna and found that it showcased the singer 's versatility and other facets of her pop personality . She added that the album was able to prove that Madonna " is cut out to do many other things , not just the trashy stuff " . Writing for the Sarasota Herald @-@ Tribune , Liz Smith gave another positive review , calling the album " excellent , different from anything [ Madonna ] has ever attempted " , and listing the Sondheim songs as highlights .
Ray Boren from Deseret News was impressed with Madonna 's vocals , calling them " sultry " and " cutesy " , listing " Vogue " and " Something to Remember " as highlights . Greg Sandow of Entertainment Weekly gave I 'm Breathless an A rating , praising Madonna for " invent [ ing ] a new Broadway vocal persona , built around a chest voice not yet perfectly under control but still much richer and duskier than her low range sounded before . " Robert Christgau from The Village Voice said the record 's " show @-@ tune @-@ pop @-@ shlock " suits Madonna " with its pedigree of wit and musicality " , as does the music 's campiness , which she " sure knows how to do right " . He listed " Cry Baby " , " He 's a Man " and " Hanky Panky " as the best tracks . Mark Coleman from Rolling Stone gave the album a rating of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and positive review , claiming that Madonna " pulls it off with brass and panache " . He added that " Vogue " showed the singer " can still deliver that indefinable something extra " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave it four out of five stars , declaring : " I 'm Breathless proves that Madonna is a true renaissance woman " .
According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , " after all the nuances Madonna has brought to the role of the bad girl , it 's strange that she would settle now for such a restricted , unexamined version of respectability " and " for the first time , Madonna has let the deal dictate the music " . Tan Gim Ean from New Straits Times noted that Madonna played against her strengths on the songs of the album . He described her vocals as " competent " , but felt that the songs required " more range and agility than Madonna has at her disposal . " Dave Tianen from Milwaukee Journal Sentinel described the album as a " mixed bag of period pieces , some of them too cute for their own good " , adding that " I 'm Breathless never becomes more than the sum of its mannerisms " . AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine claimed that the songs are just " cutesy novelty numbers " , and listing " Vogue " as a standout track . Rooksby panned the album , saying that it " failed to transcend the sterile , preserved @-@ in @-@ amber quality of pastiche " . Mark Cooper from Q magazine lamented , in its June 1990 review , " It 's something of a disappointment because the lady herself stays so firmly committed to a character who 's less original than the persona she evolved during the ' 80s . " Nonetheless , in the same magazine 's December 1994 issue , Madonna declared : " I would have to say the favorite record that I 've made is the soundtrack to Dick Tracy . I love every one of those songs ... My judgment is never based on the world 's reaction . "
= = Chart performance = =
I 'm Breathless debuted at number 44 on Billboard 200 during the week of June 9 , 1990 , peaking at number two weeks later . In total , the album remained on the chart for twenty @-@ five weeks . I 'm Breathless was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipment of over two million copies throughout the country . On June 2 , 1990 , I 'm Breathless entered the Canadian RPM Albums Chart at number 39 , eventually peaking at number two , three weeks later . During the week of November 10 , 1990 , the album spent its last week on the chart , exiting at number 99 , after spending 24 weeks on the album 's chart . To date , the album has been certified double @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies .
In Australia , the album debuted at number one on the ARIA Charts , during the week of June 3 , 1990 , where it remained for three consecutive weeks , and a total of twenty @-@ three weeks on the chart . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . I 'm Breathless entered the New Zealand Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ eight during the week of June 3 , 1990 . The next week , it peaked at number two , spending a total of twenty @-@ two weeks in the chart . In Japan , I 'm Breathless became Madonna 's second number @-@ one album on the Oricon Albums Chart and had sold an estimated 329 @,@ 382 units by the year end . At the 1991 Japan Gold Disc Awards , Madonna was honored by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) with Best Album of the Year – Pop Female , Grand Prix Album of the Year , and Grand Prix Artist of the Year ; the last two were given for the best @-@ selling international album and the best @-@ selling international artist of the year , respectively .
The album also experienced success in European markets . In Germany , I 'm Breathless topped the Media Control albums chart and was certified gold by Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for shipping 250 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album peaked at number seventeen , and was certified double @-@ gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , with estimated sales of 411 @,@ 900 copies . In the Netherlands , I 'm Breathless entered the MegaCharts at number twelve during the week of June 3 , 1990 . It eventually peaked at number five , staying a total of nineteen weeks on the chart . The Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld- en geluidsdragers ( NVPI ) certified the album gold for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies . On the Swiss Albums Chart dated June 3 , 1990 , I 'm Breathless debuted on its peak position of number three . After nineteen weeks , it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for shipment of 25 @,@ 000 copies . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Albums Chart , during the week dated June 2 , 1990 . Soon after , I 'm Breathless was certified double @-@ platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of over 600 @,@ 000 units . In Spain , the album peaked at number two , and was certified double platinum for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies . In total , the album has sold seven million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
Track list as per the end booklet of the I 'm Breathless album .
" Sooner or Later " is officially titled " Sooner or Later ( I Always Get My Man ) " in the film credits and Academy Awards .
^ [ a ] signifies an executive producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's booklet .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= SkyLoop =
SkyLoop is a type of steel roller coaster manufactured by Maurer Söhne . There are currently 10 SkyLoops operating worldwide ; 9 of which are identical XT 150 models with only one being the extended , XT 450 model . The first SkyLoop to open was Sky Wheel in 2004 ( XT 150 ) while the first and only XT 450 , Abismo opened in 2006 . There are also 3 other models available ; XT 900 , Custom , and Launch , those have not been built yet .
= = History = =
The world 's first SkyLoop , Sky Wheel , opened in 2004 and is currently located at Skyline Park in Germany . Sky Wheel is a XT 150 model . This would continue to be the only model of the SkyLoop to be built until 2006 when Abismo at Parque de Atracciones de Madrid in Spain was built . Abismo is a SkyLoop XT 450 ( an extension to the XT 150 ) and continues to be the only XT 450 built as of November 2012 . Since then , only XT 150 's have been built around the world . Maurer Söhne also have 3 additional models of the SkyLoop ; XT 900 ( extension to XT 150 ) , Custom , and Launch ( uses the XT 150 layout where the train gets launched up the lift hill ) , although as of November 2012 none have been built .
= = Models = =
Currently , the SkyLoop consists of 5 models ; XT 150 , XT 450 , XT 900 , Custom , and Launch .
= = = XT 150 = = =
SkyLoop XT 150 is a short , 492 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 150 m ) roller coaster that reaches a maximum height of 171 feet ( 52 m ) ( the actual track reaches 164 feet ( 50 m ) ) and a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . This model also has two inversions and uses a single train featuring 2 X @-@ Cars that seat 6 people each .
After the train departs from the station , it immediately begins to climb the vertical ( 90 degree ) lift hill . Upon reaching the top of the lift , the train turns 45 degrees backwards putting the train and its riders in an upside down position . Then , as the train exits the lift , it goes through a heartline roll before going down the only drop in the layout of the roller coaster . The train speeds through the station going back up the lift . Once it loses momentum the train then returns down passing through the station again . It then proceeds back up the drop and partially into the heartline roll before once again losing momentum and returning to the ground . After passing the station for the third time , the train is stopped near the top of the lift hill . It is then lowered back down to the station where the next riders board the train . The XT 150 has the option of sending riders around a second cycle at the operator 's discretion . When the train stops on the lift hill at the end of the ride , instead of lowering slowly back to the station , the chain will raise the car up and send it through the ride again .
= = = XT 450 = = =
SkyLoop XT 450 is a 1 @,@ 345 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 410 m ) roller coaster that reaches a maximum height of 171 feet ( 52 m ) ( the actual track reaches 151 feet ( 46 m ) ) and a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . This model is an extension of the XT 150 ; the beginning is the same . The XT 450 has 4 inversions and also uses a train made up of 2 X @-@ Cars that seat 6 people each .
The roller coaster begins the same way that the XT 150 model does . After the train departs from the station , it immediately begins to climb the vertical ( 90 degree ) lift hill . Upon reaching the top of the lift , the train turns 45 degrees backwards putting the train and its riders in an upside down position . After , as the train exits the lift , it goes through an heartline roll . The train enters the first drop where it reaches its maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) before traversing a tight left overbanked turn . After the turn , the train goes over the only camelback hill followed by another left overbanked turn . The train then follows a flat section of track before going down a small drop leading into the station and back up the lift where the train stops . The train is then lowered back down to the station where the next riders board the ride .
= = = XT 900 = = =
SkyLoop XT 900 is a concept that has yet to be built . The design of model begins the same way as the XT 150 does as the lift , first inversion , and first drop are all present in both models . Along with the elements from the XT 150 model , the XT 900 includes a series of turns , overbanked turns , a loop , and a cobra roll .
= = = Custom = = =
SkyLoop Custom is a concept that also has yet to be built . The design of this model is based on the SkyLoop XT 150 with an extension of what the particular amusement park wants . Roller coasters of this model can vary from one another .
= = = Launch = = =
SkyLoop Launch is a concept that has also yet to be built . This design can be incorporated with the XT 150 , 450 , 900 , and Custom models as the " launch " takes place where the normal lift would be . The top speed of the launch would be 27 miles per hour ( 43 km / h ) and is driven by linear synchronous motors ( LSM ) . If this concept were to be built , not only would it have the world 's highest inversion , but also the world 's highest vertical launch .
= = Installations = =
Maurer Söhne has built ten SkyLoops as of 2012 . Nine are SkyLoop XT 150 's while one is a SkyLoop XT 450 . The roller coasters are listed in order of opening dates .
= = Similar Rides = =
Premier Rides have made the Sky Rocket II model like Superman : Ultimate Flight , which is similar to the SkyLoop . In addition , several Chinese SkyLoops have been made .
= Jacques Le Gris =
Sir Jacques Le Gris ( c . 1330s – 27 December 1386 ) was a squire and knight in fourteenth century France who gained fame and infamy when he engaged in the last judicial duel permitted by the Parlement of Paris after he was accused of rape by the wife of his neighbour and rival Sir Jean de Carrouges . Carrouges brought legal proceedings against Le Gris before King Charles VI who after hearing the evidence , authorised a trial by combat to determine the question . The duel attracted thousands of spectators and has been discussed by many notable French writers , from the contemporary Jean Froissart to Voltaire .
Described as a large and physically imposing character with a reputation for womanising , Le Gris was a liege man ( feudal retainer ) of Count Pierre d 'Alençon and a favourite at his court , governing a large swathe of his liege lord 's territory in addition to his own ancestral holdings . Le Gris ' insistence on defending his case by chivalric trial by combat rather than opting for the safer church trial ( to which as a cleric in minor orders he was entitled ) attracted widespread support for his cause amongst the French nobility , and controversy continues to this day as to where the real guilt lies in the case .
= = Early life = =
Jacques Le Gris was born in the 1330s , the son of a minor Norman squire Guillaume Le Gris . Unusually for the time , he was educated , taking minor orders as a cleric in the church and able to read sufficiently well to officiate at mass . Like his father , Le Gris was first a man @-@ at @-@ arms and then squire in the service of the Count of Perche , a role at which he excelled . He also participated in several minor military campaigns in Normandy in the entourage of Robert d 'Alençon . In 1370 his long service was rewarded when he was given command of one of his liege lord 's castles at the village of Exmes . During his career , he became firm friends with Jean de Carrouges , another squire in the Count 's service . Carrouges and Le Gris were so close that in 1377 , the same year that Count Robert died , Carrouges made Le Gris godfather to his eldest son , a position of great responsibility and trust .
With the arrival of Count Robert 's brother Pierre d 'Alençon as the new count , the friendship between the two squires became strained . Le Gris was an able , amiable and intelligent man and soon became one of the new Count 's favourites . When Count Pierre moved his court to Argentan , Le Gris lent him 3 @,@ 000 livres and , in reward , was confirmed as Seigneur of Exmes and given a valuable estate at Arnou @-@ le @-@ Faucon . As Le Gris rose in his lord 's esteem , the poorer Carrouges was frequently overlooked , resulting in a deterioration in their friendship which was only worsened by the death of Carrouges ' wife and son in 1380 , severing the men 's family ties .
Shortly after the death of his family , Carrouges departed on campaign in Upper Normandy while Le Gris - thanks to his literacy and military skills - rose steadily in importance in Count Pierre 's court , travelling with the count when he went to Paris on business . During the course of these trips , Count Pierre introduced Le Gris at the royal court and was instrumental in gaining him the prestigious title of Royal Steward , a position within the household of the King , Charles VI .
= = = Legal difficulties = = =
In 1381 , Le Gris and Carrouges engaged in a very public argument over the domain of Arnou @-@ le @-@ Faucon . Carrouges had returned from the wars with a new bride , Marguerite de Thibouville , daughter of a controversial Norman squire who until recently had owned Arnou . Although the lands had been legally bought by Count Pierre in 1377 for 8 @,@ 000 livres , Carrouges wanted them back as part of his dowry and took Count Pierre in court to return them . Count Pierre was forced to visit his cousin the King to obtain royal approval for his purchase and consequently was furious with Carrouges . The eventual result was that Carrouges was isolated from the court and subjected to three years of legal struggles over land with Count Pierre , who denied him the purchase or inheritance of several estates . Le Gris was heavily involved in these legal disputes both as the Seigneur of Arnou @-@ le @-@ Faucon and as adviser to the Count . He thus became a target of Carrouges , who accused Le Gris of orchestrating the lawsuits against him .
A rapprochement between the two men was achieved in the winter of 1384 , when Carrouges and Le Gris were both invited to the estate of a mutual friend , Jean Crespin , to celebrate the birth of his son . For the first time , Carrouges brought his wife Marguerite into society and it was at this party that she made her first acquaintance with Le Gris . Despite the tension between them , Carrouges and Le Gris shook hands and drank together , putting their quarrel behind them before their peers and neighbours . A few months later Jean de Carrouges departed on campaign to Scotland and Le Gris took the opportunity to increase his influence with the Count , making substantial financial and territorial gains in the his rival 's absence . Carrouges returned a year later , now a knight but bankrupt , ill and suffering the aftermath of a long and unsuccessful campaign . When Carrouges appeared at Argentan in January 1386 he was involved in a confrontation with his erstwhile friend . Although it is not known what was said , the two men separated on poor terms and Carrouges departed for Paris in a state of agitation .
= = On trial for rape = =
Some weeks after their encounter , word reached Le Gris of accusations being made against him by Carrouges and his wife . It will never be known what basis these allegations had in fact but Carrouges claimed that on 18 January 1386 , whilst Carrouges was still in Paris , Le Gris had entered the chateau of Carrouges ' mother Nicole and there raped Marguerite . According to Marguerite de Carrouges ' testimony , a squire in Le Gris ' employ named Adam Louvel had knocked on the door of the chateau and demanded entry . All the servants were attending to Dame Nicole de Carrouges , who was visiting a neighbouring town on legal business , and so Marguerite was alone when Louvel called . Once inside , Louvel gave Marguerite a message that Le Gris was outside and desired to see her because he was passionately in love with her . Although Marguerite protested , Le Gris broke into the house and propositioned her , offering money in exchange . When Marguerite refused , Le Gris attempted to take her by force and raped her on the bed in her chamber with the help of Louvel . As Le Gris departed , he threatened her with violence if she told of the encounter .
Charges were brought by the Carrouges ' faction against Le Gris in the court of Count Pierre but Carrouges and his wife refused to attend the hearing , so convinced were they of receiving unfair treatment from the Count . Count Pierre backed his favourite in the trial , clearing Le Gris and accusing Marguerite of inventing or " dreaming " the charges . Undeterred , Carrouges then visited the court of King Charles VI at the Château de Vincennes and appealed to the King for the right to challenge Le Gris to a judicial duel to allow God to decide the case . The King referred the case to the Parlement of Paris , where both claimants were expected to appear on 9 July .
Informed of the King 's decision , Le Gris contacted Jean Le Coq , widely considered the best lawyer of the day in France . Le Coq kept meticulous notes of the entire trial process and it is through his record that many of the facts of the case are known . Le Coq also comments in his records his own suspicions about his client , whose claims of innocence he considered to be false . Le Gris was urged by his family and lawyer to insist on being tried in a church court , which as a cleric in minor orders was his right . This would have given him a more favourable hearing in a court which did not condone trial by combat and thus would also be much safer . Le Gris rebuffed this advice and became angry when challenged on the decision , insisting on his right to trial before the Parlement .
On 9 July 1386 , at the Palais de Justice in Paris the two claimants faced each other for the first time since their confrontation at Argentan several months before . Each stepped before the Parlement in turn and presented their case for the King and court , Carrouges throwing down his gauntlet in challenge and Le Gris picking it up signifying his acceptance of the duel . Le Gris also embellished his case by insisting that should he be proven innocent of the offence , he would sue Carrouges or his estate for 40 @,@ 000 livres . Following the declarations a number of high @-@ ranking noblemen stepped forward to act as seconds in the duel for both men , including Waleran of Saint @-@ Pol for Carrouges and Philip of Artois , Count of Eu for Le Gris . After hearing the challenges and accusations , the Parlement and King debated the case and decided that a full hearing of the evidence from witnesses would be held to determine guilt . If the case could not be decided by normal means , then a judicial duel would be held to adjudicate the dispute , God choosing the victor .
During the criminal trial , all the major figures in the case were called on to give evidence . Le Gris and Carrouges began proceedings and were followed by a heavily pregnant Marguerite and at least one of her maidservants as well as Adam Louvel . As people of low birth , Louvel and the servants were all subject to torture to test the veracity of their testimony but none gave evidence against Le Gris and the case continued through the summer and into September without conclusion . Le Gris ' case involved several strategies ; he attempted to discredit his opponent by telling of Carrouges ' infamous temper and describing the case against him as a jealous invention from a man who had threatened to beat his wife if she did not corroborate his accusations . Le Gris then provided alibis for the entire week in question , establishing his whereabouts in testimony backed up by several other squires of the court of Count Pierre . Finally he attempted to demonstrate in court that it was physically impossible for him to have ridden in winter from Argentan to Capomesnil , where the crime supposedly took place , in a single day , a round trip of approximately 50 miles ( 80 km ) .
As the trial progressed however , Le Gris ' testimony suffered several blows . The unwavering accusations directed at him by Marguerite and the shame such accusations brought to her were , in the eyes of the court , a powerful reason why the charges were not invented . Then , even as the trial progressed , one of the men providing Le Gris ' alibi , named Jean Beloteau , was arrested in Paris and charged with rape . This charge seriously undermined Beloteau 's testimony and Le Gris ' defence . Finally , Carrouges himself offered counter @-@ testimony in court that a healthy , strong man with long experience of horsemanship and a stable full of horses like Le Gris could certainly have made the 50 mile trip without difficulty , even accounting for the snow .
= = A judicial duel = =
Faced with such conflicting accounts and unable to reach a conclusion , the Parlement announced on 15 September that the two men would fight to the death on 27 November 1386 to decide guilt in the case . If Carrouges lost , then Marguerite would be burnt at the stake for perjury . In fact , the duel was delayed a month as the King and his court , which contained most of the country 's senior dukes and generals , was held up on campaign in Flanders and could not return in time . Eager to see what was rapidly becoming the event of the season , the King ordered the duel postponed until 29 December so that he would be present for its culmination .
On the day decreed , Le Gris and Carrouges travelled through Paris to the Abbey of Saint @-@ Martin @-@ des @-@ Champs in the city 's Northern suburbs . The abbey 's field had been converted from a jousting ground to a wooden arena especially for the combat , surrounded by banks for the spectators and a royal box . Attending the duel was not only the King and his uncles John , Duke of Berry , Philip the Bold and Louis II , Duke of Bourbon and his brother the Duke of Orléans , but thousands of ordinary Parisians , Normans and visiting French . Thousands of people had flooded into the city in the days before the combat to see the spectacle but all had been warned not to physically aid the combatants on pain of death , nor call out during the fight on pain of losing a hand .
Although legal accounts do not describe the course of the combat , contemporary chroniclers have left several records of the day 's battle . According to the chronicles , the claimants entered the field last and before all present repeated their accusations against the other and swore oaths guaranteeing their honesty before the King , Parlement and God . Before they remounted , the marshal of the duel performed a brief ceremony in which he knighted Jacques Le Gris . This ceremony was traditional before battle but also performed a part in maintaining the social structure of medieval France . With both men on the same social footing , there would be no defeat of a senior rank by a lesser one . Having been raised to the status of a knight , Sir Jacques regained his horse and the arena was cleared . Both knights were heavily armed and armoured , protected by a hide and wood shield bearing their coat of arms and thick plate armour , riding a heavy warhorse and wielding a lance , longsword , heavy battle axe and long dagger known as a misericordia .
At the marshal 's signal , silence descended over the field and both knights spurred their horses and charged , their lances each striking the other 's shield but not causing significant damage . Wheeling , both again struck but failed to penetrate , scoring glancing blows on their helmets but remaining horsed . For a third time they turned and charged and again they both struck . This time however the lances shattered , sending slivers of wood cartwheeling across the arena and nearly unseating both men . Regaining balance , the knights closed on one another with battle axes drawn , trading furious two @-@ handed blows . As the engagement progressed , Le Gris ' superior strength began to tell and Carrouges was driven back until with a mighty swing , Le Gris ' axe severed the spine of Carrouges ' horse . The dying beast tumbled to the ground , Carrouges leaping clear and meeting Le Gris ' charge with a side @-@ step , allowing him to thrust his own axe 's pike deep into the stomach of Le Gris ' steed .
As his horse faltered and collapsed , Le Gris was thrown off and lost his axe . Undaunted , he rose and drew his longsword , turning to meet Carrouges who was already advancing on him , sword also drawn . Again the combatants traded blows , their weapons the only sounds heard in the silent battleground . Again , Le Gris ' superior strength gave him an advantage , pushing Carrouges back before thrusting his blade through his opponent 's thigh . As the crowd murmured , Le Gris made a fatal mistake ; withdrawing his weapon , he stepped back to watch his wounded enemy and was thus off balance when the desperate Carrouges threw himself forwards , wrestling Le Gris to the ground and hacking at him with his own longsword . Although Le Gris ' plate armour was too thick to allow Carrouges ' weapon to penetrate , it was also so heavy that he could not regain his feet with Carrouges on top of him . Stranded on the ground , Le Gris struggled as Carrouges straddled him and used his sword to smash open the lock on Le Gris ' faceplate . As the crowd watched in silence , Carrouges shouted in Le Gris ' exposed face for him to confess his crime before death or face hell . Le Gris replied so all could hear , " In the name of God , and on the peril and damnation of my soul , I am innocent of the crime " . Enraged , Carrouges drew his misericordia and thrust it through Le Gris ' throat , killing him instantly .
At Le Gris ' death the crowd cheered and the King greeted the victor with several fine presents . Carrouges became a wealthy and famous man as a result of his victory , but despite his end Le Gris was not forgotten . In the duel 's immediate aftermath , the Executioner of Paris took charge of the body and stripped its armour and clothing before dragging it through the streets to the Gibbet of Montfaucon . There it was strung up alongside the bodies of murderers and thieves to rot before eventually being flung into a common grave . However , the memory of Jacques Le Gris was kept alive by his family and supporters for many years . His son Guillaume Le Gris paid over 200 francs for masses to be said for his father , " a man of noble memory " and continued to pay similar sums for at least ten years after his death . Count Pierre too retained favourable memories of his advisor , taking revenge by blocking Carrouges ' efforts to purchase more land or expand his influence in Normandy .
= = Legacy = =
In the centuries since Le Gris ' death the case has become an important cultural legend in France . The duel was the last trial by combat ever permitted by the Parlement de Paris or the French Kings and the guilt or innocence of its participants has been a source of great debate among historians and jurists . The contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart harbours no question over the guilt of Le Gris , whom he considers a villain . Later writers take a different view , including the Grandes Chroniques de France and the works of Jehan de Waurin , who repeat with varying details the tale of another culprit admitting his guilt on his deathbed . Other famous writers who studied the case include Diderot in his Encyclopédie and Voltaire in his Histoire du Parlement de Paris . An imaginative version of the legend was repeated by the Encyclopædia Britannica until the 1970s .
More recently , several legal studies have been conducted by French jurists . These generally consider it likely that Le Gris was the real culprit based on Marguerite 's evidence , although none of course could prove so conclusively . A major exception to this trend was a book written in 1890 by a descendant of Le Gris named F. White Le Grix , who makes a determined effort to defend his ancestor . Most recently , the story was studied in Eric Jager 's work The Last Duel , which also considers Le Gris the likely rapist and has attracted the interest of Martin Scorsese , who is reportedly planning to make a feature film based on the book .
= Callie Torres =
Calliope Iphegenia " Callie " Torres , M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the ABC in the United States . The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes , and is portrayed by Sara Ramirez . She was introduced in season two , as a senior orthopedic resident , as a love interest for intern George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) . Eventually becoming an attending orthopedic surgeon , the character was originally contracted to appear on a recurring basis , but received star billing in the third season .
Torres was initially conceived as a love interest , and eventual wife , for O 'Malley , and was created to be disliked by her colleagues . Further storylines include relationships between her and plastic surgeon , Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) , as well as a marriage to pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) . The character 's bisexual storyline with Hahn and Robbins , and her development later in the series has garnered much acclaim .
Ramirez 's portrayal of the Torres has been widely praised by television critics and the character gained significant popularity as the series progressed . Ramirez was nominated for several awards from her portrayal of Torres , including the Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , and the ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series . The character was ranked at no . 7 by AfterEllen.com in the list of " Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters " . At the end of the show 's twelfth season , Callie Torres left Grey @-@ Sloan Memorial Hospital , having been on the show for ten years .
= = Storylines = =
Callie Torres is introduced as an orthopedic surgeon with a crush on intern George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) . The two start a relationship and Torres moves into Meredith 's house ( Meredith and Izzie Stevens lived there as well ) . Uneased at the way their relationship is progressing , O 'Malley confronts her , which results in her moving into a hotel . In the aftermath of the breakup , she meets and has a one @-@ night stand with plastic surgeon Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , who becomes her friend . Torres and O 'Malley subsequently reconcile , and the two marry in Las Vegas on the spur of the moment . Confused , O 'Malley confides to fellow intern Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , about his relationship woes over alcohol , leading to a drunken sexual encounter between the two . Torres remains unaware of his sexual encounter , becomes increasingly suspicious , and announces her desire to conceive a child . Shortly thereafter , however , she discovers that O 'Malley has been unfaithful , ending their marriage . Though her personal life is troubled , Torres thrives professionally when she is appointed as the hospital 's Chief Resident . However , she soon begins struggling to cope in the role , and is demoted soon thereafter .
Torres forms a friendship with Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) , the hospital 's new chief of cardiothoracic surgery . The two embark on a relationship when Hahn jokingly kisses Torres in an elevator to tease Sloan . Neither has been with another woman before , and Torres struggles with her bisexuality , and cheats on her with Sloan . She is initially forgiven , but after an argument about work , Hahn resigns from Seattle Grace , ending their relationship . New pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) kisses her , and they begin dating . Their relationship is tested when Torres comes out to her father , Carlos , who disowns her , cutting her off both financially and emotionally . When she is not granted a position as an attending , she publicly berates the chief , Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , and resigns from her post . She begins working at the neighboring Mercy West hospital , and when the two hospitals merge , she is promoted to an attending surgeon . Torres ' father returns yet again , to condemn her , but ultimately accepts her sexuality . When Torres explains her desire to bear children , Robbins expresses disappointment , and their differing stances on the matter lead them to break up . Soon thereafter , a gunman commits mass murder at the hospital , and relieved to have survived , Torres and Robbins reconcile , with Robbins agreeing that they should have children together .
When Robbins wins a prestigious grant to help treat children in Malawi , a disgruntled Torres agrees to move there with her , as the position will last for three years ; however , her lack of enthusiasm causes Robbins to end their relationship and go without her . A heartbroken Torres moves in with Sloan , and they have a one @-@ night stand . Robbins returns for Torres , apologizing and hoping for forgiveness , but Torres initially rebuffs her , and later reveals that she is pregnant with Sloan 's baby . Robbins agrees to raise the child with her , but dislikes that Sloan will be a permanent part of their lives . En route a weekend getaway , Robbins proposes to Torres , soon before the two engage in a head @-@ on collision with a truck , leaving Torres severely injured . In an attempt to save her life , obstetrician @-@ gynecologist Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) , delivers Torres 's premature baby . Torres survives , and agrees to marry Robbins . After twelve weeks of recovery , both Torres and baby Sofia are discharged and allowed to leave the hospital . Torres recovers from her surgery , but deals with the backlash from her mother ( Gina Gallego ) ' s attitude toward the wedding and her granddaughter . Torres and Robbins marry in a garden after the minister 's wife falls ill , with general surgeon Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , officiating the ceremony .
In the aftermath of a plane accident that killed Sloan and Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Torres is forced to make the decision to have Alex Karev amputate Robbins 's left leg to keep her alive , which puts strains on their relationship . The hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence . Each victim including Robbins , Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , and Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) must receive $ 15 million of compensation , which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurances refuse to pay . These doctors and Torres buy the hospital with the help of the Harper @-@ Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing , and each become members of the new directing board . Everything seems to go well for Arizona and Callie , until a big storm hits the hospital now named after Mark Sloan and Lexie Grey . In the last episode of the ninth season , Arizona cheats on Callie with Dr. Lauren Boswell ( Hilarie Burton ) . Callie soon discovers Arizona 's infidelity by seeing her wedding ring pinned to Dr. Boswell 's scrub top . In the aftermath of discovery , both Callie and Arizona share their feelings and it is revealed that Arizona does not forgive Callie for making the call to amputate her leg . Callie is heartbroken and Arizona states that Callie lost nothing in the crash , to which Callie responds that she , apparently , lost Arizona .
Callie takes Sofia to live with Meredith and Derek , Zola , and Baby Bailey for a while before kicking Arizona out of their apartment and celebrates by dancing in her underwear . Callie also left Arizona at therapy , telling her that she was the only one that needed to go . After being hit by a lawsuit her father , Carlos , visits and tells Callie that he cheated on her mother but she took him back and Callie wouldn 't be here if her mother didn 't give Carlos a second chance . Callie goes to Arizona 's apartment and invites her to come back home . Callie finds out during surgery that Arizona was sleeping with Leah , a second year resident , while separated . Although angry at Arizona , Callie still agrees to work things out .
After April 's failed wedding to Matthew , Callie and Arizona bought a house together , a fresh start , away from the memories of their apartment . They later decided to try again for a second child . However , a trip to the OB / GYN led to the discovery that Callie developed adhesions in her uterus in the years since Sofia 's birth , meaning she can 't carry any more babies . After talking to Arizona about it , they agreed to postpone their dream to have another baby until they 're on more solid footing as a couple .
At the beginning of the eleventh series , Callie and Arizona give therapy another chance in order to help mend their marriage . They were made to go 30 days living separate lives in the same house with no sexual activity with others or each other . They come close to breaking that rule and had to start over and before the 30 days was up they eventually gave in and connected sexually again . At the end of the 30 days at the final therapy session Arizona realizes she can 't live without Callie , however Callie doesn 't feel the same stated she felt suffocated and eventually walked out of therapy ending their marriage .
Callie then goes on to date Penny , who was the resident in charge of Derek Shepard 's case . She comes to a dinner party hosted by Meredith who recognizes her . It is then discovered that Penny is going to be working at Grey Sloan Memorial . When everyone , including Callie , finds out who Penny actually is , they protest and try to get her off of the Grey Sloan Memorial residency line . She manages to stay on the line despite all the other 's pleads and wishes .
After Callie discloses her desire to move to New York with Penny and take her and Arizona 's daughter , Sofia , with her , Arizona takes Callie to court for sole parental custody . Callie loses custody of her daughter to Arizona and Penny moves to New York . After Arizona decides that both Sofia 's moms deserve to be happy , Arizona presents Callie with plane tickets and offers a custody agreement that keeps Sofia in Seattle for the summer and then sharing her every other school year and Christmas .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Ramirez was seen by ABC executives , in her Broadway performance of Spamalot , which garnered their attention . Due to their admiration , the network offered Ramirez a role on any ABC television series , of her choice , and she chose Grey 's Anatomy . Ramirez further explained that at her initial audition , the producers liked her , and had intentions to add her to the show , but did not know who to cast her as . She also said she was in awe of how the executives said , " Pick a show , any show " , explaining that it is rare . Shonda Rhimes said : " I was looking for a girlfriend for George , but it was in the infancy stages , so I had no idea what I was looking for . " Rhimes built the character around Ramirez after she met her . Ramirez 's character was initially given recurring status in the second season and received star billing in the third season , alongside fellow cast member Dane , who portrayed Mark Sloan . Ramirez discusses maintaining relationships with co @-@ stars :
= = = Characterization = = =
The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) characterized Torres as " driven " , " determined " , and " outgoing " , while also noting her weaknesses : " defensive " and " impulsive " . Ramirez described her character as someone who " appears to be a certain way , but has some very complex issues going on behind the scenes . She seems to be a very strong personality , someone who really believes in herself and has worked very hard to get where she is . She 's very competitive but does have a sense of self , so she doesn 't need to win all the time . " At Torres ' initial appearance on the show , she was disliked by fans , due to her getting in the way of O 'Malley and Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) ' s relationship . When asked of this , Ramirez said : " You do run across a lot of people who are extremely invested in that story line . Obviously , I 've heard some negative stuff . " The end of the show 's fourth season saw Torres grow closer to cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn , in a relationship referred to by the portmanteau " Eri @-@ Cal " and later " Callica " by Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly . Rhimes stated that : " Callie and Erica have an undeniable chemistry , and watching the story unfold is something the writers are looking forward to . I wanted to illuminate their relationship in the same way we do all relationships on the show — it will be funny , sweet , honest , and a little bit dirty . "
She explained that in developing the relationship between the two : " we wanted it to be real – not some stunt to get people talking . We wanted to see what would happen if a woman suddenly had feelings for another woman . " The two characters shared a kiss at the end of the season four finale , with which D. Williams of After Ellen noted : " Callie and Erica became the only regular lesbian / bisexual female characters currently on network television . This is also the first time that two regular characters on a network show have begun a lesbian romance , as opposed to one becoming involved with a new lesbian character introduced expressly for that relationship . " Before continuing with the storyline , the show 's producers consulted with the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation to ensure they maintained realism throughout . Trish Doolan , star of April 's Shower was invited to consult in the workshop sessions which took place , and surmised that ; " They were really wanting to be truthful to the two characters they 're focusing on in the woman @-@ woman relationship " , with Nikki Weiss , who also consulted , adding : " they didn 't want to stereotype anything either , and write from a place where they didn 't understand it . [ ... ] I don 't think they did it as a stunt to get people back to watching after the strike . I really think that they wanted to develop these two characters , and that you could see a closeness with them way before they ever decided any kind of — I think they just have a chemistry together , as actresses , too . You could tell that in the room . They definitely have a chemistry . "
In the show 's fifth season , Torres embarked on a relationship with Arizona Robbins ( Capshaw ) . The relationship between the two is referred to by the portmanteau " Calzona " . Rhimes praised the chemistry between Arizona and Callie in contrast , comparing it to that between the show 's primary couple Grey and Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , and stating : " They have that little thing that makes you want to watch them . " In " An Honest Mistake " , Torres was initially rejected by Robbins , with Robbins citing Torres ' " inexperience " as a factor . Series writer Peter Nowalk offered the insight :
The couple ultimately decided to begin a relationship , however , the two experience difficulties , but eventually reunite . Rhimes commented on their reconciliation : " I love [ Callie ] with Arizona . [ ... ] I like that they make me feel hopeful about love . " Rhimes has mentioned of their relationship in the sixth season : " I would like to see Callie happily in a long @-@ term relationship . We have so much to explore with them , because we barely know anything about [ Arizona ] . "
= = Reception = =
Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune was critical about the character 's initial development . Reviewing the third season 's premiere , she wrote the writers should give up on Callie explaining they have made her " far too obviously the “ weird girl , ” but there ’ s nothing underneath her brusque persona . " Her marriage to O 'Malley was well received ; Staci Krause of IGN wrote : " Their relationship has been a roller coaster and it was nice to see this turn of events , as she really is a perfect contrast to George . " Discussing the character in terms of her relationship with Hahn , Williams was largely positive , assessing that : " The story line offered both the drama Grey 's is known for and a truthfulness network television has rarely achieved when it comes to lesbian relationships . " Trish Doolan and Nikki Weiss , invited by GLAAD to consult with Grey 's Anatomy producers on the storyline , praised the effort put into researching the issue by the writers and actors involved , though were more negative on the scene which saw Hahn kiss Callie in an elevator in front of Mark Sloan . Weiss commented : " I just felt like , if they really cared about each other , I don 't think they would do that as a stunt . That seemed a little , I don 't know , forced . [ ... ] [ It ] was more like a conquest , like he could have [ Hahn ] too or something . " LGBT website AfterEllen.com agreed with this view , criticizing the way the scene was edited so as to keep cutting to Sloan 's point of view , as though " privileging the male gaze . " AfterEllen.com included Torres in their list of the Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters , ranking her at No. 6 and in their Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters . The character was also listed in Wetpaint 's " 10 Hottest TV Doctors on TV " .
Commenting on Hahn 's abrupt departure from the show , Dorothy Snarker , writing for AfterEllen.com , observed of Torres and Robbins ' relationship : " I [ ... ] can 't help but be wary of how the Grey 's writers will handle this relationship . Jessica has proven lovely and likable in her brief screen time so far . But it 's not how the romance starts , but what happens next that really matters . " Speaking of the musical episode , Nicole Golden of TV Fanatic called Ramirez 's rendition of " Chasing Cars " " amazing " and referred to her performance in Kate Havnevik 's " Grace " as " beautiful " . Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine was happy with the evolution of Bailey and Torres ' friendship in the first half of the ninth season , calling it " the one bright spot " : " They joke , they tease each other , they offer sage love advice to one another , now that they 're both on their second marriages . " Ramirez was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series at the Alma Awards , in 2007 and 2008 . Also in 2007 , at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards , Ramirez and the cast of Grey 's Anatomy , were the recipients of the Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series . She and the cast were nominated for the same award , in 2008 . In 2011 , at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards , Ramirez was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series . She was ranked at no . 7 in AfterEllen.com 's list of " Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters "
= Bugun liocichla =
The Bugun liocichla ( Liocichla bugunorum ) is a passerine bird species from the Leiothrichidae family closely related to the Emei Shan liocichla . First spotted in 1995 in Arunachal Pradesh , India , it was described as a new species in 2006 . The description was made without the collection of a type specimen as they were too few to risk killing one . It is thought to be an endangered species , with the only known population estimated to consist of 14 individuals and commercial development threatening the habitat of this population .
= = Description = =
The Bugun liocichla is a small babbler ( 22 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) ) with olive @-@ grey plumage and a black cap . The face is marked with prominent orange @-@ yellow lores , and the wings have yellow , red and white patches . The tail is black with crimson coloured undertail coverts and red tips . The feet are pink and the bill is black at the face fading to pale white . A second duller individual was mist netted , which was probably the female . The voice is described as fluty and distinctive .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
All sightings of the species have been at an altitude of 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) on disturbed hillsides covered with shrubs and small trees , with the exception of one sighting on the edge of primary forest . It lives in a territory similar to that of the Emei Shan liocichla . Small flocks were observed during January , whereas pairs were observed in May , with an estimated total of 14 individuals . It is thought that pairs may hold and defend territories . The Bugun liocichla is only currently known from just one location . Populations may be discovered in other areas of Arunachal Pradesh or neighbouring Bhutan .
Attempts have been made to identify new locations where the species could occur based on identification of suitable habitats using computational models .
= = Species discovery = =
The species was described in 2006 after being discovered in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh , India , by an astrophysicist , Ramana Athreya . The species was first spotted in the sanctuary in 1995 but was not seen again for ten years . Athreya spotted them again in January 2005 but did not publicize it until he was able to confirm it to be a new species . It was initially identified as appearing most similar to an Emei Shan liocichla , Liocichla omeiensis , a species of Liocichla endemic to China . It was however distinctly different and the full description was finally made by capturing and examining two individuals using mistnets , in May 2006 . Due to the apparent rarity of the species no type specimen was collected , instead feathers from the mist net , photographs , recordings and notes were used as the holotype . The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature does not allow for new species to be described without the collection of type specimens , but this provision was circumvented in this case by the collection of feathers ( the Code allows for " any part of an animal " to be treated as a type specimen ; Art. 72 @.@ 5 @.@ 1 ) . The 1991 description of the Bulo Burti boubou ( Laniarius liberatus ) , an African bushshrike species later considered invalid , lacked a specimen and only blood samples were collected and has been more controversial .
The first report of the species was first made in a posting to the Nathistory @-@ India , an electronic mailing list in 1996 . It was only in 2006 , however that the species was formally described .
= = = Etymology = = =
The species ' scientific and common names are derived from the Bugun tribe in whose communal forests the species was discovered .
= = Threats and conservation = =
For a " spectacular bird " with distinctive calls to have been overlooked until 1995 suggests that the species is not common . Only three breeding pairs are currently known and is listed as critically endangered . While the species is capable of living in degraded forests , its small population is considered threatened , especially in the light of plans to build a highway through an area thought to be its primary habitat .
= New York State Route 418 =
New York State Route 418 ( NY 418 ) is a 3 @.@ 50 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 63 km ) state highway located entirely within the Adirondack Park in Warren County , New York , in the United States . The route begins just west of the hamlet of Thurman Station , where Athol Road changes designations from County Route 4 ( CR 4 ) to NY 418 . It heads eastward through the towns of Thurman and Warrensburg , following the Schroon River to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in the hamlet of Warrensburg . All of NY 418 is part of the Dude Ranch Trail , a New York State Scenic Byway that runs through Warren County and Saratoga County .
The origins of NY 418 date back to the 19th century when Thurman Station and Warrensburg were first connected by way of a road . This highway was reconstructed by the state of New York during the early 1910s and added to the state highway system in 1915 . It was designated as NY 418 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The highway has remained mainly unchanged since , save for the replacement of its bridges over the Schroon and the Hudson Rivers in the 1930s and 1940s , respectively .
= = Route description = =
NY 418 begins just southwest of Thurman Station , a hamlet within the town of Thurman , where Athol Road shifts from county maintenance ( as CR 4 ) to state maintenance ( as NY 418 ) . It heads northeastward along the base of Sugarloaf Mountain , one of the Three Sisters Mountains , as it passes an area with very little development . The route continues along a northeasterly trek to Thurman Station , where it intersects with River Road in the center of the isolated community . At this point , the route turns southeastward and crosses the Upper Hudson River Railroad at @-@ grade before passing over the Hudson River on the Thurman Station Bridge . NY 418 passes into the town of Warrensburg at the midpoint of the bridge .
On the opposite riverbank , the route turns eastward to follow the eastern bank of the Schroon River through an undeveloped portion of Warrensburg comprising little more than forests . The route winds along the bank of river to the hamlet of Warrensburg , where the route becomes River Street and heads past several blocks of houses . At Alden Avenue , the route curves to the northeast , mirroring the curvature of the river through Warrensburg . It continues along the waterway to the junction of Ridge and River Streets , where NY 418 turns north onto Richards Avenue and finally crosses the river on a truss bridge . The route meets Water Street ( CR 9 ) on the opposite bank before continuing northward past several commercial properties to the center of Warrensburg , where NY 418 ends at an intersection with US 9 ( Main Street ) .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 418 date back to 1896 , by which time a road had been constructed between Thurman Station and Warrensburg . In 1912 , the state of New York solicited bids for a project to improve the road to state highway standards . On June 12 , 1912 , the contract for the project was awarded to the Joseph Walker Construction Company of Albany for $ 35 @,@ 776 ( equivalent to $ 877 @,@ 252 in 2016 ) . About $ 3 @,@ 400 worth of upgrades were made to the highway before the contract was cancelled . The state resolicited bids for the project in February 1914 and let a $ 35 @,@ 231 ( equivalent to $ 832 @,@ 318 in 2016 ) contract for the project on February 20 , 1914 . The highway was rebuilt as a stone highway bound by asphalt . The upgraded highway was accepted into the state highway system on January 8 , 1915 .
The Thurman Station – Warrensburg state highway was designated as NY 418 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 418 's alignment has not been substantially altered since that time ; however , parts of the route have been upgraded since 1930 . In 1933 , the original bridge that carried NY 418 over the Schroon River in Warrensburg was replaced with a new truss bridge 50 @.@ 3 meters ( 165 ft ) in length . The route 's original bridge over the Hudson River near Thurman Station was replaced in 1941 with the Thurman Station Bridge , another truss bridge 133 @.@ 5 meters ( 438 ft ) long . The bridges were reconstructed by the New York State Department of Transportation in 2000 and 1995 , respectively .
Parts of NY 418 run through a proposed tourism district known as the First Wilderness Heritage Corridor . The corridor , conceived by Warren County , is intended to revitalize the Hudson River corridor by turning it into a tourist destination . Areas currently being studied for future development include the primarily residential and agricultural areas around Thurman Station , the privately owned train station along NY 418 in this same area , and two vacant lots adjacent to the Hudson River on NY 418 . At some point in time , the entire length of NY 418 was included as part of the Dude Ranch Trail , a New York State Scenic Byway that connects Lake George to the Hudson River .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Warren County .
= Beat ' em up =
Beat ' em up ( also known as brawler ) is a video game genre featuring hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat between the protagonist and an improbably large number of opponents . These games typically take place in urban settings and feature crime @-@ fighting and revenge @-@ based plots , though some games may employ historical , sci @-@ fi or fantasy themes . Traditional beat ' em ups take place in scrolling , two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) levels , though some later games feature more open three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) environments with yet larger numbers of enemies . These games are noted for their simple gameplay , a source of both critical acclaim and derision . Two @-@ player cooperative gameplay and multiple player characters are also hallmarks of the genre .
The first influential beat ' em up was 1984 's Kung @-@ Fu Master , with 1986 's Renegade introducing the urban settings and underworld revenge themes employed extensively by later games . The genre then saw a period of high popularity between the release of Double Dragon in 1987 , which defined the two @-@ player cooperative mode central to classic beat ' em ups , and 1991 's Street Fighter II , which drew gamers towards one @-@ on @-@ one fighting games . Games such as Streets of Rage , Final Fight and Golden Axe are other classics to emerge from this period . The genre has been less popular since the emergence of 3D @-@ based mass @-@ market games , but still some beat ' em ups adapted the simple formula to utilize large @-@ scale 3D environments .
= = Definition = =
A beat ' em up ( sometimes also called " brawlers " ) is a type of action game where the player character must fight a large number of enemies in unarmed combat or with melee weapons . Gameplay consists of walking through a level , one section at a time , defeating a group of enemies before advancing to the next section ; a boss fight normally occurs at the end of each level . However arcade versions of these games are often quite difficult to win , causing players to spend more money to try to win .
Beat ' em ups are related to — but distinct from — fighting games , which are based around one @-@ on @-@ one matches rather than scrolling levels and multiple enemies . Such terminology is loosely applied , however , as some commentators prefer to conflate the two terms . At times , both one @-@ on @-@ one fighting games and scrolling beat ' em ups have influenced each other in terms of graphics and style and can appeal to fans of either genre . Occasionally , a game will feature both kinds of gameplay .
= = Game design = =
Beat ' em up games usually employ vigilante crime fighting and revenge plots with the action taking place on city streets , though historical and fantasy themed games also exist . Players must walk from one end of the game world to the other , and thus each game level will usually scroll horizontally . Some later beat ' em ups dispense with 2D @-@ based scrolling levels , instead allowing the player to roam around larger 3D environments , though they retain the same simple gameplay and control systems . Throughout the level , players may acquire weapons that they can use as well as power @-@ ups that replenish the player 's health .
As players walk through the level , they are stopped by groups of enemies who must be defeated before they can continue . The level ends when all the enemies are defeated . Each level contains many identical groups of enemies , making these games notable for their repetition . In beat ' em up games , players often fight a boss — an enemy much stronger than the other enemies — at the end of each level .
Beat ' em ups often allow the player to choose between a selection of protagonists — each with their own strengths , weaknesses , and set of moves . Attacks can include rapid combinations of basic attacks ( combos ) as well as jumping and grappling attacks . Characters often have their own special attacks , which leads to different strategies depending on which character the player selects . The control system is usually simple to learn , comprising as little as two buttons . These buttons can be combined to pull off combos , as well as jumping and grappling attacks . Since the release of Double Dragon , many beat ' em ups have allowed two players to play the game cooperatively — a central aspect to the appeal of these games . Beat ' em ups are more likely to feature cooperative play than other game genres .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The first game to feature fist fighting was Sega 's boxing game Heavyweight Champ ( 1976 ) , which is viewed from a side @-@ view perspective like later fighting games . However , it was Data East 's fighting game Karate Champ ( 1984 ) which popularized martial arts themed games . The same year , Irem 's Hong Kong cinema @-@ inspired Kung @-@ Fu Master ( known as Spartan X in Japan ) laid the foundations for side @-@ scrolling beat ' em ups with its simple gameplay and multiple enemies . Also in 1984 , Bruce Lee combined multi @-@ player , multi @-@ character combat with traditional collecting , platform and puzzle gameplay . Later that year , Karateka combined the one @-@ on @-@ one fight sequences of Karate Champ with the freedom of movement in Kung @-@ Fu Master , and it successfully experimented with adding plot to its fighting action . It was also among the first beat ' em ups to be successfully ported to home systems . Nekketsu Kōha Kunio @-@ kun , released in 1986 in Japan , deviated from the martial arts themes of earlier games and introduced street brawling to the genre . The Western adaptation Renegade ( released the same year ) added an underworld revenge plot that proved more popular with gamers than the principled combat sport of other games . Renegade set the standard for future beat ' em up games as it introduced the ability to move both horizontally and vertically . It also introduced the use of combo attacks ; in contrast to earlier games , the opponents in Renegade and Double Dragon could take much more punishment , requiring a succession of punches , with the first hit temporarily immobilizing the enemy , making him unable to defend himself against successive punches .
= = = Golden age = = =
In 1987 , the release of Double Dragon ushered in a " Golden Age " for the beat ' em up genre that lasted nearly five years . The game was designed as Technōs Japan 's spiritual successor to Renegade , but it took the genre to new heights with its detailed set of martial arts attacks and its outstanding two @-@ player cooperative gameplay . Double Dragon 's success resulted in a flood of beat ' em ups that came in the late 1980s , where acclaimed titles such as Golden Axe and Final Fight ( both 1989 ) distinguished themselves from the others . Final Fight was Capcom 's intended sequel to Street Fighter ( provisionally titled Street Fighter ' 89 ) , but the company ultimately gave it a new title . In contrast to the simple combo attacks in Renegade and Double Dragon , the combo attacks in Final Fight were much more dynamic . Acclaimed as the best game in the genre , Final Fight spawned two sequels and was later ported to other systems . Final Fight was also the cause for Capcom to be famous and for Technos Japan 's bankruptcy . Golden Axe was acclaimed for its visceral hack and slash action and cooperative mode and was influential through its selection of multiple protagonists with distinct fighting styles . It is considered one of the strongest beat ' em up titles for its fantasy elements , distinguishing it from the urban settings seen in other beat ' em ups . Another beat ' em up — River City Ransom ( 1989 ) , named Street Gangs in Europe — featured role @-@ playing game elements with which the player 's character could be upgraded , using money stolen from defeated enemies .
The Streets of Rage series was launched in the early 1990s and borrowed heavily from Final Fight . Streets of Rage 2 for Sega 's Mega Drive was notable for being one of the first console games to match the acclaim of arcade beat ' em ups . Its level design was praised for taking traditional beat ' em up settings and stringing them together in novel ways , and its success led to it being ported to arcades . The beat ' em up was also a popular genre for video games based on television series and movies , with Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles a surprise success , and encouraged many more beat ' em up games based on the characters . However , the " golden age " of the genre ended in the wake of the success of Capcom 's Street Fighter II ( 1991 ) , which drew gamers back towards one @-@ on @-@ one fighting games , while the subsequent emerging popularity of 3D video games diminished the popularity of 2D @-@ based pugilistic games in general . By the mid @-@ 1990s , the genre suffered from a lack of innovation .
= = = 32 @-@ bit era onward = = =
Core Design 's Fighting Force ( 1997 ) was anticipated to redefine the genre for 32 @-@ bit consoles through its use of a 3D environment . However , it was met with a lukewarm reception . The Dynasty Warriors series , beginning with Dynasty Warriors 2 in 2000 , offered traditional beat ' em up action on large 3D battlefields , displaying dozens of characters on the screen at a time . The series to date spans 14 games ( including expansions ) which players in the West view as overly similar , although the games ' creators claim their large audience in Japan appreciates the subtle differences between the titles . While critics saw Dynasty Warriors 2 as innovative and technically impressive , they held a mixed opinion of later titles . These later games received praise for simple , enjoyable gameplay but were simultaneously derided as overly simplistic and repetitive . Another best @-@ selling Japanese series , Yakuza , combined elaborate plots and detailed interactive environments with street brawling action . Despite these releases , game reviewers started to pronounce that the genre had died off . By 2002 , there were virtually no new beat ' em ups being released in arcades .
Capcom 's Viewtiful Joe ( 2003 ) used cel @-@ shaded graphics and innovative gameplay features ( such as the protagonist 's special powers ) to " reinvigorate " its traditional 2D scrolling formula . The Behemoth 's Castle Crashers ( 2008 ) also featured cartoon graphics , quirky humor , and acclaimed cooperative gameplay . Rockstar Games ' The Warriors ( based on the 1979 movie of the same name ) , released in 2005 , featured large scale brawling in 3D environments interspersed with other activities such as chase sequences . The game also featured a more traditional side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up Armies of the Night as bonus content , which was acclaimed along with the main game and was later released on the PlayStation Portable . Releases such as God Hand in 2006 and MadWorld in 2009 were seen as parodies of violence in popular culture , earning both games praise for not taking themselves as seriously as early beat ' em up games . Classic beat ' em ups have been
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battles " and are " stronger than the mightiest forts of Valendia " . In its golden years , Leá Monde was a thriving community until an earthquake struck the town 25 years before the game , destroying the city and leaving the ground unstable .
The Grand Cathedral and the Temple of Kiltia are at the center of the city . This area is surrounded by the west and east districts , both in fairly good shape , as well as the massive , fortress @-@ like City Walls . Beneath the ground are an abandoned mineshaft and limestone quarry , the shadowy labyrinths of an " Undercity " , and the dark Iron Maiden dungeon . The maze @-@ like Snowfly Forest , named for the so @-@ called snowflies that can be found within , covers part of the city . Other locations include the Graylands , the setting for the prologue event ; and Valnain , the city where the Valendia Knights of Peace 's Headquarters is located . While Valendia and Leá Monde are fictitious , the game 's scenery is inspired by real @-@ life landscapes of the southwest of France , including the city of Saint @-@ Émilion .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist is Ashley Riot , a male member of the Valendia Knights of the Peace ( VKP ) in pursuit of a cult leader named Sydney Losstarot . Sydney , leader of the religious cult Müllenkamp , laid siege to Duke Bardorba 's manor in search of a key and kidnapped Bardorba 's son , Joshua . Ashley 's partner is Callo Merlose , an agent of the VKP Inquisitors . Also attempting to capture Sydney is Romeo Guildenstern of the Crimson Blades , whose mission was undertaken without the approval of the VKP .
Ashley is a Riskbreaker , a militant division of the VKP responsible for upholding state security and law . Although Callo accompanies him , Ashley does not accept her as a combat partner due to her lack of combat experience . Callo ends up being Sydney 's hostage and discovers the truth of Müllenkamp 's activities . Another Riskbreaker , Rosencrantz , appears during Ashley 's battles in Leá Monde , briefing him on the plans of the VKP , Sydney and the Cardinal , and subsequently his take on Ashley 's past . This casts suspicion on Ashley 's behalf , as Riskbreakers always work alone .
The Crimson Blades , under direct orders of Cardinal Batistum , are a group that is part of the Cardinal 's Knights of the Cross , in charge of seeking heretics and quelling cults . Romeo Guildenstern , their leader , is a pious man , deeply faithful to his belief and consequently immune to the Dark 's powers . Under orders of the Cardinal , he pursues Sydney with a small army in his command and his captains : Samantha , Duane , Grissom , Tieger and Neesa .
Müllenkamp is a cult based in Leá Monde . The city suffered a catastrophe when the population was killed in an earthquake . The city , filled with corpses controlled by Darkness , is the cult 's stronghold . Sydney and his accomplice , Hardin , survive the pursuit of the Crimson Blade , though Hardin sometimes doubts Sydney 's intentions .
= = = Story = = =
The plot of Vagrant Story , titled " The Phantom Pain " , is presented as the prelude to the " story of the wanderer " . Beginning in the Graylands , Ashley and Callo are sent by the VKP to Duke Bardorba 's manor to investigate the Duke 's involvement with Müllenkamp and the Cardinal 's interest in Sydney Losstarot . Ashley infiltrates the manor and encounters Sydney , witnessing his powers first hand . Sydney escapes with his accomplice Hardin and the Duke 's son Joshua , leaving Ashley with a clue to his whereabouts . This event was dubbed the " Graylands Incident " .
Ashley and Callo arrive in Leá Monde and a lone Ashley infiltrates the city through the underground wine cellars . Along the way , he learns of objects holding magical power known as Grimoires and the city 's power to spawn the undead and mythological creatures . He encounters Guildenstern and his lover Samantha , and learns of the condition known as incomplete death and the Cardinal 's true intention for his pursuit of Sydney : immortality . The Crimson Blades confront Ashley and reveals his presence to Guildenstern .
Escaping unharmed , Ashley encounters Rosencrantz who intends to join him , though Ashley declines . Rosencrantz tells him of the VKP and the Parliaments ' knowledge of the dark powers of Leá Monde , and that the hidden powers deep within a person can be unleashed with the help of the Dark . In his encounters with Sydney , Ashley is shown visions of his past , where his wife Tia and his son Marco are killed by rogues . Meeting Rosencrantz again , Ashley is told that they were not his family , but mistaken targets he killed during a mission of theirs . Ashley 's guilt over their deaths was manipulated by the VKP to turn Ashley into a loyal Riskbreaker . Ashley recalls his hidden battle skills and experiences " clairvoyance " , seeing the progress of the Crimson Blades , which leads him to the Great Cathedral .
Sydney had captured Callo earlier and brought her with them . Callo learned that Hardin was skeptical of Sydney 's plans . She begins to develop the powers of " heart @-@ seeing " , a form of telepathy , as they continue their escape deeper into Leá Monde . With her powers , she learned of Sydney 's intentions and Hardin 's reason to join Müllenkamp and his closeness to Joshua . Sydney left them to stop the others from advancing ; taunting Guildenstern and Samantha , and provoking Ashley to follow him as he intends to bestow his powers upon Ashley . Ashley was not interested in inheriting the powers of Darkness ; seeing that Callo had been captured , his only intention is to rescue her .
While discussing the Gran Grimoire , a powerful source of magic , Guildenstern and Samantha discover ancient Kildean letterings carved throughout the city walls . Rosencrantz reveals that the city is the Gran Grimoire and its power lies at the city center : the Grand Cathedral . As Guildenstern leaves for the Grand Cathedral , Rosencrantz searches for Ashley and Sydney . Finding them , Rosencrantz , confident in his immunity against Darkness , tries to force Sydney to surrender his powers . Rosencrantz also assaults Ashley to prove that he is not a suitable candidate for the powers of Darkness . Sydney refuses to listen and kills Rosencrantz by using a possessed statue , leaving Ashley to once again prove himself as his chosen successor .
Guildenstern continues on to the Great Cathedral in the center of the city , leading him to Callo , Hardin and Joshua . Interrogating Hardin about a certain " key " known as the Blood @-@ Sin , Guildenstern reveals his intentions in acquiring the Dark 's powers . Sydney arrives to teleport Hardin and the rest away , leaving him to Guildenstern . Guildenstern acquires the " key " from him and murders Samantha as his sacrifice for the powers of darkness . Ashley arrives later and listens as Sydney reveals his true intentions . Ashley then confronts Guildenstern and manages to defeat him .
Upon Guildenstern 's defeat , Ashley , now bearing the " key " , carries Sydney out of the collapsing city . The creatures spawned within the city begin to disappear . Callo , Hardin and Joshua escape the city , though Hardin dies and the fate of Callo and Joshua remains unknown . In the epilogue , Ashley goes to visit the ailing Duke Bardorba in his manor , although once they were alone , it was Sydney who was in the room . Sydney tells the duke that he had found a suitable heir to the Darkness in Ashley , and that their plan to inherit the powers of Darkness was successful . The duke then proceeds to kill Sydney , and he himself died soon after of unknown causes . In a report received by the VKP a week after the Graylands Incident , the duke was believed to be murdered , and Ashley became the prime suspect , though he was never found again .
= = Development = =
Matsuno , the game 's producer and director , preferred to create a new game title from scratch and use design ideas from staff collaborations , rather than reusing popular characters and designs that are found in sequels . Vagrant Story is regarded as a mixture of genres , as it contains elements of role @-@ playing in its battles and platform games when in the field map . Matsuno explained that the development team was not eager to place Vagrant Story into a specific genre , preferring to create the game with a genre of its own .
During the design phase , Matsuno was shown photographs from France , particularly Saint @-@ Émilion in the region of Bordeaux . This region was visited by one of Matsuno 's colleagues , who was a wine enthusiast and favored Saint @-@ Émilion , one of the largest vineyards of Bordeaux . Captivated by this small town 's architecture , the design team went on a trip to France to adopt these styles into the game . A team of five people was formed on September 1998 , including Matsuno and the principal persons in charge of graphics and decorations , to realize the game 's setting .
Development of the game began in January 1998 , spanning two years with manpower that steadily increased from 20 to 50 at peak development phase . The storyline conceived for the game follows Ashley Riot 's origins as a dedicated government agent prior to being the titular " vagrant " who is " involved in many incidents " after the events in Leá Monde . Inspiration for the plot is derived from Hollywood " classic and blockbuster " films as well as European and Asian films . The gameplay was conceived to cater to hardcore gamers who do not " ask for hints and read through strategy guides " . However , Matsuno revealed that over half of the game 's story was cut due to capacity and development time constraints . Memory issues was considered the most challenging aspect of the game development , with the team forced to adjust the game 's interface , texture mapping and polygon mesh in maps , as well as removing gaming elements such as AI @-@ controlled supporting non @-@ player characters that would have joined Ashley in the middle of the game .
Vagrant Story was conceived during a time when most games had made the transition into three @-@ dimensional graphics . Games with real @-@ time polygons were the mainstream , and it was decided for Vagrant Story to follow this trend . Murata , the main programmer , expressed his concerns in working towards a large @-@ scale three @-@ dimensional game for the first time . To avoid discrepancies in the frame rate caused by the large number of polygon models , the modeling team had to select an aspect of each character to focus their attention . Art director Minagawa mentioned that painstaking detail were given to each individual model , even to characters that only appear for a few seconds in the game . The same character models were used throughout the game to create a seamless transition between event cutscenes and actual gameplay . The sound effects of Vagrant Story are credited to Minoru Akao , the game 's sound programmer ; and Tomohiro Yajima , the sound editor and engineer .
= = = Releases = = =
A demo disc of Vagrant Story was included in the packaging of Seiken Densetsu : Legend of Mana in Japan . During the Square Millennium Event held by Square in Tokyo , movies of Vagrant Story such as the opening sequence and the weapon crafting system were presented to onlookers . Matsuno stated that a normal playthrough would take the player five to six hours to complete .
In North America , Vagrant Story was released as part of Square 's " Summer of Adventure " that lasted from May to September 2000 . Vagrant Story was released with two discs ; the first disc is the game itself , while the second disc is a demo disc released by Square to give the player a preview of seven titles . The seven titles include three interactive demos and four non @-@ interactive demos ; the former being Chocobo Racing , Front Mission 3 and Threads of Fate , and the latter Chrono Cross , SaGa Frontier 2 , Chocobo 's Dungeon 2 and Legend of Mana . Both discs were included in the North American release on May 15 , 2000 . Due to a ruling by the Quebec government that video game titles in Canada should be sold with both French and English @-@ language instructions , Vagrant Story 's release was delayed in Canada . In the European PAL release , the game did not feature the additional demo disc .
= = = Merchandise = = =
On April 13 , 2000 , DigiCube published the Vagrant Story Ultimania , the official 496 @-@ page strategy guide for the game with the ISBN 4 @-@ 925075 @-@ 75 @-@ 6 . The contents include staff interviews , a detailed background story , and information on monsters and items . On July 20 , 2006 , the book was republished by Studio BentStuff and Square Enix . Other merchandise include jewellery , T @-@ shirts , cigarette lighters and posters featuring character artwork and CG renders . For the North American release , a 16 @-@ page comic @-@ book tie @-@ in with art by Steve Firchow , Clarence Lansang and Michael Turner of Witchblade fame was published by Eruptor Entertainment and Squaresoft . The comic was freely distributed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2000 and included an interview between Matsuno and Square Electronic Arts assistant product manager Andrew Shiozaki .
= = = Music = = =
The original score for Vagrant Story was composed , arranged , and produced by Hitoshi Sakimoto , whose previous video game works included the soundtracks to Radiant Silvergun and Final Fantasy Tactics , with additional arrangement by Takeharu Ishimoto for Track 2 – 30 and Hirosato Noda for Track 2 – 31 . A Japanese orchestra ensemble , Shinozuka Group , performed for the orchestral piece of Track 2 – 29 . All synthesizing operations are led by Takeharu Ishimoto with assistance from Hidenori Iwasaki for Track 1 – 1 and Hirosato Noda for Track 2 – 18 .
Sakimoto noted that during the initial phase , he composed " bright and cheerful " tunes similar to Final Fantasy Tactics , but Matsuno emphasized music that was " more deep and heavy " . Matsuno also advised him to listen to music from The X @-@ Files for ideas on ambient scores , and Sakimoto pointed out influences of James Horner and Hans Zimmer in his compositions . Sakimoto was impressed with the dedication of the development team to the game , and expressed uneasiness trying to come up with music during the game previews . Sakimoto created themes for each character and monster , and made several changes in their melody to reflect their relationships , feelings as well as antagonistic views . The soundtrack for Vagrant Story remains to be one of Sakimoto 's favorite compositions .
The album was first released on two Compact Discs by DigiCube on March 8 , 2000 bearing the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10042 . It was subsequently re @-@ released by Square Enix on March 24 , 2006 with the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10068 / 9 ; the re @-@ release removed some of the original PlayStation synth reverb , yielding a slightly different version of the audio . The CDs contain 57 tracks , including two remixes and tracks that were not used in the game . Packaged with it is a small booklet featuring interviews with the composer and character artworks .
Tracklist
= = Reception = =
In May 2000 , Vagrant Story was the fifth best @-@ selling PlayStation title of the month . 100 @,@ 000 units were sold in the first 20 days of the game 's release , despite being overshadowed by other Square titles like Final Fantasy IX and Chrono Cross . Vagrant Story was the third of twenty games to date , and the only game on the PlayStation , to receive a perfect score of 40 from Famitsu magazine .
Reviews were generally positive — multimedia news websites IGN and GameSpot praised the gameplay and story . IGN described the story as " so deep and intuitive that it 'll likely please fans " , and said the battle system maintains " a needed element of strategy and balance " . The graphics were seen as a breakaway from the clichés of Square 's contemporary titles . Extensive detail was given to the background settings and character expressions . The game 's sound effects have been praised as " well done and impressive , straying from Square 's synthed noise " , as details such as the background audio help create a believable world for the player .
The battle system , however , was described by GameSpot as too complex for beginner players , as even hard @-@ core players require a " comprehensive understanding " of the weapon customization system . IGN pointed out that enemy encounters can be more difficult than boss battles . 1UP.com noted that the game 's inventory was too limited for the vast number of customizations possible ; this was considered particularly troublesome because some boss enemies are only vulnerable to certain types of weapons .
Alexander O. Smith is responsible for the English localization of Vagrant Story , using archaic English as compared to its straightforward Japanese version . His effort on translating Vagrant Story was described by Andrew Vestal as an " unparalleled — and unprecedented — work " of Japanese to English video game translation , " in spite of the occasional typo or grammatical hiccup " , as quoted by IGN . Vagrant Story was awarded " Best PlayStation Game " in the E3 2000 IGN Awards and was nominated for Best Console Action / Adventure in the 4th Annual Interactive Achievements Awards held by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences .
= = = Legacy = = =
Three years after its 2000 release , Vagrant Story was selected as one of Sony 's Greatest Hits . Games released as Greatest Hits were sold at a lower price , often increasing units sold . Vagrant Story is also part of Ultimate Hits , Square Enix 's main budget range . The game was later made playable on Sony 's PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3 consoles when Square Enix announced the title 's release on the PlayStation Stores in Japan , Europe and North America .
The 2006 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy XII contains several references to Vagrant Story . Terms such as Riskbreaker , Leámonde and Kildea ( albeit with different spellings in the localizations ) , are commonly used in both games . According to an interview with Joypad , a French gaming magazine , in 2004 , Yasumi Matsuno claimed during its development that Ivalice , the game world he created when he joined Square in 1995 , is a complex world with a very long history and the stories of Vagrant Story , Final Fantasy Tactics , and Final Fantasy XII are said to unfold quite close on the Ivalice map . The original plan , however , was not to place Vagrant Story in the Ivalice universe . Matsuno stated in 2011 via his Twitter account that the plot elements of Final Fantasy Tactics found in Vagrant Story were meant to be intertextual reference to the Ivalice title as a form of " fan service " .
Vagrant Story is acknowledged as a game with an " extreme popularity " outside Japan eight years after it was first released . In October 2007 , during an interview with the development team responsible for the remake of Final Fantasy Tactics for the PlayStation Portable , Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , Executive Producer Akitoshi Kawazu was asked about the possibility of a remake or port of the title to the PSP . Kawazu mentioned that it is " the next natural candidate for such an update " , although there would be difficulty in porting the game , because it was a title that already pushed the original PlayStation to its technical limits . Kawazu also remarked that bringing the character Ashley Riot into other Ivalice titles would be difficult since , even in Vagrant Story , " there 's really not that much learn ( ed ) about Ashley Riot " .
= Rae Wilson =
Rae Wilson is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Alice Barlow . She appeared in the series from 5 October 2009 until 13 September 2011 . Actress Helen Russell @-@ Clark – who went on to play Jem Costello – originally auditioned for the role , but the part was awarded to Barlow . Producer Lucy Allan said Barlow was her favourite addition to the cast during 2009 .
Initially portrayed as an imaginary character in a schizophrenia storyline , Rae was later revealed to be real when she arrived to study in Hollyoaks . She was central to a controversial suicide storyline , and was part of a love triangle with Ste Hay ( Kieron Richardson ) and Brendan Brady ( Emmett J. Scanlan ) , which left her pregnant by Ste . She miscarried during an argument with Brendan and subsequently feuded with him ; Barlow praised her character for being one of the few who dared to oppose the Hollyoaks villain . Rae was originally characterised as a chav with a feisty persona , but underwent a transformation when she attempted to embrace domestic life with Ste . During series four of the post @-@ watershed spin @-@ off Hollyoaks Later , Rae was murdered by a serial killer , Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) . The late broadcast slot allowed an explicit depiction of her death . Barlow hoped that Rae would be remembered for her strong @-@ willed nature , and that her exit would be considered one of the best in the programme 's history .
In 2011 , Barlow won an All About Soap award for Rae 's love @-@ triangle storyline . AfterElton criticised the lack of character development Rae received , and along with the Sunday Mercury , bemoaned the dearth of realism exhibited in Rae staying with Ste despite knowing that he was homosexual . Readers of the soap opera magazine Inside Soap indicated that they did not want Silas to murder Rae .
= = Creation and casting = =
At a July 2009 Hollyoaks press day , series producer Lucy Allan announced that there would be a " big stunt " involving schizophrenic character Barry " Newt " Newton ( Nico Mirallegro ) in October of that year . It was later revealed that a new character , Rae , would join the serial as part of a " shock suicide plot " involving Newt , in which the two characters would jump off a bridge . Alice Barlow 's casting as Rae was announced in October 2009 . Barlow stated that she was " absolutely on top of the world " to receive the part , particularly as one of her childhood dreams was to appear in a soap opera . Helen Russell @-@ Clark – who went on to play Jem Costello in the serial – also auditioned for Rae , and reached the final stages of casting . Allan said Rae was one of her favourite additions to the cast in 2009 and expressed her pride in Barlow 's performance , saying , " to introduce a character as somebody and then to completely change the character six weeks later , while still delivering the performances that Alice does , is a testament to a young actress . " In early 2011 , Barlow decided to leave Hollyoaks to pursue other projects . Her departure was kept secret until her exit scenes were aired . Barlow described her time with the programme as " the perfect end " to her teenage years and said she could not " have asked for anything better . "
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
In her corporeal state , Rae has gone through a series of transformations . Initially a rather angry chav , she relaunched herself as a DJ . Entanglement in a Stendan love triangle then saw her embrace life as a housewife and carer of small children , but when that didn 't work out she opted to re @-@ relaunch her DJ career .
During her first appearances as a figment of Newt 's imagination , Rae was depicted as a goth with an emo persona . When she was reintroduced as a real person , Rae 's character was more reminiscent to that of a chav . The character later underwent a transitional period ; she retained her strong personality , but displayed a weaker side resulting from the setbacks she encountered . Barlow found the role challenging , as her own personality is dissimilar from her character 's . She described Rae as someone who always makes her opinion known , and hoped she would be remembered for her strong @-@ willed persona .
= = = Suicide pact = = =
Rae was introduced as Newt 's imaginary friend . They made a suicide pact , and jumped off a bridge together into deep water . The stunt was filmed at Stanley Dock in Liverpool , where a 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) tower was erected for them to jump from . Although stunt doubles were available , both Barlow and Mirallegro decided to perform their own stunts , and spent around four minutes filming underwater . The storyline received prominent coverage in the media days before the scenes were due to be broadcast because two young girls in Scotland had died in a similar suicide pact , having jumped from the Erskine Bridge into the River Clyde . Channel 4 decided to broadcast the Hollyoaks scenes as planned , and released a statement which explained :
We feel it is appropriate to continue with the transmission of these episodes as this is not a one @-@ off programme but an established and long @-@ running series . The audience will be familiar with the character of Newt and this plotline , which has been both trailed and promoted , has been developing over a number of weeks . Hollyoaks has a strong track record of dealing with sensitive issues , and the transmission will be followed by a programme support announcement directing viewers to a 24 @-@ hour helpline .
The care home in which the two deceased girls had been housed criticised the decision , and deemed the broadcast " likely to cause further distress . "
Allan said the underwater sequence following the bridge jump was her favourite scene of 2009 . She said , " It was a beautiful moment on screen and it was the moment that the audience realised that Newt was trying to kill himself . For me , that moment of realisation made that scene so powerful . " Once the suicide storyline had concluded , it was revealed that Rae was a real character in the series .
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = = Rae , Ste and Brendan = = = =
Following Newt 's departure from the series , Rae began dating Ste Hay ( Kieron Richardson ) . A love triangle formed between Rae , Ste and Brendan Brady ( Emmett J. Scanlan ) , who wanted Ste for himself . Scanlan said that Brendan 's actions – paying Veronica ( Lynsey McLaren ) to try and split Ste and Rae up , and giving Ste money to stay away from Rae – demonstrated Brendan 's willingness to use " power and manipulation " . Unaware that Ste and Brendan had begun an affair , Rae discovered that she was pregnant . All About Soap magazine wrote that Rae was " knocked sideways " by the discovery , and noted her uncertainty at the prospect of becoming a teenage mother . Brendan and Ste decide to end their affair for Rae 's sake , but soon resumed their relationship .
Rae ultimately learnt of the affair ; Richardson characterised her response as being " shocked and angry " , and Barlow told Inside Soap magazine that the revelation left her character " more torn than ever . " The discovery prompted Rae to consider having an abortion , but Brendan convinced her not to , and revealed that he once lost his own child . Barlow called the scenes " really heartfelt stuff " , and explained that Ste saw no problem with Rae having the baby , as he already had a son and considered himself a good father , whereas it was " a bigger deal " for Rae , who was childless . Discussing Rae and Ste 's relationship , Barlow said that Rae truly loved Ste , and that they had a special connection formed through the hardships they had faced together . Despite this , Rae rebuffed Ste 's attempt to rekindle their relationship . Barlow said that her character could not return to Ste because she knew that he was gay , that Rae was " determined to keep the baby " and wanted to prove that she could be a good single mother . However , during an argument with Brendan , Rae suffered a miscarriage . Barlow found the filming of these scenes difficult .
As the storyline concluded , Rae resolved to remain friends with Ste and support him through his difficult relationship with Brendan . This resulted in a feud between Brendan and herself . Barlow explained that Rae had " a handle " on him and was " one of the few characters [ able to ] stand up to Brendan . " She enjoyed portraying this dynamic , and assessed that Rae " always felt like she had the upper hand " as she knew the truth about Brendan 's sexuality .
= = = = Rae and Ethan = = = =
Rae was involved in a relationship storyline with Ethan Scott ( Craig Vye ) , who was already romancing both Liberty Savage ( Abi Phillips ) and Theresa McQueen ( Jorgie Porter ) . Viewers were initially unaware that Rae was seeing Ethan , but knew that he was cheating on Theresa and Liberty with an unknown third woman . Porter said Theresa , her character , was incredulous when she saw Ethan kissing Rae . Barlow was also surprised by the twist ; she had not expected Rae to be involved . Once the three women discovered the truth about Ethan 's infidelity , they decided that " the best revenge is humiliation " , exposed Ethan 's lies and poured gunge over him in front of the entire village . Vye described the storyline as a " classic case of wanting what you can 't have " . He explained that Ethan was not ready to settle down and would end up alone .
The actors involved made an effort to give the storyline a comedic tone , to keep it from becoming too serious . Porter felt that it reflected real life , as there are men in society who behave as Ethan did . The storyline proved popular with viewers , and both Barlow and Porter received a high volume of messages through the social networking website Twitter from viewers expressing their surprise at Rae 's involvement . Digital Spy showcased Rae being exposed as Ethan 's lover and her subsequent revenge plot in its " Pic of the day " feature .
= = = Exit and murder = = =
Barlow decided to leave Hollyoaks in early 2011 , as she felt she had given all she could to the role . This prompted the producers to devise a memorable exit storyline for Rae . Barlow was informed of their plans in March 2011 , but her exit , and details of the storyline , were concealed from viewers . Speculation arose that Rae would become the next victim of serial killer Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) ; Barlow tried to discredit these rumours , and denied that she was leaving Hollyoaks as she wanted viewers to be " surprised and shocked " by her exit .
In August 2011 , a leaked clip of Silas preparing to attack Theresa was posted on YouTube , which led viewers to believe that Theresa would become his next victim , which was confirmed in the fourth series of Hollyoaks Later . Porter said that it was " scary and worrying " ; however , she would not confirm whether Silas killed her character . Emma Smithwick , the programme 's producer , confirmed that the late night episodes would feature the death of a regular character .
When the episodes aired , Silas was angered by Rae 's attitude – her desire to use men for casual flings – and realised he could frame Brendan for her murder . He then beat Rae and strangled her to death in an alleyway . Barlow said that because Hollyoaks Later is broadcast late at night , there were no limits to the storyline , allowing the producers to " do whatever they wanted with it . " She described Rae 's death scene as " absolutely incredible " and loved the chance to work with accredited actor Rawle . She explained that Rae 's death had been kept secret in order to shock viewers in the same way the death of Sarah Barnes ( Loui Batley ) had previously done . Barlow said she was happy and grateful with the nature of her exit storyline , as the opportunity to " go out with a bang " was better than Rae leaving quietly in a taxi . She hoped that Rae 's murder would " go down in Hollyoaks history " as one of the best exits . In the aftermath , Brendan was arrested for Rae 's murder after Silas planted evidence on him . Barlow stated that other characters blamed Brendan because he had caused Rae to fear for her life , and that Ste believed he was culpable because " [ a ] fter all the ups and downs , Ste knows exactly what the relationship between Rae and Brendan has been like and all the problems they 've had . "
= = Storylines = =
Rae meets Barry " Newt " Newton ( Nico Mirallegro ) while he is living rough , and teaches him how to survive on the streets . She is disliked by Eli ( Marc Silcock ) , Newt 's alternate persona caused by his schizophrenia . Rae and Newt become close and begin a relationship . After Newt admits he has schizophrenia , Eli takes over his mind and tries to kill Rae , but Newt manages to stop him . Newt and Rae decide to escape their problems by committing suicide together by jumping from a height into water . As they climb to the top of a warehouse to jump , Newt 's ex @-@ girlfriend Lauren Valentine ( Dominique Jackson ) and his foster father Jack Osborne ( Jimmy McKenna ) rush to stop Newt , who pushes Eli into the canal as Rae jumps . Newt jumps in after them , but is rescued by Jack . After recovering , Newt locates Rae 's grandmother Lily ( Meryl Hampton ) and tells her that her granddaughter is dead . Rae , however , then arrives alive and well . She does not recognise Newt , and has a different hairstyle and clothing from her previous appearances . Newt realises that he had seen a photograph of Rae and had created an alternate persona around her . The woman he thought he had known was another figment of his imagination .
To Rae 's displeasure , her school is soon merged with Newt 's . She rebuffs his attempts to talk to her , and after gaining employment at the local diner , is further dismayed to find that Newt works there . She tries to have him fired , but eventually accepts that they must work together . After she is locked in a cupboard by Lauren , Rae reveals that she is claustrophobic and believes she is cursed . She tells Newt that both of her sisters died before their 18th birthdays and she believes the same will happen to her . Newt helps Rae to overcome her fear of the curse , and she agrees to move to Scotland with him . However , her grandmother suffers a stroke shortly before her planned departure , so she decides to stay in Hollyoaks to care for her .
Rae grows close to Ste , her employer at the diner , and they begin dating . Brendan Brady is jealous because he is attracted to Ste , and tries to separate them . Brendan and Ste begin sleeping together ; he tells Ste to continue seeing Rae so their own relationship can remain a secret . Rae discovers that she is pregnant and Ste promises to support her . Rae considers having an abortion but ultimately decides against it . After catching Brendan and Ste kissing , Rae resolves to raise the baby alone , but suffers a miscarriage after a vicious row with Brendan . Rae threatens to out Brendan to the community , so he retaliates by setting her up and having her arrested as a drug dealer . Rae is released without charge after Warren Fox ( Jamie Lomas ) tampers with the substance , which is found to be icing sugar .
Rae briefly works as a barmaid at a local pub , but leaves her job after exposing an affair between Gaz Bennett ( Joel Goonan ) and her boss Heidi Costello ( Kim Tiddy ) . She begins a relationship with Ethan Scott ( Craig Vye ) , unaware that he is also dating Theresa McQueen and Liberty Savage . When the women discover his infidelity , they plot their revenge together . Rae tells Ethan she has an STD , Theresa claims to be pregnant and Liberty pretends to set a wedding date . They then humiliate Ethan with the truth and throw gunge over him in front of the local residents .
When Rae accidentally reveals that Brendan is gay in front of his son , Brendan is furious and threatens to kill her . Rae later tells Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) about Brendan 's threat , but is unaware that Silas is a serial killer . Rae also reveals that she is tired of men treating her badly , and vows to use them in future . Silas steals Theresa 's phone and sends Rae a text message asking to meet her outside . When Rae emerges , Silas repeatedly punches her , then strangles her to death . He places Rae 's body in the boot of Brendan 's car , framing him . Ste arranges a memorial for her after Brendan is charged with her murder . However , Brendan is later released when Silas is discovered as her killer .
= = Reception = =
In 2011 , Rae , Ste and Brendan 's romance plot won the " Best Love Triangle " accolade at the All About Soap Bubble Awards . Rae 's murder earned a nomination for " Spectacular Scene of the Year " at the 2012 British Soap Awards . Holy Soap said that Rae 's most memorable moment was being locked in a cupboard and subsequently revealing herself to be cursed . Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury called Rae 's interest in Ste a mystery , noting his violent history and homosexuality as reasons Rae should have avoided him . Anthony D. Langford of AfterElton said that Hollyoaks had no interest in Rae as a character , and no desire to " make her a real fleshed out person " . He added that Rae had no common sense because " no woman would regularly leave her man alone for long periods of time with the guy she knows he had an affair with . " He also said that Rae should have known that Ste and Brendan 's affair had resumed .
Langford later wrote that Rae 's murder and the subsequent blaming of Brendan were predictable , but made " compelling drama " , and that Rae had been killed in " a rather gruesome and shocking fashion " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail criticised the dearth of drug @-@ related storylines in Hollyoaks , and though she praised the element of humour in the plot which saw Rae charged with possession of icing sugar , she said it was " hardly the Marx Brothers " . Inside Soap polled its readers on which Hollyoaks character they most wanted to be murdered by Silas . Rae and Theresa were voted as favourites to survive , while Leanne and Ruby Button ( Anna Shaffer ) were voted to be his next victims .
= Sieges of Taunton =
The sieges of Taunton were a series of three blockades during the First English Civil War . The town of Taunton , in Somerset , was considered to be of strategic importance because it controlled the main road from Bristol to Devon and Cornwall . Robert Blake commanded the town 's Parliamentarian defences during all three sieges , from September 1644 to July 1645 .
The first siege was laid by Edmund Wyndham on 23 September , and was primarily composed of Royalist troops from local Somerset garrisons . After initial assaults drove Blake and his troops back into Taunton Castle , the blockade was conducted from 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , and concentrated more on starving the garrison than continued attacks . The town was relieved by a force under James Holborne on 14 December .
Over the next three months , Blake was able to establish a network of earthen defences in Taunton , including a basic perimeter and a number of forts . The Royalists began the second , and bloodiest , siege in late March 1645 , initially under Sir Richard Grenville . A series of disputes between the Royalist commanders allowed Taunton some respite at the start of the siege , but in May the attacks were fierce under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton . After five days of intense fighting , which had once again driven the defending army back to a small central perimeter including the castle , the Royalists retreated in the face of a Parliamentarian relief army commanded by Ralph Weldon .
Lord Goring , who had proposed the second siege , renewed the blockade for a third time in mid @-@ May , after engaging Weldon 's departing army and forcing it back into Taunton . Goring 's siege was lax and allowed provisions into the town , diminishing its effectiveness . The Parliamentarian defence tied up Goring and his 10 – 15 @,@ 000 troops , who would have otherwise been available to fight for the King at Naseby , where historians believe they could have tipped the battle in favour of the Royalists . Instead , after securing a Parliamentarian victory at Naseby , Thomas Fairfax marched his army to relieve Taunton on 9 July 1645 .
= = Background = =
Loyalties in Somerset were divided at the start of the First English Civil War ; many of the prominent landowners and those living in the countryside favoured King Charles I , but most of the towns , including Taunton , were Parliamentarian , predominantly due to their Puritan beliefs . By August 1642 , the town was held by a small Parliamentarian force . In June the following year , Sir Ralph Hopton led his Royalist army , consisting of eighteen regiments equally split between foot and cavalry , out of Cornwall and into Somerset . He forced the surrender of Taunton to the King without engaging in battle , and established a garrison in Taunton Castle .
In mid @-@ 1644 , Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex , the Chief Commander of the Parliamentary army , decided to reclaim the West Country . He moved through Dorset , retaking Dorchester and Weymouth , and then left the coast and headed towards Chard . At the time , Taunton was held by a garrison of 800 men commanded by Colonel John Stawell , but the proximity of the Earl of Essex 's army led the town to be abandoned , leaving only 80 men to defend the castle . The historian Robert Morris , in The Sieges of Taunton 1644 – 1645 , suggests that Stawell and his men retreated to Bridgwater , but in The History of the Rebellion , the 17th @-@ century historian Edward Hyde claims that the troops were requisitioned by Prince Maurice during his retreat from Lyme Regis to Plymouth .
On 8 July 1644 , the Earl of Essex sent a Parliamentarian force , led by Colonel Sir Robert Pye with Lieutenant Colonel Robert Blake as his second in command , to reclaim Taunton . They took the town without a fight , and surrounded the castle . The Royalist forces under Major William Reeve that were garrisoned at Taunton Castle surrendered and retreated to Bridgwater . Pye left Taunton shortly after the capture , leaving Blake to hold the town . Blake had an army of about 1 @,@ 000 men , and was charged with trying to blockade the roads to support the Earl of Essex 's campaign in Devon and Cornwall .
= = Sieges = =
= = = First siege = = =
The Earl of Essex 's campaign failed , suffering a total defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in early September 1644 . His remaining forces retreated back to Dorset , leaving only Plymouth , Lyme Regis and Taunton under Parliamentarian control in the South West . Blake was aware of the vulnerability of Taunton , which , unlike many towns and cities of the time , did not have any town walls . On the eastern side of the town , which was the most vulnerable , he dug trenches outside the Eastern gate and erected a barricade across the street within it . At least three earthen forts were also built in that end of town . King Charles I held council in Chard , and shortly after ordered a Royalist force numbering 3 @,@ 000 troops to set up the first siege of Taunton . Initially , Sir Francis Dodington was going to command the attack , but the only available men were those in Bridgwater under the command of Colonel Edmund Wyndham .
The siege began on 23 September 1644 . Wyndham was assisted in the attack by his brother , Francis Wyndham , who brought his garrison from Dunster Castle , and Edward Rodney , who commanded an infantry regiment . The Royalist forces initially set themselves up around the town , where they were able to use their artillery to bombard the castle from the west and the town from the east . In his record of the siege , Morris claims that the besieging forces were unable to establish a presence in the town , and set up a wide perimeter roughly 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) away . However , almost all other sources agree that after initial skirmishes , the Royalists broke through the eastern defences and forced Blake 's troops back into the castle itself .
During the siege , Edmund Wyndham and Blake exchanged letters ; Wyndham initially wrote to explain that he felt the siege was a gentle method of attack , rather than using " fire and sword " . He offered generous terms for surrender , and signed the letter " Your well @-@ wishing Neighbour and Country @-@ man " ; the pair had served as members of parliament together for Bridgwater in 1640 . Blake was unmoved , and wrote back to unequivocally reject the offer . Blake sent skirmishing parties out against the attackers with some success , though food and ammunition began to run out for the defending troops . To further this , Wyndham heavily rationed the town 's population to prevent them smuggling food to the garrison . A petition to Parliament for help was answered when Sir William Waller , who commanded the Parliamentarian army in Wiltshire , sent a force of 3 @,@ 000 men under the command of his deputy , Major General James Holborne , in support of the town .
Wyndham had initially planned to attack Holborne 's forces at Chard , but instead retreated back to his garrison at Bridgwater on 14 December . He recorded that during his retreat , " the enemy sallied upon me but they were so hungry that they could not follow me . " The day after the arrival of Holborne , a supply caravan containing food , 2 @,@ 000 muskets and 40 barrels of gunpowder restocked the town . Fearing further Royalist assaults , Holborne provided 1 @,@ 000 of his own men as reinforcements for the town 's defence .
= = = Second siege = = =
In early 1645 , Blake sent raiding parties out from Taunton that , according to Hyde , controlled a large area and disrupted activities throughout Somerset . Around that time , Lord Goring , the lieutenant @-@ general of the south @-@ eastern counties in the Royalist army , requested troops from the King so that he could mount a " large @-@ scale southeastern campaign " . His request was rejected , and he was despatched to the South West instead . He duly changed his focus , electing to target first Weymouth , and then Taunton , both Parliamentarian strongholds in the area . He took Weymouth , but was unable to hold it in the face of Parliamentarian reinforcements . In a letter he received from the King shortly after that loss , he was ordered to gather the Royalist forces of the area together in order to " [ clear ] those parts of the rebels ' forces . "
The King sent orders for Sir Richard Grenville and John Berkeley to support Goring in the attack on Taunton . Goring arrived outside Taunton on 11 March , and a sizeable part of Berkeley 's garrison from Exeter arrived soon after . Grenville did not leave his siege of Plymouth and , coupled with the threat from a Parliamentarian force formed by Waller and Oliver Cromwell combining their armies in Hampshire , the attack on Taunton was postponed . After further urging from the King and the Prince of Wales , Grenville did eventually travel up towards Taunton and was ordered to follow Goring to support the King in the north , as Grenville 's force of 3 @,@ 000 men was considered too small to assault Taunton . He refused , claiming that " he had promised the commissioners of Devon and Cornwall , that he would not advance beyond Taunton " , while also boasting that he could claim the town in ten days . He was delegated command of the siege , and arrived outside Taunton on 2 April . Only a day after his arrival , Grenville was injured while attacking Wellington House , and as the wound was serious , he was carried to Exeter .
The blockade set by Grenville was initially some distance from the town , and did not prevent Blake from sending and receiving messages . The besieging army was reinforced soon after with Goring 's infantry and artillery units , and so , with a large force , the attackers closed in on the town , establishing entrenchments within musket @-@ shot of Taunton 's defences . Command of the siege passed to Berkeley , though Grenville 's troops often failed to follow the new commander 's orders , and some of them deserted . Despite Grenville 's retirement from the battle due to injury , he and Berkeley clashed ; Grenville complained to the Prince of Wales that Berkeley was conducting the siege badly , while Berkeley claimed that Grenville had given his men orders to desert . These disagreements led Hopton , by now the commander of the Royalist forces in the West Country , to be given command of the siege .
As the siege continued , supplies once again began to run out for the defending army , and Parliament identified the relief of Taunton as being a priority . On 28 April , they ordered Thomas Fairfax , the Commander in Chief of the recently established New Model Army , to relieve the town . Fairfax marched with the whole of his army towards Taunton ; the Royalists considered sending their own army to meet him before he could reach London , but Prince Rupert convinced them instead to focus on conquering the north of England . In response to the Royalist movement north , Fairfax split his own army in two , sending a force of between 6 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 on to Taunton under Colonel Ralph Weldon , while Fairfax led the rest north .
Aware that the Parliamentarians under Fairfax were on their way , Hopton increased the attacks on the town on 6 May . Further attacks the following day focused on the east side of the town , first bombarding it with cannon shot , and then storming the earthen redoubt that Blake had established . After some early success in which they captured one of the earthen forts , the attackers were forced back by a combination of musket shot , stones and boiling water . The next day , after yet more attacks made little impact , Hopton staged a battle on the south side of the town between two parties of his own army in an attempt to make Blake believe the Parliamentarian army had arrived . Hopton hoped that Blake would send out some of his own men to support the relieving force , but the feint failed . That evening , at around 7 pm , the Royalist force , which consisted of around 4 @,@ 200 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry , launched an all @-@ out assault against the town . In heavy fighting , the attackers captured two of the earthen forts on the eastern side of town , and broke through the defences . Once inside Blake 's outer perimeter , the besieging army discovered that there were Parliamentarian musketeers within every house , which prevented them advancing any further , though they did set fire to a number of buildings , hoping to force the defenders to retreat . The tactic failed when the wind blew the flames back towards the Royalists , halting their attack .
The attack was renewed around 11 am on 9 May , and over the next seven hours , Hopton 's army advanced slowly through the town . His forces pushed the Parliamentarian troops back one building at a time , until they were left with only a small area of land in the middle of the town . Within the perimeter was the castle , an entrenchment in the market square , St Mary Magdalene Church and an earthen defence known as " Maiden 's fort " . By this time , a combination of artillery and arson attacks had set most of the east side of town on fire . An attempt by three people — two men and a woman — to set fires inside the remaining defences was quashed , and the culprits lynched .
Further assaults were made on 10 May , along with a demand for Blake and his men to surrender , to which Blake responded that he " had four pairs of boots left and would eat three of them before he yielded . " Weldon 's relieving force had met with small parties of the Royalist army around Chard and Pitminster , and they sent an advance party ahead of them , which reached Orchard Portman , roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Taunton , on 10 May . Fearing that they were facing the entirety of Fairfax 's army , Hopton ordered his forces to abandon their attacks and retreat to Bridgwater . As they left , they felled trees across roads to slow the Parliamentarian advance . Weldon 's army arrived in Taunton on 11 May , relieving and restocking the town . Accounts of Taunton 's losses vary between 50 and 200 killed , with 200 or more casualties on top of that , while two thirds of the houses in the town had been razed . Having relieved Taunton , Weldon and his army left the following day and marched eastwards .
= = = Third siege = = =
Over the course of the siege , Lord Goring had been with the King in Oxford , and on 10 May he returned to Bristol with a royal warrant pronouncing him the Commander of the Royalist Army in the West Country , replacing Hopton . Goring began his operations by harrying Weldon 's army , and forcing them to retreat back to Taunton . Goring , commanding about 10 @,@ 000 men , established a third siege of the town in under a year . He ignored orders from the King for him to support the Royalist efforts in the Midlands , claiming that " Taunton would be taken in a few days . " Despite his promises , he soon discovered that his army was too small to enact a rapid takeover of the town , and he established a loose blockade . Hyde , who is frequently scathing of Goring in his description of the Civil War , recalls that " Goring was so far from making any advance upon Taunton , that he grew much more negligent in it than he had been ; suffered provisions , in great quantities , to be carried into the town . " As well as being lax in his siege , Goring was often drunk and — reminiscent of the earlier siege — was deserted by many of his troops .
The regional commander of the Parliamentarian forces , Colonel Edward Massey , was ordered to relieve Taunton in June , but he could only raise 3 @,@ 000 men ; far less than was needed to dispel Goring 's army . The New Model Army , with Fairfax at their head , were busy in the Midlands defeating the bulk of the Royalist army at the Battle of Naseby , described by modern sources as " the decisive clash of the English Civil War " . Goring had been ordered by the King to abandon his siege and join the Royalist forces at Naseby , and it has been suggested by modern historians that with his forces , and his leadership , the Royalists might have won the battle . Immediately after securing that victory , Fairfax led his army down towards Taunton once again . Aware of the approaching army , Lord Goring mounted a final assault on the town , hoping to catch Blake unaware by sending his cavalry towards the town on 9 July . The attack was neutralised by a section of Fairfax 's army in Ilminster , and Goring withdrew from Taunton to meet Fairfax at the Battle of Langport , relieving the third and final siege of Taunton during the English Civil War .
= = Aftermath = =
In his history of Taunton , H. J. Wickenden suggests that over half of the town was burned or destroyed during the three sieges , while Diane Purkiss claims that it was as high as two thirds of the town . Several compensation payouts were made to the town and some of its residents , funded by fines against those who had fought for the Royalists , such as Sir William Portman , who had been the Member of Parliament for Taunton at the outbreak of the war and was fined £ 7 @,@ 000 . Although the Parliamentarians destroyed many of the castles that had featured in the Civil War , Taunton Castle was considered a Parliamentarian stronghold , and remained intact . In 1647 , only two years after the end of the sieges , the castle was sold as part of the estate of Taunton Manor . In 1660 , shortly after taking the throne , Charles II stripped Taunton of its town charter for its part in the Civil War , and had the castle 's outer walls removed .
After commanding the defence of Taunton , Blake was ordered to capture Dunster Castle , which he achieved after a nine @-@ month siege . After the war , he was honoured by Parliament for his efforts and rewarded with £ 500 , while a further £ 2 @,@ 000 was split amongst his men . He took no side during the Second Civil War and , three years later , under the Commonwealth of England , he became a general at sea , as one of the three commissioners of the navy , and spent the rest of his life as a naval commander , for which he remains best known .
= Afternoon =
Afternoon is the time of the day between noon and evening . It is the time when the sun is descending from its zenith in the sky to somewhat before its terminus at the horizon in the west direction . In human life , it occupies roughly the latter half of the standard work and school day . It is also associated with a number of concerns related to health , safety , and economic productivity : generally , the early afternoon , after most people have eaten lunch , corresponds to decreased work performance , decreased alertness , and a higher incidence of motor vehicle accidents . It is usually from 12 PM to 6 PM .
= = Terminology = =
Afternoon is the time occurring between noon and evening . The specific range of time this encompasses varies in one direction : noon is currently defined as a constant 12 : 00 pm , but when afternoon ends is dependent on when evening begins , for which there is no standard definition . However , before a period of transition from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries , noon instead referred to 3 pm — possible explanations include shifting times for prayers and midday meals , along which one concept of noon was defined — and so afternoon would have referred to a narrower timeframe .
The word afternoon , which derives from after and noon , has been attested from about the year 1300 ; Middle English contained both afternoon and the synonym aftermete . The standard locative marking for the word was at afternoon in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries but has shifted to in the afternoon since then . In Southern U.S. and Midland American English , the word evening is sometimes used to encompass all times between noon and night . The Irish language contains four different words to mark time intervals from late afternoon to nightfall , this period being considered mystical . Metaphorically , the word afternoon refers to a relatively late period in the expanse of time or in one 's life .
The term should not be confused with " after noon " ( two separate words ) , which is a translation of the Latin post meridiem ( p.m. ) , meaning a time between 12 : 00 midday and 12 : 00 midnight .
= = Events = =
Afternoon is a time when the sun is descending from its daytime peak . During the afternoon , the sun moves from roughly the center of the sky to deep in the west . In late afternoon , sunlight is particularly bright and glaring , because the sun is at a low angle in the sky . The standard working time in most industrialized countries goes from the morning to the late afternoon or evening — archetypally , 9 am to 5 pm — so the latter part of this time takes place in the afternoon . Schools usually let out during the afternoon as well .
= = Effects on living organisms = =
= = = Hormones and body temperature = = =
In diurnal animals , it is typical for blood levels of the hormone cortisol — which is used to increase blood sugar and aid metabolism and is also produced in response to stress — to be most stable in the afternoon after decreasing throughout the morning . However , cortisol levels are also the most reactive to environmental changes unrelated to sleep and daylight during the afternoon . As a result , this time of day is considered optimal for researchers studying stress and hormone levels . Plants generally have their highest photosynthetic levels of the day at noon and in the early afternoon , owing to the sun 's high angle in the sky . The large proliferation of maize crops across Earth has caused tiny , harmless fluctuations in the normal pattern of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels , since these crops photosynthesize large amounts of carbon dioxide during these times and this process sharply drops down during the late afternoon and evening .
In humans , body temperature is typically highest during the mid to late afternoon . However , human athletes being tested for physical vigor on exercise machines showed no statistically significant difference after lunch . Owners of factory farms are advised to use buildings with an east – west ( as opposed to north – south ) orientation to house their livestock , because an east – west orientation generally means thicker walls on the east and west to accommodate the sun 's acute angle and intense glare during late afternoon . When these animals are too hot , they are more likely to become belligerent and unproductive .
= = = Alertness = = =
The afternoon , especially the early afternoon , is associated with a dip in a variety of areas of human cognitive and productive functioning . Notably , motor vehicle accidents are common in the early afternoon , when drivers presumably have recently finished lunch . A study of motor accidents in Sweden between 1987 and 1991 found that the time around 5 pm had by far the most accidents : around 1 @,@ 600 at 5 pm compared to around 1 @,@ 000 each at 4 pm and 6 pm . This trend may have been influenced by the afternoon rush hour , but the morning rush hour showed a much smaller increase . In Finland , accidents in the agriculture industry are most common in the afternoon , specifically Monday afternoons in September .
One psychology professor studying circadian rhythms found that his students performed somewhat worse on exams in the afternoon than in the morning , but even worse in the evening . Neither of these differences , however , was statistically significant . Four studies carried out in 1997 found that subjects who were given tests on differentiating traffic signs had longer reaction times when tested at 3 : 00 pm and 6 : 00 pm than at 9 : 00 am and 12 : 00 pm . These trends held across all four studies and for both complex and abstract questions .
Human productivity routinely decreases in the afternoon . Power plants have shown significant reductions in productivity in the afternoon compared to the morning , the largest differences occurring on Saturdays and the smallest on Mondays . One 1950s study covering two female factory workers for six months found that their productivity was 13 percent lower in the afternoon , the least productive time being their last hour at work . It was summarized that the differences came from personal breaks and unproductive activities at the workplace . Another , larger study found that afternoon declines in productivity were greater during longer work shifts .
It is important to note , however , that not all humans share identical circadian rhythms . One study across Italy and Spain had students fill out a questionnaire , then ranked them on a " morningness – eveningness " scale . The results were a fairly standard bell curve . Levels of alertness over the course of the day had a significant correlation with scores on the questionnaire . All categories of participants — evening types , morning types , and intermediate types — had high levels of alertness from roughly 2 pm to 8 pm , but outside this window their alertness levels corresponded to their scores .
= Kit Mueller =
Christopher J. " Kit " Mueller ( born c . 1971 ) is a retired American basketball player . He played high school basketball in the Chicago metropolitan area for Downers Grove South High School . Subsequently , he starred for the Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team , where he was a two @-@ time Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year ( 1990 and 1991 ) and three @-@ time first team All @-@ Ivy League player ( 1989 , 1990 and 1991 ) as a center . He was also a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ America selection . As an All @-@ Ivy League performer , he led his team to three consecutive Ivy League Championships and NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournaments .
He matriculated to Princeton University , after an injury late in his senior year caused other Division I schools to withdraw their offers . As of 2011 , he continues to rank second and fourth in school history in career assists ( 381 ) and points ( 1546 ) , respectively . He led the team in rebounds all four seasons and in points , assists and blocked shots three times each . He led the Ivy League in field goal percentage three times and ranks third all @-@ time in Princeton history in that statistic for his career .
The team earned three consecutive Ivy League championships during his career , including an undefeated conference record during his senior season . Despite the team 's success and his individual accolades , his Princeton tenure was punctuated by three NCAA Tournament first round losses by a total of seven points , most notably the March 17 , 1989 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament first round 50 – 49 loss to the number @-@ one seeded Georgetown Hoyas team featuring Alonzo Mourning and Dikembe Mutombo as well as 1989 Big East Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year Charles Smith .
After his collegiate career ended , Mueller played professional basketball in Switzerland . Then he returned to Chicago , where he became a hedge fund trader . In Chicago , he has played amateur 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball with other Ivy League athletes at national competitions .
= = High school = =
Mueller attended Downers Grove South High School . As a freshman , he led the sophomore team with 18 points per game . He came off the bench for the varsity team as a sophomore to average 10 points per game as a 6 @-@ foot @-@ 3 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) 185 @-@ pound ( 84 kg ) forward . He grew 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) and 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) prior to his junior season and became a center . As a junior , his outside shot was still undeveloped , but he averaged 20 points and 10 rebounds , leading his team to the 1986 Des Plaines Valley League championship and a second straight trip to the sectional finals . The team was ranked in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times Super 25 for a couple of weeks during the season . He was benched for one game in early March of his junior year for disciplinary reasons by coach Dick Flaiz . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times named him the MVP of the league . Mueller also played varsity tennis as a junior . Following the school year , he played in the suburban summer basketball league at Triton College in River Grove , Illinois .
As a senior , he was his team 's only returning varsity letterman , and was ranked by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times among the preseason top 50 Metro Chicago basketball players . Off The Glass , a national basketball magazine , ranked him among the 19 best basketball players in the state of Illinois , along with Walter Bond , Marcus Liberty , Brian Banks and Rodell Davis . At the beginning of December of his senior season , the team was ranked 23rd in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Metro Chicago top 25 , and there was talk of the team improving on the 23 – 6 record of the prior year . He led the West Suburban Conference in scoring and rebounding most of the season and was an All @-@ Conference selection . Mueller posted his career @-@ high 45 points on March 3 , 1987 in an 83 – 47 victory against Montini High School . By the end of his senior season , he was one of the 20 All @-@ Chicago Area selections by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , in a class that included Eric Anderson , Bond , Liberty and Sam Mack , after averaging 23 points and 14 rebounds . However , unlike Anderson , Liberty and Bond , he was not one of the 9 area All @-@ State nominees .
Mueller , who scored 1290 out of 1600 on his SAT and a 31 on his ACT , was a highly recruited high school basketball player . However , by early March 1987 , he had not signed a National Letter of Intent as a commitment to any school . At that time , he was keeping a pair of piranhas at home in an aquarium and accidentally injured his left foot by breaking the aquarium 's glass . The resulting injury caused severe damage to his leg including a severed achilles tendon ; he had surgery to repair the damage in late March . Division I schools like Northwestern University withdrew their scholarship offers ; however , Princeton maintained an interest , with supporters like John Rogers behind him . As most of his scholarship offers were withdrawn , he began to focus on schools that could provide him an academic opportunity in the event that his basketball career was over . He eventually matriculated to Princeton unsure of whether he would ever play competitive basketball again .
= = College = =
As a freshman , Mueller helped the 1987 – 88 Tigers win their final three games in March to finish the season with a 17 – 9 ( 9 – 5 Ivy League ) record . He posted 25 points in the March 1 , 1988 67 – 65 victory against Penn . Then , two games later in the final game of the season on March 5 , he added 22 in 79 – 58 victory over league champion Cornell . He finished the season as the Ivy League statistical champion in field goal percentage for the first of three times . He led the team in rebounds and blocked shots .
Mueller began his career wearing the number 55 , but switched to 00 by his sophomore year . During his sophomore season , the 1988 – 89 team earned a # 1 vs. # 16 matchup in the first round of the 1989 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament with their Pete Carril @-@ coached princeton offense . The New York Times reported that the matchup seemed comical to some even though Carill had a system that frustrated many offensive systems and had already produced upsets . In the St. Patrick 's Day Georgetown game , the 16th @-@ seeded Tigers were 23 point underdogs according to the Las Vegas bookmakers and Dick Vitale had promised to serve as a Tiger ballboy if they won . Entering the game , the last four Ivy League representatives in the tournament had lost in the first round by an average of 35 points . During the game , Mueller 's defensive assignment was Mourning , and he contributed 9 points and 8 assists to Princeton 's 49 @-@ point effort . During the game , Mueller played beyond the foul line on the offensive end , forcing Mourning to leave passing lanes open for back @-@ door attacks . Although the strategy enabled Princeton to stay in the game , Mourning had seven blocked shots , including two in the final fifteen seconds . Mueller 's final shot was deflected by Mourning , which is remembered by Princeton fans as an uncalled foul . The team finished with a 19 – 8 ( 11 – 3 ) record . Later in the same tournament , Duke would use Christian Laettner at the top of the key , like Princeton had used Mueller , and eliminate Georgetown by shutting down Mourning . The Princeton @-@ Georgetown game is regarded as one of only a handful of close # 1 vs. # 16 matchups in NCAA tournament history . For the season , he repeated as Ivy League field goal percentage champion . He was a first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy honoree . He led the team in points , rebounds , assists and blocked shots .
As a junior , Mueller led the 1989 – 90 Tigers to a repeat Ivy League championship as the Ivy League Player of the Year . The team earned a 13 seed for the 1990 NCAA Tournament . The team finished with a 20 – 7 ( 11 – 3 ) record after losing to the Arkansas Razorbacks by a 68 – 64 margin . Mueller was one of only six Tigers to appear in the game and led the team with 19 points . As a junior , Mueller earned a third team Academic All @-@ America recognition from College Sports Information Directors of America . He was a first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy performer as well as Ivy League Player of the Year . He led the team in points , rebounds , and assists .
In a February 23 , 1991 , game against Cornell , Mueller earned his current position as Princeton 's second all @-@ time leading scorer one night after the 1990 – 91 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team had clinched its third consecutive Ivy League championship with a victory over Columbia . The team went undefeated in the Ivy League and earned a birth in the 1991 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . After its strong tournament performances in the prior two seasons and strong regular season , the team earned a number 8 seed , which was a record for the highest seed by an Ivy League school at the time . The team had another close but disappointing loss , this time by a 50 – 48 margin to Villanova , finishing with a 24 – 3 ( 14 – 0 ) record . That year , senior Mueller served as team captain , and earned first team Academic All @-@ America honors . That season marked the third year that Mueller led the team in points , assists and blocked shots and fourth time he led the team in rebounds . For the season , he earned his third Ivy League field goal percentage championship . He repeated as Ivy League Player of the Year and was a first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy performer for the third consecutive season .
He continues to remain prominent in the Princeton basketball record books . When Mueller ended his career , his 1546 career points trailed only Bill Bradley and his 381 career assists were also second in school history . His single @-@ season assist totals of 140 in 1989 @-@ 90 and 128 in 1990 @-@ 91 remain second and fourth in school history . Only one other Tiger has totalled 11 assists in a game ( a feat Mueller achieved three times ) . His career 59 @.@ 5 field goal percentage is third in school history , as is his sophomore single @-@ season rate of 64 @.@ 9 % . A 2009 publication by ESPN ranked him among the five greatest basketball players in Princeton history . On March 19 , 2012 , Doug Davis surpassed Mueller for second place on the Princeton scoring list . On March 1 , 2013 , Ian Hummer passed him as well .
= = Post graduate = =
After graduation , Mueller played professional basketball in Switzerland . He then became a professional hedge fund trader , and has played in competitive 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball leagues with various combinations of Ivy League athletes including Arne Duncan , Craig Robinson , Mitch Henderson and Rogers in the mid to late 1990s and early 2000s . The mid @-@ 1990s versions of the team were Chicago area champions . In 1998 , he won a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 tournament in Dallas with Rogers and Robinson . Both the 2001 and 2003 versions of the team , named " Slow and Steady " , qualified for national competition . The 2003 team with Duncan , Robinson , Henderson and Brian Earl made the national championship .
= Air ( visual novel ) =
Air is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Key released on September 8 , 2000 for Windows PCs . Key later released versions of Air without the erotic content , and the game was ported to the Dreamcast , PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable . The story follows the life of Yukito Kunisaki , a traveling showman searching for the " girl in the sky " . He arrives in a quiet , seaside town where he meets three girls , one of whom is the key to the end of his journey .
The gameplay in Air follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the three female main characters by the player character . The game is divided into three segments — Dream , Summer , and Air — which serve as different phases in the overall story . The title of the game reflects the prominent themes of the air , skies , and use of wings throughout gameplay . The game ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Air has sold over 300 @,@ 000 units across several platforms .
Following the game 's release , Air made several transitions into other media . A manga by Yukimaru Katsura was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comptiq , and later published into two volumes . Comic anthologies and art books were also published , as were audio dramas and several albums of music . Kyoto Animation produced a 13 @-@ episode anime television series and a two @-@ episode anime mini @-@ series in 2005 , and Toei Animation produced an anime film in 2005 . The anime adaptations are licensed by Funimation who released them in North America .
= = Gameplay = =
Air is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of three characters . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . Air follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction . With the consumer ports , if an undesired choice was selected , there would be an option to rewind the story to correct the mistake . However , if the player reaches a bad end to a storyline , the player does not have this option and must reload the game at the last saved point .
There are five main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , three which are initially available and two more which can later become available . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction .
When first playing the game , the player assumes the role of Yukito Kunisaki and the scenarios for the three heroines are available in what is called the Dream story arc . After the plot lines for these three heroines have been completed , an additional scenario called Summer is made available where the player assumes the role of Ryūya . Summer is a linear novel arc in which no choices are presented to the player . Upon the completion of the Summer route , another scenario called Air is made available , which serves as the true ending to the story . In Air , the player assumes the role of a crow named Sora . In the adult versions of the game , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Yukito and a given heroine having sex . Later , Key released versions of Air without the erotic content .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and themes = = =
There are important locations featured in Air that are based on places in the city Kami in Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan . Air is
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set in the Kasumi district of Kami ; during the course of the series ' creation , Kasumi was an individual town that has since merged with two others to form the city of Kami . Many of the locales in Air , such as the seawall , the train station , the shrine , and the school are based on real places . As Air is set in the middle of summer , the season offers bright , sunny skies for the town during the day . In the manga adaptation , the town is described as a " quiet town with few people ... with nothing but beaches and countryside . " Scenario assistant Yūichi Suzumoto has commented that his impression of Air is similar to that of a folk song due to the rural setting and heartwarming story progression .
As indicated by the title , air , skies and wings are important themes : Yukito is searching for the " girl in the sky " , and Misuzu believes her other self is flying in the sky above her . Other characters show a similar relationship to the sky , such as Minagi who is a member of the astronomy club , and Michiru who has a fondness for bubbles that float in the air . Kano wants wings to fly , and Kanna already has them . Misuzu names a crow she finds Sora ( 空 ) — Japanese for sky . Another major theme is the maternal bond , as the four heroines ' stories , as well as Yukito 's , revolve around their mothers , either biological or adoptive . Main scenario writer Jun Maeda commented that he prefers to include mothers in games if given the choice between only include a mother and father , as is what happened with Air , though he backs this up by noting that in bishōjo games , women are the main focus anyway . Complicated relationships involving family members and friends play a key part throughout the story . One of the sub @-@ themes in the story is magic . Uraha , Yukito 's mother , and Yukito himself have the ability to use magic , though Yukito is the least skilled among them . Kano was told by her sister that when she grows up and takes off her yellow ribbon , she will gain the power to do magic . However , the problems of parents leaving their offspring and poverty are displayed realistically .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Yukito Kunisaki , the protagonist of Air . He lives a poor life going from town to town with little money , trying to make a living off his show with a puppet . By being an adolescent or young adult , Yukito sometimes acts childishly if provoked . Yukito tends to be helpful to those around him while trying to earn any money at the same time , and does his best to look after Misuzu in the Dream arc . Misuzu Kamio , the main heroine of Air , makes Yukito quite mistrustful at first by being too friendly , but eventually earns his affection . She is a cheerful but introverted , slightly clumsy and simplistic high school girl , and often utters the pseudo @-@ dinosauric phrase gao when she feels troubled , a habit she retained from childhood . Misuzu has a great love of dinosaurs , finding the story of their glory and extinction " romantic " . The second of the three heroines Yukito meets after Misuzu is Kano Kirishima , a girl attending the same school as Misuzu . She is usually energetic , playful , and tells jokes by saying nonsensical things . Kano is friends with a strange stray dog named Potato that follows her around and is able to communicate in his strange manner of speech . Kano still believes in things she was told by her older sister Hijiri as a child as a way of coping with her past . The third and final heroine Yukito meets is a girl in Misuzu 's class at school named Minagi Tohno , a top student in the school who is introverted as well . Until she met Yukito , her only friend was Michiru , with whom she often blows bubbles at the abandoned train station in town .
= = = Story = = =
Air 's story revolves around three girls whose lives are connected to the same man . In the first story arc , Dream , Yukito Kunisaki is a showman traveling across Japan , continuing his late mother 's search for the " girl in the sky " . The story opens on Monday July 17 , 2000 when Yukito comes across a small seaside town where the story takes place . On his first day in town , Yukito tries to earn money by putting on a mysterious puppet show where he manipulates a doll magically without strings for a small audience of kids passing by . Yukito is unsuccessful in gaining the children 's favor , and the children leave without paying him for his performance . That night , Yukito sleeps on the town 's seawall by the beach . Yukito collapses from heat stroke the next day and is taken to a nearby fisherman 's guild ; after he awakens , they feed him , and give him some very large rice balls to take with him as he is leaving . As he sits on the town 's seawall eating one of the rice balls , he notices a young girl beside him who introduces herself as Misuzu Kamio — a sincere yet clumsy girl who is eager to become friends with him . Misuzu persistently attempts to play with him , while Yukito tries to refuse her efforts . He eventually follows her home lured by the chance to eat . After Haruko , Misuzu 's aunt and foster mother , is persuaded , it is decided that he will stay with them for the time being .
The next day , Yukito meets a girl named Kano Kirishima and a stray dog named Potato ; Kano and Misuzu go to the same high school . Later that day , Yukito meets a third girl named Minagi Tohno , Misuzu 's classmate , and her friend Michiru . Like Misuzu , both Kano and Minagi have strange personalities connected with mysterious pasts . Before long , a legend of " one thousand summers " begins to unfold where the mysteries of the past are framed primarily by the relationship between Yukito and Misuzu . The cursed " girl in the sky " Yukito has been searching for turns out to be Misuzu . By the time he figures this out , she has already grown to love him and has passed her 15th birthday . Once these things have come to pass , the " girl in the sky " is cursed to die . The remainder of this arc is dedicated to Yukito 's attempt to save her , trying to effectively break the curse .
The next arc , Summer , reveals events that occurred in the summer of one thousand years before the Dream arc , taking place in the Heian period . Kannabi no mikoto , or Kanna , is one of the last winged beings in Air 's fictional setting and is held as a prisoner in her own castle . Since she bears wings on her back , she is not permitted to leave the castle walls or see her mother , who is in a similar situation elsewhere . With Ryūya , a member of her samurai guard , and Uraha , a fledgling telekinetic , Kanna escapes and traverses feudal Japan to find her mother . However , the rest of the guard and a sect of Buddhist monks follow them . After catching up , they place a curse on Kanna where she must endure constant reincarnation and death whenever she finds love ; Misuzu is one such reincarnation .
In the last arc , Air , Yukito 's final wish to save Misuzu 's life is heard . The story starts over from the Dream arc , although it is seen through the view point of a crow Misuzu finds and names Sora . New things are revealed that were not seen following Yukito in the Dream arc . After Misuzu finds Sora and brings him back home , her condition worsens and eventually she forgets even who Haruko is . Misuzu 's father Keisuke Tachibana shows up during this arc wanting to take Misuzu back to his home , but Haruko pleads with him to grant her more time , and they agree on extending the time for three more days . After the three days pass , Keisuke comes back and sees the love between Misuzu and Haruko ; he decides to let them stay together . The remainder of this arc has Misuzu and Haruko spending time together like mother and daughter , culminating in Misuzu 's death .
= = Development = =
After the completion of Kanon , the Key staff started production on Air and expanded the number of people involved in this project compared to Kanon . The executive producer for Air was Takahiro Baba from VisualArt 's , the publishing company that Key is under . The planning for Air was headed by Jun Maeda who was also one of two main scenario writers , the other being Takashi Ishikawa . Scenario assistance was provided by four more people : Kazuki Fujii , Kai , Tōya Okano , and Yūichi Suzumoto . Art direction was headed by Key 's artist Itaru Hinoue who worked on the character design . Further computer graphics were split between three people — Miracle Mikipon , Na @-@ Ga , and Shinory — and background art was provided by Din and Torino . The music in the game was composed primarily by Shinji Orito , Jun Maeda , and Magome Togoshi , who had started working with Key since before Kanon 's release . After the completion of Air , two of the staff — Kazuki Fujii , and Takashi Ishikawa — left Key .
Jun Maeda , the main scenario writer of Air , commented that in the early stages of Air 's production , it was already decided that it was to be an adult game , and he further assumes that if it was not at least first released with adult content , that it would not have been as commercially successful . Maeda also commented that he wanted to write Air to give players the chance to experience the entire story as a whole rather than just a sum of differing parts as typical bishōjo games do , including Kanon . While attempting to do this , Maeda also tried to simultaneously make it seem similar to typical visual novels in the same genre as Air to give the game appeal to the players who often play such games . As such , while the game incorporates stories from several characters , they are all of varying lengths .
= = = Release history = = =
Air was released as an adult game on September 8 , 2000 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a 2 @-@ disc CD @-@ ROM set . The limited edition came bundled with the remix album Ornithopter remixing background music tracks featured in the visual novel . The regular edition was released on July 27 , 2001 . Key released on all ages version on July 27 , 2001 for Windows . An updated adult version called the Air Standard Edition was released on April 8 , 2005 with added support for Windows 2000 / XP as a DVD @-@ ROM . An updated all ages version of Air compatible for Windows Vista PCs was released by Key on July 31 , 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box . Another updated all ages version compatible for Windows 7 PCs called Air Memorial Edition was released on May 28 , 2010 .
The first consumer console port of the game was released for the Dreamcast ( DC ) on September 20 , 2001 by NEC Interchannel . A PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) version was released on August 8 , 2002 also by NEC Interchannel . The PS2 version was re @-@ released as a " Best " version on September 1 , 2005 . The PS2 version was bundled in a " Key 3 @-@ Part Work Premium Box " package together with the PS2 versions of Kanon and Clannad released on July 30 , 2009 . To compensate for the lack of erotic content in the consumer ports , extra scenes were added .
A version playable on SoftBank 3G mobile phones was released by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto on May 1 , 2007 . Prototype later released a VGA edition produced by NTT DoCoMo playable on FOMA phones in February 2008 . The version for the FOMA phones was split into two separate files : the Dream story arc comprised the first file , and the remaining Summer and Air arcs comprised the second file . A version of the Dream arc playable on Android devices was released on July 27 , 2012 . A version containing the Summer and Air arcs for Android devices was released on August 15 , 2012 . A full version Air on Android devices was released on October 24 , 2012 in two editions : one without voice acting , and one with voice acting , including Yukito . Two versions were released on May 2 , 2013 : an adult version for Android devices and an all ages version playable on iOS devices . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version of the game was released in Japan on November 22 , 2007 by Prototype . A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on September 2 , 2010 . A PlayStation Vita version will be released by Prototype on September 8 , 2016 . In the original release , there was no voice acting for the characters , though this was later changed for the DC version , which except for Yukito included full voice acting , and the PS2 and PSP versions , which had full voice acting .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Manga = = =
An Air manga was serialized in the Japanese computer game magazine Comptiq between August 10 , 2004 and February 10 , 2006 . The individual chapters were later collected into two separate volumes published by Kadokawa Shoten . The story was adapted from the visual novel version that preceded it , and was illustrated by Japanese artist Yukimaru Katsura . Between the two volumes , there are 15 main chapters ( nine in volume one and six in volume two ) , and two bonus chapters included at the end of each volume . The manga version goes through the Dream and Air arcs in detail while the Summer arc is only touched upon briefly throughout the manga . The main focus is on Misuzu 's story with Kano and Minagi serving as minor characters in comparison . However , Minagi 's story is explained in the bonus installment at the end of volume two .
There are also five sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . The first volume of the earliest anthology series , released by Ichijinsha under the title Air Comic Anthology , was released on January 25 , 2001 under their DNA Media Comics label . Volumes for this series continued to be released until December 25 , 2001 with the seventh volume . The second anthology , Air Anthology Comic , was released in a single volume by Softgarage on December 20 , 2002 . On April 17 , 2004 , Ohzora released an anthology composed of works based on both Kanon and Air titled Haru Urara : Kanon & Air . Ohzora also released three other anthologies under the title Air , the last of which came out on March 24 , 2005 . The last manga anthology was released as a single volume on April 2 , 2005 by Jive titled Comic Anthology Air : Kimi no Iru Basho . Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
There were nine drama CDs released based on Air released by Lantis . The first three focused solely on each of the main heroines separately per CD where the cover of the album would depict which of the girls to be presented . These three albums were released on August 24 , 2005 . The next set of three was done the same way and released on October 21 , 2005 . The last three were released in one month increments after the second batch of three drama CDs went on sale . The seventh CD focused on the events of the Summer arc in the story while the last two were based on the Air arc . At least the last CD released on January 25 , 2006 contained original stories in addition to the story from the visual novel .
= = = Anime = = =
On November 17 , 2004 , a teaser DVD named " Air prelude " was produced containing interviews with the anime 's cast , clean opening and ending theme video sequences , and promotional footage of the anime itself ; it was a limited edition DVD , with only 20 @,@ 000 copies produced . The anime television series is produced by Kyoto Animation , directed by Tatsuya Ishihara , written by Fumihiko Shimo , and features character design by Tomoe Aratani who based the designs on Itaru Hinoue 's original concept . Thirteen episodes were produced by Kyoto Animation : 12 regular episodes , and a final recap episode which summarizes Misuzu 's story arc . The anime also follows the game by splitting the series into three parts ; Dream ( episodes one through seven ) , Summer ( episodes eight and nine ) , and Air ( episodes 10 through 12 ) , with the recap episode ( episode 13 ) following . The episodes aired between January 6 and March 31 , 2005 on the BS @-@ i Japanese television network . The theme songs from the Air visual novel are used for the anime 's opening theme , ending theme and soundtrack . After the conclusion of the anime series , a mini @-@ series which added to the Summer arc of the story called Air in Summer aired on August 28 and September 4 , 2005 a week later on BS @-@ i . Air in Summer consisted of two episodes and was produced by the same staff as the anime series .
A DVD released on March 31 , 2005 called " Air Memories " contained promotional commercials for the series , staff commentaries , and clean ending sequences from the 12th and 13th episodes , lasting 92 minutes . The episodes were released to Region 2 DVD between April 6 and September 7 , 2005 by Pony Canyon in limited and regular editions containing two episodes per volume . The DVD for Air in Summer was later released on October 5 , 2005 in Japan . Additionally , Air became one of the first anime series to be released in Blu @-@ ray Disc format on December 22 , 2006 . A new version of the Blu @-@ ray Disc box set was released on November 28 , 2008 in Japan .
On April 27 , 2007 , ADV Films co @-@ founder and executive Matt Greenfield announced the acquisition of both the anime series and the film during a panel at the anime convention Anime Matsuri ; it paid $ 145 @,@ 000 for the TV series . The 12 main episodes and two Air in Summer episodes were licensed for North American distribution by ADV Films . The episodes were released on four DVD compilations between August 14 and November 27 , 2007 . The second DVD volume was sold in two editions , with the difference between the two being a series box all four DVDs could fit inside . In July 2008 , the license for the anime series and film was transferred to Funimation , which continued to produce them in North America in English . Funimation released a three @-@ disc series box set of the Air anime on April 21 , 2009 , which did not include the recap episode .
= = = Film = = =
An Air animated film directed by Osamu Dezaki premiered in Japanese theaters on February 5 , 2005 . The film , animated by Toei Animation , is a reinterpretation of the original Air storyline which centers on the story arc of the female lead Misuzu Kamio . Yukito Kunisaki arrives in the town of Kami for a chance to earn money at the summer festival and meets Misuzu on his first day in town . They soon become friends and a story one thousand years old begins to unfold . The film was later sold on DVD and released in three editions : the Collector 's Edition , the Special Edition , and the Regular Edition on August 5 , 2005 . The Air film was originally released on DVD by ADV Films in North America on December 11 , 2007 . Funimation continued the release of the film as of July 2008 when the license was transferred from ADV to Funimation ; Funimation re @-@ released the film on April 21 , 2009 .
= = Music = =
The visual novel has three main theme songs : the opening theme " Tori no Uta " ( 鳥の詩 , Bird 's Poem ) , the ending theme " Farewell song " , and " Aozora " ( 青空 , Blue Skies ) as an insert song . Each song is sung by Lia of I 've Sound and the lyrics were written by Jun Maeda . Five of the characters have leitmotifs , or background music theme songs — the three heroines , Kanna , and Michiru . Misuzu 's theme is " Natsukage " ( 夏影 , Summer Lights ) ; Kano 's theme is " Mizutamari " ( 水たまり , Puddle ) ; Minagi 's theme is " Niji " ( 虹 , Rainbows ) ; Kanna 's theme is " Tsukiwarawa " ( 月童 , Moon Child ) ; lastly , Michiru 's theme is " Tentōmushi " ( てんとう虫 , Ladybug ) . Of the six music tracks not used in the visual novel , but of which were included on the game 's original soundtrack , the first two were failed attempts at creating a theme for Minagi .
The first album , Ornithopter , came bundled with the original release of Air in September 2000 . The next album was released in August 2001 as a maxi single titled " Natsukage / Nostalgia " containing a vocal version of " Natsukage " , and a B @-@ side track ; both songs were sung by Lia and the rest of the single was produced by Jun Maeda . The game 's original soundtrack was released in September 2002 containing two discs with 31 different tracks along with remix and instrumental versions of the opening and ending themes . A piano arrange album was released in December 2003 called Re @-@ feel which contained five tracks from Air and five from Kanon . An EP containing original versions of the three theme songs and remixed versions of the opening and ending themes was released in May 2006 called Air Analog Collector 's Edition : Tori no Uta / Farewell song . Each of the albums released for the visual novel version were released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label . The film 's original soundtrack was released in March 2005 by Frontier Works . A bonus symphony CD titled Shinwa e no Izanai was released with the special edition Air film DVD on August 5 , 2005 . Overall , Air 's music has been well received , and the original soundtrack for the visual novel has met with high sales . The opening theme was involved in copyright infringement in 2005 .
= = Reception and sales = =
According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan , the original Air PC release premiered at number one in the rankings . The game ranked twice at 42 in November and December 2000 , at 20 in January 2001 , and twice more at 42 through February 2001 . The original release appeared on the charts twice more : the first in late September to early October 2001 at 26 , and again in the last two weeks of May 2002 , ranking in at 43 . The regular edition of the Air PC release premiered at number 13 , ranked in at number 41 in the following ranking , and 42 in the ranking after that . The PC all ages version premiered at number seven in the rankings and had a final ranking at 30 in the next ranking . The Air Standard Edition premiered at number one in the rankings . The Air Standard Edition ranked in twice more , at 34 and at 28 in the next two rankings . Air was the highest selling game of 2000 selling 102 @,@ 080 units , which was about 25 @,@ 000 more units than the second highest game , Inagawa de Ikō ! . The Dreamcast version sold 42 @,@ 445 units in its first week , and was the fourth highest selling console game in Japan that week . The video game magazine Famitsu scored this version a 30 out of 40 , and it ultimately sold 50 @,@ 406 units to rank as the 53rd highest selling Japanese Dreamcast game ever , as of 2007 . NTT Publishing reported that over 300 @,@ 000 units of Air have been sold .
" Air took the bishōjo gaming world by storm , " as states a review of the Dreamcast game by MobyGames . Air was described as a game that stands out , much like Key 's first title Kanon , due to an intricate plot that keeps the player interested , and has a good replay value as well . In an interview of Jun Maeda and Yūichi Suzumoto , they were both surprised to find out that the Japanese public ( in March 2001 ) felt Air to be a soothing game , but Maeda and Suzumoto made it clear that this impression is completely at odds with their impression of the game , and they remark that there was not one person who worked on Air who thought that . Characters from Air have appeared in dōjin works not directly based on the Air series . Games such as Eternal Fighter Zero -Blue Sky Edition- by Twilight Frontier where most of the playable characters either came from Air or from the earlier Key games Kanon or One . In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released . Out of 249 titles , Air ranked eighth with 43 votes .
= Richard Neal =
Richard Edmund Neal ( born February 14 , 1949 ) is an American politician and the U.S. Representative for Massachusetts 's 1st congressional district . He is a member of the Democratic Party and a former city councilor and mayor of Springfield , Massachusetts . He is currently the dean of the Massachusetts delegation to the House of Representatives .
A Springfield native , Neal graduated from American International College and received a master 's degree from the University of Hartford . After graduating he became involved in politics , working as an assistant to the mayor of Springfield . He served as president of the Springfield City Council from 1979 to 1983 while teaching high school history courses and lecturing at local colleges . He served as mayor of Springfield from 1983 to 1989 , overseeing a period of economic growth . With his political influence and a head start on contributions , he was nearly uncontested when he ran for election to the House of Representatives in 1988 .
As a member of the House Ways and Means Committee and former chairman of the Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures , Neal is an influential figure in House economic policy . He has also dedicated much of his career to US – Ireland relations and maintaining American involvement in the Northern Ireland peace process , for which he has won several acclamations . He has a generally liberal voting record , but is considered a moderate on such issues as abortion and trade .
= = Early life , education , and academic career = =
Richard Edmund Neal was born February 14 , 1949 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , the oldest of three children . He and his two younger sisters were raised in Springfield by their mother , a housewife , and their father , a custodian at MassMutual . Neal 's maternal grandparents were from Northern Ireland and his paternal grandparents were from Ireland . Neal 's mother died of a heart attack when he was 13 , and he was attending Springfield Technical High School when his father , an alcoholic , died . Neal and his two younger sisters moved in with their grandmother and later their aunt , forced to rely on Social Security checks as they grew up .
After graduating high school , Neal attended Holyoke Community College in Holyoke and then American International College in Springfield , with the assistance of survivor 's benefits . He graduated in 1972 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science . He then attended the University of Hartford 's Barney School of Business and Public Administration , graduating in 1976 with a Master of Arts in public administration . Early in his career , Neal taught history at Cathedral High School .
= = Local government = =
Neal began his political career as co @-@ chairman of Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern 's 1972 election campaign in Western Massachusetts . In 1973 he became an assistant to Springfield Mayor William C. Sullivan . Neal was elected to the Springfield City Council in 1978 and was named President of the City Council in 1979 . The following year he was named as a delegate for presidential candidate Edward M. Kennedy at the 1980 Democratic National Convention . While a city councilor , Neal taught history at Cathedral High School , and gave lectures at Springfield College , American International College , Springfield Technical Community College and Western New England College .
In 1983 Neal made plans to challenge Theodore Dimauro , the Democratic incumbent Mayor of Springfield . This pressure led Dimauro to retire and Neal was elected mayor . Neal was re @-@ elected in 1985 and 1987 . As mayor , Neal oversaw a period of significant economic growth , with over $ 400 million of development and investment in the city , and a surplus in the city budget . He worked to strengthen Springfield 's appearance , pushing to revive and preserve the city 's historic homes and initiating an influential Clean City Campaign to reduce litter .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
Neal ran for the United States House of Representatives in Massachusetts 's 2nd congressional district in 1988 after 18 @-@ term Democratic incumbent Edward Boland retired . Boland had alerted Neal of his impending retirement , allowing the mayor a head @-@ start on his campaign . Neal raised $ 200 @,@ 000 in campaign contributions and collected signatures across the district before the retirement was formally announced . He was unopposed in the Democratic primary , and his only general election opponent was Communist Party candidate Louis R. Godena , whom he defeated with over 80 percent of the vote .
Neal has won re @-@ election in every term since . Former Springfield mayor Theodore Dimauro , reflecting sentiments that Neal had an unfair advantage in the previous election , ran as a challenger in the 1990 Democratic primary . Dimauro 's campaign was sullied by a false rumor he spread about the Bank of New England 's financial situation , and Neal won the primary easily . He was unopposed in the general election , winning 68 percent of the vote . In 1992 his popularity was threatened by the House banking scandal , in which he had made dozens of unpenalized overdrafts at the House Bank . After narrowly defeating two Democratic opponents , he was challenged by Republican Anthony W. Ravosa , Jr . , and Independent Thomas R. Sheehan . Neal won with 53 percent of the vote .
In a Springfield Union @-@ News poll taken in mid @-@ October 1994 , Neal was only ahead of John Briare by 6 percentage points . Neal then went on to spend nearly $ 500 @,@ 000 against Briare in the last 2 weeks of the election to defeat him . The 1994 general election also featured a third party candidate as well , Kate Ross , who received 6 % of the vote . With blanks , Neal actually received only 51 % of the vote in 1994 .
Since 1994 , Neal has had little electoral opposition . He was challenged by Mark Steele in 1996 and easily dispatched him with 71 percent of the vote and ran unopposed in 1998 . In 2000 he won the Democratic primary against Joseph R. Fountain , who challenged Neal 's positions as " anti @-@ choice " and " anti @-@ gun " . Neal had been unopposed in the general election since 1996 , but faced Republican opponent Tom Wesley in the 2010 United States Congressional elections , which Neal won by a margin of 57 % to 43 % .
For his first 12 terms in Congress , Neal represented a district centered on Springfield and stretching as far east as the southern and western suburbs of Worcester . When Massachusetts lost a congressional district after the 2010 census , the bulk of Neal 's territory , including his home in Springfield , was merged with the 1st District , held by fellow Democrat John Olver . The prospect of an incumbent vs. incumbent contest was averted when Olver retired . The new 1st was no less Democratic than the old 2nd , and Neal was reelected without much difficulty in 2012 and 2014 .
= = = Tenure = = =
Neal has a generally liberal political record . He was given a 100 percent " Liberal Quotient " by Americans for Democratic Action ( ADA ) for his 2008 voting record , and the organization named him one of the year 's " ADA Heroes " . He was given an 8 @.@ 19 percent " Lifetime Rating " by the American Conservative Union ( ACU ) based on his votes from 1989 to 2009 . In the 110th United States Congress Neal voted with the Democratic Party leadership on 98 @.@ 9 percent of bills ; in the 111th United States Congress , Neal voted with the Democratic party leadership 95 % of the time .
Neal was a member of the House Democratic Steering Committee in the 105th Congress and is now an at @-@ large whip for the House Democrats . Neal is a co @-@ chair of the New England Congressional Caucus , a group aiming to advance the regional interests of New England .
= = = = Economy and budget = = = =
With several influential committee posts , Neal has made economic policy the focus of his career , although his success has been mixed . He served his first two terms on the House Banking Committee , where he served on the Financial Services Subcommittee . As the banking reform law of 1991 was being drafted , he cautioned that President George H.W. Bush 's proposal could negatively affect small businesses and minority @-@ owned businesses . He introduced an amendment to require reports on lending to these businesses , which was adopted .
In 1993 Neal moved to the House Ways and Means Committee , where he currently serves . He has been chairman of the Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures since 2008 and is a member of the Subcommittee on Trade . Previously he served on the Oversight and Social Security subcommittees . In the late 2000s analysts considered Neal a likely frontrunner for chairman of the Ways and Means Committee , and in the wake of Charles B. Rangel 's 2010 departure he began actively seeking the post . In June 2010 , while pursuing the chairmanship , he invited campaign contributors to a $ 5 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ person weekend fundraiser in Cape Cod . This drew fire from The Boston Globe , which criticized him for " [ acceding ] to the capital 's money culture . "
According to Congressional Quarterly 's Politics in America , one of Neal 's long @-@ standing legislative priorities is to simplify the tax code . Neal has long advocated repealing the Alternative Minimum Tax ( AMT ) , believing its effects have reached unreasonably low income brackets . He led an unsuccessful movement to reform the AMT in 2007 . He successfully pushed in 1998 to exempt a child tax credit from being affected by the AMT , and in 2001 Congress made the exemption permanent at his urging . He voted against the tax cuts of 2001 and 2003 , saying that they would force millions onto the AMT . Another priority of Neal 's is to eliminate tax " loopholes " that favor higher @-@ income individuals . He was the lead proponent of a bill to require federal contractors to pay federal taxes for workers hired through offshore shell headquarters . The bill , H.R. 6081 , passed both houses of Congress unanimously and was signed into law in May 2008 .
On trade policy , Neal has a moderate record , supporting lower trade barriers . He voted against the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) in 1993 . In 1995 and 2002 he voted against fast track bills which gave the president the authority to negotiate trade deals without amendments by Congress . In 2007 he voted in favor of the United States – Peru Trade Promotion Agreement despite some Democratic opposition .
Neal is a strong supporter of the Social Security program . He moved from the Trade subcommittee to the Social Security subcommittee in 2005 to challenge President George W. Bush 's attempts to partially privatize it . He pushed a proposal to automatically enroll employees in Individual Retirement Accounts ( IRAs ) , and successfully lobbied President Barack Obama to include it in a proposed 2009 budget outline .
= = = = Foreign policy = = = =
Descended from Irish nationalist grandparents on both sides , Neal has been an advocate for Irish concerns throughout his Congressional career , pushing to keep the United States involved in the Northern Ireland peace process . He is the co @-@ chair of the ad hoc Committee on Irish Affairs , has been chairman of the Friends of Ireland since 2007 , and was considered as a candidate for United States Ambassador to Ireland in 1998 . After the disarmament of the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) in September 2005 , Neal was among a group of Congressmen who met with Sinn Féin MP Martin McGuinness to congratulate him on the action of disarmament and ensure a lasting peace had been reached . Neal invited Sinn Féin President Gerry Adams to the inauguration of Barack Obama in January 2009 . Neal has been named as one of the top 100 Irish @-@ Americans by Irish America magazine and received the International Leadership Award from The American Ireland Fund in 2002 .
Neal is an opponent of the Iraq War , saying the war was based on false intelligence . He voted against the original invasion in 2003 and opposed President Bush 's 2006 request to send additional troops . He cited veterans ' affairs as his top priority in 2010 .
= = = = Domestic policy = = = =
A longtime advocate of health care reform , Neal was involved in the major health care reform efforts of 1993 – 94 and 2009 – 10 . In working on the unsuccessful Clinton health care plan of 1993 he balanced his desire for health care reform with the interests of the major health insurance and medical companies in his district , achieving a compromise allowing insurance companies to charge small businesses higher premiums . He was later involved writing the House 's 2009 health care reform bill , the Affordable Health Care for America Act . As chairman of the Select Revenue Measures subcommittee , he had a hand in developing the bill 's financing plan . He explained that his priorities were to address " pre @-@ existing conditions , capping out @-@ of @-@ pocket expenses and making sure people don 't lose their health care if they lose their job " . Despite his support for the act , he spoke about his preference for a " piecemeal " approach to health care reform , saying it would allow for a more reasonable debate .
Coming from a relatively Catholic district , Neal has a more conservative record on the issue of abortion than other Massachusetts representatives . He said in 2010 , " I have always opposed taxpayer funding of abortion . I 'd keep Roe v. Wade and restrict it , I 've always thought : keep abortion , with restrictions for late @-@ term abortion . [ Given ] the voting pattern I have , both sides would say I 'm mixed and guess what ? That 's where the American people are . " He voted for the Partial @-@ Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 , which made the intact dilation and extraction abortion procedure illegal in most cases . During debate on the House health care reform bill , he voted in favor of the Stupak – Pitts Amendment , restricting government funding of abortion . On other social issues Neal has a moderate record : he supports a proposed Constitutional amendment to ban desecration of the U.S. flag , and has twice voted against an amendment to ban same @-@ sex marriage .
= = Personal life = =
Neal is a Roman Catholic . He lives in Springfield with his wife Maureen Neal , née Conway . They have four children : Rory Christopher , Brendan Conway , Maura Katherine , and Sean Richard . In addition to his duties as a congressman , Neal teaches a journalism course at the University of Massachusetts Amherst called " The Politician and the Journalist " .
= Hurricane Belle =
Hurricane Belle was a strong tropical cyclone that caused moderate damage across the East Coast of the United States in August 1976 . In late July , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . Traversing the Atlantic Ocean for more than a week , the system eventually consolidated into a tropical depression near the Bahamas on August 6 . Remaining nearly stationary for a day , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm on August 7 and a hurricane later that day as it acquired a northwest motion . Formation of an eye accompanied quick intensification and Belle reached its peak the following day with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . The hurricane subsequently turned north and accelerated , skirting the Outer Banks of North Carolina . Early on August 10 , Belle made landfall on Long Island , New York , as a minimal hurricane crossing Long Island Sound and hitting the central coast of Connecticut as strong tropical storm . Thereafter , Belle transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New England before moving over Atlantic Canada . The system turned east while over the north Atlantic and ultimately dissipated on August 15 to the south of Iceland .
Threatening much of the East Coast of the United States , hurricane warnings were issued from Georgia to Maine . An estimated 500 @,@ 000 people evacuated coastal areas accordingly . Overall , impacts from Belle were less than expected and mainly attributed to flooding across New England . Hundreds of thousands of residents lost power due to high winds . A total of 12 people lost their lives , mostly incidents indirectly related to the hurricane , and damage reached an estimated $ 100 million . Portions of New Jersey , New York , and Vermont were later declared major disaster areas by then @-@ President Gerald Ford . Some damage also took place in New Brunswick , Canada , from heavy rain .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 28 , 1976 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . An unusually well @-@ organized system for the time of year and location , considerable deep convection accompanied it . A possible low @-@ level circulation consolidated within the system by July 31 as it raced west acros the Atlantic Ocean . As it approached the Lesser Antilles in early August , convection separated from the system and moved north of the islands while the wave itself continued into the Caribbean Sea . The northern portion of the system eventually reached a point north of the Bahamas on August 5 and grew increasingly organized . Well @-@ defined upper @-@ level outflow became established that evening . A low @-@ level center formed early on August 6 and became a tropical depression by 06 : 00 UTC while situated roughly 290 mi ( 465 km ) east @-@ northeast of Nassau , Bahamas . Over the next 24 hours , the system remained almost stationary and executed a small counter @-@ clockwise loop . Early on August 7 , the depression acquired gale @-@ force winds and became a tropical storm . Accordingly , it was assigned the name Belle . Acquiring a slow northwest trajectory , Belle steadily intensified on August 7 . Reconnaissance aircraft investigating the storm revealed the system to have achieved hurricane strength by 18 : 00 UTC as its pressure fell to 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) . Additionally , a well @-@ defined eye was present by this time .
The cyclone turned northward and accelerated on August 8 while reaching major hurricane status that evening . Early on August 9 , Belle achieved its peak intensity with maximum estimated surface winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 957 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) . At higher altitudes within the storm , recon reported winds up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Turning to just east of due north , Belle began weakening shortly thereafter with its eye becoming obscured . Late on August 9 , the hurricane passed within 60 mi ( 95 km ) of Hatteras Island , North Carolina . Contrary to most storms which threaten the northeastern states , Belle did not accelerate tremendously as it neared land . Accordingly , it weakened quickly in response to cooler waters in the region . Around 05 : 00 UTC on August 10 , Belle made landfall as a minimal hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds along Jones Beach , Long Island , New York . Briefly crossing the Long Island Sound , Belle made a second landfall as a strong tropical storm near Bridgeport , Connecticut . Once inland over New England , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while traversing New Hampshire . The remnants accelerated northeast and later due east across Atlantic Canada before emerging over the Labrador Sea on August 12 . While situated between the Azores and Greenland , ex @-@ Belle turned north @-@ northeast and ultimately dissipated south of Iceland on August 15 .
= = Preparations = =
Owing to Hurricane Belle 's proximity to many states along the Eastern Seaboard , hurricane watches and warnings were issued for the entire coast from Georgia to Maine . Accordingly , evacuations took place in numerous states with an estimated 500 @,@ 000 people evacuating overall .
Officials advised residents near the coastline to evacuate to safer areas further inland . Approximately 40 @,@ 000 vacationing in the Outer Banks evacuated ; however , roughly 2 @,@ 500 residents decided to ride out the storm in their homes . In Kitty Hawk and Nags Head , volunteer firefighters traveled door @-@ to @-@ door urging residents to leave . Schools and hotels across the areas were utilized as shelters for tourists . National Parks across the Outer Banks closed for the duration of the storm . Aircraft at the Marine Corps Camp Lejeune were relocated inland and helicopters were moved to hangars ; some helicopters remained available for emergency rescue operations . An estimated 6 @,@ 200 residents evacuated to Red Cross shelters in the state .
The majority of evacuations in the country were in New Jersey , with 250 @,@ 000 residents and tourists relocating . Of this total , 65 @,@ 000 were from the Long Beach Island and 12 @,@ 000 on the Barnegat Peninsula . With Hurricane Belle expected to make landfall around high tide and a full moon , the forecast storm tide in rivaled that of Hurricane Donna in 1960 . This placed roughly 500 @,@ 000 people in danger and officials in New York immediately began preparations . Police officers handed out sandbags to residents in low @-@ lying areas and National Guard armories and some public schools were used as evacuation centers . Approximately 30 @,@ 000 evacuated in New York City and Suffolk County , 11 @,@ 000 of whom utilized the aforementioned shelters . In Staten Island , 225 patients in a local hospital were relocated to a second facility . A flood watch was issued for the Hudson Valley in southern New York ahead of the hurricane on August 8 . Advisories from the National Hurricane Center emphasized the flood risk as well . Numerous flights in and out of New York were cancelled , Wall Street was closed , and the United Nations postponed a meeting . Summer tourists evacuated from most beaches but many residents decided to stay . In Connecticut , 52 helicopters and 100 pilots from the National Guard were placed on standby for possible relief missions following the storm .
Farther north in Rhode Island , 10 @,@ 000 people fled from the coast . Despite evacuation orders , nearly half of the residents in Narragansett , Rhode Island , refused to leave their homes and as a result martial law was implemented to get people to leave . The Red Cross reported that about 2 @,@ 300 people evacuated Cape Cod , Massachusetts , and thousands of tourists left the area . About 70 flights to and from Boston 's Logan International Airport were canceled . Flood warnings were raised across western portions of the state .
= = Impact = =
Across the Eastern United States , the effects of Belle were less than anticipated . A total of 12 people lost their lives , mostly due to traffic accidents , and damage amounted to $ 100 million .
Hurricane Belle produced a swath of light to moderate , and locally heavy , rain extending from North Carolina into New England . The highest totals were confined to areas closer to the storm 's center , with accumulations of 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) common along its track . Notable state maximums included 6 @.@ 8 in ( 170 mm ) in Massachusetts , 6 @.@ 68 in ( 170 mm ) in Maryland , 5 @.@ 85 in ( 149 mm ) in Maine , 5 @.@ 77 in ( 147 mm ) in New York , 5 @.@ 66 in ( 144 mm ) in New Jersey , 5 @.@ 37 in ( 136 mm ) in Connecticut , and 5 @.@ 3 in ( 130 mm ) in Virginia . Although on the weaker side of the storm , New Jersey saw the highest winds from Belle , with an estimated peak gust of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) in Ship Bottom . A similar gust was estimated to have occurred in Jones Beach , New York , where Belle made landfall . Hurricane @-@ force gusts also affected portions of Connecticut , New York , and North Carolina . LaGuardia Airport , near New York City , saw sustained winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) with gusts to 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) . Tropical storm @-@ force conditions occurred in every New England state alongside coastal Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Tides of 3 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 – 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal were common from North Carolina to Rhode Island . Atlantic City , New Jersey saw the greatest tides at 8 @.@ 85 ft ( 2 @.@ 70 m ) above mean low @-@ tide , while Battery Park in lower Manhattan saw a peak value of 7 @.@ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) above mean low tide .
North Carolina escaped relatively unscathed from the hurricane , with only a few reports of wind damage in the Outer Banks . Windows at a hotel in Nags Head were blown out . Along the North Carolina – Virginia border , five people lost their lives in a car accident on a rain @-@ slicked highway . Minor damage took place in Maryland . Although on the weaker side of the storm , gusty winds knocked down numerous power lines in New Jersey , leaving 10 @,@ 000 people in the dark and setting off 75 fire alarms , one of which was a relatively large fire forcing the evacuation of a nursing home . Roughly 500 ft ( 150 m ) of the Atlantic City boardwalk was damaged or destroyed , with repairs estimated to reach $ 5 million . Damage to properties in Monmouth and Ocean counties amounted to $ 3 @.@ 6 million and $ 1 million , respectively . On August 21 , then @-@ President Gerald Ford issued a major disaster declaration for Atlantic , Cape May , Monmouth , and Ocean counties , allowing them to receive federal funding .
The high winds knocked down trees and power lines across Long Island , New York , leaving roughly 170 @,@ 000 residents without electricity . Power crews from Pennsylvania were called in to assist in restoring electricity . Damage across the island reached $ 8 million , of which $ 3 million stemmed from erosion at Rockaway Beach . One person was killed in New York when a branch snapped off a tree due to high winds and fell on her . An estimated 36 @,@ 000 residents in the lower Hudson Valley lost power . President Ford later declared Nassau , Suffolk , and Rensselaer counties major disaster areas . Effects were similar in Connecticut where approximately 247 @,@ 000 people lost electricity . Commuter train service along Conrail 's New York – New Haven line was canceled due to power outages . A portion of the Merritt Parkway was closed due to downed trees . High winds in Bridgeport toppled many trees and power lines , shattered windows , and sparked two house fires . Five boats in the city 's harbor sustained damage . Flooding in and around Danbury prompted evacuations of an apartment complex and motel . One fatality took place in Barkhamsted due to slippery roads . Overall damage in Connecticut was far less than expected , according to state police , with losses reaching $ 7 @.@ 1 million and mostly stemming from Fairfield and New Haven counties . Power companies brought in additional personnel to expedite the restoration process , though many remained in the dark days after the storm . A couple and their two dogs in Vernon died from carbon monoxide poisoning from a generator on August 14 .
Owing to heavy rains that preceded the hurricane , widespread small stream flooding took place in New England , particularly in Vermont where then @-@ governor Thomas P. Salmon declared a state of emergency . Flooding in the state was reported as the worst in 30 years , with southern areas of the state seeing the greatest damage . Hardest hit was the town of Chester where 35 of its 85 roads flooded and 5 bridges were washed out . Otter Creek crested at 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage . Significant damage also took place in Jamaica , Ludlow , and Londonderry . Two people died in Huntington after the footbridge they were crossing collapsed into the Huntington River . Portions of Route 100 were washed out . Property damage in the state reached $ 5 – 10 million . The overall scale of flooding was regarded as a 1 @-@ in @-@ 10 to 1 @-@ in @-@ 25 year event . Immediately following the hurricane , a statewide ban on drinking water was imposed with an order to boil it first . This was later lifted on August 23 . Salt accumulation along power lines in Rhode Island cut electricity to 8 @,@ 000 residents on Aquidneck Island . Along the Saint John River in Aroostook County , Maine , flooding caused $ 2 @.@ 5 million worth of damage to crops and buildings .
Heavy rains across New Brunswick , Canada , amounting to 7 in ( 180 mm ) in Edundston , triggered flooding that damaged crops , homes , and roads . Losses from the event were estimated to be at least $ 1 million .
= Siege of Sparta =
The Siege of Sparta took place in 272 BC and was a battle fought between Epirus , led by King Pyrrhus , ( r . 297 – 272 BC ) and an alliance consisting of Sparta , under the command of King Areus I ( r . 309 – 265 BC ) and his heir Acrotatus , and Macedon . The battle was fought at Sparta and ended in a Spartan @-@ Macedonian victory .
Following his defeat in Italy by the Roman Republic , Pyrrhus was forced to retreat back to Epirus . On his return to Epirus , he declared war against Antigonus Gonatas ( r . 283 – 239 BC ) , managing to take control of Macedon . In 272 BC , he was approached by a Spartan prince , Cleonymus , a claimant to the Spartan throne who had been overlooked . Pyrrhus saw this invitation as an opportunity to extend his wars of conquest to the Peloponnese and invaded Sparta . Despite the majority of the Spartan army campaigning in Crete , the remaining Spartans were able to mount a defence led by the Spartan Crown Prince Acrotatus . The Spartans were able to withstand the Epiriote assaults until the arrival of the main Spartan army , led by King Areus I , and Macedonian reinforcements , prompting Pyrrhus to abandon the siege .
After this failure , Pyrrhus ravaged the Spartan hinterland whilst fending off counter @-@ attacks by the victorious Spartans . On the invitation of an Argive ally , Pyrrhus attempted to seize Argos . The assault culminated in a fiasco with Pyrrhus being attacked by his Argive opponents , the pursuing Spartan army of Areus and a Macedonian army commanded by Antigonus Gonatas . Pyrrhus was killed in the ensuing battle in the streets of Argos , ending Epiriote hopes of establishing a hegemony in Greece .
= = Background = =
In 281 BC , at the request of the Greek city of Tarentum , Pyrrhus , the King of the Greek state of Epirus , went with an army of 25 @,@ 500 men and 20 elephants to Italy to help fight the Romans . The Romans had succeeded in conquering most of Italy and were now moving in to take the Greek cities in Magna Graecia . After arriving in Italy in 280 BC , Pyrrhus defeated a Roman army at the Battle of Heraclea , near Tarentum . Pyrrhus repeated his success against Romans by defeating another army at the Battle of Asculum .
These victories proved to be very costly to Pyrrhus and he diverted his attention to Sicily , where the Greek states on the island were appealing for his help against Carthage . Despite defeating the Carthaginians and occupying most of the island , Pyrrhus ' behaviour alienated him from his Greek allies and he was forced to abandon Sicily and return to the Italian mainland . Pyrrhus attacked the rebuilt Roman army and after the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum , Pyrrhus returned to Epirus after leaving a garrison at Tarentum .
The war in Italy had drained Pyrrhus ' financial and military resources . To increase his resources and bolster his standing , he declared war on King Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedon . He ravaged part of the country before managing to defeat Antigonus at the Battle of the Aous . This defeat compelled Antigonus to flee to Thessaloniki , where he was protected by his strong navy . Following Antigonus ' flight , Pyrrhus was able to gain control of most of Macedon and Thessaly , declaring himself King of Macedon .
= = Prelude = =
Upon his seizure of the Macedonian throne , Pyrrhus was approached by a Spartan Prince , Cleonymus who was serving as an officer in his army . The Spartan persuaded Pyrrhus to assist him in his plot to capture Sparta . Cleonymus ' motives in wanting to attack Sparta were twofold . Firstly , he bore a grudge because his countrymen had overlooked him in favour of his nephew , Areus I when determining the successor of the Agiad throne . Plutarch , the Greek historian , attributed Cleonymus ' non @-@ selection as king to his violent disposition and arbitrariness . Moreover , Cleonymus had been slighted because his new wife , Chilonis , had been seduced by Areus ' son , Arcotatus . These perceived insults spurred Cleonymus to leave Sparta and scheme to usurp the throne .
Pyrrhus was receptive to Cleonymus ' appeals to install him on the Spartan throne and agreed to assist him . To achieve this , the Epiriote King assembled an army numbering of 27 @,@ 000 men . It consisted 25 @,@ 000 infantry , 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and was supplemented by 24 war elephants . The size of Pyrrhus ' expedition indicates that he viewed aiding Cleonymus as an opportunity to extend his hegemony into the Peloponnese and securing Sparta as an ally . An alternate theory is that Pyrrhus undertook his invasion of the Peloponnese as a means of cutting off any support that Antigonus was still receiving from the southern Greek poleis . After mustering his force , Pyrrhus marched south through central Greece and through to the Peloponnese . N. G. L. Hammond speculates that Pyrrhus ' army marched down to Pleuron on the Aetolian side of the Gulf of Corinth and crossed from there into the Peloponnese . This suggests that the invasion was facilitated by the Aetolian League , a power confederate in Central Greece , which was hostile to Antigonus .
Upon his arrival in the Peloponnese , Pyrrhus was welcomed in Achaia before continuing his march to Megalopolis . There he was met by Spartan ambassadors as well as those from Messene , Athens and the Achaean League . Pyrrhus appears to have received support for his invasion from some of Sparta 's neighbours , namely Elis , Megalopolis and some Achaian cities which would profit from reduced Spartan power . In response to the Spartan emissaries ' inquiries as to his intentions , the Epiriote King managed to deceive them . Pyrrhus asserted that his aim in invading the Peloponnese was to liberate the cities still held by Antigonus and to send his sons to Sparta to be educated in the agoge . After the withdrawal of the ambassadors , the Epiriote army advanced into Laconia followed the Eurotas River south and started to ravaging the territory of the Spartan perioeci . Pyrrhus ' deceit prompted outrage in Sparta and ambassador were again dispatched to the Epiriote to upbraid him for his perfidy .
= = Battle = =
= = = First day = = =
At the time of the invading army 's entry into Laconia , Sparta was only lightly defended . The majority of the Spartan army had accompanied Areus on campaign in Crete , where the Lacedaimonians were supporting the polis of Gortyn . As such , Sparta must have seemed like an easy target to Pyrrhus . Arriving outside Sparta in the evening , Cleonymus advised Pyrrhus to attack immediately to take advantage of the dearth of defenders . Pyrrhus decided against launching an immediate offensive as he feared the destruction that would be wrought by his Gallic soldiers if they were to enter the city at night . Anticipating no resistance , Pyrrhus order his army to make camp and prepared to enter Sparta in the morning .
The appearance of the Epirote army before their city caught the Spartans unprepared . Despite the Lacedaimonian gerousia being in favour of sending the women to Crete for their protection , this was opposed by Arachidamia , the former queen and grandmother of the Eurypontid King Eudamidas II , who ensured that the Spartan women would remain to assist with the protection of the city . After the arrangements for the women were reached , the Spartans began bolstering the settlement 's defences . The defenders were aware that the Epiriotes had brought elephants and to counteract them , the older men and women dug a trench parallel to Pyrrhus ' camp with wagons sunken into the ground at the flanks to hinder the enemy 's advance . The trench was a formidable obstacle , spanning 800 feet in length with a depth of six feet and a width of nine feet . Pausanias recounts that the meagre Spartan garrison were assisted during the siege by allies who had arrived from Argos and Messene . Additionally , the Spartans sent messengers to both Areus summoning him back to Sparta and to Antigonus , seeking assistance from him despite the fact that Sparta and Macedon had historically been enemies .
When daybreak approached and the Epiriote army was preparing its attack , the Spartans assumed defensive positions behind their trench . They were encouraged by the women who had remained and by the sight of Chilonis , who had placing a halter around her neck , declared that she would commit suicide rather than return to Cleonymus if Pyrrhus captured the city . The besiegers , led by Pyrrhus in person , attempted to storm the Spartan defences but were repulsed as they were unable to secure firm footing in the face of Spartan attacks , rendering the trench impassable .
Seeking to circumvent this obstacle , Pyrrhus sent a force of 2 @,@ 000 Gauls and some picked Chaonians under the commander of his son Ptolemy to go around the trench . These troops found their path blocked by the wagons which the Lacedaimonians had sunken into the soil . The wagons were planted so deeply that they hindered not only the Epiriote assault but also Spartan efforts to repel the foray . Eventually the Gauls managed to remove some of the wagons , giving them the opportunity to burst into the city . Acrotatus , seeing the danger , exploited a series of depressions in the terrain to lead a force of 300 men undetected against the Epiriote rear . This manoeuvre evoked panic amongst the Gauls who were compelled to abandon their attempt to enter the city and had to turn around to confront the attack to their rear . After a hard fought battle , the Epiriote flanking group was pushed back into the trench with heavy casualties inflicted upon them . The Spartans , elated by Arcotatus ' leadership , told him to withdraw from the battle and return to Chilonis so as to beget more children like him for Sparta .
= = = Second day = = =
Pyrrhus failed to breach the Lacedaimonian defences and when night fell , he withdrew back to his camp . According to Plutarch , Pyrrhus received an omen during the night . As he slept , he dreamt of Sparta being smitten and set alight by thunderbolts coming from his own hand . While Pyrrhus and most of his counsellors interpreted the dream as indicating that they would seize Sparta by storm , his friend Lysimachus warned him that places struck by thunderbolts were usually avoided and that Pyrrhus was destined not to enter Sparta . Pyrrhus dismissed this interpretation and buoyed by what he deemed to be a portentous sign , he prepared his men for a further assault .
In the face of the renewed Epiriote offensive , the Spartans held their defences with vigour . Due to the lack of manpower , the Spartan women were active in offering missiles to the defenders as well as taking away the wounded and providing food and drink to those who required it . To nullify the advantage of the Spartans ' position , the Epiriotes began filling up the trench with materials which they were bringing to the front line as well as the bodies of their slain comrades . The efforts of the besiegers were hindered by the Spartans who were aware of the importance of maintaining their defensive obstacles .
In response to the Spartan counter @-@ attack against the Epiriotes filling the trench , Pyrrhus decided to personally lead a charge against the Spartan lines . Mounted on his horse , the Epiriote King was able to force his away through the trench , over the wagons and into the city with a group of his companions . The sudden onslaught of Pyrrhus sparked panic amongst the defenders of this section . At this point Pyrrhus ' horse was wounded by a javelin which pierced its belly causing it to throw the King to the ground . The fall of the King threw his companions into a state of confusion and enabled the Spartans to rally . The Spartans launched a barrage of missiles at the King 's comrades , felling many of them . Despite the deaths of many of his guards , Pyrrhus was successfully taken to the safety of the main Epiriote lines .
= = = Fighting retreat = = =
Following this unsuccessful foray , Pyrrhus ordered his army to fall back . He hoped that the Spartans would now be willing to come to terms due to the heavy casualties they had suffered . Pyrrhus ' hopes of a Spartan capitulation were thwarted by the arrival of reinforcements . Upon hearing of Pyrrhus ' intention to conquer Sparta , Antigonus Gonatas had dispatched his general , Ameinias the Phocian , from Corinth with a group of mercenaries to relieve the Lacedaimonians . Shortly after this , the defenders ' numbers of the defenders were further augmented by the arrival of Areus with 2 @,@ 000 men from Crete . The arrival of these reinforcements greatly reduced the strain on the Spartans , with women and those who were not of military age being able to withdraw from the front line .
Bolstered by the fresh troops , the Spartans and their Macedonian allies prepared themselves for Pyrrhus ' next assault against the trench . The presence of more adversaries intensified Pyrrhus ' determination to capture the city and he ordered another attack on the trenches . He was unable to accomplish anything and suffered further losses . The failure of this attack convinced Pyrrhus about the futility of persevering with the siege and he decided to lift it and withdraw .
Pyrrhus intended to spend the winter in Laconia , possibly with the purpose of launching a fresh attack on Sparta and sent his army to begin ravaging the surrounding countryside . At this point , Pyrrhus received an emissary from Aristeas , a prominent citizen of the major Peloponnesian polis of Argos , seeking his assistance to overthrow the regime of Aristippus , which was supportive of Antigonus and the Macedonians . Pyrrhus hastened to seize the opportunity to capture Argos and began to withdraw from Laconia , heading north to Argolis .
His retreating army were continuously harried by the Spartans under the command of Areus . By setting ambushes and occupying important positions along the Epiriote line of retreat , the Spartans were able to inflicted significant casualties on Pyrrhus ' rearguard of Gauls and Molossians . In an attempt to counter the panic and crumbling morale of his rear which was engaging the Spartans , Pyrrhus sent his son Ptolemy to take command . By doing this , Pyrrhus ' hope was that his son 's presence would rally the rearguard and give him enough time to extricate the rest of his army from the narrow pass through which they were marching . The battle intensified around Ptolemy 's position and he was set upon by a picked Spartan band led by Evaclus . In the fight that ensued , Ptolemy was slain and his remaining troops being overwhelmed by the triumphant Spartans . Upon hearing of his son 's death and the disintegration of his rearguard , Pyrrhus charged the Spartans with his Molossian cavalry , killing Evaclus with his own hand before destroying the remainder of his picked Spartan troops . With the defeat of Evaclus ' force , Pyrrhus was able to withdraw the rest of his army from Laconia .
= = Aftermath = =
After their evacuation of Laconia , Pyrrhus directed his army towards Argos and upon learning that Antigonus was in the vicinity pitched his camp at Nauplia . After a series of negotiations between the Argives , Macedonians and Epiriotes , Pyrrhus agreed to withdraw from Argos . During the night , he entered Argos accompanied by his army with Aristeas ' aid . In the ensuing melee , the Epiriotes were set upon by the Argives as well as Antigonous ' Macedonians and a body of Spartans led by Areus , who had been brought into the city by Aristippus ' faction . While attempting to retreat , Pyrrhus was struck on the head by a tile and while lying stunned , was decapitated by Antigonus ' troops .
Pyrrhus ' defeat in the Peloponnese led to the diminution of Epirus ' power and the loss of its Macedonian and Thessalian conquests . Antigonus capitalised on his Peloponnesian victory to wrest back control of Macedonia and become the preeminent power in Greece . The establishment of Macedonian dominance led to a breakdown of the Spartan @-@ Macedonian alliance . In a bid to further his own royal ambitions , Areus had Sparta join a coalition of Greek poleis and fought Macedon in the Chremonidean War . The war ended in a crushing Spartan defeat with Antigonus defeating and killing his former ally Areus in a battle on the Isthmus of Corinth in 265 BC . The defeat was so disastrous for Sparta that they would not rise to be a regional power until the reign of Cleomenes III thirty years later .
= = In popular culture = =
The Siege of Sparta is available to play as one of the historical battles in the award @-@ winning video game , Rome : Total War . The user must command the army of Pyrrhus as he attempts to capture Sparta .
French painter François Topino @-@ Lebrun painted a work entitled Siège de Sparte par Pyrrhus ( Siege of Sparta by Pyrrhus ) in 1799 – 1800 depicting the battle .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Pausanias ; Jones , W. H. S. ( translator ) ( 1918 ) . Description of Greece . New York : Harvard University Press .
Plutarch ; Scott @-@ Kilvert , Ian ( translator ) ( 1973 ) . Life of Pyrrhus . New York : Penguin Classics . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044286 @-@ 3 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
Cartledge , Paul ; Spawforth , Antony ( 1989 ) . Hellenistic and Roman Sparta : A tale of two cities . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03290 @-@ 3 .
Cross , Geoffrey ( 2015 ) . Epirus . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9781107458673 .
Fox , Robert Lane ( 2006 ) . The Classical World . Maryborough : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 103761 @-@ 5 .
Green , Peter ( 1993 ) . Alexander to Actium : The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age . Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 01485 @-@ X.
Hammond , N. G. L. ( 1988 ) . A History of Macedonia : 336 – 167 BC . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0198148151 .
Pomeroy , Sarah ( 2002 ) . Spartan Women . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03290 @-@ 3 .
Walbank , F. W. ( 1984 ) . The Cambridge Ancient History , Volume 7 , Part 1 : The Hellenistic World . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 23445 @-@ X.
Wylie , Graham ( 1999 ) . " Pyrrhus Πολεμιστής " . Latomus . 58 ( Societe d 'Etudes Latines de Bruxelles ) 2 .
= Theodore Komnenos Doukas =
Theodore Komnenos Doukas ( Greek : Θεόδωρος Κομνηνός Δούκας , Theodōros Komnēnos Doukas , Latinized as Theodore Comnenus Ducas , died ca . 1253 ) , was ruler of Epirus and Thessaly from 1215 to 1230 and of Thessalonica and most of the rest of Macedonia and western Thrace from 1224 to 1230 . He was also the power behind the rule of his sons John and Demetrios over Thessalonica in 1237 – 46 .
Theodore was the scion of a distinguished Byzantine aristocratic family related to the imperial Komnenos , Doukas , and Angelos dynasties . Nevertheless , nothing is known about Theodore 's life before the conquest of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 . Following the fall of Constantinople , he served Theodore I Laskaris , founder of the Empire of Nicaea , for a few years , before being called to Epirus , where his bastard half @-@ brother Michael I Komnenos Doukas had founded an independent principality . When Michael died in 1215 , Theodore sidelined his brother 's underage and illegitimate son Michael II and assumed the governance of the Epirote state . Theodore continued his brother 's policy of territorial expansion . Allied with Serbia , he expanded into Macedonia , threatening the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica . The capture of the Latin Emperor Peter II of Courtenay in 1217 opened the way to the gradual envelopment of Thessalonica , culminating in the city 's fall in 1224 .
As ruler of Thessalonica , Theodore quickly declared himself emperor , challenging the Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes 's claims on the Byzantine imperial throne . In 1225 , he advanced to the outskirts of Constantinople , but his final attack against the seat of the much @-@ reduced Latin Empire was delayed until 1230 . In that year , Theodore amassed an army to besiege Constantinople , but then diverted it against Bulgaria , an ambivalent ally which threatened his northern flank . Theodore was defeated and captured at the Battle of Klokotnitsa , and spent the next seven years in captivity . In the meantime , he was succeeded by his brother Manuel . Manuel quickly lost Thrace , most of Macedonia , and Albania to the Bulgarian Tsar John II Asen . Thessalonica itself became a Bulgarian vassal , while in Epirus proper power was seized by Michael II , returning from exile .
Theodore was released in 1237 when his daughter Irene married John Asen , and quickly managed to regain control of Thessalonica , ousting Manuel . Having been blinded during his captivity and thus disqualified from occupying the throne again , he installed his eldest son John as emperor , but remained the de facto regent of the state . Manuel tried to regain Thessalonica with Nicaean support , but a negotiated settlement was reached which gave him Thessaly and left Thessalonica and its environs to Theodore and John . In 1241 , John III Vatatzes invited Theodore to visit Nicaea . He was welcomed and treated with great honour , but was effectively detained there until the spring of next year , when Vatatzes marched on Thessalonica with Theodore in tow . Theodore was sent in to negotiate with his son and convince him to accept demotion to the rank of Despot and to recognize the suzerainty of Nicaea . John died in 1244 and was succeeded by Theodore 's younger son Demetrios . In 1246 Vatatzes overthrew the unpopular Demetrios and annexed Thessalonica . Theodore influenced his nephew Michael II to launch an attack on Thessalonica in 1251 , but in 1252 , Vatatzes campaigned against them and forced Michael to come to terms . Theodore was taken prisoner and sent into exile in Nicaea , where he died around 1253 .
= = Early life and career = =
Born between 1180 and 1185 , Theodore was a son of the sebastokrator John Doukas and of Zoe Doukaina . His paternal grandparents were Constantine Angelos and Theodora , a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( reigned 1081 – 1118 ) . Theodore 's uncle , Andronikos , was the father of the emperors Isaac II Angelos ( r . 1185 – 95 and 1203 – 04 ) and Alexios III Angelos ( r . 1195 – 1203 ) , who were Theodore 's first cousins . As with most members of his family , he preferred to use the surname of " Doukas " or " Komnenos Doukas " ( Κομνηνός ὁ Δούκας ) ; contemporaries variously called him " Doukas " , " Komnenos " , or even " Grand Komnenos " ( μέγας Κομνηνός ) , an appellation more usually found among the ruling family of the Empire of Trebizond . Theodore evidently preferred to be associated with the more successful dynasties of the Doukai and the Komnenoi , rather than the disastrous reign of the Angeloi ; indeed the only medieval writers to call him " Angelos " were the later , hostile pro @-@ Palaiologos historians Nikephoros Gregoras and Theodore Skoutariotes , while George Akropolites refers to him as " Komnenos " until his defeat at Klokotnitsa in 1230 and as " Angelos " after .
Theodore 's early life is obscure . He followed Theodore Laskaris to Asia Minor after the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204 , where Laskaris founded the Empire of Nicaea . Theodore 's service under Laskaris is relatively unknown except for a brief reference in a letter written by the Metropolitan of Corfu , George Bardanes , one of Theodore 's apologists . Bardanes writes that Theodore " took many dangers for his sake and wrested many fortresses from the enemies and subdued them to Laskaris ' rule " , distinguishing himself through his valour and receiving many rewards from the Nicaean ruler . Some modern scholars , such as Karl Hopf and Antoine Bon , have identified a certain Theodore , who appears as " lord of Argos " and the successor of Leo Sgouros in leading the resistance against the Crusaders in the northwestern Peloponnese after Sgouros ' death in 1208 , with Theodore Komnenos Doukas . This view has been questioned by Raymond @-@ Joseph Loenertz , who argues that there is no evidence for such an assumption , an conversely it is well established that Theodore was in Nicaean service at the time .
Around 1210 , Theodore was invited by his half @-@ brother Michael I Komnenos Doukas to Epirus , where Michael had founded an independent Greek principality . Michael wanted Theodore 's aid , as his only son , the future Michael II Komnenos Doukas , was underage and illegitimate , while Michael 's other half @-@ brothers were considered to lack the ability to rule . Laskaris allowed Theodore to leave , but bound him with an oath of allegiance to himself and his heirs . Before going to Epirus , Theodore had married Maria Petraliphaina , with whom he had four children .
= = Ruler of Epirus = =
From 1210 on , Michael I Komnenos Doukas was engaged in a campaign of expansion , chiefly at the expense of the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica to his east ; after initial reverses , much of Thessaly was conquered . By 1214 , Dyrrhachium and Corfu had been recovered from the Latins as well . The traditional view of historians is that these events marked Michael I 's repudiation of the allegiance he had sworn to the Latin Empire , but historian Philip Van Tricht argues that both Michael and later Theodore remained , at least in theory , vassals of the Latin Empire until 1217 . Michael was assassinated by a servant in late 1214 or in 1215 . As Michael II was illegitimate and too young , Theodore had no trouble in sidelining the boy . According to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta , the boy and his mother spent the duration of his reign exiled in the Peloponnese .
= = = Relations with Serbia and Nicaea = = =
Theodore was capable and extremely ambitious . Notwithstanding his oath to Laskaris , he aspired not only to expand his state at the expense of Thessalonica , but to eventually recover Constantinople and revive the Byzantine Empire . To secure his northern flank , Theodore allied himself with Serbia and the Albanian clans . The Principality of Arbanon was already in the Epirote political orbit under Michael I , and closer ties developed when its ruler Demetrios died in 1215 , leaving his principality to his widow , who promptly remarried the next year to a Greek magnate , Gregory Kamonas . Against the Serbs , Theodore abandoned Michael I 's attempt to pursue a northward expansion into Zeta , and instead pursued an alliance with the Serbian prince Stefan II Nemanjić ( r . 1196 – 1228 ) that was directed towards keeping the Bulgarians in check . The ties between Epirus and Serbia were solidified by the marriage of Theodore 's brother Manuel Komnenos Doukas to one of Stefan II 's sisters ca . 1216 . Stefan II then sought to wed one of his sons — in all likelihood his eldest son and heir , Stefan Radoslav — to Michael I 's second daughter Theodora . The Archbishop of Ohrid , Demetrios Chomatianos , refused to sanction the marriage due to consanguinity — Theodora was a second cousin of Stefan Radoslav 's mother , Eudokia Angelina , a daughter of Alexios III Angelos . In 1217 , Stefan II tried to circumvent this by suggesting himself as the groom to Theodora 's half @-@ sister Maria , but Chomatianos vetoed this proposal as well on similar grounds . Finally , Stefan Radoslav married Theodore 's firstborn daughter Anna in winter 1219 / 20 .
With his position thus strengthened , Theodore expanded his territory into northern Macedonia , although it is possible that at least part of this region had already been captured by Michael I after the death of the local Bulgarian ruler Strez in 1214 . It is unclear to what extent Theodore 's expansion involved direct conflict with the Bulgarian Tsar Boril ( r . 1207 – 18 ) , but by 1217 he held Ohrid , Prilep , and most of the plain of Pelagonia , at least up to Strez 's old capital at Prosek , and likely beyond , approaching the Strymon River . As the Greek historian Konstantinos Varzos has noted , the capture of Ohrid , seat of the eponymous archbishopric , was particularly important for the standing of the Epirote state and Theodore 's aspirations . Theodore sponsored the election of the distinguished canonist Chomatianos to the archiepiscopal throne in 1217 , and Chomatianos would repay that support with his steadfast championing of Epirote claims to the Byzantine imperial inheritance vis @-@ à @-@ vis the rival claims of Nicaea .
Following the Fourth Crusade , the Orthodox clergy in the two main Greek states , Epirus and Nicaea , had effectively become separated . In 1208 , the Nicaeans had convened a synod and elected Michael Autoreianos as successor to the vacant see of the Patriarch of Constantinople . The election was uncanonical and therefore of questionable legitimacy . This in turn meant that Laskaris ' imperial title was also open to challenge , as he had been crowned by the same Michael Autoreianos . Already under Michael I , two local synods of bishops had emerged in the Epirote domains to carry on administration of the Church , largely independent of the Patriarch , one at Naupaktos under John Apokaukos , and one at Ohrid under Chomatianos . The more ambitious Chomatianos soon became the pre @-@ eminent " western " bishop , and sought to strengthen the de facto Epirote autonomy in ecclesiastical affairs , including the appointment of bishops for the local sees without the Patriarch 's interference . This policy , which dovetailed with Theodore 's own ambitions of independence from and rivalry towards Nicaea , brought the two branches of the Greek Church to an open quarrel , as the Nicaea @-@ based patriarch Manuel I Sarantenos began appointing bishops of his own to Epirote sees , whom the Epirotes refused to accept . Despite his close ties to Epirus , Stefan II Nemanjić exploited the Epirote – Nicaean rivalry to his advantage to secure autocephaly for the Serbian Church , which traditionally had been under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Ohrid . Brushing aside Chomatianos ' vehement objections , Stefan managed to have his brother Rastko , renamed Sava , consecrated by Manuel Sarantenos as autocephalous archbishop of Serbia in 1219 . Theodore took care not to let the quarrels of the churchmen affect his cordial relations with the Serbian ruler .
Theodore 's drive into Macedonia disquieted another local strongman , Alexius Slav , ruler of Melnik . A sworn enemy of Boril , Alexius had been abandoned by his erstwhile ally , the Latin Emperor , Henry of Flanders ( r . 1205 – 16 ) , who in 1213 allied himself with Bulgaria . Facing a possible attack by Theodore as well , Alexius now preferred to make common cause with him , and married a niece of Theodore 's wife .
= = = Capture of Peter of Courtenay = = =
The Epirote successes in Macedonia worried the Latins , as they opened the way to another attack on Thessalonica . The Kingdom of Thessalonica had been much weakened after the death of its founder , Boniface of Montferrat , in 1207 , since which it had been ruled by a regency for his underage son Demetrius ( r . 1207 – 24 ) . Interrupting a campaign against the Nicaeans in Asia Minor , Henry of Flanders hastened to Thessalonica . He took up contact with Boril and was preparing to march against Theodore when he suddenly died on 11 June 1216 , probably of malaria , although poisoning by his second wife Maria of Bulgaria has also been suggested . The death of the warlike Henry , followed by that of Pope Innocent III , the instigator of the Fourth Crusade , a month later , was a major stroke of good fortune for Theodore as it removed two of his most eminent and capable opponents .
The barons of the Latin Empire then elected Peter II of Courtenay , a cousin of King Philip II Augustus of France , as the new Latin Emperor . Receiving news of his election , Peter assembled a small army of 160 knights and 5 @,@ 500 foot and horse , and set out from France . After being crowned by Pope Honorius III in Rome , he set sail from Brindisi in April 1217 . Peter landed at Dyrrhachium , which he had promised to conquer and return to Venice , while his wife Yolanda of Flanders sailed on to Constantinople . As in the Norman invasion of William II of Sicily ( r . 1166 – 89 ) in 1185 , Peter intended ( after capturing Dyrrhachium ) to follow the ancient Via Egnatia to Thessalonica , wresting Albania and Macedonia from Epirote control in the process .
The commonly accepted version of events is that Dyrrhachium resisted with success , and as his casualties mounted Peter was forced to raise the siege and start his march towards Thessalonica . The march proved difficult , due to both the harsh terrain and the open hostility of the local population — the Western sources ( the Annales Ceccanenses , Richard of San Germano , Philippe Mouskes , and the continuator of Robert of Auxerre ) also stress the loyalty of the local Albanian population to Theodore . After a few days , Theodore with his army confronted Peter . Theodore requested talks with the papal legate , Giovanni Colonna , whom he assured of his goodwill and support . Western sources claim that Theodore offered to recognize the primacy of the Catholic Church and the suzerainty of the Latin Empire — as well as to support Peter in his planned participation in the Fifth Crusade — and offered the Latins food and guides through the mountains . Peter was glad to receive this unexpected help , and an agreement between the two was concluded . As soon as the Latins let their guard down , Theodore fell upon them . Peter of Courtenay , Colonna , the Latin Archbishop of Salona , Count William I of Sancerre , and many Latin nobles were taken captive , while Peter 's army scattered into small roving bands trying to survive . Akropolites , the chronicler Ephraim , and some Western sources on the other hand claim that Dyrrhachium was captured , and are followed by some modern scholars , including the Greek I. D. Romanos and the French Alain Ducellier . According to this view , Theodore offered to acknowledge Peter 's suzerainty after the city 's fall , only to treacherously ambush and defeat him . As the historian John Van Antwerp Fine remarks , " it is not important which version is correct " ; the outcome was the same , and if lost , Dyrrhachium was quickly retaken after Peter 's capture .
According to Philip Van Tricht , Theodore 's actions were motivated by several factors , which led him to regard Peter as a threat to himself and his principality . Peter 's attempt to return Dyrrhachium to Venice , even if it had failed for the moment , boded ill for the future . Peter 's recognition of the rights of Demetrius ' half @-@ brother William VI of Montferrat over Thessalonica opened the way for William to take power there , and Theodore was loath to see Thessalonica — whose rulers still claimed suzerainty over Epirus — strengthened , particularly given the presence of his exiled nephew Michael II in the court of the Latin Principality of Achaea . At the same time , Theodore and his court resented the increased papal interference in Greek affairs , especially in the aftermath of the mission of Cardinal Pelagius , the previous papal legate to Constantinople , whose actions had deepened the rift between Greeks and Latins further .
= = = Wars with the Latins and the capture of Thessalonica = = =
Whatever the true course of events , Theodore 's unexpected victory echoed throughout the Greek world , and greatly enhanced his standing ; even the usually hostile Akropolites was forced to admit in his history that this feat was " of great help to the Romans " . Conversely it dismayed Pope Honorius , who sent letters to the Latin princes of Greece as well as the Doge of Venice and Peter of Courtenay 's son @-@ in @-@ law King Andrew II of Hungary ( r . 1205 – 35 ) , urging them to engage themselves to secure the release of Peter and Colonna . He even wrote to Andrew and the French bishops to call for a crusade against Theodore , with which he also threatened Theodore in a letter . With the first contingents for the crusade assembling at Ancona in late 1217 , and the Venetians eager to profit from the crusade to recover Dyrrhachium , the pressure bore fruit : in March 1218 , Colonna was released , with Theodore offering his apologies and assurances of loyalty to the Pope . Honorius then changed his policy to the point of forbidding the Doge of Venice to harm Theodore in the slightest , hoping thereby to secure the release of more prisoners . Although some of the lesser barons were freed , Peter and many of the most senior lords remained in captivity until their death . It is unknown when Peter of Courtenay died , but this was probably before September 1219 .
The capture of Peter of Courtenay left both major Latin states in Greece , Thessalonica and Constantinople , in the hands of female regents . Before arriving in Constantinople , where she gave birth to Peter 's posthumous son , Baldwin II ( r . 1228 – 73 ) , Yolanda had stopped at the Peloponnese . There she quickly came to appreciate the wealth and strength of the Principality of Achaea , and arranged the marriage of her daughter Agnes to the principality 's heir , Geoffrey II of Villehardouin ( r. ca . 1229 – 46 ) . A politically astute ruler , Yolanda also secured her eastern border by offering her daughter Maria of Courtenay in marriage to Theodore Laskaris , who had just been widowed for the second time .
Before launching his final stroke against Thessalonica , Theodore also took care to secure his southern flank , by appointing his brother Constantine Komnenos Doukas as governor in Aetolia and Acarnania . An energetic governor , Constantine not only effectively shielded the Epirote domains from the threat of the Duchy of Athens , but soon recovered Neopatras and Lamia as well . Theodore himself turned his attention to clearing Thessaly of any remaining Latin presence , culminating in the surrender of the great Platamon Castle in 1218 . Over the next few years , one by one , Theodore captured the fortresses around Thessalonica itself . Platamon controlled the entrance to the Thermaic Gulf , and with the surrender of Serres in late 1221 , Theodore cut the land connection between Constantinople and Thessalonica as well . Thessalonica was left thereby , in the words of John Fine , " more or less an island in the midst of Theodore 's possessions " .
As the fall of Thessalonica appeared imminent , Pope Honorius excommunicated Theodore , ordered an embargo on horses , troops , and supplies from the Adriatic ports , and sent letters to Constantinople urging assistance to Demetrius . Demetrius himself went to Italy to seek aid , being received by the Pope in Rome in March 1222 and by Emperor Frederick II ( r . 1220 – 50 ) soon after . A crusade was proclaimed against Theodore , and troops began to gather in Italy . In the meantime , the Latin Empire , now under Robert of Courtenay ( r . 1221 – 28 ) , was once more embroiled in warfare with Nicaea as it supported Laskaris ' brothers in their challenge against the new Nicaean emperor , John III Doukas Vatatzes ( r . 1222 – 54 ) . The first detachments of the assembling crusade , under Count Oberto II of Biandrate , arrived at Thessalonica in summer 1222 and joined the de facto regent , Guy Pallavicini . Theodore now hastened his move against Thessalonica . After preliminary operations in late 1222 , in early 1223 he laid siege to the city . Honorius excommunicated him again , and redoubled his effort to promote the crusade , which had come to a standstill in the meantime . At the Pope 's urging , Venice and Emperor Frederick promised aid . Robert of Courtenay also pledged to assist , while Honorius called upon the Latin princes of southern Greece to join in the effort . The crusade finally assembled at Brindisi in March 1224 . In his instructions to his legate , however , Honorius did not rule out the possibility of Theodore coming to terms with the Crusaders . True to his word , in April 1224 Robert of Courtenay sent an army to besiege Serres . During the siege , the Latin generals learned of the disastrous defeat of the main Latin army at the hands of John III Doukas Vatatzes at the Battle of Poimanenon . They lifted the siege and hastened back to Constantinople , only to be intercepted by Theodore 's men ; most of the Latin army were killed or taken prisoner .
This double disaster destroyed the Pope 's plans for the crusade , as he had envisaged it to land in Theodore 's rear while he was engaged with Robert 's army . At the same time , the prospective leader of the crusade , William VI of Montferrat , fell ill . In November , the Pope was forced to postpone the crusade 's departure for the next spring . With news of the Latin defeats and the postponement of the crusade , the exhausted defenders of Thessalonica surrendered the city to Theodore sometime in December 1224 . The crusade to relieve it sailed in March 1225 , and landed in Thessaly at Halmyros . The Crusader army was soon decimated by dysentery , allegedly because the Greeks had poisoned the local water supply . William of Montferrat himself succumbed to it , and the remnants of the army left Greece . Demetrius of Montferrat still hoped to recover his realm with the help of Frederick II , but died in 1227 .
= = Emperor of Thessalonica = =
The capture of Thessalonica , traditionally the second city of the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople , was a major stroke against the Latins and greatly boosted Theodore 's standing , so much that he now regarded himself as superior to Vatatzes , and openly claimed the Byzantine imperial title by putting on the purple boots reserved to the emperor . Indeed , one of his major supporters , the eminent Metropolitan of Naupaktos , John Apokaukos , in a letter to the Patriarch in 1222 declared that the Epirotes already regarded Theodore as their " God @-@ sent regent and emperor " , and later wrote to Theodore 's wife expressing the hope that he might be able to assist at their imperial coronation at Thessalonica .
= = = Coronation controversy with Nicaea = = =
According to Byzantine custom , the coronation of an emperor could only take place in Constantinople and be performed by the Patriarch ; yet Constantinople was still in Latin hands , and the Patriarch ( now Germanus II , 1223 – 40 ) resided in Nicaea . Theodore thus turned to the Metropolitan of Thessalonica , Constantine Mesopotamites , whom he had just restored to his see after removing the Latin prelate . Mesopotamites however recognized the Patriarch at Nicaea as legitimate , and steadfastly refused to perform the rite , despite pressure from Theodore , his brother Constantine , and John Apokaukos . Rather than submit , he preferred to return to exile . In response , in March 1225 Theodore convened a council of the bishops of his domains at Arta , chaired by Apokaukos . The council approved a declaration , composed by Apokaukos , which extolled Theodore 's achievements against the Latins and Bulgarians , his liberation of Greek lands , eviction of Catholic priests and restoration of Orthodox bishops , and his imperial descent , and declared that the council recognized only him as emperor . Armed with this declaration , Theodore had the loyal Archbishop of Ohrid , Demetrios Chomatianos , perform the coronation instead .
Although Theodore appears to have assumed , and was addressed by , the imperial title almost immediately after the capture of Thessalonica , the date of his actual coronation is unknown . The French scholar Lucien Stiernon places it in the period between June 1227 and April 1228 , but the Greek Apostolos D. Karpozilos rejects this , reasoning that Theodore had no obvious reason to delay his coronation for so long , and suggested that he was crowned in 1225 , immediately after the council of Arta . Eleni Bees @-@ Seferli on the other hand , based on the letters of Apokaukos , suggests a date between 3 April and August 1227 , while Alkmini Stavridou @-@ Zafraka has narrowed the date down to 29 May 1227 .
As befitted an emperor , Theodore began setting up a court at his new capital , and dispensed court titles to his relatives and followers . His brothers Manuel and Constantine were raised to the rank of Despot , the long @-@ serving John Plytos became panhypersebastos and mesazon ( chief minister ) , and a number of scions of old Byzantine aristocratic families , who had sought refuge in Epirus , were appointed as provincial governors alongside members of the local aristocracy . The title of doux was used , but unlike earlier times these were mostly civilian governors with little military authority . Theodore awarded titles with such largesse that formerly exclusive titles such as pansebastos sebastos or megalodoxotatos were devalued and came to be held by city notables . To secure his new capital , Theodore instituted a guard of " Tzakones " under a kastrophylax .
John Vatatzes initially reacted to Theodore 's proclamation as emperor by offering to recognize him as a sort of viceroy in his lands , but Theodore rejected this and publicly assumed the full titulature of the Byzantine emperors , as " basileus and autokrator of the Romans " . Theodore 's coronation deepened the rift between the western Greeks and Nicaea , which once again was expressed in the ecclesiastic sphere . At first , the Nicaeans tried to limit the blame to Chomatianos : though writing respectfully of Theodore himself , Patriarch Germanus II expressed his indignation at the presumption of Chomatianos in usurping the patriarchal privilege of crowning an emperor , while Chomatianos claimed that , as the successor of the ancient see of Justiniana Prima , he was an independent prelate and had the authority to do so .
In 1227 , a synod of Epirote bishops in Arta tried to find a compromise , acknowledging the overall authority of the Patriarch at Nicaea but requesting administrative autonomy , i.e. the right for Theodore to appoint bishops in his domains . They gave the Patriarch three months to reply , and suggested that if he did not heed their proposals , they might be forced to recognize the supremacy of the Pope instead . Germanus replied by having the patriarchal synod condemn Theodore 's assumption of the imperial title . The conflict escalated when Germanus appointed his own candidate to the vacant see of Dyrrhachium . Theodore expelled the bishop , and the Epirote synod instead elected a friend of Chomatianos , Constantine Kabasilas , as the bishop . Germanus now attacked Theodore directly . In response , George Bardanes composed a letter to Germanus , which insisted on Epirote ecclesiastical autonomy and challenged the very legality of Germanus ' claims to the patriarchate . The result was a full schism between the Nicaean and Epirote churches that lasted until 1232 / 3 .
= = = Expansion into Thrace = = =
Following Theodore 's coronation , there were four rulers who claimed the imperial title and vied for control of Constantinople : Theodore , the Latin Emperor , Robert of Courtenay , John III Doukas Vatatzes of Nicaea , and the young but ambitious John II Asen ( r . 1218 – 41 ) of Bulgaria . The Latin Empire was a shadow of its former strength : following Poimanenon , the Latins had lost most of their territories in Asia , while in Europe , it was soon reduced to the environs of Constantinople itself . Already in 1224 , or at least in 1225 , Theodore captured Chalcidice with Mount Athos , and in spring 1225 , he advanced through eastern Macedonia and western Thrace , seizing Christopolis , Xanthi , Gratianopolis , Mosynopolis and Didymoteicho . In an attempt to pre @-@ empt him and block his advance onto Constantinople , the Nicaeans had answered the summons of the inhabitants of Adrianople and taken over the city from the Latins . Theodore however crossed the Evros River and blockaded the city , until it agreed to surrender . The Nicaean army , under the protostrator John Ises and John Kamytzes Komnenos , was allowed to withdraw unmolested to Asia with ships provided by Theodore .
The capture of Adrianople opened the path to Constantinople for Theodore . In order to secure his northern flank , he concluded an alliance with John Asen , sealed by the ( second ) marriage of his brother Manuel to Maria , an illegitimate daughter of Asen . At the same time , the Latins turned to Nicaea and concluded a peace treaty in exchange for further territorial concessions . This pact too was sealed by a marriage , of Theodore Laskaris ' daughter Eudokia to the Latin baron Anseau de Cayeux . In the same summer of 1225 , Theodore led his army to the environs of Constantinople , reaching the towns of Bizye and Vrysis . Anseau de Cayeux , leading the Latin army , was heavily wounded in the clashes , but Constantinople itself was not attacked . Not only was Theodore unprepared for a siege against the mighty Theodosian Walls , but news of William of Montferrat 's landing at Thessaly forced him to break off operations and return west .
For reasons that are unknown , Theodore did not renew his attack on Constantinople in 1226 or the years thereafter . Instead , he seems to have occupied himself with domestic affairs , as well as taking care to improve relations with Frederick II during the latter 's stop @-@ over at Corfu and Cephallonia to lead the Sixth Crusade in 1228 . In 1229 , he even sent a company of Greek troops to serve under Frederick in Italy . At the same time , Theodore presided over a rupture in relations
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with Venice , after his governor in Corfu sequestered the cargo of a shipwrecked Venetian ship . Theodore issued an edict on 19 August 1228 prohibiting Venetian merchants from practising commerce in his realm . In January of the same year , Robert of Courtenay died , leaving the throne of the Latin Empire to his eleven @-@ year @-@ old brother , Baldwin II . With a regency taking over the governance of the state , the Latin Empire stood further enfeebled . At this moment , John Asen offered an alliance . Baldwin II would marry his daughter Helena , while John Asen would take over the regency and lend his assistance at repelling Theodore 's attacks . The Latin barons viewed the offer with mistrust , as it would offer John Asen every opportunity to take over Constantinople himself ; instead , they strung out negotiations , and eventually chose the 80 @-@ year @-@ old but energetic John of Brienne ( r . 1229 – 37 ) as regent . Although the Bulgarian offer failed , it served to open a rift between Theodore and his nominal ally . In a move clearly directed against John Asen , in September 1228 , Theodore agreed to a one @-@ year truce with the Latin Empire 's regent , Narjot of Toucy , with the border between the two empires running along a line from Ainos to Vrysis .
= = Klokotnitsa and Bulgarian captivity = =
Finally , in late 1229 , Theodore began assembling his forces at Thessalonica — including a contingent of troops sent by Frederick II — for the projected final attack on Constantinople . As his troops marched east in spring 1230 , he unexpectedly turned his army north and followed the Evros valley into Bulgaria . Theodore 's motives for this sudden change are debated . Contemporary and later historians like Akropolites denounced this as a sign of Theodore 's duplicity and treachery . A more likely suggestion is that Theodore , hitherto undefeated in battle , desired to check Bulgarian power and avoid the possibility of the Bulgarians striking in his rear while he was engaged in besieging Constantinople . Although caught by surprise , John Asen reacted rapidly . Allegedly affixing the text of the broken treaty to one of his spears as a flag , he rallied his troops and met Theodore in battle in April 1230 . The ensuing Battle of Klokotnitsa was a crushing victory for the Bulgarian ruler , who took Theodore and many of his officers captive .
In the aftermath of Klokotnitsa , Bulgaria emerged as the mightiest power in the Balkans . Deprived of its energetic ruler , Theodore 's empire collapsed : within a few months Thrace , most of Macedonia , and Albania , fell under Bulgarian rule . As John Asen boasted in an inscription in the Holy Forty Martyrs Church at his capital of Tarnovo , he " occupied all the land from Adrianople to Dyrrhachium , Greek , Serbian , and Albanian alike " , although Dyrrhachium itself apparently remained in Greek hands . The Latin Duchy of Philippopolis was also annexed , and Alexius Slav 's principality in the Rhodope Mountains was extinguished in the process , with Alexius spending the rest of his life at Asen 's court .
Theodore 's brother Manuel , who managed to escape from Klokotnitsa , now took over the throne in Thessalonica . His domain was reduced to the environs of the city and his family 's core territories in Epirus and Thessaly , as well as Dyrrhachium and Corfu , while his brother Constantine in Aetolia and Acarnania recognized his suzerainty . As a son @-@ in @-@ law of John Asen , Manuel was allowed to maintain internal autonomy , but to all intents and purposes he was a client of the Bulgarian Tsar . At about the same time , Michael I 's bastard son Michael II returned from exile and quickly succeeded , apparently with the support of the local population , in taking over control of Epirus . Manuel was forced to recognize the fait accompli under the pretense that Michael recognized his suzerainty , in token of which Manuel conferred him the title of Despot . In reality Michael was fully independent , and very quickly ceased to acknowledge Manuel 's suzerainty ; by 1236 , he had seized Corfu . In order to preserve some freedom of manoeuvre and counter Asen 's attempts to subordinate the Epirote Church to the Bulgarian Church of Tarnovo , Manuel turned to his brother 's erstwhile rivals in Nicaea and brought an end to the ecclesiastical schism by acknowledging the legitimacy and superiority of the Nicaea @-@ based Patriarch .
Theodore himself remained in captivity at Tarnovo for seven years . Initially he was treated with honour , but at some point during his captivity he was accused of plotting against John Asen and blinded as a result . This was the customary Byzantine punishment for treason and means of sidelining potential political rivals . According to a contemporary letter written in Hebrew , Asen initially ordered two Jews to carry out the deed , for Theodore had been persecuting the Jews in his territory and confiscating their wealth to fund his campaigns . Theodore begged to be spared , and they refused to carry out the blinding , whereupon the enraged Tsar had them thrown from a cliff . Finally , in 1237 Theodore was released when Asen , recently widowed , fell in love with Theodore 's sole unmarried daughter , Irene . Immediately after the marriage , Theodore was released and allowed to depart Tarnovo to wherever he wished .
= = Return to Thessalonica and final years = =
= = = Recovery of Thessalonica = = =
As soon as he was set free , Theodore returned to Thessalonica . Lacking any escort or followers , he disguised himself as a beggar in order to enter the city in secret . There he contacted old supporters and favourites , and organized a conspiracy that soon ousted Manuel and took over the city . As Byzantine custom barred him from re @-@ assuming the imperial office due to his blinding , Theodore installed his son John Komnenos Doukas ( r . 1237 – 44 ) as emperor ( without a coronation ceremony ) , but remained the real ruler of the empire in his son 's name . John himself appears to have been mostly interested in religion , and more inclined to enter a monastery than to become emperor . Theodore had to persuade him that being named emperor was a God @-@ given gift , and that he was indeed the rightful Emperor of the Romans due to his imperial descent .
The deposed Manuel was sent to exile at Attaleia in Asia Minor , while his wife Maria was allowed to return to her father . Despite Theodore 's actions and the overthrow of his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , Akropolites reports that John Asen remained favourably disposed towards Theodore due to his passionate love for Irene . Manuel did not remain quiescent in exile ; determined to avenge himself , from Attaleia he secured passage through Turkish lands to Nicaea . There John Vatatzes welcomed him and agreed to support him , but not before he secured from Manuel oaths of loyalty to himself . Thus in early 1239 Manuel with six Nicaean ships set sail for Greece , landing near Demetrias in Thessaly . He received widespread support in the province , perhaps even from the local governor , Michael I 's son @-@ in @-@ law Constantine Maliasenos , allowing him to raise an army and in a short time occupy Farsala , Larissa , and Platamon . Faced with the option of open civil war , Manuel and Theodore eventually came to terms by dividing the territories of Thessalonica among themselves . Manuel renounced his allegiance to Vatatzes and received Thessaly , John and Theodore kept Thessalonica and the remaining parts of Macedonia as far west as Vodena and Ostrovo , and Constantine was confirmed in his appanage of Aetolia and Acarnania . To further secure their position , both Theodore and Michael concluded treaties with the powerful Prince of Achaea , Geoffrey II of Villehardouin .
= = = Submission of Thessalonica to Nicaea = = =
Michael II in Epirus was not part of the brothers ' agreement , and continued to pursue his own policies independently of his uncles . In 1241 , when Manuel died , Michael moved quickly to occupy Thessaly . In June of the same year , John Asen died , leaving the throne to his seven @-@ year @-@ old son Kaliman ( r . 1241 – 46 ) . Coupled with the increasingly deteriorating situation of the Latin Empire , this development left John Vatatzes of Nicaea as the pre @-@ eminent ruler of the region , and the obvious candidate for the capture of Constantinople .
Before undertaking any moves against Constantinople , Vatatzes realized the need to settle affairs with Thessalonica , and in particular with Theodore , whose ambition , capability , and machinations he feared . In 1240 or 1241 he therefore issued an invitation , with assurances of safe @-@ conduct , to Theodore to visit Nicaea . Theodore accepted , and was treated with great honours by Vatatzes , who deferred to him as his " uncle " and dined with him at the same table . In reality , Theodore was a prisoner in Nicaea ; he was not allowed to leave , and throughout his sojourn in the Nicaean court , preparations were in full swing for a campaign against Thessalonica . In spring 1242 , Vatatzes crossed over into Europe at the head of his army , with Theodore accompanying him as an honorary prisoner . Facing no resistance , the Nicaean army and fleet arrived before Thessalonica . The city 's garrison and inhabitants resisted with success and the Nicaean army , lacking heavy siege equipment , had to settle for a drawn @-@ out blockade . Soon , however , news arrived of a Mongol invasion of Asia Minor , which forced Vatatzes to break off the campaign and return to Nicaea . Nevertheless , the Nicaean emperor kept this news a secret , and sent Theodore to his son to negotiate . John himself reportedly was willing to surrender the city outright , but his father convinced him to hold out for better terms . In the end , after 40 days of negotiations , John was allowed to keep control of Thessalonica , but renounced his imperial title and accepted Nicaean suzerainty and the title of Despot . Theodore was also allowed to remain at Thessalonica at his son 's side .
John ruled as Despot in Thessalonica for two years , until his death in 1244 . Theodore himself retired to Vodena , from where he supervised the affairs of state . On John 's death he raised his younger son Demetrios Komnenos Doukas ( r . 1244 – 46 ) in his place , and sent an embassy to Nicaea to announce the succession , as befitted the terms of vassalage agreed in 1242 . If John was a religious ascetic , Demetrios was a dissolute youngster who enjoyed partying with his favourites and seducing married women . Although Theodore remained in charge of governance , Demetrios quickly became so unpopular that many leading citizens began viewing direct Nicaean rule with favour .
Things came to a head in autumn 1246 , when Kaliman of Bulgaria died , leaving the country in the hands of a regency for his younger brother Michael Asen ( r . 1246 – 57 ) . Vatatzes quickly attacked Bulgaria , and within three months captured most of Thrace and all of eastern and northern Macedonia , while Michael II of Epirus also took advantage of the opportunity to expand into Albania and northwestern Macedonia . At the close of this campaign in November , as Vatatzes was encamped at Melnik , he was informed of a conspiracy to depose Demetrios and deliver Thessalonica to him in exchange for a chrysobull guaranteeing the traditional rights and privileges of the city . Vatatzes readily granted this , and sent envoys to Demetrios calling for him to appear in person at his camp . Demetrios , suspicious of Vatatzes ' intentions , refused , and the Nicaeans marched on Thessalonica . After a few days , the conspirators opened one of the gates to the Nicaean army , and the city was quickly captured . Demetrios was captured and exiled to Lentiana in Bithynia , while Thessalonica and all of Macedonia were placed under the governance of the Grand Domestic Andronikos Palaiologos . Theodore himself , isolated and without power in his refuge at Vodena , apparently remained uninvolved in these events .
= = = Final throw of the dice and death = = =
With Thessalonica secured , Vatatzes turned to Epirus , offering Michael II a marriage alliance between Michael 's eldest son Nikephoros and his own granddaughter Maria . The offer was enthusiastically accepted by Michael 's wife , Theodora Petraliphaina , and the young couple were engaged at Pegae . Michael , who had not abandoned his family 's ambitions , remained ambivalent about the Nicaean alliance , and Theodore used his influence over his nephew to turn him against it . Thus , in spring 1251 , Michael launched a sudden attack on Thessalonica . The city resisted successfully , and in spring of the next year Vatatzes once more crossed into Europe to campaign against the Komnenoi Doukai . Theodore with Michael had turned to the north , capturing Prilep and Veles , and when they received news of Vatatzes ' arrival , they withdrew to Epirus via Kastoria . Vatatzes besieged and captured Theodore 's stronghold of Vodena , but soon became bogged down in skirmishing in the area of Kastoria . The stalemate was broken when two Epirote generals , John Glabas and Theodore Petraliphas , defected to the Nicaeans , followed shortly after by the ruler of Kruja , Golem . This forced Michael to come to terms with Vatatzes , ceding the fortresses he had captured as well as his remaining holdings in Macedonia , and reconfirming the marriage alliance with Nicaea . Furthermore , Vatatzes explicitly demanded the handing over of Theodore . The Epirote ambassadors met Vatatzes at Vodena , where they offered Theodore and the young Nikephoros as hostages . The latter was granted the title of Despot and soon allowed to return to Epirus , but Theodore was moved as a prisoner to Asia Minor . He died shortly after , around 1253 .
= = Assessment = =
The modern biographer of the Komnenoi , Konstantinos Varzos , described Theodore as an " energetic , resourceful , and exceedingly ambitious statesman , who inherited from his ancestor Alexios I Komnenos his endurance and persistence , but not the latter 's intelligence , diplomacy , and ability to adapt " . Varzos furthermore points out that despite his great ability , Theodore 's ambition to be the one to recover Constantinople and his irreconcilable rivalry with Nicaea actually hampered and delayed the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by several decades .
Theodore 's legacy left a lasting mark on the political worldview of the western Greeks : Byzantinist Donald Nicol remarks that " the memory of Theodore Doukas 's victories and of his title to the Byzantine crown lived on in northern Greece and in the hearts of his descendants for many years to come " . Michael II continued his uncle 's rivalry with Nicaea , further delaying the recovery of Constantinople , and even after the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by Nicaea in 1261 , the rulers of Epirus would continue to challenge the revived empire and uphold their own claim to the Byzantine throne .
= = Family = =
By his wife Maria Petraliphaina , Theodore had four children :
Anna Angelina Komnene Doukaina , who married King Stefan Radoslav of Serbia
John Komnenos Doukas , who became Emperor of Thessalonica in 1237
Irene Komnene Doukaina , who married John Asen
Demetrios Komnenos Doukas , who succeeded as ruler of Thessalonica in 1244
= USS Colorado ( BB @-@ 45 ) =
USS Colorado ( BB @-@ 45 ) , was the lead ship of the Colorado class of battleships , the third ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 38th state . Her keel was laid down on 29 May 1919 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation . She was launched on 22 March 1921 ; and commissioned on 30 August 1923 . She was armed with eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns and fourteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) deck guns ; two 5 @-@ inch guns were removed in an overhaul .
Colorado took her maiden voyage in 1923 to Europe . She later operated with the Battle Fleet and sailed through the Pacific during the interwar years . She also underwent a further refit , during which her four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with an equal number of 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 25 cal guns .
During the early part of World War II , Colorado undertook a defensive patrol near the Golden Gate Bridge in May 1942 to stop a possible Japanese invasion . She then sailed to Fiji to stop any further Japanese advance into the Pacific . Next , she supported the landings on Tarawa , the Marshall Islands , Saipan , Guam , and Tinian . On 24 July 1944 , during the shelling of Tinian , Colorado received 22 shell hits from shore batteries , but continued to support the invading troops until 3 August . She later arrived in Leyte Gulf on 20 November 1944 to support American troops fighting ashore . On 27 November , she was hit by two Kamikazes which caused moderate damage .
After that , Colorado sailed to Luzon on 1 January 1945 , where she participated in the preinvasion bombardments in Lingayen Gulf . She returned to Okinawa on 6 August and sailed from there to Japan for the occupation of the country , arriving in Tokyo on 27 August . Departing Tokyo Bay on 20 September , she arrived at San Francisco on 15 October . She was placed out of commission in reserve in Pearl Harbor on 7 January 1947 , and sold for scrapping on 23 July 1959 . She won seven battle stars during her service . Many of Colorado 's anti @-@ aircraft guns are in museums across the state of Colorado ( her bell and teak decking are also in museums ) or mounted on the museum ship Olympia .
= = Description = =
Colorado was 624 feet 3 inches ( 190 @.@ 27 m ) long overall , had a beam of 97 @.@ 5 ft ( 29 @.@ 7 m ) and a draft of 38 ft ( 12 m ) . She displaced 32 @,@ 100 long tons ( 32 @,@ 600 t ) as designed and up to 33 @,@ 060 long tons ( 33 @,@ 590 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by a four @-@ shaft turbo @-@ electric drive , rated at 28 @,@ 900 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 600 kW ) and eight Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 1 @,@ 080 officers and enlisted men .
She was armed with a main battery of eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four twin gun turrets on the centerline , two forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns , two of which were removed in an overhaul . The anti @-@ aircraft defense consisted of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 23 caliber guns , which were soon replaced , first by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 25 caliber guns , and then by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Colorado carried two 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers .
Colorado 's main armored belt was 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 13 in ( 330 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) thick protected the decks . The conning tower had 11 in ( 280 mm ) thick sides .
= = Construction and commission = =
Her keel was laid down on 29 May 1919 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 22 March 1921 sponsored by Mrs. Max Melville , Denverite , daughter of United States Senator from Colorado Samuel D. Nicholson ; and commissioned on 30 August 1923 . The ship 's first commanding officer was Captain Reginald R. Belknap .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
Colorado departed New York Harbor on 29 December 1923 to start a maiden voyage to Europe . The voyage took her to Britain , France , Italy and the island of Gibraltar , with port calls to Portsmouth , Cherbourg , Villefranche , Naples , and the British base at Gibraltar . She returned to New York Harbor on 15 February 1924 and upon her return completed some final tests and undertook some repairs before sailing to the U.S. West Coast for force assignment . She steamed from New York Harbor on 11 July and arrived at San Francisco on 15 September .
Over the next twelve years , Colorado was assigned to the Pacific Battle Fleet , during which time she participated in numerous exercises and ceremonies along with the rest of the fleet . She returned to the East Coast on several occasions to help with fleet problems in the Caribbean and also took a cruise to Samoa , Australia , and New Zealand from 8 June to 26 September 1925 to show the U.S. flag in the southwestern Pacific . She was overhauled in 1928 – 29 , during which her four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by eight 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 25 caliber guns . In 1932 , went to Long Beach to help with the damage caused by the earthquake there . She later sailed to the Pacific Ocean to help with search for Amelia Earhart .
= = = World War II = = =
From 27 January 1941 , Colorado was based in Pearl Harbor undergoing intensive training exercises and taking part in several war games until 25 June , when she departed Hawaii for the West Coast . Undergoing overhaul at the Puget Sound Navy Yard , she was not present for the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December . During the refit , two of the 12 original 5 in / 51 caliber guns were removed , and were replaced by an equal number of 5 in / 38 caliber guns . On 31 May , she and Maryland patrolled near Golden Gate Bridge to protect San Francisco from any Japanese attack .
After refit work was completed on 31 March 1942 , Colorado carried out extensive training maneuvers along the West Coast , before returning to Pearl Harbor to complete her final preparations for action . She operated in the vicinity of the Fiji Islands and New Hebrides from 8 November 1942 to 17 September 1943 to prevent any further Japanese expansion in the Pacific . She sailed from Pearl Harbor on 21 October 1943 to provide pre @-@ invasion shelling and fire support for the invasion of Tarawa , returning to port on 7 December 1943 . After another overhaul on the West Coast , Colorado returned to Lahaina Roads , in the Hawaiian Islands , on 21 January 1944 and sortied the next day for the Marshall Islands . She provided the pre @-@ invasion bombardment and fire support for the invasions of Kwajalein and Eniwetok until 23 February , when she headed for the Puget Sound Navy Yard for another overhaul .
She joined other units going for the Mariana Islands at the harbor at San Francisco . She departed on 5 May passing Pearl Harbor and Kwajalein to the pre @-@ invasion shelling at Saipan , Guam , and Tinian after 14 June . During the shelling of Tinian on 24 July she was damaged , 43 men were killed , and 198 wounded by 22 shell hits from Japanese shore batteries ; she continued shelling the island and providing fire support for the invasion troops . After undergoing extensive repairs along the West Coast , she arrived in Leyte Gulf to begin the invasion of Leyte . A week after her arrival she was struck by two kamikaze suicide bombers , which killed 19 crewmembers , injured 72 , and moderately damaged the ship . Despite the damage , she bombarded Mindoro on schedule from 12 to 17 January 1945 . She then proceeded to Manus Island for urgent repairs .
She returned to Luzon on New Year 's Day 1945 to participate in the pre @-@ invasion shelling of the Lingayen Gulf . She was hit by accidental gunfire eight days later . The gunfire hit her superstructure , and caused 69 casualties ( 18 killed , 51 wounded ) . After a few repairs at the island of Ulithi , she joined in the pre @-@ invasion shelling group for the invasion of Okinawa at Kerama Retto . She stayed at Okinawa until 22 May , providing anti @-@ aircraft cover and fire support for the invasion troops . On 6 August , she returned to the occupied Okinawa to sail to Japan for its occupation . On 27 August , she covered the airborne occupation of Atsugi Airfield .
Colorado was awarded seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Post war = = =
Colorado departed Tokyo Bay on 20 September 1945 for San Francisco . She arrived there on 15 October , and then sailed for Seattle for Navy Day ( 27 October ) . She was part of the Operation Magic Carpet force , making three runs to Pearl Harbor to transport 6357 soldiers home , before returning to Bremerton Navy Yard for her deactivation . She was placed out of reserve commission on 7 January 1947 and was sold for scrap on 23 July 1959 .
= = Artifacts on display = =
The ship 's bell is currently on display in the University Memorial Center ( UMC ) at the University of Colorado . A 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 51 cal deck gun from Colorado was donated to the Puget Sound Maritime Historical Society in 1959 , and is displayed at the Museum of History and Industry in Seattle . It was one of eight such guns on Colorado .
Six of Colorado 's 5 / 51 cal guns were put aboard the protected cruiser USS Olympia , after she became a museum in Philadelphia in 1957 . Boards from her deck were re @-@ purposed to form a wall in the main lounge of Haggett Hall at the University of Washington . A plaque commemorates the source .
On 7 February 2014 , Boeing donated the teak decking of Colorado to the USO Northwest SeaTac Center to serve as the new center ’ s entry flooring . Her helm is in the collection of the Colorado Springs Museum . It was donated to the museum in 1961 by Rear Admiral G. R. Luker and other naval officers . Admiral Luker served on Colorado . The donation also included a bronze plaque and other historical materials .
= = = Book sources = = =
Breyer , Siegfried ( 1973 ) . Battleships and Battle Cruisers 1905 – 1970 . New York City : Doubleday and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 07247 @-@ 3 .
Gardiner , Robert ; Gray , Randal , eds . ( 1985 ) . Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 907 @-@ 3 .
Kearns , Patricia M. ; Morris , James M. ( 2011 ) . Historical Dictionary of the United States Navy ( Second ed . ) . Lanham , Maryland : Scarecrow Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8108 @-@ 7229 @-@ 3 .
Martin , Robert J. ( 1997 ) . USS West Virginia ( BB @-@ 48 ) . Nashville , Tennessee : Turner Publishing Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56311 @-@ 341 @-@ 3 .
Turner Publishing ( 2002 ) . USS New York . Nashville , Tennessee : Turner Publishing Company . ISBN 1 @-@ 56311 @-@ 809 @-@ 2 .
= = = News sources = = =
Schaefer , Scott ( 7 February 2014 ) . " Ceremony held for transfer of the USS Colorado 's teak decking " . The SeaTac Blog . SeaTac , Washington : South King Media . Retrieved 22 July 2015 .
= = = Web sources = = =
" Colorado " . Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships . Navy Department , Naval History & Heritage Command . Retrieved 15 September 2011 .
USS Colorado Alumni Association . " USS Colorado ( BB @-@ 45 ) – Memorials " . USS Colorado Alumni Association . Retrieved 29 June 2015 .
= Liquid crystal =
Liquid crystals ( LCs ) are matter in a state which has properties between those of conventional liquids and those of solid crystals . For instance , a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid , but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal @-@ like way . There are many different types of liquid @-@ crystal phases , which can be distinguished by their different optical properties ( such as birefringence ) . When viewed under a microscope using a polarized light source , different liquid crystal phases will appear to have distinct textures . The contrasting areas in the textures correspond to domains where the liquid @-@ crystal molecules are oriented in different directions . Within a domain , however , the molecules are well ordered . LC materials may not always be in a liquid @-@ crystal phase ( just as water may turn into ice or steam ) .
Liquid crystals can be divided into thermotropic , lyotropic and metallotropic phases . Thermotropic and lyotropic liquid crystals consist mostly of organic molecules , although a few minerals are also known . Thermotropic LCs exhibit a phase transition into the liquid @-@ crystal phase as temperature is changed . Lyotropic LCs exhibit phase transitions as a function of both temperature and concentration of the liquid @-@ crystal molecules in a solvent ( typically water ) . Metallotropic LCs are composed of both organic and inorganic molecules ; their liquid @-@ crystal transition depends not only on temperature and concentration , but also on the inorganic @-@ organic composition ratio .
Examples of liquid crystals can be found both in the natural world and in technological applications . Most contemporary electronic displays use liquid crystals . Lyotropic liquid @-@ crystalline phases are abundant in living systems but can also be found in the mineral world . For example , many proteins and cell membranes are liquid crystals . Other well @-@ known examples of liquid crystals are solutions of soap and various related detergents , as well as the tobacco mosaic virus , and some clays .
= = History = =
In 1888 , Austrian botanical physiologist Friedrich Reinitzer , working at the Karl @-@ Ferdinands @-@ Universität , examined the physico @-@ chemical properties of various derivatives of cholesterol which now belong to the class of materials known as cholesteric liquid crystals . Previously , other researchers had observed distinct color effects when cooling cholesterol derivatives just above the freezing point , but had not associated it with a new phenomenon . Reinitzer perceived that color changes in a derivative cholesteryl benzoate were not the most peculiar feature .
He found that cholesteryl benzoate does not melt in the same manner as other compounds , but has two melting points . At 145 @.@ 5 ° C ( 293 @.@ 9 ° F ) it melts into a cloudy liquid , and at 178 @.@ 5 ° C ( 353 @.@ 3 ° F ) it melts again and the cloudy liquid becomes clear . The phenomenon is reversible . Seeking help from a physicist , on March 14 , 1888 , he wrote to Otto Lehmann , at that time a Privatdozent in Aachen . They exchanged letters and samples . Lehmann examined the intermediate cloudy fluid , and reported seeing crystallites . Reinitzer 's Viennese colleague von Zepharovich also indicated that the intermediate " fluid " was crystalline . The exchange of letters with Lehmann ended on April 24 , with many questions unanswered . Reinitzer presented his results , with credits to Lehmann and von Zepharovich , at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3 , 1888 .
By that time , Reinitzer had discovered and described three important features of cholesteric liquid crystals ( the name coined by Otto Lehmann in 1904 ) : the existence of two melting points , the reflection of circularly polarized light , and the ability to rotate the polarization direction of light .
After his accidental discovery , Reinitzer did not pursue studying liquid crystals further . The research was continued by Lehmann , who realized that he had encountered a new phenomenon and was in a position to investigate it : In his postdoctoral years he had acquired expertise in crystallography and microscopy . Lehmann started a systematic study , first of cholesteryl benzoate , and then of related compounds which exhibited the double @-@ melting phenomenon . He was able to make observations in polarized light , and his microscope was equipped with a hot stage ( sample holder equipped with a heater ) enabling high temperature observations . The intermediate cloudy phase clearly sustained flow , but other features , particularly the signature under a microscope , convinced Lehmann that he was dealing with a solid . By the end of August 1889 he had published his results in the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie .
Lehmann 's work was continued and significantly expanded by the German chemist Daniel Vorländer , who from the beginning of 20th century until his retirement in 1935 , had synthesized most of the liquid crystals known . However , liquid crystals were not popular among scientists and the material remained a pure scientific curiosity for about 80 years .
After World War II work on the synthesis of liquid crystals was restarted at university research laboratories in Europe . George William Gray , a prominent researcher of liquid crystals , began investigating these materials in England in the late 1940s . His group synthesized many new materials that exhibited the liquid crystalline state and developed a better understanding of how to design molecules that exhibit the state . His book Molecular Structure and the Properties of Liquid Crystals became a guidebook on the subject . One of the first U.S. chemists to study liquid crystals was Glenn H. Brown , starting in 1953 at the University of Cincinnati and later at Kent State University . In 1965 , he organized the first international conference on liquid crystals , in Kent , Ohio , with about 100 of the world ’ s top liquid crystal scientists in attendance . This conference marked the beginning of a worldwide effort to perform research in this field , which soon led to the development of practical applications for these unique materials .
Liquid crystal materials became a focus of research in the development of flat panel electronic displays beginning in 1962 at RCA Laboratories . When physical chemist Richard Williams applied an electric field to a thin layer of a nematic liquid crystal at 125 ° C , he observed the formation of a regular pattern that he called domains ( now known as Williams Domains ) . This led his colleague George H. Heilmeier to perform research on a liquid crystal @-@ based flat panel display to replace the cathode ray vacuum tube used in televisions . But the para @-@ Azoxyanisole that Williams and Heilmeier used exhibits the nematic liquid crystal state only above 116 ° C , which made it impractical to use in a commercial display product . A material that could be operated at room temperature was clearly needed .
In 1966 , Joel E. Goldmacher and Joseph A. Castellano , research chemists in Heilmeier group at RCA , discovered that mixtures made exclusively of nematic compounds that differed only in the number of carbon atoms in the terminal side chains could yield room @-@ temperature nematic liquid crystals . A ternary mixture of Schiff base compounds resulted in a material that had a nematic range of 22 – 105 ° C. Operation at room temperature enabled the first practical display device to be made . The team then proceeded to prepare numerous mixtures of nematic compounds many of which had much lower melting points . This technique of mixing nematic compounds to obtain wide operating temperature range eventually became the industry standard and is used to this very day to tailor materials to meet specific applications .
In 1969 , Hans Kelker succeeded in synthesizing a substance that had a nematic phase at room temperature , MBBA , which is one of the most popular subjects of liquid crystal research . The next step to commercialization of liquid crystal displays was the synthesis of further chemically stable substances ( cyanobiphenyls ) with low melting temperatures by George Gray . That work with Ken Harrison and the UK MOD ( RRE Malvern ) , in 1973 , led to design of new materials resulting in rapid adoption of small area LCDs within electronic products .
These molecules are rod @-@ shaped ; some are created in the lab and some could appear spontaneously in nature . Since then , two new types of LC molecules were discovered , both are man @-@ make : disc @-@ shaped ( created by S. Chandrasekhar 's group in India , 1977 ) and bowl @-@ shaped ( invented by Lui Lam in China , 1982 , and synthesized in Europe three years later ) .
In 1991 , when liquid crystal displays were already well established , Pierre @-@ Gilles de Gennes working at the Université Paris @-@ Sud received the Nobel Prize in physics " for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter , in particular to liquid crystals and polymers " .
= = Design of liquid crystalline materials = =
A large number of chemical compounds are known to exhibit one or several liquid crystalline phases . Despite significant differences in chemical composition , these molecules have some common features in chemical and physical properties . There are three types of thermotropic liquid crystals : discotics , bowlics and rod @-@ shaped molecules . Discotics are flat disc @-@ like molecules consisting of a core of adjacent aromatic rings ; the core in a bowlic is not flat but like a rice bowl ( a three @-@ dimensional object ) . This allows for two dimensional columnar ordering , for both discotics and bowlics . Rod @-@ shaped molecules have an elongated , anisotropic geometry which allows for preferential alignment along one spatial direction .
• The molecular shape should be relatively thin , flat or bowl @-@ like , especially within rigid molecular frameworks .
• The molecular length should be at least 1 @.@ 3 nm , consistent with the presence of long alkyl group on many room @-@ temperature liquid crystals .
• The structure should not be branched or angular , except for the bowlics .
• A low melting point is preferable in order to avoid metastable , monotropic liquid crystalline phases . Low @-@ temperature mesomorphic behavior in general is technologically more useful , and alkyl terminal groups promote this .
An extended , structurally rigid , highly anisotropic shape seems to be the main criterion for liquid crystalline behavior , and as a result many liquid crystalline materials are based on benzene rings .
= = Liquid @-@ crystal phases = =
The various liquid @-@ crystal phases ( called mesophases ) can be characterized by the type of ordering . One can distinguish positional order ( whether molecules are arranged in any sort of ordered lattice ) and orientational order ( whether molecules are mostly pointing in the same direction ) , and moreover order can be either short @-@ range ( only between molecules close to each other ) or long @-@ range ( extending to larger , sometimes macroscopic , dimensions ) . Most thermotropic LCs will have an isotropic phase at high temperature . That is that heating will eventually drive them into a conventional liquid phase characterized by random and isotropic molecular ordering ( little to no long @-@ range order ) , and fluid @-@ like flow behavior . Under other conditions ( for instance , lower temperature ) , a LC might inhabit one or more phases with significant anisotropic orientational structure and short @-@ range orientational order while still having an ability to flow .
The ordering of liquid crystalline phases is extensive on the molecular scale . This order extends up to the entire domain size , which may be on the order of micrometers , but usually does not extend to the macroscopic scale as often occurs in classical crystalline solids . However some techniques , such as the use of boundaries or an applied electric field , can be used to enforce a single ordered domain in a macroscopic liquid crystal sample . The ordering in a liquid crystal might extend along only one dimension , with the material being essentially disordered in the other two directions .
= = = Thermotropic liquid crystals = = =
Thermotropic phases are those that occur in a certain temperature range . If the temperature rise is too high , thermal motion will destroy the delicate cooperative ordering of the LC phase , pushing the material into a conventional isotropic liquid phase . At too low temperature , most LC materials will form a conventional crystal . Many thermotropic LCs exhibit a variety of phases as temperature is changed . For instance , on heating a particular type of LC molecule ( called mesogen ) may exhibit various smectic phases followed by the nematic phase and finally the isotropic phase as temperature is increased . An example of a compound displaying thermotropic LC behavior is para @-@ azoxyanisole .
= = = = Nematic phase = = = =
One of the most common LC phases is the nematic . The word nematic comes from the Greek νήμα ( Greek : nema ) , which means " thread " . This term originates from the thread @-@ like topological defects observed in nematics , which are formally called ' disclinations ' . Nematics also exhibit so @-@ called " hedgehog " topological defects . In a nematic phase , the calamitic or rod @-@ shaped organic molecules have no positional order , but they self @-@ align to have long @-@ range directional order with their long axes roughly parallel . Thus , the molecules are free to flow and their center of mass positions are randomly distributed as in a liquid , but still maintain their long @-@ range directional order . Most nematics are uniaxial : they have one axis that is longer and preferred , with the other two being equivalent ( can be approximated as cylinders or rods ) . However , some liquid crystals are biaxial nematics , meaning that in addition to orienting their long axis , they also orient along a secondary axis . Nematics have fluidity similar to that of ordinary ( isotropic ) liquids but they can be easily aligned by an external magnetic or electric field . Aligned nematics have the optical properties of uniaxial crystals and this makes them extremely useful in liquid crystal displays ( LCD ) .
= = = = Smectic phases = = = =
The smectic phases , which are found at lower temperatures than the nematic , form well @-@ defined layers that can slide over one another in a manner similar to that of soap . The word " smectic " originates from the Latin word " smecticus " , meaning cleaning , or having soap @-@ like properties . The smectics are thus positionally ordered along one direction . In the Smectic A phase , the molecules are oriented along the layer normal , while in the Smectic C phase they are tilted away from it . These phases are liquid @-@ like within the layers . There are many different smectic phases , all characterized by different types and degrees of positional and orientational order .
= = = = Chiral phases = = = =
The chiral nematic phase exhibits chirality ( handedness ) . This phase is often called the cholesteric phase because it was first observed for cholesterol derivatives . Only chiral molecules ( i.e. , those that have no internal planes of symmetry ) can give rise to such a phase . This phase exhibits a twisting of the molecules perpendicular to the director , with the molecular axis parallel to the director . The finite twist angle between adjacent molecules is due to their asymmetric packing , which results in longer @-@ range chiral order . In the smectic C * phase ( an asterisk denotes a chiral phase ) , the molecules have positional ordering in a layered structure ( as in the other smectic phases ) , with the molecules tilted by a finite angle with respect to the layer normal . The chirality induces a finite azimuthal twist from one layer to the next , producing a spiral twisting of the molecular axis along the layer normal .
The chiral pitch , p , refers to the distance over which the LC molecules undergo a full 360 ° twist ( but note that the structure of the chiral nematic phase repeats itself every half @-@ pitch , since in this phase directors at 0 ° and ± 180 ° are equivalent ) . The pitch , p , typically changes when the temperature is altered or when other molecules are added to the LC host ( an achiral LC host material will form a chiral phase if doped with a chiral material ) , allowing the pitch of a given material to be tuned accordingly . In some liquid crystal systems , the pitch is of the same order as the wavelength of visible light . This causes these systems to exhibit unique optical properties , such as Bragg reflection and low @-@ threshold laser emission , and these properties are exploited in a number of optical applications . For the case of Bragg reflection only the lowest @-@ order reflection is allowed if the light is incident along the helical axis , whereas for oblique incidence higher @-@ order reflections become permitted . Cholesteric liquid crystals also exhibit the unique property that they reflect circularly polarized light when it is incident along the helical axis and elliptically polarized if it comes in obliquely .
Blue phases are liquid crystal phases that appear in the temperature range between a chiral nematic phase and an isotropic liquid phase . Blue phases have a regular three @-@ dimensional cubic structure of defects with lattice periods of several hundred nanometers , and thus they exhibit selective Bragg reflections in the wavelength range of visible light corresponding to the cubic lattice . It was theoretically predicted in 1981 that these phases can possess icosahedral symmetry similar to quasicrystals .
Although blue phases are of interest for fast light modulators or tunable photonic crystals , they exist in a very narrow temperature range , usually less than a few kelvin . Recently the stabilization of blue phases over a temperature range of more than 60 K including room temperature ( 260 – 326 K ) has been demonstrated . Blue phases stabilized at room temperature allow electro @-@ optical switching with response times of the order of 10 − 4 s .
In May 2008 , the first Blue Phase Mode LCD panel had been developed .
= = = = Discotic phases = = = =
Disk @-@ shaped LC molecules can orient themselves in a layer @-@ like fashion known as the discotic nematic phase . If the disks pack into stacks , the phase is called a discotic columnar . The columns themselves may be organized into rectangular or hexagonal arrays . Chiral discotic phases , similar to the chiral nematic phase , are also known .
= = = = Bowlic phases = = = =
Bowl @-@ shaped LC molecules , like in discotics , can form columnar phases . Other phases , such as nonpolar nematic , polar nematic , stringbean , donut and onion phases , have been predicted . Bowlic phases , except nonpolar nematic , are polar phases .
= = = Lyotropic liquid crystals = = =
A lyotropic liquid crystal consists of two or more components that exhibit liquid @-@ crystalline properties in certain concentration ranges . In the lyotropic phases , solvent molecules fill the space around the compounds to provide fluidity to the system . In contrast to thermotropic liquid crystals , these lyotropics have another degree of freedom of concentration that enables them to induce a variety of different phases .
A compound that has two immiscible hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts within the same molecule is called an amphiphilic molecule . Many amphiphilic molecules show lyotropic liquid @-@ crystalline phase sequences depending on the volume balances between the hydrophilic part and hydrophobic part . These structures are formed through the micro @-@ phase segregation of two incompatible components on a nanometer scale . Soap is an everyday example of a lyotropic liquid crystal .
The content of water or other solvent molecules changes the self @-@ assembled structures . At very low amphiphile concentration , the molecules will be dispersed randomly without any ordering . At slightly higher ( but still low ) concentration , amphiphilic molecules will spontaneously assemble into micelles or vesicles . This is done so as to ' hide ' the hydrophobic tail of the amphiphile inside the micelle core , exposing a hydrophilic ( water @-@ soluble ) surface to aqueous solution . These spherical objects do not order themselves in solution , however . At higher concentration , the assemblies will become ordered . A typical phase is a hexagonal columnar phase , where the amphiphiles form long cylinders ( again with a hydrophilic surface ) that arrange themselves into a roughly hexagonal lattice . This is called the middle soap phase . At still higher concentration , a lamellar phase ( neat soap phase ) may form , wherein extended sheets of amphiphiles are separated by thin layers of water . For some systems , a cubic ( also called viscous isotropic ) phase may exist between the hexagonal and lamellar phases , wherein spheres are formed that create a dense cubic lattice . These spheres may also be connected to one another , forming a bicontinuous cubic phase .
The objects created by amphiphiles are usually spherical ( as in the case of micelles ) , but may also be disc @-@ like ( bicelles ) , rod @-@ like , or biaxial ( all three micelle axes are distinct ) . These anisotropic self @-@ assembled nano @-@ structures can then order themselves in much the same way as thermotropic liquid crystals do , forming large @-@ scale versions of all the thermotropic phases ( such as a nematic phase of rod @-@ shaped micelles ) .
For some systems , at high concentrations , inverse phases are observed . That is , one may generate an inverse hexagonal columnar phase ( columns of water encapsulated by amphiphiles ) or an inverse micellar phase ( a bulk liquid crystal sample with spherical water cavities ) .
A generic progression of phases , going from low to high amphiphile concentration , is :
Discontinuous cubic phase ( micellar cubic phase )
Hexagonal phase ( hexagonal columnar phase ) ( middle phase )
Lamellar phase
Bicontinuous cubic phase
Reverse hexagonal columnar phase
Inverse cubic phase ( Inverse micellar phase )
Even within the same phases , their self @-@ assembled structures are tunable by the concentration : for example , in lamellar phases , the layer distances increase with the solvent volume . Since lyotropic liquid crystals rely on a subtle balance of intermolecular interactions , it is more difficult to analyze their structures and properties than those of thermotropic liquid crystals .
Similar phases and characteristics can be observed in immiscible diblock copolymers .
= = = Metallotropic liquid crystals = = =
Liquid crystal phases can also be based on low @-@ melting inorganic phases like ZnCl2 that have a structure formed of linked tetrahedra and easily form glasses . The addition of long chain soap @-@ like molecules leads to a series of new phases that show a variety of liquid crystalline behavior both as a function of the inorganic @-@ organic composition ratio and of temperature . This class of materials has been named metallotropic .
= = = Laboratory analysis of mesophases = = =
Thermotropic mesophases are detected and characterized by two major methods , the original method was use of thermal optical microscopy , in which a small sample of the material was placed between two crossed polarizers ; the sample was then heated and cooled . As the isotropic phase would not significantly affect the polarization of the light , it would appear very dark , whereas the crystal and liquid crystal phases will both polarize the light in a uniform way , leading to brightness and color gradients . This method allows for the characterization of the particular phase , as the different phases are defined by their particular order , which must be observed . The second method , differential scanning calorimetry ( DSC ) , allows for more precise determination of phase transitions and transition enthalpies . In DSC , a small sample is heated in a way that generates a very precise change in temperature with respect to time . During phase transitions , the heat flow required to maintain this heating or cooling rate will change . These changes can be observed and attributed to various phase transitions , such as key liquid crystal transitions .
Lyotropic mesophases are analyzed in a similar fashion , though these experiments are somewhat more complex , as the concentration of mesogen is a key factor . These experiments are run at various concentrations of mesogen in order to analyze that impact .
= = Biological liquid crystals = =
Lyotropic liquid @-@ crystalline phases are abundant in living systems , the study of which is referred to as lipid polymorphism . Accordingly , lyotropic liquid crystals attract particular attention in the field of biomimetic chemistry . In particular , biological membranes and cell membranes are a form of liquid crystal . Their constituent molecules ( e.g. phospholipids ) are perpendicular to the membrane surface , yet the membrane is flexible . These lipids vary in shape ( see page on lipid polymorphism ) . The constituent molecules can inter @-@ mingle easily , but tend not to leave the membrane due to the high energy requirement of this process . Lipid molecules can flip from one side of the membrane to the other , this process being catalyzed by flippases and floppases ( depending on the direction of movement ) . These liquid crystal membrane phases can also host important proteins such as receptors freely " floating " inside , or partly outside , the membrane , e.g. CCT .
Many other biological structures exhibit liquid @-@ crystal behavior . For instance , the concentrated protein solution that is extruded by a spider to generate silk is , in fact , a liquid crystal phase . The precise ordering of molecules in silk is critical to its renowned strength . DNA and many polypeptides can also form LC phases and this too forms an important part of current academic research .
= = Mineral liquid crystals = =
Examples of liquid crystals can also be found in the mineral world , most of them being lyotropics.The first discovered was Vanadium ( V ) oxide , by Zocher in 1925 . Since then , few others have been discovered and studied in details . The existence of a true nematic phase in the case of the smectic clays family , was raised by Langmuir in 1938 , but remained open for a very long time and was only solved recently . With the rapid development of nanosciences and the synthesis of many new anisotropic nanoparticles , the number of such mineral liquid crystals is quickly increasing with for example , carbon nanotubes and graphene . A lamellar phase was even discovered , H3Sb3P2O14 that exhibit hyperswelling up to ~ 250 nm for the interlamellar distance .
= = Pattern formation in liquid crystals = =
Anisotropy of liquid crystals is a property not observed in other fluids . This anisotropy makes flows of liquid crystals behave more differentially than those of ordinary fluids . For example , injection of a flux of a liquid crystal between two close parallel plates ( viscous fingering ) causes orientation of the molecules to couple with the flow , with the resulting emergence of dendritic patterns . This anisotropy is also manifested in the interfacial energy ( surface tension ) between different liquid crystal phases . This anisotropy determines the equilibrium shape at the coexistence temperature , and is so strong that usually facets appear . When temperature is changed one of the phases grows , forming different morphologies depending on the temperature change . Since growth is controlled by heat diffusion , anisotropy in thermal conductivity favors growth in specific directions , which has also an effect on the final shape .
= = Theoretical treatment of liquid crystals = =
Microscopic theoretical treatment of fluid phases can become quite complicated , owing to the high material density , meaning that strong interactions , hard @-@ core repulsions , and many @-@ body correlations cannot be ignored . In the case of liquid crystals , anisotropy in all of these interactions further complicates analysis . There are a number of fairly simple theories , however , that can at least predict the general behavior of the phase transitions in liquid crystal systems .
= = = Director = = =
As we already saw above , the nematic liquid crystals are composed of rod @-@ like molecules with the long axes of neighboring molecules aligned approximately to one another . To describe this anisotropic structure , a dimensionless unit vector n called the director , is introduced to represent the direction of preferred orientation of molecules in the neighborhood of any point . Because there is no physical polarity along the director axis , n and -n are fully equivalent .
= = = Order parameter = = =
The description of liquid crystals involves an analysis of order . A second rank symmetric traceless tensor order parameter is used to describe the orientational order of a nematic liquid crystal , although a scalar order parameter is usually sufficient to describe uniaxial nematic liquid crystals . To make this quantitative , an orientational order parameter is usually defined based on the average of the second Legendre polynomial :
<formula>
where <formula> is the angle between the liquid @-@ crystal molecular axis and the local director ( which is the ' preferred direction ' in a volume element of a liquid crystal sample , also representing its local optical axis ) . The brackets denote both a temporal and spatial average . This definition is convenient , since for a completely random and isotropic sample , S = 0 , whereas for a perfectly aligned sample S = 1 . For a typical liquid crystal sample , S is on the order of 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 8 , and generally decreases as the temperature is raised . In particular , a sharp drop of the order parameter to 0 is observed when the system undergoes a phase transition from an LC phase into the isotropic phase . The order parameter can be measured experimentally in a number of ways ; for instance , diamagnetism , birefringence , Raman scattering , NMR and EPR can be used to determine S.
The order of a liquid crystal could also be characterized by using other even Legendre polynomials ( all the odd polynomials average to zero since the director can point in either of two antiparallel directions ) . These higher @-@ order averages are more difficult to measure , but can yield additional information about molecular ordering .
A positional order parameter is also used to describe the ordering of a liquid crystal . It is characterized by the variation of the density of the center of mass of the liquid crystal molecules along a given vector . In the case of positional variation along the z @-@ axis the density <formula> is often given by :
<formula>
The complex positional order parameter is defined as <formula> and <formula> the average density . Typically only the first two terms are kept and higher order terms are ignored since most phases can be described adequately using sinusoidal functions . For a perfect nematic <formula> and for a smectic phase <formula> will take on complex values . The complex nature of this order parameter allows for many parallels between nematic to smectic phase transitions and conductor to superconductor transitions .
= = = Onsager hard @-@ rod model = = =
A simple model which predicts lyotropic phase transitions is the hard @-@ rod model proposed by Lars Onsager . This theory considers the volume excluded from the center @-@ of @-@ mass of one idealized cylinder as it approaches another . Specifically , if the cylinders are oriented parallel to one another , there is very little volume that is excluded from the center @-@ of @-@ mass of the approaching cylinder ( it can come quite close to the other cylinder ) . If , however , the cylinders are at some angle to one another , then there is a large volume surrounding the cylinder which the approaching cylinder 's center @-@ of @-@ mass cannot enter ( due to the hard @-@ rod repulsion between the two idealized objects ) . Thus , this angular arrangement sees a decrease in the net positional entropy of the approaching cylinder ( there are fewer states available to it ) .
The fundamental insight here is that , whilst parallel arrangements of anisotropic objects lead to a decrease in orientational entropy , there is an increase in positional entropy . Thus in some case greater positional order will be entropically favorable . This theory thus predicts that a solution of rod @-@ shaped objects will undergo a phase transition , at sufficient concentration , into a nematic phase . Although this model is conceptually helpful , its mathematical formulation makes several assumptions that limit its applicability to real systems .
= = = Maier – Saupe mean field theory = = =
This statistical theory , proposed by Alfred Saupe and Wilhelm Maier , includes contributions from an attractive intermolecular potential from an induced dipole moment between adjacent liquid crystal molecules . The anisotropic attraction stabilizes parallel alignment of neighboring molecules , and the theory then considers a mean @-@ field average of the interaction . Solved self @-@ consistently , this theory predicts thermotropic nematic @-@ isotropic phase transitions , consistent with experiment .
= = = McMillan 's model = = =
McMillan 's model , proposed by William McMillan , is an extension of the Maier – Saupe mean field theory used to describe the phase transition of a liquid crystal from a nematic to a smectic A phase . It predicts that the phase transition can be either continuous or discontinuous depending on the strength of the short @-@ range interaction between the molecules . As a result , it allows for a triple critical point where the nematic , isotropic , and smectic A phase meet . Although it predicts the existence of a triple critical point , it does not successfully predict its value . The model utilizes two order parameters that describe the orientational and positional order of the liquid crystal . The first is simply the average of the second Legendre polynomial and the second order parameter is given by :
<formula>
The values zi , θi , and d are the position of the molecule , the angle between the molecular axis and director , and the layer spacing . The postulated potential energy of a single molecule is given by :
<formula>
Here constant α quantifies the strength of the interaction between adjacent molecules . The potential is then used to derive the thermodynamic properties of the system assuming thermal equilibrium . It results in two self @-@ consistency equations that must be solved numerically , the solutions of which are the three stable phases of the liquid crystal .
= = = Elastic continuum theory = = =
In this formalism , a liquid crystal material is treated as a continuum ; molecular details are entirely ignored . Rather , this theory considers perturbations to a presumed oriented sample . The distortions of the liquid crystal are commonly described by the Frank free energy density . One can identify three types of distortions that could occur in an oriented sample : ( 1 ) twists of the material , where neighboring molecules are forced to be angled with respect to one another , rather than aligned ; ( 2 ) splay of the material , where bending occurs perpendicular to the director ; and ( 3 ) bend of the material , where the distortion is parallel to the director and molecular axis . All three of these types of distortions incur an energy penalty . They are distortions that are induced by the boundary conditions at domain walls or the enclosing container . The response of the material can then be decomposed into terms based on the elastic constants corresponding to the three types of distortions . Elastic continuum theory is a particularly powerful tool for modeling liquid crystal devices and lipid bilayers .
= = External influences on liquid crystals = =
Scientists and engineers are able to use liquid crystals in a variety of applications because external perturbation can cause significant changes in the macroscopic properties of the liquid crystal system . Both electric and magnetic fields can be used to induce these changes . The magnitude of the fields , as well as the speed at which the molecules align are important characteristics industry deals with . Special surface treatments can be used in liquid crystal devices to force specific orientations of the director .
= = = Electric and magnetic field effects = = =
The ability of the director to align along an external field is caused by the electric nature of the molecules . Permanent electric dipoles result when one end of a molecule has a net positive charge while the other end has a net negative charge . When an external electric field is applied to the liquid crystal , the dipole molecules tend to orient themselves along the direction of the field .
Even if a molecule does not form a permanent dipole , it can still be influenced by an electric field . In some cases , the field produces slight re @-@ arrangement of electrons and protons in molecules such that an induced electric dipole results . While not as strong as permanent dipoles , orientation with the external field still occurs . The effects of magnetic fields on liquid crystal molecules are analogous to electric fields . Because magnetic fields are generated by moving electric charges , permanent magnetic dipoles are produced by electrons moving about atoms . When a magnetic field is applied , the molecules will tend to align with or against the field .
= = = Surface preparations = = =
In the absence of an external field , the director of a liquid crystal is free to point in any direction . It is possible , however , to force the director to point in a specific direction by introducing an outside agent to the system . For example , when a thin polymer coating ( usually a polyimide ) is spread on a glass substrate and rubbed in a single direction with a cloth , it is observed that liquid crystal molecules in contact with that surface align with the rubbing direction . The currently accepted mechanism for this is believed to be an epitaxial growth of the liquid crystal layers on the partially aligned polymer chains in the near surface layers of the polyimide .
= = = Fredericks transition = = =
The competition between orientation produced by surface anchoring and by electric field effects is often exploited in liquid crystal devices . Consider the case in which liquid crystal molecules are aligned parallel to the surface and an electric field is applied perpendicular to the cell . At first , as the electric field increases in magnitude , no change in alignment occurs . However at a threshold magnitude of electric field , deformation occurs . Deformation occurs where the director changes its orientation from one molecule to the next . The occurrence of such a change from an aligned to a deformed state is called a Fredericks transition and can also be produced by the application of a magnetic field of sufficient strength .
The Fredericks transition is fundamental to the operation of many liquid crystal displays because the director orientation ( and thus the properties ) can be controlled easily by the application of a field .
= = Effect of chirality = =
As already described , chiral liquid @-@ crystal molecules usually give rise to chiral mesophases . This means that the molecule must possess some form of asymmetry , usually a stereogenic center . An additional requirement is that the system not be racemic : a mixture of right- and left @-@ handed molecules will cancel the chiral effect . Due to the cooperative nature of liquid crystal ordering , however , a small amount of chiral dopant in an otherwise achiral mesophase is often enough to select out one domain handedness , making the system overall chiral .
Chiral phases usually have a helical twisting of the molecules . If the pitch of this twist is on the order of the wavelength of visible light , then interesting optical interference effects can be observed . The chiral twisting that occurs in chiral LC phases also makes the system respond differently from right- and left @-@ handed circularly polarized light . These materials can thus be used as polarization filters .
It is possible for chiral LC molecules to produce essentially achiral mesophases . For instance , in certain ranges of concentration and molecular weight , DNA will form an achiral line hexatic phase . An interesting recent observation is of the formation of chiral mesophases from achiral LC molecules . Specifically , bent @-@ core molecules ( sometimes called banana liquid crystals ) have been shown to form liquid crystal phases that are chiral . In any particular sample , various domains will have opposite handedness , but within any given domain , strong chiral ordering will be present . The appearance mechanism of this macroscopic chirality is not yet entirely clear . It appears that the molecules stack in layers and orient themselves in a tilted fashion inside the layers . These liquid crystals phases may be ferroelectric or anti @-@ ferroelectric , both of which are of interest for applications .
Chirality can also be incorporated into a phase by adding a chiral dopant , which may not form LCs itself . Twisted @-@ nematic or super @-@ twisted nematic mixtures often contain a small amount of such dopants .
= = Applications of liquid crystals = =
Liquid crystals find wide use in liquid crystal displays , which rely on the optical properties of certain liquid crystalline substances in the presence or absence of an electric field . In a typical device , a liquid crystal layer ( typically 4 μm thick ) sits between two polarizers that are crossed ( oriented at 90 ° to one another ) . The liquid crystal alignment is chosen so that its relaxed phase is a twisted one ( see Twisted nematic field effect ) . This twisted phase reorients light that has passed through the first polarizer , allowing its transmission through the second polarizer ( and reflected back to the observer if a reflector is provided ) . The device thus appears transparent . When an electric field is applied to the LC layer , the long molecular axes tend to align parallel to the electric field thus gradually untwisting in the center of the liquid crystal layer . In this state , the LC molecules do not reorient light , so the light polarized at the first polarizer is absorbed at the second polarizer , and the device loses transparency with increasing voltage . In this way , the electric field can be used to make a pixel switch between transparent or opaque on command . Color LCD systems use the same technique , with color filters used to generate red , green , and blue pixels . Chiral smectic liquid crystals are used in ferroelectric LCDs which are fast @-@ switching binary light modulators . Similar principles can be used to make other liquid crystal based optical devices .
Liquid crystal tunable filters are used as electrooptical devices , e.g. , in hyperspectral imaging .
Thermotropic chiral LCs whose pitch varies strongly with temperature can be used as crude liquid crystal thermometers , since the color of the material will change as the pitch is changed . Liquid crystal color transitions are used on many aquarium and pool thermometers as well as on thermometers for infants or baths . Other liquid crystal materials change color when stretched or stressed . Thus , liquid crystal sheets are often used in industry to look for hot spots , map heat flow , measure stress distribution patterns , and so on . Liquid crystal in fluid form is used to detect electrically generated hot spots for failure analysis in the semiconductor industry .
Liquid crystal lasers use a liquid crystal in the lasing medium as a distributed feedback mechanism instead of external mirrors . Emission at a photonic bandgap created by the periodic dielectric structure of the liquid crystal gives a low @-@ threshold high @-@ output device with stable monochromatic emission .
Polymer Dispersed Liquid Crystal ( PDLC ) sheets and rolls are available as adhesive backed Smart film which can be applied to windows and electrically switched between transparent and opaque to provide privacy .
Many common fluids , such as soapy water , are in fact liquid crystals . Soap forms a variety of LC phases depending on its concentration in water .
Bowlic columns could be used for fast switches .
= The Worship Project =
The Worship Project is the fifth independent album by American Christian rock band MercyMe . Produced by the band and recorded by Jim Bryson ( the band 's keyboardist ) , the album was released on October 14 , 1999 . In contrast to the band 's previous efforts , which were influenced by grunge music , The Worship Project is a worship album . MercyMe wrote songs for the album using a basic verse – chorus style so as to be easy to learn and sing along to and to easily fit on a PowerPoint screen . The album incorporates alternative , rock , and pop musical styles , as well as " rootsy " elements like organs and violins .
Like most independent albums , The Worship Project did not appear on any record charts after its release and received little attention from music critics , with the exception of a review in the UK Christian music magazine Cross Rhythms . However , the album was much more successful than the band 's previous efforts , selling over 60 @,@ 000 copies within a year . The band would release one more independent album before signing with INO Records and releasing their first major studio album , Almost There ( 2001 ) . Several songs from The Worship Project were included on the album , including " I Can Only Imagine " , which became the band 's breakthrough single and the first Christian song to receive a double platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Background and composition = =
MercyMe formed in 1994 by vocalist Bart Millard , guitarist Mike Scheuchzer , and keyboardist Jim Bryson . The band later brought on drummer Robby Shaffer and bassist Nathan Cochran . Prior to the release of The Worship Project , MercyMe had independently released four Christian alternative rock albums , drawing influence from the grunge style popular at the time . While playing live , however , the band realized that their original songs from these albums failed to connect with their audiences . In contrast , their covers of popular worship songs received a greater reception among live audience , leading the band to write and produce a whole album of original worship songs .
The Worship Project was MercyMe 's first attempt at producing corporate worship songs . With the exception of " Beautiful " , which was written solely by Cochran , the lyrics on the album were written by Millard , while the music was composed by the entire band . The band utilized a simple verse – chorus format when writing songs the album , with the songs being designed to easily fit on a PowerPoint screen . The only song on the album not to utilize this format , " I Can Only Imagine " , was included at the last minute , and only because it was important to Millard , who wrote the song reminiscing about his dad 's death . The album was recorded at The Pig Sty in Fort Worth , Texas . It was produced by the band , engineered and mixed by Bryson , and mastered by Eric Wolf at Wolf Mastering in Nashville .
The Worship Project has been described as being a worship album , drawing influences from rock , pop , and alternative music . Mike Rimmer of Cross Rhythms noted the album occasionally features " rootsy " elements as well as " Hammond – style organs " and " faint violins " . The album 's opening song , " Here With Us " , had been described as a rock song . In the Encyclopedia of Contemporary Christian Music , Mark Allan Powell considered " Happy Little Love Song " as being a " Pearl Jam – type anthem fit for arenas " . Powell also described " Hearts Sing Louder " as being influenced by Smash Mouth , and felt " It 's My Joy " had a " bluesy rhythm " with " 70s organs " ; the song also samples " Joyful , Joyful We Adore You " .
= = Release , reception , and impact = =
The Worship Project was released on October 14 , 1999 . The band also issued The Worship Project Kit , which included the album as well a devotional and the words and chords to the songs . The album was sold through the Internet as well as bookstore signings . Copes of the album were produced by the band in their garage . Like most independent albums , The Worship Project did not appear on any record charts and met with limited fanfare . In the October 1 , 2000 edition of Cross Rhythms , Mike Rimmer gave the album seven out of ten stars . Rimmer praised the album as being far superior to most major – label worship albums , but felt that " it all sounds curiously familiar without being distinctive ... whilst this is a good effort , it falls short of being amazing " . Sales for The Worship Project far exceeded sales of the band 's previous independent records – according to Millard , whereas their previous albums would be lucky to sell 1 @,@ 000 copies in a year , The Worship Project sold over 60 @,@ 000 copies within a year . Millard estimated the album 's overall sales at 100 @,@ 000 – other sources peg the album 's sales as of 2006 at 60 @,@ 000 or 65 @,@ 000 copies .
The difficulty of selling the album directly , in addition to having to book and manage for themselves , led the band to pursue a contract with a record label . The band would release one more independent album , 2000 's Look , before signing with INO Records and releasing their 2001 album Almost There . Two songs from The Worship Project were re – recorded and included on Almost There – " I Can Only Imagine " and " Cannot Say Enough " . " I Can Only Imagine " was released as the album 's second single and became the band 's breakthrough hit , topping the US Christian radio charts and receiving a GMA Dove Award for " Song of the Year " before becoming a hit on US mainstream radio as well . It became the first Christian song to be certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 2 million digital copies of the song . Another song from The Worship Project , " Hearts Sing Louder " , was included on the band 's 2011 Family Christian Stores – exclusive album The Worship Sessions .
= = Personnel = =
( Credits from the album liner notes )
= = Track listing = =
( Credits and tracklist from the album liner notes )
= Kidney Now ! =
" Kidney Now ! " is the twenty @-@ second episode and season finale of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 58th overall episode of the series . It was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by show producers Jack Burditt and Robert Carlock . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on May 14 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Alan Alda , Kay Cannon , Donald Glover , Napiera Groves , Chris Parnell , Paula Pell , and Sherri Shepherd . In addition , " Kidney Now ! " featured many musical guest stars including Clay Aiken , Elvis Costello , Mary J. Blige , Sheryl Crow , the Beastie Boys ( Mike D and Ad Rock ) , Steve Earle , Adam Levine , Sara Bareilles , Wyclef Jean , Norah Jones , Talib Kweli , Michael McDonald , Rhett Miller , Moby , Robert Randolph , Rachael Yamagata and Cyndi Lauper , all as themselves .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) gets to know his newly discovered father , Milton Greene ( Alda ) , but quickly learns that Milton needs a kidney transplant , and discovers he is not a suitable donor . As a result , Jack decides to use the liberal media to find an alternate way to get him a kidney donor . Meanwhile , people seek Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) out as a relationship expert as a result of her " Dealbreaker " sketches , and Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) helps Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) deal with his embarrassment over not finishing high school .
The song " He Needs a Kidney " was written by show composer and co @-@ executive producer Jeff Richmond . The concept of doing a charity concert was based on Robert Carlock and series creator Tina Fey wanting to include a musical performance in the episode with the Milton Greene character in need of a kidney donor . Carlock and Fey wanted " He Needs a Kidney " to be similar to the 1985 charity song , " We Are the World " . Following the airing of this 30 Rock episode , NBC released the musical performance video of " He Needs a Kidney " on iTunes with all proceeds from the sales going to the National Kidney Foundation .
" Kidney Now ! " was generally well received among television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , this episode was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million viewers . Jack Burditt and Robert Carlock were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for their work in this episode . In addition , Tony Pipitone and Griffin Richardson received a Creative Arts Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( half @-@ hour ) and Animation .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) gets to know his newly discovered father , Milton Greene ( Alan Alda ) but soon discovers Milton has a serious medical condition and is in search of a kidney donor . After discovering he is an unsuitable donor by Dr. Leo Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) , Jack uses his contacts — musicians Clay Aiken , Sara Bareilles , the Beastie Boys ( Mike D and Ad @-@ Rock ) , Mary J. Blige , Elvis Costello , Sheryl Crow , Steve Earle , Wyclef Jean , Norah Jones , Talib Kweli , Cyndi Lauper , Adam Levine , Michael McDonald , Rhett Miller , Moby , Robert Randolph , and Rachael Yamagata — to arrange a charity benefit entitled " Kidney Now ! " in attempt to find a donor for Milton .
Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) gains notoriety after making an appearance on The Vontella Show , along with Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) , as a relationship expert after her " Dealbreaker " sketches on the fictitious comedy sketch show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) . As a result of the success she received as the relationship expert on The Vontella Show , Liz signs a book deal based on the sketch , and begins dispensing relationship advice to the female staff of TGS , and to Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) and Paula Hornberger ( Paula Pell ) , the wives of TGS star Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , respectively . Though , Tracy and Pete are upset with the advice Liz gave to their wives , Liz blows them off and goes to Quizno 's with her date .
At the same time , Tracy is invited to speak at the graduation ceremony of his former high school ( named after Frank Lucas , the infamous Harlem drug lord ) . NBC page and friend Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) tries to help him overcome troubling memories from his high school experience . Kenneth persuades Tracy to go to the graduation , which he does , where Tracy gives his speech and receives an honorary diploma .
= = Production = =
" Kidney Now ! " was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by 30 Rock producers Jack Burditt and Robert Carlock . This was Burditt and Carlock 's fourth script collaboration , having penned the episodes " Cleveland " , " Subway Hero " , and " Sandwich Day " . This was Scardino 's twenty @-@ first directed episode . " Kidney Now ! " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 14 , 2009 , as the twenty @-@ second episode and season finale of the show 's third season and the 58th overall episode of the series .
" Kidney Now ! " was first read by its cast on March 5 , 2009 ; it was filmed on March 16 – 17 , 2009 . " He Needs a Kidney " , the charity song featured in this episode , was written by show composer and co @-@ executive producer Jeff Richmond . Richmond is married to series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey . In discussion of the development of " Kidney Now ! " , Richmond said that Carlock and Fey " were trying to figure out a way to highlight Jack 's dad in getting a kidney and how they 're going to deal with that " , and that the two came to the decision to " take advantage of the singing " , as they have done so in the past with different 30 Rock episodes , in which the show 's characters have sung songs . Carlock and Fey agreed to the idea that a song be included in the season finale , but that it be an anthem like the 1985 charity song , " We Are the World " , as the cause is that the Milton Greene character is in need of a kidney donor . " Basically , the parameters were if ' We Are the World ' but they want to get a kidney . I think we had angles that everyone has two kidneys and you 'll only need one kidney , and we thought ' Alright , we 'll get some distance on that ' " , said Richmond . While working on the track , Fey suggested to Richmond that he incorporate Milton Greene 's name in one part of the song , which he did , as this was sung by singers Cyndi Lauper and Robert Randolph .
Giancarlo Vulcano , a music editor and associate arranger on the show , revealed that Richmond taught him the song one morning at Silvercup Studios — where the show is filmed — and they played the first half of " He Needs a Kidney " at the script 's read @-@ through . According to Vulcano , the 30 Rock staff loved the song and the two were satisfied with the reception of it . While arranging the instrumentation , Richmond hired violinists for the episode 's background music and for " He Needs a Kidney " , which according to him he usually does not get the opportunity to have a lot of violin sounds on the show . The recording sessions with the musical guests took place on Stage 1 at Silvercup Studios ; Stage 1 serves as the set for TGS with Tracy Jordan , a fictitious comedy sketch show featured on 30 Rock . Richmond and Vulcano were complimentary towards the musicians — Clay Aiken , Sara Bareilles , the Beastie Boys ( Mike D and Ad @-@ Rock ) , Mary J. Blige , Elvis Costello , Sheryl Crow , Steve Earle , Wyclef Jean , Norah Jones , Talib Kweli , Cyndi Lauper , Adam Levine , Michael McDonald , Rhett Miller , Moby , Robert Randolph , and Rachael Yamagata — who performed " He Needs a Kidney " . In the DVD commentary for this episode , Richmond believed that the entire song would not make it into the airing . Elvis Costello was once approached to do an appearance on 30 Rock , but the appearance fell @-@ through . At an Oscar 's after party , Fey ran into Costello and asked him if he could appear , which he agreed to . According to Fey , none of the music artists got paid to appear on the show as " they all did [ it ] for free . " The reason for this was due to a joke in the song in which Sheryl Crow was the only individual to get paid , as the rest said they did it for free . Following the broadcast of this episode of 30 Rock , the musical performance video was made available for digital download on iTunes with all the proceeds from the sales going to the National Kidney Foundation .
According to Fey , there were discussions on whether or not to use a real talk show host from New York , for the " Dealbreakers " segment , but ultimately decided to make one up and went with actress Napiera Groves who plays talk show host Vontella in " Kidney Now ! " . The Tracy character plot was based on Tracy Morgan who in real @-@ life was given a diploma by his former high school , DeWitt Clinton High School . Like the Tracy character , who dropped out of high school after being asked to dissect a frog , Morgan dropped out of DeWitt Clinton when his father became ill . Jack and Liz 's scene , along with Tracy and Kenneth 's , at the end where they watch the charity concert , was filmed the day before the musical number took place . " They were pretending to look at the singing " , revealed Fey . They forced that shot in so that the episode not just end with the performance .
Professor Milton Greene was played by guest actor Alan Alda , best known for his role as Hawkeye Pierce from the television series M * A * S * H. This was Alda 's second appearance , having appeared in the previous episode " Mamma Mia " . In a scene of " Kidney Now ! " , Tracy breaks down crying and says " There is no baby . I was chicken ! I was chicken ! " then Milton , who sees this , asks " A guy crying about a chicken and a baby ? I thought this was a comedy show . " This was a reference to Alda 's M * A * S * H character in the series finale episode in which Hawkeye breaks down after realizing he had seen a woman smother her baby to death , not a chicken as Hawkeye had originally recalled in his repressed mind . Comedian actor Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman in the season finale , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Comedian actress Sherri Shepherd reprised her role as Angie Jordan , the wife of Tracy , for the fifth time . Paula Pell made her second guest spot as the character Paula Hornberger , the wife of Pete Hornberger , played by Scott Adsit . In " Kidney Now ! " , Angie and Paula ask Liz for relationship advice . In addition , 30 Rock writers Jack Burditt , Kay Cannon , and Donald Glover appear in the episode ; Burditt and Cannon appear in The Vontella Show segment as members from the audience who ask Liz questions . When Tracy accepts an honorary diploma from his former high school , in his speech , Tracy outs Glover 's character . The success of the benefit concert for Milton is not explicitly referenced until Alda 's character alludes to it in the season five episode " Christmas Attack Zone " , though in the season four episode " Into the Crevasse " , Milton is shown to have finished his book entitled From Peanut to President , a biography of U.S. President Jimmy Carter .
One filmed scene from " Kidney Now ! " was cut out from the airing . Instead , the scene was featured on 30 Rock ’ s season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the scene , Liz enters the TGS writer 's room , and tells the writing staff that she got recognized from her appearance on The Vontella Show as the relationship expert from " Dealbreakers " . Pete cannot believe that Liz gave actual relationship advice on the program , citing Liz 's own past relationship faults .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Kidney Now ! " was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million viewers during its original United States broadcast . The rating was an 8 percent drop in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " Mamma Mia " , which was seen by 6 @.@ 2 million American viewers . The show claimed a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 7 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 2 @.@ 8 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . Jack Burditt and Robert Carlock received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for their work on " Kidney Now ! " , but they lost it to fellow 30 Rock writer Matt Hubbard for the episode " Reunion " at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . At the same awards show , Tony Pipitone and Griffin Richardson were nominated for a Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( half @-@ hour ) and Animation .
IGN contributor Robert Canning wrote that the ending from this episode " did have a season finale feel to it with the big musical number . [ ... ] Still , it was a great season , and I loved going out with two of the best characters on TV summing up the moment perfectly – Liz : ' We sure had quite a year . ' Jack : ' What are you talking about ? It 's May . ' " Canning gave it an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the " all @-@ star cast of musicians " featured were not able to dominate the episode " to the point where the episode didn 't work . " Sepinwall , however , added that despite " Kidney Now ! " not being a classic 30 Rock episode " it was [ still ] funny enough – which , I suppose , also makes it an appropriate finale for this uneven season . " Further in the review , Sepinwall was complimentary towards Liz 's plot , writing that the character 's sequence on The Vontella Show was " hilarious , and a fine demonstration of how much confidence Tina Fey has gained as an actress over the years . " The A.V. Club ’ s Nathan Rabin also enjoyed the Liz character , reporting that she " delivered a virtuoso performance in [ The Vontella Show ] , instantly homing in on the fatal flaw in every relationship and obliterating it with highly quotable sass . " In discussion to Tracy 's plot , Rabin opined it was the " weakest of the various threads " in this episode . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad confessed in his recap that he was going to summarize " Kidney Now ! " as " a little disappointing , but then I hit rewind on my DVR and watched it again and realized , wow , they actually hit all of the season finale notes rather perfectly [ ... ] This episode was quite funny . "
Rick Porter of Zap2it worried how the series would fit in " the likes " of Elvis Costello , Mary J. Blige , Sheryl Crow , Clay Aiken and Adam Levine " without it overwhelming the episode " , and reported that the answer to that " turned out to be ' very effectively . ' " In regards to the storylines , itself , he noted that Jack 's quest in getting Milton a kidney " balanced nicely " with Liz 's story , and that Tracy 's " had some good moments " . In conclusion , Porter wrote " For a show that doesn 't always know how to end episodes , it 's done really well at ending seasons . " TV Guide Magazine ’ s Sandra Kofler wrote that the " He Needs a Kidney " song was hilarious , and that it " stole [ 30 Rock ’ s ] season finale . " Patrick Goldstein , a contributor for the Los Angeles Times , was favorable to the musical number , reporting " [ t ] he song itself is a hoot , highlighted by a wonderful spoken @-@ word kidney donation pitch that begins with Costello saying : ' Listen , when someone starts talking in the middle of a song , you know it 's serious . ' " Entertainment Weekly contributor Annie Barrett said " Kidney Now ! " was " sweet and all " , and noted that the " Vontella @-@ as @-@ Tyra spoof " was " brilliant . " Time contributor James Poniewozik wrote that this episode " was a fitting end for a guest @-@ star @-@ heavy ... season of 30 Rock " , but added that the finale overall was " maybe average " , however , " the ending at least delivered the goods , with the best sitcom celebrity benefit song " .
= Battle of Oriskany =
The Battle of Oriskany , fought on August 6 , 1777 , was one of the bloodiest battles in the North American theater of the American Revolutionary War and a significant engagement of the Saratoga campaign . An American party trying to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix was ambushed by a party of Loyalists and allies of several Native American tribes . This was one of the few battles in the war in which almost all of the participants were North American : Loyalists and allied Indians fought against Patriots and allied Oneida in the absence of British soldiers .
Early in the siege of Fort Stanwix , an American relief force from the Mohawk Valley under General Nicholas Herkimer , numbering around 800 men of the Tryon County militia , and a party of Oneida warriors , approached in an attempt to raise the siege . British commander Barry St. Leger authorized an intercept force consisting of a Hanau Jäger ( light infantry ) detachment , Sir John Johnson 's King 's Royal Regiment of New York , Indian allies from the Six Nations , particularly Mohawk and Seneca ; and other tribes to the north and west , and Indian Department Rangers , totaling at least 450 men .
The Loyalist and Indian force ambushed Herkimer 's force in a small valley about six miles ( 10 km ) east of Fort Stanwix , near the present @-@ day village of Oriskany , New York . During the battle , Herkimer was mortally wounded . The battle cost the Patriots approximately 450 casualties , while the Loyalists and Indians lost approximately 150 dead and wounded . The result of the battle remains ambiguous because the apparent Loyalist victory was significantly affected by a sortie from Fort Stanwix in which the Loyalist camps were sacked , spoiling morale among the allied Indians .
For the Iroquois nations , the battle marked the beginning of a civil war , as Oneida warriors under Colonel Louis and Han Yerry allied with the American cause and fought against members of other Iroquois nations . There were also internal divisions among the Oneida , some of whom went to Canada as allies of the British . The site is known in oral histories of the Iroquois nations as " A Place of Great Sadness . " The site has been designated as a National Historic Landmark and is marked by a battle monument at the Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site .
= = Background = =
In June 1777 , the British Army , under the command of General " Gentleman Johnny " Burgoyne , launched a two @-@ pronged attack from Quebec . Burgoyne 's objective was to split New England from the other colonies by gaining control of New York 's Hudson Valley . The main thrust came south across Lake Champlain under Burgoyne 's command ; the second thrust was led by Lt. Colonel Barry St. Leger and was intended to come down the Mohawk Valley and meet Burgoyne 's army near Albany .
St. Leger 's expedition consisted of about 1 @,@ 800 men , who were a mix of British regulars , Hessian Jägers from Hanau , Loyalists , Indians of several tribes , including the Mohawk and Seneca of the Iroquois , and Rangers . They traveled up the Saint Lawrence River and along the shore of Lake Ontario to the Oswego River , which they ascended to reach the Oneida Carry ( present @-@ day Rome , New York later developed here ) . They began to besiege Fort Stanwix , a Continental Army post guarding the portage .
= = Prelude = =
Alerted to the possibility of a British attack along the Mohawk River , Nicholas Herkimer , the head of Tryon County 's Committee of Safety , issued a proclamation on July 17 warning of possible military activity and urging the people to respond if needed . Warned by friendly Oneidas on July 30 that the British were just four days from Fort Stanwix , Herkimer put out a call @-@ to @-@ arms . The force raised totaled 800 from the Tryon County militia ; it was composed primarily of poorly trained farmers , who were chiefly of Palatine German descent . Setting out on August 4 , the column camped near the Oneida village of Oriska on August 5 . While a number of the militia dropped out of the column due to their lack of conditioning , Herkimer 's forces were augmented by a company of 60 to 100 Oneida warriors , led primarily by Han Yerry , a strong supporter of the Patriot cause . That evening , Herkimer sent three men toward the fort with messages for the fort 's commander , Colonel Peter Gansevoort . Gansevoort was to signal the receipt of the message with three cannon shots , and then sortie to meet the approaching column . Due to difficulties in penetrating the British lines , these couriers did not deliver the message until late the next morning , after the battle was already underway .
St. Leger learned on August 5 from a messenger sent by Molly Brant to her brother Joseph Brant , the Mohawk leader who led a portion of St. Leger 's Indian contingent , that Herkimer and his relief expedition were on their way . St. Leger sent a detachment of light infantry from Sir John Johnson 's Royal Yorkers toward the position that evening to monitor Herkimer 's position , and Brant followed early the next morning with about 400 Indians and Butler 's Rangers . Although many of the Indians were armed with muskets , some were not , and only carried tomahawk and spear .
= = Battle = =
On the morning of August 6 , Herkimer held a war council . Since his force had not yet heard the expected signal from the fort , he wanted to wait . However , his captains pressed him to continue , accusing Herkimer of being a Tory because his brother was serving under St. Leger . Stung by these accusations , Herkimer ordered the column to march on toward Stanwix .
About six miles ( 9 @.@ 6 km ) from the fort , the road dipped more than fifty feet ( 15 m ) into a marshy ravine , where a stream about three feet ( 1 m ) wide meandered along the bottom . Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter , two Seneca war chiefs , chose this place to set up an ambush . While the King 's Royal Yorkers waited behind a nearby rise , the Indians concealed themselves on both sides of the ravine . The plan was for the Yorkers to stop the head of the column , after which the Indians would attack the extended column . At about 10 am , Herkimer 's column , with Herkimer on horseback near the front , descended into the ravine , crossed the stream , and began ascending the other side .
Contrary to the plan , the Indians lying in wait near the rear of the column , apparently unable to contain themselves any longer , opened fire , taking the column completely by surprise . Leading the 1st Regiment ( Canajoharie district ) , Colonel Ebenezer Cox was shot off his horse and killed in the first volley . Herkimer turned his horse to see the action , and was very shortly thereafter struck by a ball , which shattered his leg and killed the horse . He was carried by several of his officers to a beech tree , where his men urged him to retire from further danger . He defiantly replied , " I will face the enemy " , and calmly sat leaning against the tree , smoking a pipe and giving directions and words of encouragement to the men nearby .
As the trap had been sprung too early , portions of the column had not yet entered the ravine . Most of these men panicked and fled ; some of the attacking Indians pursued them , resulting in a string of dead and wounded that extended for several miles . Between the loss of the column rear and those killed or wounded in the initial volleys , only about one half of Herkimer 's men were likely still fighting thirty minutes into the battle . Some of the attackers , notably those not armed with muskets , waited for the flash of an opponent 's musket fire before rushing to attack with the tomahawk before the enemy had time to reload , a highly effective tactic against those men who did not have bayonets . Louis Atayataronghta , a Mohawk warrior fighting with Herkimer 's men , shot one of the enemy whose fire had been devastating in its accuracy , noting that " every time he rises up he kills one of our men " .
Herkimer 's men eventually rallied , fighting their way out of the ravine to the crest just to its west . John Johnson , concerned about the militia 's tenacity , returned to the British camp and requested some reinforcements from St. Leger shortly before a thunderstorm broke out . Another seventy men headed back with him toward the battle . The thunderstorm caused a one @-@ hour break in the fighting , during which Herkimer regrouped his militia on the higher ground . He instructed his men to fight in pairs : while one man fired and reloaded , the other waited and then only fired if attacked . Ordered to fire in relays , the pairs were to try to keep at least one weapon loaded at all times , to reduce the effectiveness of the tomahawk attacks .
John Butler , the leader of the rangers , took time during the thunderstorm to question some of the captives , and learned about the three @-@ cannon signal . When Johnson and his reinforcements arrived , Butler convinced them to turn their coats inside out to disguise themselves as a relief party coming from the fort . When the fighting restarted , Johnson and the rest of his Royal Yorkers joined the battle , but one of the Patriot militiaman , Captain Jacob Gardinier , recognized the face of a Loyalist neighbor . Close combat , at times hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting between neighbors , continued for some time .
= = = Sortie from Fort Stanwix = = =
When Herkimer 's messengers reached the fort around 11 am , Colonel Gansevoort began organizing the requested sortie . After the heavy thunderstorm passed , Lieutenant Colonel Marinus Willett led 250 men from the fort , and proceeded to raid the nearly deserted enemy camps to the south of the fort . Driving away the few British and Indians left in those camps ( who included women ) and taking four prisoners along the way , the Patriots collected blankets and other personal possessions from the Indian camps . They also successfully raided John Johnson 's camp , taking his letters and other writings ( including an intercepted letter to Gansevoort from his fiancée ) .
One of the Indians who had stayed behind to guard the camp ran to the battlefield to alert fellow warriors that their camps were being raided . They disengaged with cries of " Oonah , oonah ! " , the Seneca signal to retire , and headed for the camps to protect their women and possessions . This forced the smaller number of German and Loyalist combatants to also withdraw .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Patriots = = =
The battered remnant of Herkimer 's force , with Herkimer seriously wounded and many of its captains killed , retreated to Fort Dayton . The wounded Herkimer was carried by his men from the battlefield . His leg was amputated , but the operation went poorly and he died on August 16 . While the Indians retrieved most of their dead from the battlefield the following day , many dead and wounded Patriots were left on the field . When Benedict Arnold 's relief column marched through the scene several weeks later , the stench and grisly scene was , according to various accounts , quite memorable .
When General Philip Schuyler learned of the retreat from Oriskany , he immediately organized additional relief to be sent to the area . The siege at Fort Stanwix was eventually lifted on August 21 when a relief column led by General Benedict Arnold approached . While still at Fort Dayton , Arnold sent messengers into the British camp who convinced the British and Indian besiegers that his force was much larger than it was in fact .
= = = Loyalists = = =
Loyalist John Butler was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel for his role in the battle , and authorized to raise a regiment that became known as Butler 's Rangers . After the siege was lifted , some Loyalists returned to Quebec . Others ( including numerous warriors from various tribes ) joined Burgoyne 's campaign on the Hudson .
= = = Native Americans = = =
Brant and Sayenqueraghta , the principal Seneca chief , proposed the next day to continue the fighting by pursuing the Colonials downriver toward German Flatts but St. Leger turned their proposal down . This battle marked the beginning of the civil war in the Iroquois Confederacy . It was the first time that their peoples had fought against each other . Four of the Iroquois nations : Mohawk , Seneca , Cayuga and Onondaga , were allied with the British , as were some Oneida . The Iroquois in St. Leger 's camp met in council and decided to send the rebel @-@ allied Oneida a bloody hatchet . Brant 's Mohawks raided and burned the Oneida settlement of Oriska later in the siege . In retaliation , the Oneida plundered the Mohawk castles of Tiononderoge and Canajoharie . They later raided the Fort Hunter Mohawk , prompting most of the remaining Mohawk in central New York to flee to Quebec .
According to a mid @-@ 19th century account , Brant 's Indians were said to have tortured and eaten some of their prisoners . However , modern historians dispute this . It is likely that some of the prisoners taken were ritually killed ( which to Europeans is extremely similar to torture ) ; there does not appear to be any evidence of cannibalism ( ritual or otherwise ) . John Butler reported that four prisoners held by the Indians " were conformable to the Indian custom afterwards killed . "
= = = Winners and losers = = =
The battle was , based on the percentage of casualties suffered , one of the bloodiest of the war . About half of Herkimer 's force was killed or wounded , as was about 15 % of the British force .
St. Leger claimed the battle as a victory , as he had stopped the American relief column , but the Americans maintained control of the battlefield after the withdrawal of the opposing Indians . The British victory was tempered by the discontent of the Indians after the battle . When they joined the expedition , they expected that the British forces would do most of the fighting . They were the dominant fighters in this action , and some suffered the loss of their personal belongings taken during the American sortie from the fort . This blow to their morale contributed to the eventual failure of St. Leger 's expedition .
= = Legacy = =
Blacksnake , one of the Indians at the battle , was interviewed many years afterwards . He recalled , " I thought at that time the Blood Shed a Stream running down on the decending [ sic ] ground . " A monument commemorating the battle was erected in 1884 at 43 ° 10.6'N 75 ° 22.2'W , and much of the battlefield is now preserved in the Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site . The site was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1962 , and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 .
Nicholas Herkimer was honored when the town of Herkimer and Herkimer County , New York were named for him .
= = Representation in popular culture = =
Colonial settlement and wars in the Mohawk Valley , including the Battle of Oriskany , were memorialized by Walter D. Edmonds in his 1937 novel , Drums Along the Mohawk and its film adaptation .
The battle was honored by the naming of the aircraft carrier USS Oriskany , launched in 1945 .
The battle acts as the crux of Charles Fenno Hoffman 's 1840 novel Greyslaer .
= Kali =
Kālī ( / ˈkɑːli / ; Sanskrit : काली ) , also known as Kālikā ( Sanskrit : कालिका ) , is a Hindu goddess . The name Kali is derived from the Sanskrit " Kālá " , or time — she therefore represents Time , Change , Power , Creation , Preservation , and Destruction . " Kali " also mean " the black one " , the feminine noun of the Sanskrit adjective Kālá .
Kali 's earliest appearance is that of a destroyer principally of evil forces . She is worshipped by devotional movements and tantric sects variously as the Divine Mother , Mother of the Universe , Adi Shakti , or Adi Parashakti . Shakta Hindu sects and Shākta Tantric beliefs additionally worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman . She is also seen as divine protector and the one who bestows moksha , or liberation . Kali is the first of the 10 Mahavidyas , or manifestations of the Great Goddess , or ultimate reality . She is often portrayed standing or dancing on her consort , the Hindu god Shiva , who lies calm and prostrate beneath her . Kali is worshipped by Hindus throughout India but particularly Bengal , Assam , Kashmir , Punjab , Himachal Pradesh , Kerala , and Tamil Nadu , along with Nepal and Sri Lanka .
= = Etymology = =
Kālī is the feminine form of kālam ( " black , dark coloured " ) . Kālī also shares the meaning of " time " or " the fullness of time " with the masculine noun " kāla " — and by extension , time as " that which brings all things to an end , the destroyer . " Other names include Kālarātri ( " the night of death " or " the night of destruction " ) , and Kālikā ( " the black one " ) .
The homonymous kāla , " appointed time " , which depending on context can mean " death " , is distinct from kāla " black " , but became associated through popular etymology . The association is seen in a passage from the Mahābhārata , depicting a female figure who carries away the spirits of slain warriors and animals . She is called kālarātri ( which Thomas Coburn , a historian of Sanskrit Goddess literature , translates as " night of death " ) and also kālī ( which , as Coburn notes , can be read here either as a proper name or as a description " the black one " ) . Kālī is also the feminine form of Kāla , an epithet of Shiva , and thus the consort of Shiva .
Kali properly transliterated from Sanskrit is Kālī , which should not be confused with the common Sanskrit word properly transliterated as kali , meaning " terrible " . They are grammatically unrelated , the first being nominal / ablative the latter adjectival . Frequent confusion comes in interpreting the kali yuga , or " terrible age , " one of the four great ages ( yugas ) of Hindu cosmology , as conflated with the goddess Kali . This is mostly due to her appearance , which is often described as terrible and fearsome . In fact , the goddess Kali should not be confused with kali yuga , as her name holds separate and unrelated meaning .
= = Origins = =
Hugh Urban notes that although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda , the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra ( 19 @.@ 7 ) . Kali appears in the Mundaka Upanishad ( section 1 , chapter 2 , verse 4 ) not explicitly as a goddess , but as the black tongue of the seven flickering tongues of Agni , the Hindu god of fire .
According to David Kinsley , Kāli is first mentioned in Hindu tradition as a distinct goddess around 600 CE , and these texts " usually place her on the periphery of Hindu society or on the battlefield . " She is often regarded as the Shakti of Shiva , and is closely associated with him in various Puranas .
Her most well known appearance on the battlefield is in the sixth century Devi Mahatmyam . Two demons , Canda and Munda attack the goddess Durga . Durga responds with such anger that her face turns dark and Kali appears out of her forehead . Kali 's appearance is black , gaunt with sunken eyes , and wearing a tiger skin and a garland of human heads . She immediately defeats the two demons . Later in the same battle , the demon Raktabija is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground . Countless Raktabija clones appear on the battlefield . Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can reach the ground , and eating the numerous clones . Kinsley writes that Kali represents " Durga 's personified wrath , her embodied fury . "
Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva . Parvati is typically portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess . The Linga Purana describes Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the demon Daruka , who received a boon that would only allow a female to kill him . Parvati merges with Shiva 's body , reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies . Her bloodlust gets out of control , only calming when Shiva intervenes . The Vamana Purana has a different version of Kali 's relationship with Parvati . When Shiva addresses Parvati as Kali , " the black one , " she is greatly offended . Parvati performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri , the golden one . Her dark sheath becomes Kausiki , who while enraged , creates Kali . Regarding the relationship between Kali , Parvati , and Shiva , Kinsley writes that :
In relation to Siva , she [ Kali ] appears to play the opposite role from that of Parvati . Parvati calms Siva , counterbalancing his antisocial or destructive tendencies ; she brings him within the sphere of domesticity and with her soft glances urges him to moderate the destructive aspects of his tandava dance . Kali is Shiva 's " other wife , " as it were , provoking him and encouraging him in his mad , antisocial , disruptive habits . It is never Kali who tames Siva , but Siva who must calm Kali .
= = Legends = =
Kāli appears in the Sauptika Parvan of the Mahabharata ( 10 @.@ 8 @.@ 64 ) . She is called Kālarātri ( literally , " black night " ) and appears to the Pandava soldiers in dreams , until finally she appears amidst the fighting during an attack by Drona 's son Ashwatthama .
Another story involving Kali is her escapade with a band of thieves . The thieves wanted to make a human sacrifice to Kali , and unwisely chose a saintly Brahmin monk as their victim . The radiance of the young monk was so much that it burned the image of Kali , who took living form and killed the entire band of thieves , decapitating them and drinking their blood .
= = = Slayer of Raktabija = = =
In Kāli 's most famous legend , Durga and her assistants , the Matrikas , wound the demon Raktabija , in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him . They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that is dripped from Raktabija he reproduces a clone of himself . The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates . Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons . The Devi Mahatmyam describes :
Out of the surface of her ( Durga 's ) forehead , fierce with frown , issued suddenly Kali of terrible countenance , armed with a sword and noose . Bearing the strange khatvanga ( skull @-@ topped staff ) , decorated with a garland of skulls , clad in a tiger 's skin , very appalling owing to her emaciated flesh , with gaping mouth , fearful with her tongue lolling out , having deep reddish eyes , filling the regions of the sky with her roars , falling upon impetuously and slaughtering the great asuras in that army , she devoured those hordes of the foes of the devas .
Kali consumes Raktabija and his duplicates , and dances on the corpses of the slain . In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story , Kali is also described as a Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi . She is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā ( Chamunda ) , i.e. the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda . Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit .
= = Iconography and forms = =
Kali is portrayed mostly in two forms : the popular four @-@ armed form and the ten @-@ armed Mahakali form . In both of her forms , she is described as being black in colour but is most often depicted as blue in popular Indian art . Her eyes are described as red with intoxication , and in absolute rage , her hair is shown disheveled , small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth , and her tongue is lolling . She
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Danish musical works , which included three by Nielsen – Maskarade , the Fourth Symphony , and a pair of his Danish songs . Krabbe asks the rhetorical question : " Can ' the national ' in Nielsen be demonstrated in the music in the form of particular themes , harmonies , sounds , forms , etc . , or is it a pure construct of reception history ? "
Nielsen himself was ambiguous about his attitudes to late Romantic German music and to nationalism in music . He wrote to the Dutch composer Julius Röntgen in 1909 " I am surprised by the technical skills of the Germans nowadays , and I cannot help thinking that all this delight in complication must exhaust itself . I foresee a completely new art of pure archaic virtue . What do you think about songs sung in unison ? We must go back ... to the pure and the clear . " On the other hand , he wrote in 1925 " Nothing destroys music more than nationalism does ... and it is impossible to deliver national music on request . "
Nielsen studied Renaissance polyphony closely , which accounts for some of the melodic and harmonic content of his music . This interest is exemplified in his Tre Motetter ( Three Motets , Op. 55 ) . To non @-@ Danish critics , Nielsen 's music initially had a neo @-@ classical sound but became increasingly modern as he developed his own approach to what the writer and composer Robert Simpson called progressive tonality , moving from one key to another . Typically , Nielsen 's music might end in a different key from that of its commencement , sometimes as the outcome of a struggle as in his symphonies . There is debate as to how much such elements owe to his folk music activities . Some critics have referred to his rhythms , his use of acciacaturas or appoggiaturas , or his frequent use of a flattened seventh and minor third in his works , as being typically Danish . The composer himself wrote " The intervals , as I see it , are the elements which first arouse a deeper interest in music ... [ I ] t is intervals which surprise and delight us anew every time we hear the cuckoo in spring . Its appeal would be less if its call were all on one note . "
Nielsen 's philosophy of music style is perhaps summed up in his advice in a 1907 letter to the Norwegian composer Knut Harder : " You have ... fluency , so far , so good ; but I advise you again and again , my dear Mr. Harder ; Tonality , Clarity , Strength .
= = = Symphonies = = =
Nielsen is perhaps most closely associated outside Denmark with his six symphonies , written between 1892 and 1925 . The works have much in common : they are all just over 30 minutes long , brass instruments are a key component of the orchestration , and they all exhibit unusual changes in tonality , which heighten the dramatic tension . From its opening bars , Symphony No. 1 ( Op. 7 , 1890 – 92 ) , while reflecting the influence of Grieg and Brahms , shows Nielsen 's individuality . In the Second ( Op. 16 , 1901 – 02 ) , Nielsen embarks on the development of human character . Inspiration came from a painting in an inn depicting the four temperaments ( choleric , phlegmatic , melancholic and sanguine ) .
The title of the Third , Sinfonia Espansiva ( Op. 27 , 1910 – 11 ) , is understood by the English composer Robert Simpson to refer to the " outward growth of the mind 's scope " . It fully exploits Nielsen 's technique of confronting two keys at the same time and includes a peaceful section with soprano and baritone voices , singing a tune without words . Symphony No. 4 , The Inextinguishable , ( Op. 29 , 1914 – 16 ) written during World War I is among the most frequently performed of the symphonies . In the last movement two sets of timpani are placed on opposite sides of the stage undertaking a kind of musical duel . Nielsen described the symphony as " the life force , the unquenchable will to live " .
Also frequently performed is the Fifth Symphony ( Op. 50 , 1921 – 22 ) presenting another battle between the forces of order and chaos . A snare drummer is given the task of interrupting the orchestra , playing ad libitum and out of time , as if to destroy the music . Performed by the Danish Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Erik Tuxen at the 1950 Edinburgh International Festival , it caused a sensation , sparking interest in Nielsen 's music outside Scandinavia . In the Sixth Symphony ( without opus number ) , written 1924 – 25 , and subtitled Sinfonia Semplice ( Simple Symphony ) , the tonal language seems similar to that in Nielsen 's other symphonies , but the symphony develops into a sequence of cameos , some sad , some grotesque , some humorous .
= = = Operas and cantatas = = =
Nielsen 's two operas are very different in style . The four @-@ act Saul og David ( Saul and David ) , written in 1902 to a libretto by Einar Christiansen , tells the Biblical story of Saul 's jealousy of the young David while Maskarade ( Masquerade ) is a comic opera in three acts written in 1906 to a Danish libretto by Vilhelm Andersen , based on the comedy by Ludvig Holberg . Saul and David received a negative press when it was premiered in November 1902 and did no better when it was revived in 1904 . By contrast , in November 1906 Masquerade was a resounding success with an exceptional run of 25 performances over its first four months . Generally considered to be Denmark 's national opera , in its home country it has enjoyed lasting success and popularity , attributable to its many strophic songs , its dances and its underlying " old Copenhagen " atmosphere .
Nielsen wrote a considerable number of choral works but most of them were composed for special occasions and were seldom reprised . Three fully @-@ fledged cantatas for soloists , orchestra and choir have , however , entered the repertoire . Nielsen composed Hymnus amoris ( Hymn of Love ) , Op. 12 ( 1897 ) after studying early polyphonic choral style . Writing in the newspaper Dannebrog , Nanna Liebmann referred to the work as " a decisive victory " for Nielsen , and Angul Hammerich of Nationaltidende welcomed its improved clarity and purity . But the Berlingske Tidende reviewer H.W. Schytte thought Nielsen had been pretentious presenting the lyrics in Latin rather than Danish . Søvnen ( The Sleep ) , Op. 18 , Nielsen 's second major choral work , sets to music the various phases of sleep including the terror of a nightmare in its central movement which , with its unusual discords , came as a shock to the reviewers at its premiere in March 1905 . Fynsk Foraar ( Springtime on Funen ) , Op. 42 , completed in 1922 , has been cited as the most Danish of all Nielsen 's compositions as it extols the beauty of Funen 's countryside .
= = = Concertos = = =
Nielsen wrote three concertos : the Violin Concerto , Op. 33 is a middle @-@ period work , from 1911 , which lies within the tradition of European classicism , whereas the Flute Concerto ( without opus number ) of 1926 and the Clarinet Concerto , Op. 57 which followed in 1928 are late works , influenced by the modernism of the 1920s and , according to the Danish musicologist Herbert Rosenberg , the product of " an extremely experienced composer who knows how to avoid inessentials . " Unlike Nielsen 's later works , the Violin Concerto has a distinct , melody @-@ oriented neo @-@ classical structure . The Flute Concerto , in two movements , was written for the flautist Holger Gilbert @-@ Jespersen , a member of the Copenhagen Wind Quintet which had premiered Nielsen 's Wind Quintet ( 1922 ) . In contrast to the rather traditional style of the Violin Concerto , it reflects the modernistic trends of the period . The first movement , for example , switches between D minor , E @-@ flat minor and F major before the flute comes to the fore with a cantabile theme in E major . The Clarinet Concerto was also written for a member of the Copenhagen Wind Quintet , Aage Oxenvad . Nielsen stretches the capacities of instrument and player to the utmost ; the concerto has just one continuous movement and contains a struggle between the soloist and the orchestra and between the two principal competing keys , F major and E major .
The wind concertos present many examples of what Nielsen called objektivering ( " objectification " ) . By this term he meant giving instrumentalists freedom of interpretation and performance within the bounds set out by the score .
= = = Orchestral music = = =
Nielsen 's earliest work composed specifically for orchestra was the immediately successful Suite for Strings ( 1888 ) , which evoked Scandinavian Romanticism as expressed by Grieg and Svendsen . The work marked an important milestone in Nielsen 's career as it was not only his first real success but it was also the first of his pieces he conducted himself when it was played in Odense a month later .
The Helios Overture , Op. 17 ( 1903 ) stems from Nielsen 's stay in Athens which inspired him to compose a work depicting the sun rising and setting over the Aegean Sea . The score is a showpiece for orchestra , and has been amongst Nielsen 's most popular works . Saga @-@ Drøm ( Saga Dream ) , Op. 39 ( 1907 – 08 ) is a tone poem for orchestra based on the Icelandic Njal 's Saga . In Nielsen 's words :
There are among other things four cadenzas for oboe , clarinet , bassoon and flute which run quite freely alongside one another , with no harmonic connection , and without my marking time . They are just like four streams of thought , each going its own way – differently and randomly for each performance – until they meet in a point of rest , as if flowing into a lock where they are united .
At the Bier of a Young Artist ( Ved en ung Kunstners Baare ) for string orchestra was written for the funeral of the Danish painter Oluf Hartmann in January 1910 and was also played at Nielsen 's own funeral . Pan and Syrinx ( Pan og Syrinx ) , a vigorous nine @-@ minute symphonic poem inspired by Ovid 's Metamorphoses , was premiered in 1911 . The Rhapsodic Overture , An Imaginary Trip to the Faroe Islands ( En Fantasirejse til Færøerne ) , draws on Faroese folk tunes but also contains freely composed sections .
Among Nielsen 's orchestral works for the stage are Aladdin ( 1919 ) and Moderen ( The Mother ) , Op. 41 ( 1920 ) . Aladdin was written to accompany a production of Adam Oehlenschläger 's fairy tale at The Royal Theatre in Copenhagen . The complete score , lasting over 80 minutes , is Nielsen 's longest work apart from his operas , but a shorter orchestral suite consisting of the Oriental March , Hindu Dance and Negro Dance is often performed . Moderen , written to celebrate the reunification of Southern Jutland with Denmark , was first performed in 1921 ; it is a setting of patriotic verses written for the occasion .
= = = Chamber music = = =
Nielsen composed several chamber music works , some of them still high on the international repertoire . The Wind Quintet , one of his most popular pieces , was composed in 1922 specifically for the Copenhagen Wind Quintet . Simpson , explaining that Nielsen 's fondness of wind instruments was closely related to his love of nature , writes : " He was also intensely interested in human character , and in the Wind Quintet composed deliberately for five friends ; each part is cunningly made to suit the individuality of each player . "
Nielsen wrote four string quartets . The First String Quartet No. 1 in G minor , Op. 13 ( 1889 , revised 1900 ) contains a " Résumé " section in the finale , bringing together themes from the first , third and fourth movements . The Second String Quartet No. 2 in F minor , Op. 5 appeared in 1890 and the Third String Quartet in E @-@ flat major , Op. 14 in 1898 . The music historian Jan Smaczny suggests that in this work " the handling of texture is confident and far less derivative than in earlier works ... [ the quartet ] prompts the most regret that Nielsen did not pursue the genre further ... to parallel his later symphonic development " . The Fourth String Quartet in F major ( 1904 ) initially received a mixed reception , with critics uncertain about its reserved style . Nielsen revised it several times , the final version in 1919 being listed as his Op. 44 .
The violin was Nielsen 's own instrument and he composed four large @-@ scale chamber works for it . The departures from standard procedures in the First Sonata , Op. 9 ( 1895 ) , including its often sudden modulations and its terse thematic material , disconcerted Danish critics at its first performance . The Second Sonata , Op. 35 of 1912 was written for the violinist Peder Møller who earlier that year had premiered the composer 's Violin Concerto . The work is an example of the composer 's progressive tonality since , although it is stated to be in the key of G minor , the first and final movements end in different keys . The critic Emilius Bangert wrote of the premiere ( which was given by Axel Gade ) , " The overall impression was of a beautiful , unbroken line – a flow of notes – where in particular a wonderful second subject in the first part and the pure , high sphere of the last part were captivating " . Two other works are for violin solo . The Prelude , Theme and Variations , Op. 48 ( 1923 ) was written for Telmányi , and , like Nielsen 's Chaconne for piano , Op. 32 , was inspired by the music of Johann Sebastian Bach . The Preludio e Presto , Op. 52 ( 1928 ) was written as a tribute for the sixtieth birthday of the composer Fini Henriques .
= = = Keyboard works = = =
Although Nielsen came to compose mainly at the piano , he only composed directly for it occasionally over a period of 40 years , creating works often with a distinctive style which slowed their international acceptance . Nielsen 's own piano technique , an echo of which is probably preserved in three wax cylinders marked " Carl Nielsen " at the State Archives in Aarhus , seems to have been mediocre . Reviewing the 1969 recording of works by the pianist John Ogdon , John Horton commented on the early pieces : " Nielsen 's technical resources hardly measure up to the grandeur of his designs " , whilst characterising the later pieces as " major works which can stand comparison with his symphonic music " . The anti @-@ romantic tone of the Symphonic Suite , Op. 8 ( 1894 ) was described by a later critic as " nothing less than a clenched fist straight in the face of all established musical convention " . In Nielsen 's words , the Chaconne , Op. 32 ( 1917 ) was " a really big piece , and I think effective " . It is not only inspired by the work of Bach , especially the chaconne for solo violin , but also by the virtuoso piano arrangements of Bach 's music by composers such as Robert Schumann , Johannes Brahms and Ferruccio Busoni . Also on a large scale , and from the same year , is the Theme and Variations , Op. 41 , in which critics have discerned the influences of Brahms and also of Max Reger , of whom Nielsen had earlier written to a friend " I think that the public will be utterly unable to grasp Reger 's work and yet I am a lot more sympathetic towards his efforts than towards ... Richard Strauss " .
All Nielsen 's organ works were late compositions . The Danish organist Finn Viderø suggests that his interest was prompted by the Orgelbewegung ( Organ reform movement ) , and the renewal of the front pipes of the Schnitger organ in the St. Jacobi Church , Hamburg , from 1928 to 1930 . Nielsen 's last major work – Commotio , Op. 58 , a 22 @-@ minute piece for organ – was composed between June 1930 and February 1931 , only a few months before his death .
= = = Songs and hymns = = =
Over the years , Nielsen wrote the music for over 290 songs and hymns , most of them for verses and poems by well @-@ known Danish authors such as N. F. S. Grundtvig , Ingemann , Poul Martin Møller , Adam Oehlenschläger and Jeppe Aakjær . In Denmark , many of them are still popular today both with adults and children . They are regarded as " the most representative part of the country 's most representative composer 's output " . In 1906 , Nielsen had explained the significance of such songs to his countrymen :
With certain melodic inflections we Danes unavoidably think of the poems of , for example , Ingemann , Christian Winther or Drachmann , and we often seem to perceive the smell of Danish landscapes and rural images in our songs and music . But it is also clear that a foreigner , who knows neither our countryside , nor our painters , our poets , or our history in the same intimate way as we do ourselves , will be completely unable to grasp what it is that brings us to hear and tremble with sympathetic understanding .
Of great significance was Nielsen 's contribution to the 1922 publication , Folkehøjskolens Melodibog ( The Folk High School Songbook ) , of which he was one of the editors together with Thomas Laub , Oluf Ring and Thorvald Aagaard . The book contained about 600 melodies , of which about 200 were composed by the editors , and was intended to provide a repertoire for communal singing , an integral part of Danish folk culture . The collection was extremely popular and became embedded in the Danish educational system . During the German occupation of Denmark in World War II , mass song gatherings , using these melodies , were part of Denmark 's " spiritual re @-@ armament " , and after the war in 1945 Nielsen 's contributions were characterised by one writer as " shining jewels in our treasure @-@ chest of patriotic songs " . This remains a significant factor in Danish assessment of the composer .
= = = Editions = = =
Between 1994 and 2009 a complete new edition of Nielsen 's works , the Carl Nielsen Edition , was commissioned by the Danish Government ( at a cost of over 40 million kroner ) . For many of the works , including the operas Maskarade and Saul and David , and the complete Aladdin music , this was their first printed publication , copies of manuscripts having previously been used in performances . The scores are now all available for download free of charge at the website of the Danish Royal Library ( which also owns most of Nielsen 's music manuscripts ) .
= = Reception = =
Unlike that of his contemporary , the Finn Jean Sibelius , Nielsen 's reputation abroad did not start to evolve until after World War II . For some time , international interest was largely directed towards his symphonies while his other works , many of them highly popular in Denmark , have only recently started to become part of the world repertoire . Even in Denmark , many of his compositions failed to impress . It was only in 1897 after the first performance of Hymnus amoris that he received support from the critics , to be substantially reinforced in 1906 by their enthusiastic reception of Masquerade .
Within two months of its successful premiere at the Odd Fellows Concert Hall in Copenhagen on 28 February 1912 , the Third Symphony ( Espansiva ) was in the repertoire of the Amsterdam Concertgebouw , and by 1913 it had seen performances in Stuttgart , Stockholm and Helsinki . The symphony was the most popular of all Nielsen 's works during his lifetime and was also played in Berlin , Hamburg , London and Gothenburg . Other works caused some uncertainty , even in Denmark . After the premiere of the Fifth Symphony ( 1922 ) one critic wrote : " The treasure of Danish symphonies and Carl Nielsen 's own output have been enriched by a strange and highly original work . " Another , however , described it as a " bloody , clenched fist in the face of an unsuspecting snob audience " , also qualifying it as " filthy music from trenches " .
At the end of the 1940s two major biographies of Nielsen appeared in Danish , dominating opinion of the composer 's life and work for several decades . Robert Simpson 's book Carl Nielsen , Symphonist ( first edition 1952 ) was the earliest large @-@ scale study in English .
An international breakthrough came in 1962 when Leonard Bernstein recorded the Fifth Symphony with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for CBS . The recording helped Nielsen 's music to achieve appreciation beyond his home country and is considered one of the finest recorded accounts of the symphony . Nielsen 's centenary in 1965 was widely celebrated , both in terms of performances and publications , and Bernstein was awarded the Sonning Prize for his recording of the Third Symphony . In 1988 Nielsen 's diaries and his letters to Anne Marie were published , and these , together with a 1991 biography by Jørgen Jensen using this new material , led to a revised objective assessment of the composer 's personality . Writing in The New York Times on the occasion of Nielsen 's 125th anniversary in 1990 , the music critic Andrew Pincus recalled that 25 years earlier Bernstein had believed the world was ready to accept the Dane as the equal of Jean Sibelius , speaking of " his rough charm , his swing , his drive , his rhythmic surprises , his strange power of harmonic and tonal relationships – and especially his constant unpredictability " ( which Pincus believed was still a challenge for audiences ) . Biographies and studies in English in the 1990s helped to establish Nielsen 's status world @-@ wide , to the point at which his music has become a regular feature of concert programming in Western countries .
Writing in The New Yorker in 2008 , the American music critic Alex Ross compares the " brute strength " of Nielsen 's symphonies to Beethoven 's Eroica and Fifth Symphony but explains that only now were the Americans slowly beginning to appreciate the Danish composer . In particular , he compliments Alan Gilbert on his understanding and interpretations of the Nielsen symphonies .
Nielsen did not record any of his works . However , three younger contemporary conductors who had worked with him , Thomas Jensen , Launy Grøndahl , and Erik Tuxen , did record his symphonies and other orchestral works with the Danish Radio Symphony Orchestra between 1946 and 1952 . Jensen also made the first LP recording of the Fifth Symphony in 1954 . Work carried out by the recently published complete Carl Nielsen Edition has revealed that the scores used in these recordings often differ from the composer 's original intentions and thus the supposed authenticity of these recordings is now debatable .
There are now numerous recordings of all Nielsen 's major works , including complete cycles of the symphonies conducted by , amongst others , Sir Colin Davis , Herbert Blomstedt and Sakari Oramo . Over 50 recordings have been made of Nielsen 's Wind Quintet . In January 2015 , the New York Philharmonic conducted by Alan Gilbert completed recordings of Nielsen 's six symphonies and three concertos . Anthony Tommasini of The New York Times qualified the CD of Symphonies Nos. 2 and 3 as " terrific " in the newspaper 's list of the best classical music recordings of 2012 .
= = Legacy = =
From 1916 , Nielsen taught at the Royal Academy where he became director in 1931 , shortly before his death . He also had private students in his earlier days in order to supplement his income . As a result of his teaching , Nielsen has exerted considerable influence on classical music in Denmark . Among his most successful pupils were the composers Thorvald Aagaard , remembered in particular for his songs , Harald Agersnap , both a conductor and orchestral composer , and Jørgen Bentzon who composed choral and chamber music mainly for his folk music school ( Københavns Folkemusikskole ) . Among his other students were the musicologist Knud Jeppesen , the pianist Herman Koppel , the academy professor and symphony composer Poul Schierbeck , the organist Emilius Bangert who played at Roskilde Cathedral , and Nancy Dalberg , one of Nielsen 's private students who helped with the orchestration of Aladdin . Nielsen also instructed the conductor and choirmaster Mogens Wöldike , remembered for his interpretations of Baroque music , and Rudolph Simonsen , the pianist and composer who became director of the Academy after Nielsen 's death .
The Carl Nielsen Society maintains a listing of performances of Nielsen 's works , classified by region ( Denmark , Scandinavia , Europe apart from Scandinavia and outside Europe ) which demonstrates that his music is regularly performed throughout the world . The concerti and symphonies feature frequently in these listings . The Carl Nielsen International Competition commenced in the 1970s under the auspices of the Odense Symphony Orchestra . A four @-@ yearly violin competition has been held there since 1980 . Flute and clarinet competitions were later added , but these have now been discontinued . An international Organ Competition , originally founded by the city of Odense , became associated with the Nielsen competition in 2009 , but from 2015 will be organized separately , based in Odense Cathedral .
In his home country , the Carl Nielsen Museum , in Odense , is dedicated to Nielsen and his wife , Anne Marie . The composer is featured on the 100 kroner note issued by the Danish National Bank from 1997 to 2010 . His image was selected in recognition of his contribution to Danish music compositions such as his opera Maskarade , his Espansiva symphony and his many songs including " Danmark , nu blunder den lyse nat " .
Several special events were scheduled on or around 9 June 2015 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Nielsen 's birth . In addition to many performances in Denmark , concerts were programmed in cities across Europe , including London , Leipzig , Kraków , Gothenburg , Helsinki and Vienna , and even further afield in Japan , Egypt and New York . For 9 June , Nielsen 's birthday , the Danish National Symphony Orchestra presented a programme in Copenhagen 's DR Concert Hall featuring Hymnus amoris , the Clarinet Concerto and Symphony No. 4 for a broadcast extending across Europe and the United States . The Danish Royal Opera has programmed Maskarade and a new production ( directed by David Pountney ) of Saul og David . During 2015 , the Danish Quartet scheduled performances of Nielsen 's string quartets in Denmark , Israel , Germany , Norway and the UK ( at the Cheltenham Music Festival ) . In the UK , the BBC Philharmonic prepared a concert series on Nielsen beginning on 9 June in Manchester . Nielsen 's Maskarade overture was also the first item for the opening night of the 2015 BBC Promenade Concerts in London , while his compositions featured in five other concerts of the Prom season . The city of Odense , which has strong connections with Nielsen , developed an extensive programme of concerts and cultural events for the anniversary year .
= Heavy metal music =
Heavy metal ( or simply metal ) is a genre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s , largely in the United Kingdom and the United States . With roots in blues rock and psychedelic rock , the bands that created heavy metal developed a thick , massive sound , characterized by highly amplified distortion , extended guitar solos , emphatic beats , and overall loudness . Heavy metal lyrics and performance styles are sometimes associated with masculinity , aggression , and machismo .
The first heavy metal bands such as Led Zeppelin , Black Sabbath and Deep Purple attracted large audiences , though they were often derided by critics , a status common throughout the history of the genre . During the mid @-@ 1970s , Judas Priest helped spur the genre 's evolution by discarding much of its blues influence ; Motörhead introduced a punk rock sensibility and an increasing emphasis on speed . Beginning in the late 1970s , bands in the new wave of British heavy metal such as Iron Maiden and Saxon followed in a similar vein . Before the end of the decade , heavy metal fans became known as " metalheads " or " headbangers " .
During the 1980s , glam metal became a commercial force with groups such as Mötley Crüe and Poison . Underground scenes produced an array of more aggressive styles : thrash metal broke into the mainstream with bands such as Metallica , Megadeth , Slayer , and Anthrax , while other extreme subgenres of metal such as death metal and black metal remain subcultural phenomena . Since the mid @-@ 1990s popular styles have further expanded the definition of the genre . These include groove metal ( with bands such as Pantera ) and nu metal ( with bands such as Slipknot , Korn and Linkin Park ) , the latter of which often incorporates elements of grunge and hip hop .
= = Characteristics = =
Heavy metal is traditionally characterized by loud distorted guitars , emphatic rhythms , dense bass @-@ and @-@ drum sound , and vigorous vocals . Metal subgenres variously emphasize , alter , or omit one or more of these attributes . New York Times critic Jon Pareles writes , " In the taxonomy of popular music , heavy metal is a major subspecies of hard @-@ rock — the breed with less syncopation , less blues , more showmanship and more brute force . " The typical band lineup includes a drummer , a bassist , a rhythm guitarist , a lead guitarist , and a singer , who may or may not be an instrumentalist . Keyboard instruments are sometimes used to enhance the fullness of the sound .
The electric guitar and the sonic power that it projects through amplification has historically been the key element in heavy metal . The heavy metal guitar sound comes from a combined use of high volumes and heavy distortion . Guitar solos are " ... an essential element of the heavy metal code ... that underscores the significance of the guitar " to the genre . Most heavy metal songs " ... featur [ e ] at least one guitar solo " , which is " ... a primary means through which the heavy metal performer expresses virtuosity . " One exception is nu metal bands , which tend to omit guitar solos . With rhythm guitar parts , the " heavy crunch sound in heavy metal ... [ is created by ] palm muting " the strings with the picking hand and using distortion . Palm muting creates a tighter , more precise sound and it emphasizes the low end .
The lead role of the guitar in heavy metal often collides with the traditional " frontman " or bandleader role of the vocalist , creating a musical tension as the two " contend for dominance " in a spirit of " affectionate rivalry " . Heavy metal " demands the subordination of the voice " to the overall sound of the band . Reflecting metal 's roots in the 1960s counterculture , an " explicit display of emotion " is required from the vocals as a sign of authenticity . Critic Simon Frith claims that the metal singer 's " tone of voice " is more important than the lyrics .
The prominent role of the bass is also key to the metal sound , and the interplay of bass and guitar is a central element . The bass guitar provides the low @-@ end sound crucial to making the music " heavy " . The bass plays a " ... more important role in heavy metal than in any other genre of rock . " Metal basslines vary widely in complexity , from holding down a low pedal point as a foundation to doubling complex riffs and licks along with the lead and / or rhythm guitars . Some bands feature the bass as a lead instrument , an approach popularized by Metallica 's Cliff Burton with his heavy emphasis on bass guitar solos and use of chords while playing bass in the early 1980s .
The essence of metal drumming is creating a loud , constant beat for the band using the " trifecta of speed , power , and precision " . Metal drumming " requires an exceptional amount of endurance " , and drummers have to develop " considerable speed , coordination , and dexterity ... to play the intricate patterns " used in metal . A characteristic metal drumming technique is the cymbal choke , which consists of striking a cymbal and then immediately silencing it by grabbing it with the other hand ( or , in some cases , the same striking hand ) , producing a burst of sound . The metal drum setup is generally much larger than those employed in other forms of rock music . Black metal , death metal and some " mainstream metal " bands " ... all depend upon double @-@ kicks and blast beats . "
In live performance , loudness — an " onslaught of sound , " in sociologist Deena Weinstein 's description — is considered vital . In his book Metalheads , psychologist Jeffrey Arnett refers to heavy metal concerts as " the sensory equivalent of war . " Following the lead set by Jimi Hendrix , Cream and The Who , early heavy metal acts such as Blue Cheer set new benchmarks for volume . As Blue Cheer 's Dick Peterson put it , " All we knew was we wanted more power . " A 1977 review of a Motörhead concert noted how " excessive volume in particular figured into the band 's impact . " Weinstein makes the case that in the same way that melody is the main element of pop and rhythm is the main focus of house music , powerful sound , timbre , and volume are the key elements of metal . She argues that the loudness is designed to " sweep the listener into the sound " and to provide a " shot of youthful vitality . "
In relation to the gender composition of heavy metal bands , it has been said that " [ h ] eavy metal performers are almost exclusively male " " ... [ a ] t least until the mid @-@ 1980s " apart from " ... exceptions such as Girlschool . " However , " ... now [ in the 2010s ] maybe more than ever – strong metal women have put up their dukes and got down to it " , " carv [ ing ] out a considerable place for [ them ] selves . "
= = = Musical language = = =
= = = = Rhythm and tempo = = = =
The rhythm in metal songs is emphatic , with deliberate stresses . Weinstein observes that the wide array of sonic effects available to metal drummers enables the " rhythmic pattern to take on a complexity within its elemental drive and insistency " . In many heavy metal songs , the main groove is characterized by short , two @-@ note or three @-@ note rhythmic figures — generally made up of 8th or 16th notes . These rhythmic figures are usually performed with a staccato attack created by using a palm @-@ muted technique on the rhythm guitar .
Brief , abrupt , and detached rhythmic cells are joined into rhythmic phrases with a distinctive , often jerky texture . These phrases are used to create rhythmic accompaniment and melodic figures called riffs , which help to establish thematic hooks . Heavy metal songs also use longer rhythmic figures such as whole note- or dotted quarter note @-@ length chords in slow @-@ tempo power ballads . The tempos in early heavy metal music tended to be " slow , even ponderous " . By the late 1970s , however , metal bands were employing a wide variety of tempos . In the 2000s decade , metal tempos range from slow ballad tempos ( quarter note
= 60 beats per minute ) to extremely fast blast beat tempos ( quarter note =
350 beats per minute ) .
= = = = Harmony = = = =
One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar power chord . In technical terms , the power chord is relatively simple : it involves just one main interval , generally the perfect fifth , though an octave may be added as a doubling of the root . When power chords are played on the lower strings at high volumes and with distortion , additional low frequency sounds are created , which add to the " ... weight of the sound " and create an effect of " ... overwhelming power " . Although the perfect fifth interval is the most common basis for the power chord , power chords are also based on different intervals such as the minor third , major third , perfect fourth , diminished fifth , or minor sixth . Most power chords are also played with a consistent finger arrangement that can be slid easily up and down the fretboard .
= = = = Typical harmonic structures = = = =
Heavy metal is usually based on riffs created with three main harmonic traits : modal scale progressions , tritone and chromatic progressions , and the use of pedal points . Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales , in particular the Aeolian and Phrygian modes . Harmonically speaking , this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as the Aeolian progressions I @-@ VI @-@ VII , I @-@ VII- ( VI ) , or I @-@ VI @-@ IV @-@ VII and Phrygian progressions implying the relation between I and ♭ II ( I- ♭ II @-@ I , I- ♭ II @-@ III , or I- ♭ II @-@ VII for example ) . Tense @-@ sounding chromatic or tritone relationships are used in a number of metal chord progressions . In addition to using modal harmonic relationships , heavy metal also uses " ... pentatonic and blues @-@ derived features . "
The tritone , an interval spanning three whole tones — such as C and F # — was a forbidden dissonance in medieval ecclesiastical singing , which led monks to call it diabolus in musica — " the devil in music " .
Heavy metal songs often make extensive use of pedal point as a harmonic basis . A pedal point is a sustained tone , typically in the bass range , during which at least one foreign ( i.e. , dissonant ) harmony is sounded in the other parts . According to Robert Walser , heavy metal harmonic relationships are " ... often quite complex " and the harmonic analysis done by metal players and teachers is " ... often very sophisticated . " In the study of heavy metal chord structures , it has been concluded that " ... heavy metal music has proved to be far more complicated " than other music researchers had realized .
= = = = Relationship with classical music = = = =
It has been stated that , alongside blues and R & B , the " assemblage of disparate musical styles known ... as ' classical music ' " has been a major influence on heavy metal since the genre 's earliest days . Also that metal 's " most influential musicians have been guitar players who have also studied classical music . Their appropriation and adaptation of classical models sparked the development of a new kind of guitar virtuosity [ and ] changes in the harmonic and melodic language of heavy metal . "
In an article written for Grove Music Online , Walser stated that the " 1980s brought on ... the widespread adaptation of chord progressions and virtuosic practices from 18th @-@ century European models , especially Bach and Antonio Vivaldi , by influential guitarists such as Ritchie Blackmore , Marty Friedman , Jason Becker , Uli Jon Roth , Eddie Van Halen , Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen " . Kurt Bachmann of Believer has stated that " If done correctly , metal and classical fit quite well together . Classical and metal are probably the two genres that have the most in common when it comes to feel , texture , creativity . "
Although a number of metal musicians cite classical composers as inspiration , classical and metal are rooted in different cultural traditions and practices — classical in the art music tradition , metal in the popular music tradition . As musicologists Nicolas Cook and Nicola Dibben note , " Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of ' art traditions . ' An example is Walser 's linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth @-@ century Romanticism . However , it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues , rock , heavy metal , rap or dance music derive primarily from " art music . ' "
= = = Lyrical themes = = =
According to scholars David Hatch and Stephen Millward , Black Sabbath , and the numerous metal bands that they inspired , have concentrated lyrically " on dark and depressing subject matter to an extent hitherto unprecedented in any form of pop music " . They take as an example Sabbath 's second album Paranoid ( 1970 ) , which " included songs dealing with personal trauma — ' Paranoid ' and ' Fairies Wear Boots ' ( which described the unsavoury side effects of drug @-@ taking ) — as well as those confronting wider issues , such as the self @-@ explanatory ' War Pigs ' and ' Hand of Doom . ' " Deriving from the genre 's roots in blues music , sex is another important topic — a thread running from Led Zeppelin 's suggestive lyrics to the more explicit references of glam and nu metal bands .
The thematic content of heavy metal has long been a target of criticism . According to Jon Pareles , " Heavy metal 's main subject matter is simple and virtually universal . With grunts , moans and subliterary lyrics , it celebrates ... a party without limits .... [ T ] he bulk of the music is stylized and formulaic . " Music critics have often deemed metal lyrics juvenile and banal , and others have objected to what they see as advocacy of misogyny and the occult . During the 1980s , the Parents Music Resource Center petitioned the U.S. Congress to regulate the popular music industry due to what the group asserted were objectionable lyrics , particularly those in heavy metal songs . Music critic Robert Christgau called metal " an expressive mode it sometimes seems will be with us for as long as ordinary white boys fear girls , pity themselves , and are permitted to rage against a world they 'll never beat " .
Metal artists have had to defend their lyrics in front of the U.S. Senate and in court . In 1985 , Twisted Sister frontman Dee Snider was asked to defend his song Under the Blade at a U.S. Senate hearing . At the hearing , the PMRC alleged that the song was about sadomasochism and rape ; Snider stated that the song was about his bandmate 's throat surgery . In 1986 , Ozzy Osbourne was sued because of the lyrics of his song Suicide Solution . A lawsuit against Osbourne was filed by the parents of John McCollum , a depressed teenager who committed suicide allegedly after listening to Osbourne 's song . Osbourne was not found responsible for the teen 's death . In 1990 , Judas Priest was sued in American court by the parents of two young men who had shot themselves five years earlier , allegedly after hearing the subliminal statement " do it " in a Priest song . While the case attracted a great deal of media attention , it was ultimately dismissed . In some predominantly Muslim countries , heavy metal has been officially denounced as a threat to traditional values . In countries such as Morocco , Egypt , Lebanon , and Malaysia , there have been incidents of heavy metal musicians and fans being arrested and incarcerated .
= = = Image and fashion = = =
For certain artists and bands , visual imagery plays a large role in heavy metal . In addition to its sound and lyrics , a heavy metal band 's " image " is expressed in album sleeve art , logos , stage sets , clothing , and music videos .
Down @-@ the @-@ back long hair is the " most crucial distinguishing feature of metal fashion . " Originally adopted from the hippie subculture , by the 1980s and 1990s heavy metal hair " symbolised the hate , angst and disenchantment of a generation that seemingly never felt at home " , according to journalist Nader Rahman . Long hair gave members of the metal community " the power they needed to rebel against nothing in general . "
The classic uniform of heavy metal fans consists of light colored , ripped frayed or torn blue jeans , black T @-@ shirts , boots and black leather or jeans jackets .... T @-@ shirts are generally emblazoned with the logos or other visual representations of favorite metal bands . " Metal fans also " appropriated elements from the S & M community ( chains , metal studs , skulls , leather and crosses ) . " In the 1980s , a range of sources , from punk and goth music to horror films , influenced metal fashion . Many metal performers of the 1970s and 1980s used radically shaped and brightly colored instruments to enhance their stage appearance .
Fashion and personal style was especially important for glam metal bands of the era . Performers typically wore long , dyed , hairspray @-@ teased hair ( hence the nickname , " hair metal " ) ; makeup such as lipstick and eyeliner ; gaudy clothing , including leopard @-@ skin @-@ printed shirts or vests and tight denim , leather , or spandex pants ; and accessories such as headbands and jewelry . Pioneered by the heavy metal act X Japan in the late 1980s , bands in the Japanese movement known as visual kei — which includes many nonmetal groups — emphasize elaborate costumes , hair , and makeup .
= = = Physical gestures = = =
Many metal musicians when performing live engage in headbanging , which involves rhythmically beating time with the head , often emphasized by long hair . The il cornuto , or devil horns , hand gesture , also widespread , was popularized by vocalist Ronnie James Dio while with Black Sabbath and Dio . Although Gene Simmons of Kiss claims to have been the first to make the gesture on the 1977 Love Gun album cover , there is speculation as to who started the phenomenon .
Attendees of metal concerts do not dance in the usual sense . It has been argued that this is due to the music 's largely male audience and " extreme heterosexualist ideology . " Two primary body movements that substitute for dancing : headbanging and an arm thrust that is both a sign of appreciation and a rhythmic gesture . The performance of air guitar is popular among metal fans both at concerts and listening to records at home . Thrash metal concerts have two elements that are not part of the other metal genres : moshing and stage diving , which " ... were imported from the punk / hardcore subculture . " Moshing participants bump and jostle each other as they move in a circle in an area called the " pit " near the stage . Stage divers climb onto the stage with the band and then jump " ... back into the audience " .
= = = Fan subculture = = =
It has been argued that heavy metal has outlasted many other rock genres largely due to the emergence of an intense , exclusionary , strongly masculine subculture . While the metal fan @-@ base is largely young , white , male , and blue @-@ collar , the group is " tolerant of those outside its core demographic base who follow its codes of dress , appearance , and behavior " . Identification with the subculture is strengthened not only by the group experience of concert @-@ going and shared elements of fashion , but also by contributing to metal magazines and , more recently , websites . Attending live concerts in particular has been called the “ holiest of heavy metal communions ” .
The metal scene has been characterized as a " subculture of alienation " , with its own code of authenticity . This code puts several demands on performers : they must appear both completely devoted to their music and loyal to the subculture that supports it ; they must appear uninterested in mainstream appeal and radio hits ; and they must never " sell out " . For the fans themselves , the code promotes " opposition to established authority , and separateness from the rest of society " .
Musician and filmmaker Rob Zombie observes , " Most of the kids who come to my shows seem like really imaginative kids with a lot of creative energy they don 't know what to do with " and that metal is " outsider music for outsiders . Nobody wants to be the weird kid ; you just somehow end up being the weird kid . It 's kind of like that , but with metal you have all the weird kids in one place " . Scholars of metal have noted the tendency of fans to classify and reject some performers ( and some other fans ) as " poseurs " " who pretended to be part of the subculture , but who were deemed to lack authenticity and sincerity " .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the term " heavy metal " in a musical context is uncertain . The phrase has been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy , where the periodic table organizes elements of both light and heavy metals ( e.g. , uranium ) . An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by countercultural writer William S. Burroughs . His 1962 novel The Soft Machine includes a character known as " Uranian Willy , the Heavy Metal Kid " . Burroughs ' next novel , Nova Express ( 1964 ) , develops the theme , using heavy metal as a metaphor for addictive drugs : " With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms — Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes — And The Insect People of Minraud with metal music " . Inspired by Burroughs ' novels , the term was used in the title of the 1967 album Featuring the Human Host and the Heavy Metal Kids by Hapshash and the Coloured Coat , which has been claimed to be its first use in the context of music . The phrase was later lifted by Sandy Pearlman , who used the term to describe The Byrds for their supposed " aluminium style of context and effect " , particularly on their album The Notorious Byrd Brothers ( 1968 ) .
Metal historian Ian Christe describes what the components of the term mean in " hippiespeak " : " heavy " is roughly synonymous with " potent " or " profound , " and " metal " designates a certain type of mood , grinding and weighted as with metal . The word " heavy " in this sense was a basic element of beatnik and later countercultural slang , and references to " heavy music " — typically slower , more amplified variations of standard pop fare — were already common by the mid @-@ 1960s . Iron Butterfly 's debut album , released in early 1968 , was titled Heavy . The first use of " heavy metal " in a song lyric is in reference to a motorcycle in the Steppenwolf song " Born to Be Wild " , also released that year : " I like smoke and lightning / Heavy metal thunder / Racin ' with the wind / And the feelin ' that I 'm under . "
The first documented use of the phrase to describe a type of rock music identified to date appears in a review by Barry Gifford . In the May 11 , 1968 , issue of Rolling Stone , he wrote about the album A Long Time Comin ' by U.S. band Electric Flag : " Nobody who 's been listening to Mike Bloomfield — either talking or playing — in the last few years could have expected this . This is the new soul music , the synthesis of white blues and heavy metal rock . " In January 1970 Lucian K. Truscott IV reviewing Led Zeppelin II for the Village Voice described the sound as " heavy " and made comparisons with Blue Cheer and Vanilla Fudge .
Other early documented uses of the phrase are from reviews by critic Mike Saunders . In the November 12 , 1970 issue of Rolling Stone , he commented on an album put out the previous year by the British band Humble Pie : " Safe as Yesterday Is , their first American release , proved that Humble Pie could be boring in lots of different ways . Here they were a noisy , unmelodic , heavy metal @-@ leaden shit @-@ rock band with the loud and noisy parts beyond doubt . There were a couple of nice songs ... and one monumental pile of refuse " . He described the band 's latest , self @-@ titled release as " more of the same 27th @-@ rate heavy metal crap " .
In a review of Sir Lord Baltimore 's Kingdom Come in the May 1971 Creem , Saunders wrote , " Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book " . Creem critic Lester Bangs is credited with popularizing the term via his early 1970s essays on bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath . Through the decade , heavy metal was used by certain critics as a virtually automatic putdown . In 1979 , lead New York Times popular music critic John Rockwell described what he called " heavy @-@ metal rock " as " brutally aggressive music played mostly for minds clouded by drugs " , and , in a different article , as " a crude exaggeration of rock basics that appeals to white teenagers " .
Coined by Black Sabbath drummer , Bill Ward , " downer rock " was one of the earliest terms used to describe this style of music and was applied to acts such as Sabbath and Bloodrock . Classic Rock magazine described the downer rock culture revolving around the use of Quaaludes and the drinking of wine . Later the term would be replaced by " heavy metal " .
The terms " heavy metal " and " hard rock " have often been used interchangeably , particularly in discussing bands of the 1970s , a period when the terms were largely synonymous . For example , the 1983 Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll includes this passage : " known for its aggressive blues @-@ based hard @-@ rock style , Aerosmith was the top American heavy @-@ metal band of the mid @-@ Seventies " .
= = History = =
= = = Antecedents : 1950s to mid @-@ 1960s = = =
Heavy metal 's quintessential guitar style , built around distortion @-@ heavy riffs and power chords , traces its roots to early 1950s Memphis blues guitarists such as Joe Hill Louis , Willie Johnson , and particularly Pat Hare , who captured a " grittier , nastier , more ferocious electric guitar sound " on records such as James Cotton 's " Cotton Crop Blues " ( 1954 ) ; the late 1950s instrumentals of Link Wray , particularly " Rumble " ( 1958 ) ; the early 1960s surf rock of Dick Dale , including " Let 's Go Trippin ' " ( 1961 ) and " Misirlou " ( 1962 ) ; and The Kingsmen 's version of " Louie , Louie " ( 1963 ) which made it a garage rock standard .
However , the genre 's direct lineage begins in the mid @-@ 1960s . American blues music was a major influence on the early British rockers of the era . Bands like The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds developed blues rock by recording covers of many classic blues songs , often speeding up the tempos . As they experimented with the music , the UK blues @-@ based bands — and the U.S. acts they influenced in turn — developed what would become the hallmarks of heavy metal , in particular , the loud , distorted guitar sound . The Kinks played a major role in popularising this sound with their 1964 hit " You Really Got Me " .
In addition to The Kinks ' Dave Davies , other guitarists such as The Who 's Pete Townshend and The Yardbirds ' Jeff Beck were experimenting with feedback . Where the blues rock drumming style started out largely as simple shuffle beats on small kits , drummers began using a more muscular , complex , and amplified approach to match and be heard against the increasingly loud guitar . Vocalists similarly modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification , often becoming more stylized and dramatic . In terms of sheer volume , especially in live performance , The Who 's " bigger @-@ louder @-@ wall @-@ of @-@ Marshalls " approach was seminal .
The combination of blues rock with psychedelic rock formed much of the original basis for heavy metal . One of the most influential bands in forging the merger of genres was the British power trio Cream , who derived a massive , heavy sound from unison riffing between guitarist Eric Clapton and bassist Jack Bruce , as well as Ginger Baker 's double bass drumming . Their first two LPs , Fresh Cream ( 1966 ) and Disraeli Gears ( 1967 ) , are regarded as essential prototypes for the future style . The Jimi Hendrix Experience 's debut album , Are You Experienced ( 1967 ) , was also highly influential . Hendrix 's virtuosic technique would be emulated by many metal guitarists and the album 's most successful single , " Purple Haze " , is identified by some as the first heavy metal hit .
During the late sixties , many psychedelic singers such as Arthur Brown , began to create outlandish , theatrical and often macabre performances ; which in itself became incredibly influential to many metal acts . Vanilla Fudge , whose first album also came out in 1967 , has been called " one of the few American links between psychedelia and what soon became heavy metal " .
= = = Origins : late 1960s and early 1970s = = =
Critics disagree over who can be thought of as the first heavy metal band . Most credit either Led Zeppelin or Black Sabbath , with American commentators tending to favour Led Zeppelin and British commentators tending to favour Black Sabbath , though many give equal credit to both . A few commentators — mainly American — argue for other groups including Iron Butterfly , Steppenwolf or Blue Cheer .
In 1968 , the sound that would become known as heavy metal began to coalesce . That January , the San Francisco band Blue Cheer released a cover of Eddie Cochran 's classic " Summertime Blues " , from their debut album Vincebus Eruptum , that many consider the first true heavy metal recording . The same month , Steppenwolf released its self @-@ titled debut album , including " Born to Be Wild " , which refers to " heavy metal thunder " in describing a motorcycle . In July , the Jeff Beck Group , whose leader had preceded Page as The Yardbirds ' guitarist , released its debut record : Truth featured some of the " most molten , barbed , downright funny noises of all time , " breaking ground for generations of metal ax @-@ slingers . In October , Page 's new band , Led Zeppelin , made its live debut . The Beatles ' White Album , which also came out that month , included " Helter Skelter " , then one of the heaviest @-@ sounding songs ever released by a major band . The Pretty Things ' rock opera S.F. Sorrow , released in December , featured " proto heavy metal " songs such as " Old Man Going " and " I See You " .
In this counterculture period MC5 , who began as part of the Detroit garage rock scene , developed a raw distorted style that has been seen as a major influence on the future sound of both heavy metal and later punk music . The Stooges also began to establish and influence a heavy metal and later punk sound , with songs such as " I Wanna Be Your Dog " , featuring pounding and distorted heavy guitar power chord riffs . Pink Floyd released two of their heaviest and loudest songs to date ; " Ibiza Bar " and " The Nile Song " , which was regarded as " one of the heaviest songs the band recorded " . King Crimson 's debut album included 21st Century Schizoid Man , which was considered heavy metal by several critics .
In January 1969 , Led Zeppelin 's self @-@ titled debut album was released and reached number 10 on the Billboard album chart . In July , Zeppelin and a power trio with a Cream @-@ inspired , but cruder sound , Grand Funk Railroad , played the Atlanta Pop Festival . That same month , another Cream @-@ rooted trio led by Leslie West released Mountain , an album filled with heavy blues rock guitar and roaring vocals . In August , the group — now itself dubbed Mountain — played an hour @-@ long set at the Woodstock Festival .
Led Zeppelin defined central aspects of the emerging genre , with Page 's highly distorted guitar style and singer Robert Plant 's dramatic , wailing vocals . Other bands , with a more consistently heavy , " purely " metal sound , would prove equally important in codifying the genre . The 1970 releases by Black Sabbath ( Black Sabbath and Paranoid ) and Deep Purple ( In Rock ) were crucial in this regard .
Black Sabbath had developed a particularly heavy sound in part due to an industrial accident guitarist Tony Iommi suffered before cofounding the band . Unable to play normally , Iommi had to tune his guitar down for easier fretting and rely on power chords with their relatively simple fingering . Deep Purple had fluctuated between styles in its early years , but by 1969 vocalist Ian Gillan and guitarist Ritchie Blackmore had led the band toward the developing heavy metal style . In 1970 , Black Sabbath and Deep Purple scored major UK chart hits with " Paranoid " and " Black Night " , respectively . That same year , two other British bands released debut albums in a heavy metal mode : Uriah Heep with Very ' Eavy ... Very ' Umble and UFO with UFO 1 . Bloodrock released their self @-@ titled debut album , containing a collection of heavy guitar riffs , gruff style vocals and sadistic and macabre lyrics . Budgie brought the new metal sound into a power trio context . The occult lyrics and imagery employed by Black Sabbath and Uriah Heep would prove particularly influential ; Led Zeppelin also began foregrounding such elements with its fourth album , released in 1971 .
On the other side of the Atlantic , the trend @-@ setting group was Grand Funk Railroad , described as " the most commercially successful American heavy @-@ metal band from 1970 until they disbanded in 1976 , [ they ] established the Seventies success formula : continuous touring " . Other bands identified with metal emerged in the U.S. , such as Blue Öyster Cult ( 1972 ) , Aerosmith ( 1973 ) and Kiss ( 1974 ) . In Germany , Scorpions debuted with Lonesome Crow in 1972 . Blackmore , who had emerged as a virtuoso soloist with Deep Purple 's Machine Head ( 1972 ) , quit the group in 1975 to form Rainbow . These bands also built audiences via constant touring and increasingly elaborate stage shows .
As described above , there are arguments about whether these and other early bands truly qualify as " heavy metal " or simply as " hard rock " . Those closer to the music 's blues roots or placing greater emphasis on melody are now commonly ascribed the latter label . AC / DC , which debuted with High Voltage in 1975 , is a prime example . The 1983 Rolling Stone encyclopedia entry begins , " Australian heavy @-@ metal band AC / DC " . Rock historian Clinton Walker writes , " Calling AC / DC a heavy metal band in the seventies was as inaccurate as it is today .... [ They ] were a rock ' n ' roll band that just happened to be heavy enough for metal " . The issue is not only one of shifting definitions , but also a persistent distinction between musical style and audience identification : Ian Christe describes how the band " became the stepping @-@ stone that led huge numbers of hard rock fans into heavy metal perdition " .
In certain cases , there is little debate . After Black Sabbath , the next major example is Britain 's Judas Priest , which debuted with Rocka Rolla in 1974 . In Christe 's description ,
" Black Sabbath 's audience was ... left to scavenge for sounds with similar impact . By the mid @-@ 1970s , heavy metal aesthetic could be spotted , like a mythical beast , in the moody bass and complex dual guitars of Thin Lizzy , in the stagecraft of Alice Cooper , in the sizzling guitar and showy vocals of Queen , and in the thundering medieval questions of Rainbow .... Judas Priest arrived to unify and amplify these diverse highlights from hard rock 's sonic palette . For the first time , heavy metal became a true genre unto itself . "
Though Judas Priest did not have a top 40 album in the United States until 1980 , for many it was the definitive post @-@ Sabbath heavy metal band ; its twin @-@ guitar attack , featuring rapid tempos and a non @-@ bluesy , more cleanly metallic sound , was a major influence on later acts . While heavy metal was growing in popularity , most critics were not enamored of the music . Objections were raised to metal 's adoption of visual spectacle and other trappings of commercial artifice , but the main offense was its perceived musical and lyrical vacuity : reviewing a Black Sabbath album in the early 1970s , leading critic Robert Christgau described it as " dull and decadent ... dim @-@ witted , amoral exploitation . "
= = = Mainstream : late 1970s and 1980s = = =
Punk rock emerged in the mid @-@ 1970s as a reaction against contemporary social conditions as well as what was perceived as the overindulgent , overproduced rock music of the time , including heavy metal . Sales of heavy metal records declined sharply in the late 1970s in the face of punk , disco , and more mainstream rock . With the major labels fixated on punk , many newer British heavy metal bands were inspired by the movement 's aggressive , high @-@ energy sound and " lo @-@ fi " , do it yourself ethos . Underground metal bands began putting out cheaply recorded releases independently to small , devoted audiences .
Motörhead , founded in 1975 , was the first important band to straddle the punk / metal divide . With the explosion of punk in 1977 , others followed . British music papers such as the NME and Sounds took notice , with Sounds writer Geoff Barton christening the movement the " New Wave of British Heavy Metal " . NWOBHM bands including Iron Maiden , Saxon , and Def Leppard reenergized the heavy metal genre . Following the lead set by Judas Priest and Motörhead , they toughened up the sound , reduced its blues elements , and emphasized increasingly fast tempos .
By 1980 , the NWOBHM had broken into the mainstream , as albums by Iron Maiden and Saxon , as well as Motörhead , reached the British top 10 . Though less commercially successful , other NWOBHM bands such as Venom and Diamond Head would have a significant influence on metal 's development . In 1981 , Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the UK charts with No Sleep ' til Hammersmith .
The first generation of metal bands was ceding the limelight . Deep Purple had broken up soon after Blackmore 's departure in 1975 , and Led Zeppelin broke up following drummer John Bonham 's death in 1980 . Black Sabbath plagued with infighting and substance abuse , while facing fierce competition with their opening band , the Los Angeles band Van Halen . Eddie Van Halen established himself as one of the leading metal guitarists of the era . His solo on " Eruption " , from the band 's self @-@ titled 1978 album , is considered a milestone . Van Halen 's sound even crossed over into pop music when he was featured on the track " Beat It " by Michael Jackson ( a US number 1 in February 1983 ) .
Inspired by Van Halen 's success , a metal scene began to develop in Southern California during the late 1970s . Based on the clubs of L.A. ' s Sunset Strip , bands such as Quiet Riot , Ratt , Mötley Crüe , and W.A.S.P. were influenced by traditional heavy metal of the earlier 1970s . These acts incorporated the theatrics ( and sometimes makeup ) of glam metal or " hair metal " such as Alice Cooper and Kiss Hair / glam metal bands were often visually distinguished by long , overworked hair styles accompanied by wardrobes which were sometimes considered cross @-@ gender . The lyrics of these glam metal bands characteristically emphasized hedonism and wild behavior , including lyrics which involved sexual expletives and the use of narcotics .
In the wake of the new wave of British heavy metal and Judas Priest 's breakthrough British Steel ( 1980 ) , heavy metal became increasingly popular in the early 1980s . Many metal artists benefited from the exposure they received on MTV , which began airing in 1981 — sales often soared if a band 's videos screened on the channel . Def Leppard 's videos for Pyromania ( 1983 ) made them superstars in America and Quiet Riot became the first domestic heavy metal band to top the Billboard chart with Metal Health ( 1983 ) . One of the seminal events in metal 's growing popularity was the 1983 US Festival in California , where the " heavy metal day " featuring Ozzy Osbourne , Van Halen , Scorpions , Mötley Crüe , Judas Priest , and others drew the largest audiences of the three @-@ day event .
Between 1983 and 1984 , heavy metal went from an 8 percent to a 20 percent share of all recordings sold in the U.S. Several major professional magazines devoted to the genre were launched , including Kerrang ! ( in 1981 ) and Metal Hammer ( in 1984 ) , as well as a host of fan journals . In 1985 , Billboard declared , " Metal has broadened its audience base . Metal music is no longer the exclusive domain of male teenagers . The metal audience has become older ( college @-@ aged ) , younger ( pre @-@ teen ) , and more female " .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , glam metal was a dominant presence on the U.S. charts , music television , and the arena concert circuit . New bands such as L.A. ' s Warrant and acts from the East Coast like Poison and Cinderella became major draws , while Mötley Crüe and Ratt remained very popular . Bridging the stylistic gap between hard rock and glam metal , New Jersey 's Bon Jovi became enormously successful with its third album , Slippery When Wet ( 1986 ) . The similarly styled Swedish band Europe became international stars with The Final Countdown ( 1986 ) . Its title track hit number 1 in 25 countries . In 1987 , MTV launched a show , Headbanger 's Ball , devoted exclusively to heavy metal videos . However , the metal audience had begun to factionalize , with those in many underground metal scenes favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular style as " light metal " or " hair metal " .
One band that reached diverse audiences was Guns N ' Roses . In contrast to their glam metal contemporaries in L.A. , they were seen as much more raw and dangerous . With the release of their chart @-@ topping Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 ) , they " recharged and almost single @-@ handedly sustained the Sunset Strip sleaze system for several years " . The following year , Jane 's Addiction emerged from the same L.A. hard @-@ rock club scene with its major label debut , Nothing 's Shocking . Reviewing the album , Rolling Stone declared , " as much as any band in existence , Jane 's Addiction is the true heir to Led Zeppelin " . The group was one of the first to be identified with the " alternative metal " trend that would come to the fore in the next decade . Meanwhile , new bands such as New York 's Winger and New Jersey 's Skid Row sustained the popularity of the glam metal style .
= = = Other metal genres : 1980s , 1990s , and 2000s = = =
Many subgenres of heavy metal developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s such as crossover thrash . Several attempts have been made to map the complex world of underground metal , most notably by the editors of AllMusic , as well as critic Garry Sharpe @-@ Young . Sharpe @-@ Young 's multivolume metal encyclopedia separates the underground into five major categories : thrash metal , death metal , black metal , power metal , and the related subgenres of doom and gothic metal .
In 1990 , a review in Rolling Stone suggested retiring the term " heavy metal " as the genre was " ridiculously vague " . The article stated that the term only fueled " misperceptions of rock & roll bigots who still assume that five bands as different as Ratt , Extreme , Anthrax , Danzig and Mother Love Bone " sound the same .
= = = = Thrash metal = = = =
Thrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of hardcore punk and the new wave of British heavy metal , particularly songs in the revved @-@ up style known as speed metal . The movement began in the United States , with Bay Area thrash metal being the leading scene . The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors . Low @-@ register guitar riffs are typically overlaid with shredding leads . Lyrics often express nihilistic views or deal with social issues using visceral , gory language . Thrash has been described as a form of " urban blight music " and " a palefaced cousin of rap " .
The subgenre was popularized by the " Big Four of Thrash " : Metallica , Anthrax , Megadeth , and Slayer . Three German bands , Kreator , Sodom , and Destruction , played a central role in bringing the style to Europe . Others , including San Francisco Bay Area 's Testament and Exodus , New Jersey 's Overkill , and Brazil 's Sepultura and Sarcófago , also had a significant impact . Although thrash began as an underground movement , and remained largely that for almost a decade , the leading bands of the scene began to reach a wider audience . Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the Billboard album chart in 1986 with Master of Puppets , the genre 's first platinum record . Two years later , the band 's ... And Justice for All hit number 6 , while Megadeth and Anthrax also had top 40 records on the American charts .
Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four , Slayer released one of the genre 's definitive records : Reign in Blood ( 1986 ) was credited for incorporating heavier guitar timbres , and for including explicit depictions of death , suffering , violence and occult into thrash metal 's lyricism . Slayer attracted a following among far @-@ right skinheads , and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band . Even though Slayer did not receive substantial media exposure , their music played a key role in the development of extreme metal .
In the early 1990s , thrash achieved breakout success , challenging and redefining the metal mainstream . Metallica 's self @-@ titled 1991 album topped the Billboard chart , as the band established international following . Megadeth 's Countdown to Extinction ( 1992 ) debuted at number two , Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10 , and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100 .
= = = = Death metal = = = =
Thrash soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres . " Slayer 's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal , " according to MTV News . The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor . The death metal movement in both North America and Europe adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts . Florida 's Death and the Bay Area 's Possessed are recognized as seminal bands in the style . Both groups have been credited with inspiring the subgenre 's name , the latter via its 1984 demo Death Metal and the song " Death Metal " , from its 1985 debut album Seven Churches ( 1985 ) . In the late 1980s and early 1990s , Swedish death metal became notable and melodic forms of death metal were created .
Death metal utilizes the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore , fused with lyrics preoccupied with Z @-@ grade slasher movie violence and Satanism . Death metal vocals are typically bleak , involving guttural " death growls " , high @-@ pitched screaming , the " death rasp " , and other uncommon techniques . Complementing the deep , aggressive vocal style are downtuned , highly distorted guitars and extremely fast percussion , often with rapid double bass drumming and " wall of sound " – style blast beats . Frequent tempo and time signature changes and syncopation are also typical .
Death metal , like thrash metal , generally rejects the theatrics of earlier metal styles , opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets . One major exception to this rule was Deicide 's Glen Benton , who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage . Morbid Angel adopted neo @-@ fascist imagery . These two bands , along with Death and Obituary , were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid @-@ 1980s . In the UK , the related style of grindcore , led by bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror , emerged from the anarcho @-@ punk movement .
= = = = Black metal = = = =
The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid @-@ 1980s , led by Britain 's Venom , Denmark 's Mercyful Fate , Switzerland 's Hellhammer and Celtic Frost , and Sweden 's Bathory . By the late 1980s , Norwegian bands such as Mayhem and Burzum were heading a second wave . Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality , although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals , highly distorted guitars frequently played with rapid tremolo picking , a " dark " atmosphere and intentionally lo @-@ fi production , with ambient noise and background hiss .
Satanic themes are common in black metal , though many bands take inspiration from ancient paganism , promoting a return to supposed pre @-@ Christian values . Numerous black metal bands also " experiment with sounds from all possible forms of metal , folk , classical music , electronica and avant @-@ garde " . Darkthrone drummer Fenriz explains , " It had something to do with production , lyrics , the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly , raw , grim stuff . There wasn 't a generic sound . "
By 1990 , Mayhem was regularly wearing corpsepaint ; many other black metal acts also adopted the look . Bathory inspired the Viking metal and folk metal movements and Immortal brought blast beats to the fore . Some bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s , with Mayhem and Burzum linked to church burnings . Growing commercial hype around death metal generated a backlash ; beginning in Norway , much of the Scandinavian metal underground shifted to support a black metal scene that resisted being co @-@ opted by the commercial metal industry . According to former Gorgoroth vocalist Gaahl , " Black Metal was never meant to reach an audience .... [ We ] had a common enemy which was , of course , Christianity , socialism and everything that democracy stands for . "
By 1992 , black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia , including Germany , France , and Poland . The 1993 murder of Mayhem 's Euronymous by Burzum 's Varg Vikernes provoked intensive media coverage . Around 1996 , when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating , several key bands , including Burzum and Finland 's Beherit , moved toward an ambient style , while symphonic black metal was explored by Sweden 's Tiamat and Switzerland 's Samael . In the late 1990s and early 2000s decade , Norway 's Dimmu Borgir brought black metal closer to the mainstream , as did Cradle of Filth .
= = = = Power metal = = = =
During the late 1980s , the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal . Though a relatively underground style in North America , it enjoys wide popularity in Europe , Japan , and South America . Power metal focuses on upbeat , epic melodies and themes that " appeal to the listener 's sense of valor and loveliness " . The prototype for the sound was established in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s by Germany 's Helloween , which combined the power riffs , melodic approach , and high @-@ pitched , " clean " singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash 's speed and energy , " crystalliz [ ing ] the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal " .
Traditional power metal bands like Sweden 's HammerFall , England 's DragonForce , and Florida 's Iced Earth have a sound clearly indebted to the classic NWOBHM style . Many power metal bands such as Florida 's Kamelot , Finnish groups Nightwish , Stratovarius and Sonata Arctica , Italy 's Rhapsody of Fire , and Russia 's Catharsis feature a keyboard @-@ based " symphonic " sound , sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers . Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America , where bands like Brazil 's Angra and Argentina 's Rata Blanca are popular .
Closely related to power metal is progressive metal , which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like Rush and King Crimson . This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid @-@ 1980s , with innovators such as Queensrÿche , Fates Warning , and Dream Theater . The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey 's Symphony X , whose guitarist Michael Romeo is among the most recognized of latter @-@ day shredders .
= = = = Doom metal = = = =
Emerging in the mid @-@ 1980s with such bands as California 's Saint Vitus , Maryland 's The Obsessed , Chicago 's Trouble , and Sweden 's Candlemass , the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles ' emphasis on speed , slowing its music to a crawl . Doom metal traces its roots to the lyrical themes and musical approach of early Black Sabbath . The Melvins have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres . Doom emphasizes melody , melancholy tempos , and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal .
The 1991 release of Forest of Equilibrium , the debut album by UK band Cathedral , helped spark a new wave of doom metal . During the same period , the doom @-@ death fusion style of British bands Paradise Lost , My Dying Bride , and Anathema gave rise to European gothic metal , with its signature dual @-@ vocalist arrangements , exemplified by Norway 's Theatre of Tragedy and Tristania . New York 's Type O Negative introduced an American take on the style .
In the United States , sludge metal , mixing doom and hardcore , emerged in the late 1980s — Eyehategod and Crowbar were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene . Early in the next decade , California 's Kyuss and Sleep , inspired by the earlier doom metal bands , spearheaded the rise of stoner metal , while Seattle 's Earth helped develop the drone metal subgenre . The late 1990s saw new bands form such as the Los Angeles – based Goatsnake , with a classic stoner / doom sound , and Sunn O ) ) ) , which crosses lines between doom , drone , and dark ambient metal — the New York Times has compared their sound to an " Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake " .
= = = 1990s and early 2000s subgenres and fusions = = =
The era of metal 's mainstream dominance in North America came to an end in the early 1990s with the emergence of Nirvana and other grunge bands , signaling the popular breakthrough of alternative rock . Grunge acts were influenced by the heavy metal sound , but rejected the excesses of the more popular metal bands , such as their " flashy and virtuosic solos " and " appearance @-@ driven " MTV orientation .
Glam metal fell out of favor due not only to the success of grunge , but also because of the growing popularity of the more aggressive sound typified by Metallica and the post @-@ thrash groove metal of Pantera and White Zombie . In 1991 , the band Metallica released their album Metallica , also known as The Black Album , which moved the band 's sound out of the thrash metal genre and into standard heavy metal . The album was certified 16x Platinum by the RIAA . A few new , unambiguously metal bands had commercial success during the first half of the decade — Pantera 's Far Beyond Driven topped the Billboard chart in 1994 — but , " In the dull eyes of the mainstream , metal was dead " . Some bands tried to adapt to the new musical landscape . Metallica revamped its image : the band members cut their hair and , in 1996 , headlined the alternative musical festival Lollapalooza founded by Jane 's Addiction singer Perry Farrell . While this prompted a backlash among some long @-@ time fans , Metallica remained one of the most successful bands in the world into the new century .
Like Jane 's Addiction , many of the most popular early 1990s groups with roots in heavy metal fall under the umbrella term " alternative metal " . Bands in Seattle 's grunge scene such as Soundgarden , credited as making a " place for heavy metal in alternative rock " , and Alice in Chains were at the center of the alternative metal movement . The label was applied to a wide spectrum of other acts that fused metal with different styles : Faith No More combined their alternative rock sound with punk , funk , metal , and hip hop ; Primus joined elements of funk , punk , thrash metal , and experimental music ; Tool mixed metal and progressive rock ; bands such as Fear Factory , Ministry and Nine Inch Nails began incorporating metal into their industrial sound , and vice versa , respectively ; and Marilyn Manson went down a similar route , while also employing shock effects of the sort popularized by Alice Cooper . Alternative metal artists , though they did not represent a cohesive scene , were united by their willingness to experiment with the metal genre and their rejection of glam metal aesthetics ( with the stagecraft of Marilyn Manson and White Zombie — also identified with alt @-@ metal — significant , if partial , exceptions ) . Alternative metal 's mix of styles and sounds represented " the colorful results of metal opening up to face the outside world . "
In the mid- and late 1990s came a new wave of U.S. metal groups inspired by the alternative metal bands and their mix of genres . Dubbed " nu metal " , bands such as Slipknot , Linkin Park , Limp Bizkit , Papa Roach , P.O.D. , Korn and Disturbed incorporated elements ranging from death metal to hip hop , often including DJs and rap @-@ style vocals . The mix demonstrated that " pancultural metal could pay off " . Nu metal gained mainstream success through heavy MTV rotation and Ozzy Osbourne 's 1996 introduction of Ozzfest , which led the media to talk of a resurgence of heavy metal . In 1999 , Billboard noted that there were more than 500 specialty metal radio shows in the United States , nearly three times as many as ten years before . While nu metal was widely popular , traditional metal fans did not fully embrace the style . By early 2003 , the movement 's popularity was on the wane , though several nu metal acts such as Korn or Limp Bizkit retained substantial followings .
= = = Recent styles : mid – late 2000s and 2010s = = =
Metalcore , a hybrid of
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the Antarctica outpost . Ford served in the Stargate Command ( SGC ) before and is twenty @-@ five years old at the beginning of the first season . Ford served as John Sheppard 's second @-@ in @-@ command after the events of " Rising " until a Wraith feeds upon Ford during a Wraith attack on Atlantis in season 2 's " The Siege , Part 3 " . An exploding grenade blows them off a building into the ocean , and Ford 's unconscious body and the still attached Wraith are recovered over an hour later . Ford survives after having an overdose of Wraith enzyme and later undergoes mental and physical changes . Ford develops a solid black left eye and becomes more aggressive and paranoid , fleeing Atlantis with a stolen Puddle Jumper .
The Atlantis team encounters him again in " Runner " where they learn that Ford began killing Wraiths throughout the Pegasus galaxy to harvest their enzyme that gave him abnormal strength . Ford is presumed dead when he deliberately jumps into the culling beam of a Wraith dart , but the Atlantis team encounters him again in the mid @-@ season 2 @-@ parter " The Lost Boys " / " The Hive " . The Wraith @-@ enzyme allowed Ford to awake immediately after rematerializing on board a Wraith @-@ hive ship , from where he escaped only to build up a small strike force of young men following his suit by informing them about the benefits of the Wraith @-@ enzyme . Ford asks the Atlantis team for help in destroying an entire Wraith Hive @-@ ship , but the mission fails and forces Sheppard to leave Ford behind on an about @-@ to @-@ explode hive ship . Ford is only seen again in Sheppard 's dream in the season 5 episode " Search and Rescue " .
= = Literature = =
Ford reappears in the official novel continuation Stargate Atlantis Legacy : The Third Path . To their surprise , the team finds Ford alive and with a group of nomadic humans known as the Travelers . He explains to Sheppard he managed to escape the hive ship before it was destroyed , but crashed on the planet the battle took place over . With the help of the Travelers , he recovered from his addiction but it took so long that he could no longer find Atlantis afterwards . Ford began leading a guerilla campaign against the Wraith , aided by the Travelers . He also now has a wife and son and regrets his previous actions under the Wraith enzyme . At the end of the novel , Ford is safely returned to Earth with his wife and son and reunites with his cousin and grandparents .
= = Conceptual history = =
After the end of season 1 , the series producers , and the actor himself , felt that Ford had not worked as intended and was highly underused as a result . Unwilling to write him out , the writers came up with an idea to make the character more important , but that downgraded him to a recurring character . Producer Joseph Mallozzi said in 2009 that " We can assume [ Ford ] went down [ ... ] with the ship " in " The Hive " . Rainbow Sun Francks was disappointed about the evolution of his character , saying Ford did not evolve a backstory which the other characters did . Although Francks called the situation " tough " , he reacted positively towards the development of character during the second season .
After announcing that Ronon Dex would become a main character in the Atlantis series , they followed up with another announcement saying that they had reduced Ford to a recurring character in the series . Many fans were disappointed with this new development because many felt he didn 't have time to " prove " himself in the new series and that the character was never fully developed compared to the other characters in the show . Many campaigns to save the character were created after the announcement , the most notable being the F.O.R.D. campaign . Francks said that the change was not a " blow " , since he and Brad Wright had already discussed the change . He was also more positive in the change of story arc for the character , saying he was a " big part " of the second season compared to season one where they hadn 't had enough episodes to broaden the character . When asked about reducing Francks ' role in Atlantis , Wright replied " The change in status means that Francks will not appear in every episode , and will not be listed in the show 's opening credits . "
= = Reception = =
Fans of the character set up campaigns to get Ford back as a main character later in season two or season three . They sent various petitions to the producers , cast and crew of Stargate Atlantis to change their minds . Fans of the character even put up a website under the name F.O.R.D. , which in turn was also the name for one of the campaigns fighting for the revival of the character .
= Mono – Inyo Craters =
The Mono – Inyo Craters are a volcanic chain of craters , domes and lava flows in Mono County , Eastern California , United States . The chain stretches 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the northwest shore of Mono Lake to the south of Mammoth Mountain . The Mono Lake Volcanic Field forms the northernmost part of the chain and consists of two volcanic islands in the lake and one cinder cone volcano on its northwest shore . Most of the Mono Craters , which make up the bulk of the northern part of the Mono – Inyo chain , are phreatic ( steam explosion ) volcanoes that have since been either plugged or over @-@ topped by rhyolite domes and lava flows . The Inyo Craters form much of the southern part of the chain and consist of phreatic explosion pits , and rhyolitic lava flows and domes . The southernmost part of the chain consists of fumaroles and explosion pits on Mammoth Mountain and a set of cinder cones south of the mountain ; the latter are called the Red Cones .
Eruptions along the narrow fissure system under the chain began in the west moat of Long Valley Caldera 400 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 years ago . Mammoth Mountain was formed during this period . Multiple eruptions from 40 @,@ 000 to 600 years ago created the Mono Craters and eruptions 5 @,@ 000 to 500 years ago formed the Inyo Craters . Lava flows 5 @,@ 000 years ago built the Red Cones , and explosion pits on Mammoth Mountain were excavated in the last 1 @,@ 000 years . Uplift of Paoha Island in Mono Lake about 250 years ago is the most recent activity . These eruptions most likely originated from small magma bodies rather than from a single , large magma chamber like the one that produced the massive Long Valley Caldera eruption 760 @,@ 000 years ago . During the past 3 @,@ 000 years , eruptions have occurred every 250 to 700 years . In 1980 , a series of earthquakes and uplift within and south of Long Valley Caldera indicated renewed activity in the area .
The region has been used by humans for centuries . Obsidian was collected by Mono Paiutes for making sharp tools and arrow points . Glassy rock continues to be removed in modern times for use as commercial scour and yard decoration . Mono Mills processed timber felled on or near the volcanoes for the nearby boomtown Bodie in the late 19th to early 20th centuries . Water diversions into the Los Angeles Aqueduct system from their natural outlets in Mono Lake started in 1941 after a water tunnel was cut under the Mono Craters . Mono Lake Volcanic Field and a large part of the Mono Craters gained some protection under Mono Basin National Forest Scenic Area in 1984 . Resource use along all of the chain is managed by the United States Forest Service as part of Inyo National Forest . Various activities are possible along the chain , including hiking , bird watching , canoeing , skiing , and mountain biking .
= = Geography and description = =
= = = Setting = = =
The Mono – Inyo Craters form a volcanic chain in Eastern California that sit along a narrow , north – south @-@ trending fissure system that extends from the north shore of Mono Lake , through the western moat of Long Valley Caldera , and south of Mammoth Mountain . The chain is located in Inyo National Forest and Mono County , California , and the nearest incorporated community is Mammoth Lakes , California . The Mono Craters are located in Mono Basin , itself part of the Great Basin .
= = = = Mono Craters = = = =
The Mono Craters are a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 17 km ) chain of at least 27 volcanic domes , three large glass flows called coulees and various explosion pits and other associated volcanic features . The domes of the chain lie on a roughly north – south @-@ trending arc that is concave to the west and located south of Mono Lake . The highest of the Mono Craters domes is Crater Mountain ( elevation 9 @,@ 172 feet or 2 @,@ 796 m ) , which rises 2 @,@ 400 feet ( 730 m ) above Pumice Valley to the west . Associated volcanic features are located in Mono Lake ( Paoha and Negit Islands ) and on its north shore ( Black Point ) . The coulees cluster north and south of the overlapping chain of domes . Craters exist at the top of most domes and on flat land south of them .
= = = = Inyo Craters = = = =
The two southernmost Inyo Craters are open pits in a forested area that are about 600 feet ( 180 m ) across and 100 to 200 feet ( 30 to 60 m ) deep , each with small ponds covering their floors . A quarter mile ( half kilometer ) north of these is another Inyo Craters explosion pit on top of Deer Mountain . Farther north of these craters are five lava domes , including Deadman Creek Dome , Glass Creek Dome , Obsidian Dome , and Wilson Butte . These domes are composed of gray rhyolite , frothy pumice , and black obsidian . The Mono – Inyo Craters volcanic chain extends into Long Valley Caldera but is not related to the caldera 's volcanism .
= = = = Red Cones = = = =
South of the Inyo Craters proper are other features related to the dike system responsible for creating the craters , volcanoes and lava flows . These include a north – south trend of fault scarps up to 20 feet ( 6 m ) high and pull @-@ apart cracks or fissures in the earth . These fissures are not technically faults because little or no vertical or horizontal movement has occurred along them . Most notable among these is " Earthquake Fault " , a fissure up to 10 feet ( 3 m ) wide that cuts 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) into glassy rhyolite lava flows . The fissure was formed by stretching induced by the intrusion of the Inyo dike . Stairs to the bottom of the fissure were removed after being damaged by earthquakes in 1980 . Several Mono – Inyo @-@ related explosion pits are on Mammoth Mountain . The Red Cones , south of Mammoth Mountain , are basaltic cinder cones and are the southernmost part of the Mono – Inyo Craters volcanic chain .
= = = Climate and ecology = = =
The Mono – Inyo Craters are in the Central Basin and Range ecoregion of the North American Desert . The desert environment of Mono Basin receives about 14 inches ( 36 cm ) of precipitation a year . Annual precipitation around Mammoth Lakes , which is close to the Inyo Craters , is about 23 inches ( 58 cm ) . Moisture travels over the Sierra crest from the Pacific Ocean through the San Joaquin Gap . Temperatures in Mono Basin range from average winter lows of 20 to 28 ° F ( − 7 to − 2 ° C ) to average summer highs of 75 to 84 ° F ( 24 to 29 ° C ) . Temperatures near the Inyo Craters and Mammoth Lakes area range from winter average lows of 16 to 21 ° F ( − 9 to − 6 ° C ) to summer average highs of 70 to 78 ° F ( 21 to 26 ° C ) .
Most of the surface of the Mono Craters is barren but its slopes are covered by Jeffrey pine forest and partial greenery . Pumice Valley , directly to the west , is covered by sagebrush scrubland . The soil consists primarily of deep pumice , which does not hold water well . Mycorrhizal fungi in the soil invade the roots of Jeffrey pine trees in a symbiotic relationship that helps the pine absorb water and provides nutrients to the fungi . Jeffrey pine forests also surround the Inyo Craters and Mammoth Mountain . Mule deer , coyotes , black bears , yellow @-@ bellied marmots , raccoons and mountain lions all have ranges that are coincident with forests that cover parts of the Mono – Inyo craters .
= = = Typical evolution = = =
Panum Crater is the northernmost volcano in the sequence and is a good example of both a tuff ring and a rhyolite dome . Its structure is twofold ; an outer tuff ring ( forming a classic crater ) and an inner plug , or dome of rhyolite , pumice and obsidian created from lavas . In this case , heat from the magma feeding Panum flashed groundwater to steam to create the tuff ring before lava reached the surface . Other Mono Craters also were formed in this manner , but their plug domes grew larger than their tuff ring craters . The domes have steep sides and are flanked by slopes of scree consisting of large angular and glass @-@ rich rocks . Devil 's Punch Bowl , located south of the main dome complex , stopped forming at an earlier stage of development . It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 370 m ) wide and 140 @-@ foot ( 43 m ) deep explosion pit with a much smaller glass dome on its floor .
The large North and South Coulee and the smaller Northwest Coulee consist of obsidian @-@ rich rhyolite . They were formed from slow @-@ moving lava that had a thin and brittle crust . Once the flow stopped , it formed steep sided tongues of sharp and angular rock that are typically 200 to 300 feet ( 60 to 90 m ) thick and have scree piles along their base . South Coulee is 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 6 km ) long , 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) wide and has a volume of 0 @.@ 1 cubic miles ( 0 @.@ 4 km3 ) ; making it the largest Mono Craters coulee in volume . South Coulee originates from the crest of the Mono Domes , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) from the southern end , flows down its east and west flanks and terminates at its foot . North Coulee is nearly as large , flows mostly to the east and terminates in a divided pair of lobes . Northwest Coulee is located northwest of North Coulee and was intruded by Upper Dome after the coulee solidified . Permanent pockets of ice from snowmelt have been found 75 to 147 feet ( 23 to 45 m ) inside the coulees and domes .
= = Geology = =
= = = Background = = =
The Mono – Inyo chain of craters lies in east @-@ central California , roughly parallel to the eastern escarpment of the Sierra Nevada mountain range . Volcanism and seismic activity in eastern California are a result of two major geologic processes : northwest movement of the Pacific Plate with respect to the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault system near the coast , and east – west extension of the crust that formed the Basin and Range Province . In the Long Valley region , where the craters are located , basin and range extension encroaches onto the thick and stable crust of the Sierra Nevada .
Basement rock under the Mono – Inyo chain consists of the same granitic and metamorphic rock that make up the Sierra Nevada . Above that layer are basaltic grading to rhyolitic volcanic rocks that are 3 @.@ 5 million to less than 760 @,@ 000 years old . Volcanism occurred north of the chain , in the Bodie Hills , as far back as 28 million years . Nearly all the rock east of the Sierra Nevada in the Mono Basin area is volcanic in origin .
Volcanoes erupted from 3 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 3 million years ago near what is now Long Valley . Rhyolitic eruptions occurred in and around Glass Mountain in the same area from 2 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 million years ago . Volcanic ash from the massive ( 600 cubic kilometres or 140 cubic miles of ejecta ) eruption of Long Valley Caldera some 760 @,@ 000 years ago is preserved in the thick Bishop Tuff that covers much of the region .
Eruptions of basalt and andesite 400 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 years ago in the west moat of Long Valley Caldera were the first activity associated with the Mono – Inyo Craters system . Eruptions around 300 @,@ 000 years ago filled the west moat with 800 feet ( 240 m ) of basaltic lava . Basaltic and andesitic eruptive activity then moved to Mono Basin and lasted from 40 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 years ago .
Seismic data indicate that a magma chamber with an estimated volume of 48 to 144 cubic miles ( 200 to 600 km3 ) exists 5 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 to 10 km ) directly below the Mono Craters . About 660 feet ( 200 m ) of subsidence has occurred within a ring fracture system centered on Pumice Valley west of the chamber in the last 700 @,@ 000 years . The Mono Craters sit atop a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 km ) -long arc on the eastern side of the 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) -wide ring @-@ fracture system . Magma feeding the domes may have exploited arc @-@ shaped fissures around an intrusion of granitic rock deep below the chain . This magma chamber is separate from the magma chamber under Long Valley Caldera . The recent eruptions of the Mono Craters have been similar in volume and nearly identical in composition ( " crystal @-@ poor high @-@ silica rhyolite " ) to those of Glass Mountain that preceded the Long Valley Caldera @-@ forming eruption . It has been suggested that the Mono Craters volcanism may represent an early stage in the development of a future caldera .
Repeated eruption of dacite and rhyodacite from vents on the southwest rim of the caldera from 220 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 years ago formed Mammoth Mountain , a volcano composed of overlapping lava domes . Eruptions of dacite and rhyodacite occurred in Mono Basin from 100 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = Mono Craters , Negit Island and Black Point = = =
Multiple eruptions of silica @-@ rich rhyolite from 40 @,@ 000 to 600 years ago built the Mono Craters . Black Point , today on the north shore of Mono Lake , is a flattened volcanic cone of basaltic debris that formed under the surface of a much deeper Mono Lake about 13 @,@ 300 years ago , during the most @-@ recent glacial period . Several eruptive episodes from 1 @,@ 600 to 270 years before present in Mono Lake formed Negit Island . The magma reservoir feeding the Mono Lake Volcanic Field is unrelated to the Mono Craters magma reservoir .
Basaltic andesite lava built the Red Cones , two small cinder cones 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 km ) southwest of Mammoth Lakes , around 8 @,@ 500 before present . The five Mammoth Mountain Craters are a set of explosion pits that trend west @-@ north @-@ west for 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 5 km ) near the northern flank of Mammoth Mountain .
None of the Mono Craters near the lake show the effects of wave erosion , but a hill at the southern end of the field shows what Israel Russell called a " beach line " . The present elevation of this beach line is the level of the Mono Lake high stand before the formation of the northern Mono Craters , plus any surface deformation that has happened since that time . Stream @-@ rounded stones are found on the volcanoes , and were lifted up as the volcanoes grew . Although glaciers were present throughout the Sierra Nevada , they did not reach as far down as the Mono Craters .
The most recent eruptive episode on the Mono Craters occurred sometime between the years 1325 and 1365 . A vertical sheet @-@ like mass of magma , called a dike , caused groundwater to explosively flash to steam , creating a line of vents 4 miles ( 6 km ) long . A mix of ash and pulverized rock , called tephra , covered about 3 @,@ 000 square miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the Mono Lake region . The tephra were carried by the wind and deposited in a layer 8 inches ( 20 cm ) deep 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the vents and 2 inches ( 5 cm ) deep 50 miles ( 80 km ) away .
Pyroclastic flows of hot clouds of gas , ash and pulverized lava erupted from these vents in narrow tongues that extended up to 5 miles ( 8 km ) away and covered 38 square miles ( 100 km2 ) . Rhyolite lava oozed out of the vents to form several steep @-@ sided domes , including Panum Dome and the much larger North Coulee flow . The youngest domes and coulees are 600 to 700 years old and are , therefore , the youngest mountains in North America .
= = = Inyo Craters and Paoha Island = = =
Eruptions of silica @-@ poor rhyolite from 5 @,@ 000 to 500 years ago created the Inyo Craters . The most recent activity occurred just a few years after the Mono Crater eruptions , and was caused by a dike of similar composition . The dike eventually became 6 @.@ 8 miles ( 11 km ) long and up to 33 feet ( 10 m ) wide . The ground above the dike was significantly cracked and faulted .
Explosive eruptions later emanated from three separate vents . Pieces of molten and solid rock were ejected , small craters were formed , and a tall eruption column rose above the vents . Pumice and ash covered an extensive area downwind , and about 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) of tephra was deposited where the town of Mammoth Lakes , California , now sits . A pyroclastic flow from South Deadman vent traveled about 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 km ) .
Some of the open pits were filled with thick and slow @-@ moving lava to form the South Deadman Creek , Glass Creek and Obsidian Flow domes . Others , such as the Inyo Crater Lakes near Deer Mountain , remained open and were later partially filled with water . Smaller explosion pits on the north side of Mammoth Mountain were also formed at this time . In the past 6 @,@ 000 years , approximately 0 @.@ 19 cubic miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km3 ) of magma has been erupted from the Inyo part of the chain .
The last recorded volcanic activity in the chain was at Mono Lake between the years 1720 and 1850 . An intrusion of magma below the lake pushed lakebed sediments upward to form Paoha Island . Exposed rhyolite is on the north part of the island , and a group of seven dacite cinder cones and a lava flow are on the northeastern corner . Steam rose in columns hundreds of feet high ( tens of meters ) from Hot Spring Cove on the island and the spring water was 150 ° F ( 66 ° C ) when geologist Israel Russell visited the island in the early 1880s .
= = History = =
= = = Human use = = =
People have used resources on and around the Mono – Inyo Craters for centuries . Mono Paiutes gathered obsidian from the Mono – Inyo Craters to make sharp tools and arrow points . Unworked obsidian was carried by the Mono Paiutes over passes in the Sierra Nevada to trade with other Native American groups . Chips of Mono – Inyo obsidian can still be found at many ancient mountain campsites .
Gold rush – related boomtowns sprang up near Mono Basin in the 19th century to exploit bonanzas . The largest of these , Bodie ( north of Mono Lake ) , was founded in the late 1870s and grew large enough to need a tree mill , which was located at Mono Mills , immediately northeast of Mono Domes . Trees directly around the domes and on their slopes were felled to provide timber for the mill .
As part of the California Water Wars , the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power purchased large tracts of land in the 1930s within Mono Basin and Owens Valley in order to control water rights . Excavation of an 11 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) water tunnel under the southern part of the Mono Craters dome complex started in 1934 and was completed in 1941 . Tunnel workers had to deal with loose and often water @-@ charged gravels , pockets of carbon dioxide gas and flooding . About one man was lost for each mile excavated . Water diverted from its natural outlet in Mono Lake passes through the tunnel on its way to the Los Angeles Aqueduct system .
The United States Pumice Company , based in Chatsworth , California , has mined the area for pumice since 1941 . The company markets the pumice in slabs for use in commercial scouring and in large irregular chunks sold as yard decoration .
Exploratory drilling for geothermal power occurred near the Mono Craters on the south shore of Mono Lake in 1971 . The wells did not show promising results , so the effort was abandoned .
= = = Early impressions = = =
The chain of craters has been the subject of several writers and naturalists . Mark Twain visited Mono Basin in the 1860s and wrote about Mono Lake , but did not mention any of the Mono – Inyo Craters except for the lake 's two volcanic islands . He wrote in Roughing It ( 1872 ) that the lake was in a " lifeless , hideous desert ... " that was the " loneliest spot on earth ... little graced with the picturesque . "
Naturalist John Muir explored the area in 1869 . He described the " Mono Desert " as a " ... country of wonderful contrasts . Hot deserts bounded by snow @-@ laden mountains , — cinders and ashes scattered on glacier @-@ polished pavements , — frost and fire working together in the making of beauty . In the lake are several volcanic islands , which show that the waters were once mingled with fire . " Muir described the Mono Craters as " ... heaps of loose ashes that have never been blest by either rain or snow ... "
In the spring of 1881 and the fall of 1882 , geologist Israel Russell studied the area as a side @-@ trip during his field research of Lake Lahontan , a now dry lake that covered much of nearby Nevada during the last glacial period . His Quaternary History of the Mono Valley ( 1889 ) , which included a topographic survey by Willard D. Johnson , was the first thorough scientific description of Mono Lake and its volcanic features .
Russell named the Mono Craters and wrote : " The attention of every one who enters Mono Valley is at once attracted by the soft , pleasing colors of these craters as well as by the symmetry and beauty of their forms . They are exceptional features in the scenery of the region , and are rendered all the more striking by their proximity to the angular peaks and rugged outlines of the High Sierra . "
= = = Protection and monitoring = = =
The creation of Mono Basin National Forest Scenic Area in 1984 stopped any further geothermal prospecting . Mono Basin was the first National Scenic Area in the United States . It offers more protection than other United States Forest Service lands , surrounds Mono Lake and its two volcanic islands , Black Point , Panum Crater and much of the northern half of the Mono Craters . Litigation and outreach by the Mono Lake Committee , the National Audubon Society and other conservation groups has helped to slow water diversions from tributaries feeding Mono Lake .
A series of earthquakes inside Long Valley Caldera , coincidentally starting two weeks after the May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington , alerted geologists to the possibility of renewed volcanic activity in the region . Four magnitude 6 earthquakes struck the southern margin of Long Valley Caldera in an area that was close to the Mono – Inyo fissure system . The caldera floor had also uplifted by 10 inches ( 30 cm ) in five years . Upward movement of magma under the caldera was thought to be the cause of the earthquakes and uplift .
Persistent earthquake swarms in 1982 prompted the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) to issue a " potential volcanic hazard " notice for Long Valley . That same year , permanent monitoring of the area by the Long Valley Observatory started . The hazard notice was lifted in 1984 after USGS scientists concluded that magma had been injected into fissures below Mammoth Mountain but had congealed underground . From 1990 to 1996 , 150 acres ( 60 ha ) of trees were killed on Mammoth Mountain by 20 % to 95 % concentrations of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the soil ( less than 1 % is normal ) . Chemical analysis of the CO2 indicated it was derived from magma .
= = Volcanic hazards = =
The Long Valley to Mono Lake region is one of three areas in California that are in the United States Geological Survey 's volcanic hazards program . These areas are in the program because they have been active in the last 2 @,@ 000 years and have the ability to produce explosive eruptions .
About 20 eruptions have occurred on the Mono – Inyo Craters chain at intervals of 250 to 700 years during the past 5 @,@ 000 years . Seismic soundings and lava composition indicate that these eruptions most likely originated from discrete and small magma bodies . The rate of eruption over the last 1 @,@ 000 years has increased , with at least 12 eruptions occurring .
All eruptions in the past 5 @,@ 000 years from the Mono – Inyo Craters have expelled less than 0 @.@ 24 cubic miles ( 1 km3 ) of magma . Future eruptions in the area will likely be similar in size to the small to moderate events of the past 5 @,@ 000 years . There is a one in 200 chance ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) per year of an eruption occurring along the chain . An eruption in the foreseeable future is probably more likely along the Mono – Inyo chain than an unrelated eruption inside Long Valley Caldera .
= = = Effects = = =
A wide range of effects are expected from future eruptions along the Mono – Inyo Craters . Ash and rock fragments ( tephra ) may accumulate to a thickness of 33 feet ( 10 m ) near an erupting Mono – Inyo vent . Downwind accumulations of tephra may exceed 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 20 cm ) at a distance of 22 miles ( 35 km ) and 2 @.@ 0 inches ( 5 cm ) at 53 miles ( 85 km ) . Winds in the area tend to blow toward an east or northeasterly direction more than 50 percent of the time , and toward any easterly direction more than 80 percent of the time . Grain size and thickness of tephra generally decreases gradually with distance from a vent . Volcanic ash will likely contaminate air routes east of the vent .
Severe damage from super @-@ heated flows of gas , ash and pulverized rock ( pyroclastic flows and surges ) may occur at least 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 km ) from an explosive eruption . The amount of damage depends on vent location , topography , and volume of magma erupted . Pyroclastic flows from vents on Mammoth Mountain or other high vent could travel farther by gaining extra momentum from their descent . Valleys along the route will be more impacted than ridges but flows and surges could overtop some ridges . Eruptions near snowpacks may produce lahars of mud and ash that devastate valleys and watersheds . Steam blast eruptions under a lake could form large waves capable of flooding nearby areas and starting mudflows .
Basalt lava flows may extend more than 31 miles ( 50 km ) from their vent . Dacite and rhyolite lavas produce short , thick flows that rarely extend more than 3 @.@ 1 miles ( 5 km ) from their vent . Mound @-@ shaped features called lava domes are often created from these flows . Rock fragments thrown from a growing lava dome may reach 3 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 to 10 km ) from the dome . A partial collapse of the steep @-@ sided growing dome can send pyroclastic flows outward at least 3 @.@ 1 miles ( 5 km ) . Taller domes tend to form larger pyroclastic flows that travel farther .
= = Activities = =
Many recreational activities are available along the chain . The Mono Basin National Scenic Area visitor center is located near Mono Lake just off U.S. Route 395 . A bookstore , an information desk staffed by USDA Forest Service Rangers , and museum exhibits help to orient visitors . The Mono Lake Committee has a staffed office and visitor information center in Lee Vining on the corner of U.S. Route 395 and 3rd Street . Information on camping , hiking , guided and self @-@ guided tours can all be obtained at either location .
U.S. 395 is a scenic route that roughly parallels the Mono – Inyo Craters volcanic chain . California State Route 120 provides access to the northern and eastern parts of the Mono Domes , including Panum Crater . Mammoth Scenic Loop ( also called Dry Creek Road ) , provides access to the Inyo Crater lakes and some of the Inyo domes .
The town of Mammoth Lakes , located near the southern end of the chain and Mammoth Mountain , is the largest populated area nearby . Mammoth Mountain Ski Area is located nearby and gondola rides can be taken year @-@ round ( weather permitting ) to the mountain 's summit . The summit of Mammoth Mountain provides panoramic views of the craters and domes of the Mono – Inyo volcanic chain , Mono Lake , the Sierra Nevada and Long Valley Caldera .
Mono Lake itself has its own set of activities , including walking tours among towers of tufa , boat tours of the lake , and birdwatching opportunities . The lake is too salty to support any fish , but fishing is possible in streams that feed Mono Lake . Additional activities include hiking around and on the craters and domes , and mountain biking outside of the Scenic Area boundaries .
= HMS Duke of Edinburgh =
HMS Duke of Edinburgh was the lead ship of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1900s . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ship was sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India . Duke of Edinburgh was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . She was not damaged during the battle and was the only ship of her squadron to survive . She was eventually transferred to the Atlantic Ocean in August 1917 for convoy escort duties .
The ship was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Description = =
Duke of Edinburgh displaced 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) as built and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 150 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 789 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Armament = = =
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mark X guns in single turrets . The guns were distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of ten BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XI guns was arranged in single casemates . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . Twenty Vickers quick @-@ firing ( QF ) three @-@ pounders were fitted , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure . The ship also mounted three submerged 17 @.@ 72 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes .
= = History = =
Duke of Edinburgh was ordered under the 1902 / 1903 naval construction programme as the lead ship of her class . She was laid down on 11 February 1903 at Pembroke Royal Dockyard in Wales . She was launched on 14 June 1904 and completed on 20 January 1906 at a cost of £ 1,193,414.Duke of Edinburgh was named after Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , one of Queen Victoria 's sons .
The ship was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Squadron from 1906 to 1908 and was then transferred to the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Channel Fleet . When the Royal Navy 's cruiser squadrons were reorganized in 1909 , Duke of Edinburgh rejoined the 5th Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . She helped to rescue the survivors of the SS Delhi which ran aground off the coast of Morocco in December 1911 . From 1913 to 1914 she served with the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet .
When the British began to prepare for war in July 1914 , the ship was refitting at Malta . Her refit was cut short and she joined the rest of her squadron in the southern approaches to the Adriatic . She was involved in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau at the outbreak of World War I , but was ordered not to engage them . On 10 August Duke of Edinburgh and her sister ship HMS Black Prince were ordered to the Red Sea to protect troop convoys arriving from India . While on that duty the ship captured the German merchantman Altair of 3 @,@ 200 tons GRT on 15 August . While escorting a troop convoy from India to France in November 1914 , Duke of Edinburgh provided cover to three battalions of infantry that seized the Turkish fort at Cheikh Saïd at the entrance to the Red Sea . The ship then landed a demolition party , which blew the fort up on 10 November ; she then rejoined the convoy .
Duke of Edinburgh rejoined the 1st Cruiser Squadron , which had been transferred to the Grand Fleet in the meantime , in December 1914 . In March 1916 the ship had her main deck 6 @-@ inch guns removed and the openings plated over . Six of the guns were remounted on the upper deck , three on each side , between the wing turrets , protected by gun shields . At the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 , the 1st Cruiser Squadron was in front of the Grand Fleet , on the right side . At 5 : 47 p.m. The two leading ships of the squadron , the flagship , HMS Defence , and HMS Warrior , spotted the German II Scouting Group and opened fire . Their shells felt short and the two ships turned to port in pursuit , cutting in front of the battlecruiser HMS Lion , which was forced to turn away to avoid a collision . Duke of Edinburgh could not follow the first two ships and turned to port ( northeast ) . The ship spotted the disabled German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden at 6 : 08 and fired twenty rounds at her . By about 6 : 30 she had steamed to a position off the starboard bow of HMS King George V , the leading ship of the 2nd Battle Squadron , where her funnel smoke obscured the German ships from the foremost dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron . A torpedo attack by German destroyers on Admiral Beatty 's battlecruisers , failed , but forced Duke of Edinburgh to evade one torpedo at 6 : 47 . The ship reported a submarine sighting at 7 : 01 , although no German submarines were operating in the area . She fired at another false submarine contact between 7 : 45 and 8 : 15 .
After the battle , Duke of Edinburgh was attached to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron and remained at sea until 2 June , searching for disabled ships . She arrived in Scapa Flow on the afternoon of 3 June . On the evening of 18 August 1916 , the Grand Fleet , including Duke of Edinburgh , put to sea in response to a deciphered message that the High Seas Fleet , minus the II Battle Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The Germans planned to bombard the port of Sunderland on 19 August , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Germans broke off their planned attack to pursue a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans then set course for home . After Jutland the 2nd Cruiser Squadron , now including Duke of Edinburgh , was ordered to reinforce the patrols north of the Shetland Islands against German blockade runners and commerce raiders . The ship 's foremast was converted to a tripod to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director in May 1917 , but when the director was actually fitted is not known . Two more 6 @-@ inch guns were added in embrasures on the forecastle deck during that same refit . She was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in August 1917 for convoy escort duties , where she remained for the duration of the war . Upon her return , Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the Humber , before she was sold for scrap on 12 April 1920 and broken up at Blyth in Northumberland .
= A Single Blade of Grass =
" A Single Blade of Grass " is the fifth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on October 24 , 1997 . The episode was written by Kay Reindl and Erin Maher , and directed by Rodman Flender . " A Single Blade of Grass " featured guest appearances by Floyd Red Crow Westerman and Michael Greyeyes .
Millennium centers on offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , who investigates unusual crimes as part of the private investigative organisation the Millennium Group . In this episode , Black investigates the murder of a Native American man , finding a cult who wish to bring about the end of American civilization .
" A Single Blade of Grass " was the first episode of the series to have been penned by Reindl and Maher . It received mixed responses from critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 57 million households upon its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
In New York City , a young Native American man is forced by several others to ingest snake venom . The venom causes him to hallucinate , and one of the men , Joe Reynard ( Michael Greyeyes ) asks him to describe his visions . However , the poisoned man screams in agony and dies . His body is later found when a construction site is being excavated by archaeologists . A mummified body from centuries earlier is also found ; when Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) arrives to investigate , he notices similarities between both corpses . The archaeologist in charge of the dig , Liz Michaels ( Amy Steel ) is adamant that the site should stay intact for further excavation , but foreman Richard Powell ( Garry Chalk ) and his mostly Native American crew insist building must continue .
Black believes the killing took place in a hotel basement ; finding the crime scene , he consults Michaels , who notes that symbols painted on the walls come from several different native cultures but all concern communication with the spirit world . Black visits a bar frequented by the native construction workers and their elderly mentor ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) . Reynard is among their number ; Black asks him about one of the symbols , and is told by the old man that the symbol is an ominous warning . After Black leaves , Reynard tells the others that he " is the one " .
The dead man is autopsied ; his corpse had been dismembered and reconstructed . Michaels notes that this is a Seneca ritual aimed at reviving the dead to learn of spiritual matters . Later , Black and Michaels are called the construction site , where Powell is attempting to package and remove the ancient remains . Reynard and Powell begin fighting ; the latter soon dies of a heart attack . When Black returns to his car , he finds a native face mask placed inside ; Michaels explains that it represents the ability to cross from the material world into the spirit world . Black believes a secret native tribe is awaiting the downfall and apocalypse of the society of the white settlers ; he theorizes that they believe his abilities are key to their prophecies of the end of the world .
That night , Black is kidnapped by the group of natives . He is taken to the sewers and forced to consume snake venom ; he sees visions , but insists they are from his psychic gift rather than from the venom . He predicts that the native tribes will reunite and that the buffalo will return to New York . However , he is soon rescued by Michaels and a group of police , who place Reynard and his tribe under arrest . As the tribe — now reunited in police custody — are led away , a travelling rodeo loses track of four buffalo , which run free through the city streets .
= = Production = =
" A Single Blade of Grass " is the first episode of Millennium to have been written by Kay Reindl and Erin Maher ; the pair would pen two further episodes in the second season , and another in the third season . The episode was the only contribution to the series by director Rodman Flender .
The episode featured the return of Black 's near @-@ psychic visions ; a phenomenon which had been used with much less frequency in the second season . Executive producer Glen Morgan begrudgingly allowed Maher and Reindl to show the ability in this episode , saying " I felt last year those visions were a cheat . The camera would go to a coffee cup and Frank would say , ' The murderer used a coffee cup . ' It drove me nuts . What we were trying to do this year was elevate Frank 's visions to a dream @-@ like state , so he would have to interpret what he 's seeing . There would be more mystical , symbolic imagery that might give him more of a sense of what 's going on . I had wanted to strip away the gift for a long time and see if the show really played without it . But we got back into that " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" A Single Blade of Grass " was first broadcast on the Fox network on October 24 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 57 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ seventh most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
" A Single Blade of Grass " received mixed reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a A − , calling it " yet another adventure in weird , Native American mysticism from the folks at 1013 Productions " . VanDerWerff felt that although the episode contained several plot holes , it worked with " a kind of dream sense , following its own weird , nightmare logic " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Gibron found that the episode contained several overly @-@ unbelievable moments but was overall " another great episode , even with some rather minor flaws " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " A Single Blade of Grass " one star out of five . Shearman felt that the episode was " tedious " , citing a lack of any real action and a " banal " ending which he described as having been poorly foreshadowed . However , Shearman felt positively about the episode 's attempt to stand on its own rather than imitating sister show The X @-@ Files , which he saw several prior episodes as having done .
= Primate =
A primate ( / ˈpraɪmeɪt / PRY @-@ mayt ) is a mammal of the order Primates ( Latin : " prime , first rank " ) . In taxonomy , primates include two distinct lineages , strepsirrhines and haplorhines . Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests ; many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three @-@ dimensional environment . Most primate species remain at least partly arboreal .
With the exception of humans , who inhabit every continent except for Antarctica , most primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas , Africa and Asia . They range in size from Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , which weighs only 30 g ( 1 oz ) , to the eastern gorilla , weighing over 200 kg ( 440 lb ) . Based on fossil evidence , the earliest known true primates , represented by the genus Teilhardina , date to 55 @.@ 8 million years old . An early close primate relative known from abundant remains is the Late Paleocene Plesiadapis , c . 55 – 58 million years old . Molecular clock studies suggest that the primate branch may be even older , originating near the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary or around 63 – 74 mya .
The order Primates was traditionally divided into two main groupings : prosimians and anthropoids ( simians ) . Prosimians have characteristics more like those of the earliest primates , and include the lemurs of Madagascar , lorisoids , and tarsiers . Simians include monkeys , apes and hominins . More recently , taxonomists have preferred to split primates into the suborder Strepsirrhini , or wet @-@ nosed primates , consisting of non @-@ tarsier prosimians , and the suborder Haplorhini , or dry @-@ nosed primates , consisting of tarsiers and the simians .
Simians are divided into two groups : catarrhine ( narrow @-@ nosed ) monkeys and apes of Africa and southeastern Asia and platyrrhine ( " flat @-@ nosed " ) or New World monkeys of South and Middle America . Catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys ( such as baboons and macaques ) , gibbons and great apes ; New World monkeys include the capuchin , howler and squirrel monkeys . Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa , South Asia , and East Asia , although fossil evidence shows many other species were formerly present in Europe . New primate species are still being discovered . More than 25 species were taxonomically described in the decade of the 2000s and eleven have been described since 2010 .
Considered generalist mammals , primates exhibit a wide range of characteristics . Some primates ( including some great apes and baboons ) are primarily terrestrial rather than arboreal , but all species possess adaptations for climbing trees . Locomotion techniques used include leaping from tree to tree , walking on two or four limbs , knuckle @-@ walking , and swinging between branches of trees ( brachiation ) .
Primates are characterized by large brains relative to other mammals , as well as an increased reliance on stereoscopic vision at the expense of smell , the dominant sensory system in most mammals . These features are more developed in monkeys and apes and noticeably less so in lorises and lemurs . Three @-@ color vision has developed in some primates . Most also have opposable thumbs and some have prehensile tails . Many species are sexually dimorphic ; differences include body mass , canine tooth size , and coloration . Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals and reach maturity later , but have longer lifespans . Depending on the species , adults may live in solitude , in mated pairs , or in groups of up to hundreds of members .
= = Historical and modern terminology = =
The relationships among the different groups of primates were not clearly understood until relatively recently , so the commonly used terms are somewhat confused . For example , " ape " has been used either as an alternative for " monkey " or for any tailless , relatively human @-@ like primate .
Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark was one of the primatologists who developed the idea of trends in primate evolution and the methodology of arranging the living members of an order into an " ascending series " leading to humans . Commonly used names for groups of primates such as " prosimians " , " monkeys " , " lesser apes " , and " great apes " reflect this methodology . According to our current understanding of the evolutionary history of the primates , several of these groups are paraphyletic : a paraphyletic group is one which does not include all the descendants of the group 's common ancestor .
In contrast with Clark 's methodology , modern classifications typically identify ( or name ) only those groupings that are monophyletic ; that is , such a named group includes all the descendants of the group 's common ancestor .
The cladogram below shows one possible classification sequence of the living primates , with groups that use common ( traditional ) names are shown on the right .
All groups with scientific names are monophyletic ( that is , they are clades ) , and the sequence of scientific classification reflects the evolutionary history of the related lineages . Traditionally named groups are shown on the right ; they form an " ascending series " ( per Clark , see above ) , and several groups are paraphyletic :
" prosimians " contain two monophyletic groups ( the suborder Strepsirrhini , or lemurs , lorises and allies , as well as the tarsiers of the suborder Haplorhini ) ; it is a paraphyletic grouping because it excludes the Simiiformes , which also are descendants of the common ancestor Primates .
" monkeys " comprise two monophyletic groups , New World monkeys and Old World monkeys , but is paraphyletic because it excludes hominoids , superfamily Hominoidea , also descendants of the common ancestor Simiiformes .
" apes " as a whole , and the " great apes " in particular , are paraphyletic because they exclude humans .
Thus , the members of the two sets of groups , and hence names , do not match , which causes problems in relating scientific names to common ( usually traditional ) names . Consider the superfamily Hominoidea : In terms of the common names on the right , this group consists of apes and humans and there is no single common name for all the members of the group . One remedy is to create a new common name , in this case " hominoids " . Another possibility is to expand the use of one of the traditional names . For example , in his 2005 book , the vertebrate palaeontologist Benton wrote , " The apes , Hominoidea , today include the gibbons and orang @-@ utan ... the gorilla and chimpanzee ... and humans " ; thereby Benton was using " apes " to mean " hominoids " . In that case , the group heretofore called " apes " must now be identified as the " non @-@ human apes " .
As of 2005 , there is no consensus as to which methodology will rule , whether to accept traditional ( that is , common ) , but paraphyletic , names or to use monophyletic names only ; or to use ' new ' common names or adaptations of old ones . Both competing approaches will be found in biological sources , often in the same work , and sometimes by the same author . Thus , Benton defines " apes " to include humans , then he repeatedly uses " ape @-@ like " to mean " like an ape rather than a human " ; and when discussing the reaction of others to a new fossil he writes of " claims that Orrorin ... was an ape rather than a human " .
= = Classification of living primates = =
A list of the families of the living primates is given below , together with one possible classification into ranks between order and family . Other classifications are also used . For example , an alternative classification of the living Strepsirrhini divides them into two infraorders , Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes .
Order Primates
Suborder Strepsirrhini : lemurs , galagos and lorisids
Infraorder LemuriformesSuperfamily Lemuroidea
Family Cheirogaleidae : dwarf lemurs and mouse @-@ lemurs ( 34 species )
Family Daubentoniidae : aye @-@ aye ( one species )
Family Lemuridae : ring @-@ tailed lemur and allies ( 21 species )
Family Lepilemuridae : sportive lemurs ( 26 species )
Family Indriidae : woolly lemurs and allies ( 19 species )
Superfamily Lorisoidea
Family Lorisidae : lorisids ( 14 species )
Family Galagidae : galagos ( 19 species )
Suborder Haplorhini : tarsiers , monkeys and apes
Infraorder Tarsiiformes
Family Tarsiidae : tarsiers ( 11 species )
Infraorder Simiiformes ( or Anthropoidea )
Parvorder Platyrrhini : New World monkeys
Family Callitrichidae : marmosets and tamarins ( 42 species )
Family Cebidae : capuchins and squirrel monkeys ( 14 species )
Family Aotidae : night or owl monkeys ( douroucoulis ) ( 11 species )
Family Pitheciidae : titis , sakis and uakaris ( 43 species )
Family Atelidae : howler , spider , woolly spider and woolly monkeys ( 29 species )
Parvorder Catarrhini
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea
Family Cercopithecidae : Old World monkeys ( 138 species )
Superfamily Hominoidea
Family Hylobatidae : gibbons or " lesser apes " ( 17 species )
Family Hominidae : great apes , including humans ( 7 species )
Order Primates was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 , in the tenth edition of his book Systema Naturae , for the genera Homo ( humans ) , Simia ( other apes and monkeys ) , Lemur ( prosimians ) and Vespertilio ( bats ) . In the first edition of the same book ( 1735 ) , he had used the name Anthropomorpha for Homo , Simia and Bradypus ( sloths ) . In 1839 , Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville , following Linnaeus and imitating his nomenclature , established the orders Secundates ( including the suborders Chiroptera , Insectivora and Carnivora ) , Tertiates ( or Glires ) and Quaternates ( including Gravigrada , Pachydermata and Ruminantia ) , but these new taxa were not accepted .
Before Anderson and Jones introduced the classification of Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini in 1984 , ( followed by McKenna and Bell 's 1997 work Classification of Mammals : Above the species level ) , the Primates were divided into two superfamilies : Prosimii and Anthropoidea . Prosimii included all of the prosimians : Strepsirrhini plus the tarsiers . Anthropoidea contained all of the simians .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Order Primates is part of the clade Euarchontoglires , which is nested within the clade Eutheria of Class Mammalia . Recent molecular genetic research on primates , colugos , and treeshrews has shown that the two species of colugos are more closely related to primates than to treeshrews , even though treeshrews were at one time considered primates . These three orders make up the clade Euarchonta . The combination of this clade with the clade Glires ( composed of Rodentia and Lagomorpha ) forms the clade Euarchontoglires . Variously , both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders . Some scientists consider Dermoptera to be a suborder of Primates and use the suborder Euprimates for the " true " primates .
= = = Evolution = = =
The primate lineage is thought to go back at least 65 million years ago ( mya ) , even though the oldest known primates from the fossil record date to the Late Paleocene of Africa ( Altiatlasius ) or the Paleocene @-@ Eocene transition in the northern continents , c . 55 mya ( Cantius , Donrussellia , Altanius , and Teilhardina ) . Other studies , including molecular clock studies , have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid @-@ Cretaceous period , around 85 mya .
By modern cladistic reckoning , the order Primates is monophyletic . The suborder Strepsirrhini , the " wet @-@ nosed " primates , is generally thought to have split off from the primitive primate line about 63 mya , although earlier dates are also supported . The seven strepsirrhine families are the five related lemur families and the two remaining families that include the lorisids and the galagos . Older classification schemes wrap Lepilemuridae into Lemuridae and Galagidae into Lorisidae , yielding a four @-@ one family distribution instead of five @-@ two as presented here . During the Eocene , most of the northern continents were dominated by two groups , the adapiforms and the omomyids . The former are considered members of Strepsirrhini , but did not have a toothcomb like modern lemurs ; recent analysis has demonstrated that Darwinius masillae fits into this grouping . The latter was closely related to tarsiers , monkeys , and apes . How these two groups relate to extant primates is unclear . Omomyids perished about 30 mya , while adapiforms survived until about 10 mya .
According to genetic studies , the lemurs of Madagascar diverged from the lorisoids approximately 75 mya . These studies , as well as chromosomal and molecular evidence , also show that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates . However , Madagascar split from Africa 160 mya and from India 90 mya . To account for these facts , a founding lemur population of a few individuals is thought to have reached Madagascar from Africa via a single rafting event between 50 and 80 mya . Other colonization options have been examined , such as multiple colonizations from Africa and India , but none are supported by the genetic and molecular evidence .
Until recently , the aye @-@ aye has been difficult to place within Strepsirrhini . Theories had been proposed that its family , Daubentoniidae , was either a lemuriform primate ( meaning its ancestors split from the lemur line more recently than lemurs and lorises split ) or a sister group to all the other strepsirrhines . In 2008 , the aye @-@ aye family was confirmed to be most closely related to the other Malagasy lemurs , likely having descended from the same ancestral population that colonized the island .
Suborder Haplorhini , the simple @-@ nosed or " dry @-@ nosed " primates , is composed of two sister clades . Prosimian tarsiers in the family Tarsiidae ( monotypic in its own infraorder Tarsiiformes ) , represent the most basal division , originating about 58 mya . The earliest known haplorhine skeleton , that of 55 MA old tarsier @-@ like Archicebus , was found in central China , supporting an already suspected Asian origin for the group . The infraorder Simiiformes ( simian primates , consisting of monkeys and apes ) emerged about 40 mya , possibly also in Asia ; if so , they dispersed across the Tethys Sea from Asia to Africa soon afterwards . There are two simian clades , both parvorders : Catarrhini , which developed in Africa , consisting of Old World monkeys , humans and the other apes , and Platyrrhini , which developed in South America , consisting of New World monkeys . A third clade , which included the eosimiids , developed in Asia , but became extinct millions of years ago .
As in the case of lemurs , the origin of New World monkeys is unclear . Molecular studies of concatenated nuclear sequences have yielded a widely varying estimated date of divergence between platyrrhines and catarrhines , ranging from 33 to 70 mya , while studies based on mitochondrial sequences produce a narrower range of 35 to 43 mya . The anthropoid primates possibly traversed the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to South America during the Eocene by island hopping , facilitated by Atlantic Ocean ridges and a lowered sea level . Alternatively , a single rafting event may explain this transoceanic colonization . Due to continental drift , the Atlantic Ocean was not nearly as wide at the time as it is today . Research suggests that a small 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) primate could have survived 13 days on a raft of vegetation . Given estimated current and wind speeds , this would have provided enough time to make the voyage between the continents .
Apes and monkeys spread from Africa into Europe and Asia starting in the Miocene . Soon after , the lorises and tarsiers made the same journey . The first hominin fossils were discovered in northern Africa and date back 5 – 8 mya . Old World monkeys disappeared from Europe about 1 @.@ 8 mya . Molecular and fossil studies generally show that modern humans originated in Africa 100 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 years ago .
Although primates are well studied in comparison to other animal groups , several new species have been discovered recently , and genetic tests have revealed previously unrecognised species in known populations . Primate Taxonomy listed about 350 species of primates in 2001 ; the author , Colin Groves , increased that number to 376 for his contribution to the third edition of Mammal Species of the World ( MSW3 ) . However , publications since the taxonomy in MSW3 was compiled in 2003 have pushed the number to 424 species , or 658 including subspecies .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Primate hybrids usually arise in captivity , but there have also been examples in the wild . Hybridization occurs where two species ' range overlap to form hybrid zones ; hybrids may be created by humans when animals are placed in zoos or due to environmental pressures such as predation . Intergeneric hybridizations , hybrids of different genera , have also been found in the wild . Although they belong to genera that have been distinct for several million years , interbreeding still occurs between the gelada and the hamadryas baboon .
= = Anatomy , physiology , and morphology = =
Primates have forward @-@ facing eyes on the front of the skull ; binocular vision allows accurate distance perception , useful for the brachiating ancestors of all great apes . A bony ridge above the eye sockets reinforces weaker bones in the face , which are put under strain during chewing . Strepsirrhines have a postorbital bar , a bone around the eye socket , to protect their eyes ; in contrast , the higher primates , haplorhines , have evolved fully enclosed sockets .
The primate skull has a large , domed cranium , which is particularly prominent in anthropoids . The cranium protects the large brain , a distinguishing characteristic of this group . The endocranial volume ( the volume within the skull ) is three times greater in humans than in the greatest nonhuman primate , reflecting a larger brain size . The mean endocranial volume is 1 @,@ 201 cubic centimeters in humans , 469 cm3 in gorillas , 400 cm3 in chimpanzees and 397 cm3 in orangutans . The primary evolutionary trend of primates has been the elaboration of the brain , in particular the neocortex ( a part of the cerebral cortex ) , which is involved with sensory perception , generation of motor commands , spatial reasoning , conscious thought and , in humans , language . While other mammals rely heavily on their sense of smell , the arboreal life of primates has led to a tactile , visually dominant sensory system , a reduction in the olfactory region of the brain and increasingly complex social behavior .
Primates generally have five digits on each limb ( pentadactyly ) , with keratin nails on the end of each finger and toe . The bottom sides of the hands and feet have sensitive pads on the fingertips . Most have opposable thumbs , a characteristic primate feature , though not limited to this order , ( opossums and koalas , for example , also have them ) . Thumbs allow some species to use tools . In primates , the combination of opposing thumbs , short fingernails ( rather than claws ) and long , inward @-@ closing fingers is a relict of the ancestral practice of gripping branches , and has , in part , allowed some species to develop brachiation ( swinging by the arms from tree limb to tree limb ) as a significant means of locomotion . Prosimians have clawlike nails on the second toe of each foot , called toilet @-@ claws , which they use for grooming .
The primate collar bone is retained as prominent element of the pectoral girdle ; this allows the shoulder joint broad mobility . Apes have more mobile shoulder joints and arms due to the dorsal position of the scapula , broad ribcages that are flatter front @-@ to @-@ back , and a shorter , less mobile spine compared to Old World monkeys ( with lower vertebrae greatly reduced , resulting in tail loss in some species ) . Old World monkeys are unlike apes in that most have tails . New World atelids , including the howler , spider , woolly spider and woolly monkeys , and New World capuchins have prehensile tails . Male primates typically have a pendulous penis and scrotal testes .
Primates show an evolutionary trend towards a reduced snout . Technically , Old World monkeys are distinguished from New World monkeys by the structure of the nose , and from apes by the arrangement of their teeth . In New World monkeys , the nostrils face sideways ; in Old World monkeys , they face downwards . Dental pattern in primates vary considerably ; although some have lost most of their incisors , all retain at least one lower incisor . In most strepsirrhines , the lower incisors and canines form a toothcomb , which is used in grooming and sometimes foraging , and the first lower premolar is shaped like a canine . Old World monkeys have eight premolars , compared with 12 in New World monkeys . The Old World species are divided into apes and monkeys depending on the number of cusps on their molars ; apes have five , Old World monkeys have four , although humans may have four or five . The main hominid molar cusp ( hypocone ) evolved in early primate history , while the cusp of the corresponding primitive lower molar ( paraconid ) was lost . Prosimians are distinguished by their immobilized upper lips , the moist tip of their noses and forward @-@ facing lower front teeth .
The evolution of color vision in primates is unique among most eutherian mammals . While the remote vertebrate ancestors of the primates possessed three color vision ( trichromaticism ) , the nocturnal , warm @-@ blooded , mammalian ancestors lost one of three cones in the retina during the Mesozoic era . Fish , reptiles and birds are therefore trichromatic or tetrachromatic , while all mammals , with the exception of some primates and marsupials , are dichromats or monochromats ( totally color blind ) . Nocturnal primates , such as the night monkeys and bush babies , are often monochromatic . Catarrhines are routinely trichromatic due to a gene duplication of the red @-@ green opsin gene at the base of their lineage , 30 to 40 million years ago . Platyrrhines , on the other hand , are trichromatic in a few cases only . Specifically , individual females must be heterozygous for two alleles of the opsin gene ( red and green ) located on the same locus of the X chromosome . Males , therefore , can only be dichromatic , while females can be either dichromatic or trichromatic . Color vision in strepsirrhines is not as well understood ; however , research indicates a range of color vision similar to that found in platyrrhines .
Like catarrhines , howler monkeys ( a family of platyrrhines ) show routine trichromatism that has been traced to an evolutionarily recent gene duplication . Howler monkeys are one of the most specialized leaf @-@ eaters of the New World monkeys ; fruits are not a major part of their diets , and the type of leaves they prefer to consume ( young , nutritive , and digestible ) are detectable only by a red @-@ green signal . Field work exploring the dietary preferences of howler monkeys suggests that routine trichromaticism was selected by environment .
= = = Sexual dimorphism = = =
Sexual dimorphism is often exhibited in simians , though to a greater degree in Old World species ( apes and some monkeys ) than New World species . Recent studies involve comparing DNA to examine both the variation in the expression of the dimorphism among primates and the fundamental causes of sexual dimorphism . Primates usually have dimorphism in body mass and canine tooth size along with pelage and skin color . The dimorphism can be attributed to and affected by different factors , including mating system , size , habitat and diet .
Comparative analyses have generated a more complete understanding of the relationship between sexual selection , natural selection , and mating systems in primates . Studies have shown that dimorphism is the product of changes in both male and female traits . Ontogenetic scaling , where relative extension of a common growth trajectory occurs , may give some insight into the relationship between sexual dimorphism and growth patterns . Some evidence from the fossil record suggests that there was convergent evolution of dimorphism , and some extinct hominids probably had greater dimorphism than any living primate .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Primate species move by brachiation , bipedalism , leaping , arboreal and terrestrial quadrupedalism , climbing , knuckle @-@ walking or by a combination of these methods . Several prosimians are primarily vertical clingers and leapers . These include many bushbabies , all indriids ( i.e. , sifakas , avahis and indris ) , sportive lemurs , and all tarsiers . Other prosimians are arboreal quadrupeds and climbers . Some are also terrestrial quadrupeds , while some are leapers . Most monkeys are both arboreal and terrestrial quadrupeds and climbers . Gibbons , muriquis and spider monkeys all brachiate extensively , with gibbons sometimes doing so in remarkably acrobatic fashion . Woolly monkeys also brachiate at times . Orangutans use a similar form of locomotion called quadramanous climbing , in which they use their arms and legs to carry their heavy bodies through the trees . Chimpanzees and gorillas knuckle walk , and can move bipedally for short distances . Although numerous species , such as australopithecines and early hominids , have exhibited fully bipedal locomotion , humans are the only extant species with this trait .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social systems = = =
Primates are among the most social of animals , forming pairs or family groups , uni @-@ male harems , and multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female groups . Richard Wrangham stated that social systems of non @-@ human primates are best classified by the amount of movement by females occurring between groups . He proposed four categories :
Female transfer systems – females move away from the group in which they were born . Females of a group will not be closely related whereas males will have remained with their natal groups , and this close association may be influential in social behavior . The groups formed are generally quite small . This organization can be seen in chimpanzees , where the males , who are typically related , will cooperate in defense of the group 's territory . Among New World Monkeys , spider monkeys and muriquis use this system .
Male transfer systems – while the females remain in their natal groups , the males will emigrate as adolescents . Polygynous and multi @-@ male societies are classed in this category . Group sizes are usually larger . This system is common among the ring @-@ tailed lemur , capuchin monkeys and cercopithecine monkeys .
Monogamous species – a male – female bond , sometimes accompanied by a juvenile offspring . There is shared responsibility of parental care and territorial defense . The offspring leaves the parents ' territory during adolescence . Gibbons essentially use this system , although " monogamy " in this context does not necessarily mean absolute sexual fidelity .
Solitary species – often males who defend territories that include the home ranges of several females . This type of organization is found in the prosimians such as the slow loris . Orangutans do not defend their territory but effectively have this organization .
Other systems are known to occur as well . For example , with howler monkeys both the males and females typically transfer from their natal group on reaching sexual maturity , resulting in groups in which neither the males nor females are typically related . Some prosimians , colobine monkeys and callitrichid monkeys use this system .
The transfer of females or males from their native group is likely an adaptation for avoiding inbreeding . An analysis of breeding records of captive primate colonies representing numerous different species indicates that the infant mortality of inbred young is generally higher than that of non @-@ inbred young . This effect of inbreeding on infant mortality is probably largely a result of increased expression of deleterious recessive alleles ( see Inbreeding depression ) .
Primatologist Jane Goodall , who studied in the Gombe Stream National Park , noted fission @-@ fusion societies in chimpanzees . There is fission when the main group splits up to forage during the day , then fusion when the group returns at night to sleep as a group . This social structure can also be observed in the hamadryas baboon , spider monkeys and the bonobo . The gelada has a similar social structure in which many smaller groups come together to form temporary herds of up to 600 monkeys .
These social systems are affected by three main ecological factors : distribution of resources , group size , and predation . Within a social group there is a balance between cooperation and competition . Cooperative behaviors include social grooming ( removing skin parasites and cleaning wounds ) , food sharing , and collective defense against predators or of a territory . Aggressive behaviors often signal competition for food , sleeping sites or mates . Aggression is also used in establishing dominance hierarchies .
= = = Interspecific associations = = =
Several species of primates are known to associate in the wild . Some of these associations have been extensively studied . In the Tai Forest of Africa several species coordinate anti @-@ predator behavior . These include the Diana monkey , Campbell 's mona monkey , lesser spot @-@ nosed monkey , western red colobus , king colobus and sooty mangabey , which coordinate anti @-@ predator alarm calls . Among the predators of these monkeys is the common chimpanzee .
The red @-@ tailed monkey associates with several species , including the western red colobus , blue monkey , Wolf 's mona monkey , mantled guereza , black crested mangabey and Allen 's swamp monkey . Several of these species are preyed upon by the common chimpanzee .
In South America , squirrel monkeys associate with capuchin monkeys . This may have more to do with foraging benefits to the squirrel monkeys than anti @-@ predation benefits .
= = = Cognition and communication = = =
Primates have advanced cognitive abilities : some make tools and use them to acquire food and for social displays ; some have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation , influence and rank ; they are status conscious , manipulative and capable of deception ; they can recognise kin and conspecifics ; and they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax and concepts of number and numerical sequence . Research in primate cognition explores problem solving , memory , social interaction , a theory of mind , and numerical , spatial , and abstract concepts . Comparative studies show a trend towards higher intelligence going from prosimians to New World monkeys to Old World monkeys , and significantly higher average cognitive abilities in the great apes . However , there is a great deal of variation in each group ( e.g. , among New World monkeys , both spider and capuchin monkeys have scored highly by some measures ) , as well as in the results of different studies .
Lemurs , lorises , tarsiers , and New World monkeys rely on olfactory signals for many aspects of social and reproductive behavior . Specialized glands are used to mark territories with pheromones , which are detected by the vomeronasal organ ; this process forms a large part of the communication behavior of these primates . In Old World monkeys and apes this ability is mostly vestigial , having regressed as trichromatic eyes evolved to become the main sensory organ . Primates also use vocalizations , gestures , and facial expressions to convey psychological state . The Philippine tarsier , has a high @-@ frequency limit of auditory sensitivity of approximately 91 kHz with a dominant frequency of 70 kHz . Such values are among the highest recorded for any terrestrial mammal , and a relatively extreme example of ultrasonic communication . For Philippine tarsiers , ultrasonic vocalizations might represent a private channel of communication that subverts detection by predators , prey and competitors , enhances energetic efficiency , or improves detection against low @-@ frequency background noise .
= = = Life history = = =
Primates have slower rates of development than other mammals . All primate infants are breastfed by their mothers ( with the exception of some human cultures and various zoo raised primates which are fed formula ) and rely on them for grooming and transportation . In some species , infants are protected and transported by males in the group , particularly males who may be their fathers . Other relatives of the infant , such as siblings and aunts , may participate in its care as well . Most primate mothers cease ovulation while breastfeeding an infant ; once the infant is weaned the mother can reproduce again . This often leads to weaning conflict with infants who attempt to continue breastfeeding .
Infanticide is common in polygynous species such as gray langurs and gorillas . Adult males may kill dependent offspring that are not theirs so the female will return to estrus and thus they can sire offspring of their own . Social monogamy in some species may have evolved to combat this behavior . Promiscuity may also lessen the risk of infanticide since paternity becomes uncertain .
Primates have a longer juvenile period between weaning and sexual maturity than other mammals of similar size . Some primates such as galagos and new world monkeys use tree @-@ holes for nesting , and park juveniles in leafy patches while foraging . Other primates follow a strategy of " riding " , i , e. carrying individuals on the body while feeding . Adults may construct and / or use nesting sites , sometimes accompanied by juveniles , for the purpose of resting , a behavior which has developed secondarily in the great apes . During the juvenile period , primates are more susceptible than adults to predation and starvation ; they gain experience in feeding and avoiding predators during this time . They learn social and fighting skills , often through playing . Primates , especially females , have longer lifespans than other similarly sized mammals , this may be partially due to their slower metabolisms . Late in life , female catarrhine primates appear to undergo a cessation of reproductive function known as menopause ; other groups are less studied .
= = = Diet , feeding and hunting = = =
Primates exploit a variety of food sources . It has been said that many characteristics of modern primates , including humans , derive from an early ancestor 's practice of taking most of its food from the tropical canopy . Most primates include fruit in their diets to obtain easily digested carbohydrates and lipids for energy . However , they require other foods , such as leaves or insects , for amino acids , vitamins and minerals . Primates in the suborder Strepsirrhini ( non @-@ tarsier prosimians ) are able to synthesize vitamin C , like most other mammals , while primates of the suborder Haplorrhini ( tarsiers , monkeys and apes ) have lost this ability , and require the vitamin in their diet .
Many primates have anatomical specializations that enable them to exploit particular foods , such as fruit , leaves , gum or insects . For example , leaf eaters such as howler monkeys , black @-@ and @-@ white colobuses and sportive lemurs have extended digestive tracts which enable them to absorb nutrients from leaves that can be difficult to digest . Marmosets , which are gum eaters , have strong incisor teeth , enabling them to open tree bark to get to the gum , and claws rather than nails , enabling them to cling to trees while feeding . The aye @-@ aye combines rodent @-@ like teeth with a long , thin middle finger to fill the same ecological niche as a woodpecker . It taps on trees to find insect larvae , then gnaws holes in the wood and inserts its elongated middle finger to pull the larvae out . Some species have additional specializations . For example , the grey @-@ cheeked mangabey has thick enamel on its teeth , enabling it to open hard fruits and seeds that other monkeys cannot . The gelada is the only primate species that feeds primarily on grass .
= = = = Hunting = = = =
Tarsiers are the only extant obligate carnivorous primates , exclusively eating insects , crustaceans , small vertebrates and snakes ( including venomous species ) . Capuchin monkeys can exploit many different types of plant matter , including fruit , leaves , flowers , buds , nectar and seeds , but also eat insects and other invertebrates , bird eggs , and small vertebrates such as birds , lizards , squirrels and bats .
The common chimpanzee has a varied diet that includes predation on other primate species , such as the western red colobus monkey . This sometimes involves tool use . Common chimpanzees sharpen sticks to use as weapons when hunting mammals . This is considered the first evidence of systematic use of weapons in a species other than humans . Researchers documented 22 occasions where wild chimpanzees fashioned sticks into " spears " to hunt lesser bush babies ( Galago senegalensis ) . In each case , a chimpanzee modified a branch by breaking off one or both ends and , frequently using its teeth , sharpened the stick . The tools , on average , were about 60 cm ( 24 in ) long and 1 @.@ 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in circumference . The chimpanzees then jabbed their spears into hollows in tree trunks where bush babies slept . There was a single case in which a chimpanzee successfully extracted a bush baby with the tool . The bonobo is an omnivorous frugivore – the majority of its diet is fruit , but it supplements this with leaves , meat from small vertebrates , such as anomalures , flying squirrels and duikers , and invertebrates . In some instances , bonobos have been shown to consume lower @-@ order primates .
= = = As prey = = =
Predators of primates include various species of carnivorans , birds of prey , reptiles and other primates . Even gorillas have been recorded as prey . Predators of primates have diverse hunting strategies and as such , primates have evolved several different antipredator adaptations including crypsis , alarm calls and mobbing . Several species have separate alarm calls for different predators such as air @-@ borne or ground @-@ dwelling predators . Predation may have shaped group size in primates as species exposed to higher predation pressures appear to live in larger groups . With their technology and increased intelligence , modern humans are nearly free of threats from predators and are themselves apex predators .
= = = Tool use and manufacture = = =
= = = = Tool use = = = =
There are many reports of non @-@ human primates using tools , both in the wild or when captive . The use of tools by primates is varied and includes hunting ( mammals , invertebrates , fish ) , collecting honey , processing food ( nuts , fruits , vegetables and seeds ) , collecting water , weapons and shelter .
In 1960 , Jane Goodall observed a chimpanzee poking pieces of grass into a termite mound and then raising the grass to his mouth . After he left , Goodall approached the mound and repeated the behaviour because she was unsure what the chimpanzee was doing . She found that the termites bit onto the grass with their jaws . The chimpanzee had been using the grass as a tool to “ fish ” or " dip " for termites . There are more limited reports of the closely related bonobo using tools in the wild ; it has been claimed they rarely use tools in the wild although they use tools as readily as chimpanzees when in captivity , It has been reported that both female chimpanzees and bonobos use tools more avidly than males . Orangutans in Borneo scoop catfish out of small ponds . Anthropologist Anne Russon saw several animals on these forested islands learn on their own to jab at catfish with sticks , so that the panicked prey would flop out of ponds and into the orangutan 's waiting hands There are few reports of gorillas using tools in the wild . An adult female Western lowland gorilla used a branch as a walking stick apparently to test water depth and to aid her in crossing a pool of water . Another adult female used a detached trunk from a small shrub as a stabilizer during food gathering , and another used a log as a bridge .
The black @-@ striped capuchin was the first non @-@ ape primate for which tool use was documented in the wild ; individuals were observed cracking nuts by placing them on a stone anvil and hitting them with another large stone . In Thailand and Myanmar , crab @-@ eating macaques use stone tools to open nuts , oysters and other bivalves , and various types of sea snails . Chacma baboons use stones as weapons ; stoning by these baboons is done from the rocky walls of the canyon where they sleep and retreat to when they are threatened . Stones are lifted with one hand and dropped over the side whereupon they tumble down the side of the cliff or fall directly to the canyon floor .
Although they have not been observed to use tools in the wild , lemurs in controlled settings have been shown to be capable of understanding the functional properties of the objects they had been trained to use as tools , performing as well as tool @-@ using haplorhines .
= = = = Tool manufacture = = = =
Tool manufacture is much rarer than simple tool use and probably represents higher cognitive functioning . Soon after her initial discovery of tool use , Goodall observed other chimpanzees picking up leafy twigs , stripping off the leaves and using the stems to fish for insects . This change of a leafy twig into a tool was a major discovery . Prior to this , scientists thought that only humans manufactured and used tools , and that this ability was what separated humans from other animals . Both bonobos and chimpanzees have also been observed making " sponges " out of leaves and moss that suck up water and are used as grooming tools . Sumatran orangutans have been observed making and using tools . They will break off a tree branch that is about 30 cm long , snap off the twigs , fray one end and then use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites . In the wild , mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools . Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at Chester Zoo ( UK ) stripping down a twig , apparently to make it narrower , and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails . Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Primates evolved from arboreal animals , and many species live most of their lives in trees . Most primate species live in tropical rain forests . The number of primate species within tropical areas has been shown to be positively correlated to the amount of rainfall and the amount of rain forest area . Accounting for 25 % to 40 % of the fruit @-@ eating animals ( by weight ) within tropical rainforests , primates play an important ecological role by dispersing seeds of many tree species .
Some species are partially terrestrial , such as baboons and patas monkeys , and a few species are fully terrestrial , such as geladas and humans . Non @-@ human primates live in a diverse number of forested habitats in the tropical latitudes of Africa , India , Southeast Asia , and South America , including rainforests , mangrove forests , and montane forests . There are some examples of non @-@ human primates that live outside of the tropics ; the mountain @-@ dwelling Japanese macaque lives in the north of Honshū where there is snow @-@ cover eight months of the year ; the Barbary macaque lives in the Atlas Mountains of Algeria and Morocco . Primate habitats span a range of altitudes : the black snub @-@ nosed monkey has been found living in the Hengduan Mountains at altitudes of 4 @,@ 700 meters ( 15 @,@ 400 ft ) , the mountain gorilla can be found at 4 @,@ 200 meters ( 13 @,@ 200 ft ) crossing the Virunga Mountains , and the gelada has been found at elevations of up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) in the Ethiopian Highlands . Although most species are generally shy of water , a few are good swimmers and are comfortable in swamps and watery areas , including the proboscis monkey , De Brazza 's monkey and Allen 's swamp monkey , which has developed small webbing between its fingers . Some primates , such as the rhesus macaque and gray langurs , can exploit human @-@ modified environments and even live in cities .
= = Interactions between humans and other primates = =
Close interactions between humans and non @-@ human primates ( NHPs ) can create pathways for the transmission of zoonotic diseases . Viruses such as Herpesviridae ( most notably Herpes B Virus ) , Poxviridae , measles , ebola , rabies , the Marburg virus and viral hepatitis can be transmitted to humans ; in some cases the viruses produce potentially fatal diseases in both humans and non @-@ human primates .
= = = Legal and social status = = =
Only humans are recognized as persons and protected in law by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights . The legal status of NHPs , on the other hand , is the subject of much debate , with organizations such as the Great Ape Project ( GAP ) campaigning to award at least some of them legal rights . In June 2008 , Spain became the first country in the world to recognize the rights of some NHPs , when its parliament 's cross @-@ party environmental committee urged the country to comply with GAP 's recommendations , which are that chimpanzees , bonobos , orangutans , and gorillas are not be used for animal experiments .
Many species of NHP are kept as pets by humans , the Allied Effort to Save Other Primates ( AESOP ) estimates that around 15 @,@ 000 NHPs live as exotic pets in the United States . The expanding Chinese middle class has increased demand for NHPs as exotic pets in recent years . Although NHP import for the pet trade was banned in the U.S. in 1975 , smuggling still occurs along the United States – Mexico border , with prices ranging from US $ 3000 for monkeys to $ 30 @,@ 000 for apes .
Primates are used as model organisms in laboratories and have been used in space missions . They serve as service animals for disabled humans . Capuchin monkeys can be trained to assist quadriplegic humans ; their intelligence , memory , and manual dexterity make them ideal helpers .
NHPs are kept in zoos around the globe . Historically , zoos were primarily a form of entertainment , but more recently have shifted their focus towards conservation , education and research . GAP does not insist that all NHPs should be released from zoos , primarily because captive @-@ born primates lack the knowledge and experience to survive in the wild if released .
= = = Role in scientific research = = =
Thousands of non @-@ human primates are used around the world in research because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans . In particular , the brains and eyes of NHPs more closely parallel human anatomy than those of any other animals . NHPs are commonly used in preclinical trials , neuroscience , ophthalmology studies , and toxicity studies . Rhesus macaques are often used , as are other macaques , African green monkeys , chimpanzees , baboons , squirrel monkeys , and marmosets , both wild @-@ caught and purpose @-@ bred . In 2005 , GAP reported that 1 @,@ 280 of the 3 @,@ 100 NHPs living in captivity in the United States were used for experiments . In 2004 , the European Union used around 10 @,@ 000 NHPs in such experiments ; in 2005 in Great Britain , 4 @,@ 652 experiments were conducted on 3 @,@ 115 NHPs . Governments of many nations have strict care requirements of NHPs kept in captivity . In the US , federal guidelines extensively regulate aspects of NHP housing , feeding , enrichment , and breeding . European groups such as the European Coalition to End Animal Experiments are seeking a ban on all NHP use in experiments as part of the European Union 's review of animal testing legislation .
= = = Conservation = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) lists more than a third of primates as critically endangered or vulnerable . Trade is regulated , as all species are listed by CITES in Appendix II , except 50 species and subspecies listed in Appendix I , which gain full protection from trade . Common threats to primate species include deforestation , forest fragmentation , monkey drives ( resulting from primate crop raiding ) , and primate hunting for use in medicines , as pets , and for food . Large @-@ scale tropical forest clearing is widely regarded as the process that most threatens primates . More than 90 % of primate species occur in tropical forests . The main cause of forest loss is clearing for agriculture , although commercial logging , subsistence harvesting of timber , mining , and dam construction also contribute to tropical forest destruction . In Indonesia large areas of lowland forest have been cleared to increase palm oil production , and one analysis of satellite imagery concluded that during 1998 and 1999 there was a loss of 1 @,@ 000 Sumatran orangutans per year in the Leuser Ecosystem alone .
Primates with a large body size ( over 5 kg ) are at increased extinction risk due to their greater profitability to poachers compared to smaller primates . They reach sexual maturity later and have a longer period between births . Populations therefore recover more slowly after being depleted by poaching or the pet trade . Data for some African cities show that half of all protein consumed in urban areas comes from the bushmeat trade . Endangered primates such as guenons and the drill are hunted at levels that far exceed sustainable levels . This is due to their large body size , ease of transport and profitability per animal . As farming encroaches on forest habitats , primates feed on the crops , causing the farmers large economic losses . Primate crop raiding gives locals a negative impression of primates , hindering conservation efforts .
Madagascar , home to five endemic primate families , has experienced the greatest extinction of the recent past ; since human settlement 1 @,@ 500 years ago , at least eight classes and fifteen of the larger species have become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction . Among the primates wiped out were Archaeoindris ( a lemur larger than a silverback gorilla ) and the families Palaeopropithecidae and Archaeolemuridae .
In Asia , Hinduism , Buddhism , and Islam prohibit eating primate meat ; however , primates are still hunted for food . Some smaller traditional religions allow the consumption of primate meat . The pet trade and traditional medicine also increase demand for illegal hunting . The rhesus macaque , a model organism , was protected after excessive trapping threatened its numbers in the 1960s ; the program was so effective that they are now viewed as a pest throughout their range .
In Central and South America forest fragmentation and hunting are the two main problems for primates . Large tracts of forest are now rare in Central America . This increases the amount of forest vulnerable to edge effects such as farmland encroachment , lower levels of humidity and a change in plant life . Movement restriction results in a greater amount of inbreeding , which can cause deleterious effects leading to a population bottleneck , whereby a significant percentage of the population is lost .
There are 21 critically endangered primates , 7 of which have remained on the IUCN 's " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " list since the year 2000 : the silky sifaka , Delacour 's langur , the white @-@ headed langur , the gray @-@ shanked douc , the Tonkin snub @-@ nosed monkey , the Cross River gorilla and the Sumatran orangutan . Miss Waldron 's red colobus was recently declared extinct when no trace of the subspecies could be found from 1993 to 1999 . A few hunters have found and killed individuals since then , but the subspecies ' prospects remain bleak .
= Battle of Ratsua =
The Battle of Ratsua occurred during the Second World War and involved Australian and Japanese forces . Part of the wider Bougainville Campaign of the Pacific theatre , the battle took place in the northern sector of Bougainville between June and August 1945 . The main forces that took part in the fighting were the Australian 23rd Brigade and the Japanese 87th Naval Garrison Force .
The fighting occurred following a failed landing by Australian forces at Porton Plantation in early June , which was part of an attempt to outflank a series of strong points that the Japanese had built across the base of the Bonis Peninsula . After this , the fighting in the northern sector around Ratsua essentially became a containment action for the Australians as they concentrated their efforts and resources upon driving south towards Buin , which was the main centre of Japanese resistance on the island at the time . As a result , the situation around Ratsua remained largely static until the end of hostilities in mid @-@ August 1945 .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic situation = = =
Japanese forces had landed on Bougainville in early 1942 , capturing it from the small force of Australians garrisoning the island . They had subsequently developed several airbases on the island , using it to conduct operations in the northern Solomon Islands and to attack the Allied lines of communication between the United States , Australia and the Southwest Pacific Area . These bases also helped protect Rabaul , the major Japanese garrison and naval base in Papua New Guinea , and throughout 1943 , Allied planners determined that Bougainville was vital for neutralising the Japanese base around Rabaul . US Marines conducted an amphibious landing at Cape Torokina , on the western coast of the island , north of Empress Augusta Bay , in November 1943 . After an initial counter @-@ attack , the US Marines had been replaced by a garrison of US Army troops who began consolidating their position around Torokina , establishing a strong perimeter . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched a heavy counter @-@ attack , which was turned back with heavy casualties . After this , the situation on Bougainville became largely static , as the Japanese focused primarily on subsistence , and the US forces chose to adopt a mainly defensive posture focused on maintaining the perimeter around Torokina .
In late 1944 , the Australian Army had assumed responsibility for Allied operations on Bougainville , replacing US troops who were subsequently redeployed to the Philippines . At the time , the Australians believed that there were only 17 @,@ 500 Japanese on the island , although in reality it was actually more than 40 @,@ 000 . Against this , the Australians deployed Lieutenant General Stanley Savige 's II Corps , consisting of the 3rd Division and the 11th Brigade in November 1944 . The troops were Militiamen , part of Australia 's reserve military , consisting of volunteers and conscripts . Although their ranks included some Second Australian Imperial Force soldiers and officers who were veterans of earlier campaigns in the Middle East and New Guinea , they were largely inexperienced having served primarily in a garrison role in Australia and New Guinea prior to their commitment to Bougainville . In December , after a period of reconnaissance and information gathering , it was decided that the Australians would pursue an aggressive campaign to clear the Japanese from Bougainville .
The campaign subsequently developed into three separate drives by the Australians , who fanned out from the main Allied base at Torokina : in the north , centre and southern parts of the island . The first actions were fought around the seizure of Pearl Ridge in late December 1944 to secure control of the east – west avenues of approach across the island , and to prevent any possible Japanese counter @-@ attacks against Torokina . This was followed by actions in the north , where it was planned that Japanese forces would be forced into the narrow Bonis Peninsula and contained , while the main drive took place in the south , where the main Japanese forces were concentrated , with an initial drive towards Mosigetta , followed by an advance towards Buin on the coast . The drive south subsequently resulted in several actions around Slater 's Knoll and around the Hongorai River .
= = = Preliminary moves = = =
In the northern sector of the island , in February 1945 , Major General Kesao Kijima — commander of the Japanese 38th Independent Mixed Brigade — had ordered a withdrawal to Numa Numa , following the fighting around Tsimba Ridge . He subsequently left a force of 1 @,@ 400 sailors drawn from the 87th Naval Garrison Force and 2 @,@ 000 civilians to hold the Bonis Peninsula . Of these civilians , about 600 were armed , although only half were trained to undertake a combat role . As their supplies dwindled , in May – June the Japanese sailors — under the command of Captain Eikichi Kato , the senior naval officer in Buka — began to raid the Australian supply lines between Ruri Bay and Ratsua as they attempted to hold a position between Porton Plantation and Tarbut .
Meanwhile , Australian troops from the 11th Brigade had continued their advance north from Tsimba Ridge in April – May , clearing up to the Soraken Peninsula , which was captured by the middle of the month by the 26th Infantry Battalion . Throughout May , the 26th had also carried out an amphibious landing on Torokori Island . Meanwhile , throughout the same time the 55th / 53rd Infantry Battalion had advanced north @-@ east " through mangrove swamps ... and rugged foothills " from the Soraken Plantation towards Pora Pora ; this was occupied by early May and from there the Australians ranged north to Ruri Bay , establishing a line across the Bonis Peninsula over a distance of 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . By the end of May , the Japanese fell back behind a series of fortified positions along the base of the Bonis Peninsula . The 26th Infantry Battalion subsequently replaced the 55th / 53rd , but the Australian advance came to a halt .
In an effort to break this resistance and allow the northwards advance to continue , the Australians attempted to outflank the Japanese defensive line by launching an amphibious landing at Porton Plantation on 8 June . The plan called for a reinforced company from the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion to land behind the Japanese positions and attack from the west , while the main force consisting of the remainder of the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion and the 26th Infantry Battalion attempted to break through from the south . Due to poor planning , inadequate resources and strong Japanese defence , the landing failed at considerable cost to Australians , and as their efforts turned towards effecting a withdrawal from the beachhead and rescuing the stranded men , the attempt by the main force to break through from Ratsua also failed as tired troops came up against strong Japanese defensive positions .
= = Battle = =
Following the failed landing by the Australians at Porton Plantation , the commander of the Australian II Corps , Savige , decided to focus the main effort of the Australian campaign upon driving south towards the Japanese garrison at Buin , where the bulk of the Japanese forces were holding out . In order to concentrate enough forces for the next phase of the operation , Savige decided that the 11th Brigade , which had been carrying the advance north , should be relieved so that it could be transferred to the south following a period of rest and reorganisation .
Nevertheless , there was still a need to maintain the pressure upon the Japanese in the north , and so the 23rd Brigade — which had been previously operating in the central sector after being transferred from garrison duty in the Outer Islands — was also given responsibility for the northern sector as well , relieving the 11th Brigade on 20 June . The brigade 's commander — Brigadier Arnold Potts — was charged with keeping the Japanese force bottled up on the Bonis Peninsula and to send out patrols towards the Buka Passage . Initially , Potts was only allowed to allocate one of his three battalions — the 27th , under Lieutenant Colonel Alex Pope — for the task , as the other two — Lieutenant Colonel Harry Dunkley 's 7th Infantry Battalion and Lieutenant Colonel Lew Loughran 's 8th Infantry Battalion — were to remain in the central sector ; however , after intelligence reports indicated that the Japanese forces in the northern sector were stronger than the Australians initially thought , he requested permission to transfer the 8th Infantry Battalion , along with a battery of artillery from the 4th Field Regiment that was to be based on the Soraken Peninsula . Due to the requirements of the advance to the south , however , no engineer or armoured support was initially available .
This request was approved , and by 28 June the two battalions and their supporting artillery — approximately 1 @,@ 600 troops — were assembled , with the 8th on the left , or western side of the peninsula , the 27th on the right , and the artillery based on the Soraken Peninsula . The two battalions sent fighting patrols forward , but because of the dense terrain , the Australian line of communication was quite long and the infantry spread out over a very wide area . With each battalion occupying a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) front , which was twice the normal standard , security of their rear areas became difficult as the Japanese took the opportunity to disrupt the Australian logistic efforts , conducting ambushes , cutting communications and planting mines along the tracks . As the ambushes increased and casualties mounted , forward movement came to a halt , and by 21 July , the 27th Infantry Battalion reported having lost 10 men killed and 36 wounded without having gained any ground .
In light of this failure , the Australian brigade commander requested further resources to undertake a full @-@ scale offensive aimed at clearing the Japanese from the peninsula . This request was passed up to corps @-@ level , but it was denied as Savige could not afford to release assets that were being used in the drive south . Under pressure to keep casualties to a minimum following criticism in the Australian media and in Parliament regarding the necessity of the campaign , Potts formulated a plan to withdraw the 27th Infantry Battalion from the right flank around Ruri Bay , and concentrate his forces on the left flank along a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) front around the plantation at Buoi , to the north of Ratsua . Savige agreed to this on 22 July and the following day the 8th Infantry Battalion launched an attack against a feature known to the Australians as " Como Ridge " , which ran roughly northwest to southwest in the centre of the peninsula between Ruri Bay and Buoi Plantation . There it was believed that the Japanese were attempting to set up a forward position . The attack went in after a preliminary attack from the air , with one company attacking with two Matilda tanks from the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment in support . Although the airstrike had been largely ineffective and both of the tanks struggled to cross the " swampy ground " , the direct fire support provided by the tanks proved decisive and the Australians took the position within 20 minutes , killing 12 Japanese .
On 24 July , the 8th Infantry Battalion launched another attack with two platoons assaulting the Japanese position known as " Base 5 " . Prior to the assault , over 900 artillery shells and mortar bombs were brought down on the Japanese positions to prepare the position for the attack , but this proved ineffective against well @-@ entrenched positions . The Australians reached their first objective , which was a small ridge in front of the main Japanese position ; however , shortly after they began receiving effective fire from concealed positions , which killed two men and wounded another in the forward section , pinning it in place .
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flank the bunkers were answered with heavy fire from a Japanese medium machine gun and another man was killed and three more wounded . As the attack began to falter , one of the wounded , 20 @-@ year @-@ old Private Frank Partridge , who had been injured in the arm and thigh , braved the heavy fire that was being put down towards him and gathered the Bren light machine gun from the gunner who had been killed . After pouring suppressing fire onto the bunker , he discarded the Bren and regathered his rifle , before rushing towards the bunker with a grenade and killing its occupants . Partridge 's actions reinvigorated the attack and allowed the Australians to temporarily take the second Japanese position . After the wounded were recovered , the Australians withdrew having lost three men killed and five wounded . Against this eight Japanese were confirmed to have been killed . For his actions during the attack on 24 July , Partridge was awarded the Victoria Cross , the British Commonwealth 's highest military decoration . He was the last Australian to be awarded the medal during the Second World War , and was also the youngest .
Elsewhere , the Australians continued to mount patrols and ambushes . On 29 July , a platoon from the Papuan Infantry Battalion ( PIB ) clashed with a similar sized force of Japanese around the junction of the Ratsua Road – Umum Track . Two days later , after the PIB had assumed a flank security role on the eastern side of the peninsula , another patrol clashed with a party of Japanese who had been attempting to set up an ambush near Ruri Bay . In the ensuing fight , 14 Japanese were killed ; a further 20 were killed in a firefight around the same area of 7August . Meanwhile , on 2 August , a patrol from the 27th Infantry Battalion was sent out along the Ruri Bay Road in company with two tanks that were to act as their direct fire support . The Japanese were still active in the area , and had mined the road with a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) bomb that they had rigged to be detonated remotely . The Australian patrol accidentally triggered the device and the resulting explosion killed three men in one of the tanks and wounded eight infantrymen following behind . On 5 August , the Australians reoccupied the position at Base 5 after encountering only slight resistance and subsequently named it " Part Ridge " . After exploiting the position , it was discovered that the Japanese had built between 43 and 60 bunkers in the area . The majority of these had been destroyed by artillery , though , and after the area had been thoroughly searched for Japanese stragglers , the Australian patrol was withdrawn from the ridge .
= = Aftermath = =
The fighting around Base 5 was the final action of the fighting in the northern sector of the island , which essentially ended in stalemate . The Australians , under pressure to limit casualties to their largely inexperienced troops , had pursued a cautious campaign and had been slow to regain the initiative in the area following the defeat at Porton Plantation . In contrast , the Japanese commander — Kato — had been skillful and aggressive . On 11 August , in anticipation of the capitulation of Japan following the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japanese cities , the order to cease offensive combat operations on Bougainville was passed to all Australian units by their commanders .
Three days later , on 15 August , the Japanese Emperor Hirohito publicly announced Japan 's unconditional surrender , effectively bringing about an end to the war . On 18 August , in the southern sector of the island the Japanese commander , General Masatane Kanda , dispatched an envoy across the flood swollen Mivo River to begin negotiations with the Australians for the surrender of the over 23 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers left on the island , bringing about an end to the campaign . Throughout the course of the fighting on Bougainville from November 1944 to August 1945 , 526 Australians were killed , while a further 1 @,@ 572 were wounded . Approximately 8 @,@ 500 Japanese were killed in action and a further 9 @,@ 800 died from disease during this same period .
= Thief : The Dark Project =
Thief : The Dark Project , also known simply as Thief , is a 1998 first @-@ person stealth video game developed by Looking Glass Studios and published by Eidos Interactive . Set in a medieval steampunk metropolis called the City , the game follows Garrett , a master thief trained by a secret society . An expanded edition of the game , Thief Gold , was released in 1999 .
Thief was the first PC stealth game to use light and sound as game mechanics . Its use of first @-@ person perspective for non @-@ confrontational gameplay challenged the first @-@ person shooter market , which led the developers to call it a " first @-@ person sneaker " . The game combines complex artificial intelligence with simulation systems to allow for emergent gameplay . Thief 's influence has been traced to later stealth games such as Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell and Hitman .
The game received critical acclaim and has been placed on numerous hall @-@ of @-@ fame lists . With sales of half a million units by the year 2000 , it is Looking Glass ' most commercially successful game . Thief was followed by a series of three sequels : Thief II : The Metal Age ( 2000 ) , Thief : Deadly Shadows ( 2004 ) and the reboot Thief ( 2014 ) . Looking Glass closed after Thief II 's release , and so the latter two games were developed by Ion Storm and Eidos Montreal respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Thief takes place from a first @-@ person perspective in a 3D environment . As a stealth game , it emphasizes evasion over confrontation , and the player character has limited combat proficiency and damage resistance . Shadows may be used to avoid notice ; a monitor on the heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) indicates the player character 's visibility level . The player character may lean , crouch , climb , swim and run , among other actions . Surfaces cause varying amounts of noise ; for example , carpet is quiet and ceramic tiles are very loud . The player receives information about non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) through sound , such as the surface on which they are walking , their proximity and suspicion level . The player may use sound , such as a thrown object , to distract NPCs . Each of the game 's 12 levels has objectives , such as the theft of a specific item , that must be completed before another level is reached . The game 's three difficulty settings alter objectives , paths through the level , and other aspects . Levels are largely unscripted , and allow for emergent gameplay .
The game 's NPCs feature artificial intelligence ( AI ) systems that detect unscripted visual and aural cues ; if a NPC sees or hears the player character , it becomes suspicious . Depending on its level of suspicion , a NPC might ignore the cue or begin to actively seek the player . NPCs detect clashing swords , other NPCs ' voices , and changes to their environment , such as blood stains , opened doors and fallen bodies . The game contains both " guard " and " servant " NPCs , who vary in their reactions to the player character : guards call out an alert and attack , while servants will run for help . If a guard is significantly injured , it will try to escape . The game features non @-@ human characters , such as zombies , and certain levels contain survival horror elements .
The player character possesses a blackjack and a sword , which incapacitate and kill NPCs , respectively . The game features a sword @-@ combat system for direct confrontations ; it contains three directional attacks and the ability to parry . Fallen bodies may be picked up and hidden . The game 's bow may be used for ranged attacks or as a tool ; for example , " water arrows " extinguish torches while " rope arrows " lower a climbable rope . Other tools include lockpicks , " flashbombs " and speed potions , among other things . Weapon and item inventories are displayed in the bottom corners of the screen ; the player cycles through them to select objects . Equipment may be purchased between levels .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Thief takes place in a metropolis called " the City " , which has been noted to contain elements of the Middle Ages @-@ like dark fantasy and the Industrial Revolution . Project director Greg LoPiccolo said in an early preview : " In essence [ ... it 's ] this undefined medieval age , sort of medieval [ Europe ] meets Brazil meets City of Lost Children . There 's some electricity , some magic , and some 19th century machinery kind of stuff . " The setting has been described as steampunk , a fantastical setting where steam engine technology is prominently used . During levels , the player may learn about the setting by finding notes and overhearing conversations ; it has been noted that the player participates in the revelation of Thief 's setting .
The City contains three factions : the Keepers , and two opposing religious orders known as the Pagans and the Order of the Hammer , or " Hammerites " . The latter two have been cited as representations of chaos and order , respectively ; the neutral , secretive Keepers strive to maintain balance within the City . The Hammerites worship a deity called " The Builder " , and believe in progress , craftsmanship and righteousness ; the Pagans , who have been described as " primitive , almost animalistic " , worship the dangerous " Trickster " god and value the natural world . It has been assessed that the design of each group 's architecture reflects their beliefs .
= = = Story = = =
The game 's prologue sees Garrett , the protagonist , describing his youth as a homeless orphan on the City 's streets . He is caught while attempting to pickpocket a suspicious man who reveals himself to be a Keeper . Impressed by Garrett 's ability to see him , he offers him the chance to join his order . Garrett accepts , but later leaves the order to pursue a life of thievery . Years later , Garrett works as a thief , and is under pressure to join a crime ring . As punishment for his failure to pay a protection fee , he is targeted for assassination by the crime lord Ramirez . Garrett evades the assassins , and robs Ramirez 's mansion in retaliation . Following this , he is approached by a woman named Viktoria — the representative of an anonymous client who was impressed by Garrett 's theft from Ramirez . He is contracted to steal a sword from Constantine , an eccentric nobleman who recently arrived in the City . After Garrett completes the mission , Viktoria takes him to Constantine , who explains that he hired Garrett to steal his own sword as a test . Constantine offers him a fortune to steal The Eye — a gem kept within a sealed and deserted Hammerite cathedral .
To reach the cathedral , Garrett ventures through Old Quarter , a haunted , abandoned district of the City . Through an opening in the cathedral , The Eye informs Garrett of a nearby Keeper sanctuary , where he may learn how to unseal the cathedral . There , Garrett discovers that the cathedral was sealed to prevent the City 's destruction by the Trickster . He learns that there are four talismans needed to remove the seal : two hidden in ancient ruins beneath the City , and two inside a Hammerite temple ( in Thief Gold , one talisman is in possession of the mages and another was found at an opera house after it was taken from the caves below , while the other two are in the Lost City and the Hammerite Temple as in the original game ) . Garrett recovers the talismans and returns to the cathedral . After unsealing the cathedral , he learns that its inhabitants had been killed and made undead by The Eye . He returns The Eye to Constantine , who reveals himself to be the Trickster . Viktoria says that The Eye requires a flesh eye to function ; she binds Garrett with vines and removes his right eye . The Trickster places it on the gemstone , and the two disappear through a portal . Garrett , left for dead , is found and freed by two Keepers . During his escape from the Trickster 's mansion , he learns that the Trickster plans to use The Eye to revert the world to a wild state .
After Garrett escapes the mansion , he seeks help from the Order of the Hammer . However , he finds that the Trickster has attacked the Hammerite temple . In a refuge beneath the temple , he finds Hammerite survivors who provide him with a booby @-@ trapped replica of The Eye . Garrett descends into the Trickster 's domain , where he finds the Trickster performing a ritual with The Eye to complete his plan . Garrett stealthily substitutes The Eye with its copy , which kills the Trickster . Later , Garrett has acquired a mechanical replacement for his lost eye . On the streets of the City , a Keeper approaches Garrett and claims that he will soon require the Keepers ' help . Garrett dismisses him , and as he walks away , the Keeper warns of the encroaching " metal age " .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
Thief began development in April 1996 . For the game 's original designer and writer Ken Levine , credited by The Telegraph as " a key figure in the creation " of Thief , inspirations came from two of his favourite games , Castle Wolfenstein and Diablo . The initial concept was to make an action role @-@ playing game and Levine was given the job of designing the game 's world and story . Levine said the initial ideas and projects that have later morphed into Dark Camelot , before eventually evolving into The Dark Project , included School of Wizards and Better Red Than Undead , the latter of which was " a campy story " about communist zombies . The game was supposed to be a first @-@ person sword fighting simulator , but " the marketing [ department ] killed the idea , " to his disappointment . According to programmer Marc LeBlanc , " The first proposal was Better Red Than Undead , a ' 50s Cold War game where the Soviet Union is overrun with zombies and you have to go hack them to pieces as the loner from the CIA because bullets don 't work on the undead . " Doug Church said the game 's design was built around the idea " of having factions who you could ally with or oppose yourself with or do things for or not . "
= = = Dark Camelot = = =
The next concept , Dark Camelot , still focused on sword combat . Its plot — an inversion of Arthurian legend — featured Mordred as a misunderstood hero , King Arthur as a tyrannical villain and Merlin as a psychopath . According to Church , the game featured Morgan le Fay as Mordred 's " sort of good " advisor and Guinevere as a lesbian who would betray Lancelot and help Mordred to break into Camelot and steal the Holy Grail . The game 's design combined a first @-@ person perspective with action , role @-@ playing and adventure elements . Warren Spector , who had recently left Origin Systems to found Looking Glass Studios Austin , became Dark Camelot 's producer after his predecessor departed . Artist Dan Thron said : " For a good long time , we had no idea what the game was about , until somebody stumbled upon the whole thief game play where you 're not just running out trying to chop people up . " Church recalled that " the basic stealth model was [ ... ] having the guard looking the other way and you going past pretty quickly . So Paul [ Nerath ] had been pushing for a while that the thief side of it was the really interesting part and why not you just do a thief game . " A previously unreleased trailer for Dark Camelot and its Stargate Engine was uploaded to YouTube in 2013 .
= = = Production = = =
In early 1997 , Dark Camelot 's name was tentatively changed to The Dark Project and its design altered to focus on thievery and stealth . Nevertheless , some levels originally designed for Dark Camelot ended up in the final product . In March , project director Greg LoPiccolo described the game 's design : " Essentially we 're building a type of simulator [ ... ] where object interactions are correct and physics are tied in correctly . " Then @-@ lead designer Jeff Yaus reiterated : " The goal is for everything to behave as it should . For example , things that burn will burn , and then it 's up to the player to decide to burn things , whether or not we 've anticipated it . " The first draft of stealth design was presented by Levine and Dorian Hart on April 4 . Levine said inspiration for the idea of being powerful when undetected but very vulnerable when exposed came from the concept of submarine warfare and in particular from the 1985 simulation video game Silent Service . Multiplayer support was planned , including the " theftmatch " mode ( a pun on deathmatch ) " where small teams of thieves compete under time pressure to steal the greatest value of swag from the territory of wealthy NPC 's and their guard " . Full @-@ scale development on The Dark Project began in May 1997 , with a frantic work on a demo level and trailer for E3 1997 . Originally announced to come out in Summer 1997 , the game was delayed to Winter 1997 @-@ 98 .
However , Looking Glass Studios experienced serious financial trouble as development progressed into mid @-@ 1997 . The company 's Austin branch closed , costing Spector and several game engine programmers ; this team relocated to ION Storm , and released Deus Ex in 2000 . Spector later called his impact on Thief , " at best , minimal " . Levine too had left the The Dark Project project before the Keepers factions was added to the game . By April 18 , Looking Glass Studios laid off half of its entire staff in six months , which damaged morale of The Dark Project team , which at this point was vastly different from the one with which the development began . " Few emotions can compare to the stress of heading to work not knowing who might be laid off , including yourself , or whether the doors would be locked when you got there , " lead programmer Tom Leonard later said . This stress caused several team members to voluntarily quit , including the lead programmer ( Briscoe Rogers ) who had designed the game 's AI system , which suffered from software bugs and problems with complexity .
When Leonard took over the position of lead programmer , he believed that the AI system was fixable ; over several months , he learned that the pathfinding database — code that helps AI navigate a map — was unsalvageable . He completed the design — but not implementation — of a new system by November 1997 , using an estimated one @-@ fifth of the original code . Several features were removed during development , among them multiplayer support , a complex inventory interface , and branching mission structures . Leonard said they " focused in on creating a single @-@ player , linear , mission @-@ based game centered exclusively around stealth . " He believed that the removal of multiplayer support and the game 's renaming — from The Dark Project to Thief : The Dark Project — solidified this in the minds of the team . The game was renamed on April 3 , 1998 , the new title being much more descriptive and inspired by that of the role @-@ playing game Vampire : The Masquerade . Several features have been brainstormed and rejected , including " Spider @-@ Man @-@ esque " ability to climb on walls and ceilings and the shrinking and invisibility potions . By summer 1998 , the team was challenged by exhaustion and the game 's numerous simulation and AI glitches . These problems resulted in what Leonard later described as " a game [ that ] could not be called fun . " Implementation of Leonard 's new AI system was halted so the team could quickly assemble proof @-@ of @-@ concept demos ; publisher Eidos Interactive had grown skeptical over the team 's vision . Work on the AI did not resume until March 1998 , and after 12 more weeks of constant work , it was ready for what Leonard called , " real testing " .
Three months before the game 's scheduled ship date , most problems had been resolved . The team began to believe , as Leonard described , that Thief " did not stink , [ and ] might actually be fun . " Further , the release of games like Commandos : Behind Enemy Lines , Half @-@ Life and Metal Gear Solid eased worries that experimental gameplay styles were unmarketable . According to Leonard , " A new energy revitalized the team . Long hours driven by passion and measured confidence marked the closing months of the project . " The game went gold in November 1998 , following an estimated 2 @.@ 5 year development cycle and a $ 3 million budget .
= = = Design = = =
The design of Thief focused on stealth and evasion from a first @-@ person perspective . Leonard said this idea challenged the standard first @-@ person shooter concept : " It is a game style that many observers were concerned might not appeal to players [ ... ] and even those intimately involved with the game had doubts at times . " In response to the sentiment that their previous games " [ required ] a fair amount of investment from the player to get maximal enjoyment " , the team specifically designed Thief to allow players to " pick [ it ] up and start playing " . While the team 's goal was to " push the envelope " with the game 's design , Church said that it shared its core design with previous Looking Glass Studios games . He explained : " [ We try to ] provide a range of player capability in [ a ] world [ where ] the player can choose their own goals , and their own approaches to an obstacle [ ... so that ] when they reach the goal it is far more satisfying " , and that " flexible simulation of game elements is a powerful way to enable the player to make their own way in the world " .
Thief was designed to be largely unscripted ; events , instead of being pre @-@ defined by designers , occur naturally . The intent was to further increase the amount of " player interaction and improvisation " over their previous games . According to Leonard , Thief 's central gameplay mechanic was the player 's relationship with NPCs , who are the primary obstacle in the game . The game 's goal of emergent events required a sophisticated AI system . Leonard later demonstrated that first @-@ person shooters , like Half @-@ Life , often utilize " look and listen " AI systems , wherein NPCs become aggressive when the player is seen or heard . He explained that the Thief system defined a broader range of " internal states " a NPC could feel , such as suspicion . For example , a NPC who heard a suspicious noise would investigate rather than become immediately hostile .
Designer Randy Smith said : " In Thief the safe boundary is often between light and shadow [ ... but ] these boundaries are [ ... ] not stable or secure [ ... . ] The player will eventually have to emerge from the safe zone [ ... ] and embrace risk until another safe boundary can be found " . He explained that players felt unsafe even when hidden , but learned to judge their level of safety as they improved . Certain levels included horror elements , and one such mission , Return to the Cathedral , intentionally removes players ' ability to judge their vulnerability . Believing that " nothing augments the fear associated with boundaries like forcing the player to violate them of their own free will " , Smith said of the mission : " Eventually [ you force ] yourself to do practically every scary thing you noticed the potential to do in the whole level " . Kieron Gillen of PC Gamer UK believed that the level creates " a cycle of relaxation and abhorrence [ ... that results ] in a devastating pummelling of the nerve endings . "
The game 's missions were designed to suit the story , rather than the story to fit the missions . Taking inspiration from GoldenEye 007 , the team added a difficulty system that changes mission objectives ; Leonard said " it allowed the designers to create a very different experience at each level of difficulty , without changing the overall geometry and structure of a mission . This gave the game a high degree of replayability at a minimum development cost " . The team extended the concept by decreasing the player 's ability to kill human characters on higher difficulty settings . Writer and voice actress Terri Brosius said : " We took pains to make sure all the missions could be won without killing any humans " .
Project director Greg LoPiccolo wanted Thief 's audio to both enrich the environment and enhance gameplay , and the game 's design necessitated an advanced sound system . The designers created a " room database " for every mission ; these provided a realistic representation of sound wave propagation . Audio designer Eric Brosius and the development team gave sound multiple roles . It was used to give the player aural clues about the NPCs ' locations and internal states ; to enhance this , vocals were recorded for NPCs . Conversely , sounds generated by objects gave clues to NPCs about the player 's location , and NPCs used sound to communicate ; a guard 's call for help signals other guards within earshot . Sound was also used to divulge narrative information , so that stealthy players could eavesdrop on NPC conversations and learn more about the game 's backstory .
= = = Technology = = =
Thief was developed with the Dark Engine , a proprietary game engine . It was written during the game 's development , rather than as a separately budgeted project , which led to time constraint issues . An emphasis was placed on simulating real life physics ; arrows would arc through the air rather than fly straight . The engine features alpha blending , texture filtering and lighting techniques . Motion capture technology was integrated to allow for realistic character animation . The engine 's renderer — which draws the graphics — was largely written by Looking Glass Studios programmer Sean Barrett in fall 1995 . While the renderer was expected to be finished before the game 's release date , Barrett left the company in 1996 . He later performed contract work for the company , and assisted in writing features like hardware support . However , the renderer was never fully addressed , and was less advanced than others of the time .
The Dark Engine was designed to be reusable , and to give programmers the ability to easily integrate their work . LeBlanc wrote the " Dark Object System " , which became the center of this concept . According to Leonard , the object system was a " general database for managing the individual objects in a simulation " . Designers were able to alter the game 's behavior by manipulating objects — the content that composes the game — without writing additional code . The system also managed source data , the game 's tangible content such as textures , maps , models and sounds . An unfinished build of the Dark Engine was used to develop System Shock 2 , a collaboration between Looking Glass and Irrational Games . The object system worked so well that Thief and System Shock 2 used the same executable for most of their development .
= = = Release = = =
Thief was released by Eidos Interactive on November 30 , 1998 . An expanded edition of the game , Thief Gold , was released by Looking Glass and Eidos on October 29 , 1999 . It features three new missions , and improvements to the original 12 . Its disc also contains a level editor and a " making of Thief II : The Metal Age " video , among other extras .
= = Reception = =
Thief : The Dark Project sold half a million copies by May 2000 , making it Looking Glass Studios ' most commercially successful game .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The game received critical acclaim from sources including The Washington Post , PC Gamer , and Salon.com. Lance A. Larka of Computer Gaming World wrote : " If you 're tired of Doom clones and hungry for challenge , give this fresh perspective game a try . I was pleasantly surprised . " Emil Pagliarulo of The Adrenaline Vault wrote : " I will tell you , without reservation , [ ... ] that this has become my favorite game of all time . " Paul Presley of PC Zone called it " a bloody good game " .
Kieron Gillen of PC Gamer UK wrote : " The freedom Thief offers you is at first terrifying , then absolutely intoxicating . " Aaron Curtiss of Los Angeles Times noted that the game " demands thought " . T. Liam McDonald of PC Gamer US called Thief , " a challenging , riveting game that defies easy categorization " , and praised the game for its focus on the player 's cunning . Jason Cross of Computer Games Strategy Plus noted that " It 's quite amazing how much fun it can be to avoid action " . Chan Chun of New Straits Times described the game as being " incredibly immersive and suspenseful , " and " a highly @-@ recommended game for those yearning to be a night rogue . " Peter Olafson of GamePro praised the game 's AI , and said that the game " gets better ... the more time you spend with it " .
The game 's sound was widely praised . Presley wrote : " The sound adds a whole new level of realism to the game and boosts that whole ' total immersion ' thing to previously unattained levels . " Larka noted that " the audio is simply amazing . With directional noises and haunting ' background ' effects you are plunged into Garrett 's shadowy world and left with a pounding heart and twitchy nerves . " Wagner James Au of Salon.com noted that the game 's level of suspense was " exquisite " and that its use of detailed aural cues as a gameplay device bordered on virtual reality .
Thief 's graphics received a mixed reaction , with several negative comparisons to Half @-@ Life and Unreal . However , Andrew Sanchez of Maximum PC praised the game 's graphics and noted that the Dark Engine went " feature @-@ for @-@ feature with the LithTech , Quake , and Unreal engines " . He also praised the game 's AI , sound and plot . Larka disliked the game 's extremely dark areas , which required him to " max out the gamma correction and set [ his ] monitor to its brightest setting just to see the barest details " but called the graphics " seamless " . Some reviews complained about collision detection issues .
The game 's use of supernatural and cave @-@ exploring elements received criticism , and several reviewers opined that more realistic , mansion @-@ robbing missions should have been used instead . Presley believed that the game 's undead enemies caused the game to " degenerate into the standard hack ' n ' slash , sub @-@ Conan sort of thing that Heretic , Hexen and a million others gave us , " and that " it amounts to [ ... ] an erosion of the storytelling skills that Looking Glass once had . " Gillen decried certain levels for " infring [ ing ] on Tomb Raider territory , and then [ not ] quite pull [ ing ] it off " . Larka found certain levels too difficult . Next Generation noted that while " sneaking can get repetitive " , Thief is " still a fun game to play " and " a worthy addition to the genre . "
= = Legacy = =
Thief was the first 3D stealth game for a personal computer , and its stealth gameplay innovations influenced later games in the genre . The game has been cited as the first to use light and shadow as a stealth mechanic , and the first to use audio cues , such as the ability to eavesdrop on conversations and alert guards with loud footsteps . The game 's use of sound wave propagation , which allowed sounds to travel around corners and through rooms , became widely considered by game developers . Thief 's influence has been recognized in other stealth games , such as Assassin 's Creed , Hitman , Splinter Cell , and Tenchu . Marc Laidlaw , writer and designer on Half @-@ Life , said that " Thief is the single most terrifying , immersive , and rewarding game I have played and the one single @-@ player game I continue to replay . [ ... ] There are countless books I wish I had written ; Thief is one of the few games I wish I had worked on . " Laidlaw called Thief his favorite game , an opinion shared by Fallout 3 lead designer Emil Pagliarulo .
Thief : The Dark Project has been declared one of the greatest games of all time by several publications . Inducting it into its hall of fame , GameSpy writer Rich Carlson wrote : " With a tactical philosophy contrary to nearly every FPS action game at that time , Thief rewarded stealth and sneaking over brazen frontal assault , " continuing : " While inadvertently undermining the notion that all action games need be shooters , it carved a completely new niche in the same already glutted genre . " GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin argued that , while Metal Gear Solid , Tenchu : Stealth Assassins and Thief all defined the stealth action genre , it was Thief that displayed " the purest depiction of what it might be like to slip from shadow to shadow " and " largely remains an unsurpassed achievement in gaming . " In 2009 , Thief was added to IGN 's hall of fame . Sid Shuman , writing for GamePro , asserted that Thief " pioneered its own genre ... the stealth @-@ action title . " John Walker of Eurogamer wrote in a retrospective review : " Thief is an embarrassment to modern stealth games , each of which produces only a faded parody of this masterful original . " In 2012 , Mike Fahey of Kotaku called Thief " the best stealth game I 've ever played " , superior to modern games in the genre . That same year , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time .
Thief : The Dark Project was followed by two sequels , and a fourth game rebooting the series has also been released . Looking Glass Studios developed Thief II : The Metal Age , which received positive reviews when released in March 2000 . Thief : Deadly Shadows , released for both Windows and the Xbox , was developed by ION Storm Austin due to the 2000 closure of Looking Glass Studios . After a troubled development cycle , the game 's May 2004 release met with positive reviews . In May 2009 , a fourth Thief game was revealed to be in development by Eidos Montreal for Windows , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . It received mixed to positive reviews upon release . After Looking Glass Studios closed its doors , Thief has been supported by community modifications ( mods ) . Standalone fan made remake The Dark Mod aims to recreate the ' essence ' of Thief in a modern game engine . Originally released in 2009 as a mod for Doom 3 , in October 2013 it was released as an open source standalone game . In December 2013 , fan made high definition texture mod Thief Gold HD was released .
= Aposematism =
Aposematism ( from Greek ἀπό apo away , σ ̑ ημα sema sign , coined by Edward Bagnall Poulton ) , perhaps most commonly known in the context of warning coloration , describes a family of antipredator adaptations in which a warning signal is associated with the unprofitability of a prey item to potential predators . Aposematism always involves an advertising signal . The warning signal may take the form of conspicuous animal coloration , sounds , odours or other perceivable characteristics . Aposematic signals are beneficial for both the predator and prey , since both avoid potential harm .
Aposematism is exploited in Müllerian mimicry , where species with strong defences evolve to resemble one another . By mimicking similarly coloured species , the warning signal to predators is shared , causing them to learn more quickly at less of a cost to each of the species .
Warning signals do not necessarily require that a species actually possesses chemical or physical defences to deter predators . Mimics such as the nonvenomous California mountain kingsnake ( Lampropeltis zonata ) , which has yellow , red , and black bands similar to those of the highly venomous eastern coral snake ( Micrurus fulvius ) , have essentially piggybacked on the successful aposematism of the model . The evolution of a warning signal by a mimicking species that resembles a species that possesses strong defences is known as Batesian mimicry .
= = Etymology = =
The term Aposematism was coined by the English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton in his 1890 book The Colours of Animals . He based the term on the Ancient Greek words ἀπό apo away , ση ̑ μα sēma sign , referring to signs that warn other animals away .
= = Defence mechanism = =
The function of aposematism is to prevent attack , by warning potential predators that the prey animal has defences such as being unpalatable or poisonous . The easily detected warning is a primary defence mechanism , and the non @-@ visible defences are secondary . Aposematic signals are primarily visual , using bright colours and high @-@ contrast patterns such as stripes . Warning signals are honest indications of noxious prey , because conspicuousness evolves in tandem with noxiousness . Thus , the brighter and more conspicuous the organism , the more toxic it usually is . The most common and effective colours are red , yellow , black and white . These colours provide strong contrast with green foliage , resist changes in shadow and lighting , have strong contrast , are highly chromatic , and provide distance dependent camouflage . Some forms of warning colouration provide this distance dependent camouflage by having an effective pattern and colour combination that do not allow for easy detection by a predator from a distance , but are warning @-@ like from a close proximity , allowing for an advantageous balance between camouflage and aposematism . Warning colouration evolves in response to background , light conditions , and predator vision . Visible signals may be accompanied by odours , sounds or behaviour to provide a multi @-@ modal signal which is more effectively detected by predators .
Unpalatability , broadly understood , can be created in a variety of ways . Some insects such as the ladybird or tiger moth contain bitter @-@ tasting chemicals , while the skunk produces a noxious odour , and the poison glands of the poison dart frog , the sting of a velvet ant or neurotoxin in a black widow spider make them dangerous or painful to attack . Tiger moths advertise their unpalatability by either producing ultrasonic noises which warn bats to avoid them , or by warning postures which expose brightly coloured body parts ( see Unkenreflex ) , or exposing eyespots . Velvet ants ( actually parasitic wasps ) such as Dasymutilla occidentalis both have bright colours and produce audible noises when grabbed ( via stridulation ) , which serve to reinforce the warning . Among mammals , predators can be dissuaded when a smaller animal is aggressive and able to defend itself , as for example in honey badgers .
= = Prevalence = =
= = = In terrestrial ecosystems = = =
Aposematism is widespread in insects , but less so in vertebrates , being mostly confined to a smaller number of reptile , amphibian , and fish species . Perhaps the most numerous aposematic vertebrates are the poison dart frogs . Some plants are thought to employ aposematism to warn herbivores of unpalatable chemicals or physical defences such as prickled leaves or thorns . Many insects , such as cinnabar moth caterpillars , acquire toxic chemicals from their host plants . Among mammals , skunks and zorillas advertise their foul @-@ smelling chemical defences with sharply contrasting black @-@ and @-@ white patterns on their fur . Some brightly coloured birds such as passerines with contrasting patterns may also be aposematic , at least in females ; but since male birds are often brightly coloured through sexual selection , and their colouration is not correlated with edibility , it is unclear whether aposematism is significant .
= = = In marine ecosystems = = =
The existence of aposematism in marine ecosystems is controversial . Many marine organisms , particularly those on coral reefs , are brightly coloured or patterned , including sponges , corals , molluscs and fishes , with little or no connection to chemical or physical defenses . Caribbean reef sponges are brightly coloured , and many of them are chemically defended , but there is no relationship between the two factors .
Nudibranch molluscs are the most commonly cited examples of aposematism in marine ecosystems , but the evidence for this has been contested , mostly because ( 1 ) there are few examples of mimicry among species , ( 2 ) many species are nocturnal or cryptic , and ( 3 ) bright colours at the red end of the colour spectrum are rapidly attenuated as a function of water depth . For example , the Spanish Dancer nudibranch ( genus Hexabranchus ) , among the largest of tropical marine slugs , potently chemically defended , and brilliantly red and white , is nocturnal and has no known mimics . Mimicry is to be expected as Batesian mimics with weak defences can gain a measure of protection from their resemblance to aposematic species . Other studies have concluded that nudibranchs such as the slugs of the family Phyllidiidae from Indo @-@ Pacific coral reefs are aposematically coloured . Müllerian mimicry has been implicated in the colouration of some Mediterranean nudibranchs , all of which derive defensive chemicals from their sponge diet .
The crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish , like other starfish such as Metrodira subulata , has conspicuous coloration and conspicuous long , sharp spines , as well as chemical defences in the form of saponins ; this evidence is argued to be sufficient for such species to be considered aposematic . It has been proposed that aposematism and mimicry is less evident in marine invertebrates than terrestrial insects because predation is a more intense selective force for many insects , which also disperse as adults rather than as larvae and have much shorter generation times . Further , there is evidence that fish predators such as blueheads may adapt to visual cues more rapidly than do birds , making aposematism less effective .
Blue @-@ ringed octopuses are venomous . They spend much of their time hiding in crevices whilst displaying effective camouflage patterns with their dermal chromatophore cells . However , if they are provoked , they quickly change colour , becoming bright yellow with each of the 50 @-@ 60 rings flashing bright iridescent blue within a third of a second . It is often stated this is an aposematic warning display , although it is pointed out that such statements are often made without the hypothesis being tested .
= = Behaviour = =
The defence mechanism relies on the memory of the would @-@ be predator ; a bird that has once experienced a foul @-@ tasting grasshopper will endeavour to avoid a repetition of the experience . As a consequence , aposematic species are often gregarious . Before the memory of a bad experience attenuates , the predator may have the experience reinforced through repetition . Aposematic organisms often move in a languid fashion , as they have little need for speed and agility . Instead , their morphology is frequently tough and resistant to injury , thereby allowing them to escape once the predator is warned off . Aposematic species do not need to hide or stay still as cryptic organisms do , so aposematic individuals benefit from more freedom in exposed areas and can spend more time foraging , allowing them to find more and better quality food . Aposematic individuals can similarly make use of conspicuous mating displays .
= = Origins of the theory = =
= = = Wallace , 1867 = = =
Alfred Russel Wallace suggested in a letter to Charles Darwin that the conspicuous colour schemes of some insects might have evolved through natural selection as a warning to predators . Darwin had proposed that conspicuous colouration could be explained in many species by means of sexual selection , but had realised that this could not explain the bright colouration of some caterpillars , since these larvae were not sexually active . Wallace replied that just as the contrasting coloured bands of a hornet warned of its defensive sting , so the bright colours of the caterpillar could warn of its unpalatability . Since Darwin was enthusiastic about the idea , in 1867 Wallace asked the Entomological Society of London to test the hypothesis . In response , the entomologist John Jenner Weir conducted experiments with caterpillars and birds in his aviary , and in 1869 he provided the first experimental evidence for warning colouration in animals .
= = = Poulton , 1890 = = =
The concept of warning colouration was extended by Edward Bagnall Poulton in The Colours of Animals ( 1890 ) :
When an animal possesses an unpleasant attribute , it is often to its advantage to advertise the fact as publicly as possible . In this way it escapes a great deal of experimental ' tasting . ' The conspicuous patterns and strongly contrasted colours which serve as the signal of danger or inedibility are known as Warning Colours ... It is these Warning Colours which are nearly always the objects of Protective Mimicry , and it will therefore be convenient to describe the former before the latter .
Poulton introduced the term aposematism in the same book with the words :
The second head ( Sematic Colours ) includes Warning Colours and Recognition Markings : the former warn an enemy off , and are therefore called Aposematic [ Greek , apo , from , and sema , sign ]
= = Evolution = =
Aposematism is paradoxical in evolutionary terms , as it makes individuals conspicuous to predators , so they may be killed and the trait eliminated before predators learn to avoid it . If warning colouration puts the first few individuals at such a strong disadvantage , it would never last in the species long enough to become beneficial .
= = = Supported explanations = = =
There is evidence for explanations involving dietary conservatism , in which predators avoid new prey because it is an unknown quantity ; this is a long @-@ lasting effect . Dietary conservatism has been demonstrated experimentally in some species of birds . Further , birds recall and avoid objects that are both conspicuous and foul @-@ tasting longer than objects that are equally foul @-@ tasting but cryptically coloured . This suggests that Wallace 's original view , that warning colouration helped to teach predators to avoid prey thus coloured , was correct . However , some birds ( inexperienced starlings and domestic chicks ) also innately avoid conspicuously coloured objects , as demonstrated using mealworms painted yellow and black to resemble wasps , with dull green controls . This implies that warning colouration works at least in part by stimulating the evolution of predators to encode the meaning of the warning signal , rather than by requiring each new generation to learn the signal 's meaning . All of these results contradict the idea that novel , brightly coloured individuals would be more likely to be eaten or attacked by predators .
= = = Alternative hypotheses = = =
Other explanations are possible . Predators might innately fear unfamiliar forms ( neophobia ) long enough for them to become established , but this is likely to be only temporary .
Alternatively , prey animals might be sufficiently gregarious to form clusters tight enough to enhance the warning signal . If the species was already unpalatable , predators might learn to avoid the cluster , protecting gregarious individuals with the new aposematic trait . Gregariousness would assist predators to learn to avoid unpalatable , gregarious prey . Aposematism could also be favoured in dense populations even if these are not gregarious .
Another possibility is that a gene for aposematism might be recessive and located on the X chromosome . If so , predators would learn to associate the colour with unpalatability from males with the trait , while heterozygous females carry the trait until it becomes common and predators understand the signal . Well @-@ fed predators might also ignore aposematic morphs , preferring other prey species .
A further explanation is that females might prefer brighter males , so sexual selection could result in aposematic males having higher reproductive success than non @-@ aposematic males if they can survive long enough to mate . Sexual selection is strong enough to allow seemingly maladaptive traits to persist despite other factors working against the trait .
Once aposematic individuals reach a certain threshold population , for whatever reason , the predator learning process would be spread out over a larger number of individuals and therefore is less likely to wipe out the trait for warning colouration completely . If the population of aposematic individuals all originated from the same few individuals , the predator learning process would result in a stronger warning signal for surviving kin , resulting in higher inclusive fitness for the dead or injured individuals through kin selection .
= = Mimicry = =
Aposematism is a sufficiently successful strategy to have had significant effects on the evolution of both aposematic and non @-@ aposematic species .
Non @-@ aposematic species have often evolved to mimic the conspicuous markings of their aposematic counterparts . For example , the hornet moth is a mimic of the yellowjacket wasp ; it resembles the wasp , but has no sting . A predator which avoids the wasp will to some degree also avoid the moth . This is known as Batesian mimicry , after Henry Walter Bates , a British naturalist who studied Amazonian butterflies in the second half of the 19th century . Batesian mimicry is frequency dependent : it is most effective when the ratio of mimic to model is low ; otherwise , predators learn to recognise the impostors .
A second form of mimicry occurs when two aposematic organisms share the same anti @-@ predator adaptation and mimic each other , to the benefit of both species , since fewer individuals of either species need to be attacked for predators to learn to avoid both of them . This form of mimicry is known as Müllerian mimicry , after Fritz Müller , a German naturalist who studied the phenomenon in the Amazon in the late 19th century . Many species of bee and wasp that occur together are Müllerian mimics ; their similar colouration teaches predators that a striped pattern is associated with being stung . Therefore , a predator which has had a negative experience with any such species will likely avoid any that resemble it in the future . Müllerian mimicry is found in vertebrates such as the mimic poison frog ( Ranitomeya imitator ) which has several morphs throughout its natural geographical range , each of which looks very similar to a different species of poison frog which lives in that area .
= Robert of Jumièges =
Robert of Jumièges ( sometimes Robert Chambert or Robert Champart ; died between 1052 and 1055 ) was the first Norman Archbishop of Canterbury . He had previously served as prior of the Abbey of St Ouen at Rouen in Normandy , before becoming abbot of Jumièges Abbey , near Rouen , in 1037 . He was a good friend and adviser to the king of England , Edward the Confessor , who appointed him Bishop of London in 1044 , and then archbishop in 1051 . Robert 's time as archbishop lasted only about eighteen months . He had already come into conflict with the powerful Godwin , Earl of Wessex , and while archbishop made attempts to recover lands lost to Godwin and his family . He also refused to consecrate Spearhafoc , Edward 's choice to succeed Robert as Bishop of London . The rift between Robert and Godwin culminated in Robert 's deposition and exile in 1052 .
A Norman medieval chronicler claimed that Robert travelled to Normandy in 1051 or 1052 and told Duke William of Normandy , the future William the Conqueror , that Edward wished for him to become his heir . The exact timing of Robert 's trip , and whether he actually made it , have been the subject of debate among historians . The archbishop died in exile at Jumièges sometime between 1052 and 1055 . Robert commissioned significant building work at Jumièges and was probably involved in the first Romanesque building in England , the church built in Westminster for Edward the Confessor , now known as Westminster Abbey . Robert 's treatment by the English was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England .
= = Background and life in Normandy = =
Robert was prior of the monastery of St Ouen at Rouen before he became abbot of the important Jumièges Abbey in 1037 . Jumièges had been refounded under William Longsword , Duke of Normandy. around 940 , Its ties with the ducal family were close and it played a role in ducal government and church reform . Robert 's alternate surname " Champart " or " Chambert " probably derived from champart , a term for the part of a crop paid as rent to a landlord . Besides evidence that the preceding abbot at Jumièges was a relative , Robert 's origin and family background are otherwise unknown . While abbot , Robert began construction of the abbey church , in the new Romanesque style .
Robert became friendly with Edward the Confessor , a claimant to the English throne , while Edward was living in exile in Normandy , probably in the 1030s . Edward was the son of Æthelred the Unready , king of England , who had been replaced by Cnut the Great in 1016 . Cnut subsequently married Æthelred 's widow Emma of Normandy , Edward 's mother , and had a son with her , Harthacanute . For their own safety , Edward and his brother Alfred were sent to Emma 's relatives in Normandy . After Cnut 's death in 1035 , Harold Harefoot , his elder son by his first wife , acceded to the English throne . Following Harald 's death in 1040 , Harthacanute succeeded him for a short time , but as neither Harald nor Harthacanute left offspring , the throne was offered to Edward on Harthacanute 's death in 1042 . There is some evidence that Edward spent some of his time in exile around Jumièges , as after becoming king he gave gifts to the abbey .
= = Bishop and Archbishop = =
Robert accompanied Edward the Confessor on Edward 's recall to England in 1042 to become king following Harthacanute 's death . It was due to Edward that in August 1044 Robert was appointed Bishop of London , one of the first episcopal vacancies which occurred in Edward 's reign . Robert remained close to the king and was the leader of the party opposed to Earl Godwin , Earl of Wessex . Godwin , for his part , was attempting to expand the influence of his family , which had already acquired much land . His daughter was Edward 's queen , and two of his sons were elevated to earldoms . The Life of Saint Edward , a hagiographical work on King Edward 's life , claimed that Robert " was always the most powerful confidential adviser of the king " . Robert seems to have favoured closer relations with Normandy , and its duke . Edward himself had grown up in the duchy , and spent 25 years in exile there before his return to England . He brought many Normans with him to England , and seems to have spent much time in their company .
When Archbishop Eadsige of Canterbury died in October 1050 , the post remained vacant for five months . The cathedral chapter elected Æthelric , a kinsman of Godwin and a monk at Canterbury , but were over @-@ ruled when Edward appointed Robert Archbishop of Canterbury the following year . Godwin was attempting to exercise his power of patronage over the archbishopric , but the king 's appointment signalled that the king was willing to contest with the earl over the traditional royal rights at Canterbury . Although the monks of Canterbury opposed it , the king 's appointment stood . Robert went to Rome to receive his pallium and returned to England where he was ceremonially enthroned at Canterbury on 29 June 1051 . Some Norman chroniclers state that he visited Normandy on this trip and informed Duke William , the future William the Conqueror , that he was the childless King Edward 's heir . According to these chroniclers , the decision to make William the heir had been decided at the same lenten royal council in 1051 that had declared Robert archbishop .
After returning from Rome , Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc , the Abbot of Abingdon and the king 's goldsmith , as his successor to the bishopric of London , claiming that Pope Leo IX had forbidden the consecration . Almost certainly the grounds were simony , the purchase of ecclesiastical office , as Leo had recently issued proclamations against the practice . In refusing to consecrate Spearhafoc , Robert may have been following his own interests against the wishes of both the king and Godwin , as he had his own candidate , a Norman , in mind . In the end Robert 's favoured candidate , William the Norman , was consecrated instead of Spearhafoc . Robert also discovered that some lands belonging to Canterbury had fallen into Godwin 's hands , but his efforts to recover them through the shire courts were unsuccessful . Canterbury had lost control of some revenues from the shire of Kent to Godwin during Eadsige 's tenure as archbishop , which Robert unsuccessfully attempted to reclaim . These disputes over the estates and revenues of the archbishopric contributed to the friction between Robert and Godwin , which had begun with Robert 's election . Robert 's election had disrupted Godwin 's patronage powers in Canterbury , and now Robert 's efforts to recover lands Godwin had seized from Canterbury challenged the earl 's economic rights . Events came to a head at a council held at Gloucester in September 1051 , when Robert accused Earl Godwin of plotting to kill King Edward . Godwin and his family were exiled ; afterwards Robert claimed the office of sheriff of Kent , probably on the strength of Eadsige , his predecessor as Archbishop , having held the office .
Although Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc , there is little evidence that he was interested in the growing movement towards Church reform being promulgated by the papacy . Pope Leo IX was beginning a reform movement later known as the Gregorian Reform , initially focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting simony . In 1049 Leo IX declared that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them . It may have been partly to appease Leo that Edward appointed Robert instead of Æthelric , hoping to signal to the papacy that the English crown was not totally opposed to the growing reform movement . It was against this backdrop that Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc , although there is no other evidence that Robert embraced the reform position , and his claim that the pope forbade the consecration may have had more to do with finding an easy excuse than any true desire for reform . There are also some indications that Spearhafoc was allied to Godwin , and his appointment was meant as a quid pro quo for the non @-@ appointment of Æthelric . If true , Robert 's refusal to consecrate Spearhafoc would have contributed to the growing rift between the archbishop and the earl .
= = Royal adviser = =
The Life of Saint Edward claims that while Godwin was in exile Robert tried to persuade King Edward to divorce Edith , Godwin 's daughter , but Edward refused and instead she was sent to a nunnery . However , the Life is a hagiography , written soon after Edward 's death to show Edward as a saint . Thus it stresses that Edward voluntarily remained celibate , something unlikely to have been true and not corroborated by any other source . Modern historians have felt it more likely that Edward , at Robert 's urging , wished to divorce Edith and remarry in order to have children to succeed him on the English throne , although it is possible that he merely wished to be rid of her , without necessarily wanting a divorce .
During Godwin 's exile , Robert is said to have been sent by the king on an errand to William , Duke of Normandy . The reason for the embassy is uncertain . William of Jumièges says that Robert went to tell Duke William that Edward wished William to be his heir . The medieval writer William of Poitiers gives the same reason , but also adds that Robert took with him as hostages Godwin 's son Wulfnoth and grandson Hakon ( son of Sweyn ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle is silent on the visit however , so it is uncertain whether Robert visited Normandy or not , or why he did so . The entire history of the various missions which Robert is alleged to have made is confused , and complicated by propaganda claims made by Norman chroniclers after the Norman Conquest in 1066 , leaving it unclear if Robert visited Normandy on his way to receive his pallium or after Godwin was in exile , or if he went twice or not at all .
= = Outlawing , death , and legacy = =
After Godwin left England , he went to Flanders , and gathered a fleet and mercenaries to force the king to allow his return . In the summer of 1052 , Godwin returned to England and was met by his sons , who had invaded from Ireland . By September , they were advancing on London , where negotiations between the king and the earl were conducted with the help of Stigand , the Bishop of Winchester . When it became apparent that Godwin would be returning , Robert quickly left England with Bishop Ulf of Dorcester and Bishop William of London , probably once again taking Wulfnoth and Hakon with him as hostages , whether with the permission of King Edward or not . Robert was declared an outlaw and deposed from his archbishopric on 14 September 1052 at a royal council , mainly because the returning Godwin felt that Robert , along with a number of other Normans , had been the driving force behind his exile . Robert journeyed to Rome to complain to the pope about his own exile , where Leo IX and successive popes condemned Stigand , whom Edward had appointed to Canterbury . Robert 's personal property was divided between Earl Godwin , Harold Godwinson , and the queen , who had returned to court .
Robert died at Jumièges , but the date of his death is unclear . Various dates are given , with Ian Walker , the biographer of Harold arguing for between 1053 and 1055 , but H. E. J. Cowdrey , who wrote Robert 's Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry , says on 26 May in either 1052 or 1055 . H. R. Loyn , another modern historian , argues that it is likely that he died in 1053 .
Robert 's treatment was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England , the other being that Edward had named William his heir . Ian Walker , author of the most recent scholarly biography of Harold Godwinson , suggests that it was Robert , while in exile after the return of Godwin , who testified that King Edward had nominated Duke William to be Edward 's heir . However , this view is contradicted by David Douglas , a historian and biographer of William the Conqueror , who believes that Robert merely relayed Edward 's decision , probably while Robert was on his way to Rome to receive his pallium . Several medieval chroniclers , including the author of the Life of Saint Edward , felt that the blame for Edward and Godwin 's conflict in 1051 – 1052 lay squarely with Robert ; modern historians tend to see Robert as an ambitious man , with little political skill .
= = Artistic patronage = =
In notable contrast to his successor Stigand , Robert does not figure among the important benefactors to English churches , but we know of some transfers to Jumièges of important English church treasures , the first trickle of what was to become a flood of treasure taken to Normandy after the Conquest . These included the relic of the head of Saint Valentine only recently given to the monks of Winchester Cathedral by Emma of Normandy . Though the Winchester head remained in place , another one appeared at Jumièges ; he " must have clandestinely removed the head , or at least the greater part of it , and left his monks to venerate the empty or nearly empty capsa " . Two of the four most important surviving late Anglo @-@ Saxon illuminated manuscripts went the same way , thus probably preventing their destruction in a series of fires that devastated the major English libraries . One is the so @-@ called Missal of Robert of Jumièges , actually a sacramentary with thirteen surviving full @-@ page miniatures , which bears an inscription apparently in Robert 's own hand recording its donation to Jumièges when he was Bishop of London , and the other the so @-@ called Benedictional of Archbishop Robert , actually a pontifical with three remaining full @-@ page miniatures and other decoration ( respectively Rouen , Bibliothèque Municipale , Manuscripts Y.6 and Y.7 ) . The latter may well have been commissioned by Æthelgar , Robert 's predecessor as Archbishop in 988 – 90 , although it is possible the " Archbishop Robert " of the traditional name is Emma 's brother Robert , Archbishop of Rouen from 990 to 1037 . These masterpieces of the Winchester style were the most elaborately decorated Anglo @-@ Saxon manuscripts known to have reached Normandy , either before or after the Conquest , and influenced the much less @-@ developed local style , though this remained very largely restricted to initials .
Before he came to England , Robert had begun the construction of a new abbey church at Jumièges , in the new Romanesque style which was then becoming popular , and introduced to Normandy the two @-@ towered western facade from the Rhineland . On his return to Normandy he continued to build there , and the abbey church was not finished until 1067 . Although the choir has been torn down , the towers , nave and transepts have survived . Robert probably influenced Edward the Confessor 's rebuilding of the church at Westminster Abbey , the first known building in the Romanesque style in England , which is so described by William of Malmesbury . Edward 's work began in about 1050 and was completed just before his death in 1065 . The recorded name of one of the senior masons , " Teinfrith the churchwright " indicates foreign origins , and Robert may have arranged for Norman masons to be brought over , though other names are English . It is possible that Westminster influenced the building at Jumièges , as the arcade there closely resembles Westminster 's arcade , both of them in a style that never became common in Normandy . The Early Romanesque style of both was to be superseded after the Conquest by the Anglo @-@ Norman High Romanesque style pioneered in Canterbury Cathedral and St Étienne , Caen by Lanfranc .
= Messiah ( Handel ) =
Messiah ( HWV 56 ) is an English @-@ language oratorio composed in 1741 by George Frideric Handel , with a scriptural text compiled by Charles Jennens from the King James Bible , and from the version of the Psalms included with the Book of Common Prayer . It was first performed in Dublin on 13 April 1742 and received its London premiere nearly a year later . After an initially modest public reception , the oratorio gained in popularity , eventually becoming one of the best @-@ known and most frequently performed choral works in Western music .
Handel 's reputation in England , where he had lived since 1712 , had been established through his compositions of Italian opera . He turned to English oratorio in the 1730s in response to changes in public taste ; Messiah was his sixth work in this genre . Although its structure resembles that of opera , it is not in dramatic form ; there are no impersonations of characters and no direct speech . Instead , Jennens 's text is an extended reflection on Jesus Christ as Messiah . The text begins in Part I with prophecies by Isaiah and others , and moves to the annunciation to the shepherds , the only " scene " taken from the Gospels . In Part II , Handel concentrates on the Passion and ends with the " Hallelujah " chorus . In Part III he covers the resurrection of the dead and Christ 's glorification in heaven .
Handel wrote Messiah for modest vocal and instrumental forces , with optional settings for many of the individual numbers . In the years after his death , the work was adapted for performance on a much larger scale , with giant orchestras and choirs . In other efforts to update it , its orchestration was revised and amplified by ( among others ) Mozart . In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the trend has been towards reproducing a greater fidelity to Handel 's original intentions , although " big Messiah " productions continue to be mounted . A near @-@ complete version was issued on 78 rpm discs in 1928 ; since then the work has been recorded many times .
= = Background = =
The composer George Frideric Handel , born in Halle , Germany in 1685 , took up permanent residence in London in 1712 , and became a naturalised British subject in 1727 . By 1741 his pre @-@ eminence in British music was evident from the honours he had accumulated , including a pension from the court of King George II , the office of Composer of Musick for the Chapel Royal , and — most unusually for a living person — a statue erected in his honour in Vauxhall Gardens . Within a large and varied musical output , Handel was a vigorous champion of Italian opera , which he had introduced to London in 1711 with Rinaldo . He subsequently wrote and presented more than 40 such operas in London 's theatres .
By the early 1730s public taste for Italian opera was beginning to fade . The popular success of John Gay and Johann Christoph Pepusch 's The Beggar 's Opera ( first performed in 1728 ) had heralded a spate of English @-@ language ballad @-@ operas that mocked the pretensions of Italian opera . With box @-@ office receipts falling , Handel 's productions were increasingly reliant on private subsidies from the nobility . Such funding became harder to obtain after the launch in 1730 of the " Opera of the Nobility " , a rival company to his own . Handel overcame this challenge , but he spent large sums of his own money in doing so .
Although prospects for Italian opera were declining , Handel remained committed to the genre , but as alternatives to his staged works he began to introduce English @-@ language oratorios . In Rome in 1707 – 08 he had written two Italian oratorios at a time when opera performances in the city were temporarily forbidden under papal decree . His first venture into English oratorio had been Esther , which was written and performed for a private patron in about 1718 . In 1732 Handel brought a revised and expanded version of Esther to the King 's Theatre , Haymarket , where members of the royal family attended a glittering premiere on 6 May . Its success encouraged Handel to write two more oratorios ( Deborah and Athalia ) . All three oratorios were performed to large and appreciative audiences at the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford in mid @-@ 1733 . Undergraduates reportedly sold their furniture to raise the money for the five @-@ shilling tickets .
In 1735 Handel received the text for a new oratorio named Saul from its librettist Charles Jennens , a wealthy landowner with musical and literary interests . Because Handel 's main creative concern was still with opera , he did not write the music for Saul until 1738 , in preparation for his 1738 – 39 theatrical season . The work , after opening at the King 's Theatre in January 1739 to a warm reception , was quickly followed by the less successful oratorio Israel in Egypt ( which may also have come from Jennens ) . Although Handel continued to write operas , the trend towards English @-@ language productions became irresistible as the decade ended . After three performances of his last Italian opera Deidamia in January and February 1741 , he abandoned the genre . In July 1741 Jennens sent him a new libretto for an oratorio ; in a letter dated 10 July to his friend Edward Holdsworth , Jennens wrote : " I hope [ Handel ] will lay out his whole Genius & Skill upon it , that the Composition may excell all his former Compositions , as the Subject excells every other subject . The Subject is Messiah " .
= = Synopsis = =
In the Christian tradition the figure of the " Messiah " or redeemer is identified with the person of Jesus , known by his followers as the Christ or " Jesus Christ " . Handel 's Messiah has been described by the early @-@ music scholar Richard Luckett as " a commentary on [ Jesus Christ 's ] Nativity , Passion , Resurrection and Ascension " , beginning with God 's promises as spoken by the prophets and ending with Christ 's glorification in heaven . In contrast with most of Handel 's oratorios , the singers in Messiah do not assume dramatic roles ; there is no single , dominant narrative voice ; and very little use is made of quoted speech . In his libretto , Jennens 's intention was not to dramatise the life and teachings of Jesus , but to acclaim the " Mystery of Godliness " , using a compilation of extracts from the Authorized ( King James ) Version of the Bible , and from the Psalms included in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer .
The three @-@ part structure of the work approximates to that of Handel 's three @-@ act operas , with the " parts " subdivided by Jennens into " scenes " . Each scene is a collection of individual numbers or " movements " which take the form of recitatives , arias and choruses . There are two instrumental numbers , the opening Sinfony in the style of a French overture , and the pastoral Pifa , often called the " pastoral symphony " , at the mid @-@ point of Part I.
In Part I , the Messiah 's coming and the virgin birth are predicted by the Old Testament prophets . The annunciation to the shepherds of the birth of the Christ is represented in the words of Luke 's gospel . Part II covers Christ 's passion and his death , his resurrection and ascension , the first spreading of the gospel through the world , and a definitive statement of God 's glory summarised in the " Hallelujah " . Part III begins with the promise of redemption , followed by a prediction of the day of judgment and the " general resurrection " , ending with the final victory over sin and death and the acclamation of Christ . According to the musicologist Donald Burrows , much of the text is so allusive as to be largely incomprehensible to those ignorant of the biblical accounts . For the benefit of his audiences Jennens printed and issued a pamphlet explaining the reasons for his choices of scriptural selections .
= = Writing history = =
= = = Libretto = = =
Charles Jennens was born around 1700 , into a prosperous landowning family whose lands and properties in Warwickshire and Leicestershire he eventually inherited . His religious and political views — he opposed the Act of Settlement of 1701 which secured the accession to the British throne for the House of Hanover — prevented him from receiving his degree from Balliol College , Oxford , or from pursuing any form of public career . His family 's wealth enabled him to live a life of leisure while devoting himself to his literary and musical interests . Although the musicologist Watkins Shaw dismisses Jennens as " a conceited figure of no special ability " , Donald Burrows has written : " of Jennens 's musical literacy there can be no doubt " . He was certainly devoted to Handel 's music , having helped to finance the publication of every Handel score since Rodelinda in 1725 . By 1741 , after their collaboration on Saul , a warm friendship had developed between the two , and Handel was a frequent visitor to the Jennens family estate at Gopsall .
Jennens 's letter to Holdsworth of 10 July 1741 , in which he first mentions Messiah , suggests that the text was a recent work , probably assembled earlier that summer . As a devout Anglican and believer in scriptural authority , part of Jennens 's intention was to challenge advocates of Deism , who rejected the doctrine of divine intervention in human affairs . Shaw describes the text as " a meditation of our Lord as Messiah in Christian thought and belief " , and despite his reservations on Jennens 's character , concedes that the finished wordbook " amounts to little short of a work of genius " . There is no evidence that Handel played any active role in the selection or preparation of the text , such as he did in the case of Saul ; it seems , rather , that he saw no need to make any significant amendment to Jennens 's work .
= = = Composition = = =
The music for Messiah was completed in 24 days of swift composition . Having received Jennens 's text some time after 10 July 1741 , Handel began work on it on 22 August . His records show that he had completed Part I in outline by 28 August , Part II by 6 September and Part III by 12 September , followed by two days of " filling up " to produce the finished work on 14 September . The autograph score 's 259 pages show some signs of haste such as blots , scratchings @-@ out , unfilled bars and other uncorrected errors , but according to the music scholar Richard Luckett the number of errors is remarkably small in a document of this length . The original manuscript for Messiah is now held in the British Library 's music collection .
At the end of his manuscript Handel wrote the letters " SDG " — Soli Deo Gloria , " To God alone the glory " . This inscription , taken with the speed of composition , has encouraged belief in the apocryphal story that Handel wrote the music in a fervour of divine inspiration in which , as he wrote the " Hallelujah " chorus , " he saw all heaven before him " . Burrows points out that many of Handel 's operas , of comparable length and structure to Messiah , were composed within similar timescales between theatrical seasons . The effort of writing so much music in so short a time was not unusual for Handel and his contemporaries ; Handel commenced his next oratorio , Samson , within a week of finishing Messiah , and completed his draft of this new work in a month . In accordance with his frequent practice when writing new works , Handel adapted existing compositions for use in Messiah , in this case drawing on two recently completed Italian duets and one written twenty years previously . Thus , Se tu non lasci amore from 1722 became the basis of " O Death , where is thy sting ? " ; " His yoke is easy " and " And he shall purify " were drawn from Quel fior che alla 'ride ( July 1741 ) , " Unto us a child is born " and " All we like sheep " from Nò , di voi non vo ' fidarmi ( July 1741 ) . Handel 's instrumentation in the score is often imprecise , again in line with contemporary convention , where the use of certain instruments and combinations was assumed and did not need to be written down by the composer ; later copyists would fill in the details .
Before the first performance Handel made numerous revisions to his manuscript score , in part to match the forces available for the 1742 Dublin premiere ; it is probable that his work was not performed as originally conceived in his lifetime . Between 1742 and 1754 he continued to revise and recompose individual movements , sometimes to suit the requirements of particular singers . The first published score of Messiah was issued in 1767 , eight years after Handel 's death , though this was based on relatively early manuscripts and included none of Handel 's later revisions .
= = Premiere and early performances = =
= = = Dublin , 1742 = = =
Handel 's decision to give a season of concerts in Dublin in the winter of 1741 – 42 arose from an invitation from the Duke of Devonshire , then serving as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . A violinist friend of Handel 's , Matthew Dubourg , was in Dublin as the Lord Lieutenant 's bandmaster ; he would look after the tour 's orchestral requirements . Whether Handel originally intended to perform Messiah in Dublin is uncertain ; he did not inform Jennens of any such plan , for the latter wrote to Holdsworth on 2 December 1741 : " ... it was some mortification to me to hear that instead of performing Messiah here he has gone into Ireland with it . " After arriving in Dublin on 18 November 1741 , Handel arranged a subscription series of six concerts , to be held between December 1741 and February 1742 at the Great Music Hall , Fishamble Street . These concerts were so popular that a second series was quickly arranged ; Messiah figured in neither series .
In early March Handel began discussions with the appropriate committees for a charity concert , to be given in April , at which he intended to present Messiah . He sought and was given permission from St Patrick 's and Christ Church cathedrals to use their choirs for this occasion . These forces amounted to 16 men and 16 boy choristers ; several of the men were allocated solo parts . The women soloists were Christina Maria Avoglio , who had sung the main soprano roles in the two subscription series , and Susannah Cibber , an established stage actress and contralto who had sung in the second series . To accommodate Cibber 's vocal range , the recitative " Then shall the eyes of the blind " and the aria " He shall feed his flock " were transposed down to F major . The performance , also in the Fishamble Street hall , was originally announced for 12 April , but was deferred for a day " at the request of persons of Distinction " . The orchestra in Dublin comprised strings , two trumpets , and timpani ; the number of players is unknown . Handel had his own organ shipped to Ireland for the performances ; a harpsichord was probably also used .
The three charities that were to benefit were prisoners ' debt relief , the Mercer 's Hospital , and the Charitable Infirmary . In its report on a public rehearsal , the Dublin News @-@ Letter described the oratorio as " ... far surpass [ ing ] anything of that Nature which has been performed in this or any other Kingdom " . Seven hundred people attended the premiere on 13 April . So that the largest possible audience could be admitted to the concert , gentlemen were requested to remove their swords , and ladies were asked not to wear hoops in their dresses . The performance earned unanimous praise from the assembled press : " Words are wanting to express the exquisite delight it afforded to the admiring and crouded Audience " . A Dublin clergyman , Rev. Delaney , was so overcome by Susanna Cibber 's rendering of " He was despised " that reportedly he leapt to his feet and cried : " Woman , for this be all thy sins forgiven thee ! " The takings amounted to around £ 400 , providing about £ 127 to each of the three nominated charities and securing the release of 142 indebted prisoners .
Handel remained in Dublin for four months after the premiere . He organised a second performance of Messiah on 3 June , which was announced as " the last Performance of Mr Handel 's during his Stay in this Kingdom " . In this second Messiah , which was for Handel 's private financial benefit , Cibber reprised her role from the first performance , though Avoglio may have been replaced by a Mrs Maclaine ; details of other performers are not recorded .
= = = London , 1743 – 59 = = =
The warm reception accorded to Messiah in Dublin was not repeated in London when Handel introduced the work at the Covent Garden theatre on 23 March 1743 . Avoglio and Cibber were again the chief soloists ; they were joined by the tenor John Beard , a veteran of Handel 's operas , the bass Thomas Rheinhold and two other sopranos , Kitty Clive and Miss Edwards . The first performance was overshadowed by views expressed in the press that the work 's subject matter was too exalted to be performed in a theatre , particularly by secular singer @-@ actresses such as Cibber and Clive . In an attempt to deflect such sensibilities , in London Handel had avoided the name Messiah and presented the work as the " New Sacred Oratorio " . As was his custom , Handel rearranged the music to suit his singers . He wrote a new setting of " And lo , the angel of the Lord " for Clive , never used subsequently . He added a tenor song for Beard : " Their sound is gone out " , which had appeared in Jennens 's original libretto but had not been in the Dublin performances .
The custom of standing for the " Hallelujah " chorus originates from a belief that , at the London premiere , King George II did so , which would have obliged all to stand . There is no convincing evidence that the king was present , or that he attended any subsequent performance of Messiah ; the first reference to the practice of standing appears in a letter dated 1756 , three years prior to Handel 's death .
London 's initially cool reception of Messiah led Handel to reduce the season 's planned six performances to three , and not to present the work at all in 1744 — to the considerable annoyance of Jennens , whose relations with the composer temporarily soured . At Jennens 's request , Handel made several changes in the music for the 1745 revival : " Their sound is gone out " became a choral piece , the soprano song " Rejoice greatly " was recomposed in shortened form , and the transpositions for Cibber 's voice were restored to their original soprano range . Jennens wrote to Holdsworth on 30 August 1745 : " [ Handel ] has made a fine Entertainment of it , though not near so good as he might & ought to have done . I have with great difficulty made him correct some of the grosser faults in the composition ... " Handel directed two performances at Covent Garden in 1745 , on 9 and 11 April , and then set the work aside for four years .
The 1749 revival at Covent Garden , under the proper title of Messiah , saw the appearance of two female soloists who were henceforth closely associated with Handel 's music : Giulia Frasi and Caterina Galli . In the following year these were joined by the male alto Gaetano Guadagni , for whom Handel composed new versions of " But who may abide " and " Thou art gone up on high " . The year 1750 also saw the institution of the annual charity performances of Messiah at London 's Foundling Hospital , which continued until Handel 's death and beyond . The 1754 performance at the hospital is the first for which full details of the orchestral and vocal forces survive . The orchestra included fifteen violins , five violas , three cellos , two double @-@ basses , four bassoons , four oboes , two trumpets , two horns and drums . In the chorus of nineteen were six trebles from the Chapel Royal ; the remainder , all men , were altos , tenors and basses . Frasi , Galli and Beard led the five soloists , who were required to assist the chorus . For this performance the transposed Guadagni arias were restored to the soprano voice . By 1754 Handel was severely afflicted by the onset of blindness , and in 1755 he turned over the direction of the Messiah hospital performance to his pupil , J.C. Smith . He apparently resumed his duties in 1757 and may have continued thereafter . The final performance of the work at which Handel was present was at Covent Garden on 6 April 1759 , eight days before his death .
= = Later performance history = =
= = = 18th century = = =
During the 1750s Messiah was performed increasingly at festivals and cathedrals throughout the country . Individual choruses and arias were occasionally extracted for use as anthems or motets in church services , or as concert pieces , a practice that grew in the 19th century and has continued ever since . After Handel 's death , performances were given in Florence ( 1768 ) , New York ( excerpts , 1770 ) , Hamburg ( 1772 ) , and Mannheim ( 1777 ) , where Mozart first heard it . For the performances in Handel 's lifetime and in the decades following his death , the musical forces used in the Foundling Hospital performance of 1754 are thought by Burrows to be typical . A fashion for large @-@ scale performances began in 1784 , in a series of commemorative concerts of Handel 's music given in Westminster Abbey under the patronage of King George III . A plaque on the Abbey wall records that " The Band consisting of DXXV [ 525 ] vocal & instrumental performers was conducted by Joah Bates Esqr . " In a 1955 article , Sir Malcolm Sargent , a proponent of large @-@ scale performances , wrote , " Mr Bates ... had known Handel well and respected his wishes . The orchestra employed was two hundred and fifty strong , including twelve horns , twelve trumpets , six trombones and three pairs of timpani ( some made especially large ) . " In 1787 further performances were given at the Abbey ; advertisements promised , " The Band will consist of Eight Hundred Performers " .
In continental Europe , performances of Messiah were departing from Handel 's practices in a different way : his score was being drastically reorchestrated to suit contemporary tastes . In 1786 , Johann Adam Hiller presented Messiah with updated scoring in Berlin Cathedral . In 1788 Hiller presented a performance of his revision with a choir of 259 and an orchestra of 87 strings , 10 bassoons , 11 oboes , 8 flutes , 8 horns , 4 clarinets , 4 trombones , 7 trumpets , timpani , harpsichord and organ . In 1789 , Mozart was commissioned by Baron Gottfried van Swieten and the Gesellschaft der Associierten to re @-@ orchestrate several works by Handel , including Messiah . Writing for a small @-@ scale performance , he eliminated the organ continuo , added parts for flutes , clarinets , trombones and horns , recomposed some passages and rearranged others . The performance took place on 6 March 1789 in the rooms of Count Johann Esterházy , with four soloists and a choir of 12 . Mozart 's arrangement , with minor amendments from Hiller , was published in 1803 , after his death . The musical scholar Moritz Hauptmann described the Mozart additions as " stucco ornaments on a marble temple " . Mozart himself was reportedly circumspect about his changes , insisting that any alterations to Handel 's score should not be interpreted as an effort to improve the music . Elements of this version later became familiar to British audiences , incorporated into editions of the score by editors including Ebenezer Prout .
= = = 19th century = = =
In the 19th century , approaches to Handel in German and English @-@ speaking countries diverged further . In Leipzig in 1856 , the musicologist Friedrich Chrysander and the literary historian Georg Gottfried Gervinus founded the Deutsche Händel @-@ Gesellschaft with the aim of publishing authentic editions of all Handel 's works . At the same time , performances in Britain and the United States moved away from Handel 's performance practice with increasingly grandiose renditions . Messiah was presented in New York in 1853 with a chorus of 300 and in Boston in 1865 with more than 600 . In Britain a " Great Handel Festival " was held at the Crystal Palace in 1857 , performing Messiah and other Handel oratorios , with a chorus of 2 @,@ 000 singers and an orchestra of 500 .
In the 1860s and 1870s ever larger forces were assembled . Bernard Shaw , in his role as a music critic , commented , " The stale wonderment which the great chorus never fails to elicit has already been exhausted " ; he later wrote , " Why , instead of wasting huge sums on the multitudinous dullness of a Handel Festival does not somebody set up a thoroughly rehearsed and exhaustively studied performance of the Messiah in St James 's Hall with a chorus of twenty capable artists ? Most of us would be glad to hear the work seriously performed once before we die . " The employment of huge forces necessitated considerable augmentation of the orchestral parts . Many admirers of Handel believed that the composer would have made such additions , had the appropriate instruments been available in his day . Shaw argued , largely unheeded , that " the composer may be spared from his friends , and the function of writing or selecting ' additional orchestral accompaniments ' exercised with due discretion . "
One reason for the popularity of huge @-@ scale performances was the ubiquity of amateur choral societies . The conductor Sir Thomas Beecham wrote that for 200 years the chorus was " the national medium of musical utterance " in Britain . However , after the heyday of Victorian choral societies , he noted a " rapid and violent reaction against monumental performances ... an appeal from several quarters that Handel should be played and heard as in the days between 1700 and 1750 " . At the end of the century , Sir Frederick Bridge and T. W. Bourne pioneered revivals of Messiah in Handel 's orchestration , and Bourne 's work was the basis for further scholarly versions in the early 20th century .
= = = 20th century and beyond = = =
Although the huge @-@ scale oratorio tradition was perpetuated by such large ensembles as the Royal Choral Society , the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and the Huddersfield Choral Society in the 20th century , there were increasing calls for performances more faithful to Handel 's conception . At the turn of the century , The Musical Times wrote of the " additional accompaniments " of Mozart and others , " Is it not time that some of these ' hangers on ' of Handel 's score were sent about their business ? " In 1902 , the musicologist Ebenezer Prout produced a new edition of the score , working from Handel 's original manuscripts rather than from corrupt printed versions with errors accumulated from one edition to another . However , Prout started from the assumption that a faithful reproduction of Handel 's original score would not be practical :
[ T ] he attempts made from time to time by our musical societies to give Handel 's music as he meant it to be given must , however earnest the intention , and however careful the preparation , be foredoomed to failure from the very nature of the case . With our large choral societies , additional accompaniments of some kind are a necessity for an effective performance ; and the question is not so much whether , as how they are to be written .
Prout continued the practice of adding flutes , clarinets and trombones to Handel 's orchestration , but he restored Handel 's high trumpet parts , which Mozart had omitted ( evidently because playing them was a lost art by 1789 ) . There was little dissent from Prout 's approach , and when Chrysander 's scholarly edition was published in the same year , it was received respectfully as " a volume for the study " rather than a performing edition , being an edited reproduction of various of Handel 's manuscript versions . An authentic performance was thought impossible : The Musical Times correspondent wrote , " Handel 's orchestral instruments were all ( excepting the trumpet ) of a coarser quality than those at present in use ; his harpsichords are gone for ever ... the places in which he performed the ' Messiah ' were mere drawing @-@ rooms when compared with the Albert Hall , the Queen 's Hall and the Crystal Palace . In Australia , The Register protested at the prospect of performances by " trumpery little church choirs of 20 voices or so " .
In Germany , Messiah was not so often performed as in Britain ; when it was given , medium @-@ sized forces were the norm . At the Handel Festival held in 1922 in Handel 's native town , Halle , his choral works were given by a choir of 163 and an orchestra of 64 . In Britain , innovative broadcasting and recording contributed to reconsideration of Handelian performance . For example , in 1928 , Beecham conducted a recording of Messiah with modestly sized forces and controversially brisk tempi , although the orchestration remained far from authentic . In 1934 and 1935 , the BBC broadcast performances of Messiah conducted by Adrian Boult with " a faithful adherence to Handel 's clear scoring . " A performance with authentic scoring was given in Worcester Cathedral as part of the Three Choirs Festival in 1935 . In 1950 John Tobin conducted a performance of Messiah in St Paul 's Cathedral with the orchestral forces specified by the composer , a choir of 60 , a counter @-@ tenor alto soloist , and modest attempts at vocal elaboration of the printed notes , in the manner of Handel 's day . The Prout version sung with many voices remained popular with British choral societies , but at the same time increasingly frequent performances were given by small professional ensembles in suitably sized venues , using authentic scoring . Recordings on LP and CD were preponderantly of the latter type , and the large scale Messiah came to seem old @-@ fashioned .
The cause of authentic performance was advanced in 1965 by the publication of a new edition of the score , edited by Watkins Shaw . In the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , David Scott writes , " the edition at first aroused suspicion on account of its attempts in several directions to break the crust of convention surrounding the work in the British Isles . " By the time of Shaw 's death in 1996 , The Times described his edition as " now in universal use " .
Messiah remains Handel 's best @-@ known work , with performances particularly
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1793 , White retired from public life and went to his estate , " Woodville " , in Frederick County near Winchester .
= = = City of Washington Board of Commissioners = = =
On May 18 , 1795 , White was appointed by United States President George Washington to serve as one of the three commissioners responsible for supervising the raising of funds , planning , design , and acquisition of property and the erection of public buildings in the city of Washington and the federal district . White had been selected to replace Daniel Carroll on the board following Carroll 's resignation . While on the board , White was paid a salary of $ 1 @,@ 600 per year for his services ; White continued to serve on the board until May 1 , 1802 , when it was abolished . He concurrently served as one of the directors of the Potomac Company , which made improvements to the Potomac River and improved its navigability for commerce .
= = Later life and death = =
White continued to practice law throughout his political career . White died on October 9 , 1804 , at his " Woodville " estate in Frederick County , Virginia . He died without children , thus leaving no descendants . White was interred at the Wood family 's " Glen Burnie " estate in Winchester , Virginia . His will was drafted on May 26 , 1804 , and proved on December 3 , 1804 , following his death . In his will , White left the bulk of his property and assets to his nephews and nieces . The will also provided freedom for his slaves . White left his " Woodville " estate to his nephew , Judge Robert White .
= = Personal life and family = =
In 1796 , White married Elizabeth Wood ( September 20 , 1739 – October 24 , 1782 ) , the daughter of Colonel James Wood , founder of Winchester , Virginia , and his wife , Mary Rutherford Wood . Colonel Wood was also the father of James Wood , an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and the 11th Governor of Virginia . Following the death of his wife , Elizabeth , White remarried on June 10 , 1784 , in present @-@ day Berkeley County , to Sarah Cotter Hite , the widow of John Hite .
= = Land ownership = =
On either June 2 or November 5 , 1773 , White purchased the 260 acres ( 1 @.@ 1 km2 ) estate of Henry Heth , who had foreclosed on his mortgage agreement with William McMachen . McMachen sold the property to White for 500 pounds following his relocation to Hampshire County . White renamed the property " Woodville " , presumably after his wife Elizabeth 's family , and it remained his primary residence until his death in 1804 . " Woodville " is presently located 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) northwest of Winchester 's Sunnyside neighborhood and approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northeast of Apple Pie Ridge Road ( Virginia Secondary Route 739 ) .
White owned " valuable lands " in Hampshire County , which enabled him to represent that county while serving as a member of the House of Burgesses . On June 12 , 1769 , White and Angus McDonald purchased 297 acres ( 1 @.@ 20 km2 ) on the Little Cacapon and North rivers , and another 425 acres ( 1 @.@ 72 km2 ) on the Little Cacapon River in Hampshire County . White also owned a significant amount of land in Berkeley County , which he represented in the Virginia House of Delegates .
In October 1776 , White was named a trustee for the town of Bath , after its conveyance from Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron . In October 1786 , White was also appointed a trustee for Charles Town .
= = Legacy = =
In his book , The History of the Virginia Federal Convention of 1788 ( 1891 ) , Virginia historian Hugh Blair Grigsby remarked of White , " Perhaps no member of the able and patriotic delegation which the West contributed to our early councils exerted a greater influence in moulding public opinion , especially during the period embraced by the treaty of peace with Great Britain and by the adoption of the Federal Constitution , than Alexander White , of Frederick . "
White had a Liberty ship named for him in 1942 during World War II . The SS Alexander White , MC hull 139 , was laid down on October 11 , 1942 and launched on December 7 , 1942 . It was scrapped in 1964 .
= State Route 314 ( New York – Vermont ) =
New York State Route 314 ( NY 314 ) and Vermont Route 314 ( VT 314 ) are a pair of like @-@ numbered state highways in New York and Vermont in the United States , that are connected by way of the Grand Isle – Plattsburgh Ferry across Lake Champlain . NY 314 extends for 4 @.@ 73 miles ( 7 @.@ 61 km ) through the Clinton County town of Plattsburgh from Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) exit 39 to the ferry landing on Cumberland Head . Its Vermont counterpart is a 5 @.@ 493 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 840 km ) loop route off of U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) through the Grand Isle County towns of South Hero and Grand Isle that connects to the ferry near its midpoint .
VT 314 was originally designated as Vermont Route F @-@ 3 in the late 1920s . The roadway on the New York side was unnumbered until c . 1962 , when Cumberland Head Road was designated as NY 314 . VT F @-@ 3 was redesignated as VT 314 in 1964 to match the designation present at the New York ferry approach . In 2005 , a new highway connecting US 9 to the ferry landing by way of the interior of Cumberland Head was completed and opened to traffic as the Commodore Thomas MacDonough Highway . NY 314 was realigned to follow the new highway while ownership and maintenance of its old alignment was transferred to the town of Plattsburgh . The designation of NY 314 east of US 9 was consolidated by July 2014 .
= = Route description = =
= = = NY 314 = = =
NY 314 begins at Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) exit 39 in the town of Plattsburgh . The route heads southeast as a four @-@ lane divided highway known as Moffitt Road to an intersection with US 9 ( the Lakes to Locks Passage ) , where NY 374 terminates , just 0 @.@ 78 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) from the I @-@ 87 interchange .
= = = VT 314 = = =
VT 314 begins at an intersection with US 2 just north of Keeler Bay , a village in the town of South Hero . The route heads northwestward as Ferry Road , passing by a small number of homes situated amongst open fields . At the western edge of Grand Isle , VT 314 intersects West Shore Road , a local highway that runs along the western shoreline of the island . The route turns north onto West Shore Road , following the roadway along Lake Champlain and into the town of Grand Isle . Here , the route 's surroundings are mainly the same as it proceeds toward Gordon Landing .
In Gordon Landing , VT 314 connects to a ferry landing for the Grand Isle – Plattsburgh Ferry ( which leads to Clinton CR 57 ) by way of an unnamed extension of Bell Hill Road . VT 314 continues northward along West Shore Road to Allen Road , where the route turns to follow Allen Road eastward across the island . While on Allen Road , the route passes through an area of open fields and forests that contains only a couple dozen homes . VT 314 continues eastward to another junction with US 2 , where the route comes to an end .
= = History = =
= = = Designations = = =
All of modern VT 314 was originally designated as VT F @-@ 3 in the late 1920s . At Gordon Landing , VT F @-@ 3 connected to Cumberland Head in New York by way of the Grand Isle – Plattsburgh Ferry across Lake Champlain . The primary highway leading from the New York ferry landing to US 9 near Plattsburgh , then Cumberland Head Road , was initially unnumbered . VT F @-@ 3 was maintained by the towns of South Hero and Grand Isle until June 20 , 1957 , when the state of Vermont assumed ownership and maintenance of the highway .
The portion of the Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) between exits 36 and 39 was completed and opened to traffic c . 1961 . Moffitt Road was upgraded between the new freeway and US 9 as part of the Northway 's construction . By the following year , the upgraded piece of Moffitt Road and the piece of Cumberland Head Road between US 9 and the ferry landing was designated as NY 314 . From I @-@ 87 to US 9 , NY 314 was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ; the remainder of the route was maintained by Clinton County and co @-@ designated as CR 42 . VT F @-@ 3 was renumbered to VT 314 on May 1 , 1964 to match the designation now present at the New York ferry approach .
= = = Cumberland Head connector = = =
The idea of a building a new highway that would lead directly from US 9 to the ferry landing at the southern tip of Cumberland Head was first proposed in 1964 . At that time , a group of Cumberland Head residents stated that the existing narrow and winding perimeter road ( NY 314 ) jeopardized the safety of residents and motorists alike . As time went on , the problem grew worse as the amount of traffic traveling to and from the ferry increased . The proposal finally gained traction in 2002 when New York State Senator Ronald B. Stafford was able to procure most of the $ 7 @.@ 3 million required to build the highway . Construction on the new route began in March 2005 following three years of studies and planning .
The Cumberland Head connector began at the east end of the divided highway portion of NY 314 and would pass through the rural interior of the peninsula on its way to the ferry landing . Part of the road would utilize the preexisting Lighthouse Road . It was built as a super two highway with a 45 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 72 km / h ) speed limit , 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) higher than that of the perimeter road . The project was initially expected to be completed around November 2006 ; however , it was completed nearly a year ahead of schedule . On December 1 , 2005 , the new highway was named the Commodore Thomas MacDonough Highway in honor of Thomas MacDonough , an American naval officer who defeated the British in the Battle of Plattsburgh during the War of 1812 . The road opened to traffic about a week later , co @-@ designated as NY 314 ( which was realigned to follow the length of the highway ) and CR 57 . Following the completion of the project , ownership and maintenance of Cumberland Head Road ( NY 314 's former routing ) was to be transferred from Clinton County to the town of Plattsburgh . The transfer was officially approved on September 13 , 2006 .
The new highway has only two intersections , both with Cumberland Head Road . This was by design as no access roads were built off of the route in an effort to improve safety along the highway . One part of the finished highway that drew controversy was a one @-@ way ramp built between the eastbound MacDonough Highway and the west end of Cumberland Head Road . Some residents criticized the layout , stating that it made it difficult to travel to and from MacDonough Highway and Cumberland Head Road . Ironically , the ramp was added as a result of public input ; the initial project designs did not call for a ramp . Instead , all traffic to and from Cumberland Head Road would have had to utilize the junction with MacDonough Highway 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) to the east . The designation of NY 314 east of US 9 was consolidated by July 2014 .
= = Major intersections = =
NY 314
The entire route is in Plattsburgh , Clinton County .
VT 314
The entire route is in Grand Isle County .
= G.U.Y. =
" G.U.Y. " ( an acronym for " girl under you " ) is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her third studio album , Artpop ( 2013 ) . The song was written and produced by Gaga and Zedd . It debuted on Italian radio as the album 's third single on March 28 , 2014 . It was developed while Gaga was touring with Born This Way Ball , and was recorded a number of times for the final version . " G.U.Y. " is an EDM track containing elements of industrial , contemporary R & B , and house music whose lyrics address a number of subjects like sexual dominance , submission , and gender roles .
" G.U.Y. " received mixed reviews from music critics , who complimented the composition of the track and Gaga 's vocals , but criticized its lyrics and production . The song debuted on the record charts of a few countries , but failed to enter the top ten in most of them . In the United States , " G.U.Y. " became Gaga 's second lowest charting single on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 76 . It reached the top ten on airplay charts of Bulgaria and Croatia , the Billboard Greek Digital Songs chart , and the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
The music video for the song was shot at Hearst Castle , located near San Simeon . The video featured reality TV show actors like The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills , and works of artist Nathan Sawaya and YouTube 's Minecraft gamer SkyDoesMinecraft . Running for over 11 minutes , the video shows Gaga as a wounded fallen angel who is revived by her followers in a pool . Once rejuvenated , she takes revenge on the men who hunted her and replaces them with clones known as G.U.Y. The video received positive reviews for its visuals and its references to Greek mythology . Gaga has performed " G.U.Y. " on her seven day residency shows at Roseland Ballroom in March 2014 and at ArtRave : The Artpop Ball ; in both places she emulated the choreography from the music video on stage , and received positive critical response .
= = Background and development = =
Development of Gaga 's third studio album , Artpop , began shortly after the release of her second one , Born This Way ( 2011 ) , and by the following year , the record was already being recorded . " G.U.Y. " was confirmed in an interview with Stylist magazine where Joanna McGarry asked Gaga about her views on feminism . Gaga told McGarry that the song is about new @-@ age feminism which she wanted to explore , where being subordinate to a man is the transfer of strength .
I actually wrote a song about it on my album , it 's called ' GUY ' and it stands for ' Go Under You ' . So wearing make @-@ up , smelling delicious and having suckable , kissable , edible things between your limbs is something I find strengthening because I know that when I pick the right guy , I can let him have it . Some women feel oppressed by make @-@ up and clothing , and here ’ s to them , they have every right to feel that way as well .
On her social media website Littlemonsters.com , Gaga later corrected the song title , saying that it is actually " G.U.Y. " , an acronym for " Girl Under You " . She also revealed that the song was written and produced with musician Zedd , who had been touring with Gaga for her Born This Way Ball . Zedd had previously done a remix of her single " Marry the Night " for her remix album , Born This Way : The Remix , and Gaga had contributed vocals on an alternate version of Zedd 's track , " Stache " . The musician told MTV News that they " both love nothing more than making music , so it was just kind of natural for us to just work on music " . He also confirmed that around ten songs were composed with Gaga and was almost finished , although he was not sure which would be available on the final track list for Artpop .
By January 2013 , Zedd clarified that due to their busy schedules it was difficult to complete the project and work progressed mainly during the tour . Talking to Sirius XM Radio in December 2013 , where she gave an in @-@ depth analysis of each song from the album , Gaga further expanded on the concept of new @-@ wave feminism : " The record 's all about being comfortable underneath , because you are strong enough to know that you don 't have to be on top to know you 're worth it , " she concluded .
= = Recording and composition = =
Initial recording sessions for Artpop coincided with the Born This Way Ball . Zedd was not happy with the initial outcome of the recordings and so he suggested Gaga to re @-@ do the whole process . Gaga 's idea of recording the songs with Zedd was to not limit themselves with the intention of creating a staple radio hit , instead be creative in whichever way they wanted . He explained to Rolling Stone that they did not " try to make an EDM album — but , at the same time , we didn 't try not to make an EDM album . I 've done a lot of stuff that 's really outside of what I usually do . There was one song that started from her just giving me , like , 10 words to describe an emotion , and then I had to make this into music . It 's been a very experimental way of approaching music . "
The song was recorded at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood , California , by Dave Russell with assistance from Benjamin Ladder . Zedd did the mixing of the track at Zeddl . The instructional voice at the beginning of the song was done by Sonja Durham . Assisting with the whole process was Ryan Shanahan and Jesse Taub . Finally , Rick Pearl did the additional programming and Gene Grimaldi did the audio mastering at Oasis Mastering Studios in Burbank , California .
According to Musicnotes.com , " G.U.Y. " is set in the time signature of common time , with a dance @-@ pop tempo of 110 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C minor with Gaga 's vocals spanning the tonal nodes of D3 to C5 . " G.U.Y. " is an EDM song with industrial , R & B , and house elements . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard described the track as a " shuddering dance siren that makes the distinction between gender equality and willful sexual submission " . Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone called the song a " gothy grinder " .
Its composition is reminiscent of the songs on Gaga 's first album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , with MTV News ' John Walker noticing a number of topics being addressed by the lyrics , including sexual preferences , dominance and submission and gender roles . There is also glimpse of baroque music in the composition which Ed Power of Hot Press described as landing " its blows with agreeable fervor " . The song opens with Gaga playing the role of a hostess , which Maura Johnson of Spin found similar to the 1993 erotic album , Cyborgasm .
= = Critical response = =
Following its release , " G.U.Y. " received mixed reviews from music critics . Positive comment came from Lipshutz , who commended Zedd 's production of the song , noticing that it complimented Gaga 's vocals and the hook was relatable , making " G.U.Y. " the first standout track from Artpop . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy praised the song 's " grinding bass and darting synths " and " hypnotic chorus " . Andy Gill of The Independent felt that Gaga 's " robotic " vocal delivery in the song made the theme of sexual attraction " seem grimly denatured " . Walker praised the track 's lyrical content and gave " G.U.Y " four out of five rating , but was less pleased with the background music . Owen Myers of Dazed & Confused complimented the entendres present in the song , saying that " this pop wonder " would have worked better as the lead single from Artpop . Harper 's Bazaar magazine 's Justin Miller shared this opinion , and believed that both the dance music composition and the lyrics catered most to the Venus inspiration behind the album .
Johnson described the song as " a seriously banging pop EP " , and a welcome departure from the first two tracks of the album , " Aura " and " Venus " . She described the song to be " an ode to taking on the submissive role in a relationship " . Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis from Vibe deemed the song " almost clever " . Brian Tank from The Buffalo News called the track a " catchy and fun " song which made one " feel happy and dance along " . Writing for Fact , William Bennett described the song as incredible . Mikael Wood from Los Angeles Times felt that " G.U.Y. " helped the Artpop album have a " fresh " sound . Annie Zalenski of The A.V. Club praised it as one of the album 's highlights . The song was called an " instant hit " by Mike Driver from Clash who found the usage of handclaps and the chorus as addictive . Clare Considine from Time Out found the song to be inspired by the work of Madonna and David Bowie , in its " cosmic pansexual playfulness " . Brad Wheeler from The Globe and Mail noted the erotic elements associated with the track , jokingly adding that " one imagines Gaga 's choreographer is busy at work on the song 's live erotica possibilities as we speak . "
Negative reviews came from Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , who criticized the song , saying that it did not portray Gaga as an artist moving forward with her music , and did not contribute anything musically to distinguish itself from other sexual songs . Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast opined that " G.U.Y. " is a " complicated " track where the production is so chaotic that it drowned the commendable hook of the song , making it sound like a " whirring bee 's nest " . Melinda Newman from Hitfix gave the song a " C " rating and criticized its production as " clunky " . Preston Jones from Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram called the song " blunt " , and believed that it showed Gaga " has been , all along , more or less creatively bankrupt " . Allan Moses Rodricks from The Hindu felt that too much experimenting with the music led to a low quality production on the song . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post criticized the song 's lyrics for including " role playing , bad puns , a killer hook " . Stewart also characterized it as " highly sexualized , which is different from saying it 's sexy , because Gaga 's air of sexual detachment rivals Rihanna 's . " Chris Bosman from Time found the song 's sexual themes to be " very similar " and redundant to those from " Venus " . Lydia Jenkin from The New Zealand Herald was unsure whether the lyrics were interesting or " just confused " .
= = Release and artwork = =
A 12 @-@ second preview of " G.U.Y. " was posted online by Gaga in October 2013 as preview of songs from Artpop . The part in the snippet was from the , " Love me , love me , please retweet . Let me be the girl under you that makes you cry , " line . Interscope Records later uploaded the track " Gypsy " on their SoundCloud account as list of singles they would send for radio play . This led to speculation in the media that " Gypsy " would be released as the third single from Artpop . Gaga also announced plans of shooting a new music video , which tied in with the single rumors . In March 2014 , NBC announced that the next Artpop single would be " G.U.Y. " and that they would premiere its music video on March 22 . It officially impacted mainstream and rhythmic radio stations in the US on April 8 , 2014 , according to All Access Music Group . A radio edit was uploaded to Interscope 's SoundCloud ; the edit has 20 seconds of the introduction chopped off . Universal Music announced that in Italy , the song would be played from March 28 , 2014 , while BBC Radio 1 declared " G.U.Y. " as new music on UK radio from April 21 , 2014 .
Gaga revealed the official artwork for the single through her Facebook account . It shows the singer in one of the instances from the music video , in a bruised state and sporting big wings behind her . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner described the artwork as " [ representing ] a phoenix who rises from the ashes . " The image is surrounded by the same white border prevalent in the other artworks , like those of " Do What U Want " , " Applause " , and promotional single " Dope " . Beneath the cover , Gaga revealed that the song title and the artist name were self @-@ written .
= = Chart performance = =
Following the release of Artpop , the song debuted and reached a peak of number 42 on the Gaon Music Chart of South Korea , selling 3 @,@ 362 copies . It debuted as the second @-@ highest new entry on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 76 for the week ending April 13 , 2014 . Among the total chart points gained , 72 % of it was due to streaming activity , enabling it to enter the Streaming Songs chart — one of the component charts for the Hot 100 — at number 31 with two million streams following the premiere of the music video on March 22 . Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems tracked the streams from the first full week of the music video release , from March 24 to March 30 . The total point also included the streams from the music video containing only the " G.U.Y. " version , which debuted five days later . The total marked a 98 % increase in overall streaming activity for the song from the prior tracking week . The release of the video also helped Gaga re @-@ enter the Social 50 chart of Billboard at number 26 , with 86 % increase in views on her Vevo account , 87 % rise in mentions on Twitter , and an 84 % gain in conversation on Facebook . Two weeks later , the song debuted at number 35 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart , becoming the second debut of the week . It debuted at number 34 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " G.U.Y. " also debuted at number 92 in France , number 88 in Australia and number 115 in the United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and production = = =
In February 2014 , it was announced that Gaga had been allowed to shoot for a musical project at Hearst Castle , located near San Simeon , California . The shooting took place from February 11 – 13 , at locations including the 84 @,@ 000 square feet area of the Castle 's main terrace , the Neptune Pool and the indoor Roman Pool . The cast from Bravo channel 's reality show The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills ( RHOBH ) was also seen around the shoot . The news attracted media attention as it was the first time since 1960 that a video project was shot there , the last being for Stanley Kubrick 's epic film Spartacus ; the Deed of gift mandate by the Hearst Corporation prohibited any commercial filming at the location .
Among the accessories shown , the wings worn in the video were made by Jim Henson Studios and her own creative team , Haus of Gaga , created the arrows . Gaga told Access Hollywood about the shoot at Hearst Castle and the main idea behind the video : " It was a great experience writing the treatment working with everyone and I was like , ' Don 't touch anything , and if you knock over a sculpture I 'm going to pass out ! ' . The intention of the video was to create something that was a true sort of road map of my journey , being an artist , a pop singer , a creative person ..... It 's interesting because in this video the fashion and the psychotic sort of whimsy is all happening around me and it 's me almost like Alice in Wonderland going through my own rabbit hole in my brain and re @-@ experiencing the past year of my life . Every moment that we were filming together was really joyous and really fun . "
The cast from RHOBH featured included Lisa Vanderpump , Yolanda Foster , Carlton Gebbia , Kyle Richards , and Kim Richards , who acted as instrument players in the video . Kyle Richards and Vanderpump also accompany Gaga on a different sequence in the video , showing the trio taking revenge against a corporation . Vanderpump explained that they were contacted by Andy Cohen — who himself has a cameo appearance in " G.U.Y. " — from Bravo and were signed for side @-@ roles in the video . Richards noticed that Gaga was a perfectionist on the set , with Vanderpump saying that the singer took charge of every detail of the production . They explained to The Hollywood Reporter that Gaga wanted the housewives to " feel and look beautiful and fierce " and during one of the homicide scenes she explained : " I want you to whip that ponytail even more . Go back and really exaggerate your head @-@ flipping ' . I was like , ' Whatever you say ' . [ Vanderpump ] To get me into a lace bodysuit , there 's not many people I 'd do that for . I 'm 53 years old , for God 's sake . She said , ' This is what you 're wearing ' . " Richards personally wanted to play the guitar since she had been taking lessons .
Gaga also utilized the 3D game Minecraft in a sequence and enlisted Minecraft Youtuber SkyDoesMineCraft in a sequence which depics the singer reviving famous men who have been dead . The artist had been a fan of the game since Martyn Littlewood of The Yogscast used it to create a parody of her 2011 single , " Born This Way " , which she appreciated . Minecraft and Lego were also used to create little items like fruits and chairs in the video . The 3D theme also expanded onto using artist Nathan Sawaya 's Lego sculpture Yellow — which showed a man ripping his chest out — in a sequence showing Gaga 's head being transposed on the artpiece . Sawaya recalled that Gaga had contacted him for collaborating on the music video . They mutually agreed on the idea of making art " accessible " and decided on the different sculptures to be created , including a duplicate of Yellow , without the head . Sawaya then traveled to Hearst Castle to install the art pieces for the shoot . Multiple designer dresses were also used in the video namely , a white ensemble with a giant headpiece by Jean Paul Gaultier , jeans by Versace , a red swimsuit by La Perla and a black one by Madrid label POL , jewelry from Lynn Ban , and custom made sandals form Ruthie Davis . The homicide scenes showed designs by Helen Yarmak , lace bodysuits by Somarta and Aturo Rios feathered headpiece . Designer Bea Szenfeld created a dress from paper resembling a teddy bear as well as other couture also . Finally , gold colored latex body suit created by Atsuko Kudo was also work by Gaga , as well as gold garments for her backup dancers .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
On March 14 , 2014 , Gaga revealed during her keynote speech with John Norris at SXSW that she would release the video a week later . She also tweeted a still from the clip with a caption about the release date . A preview of the clip aired on March 21 , during an interview with Savannah Guthrie for Today . The video debuted in full on Dateline NBC a day later . To coincide with the release of the video , The Out NYC hotel changed their name temporarily to The G.U.Y. Hotel and would keep it till April 10 , 2014 . Located in Midtown New York , the hotel also opened a Gaga Gallery which started from March 28 ( Gaga 's birthday ) and show cased the props and dresses included in the music video .
Running for nearly twelve minutes , the video features four songs from Artpop and features the central video for " G.U.Y. " The video opens with corporate business men fighting each other over money . Nearby , Gaga depicted as a fallen angel has been shot out of the sky with an arrow . The instrumental of her song " Artpop " plays in the background . The men run off and Gaga crawls to safety , removing the arrow from her chest . Gaga makes it to her feet and travels to a palace , where she collapses at the front door and is scraped up by the guards . " Venus " begins as she is carried down to the pool , where people cover her in flowers and put her into the water in order to heal her .
" G.U.Y. " begins as Gaga rises again in a white dress , reborn as a Greek goddess of sorts and the song begins to play . Shots of Gaga in different outfits , including a blue dress and white bikini are shown with dance sequences . Andy Cohen and the stars of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills make cameos in the video . A scene featuring Gaga rolling around on a seashell bed in a red outfit , dancing in a gold leotard with arrows , and floating on a bed in a pool are shown throughout the song . With the help of YouTuber SkyDoesMinecraft ( also making his cameo appearance ) , Michael Jackson , Mahatma Gandhi , John Lennon , and Jesus are resurrected using the game Minecraft and their blood is used to create clones known as " G.U.Y. " Gaga , Vanderpump , and Richards are seen coming out of a car in black outfits , shooting money cannons , and walking down the hallway to kill corporate executives to replace with G.U.Y. clones . The video ends with thousands of these clones marching out of the castle . The credits section of the video then features " Manicure " playing .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
Christina Lee from Idolator called it " extravagant " and found similarity to the release of Jackson 's music video for " Remember the Time " , with Gaga building up anticipation for " G.U.Y. " with teasers and premiere . Marissa G. Muller from MTV News commended the fashion , the choreography , the appearance of RHOBH in the video , and all who worked in it in the credits , saying " While it 's a humbling move to put the spotlight on everyone else 's contributions , it 's also a reminder of how truly epic this production is . It 's gonna be really hard for Gaga to out @-@ Gaga this one . " Adam Markovitz from Entertainment Weekly was impressed by the grandiose of the video calling it " camp @-@ pop delirium " . He compared it with director Jean Cocteau 's films and proposed different theories as to the plot of the video , including ode to old and new Hollywood and a satire of " corporate subservience " . This view was shared by Whitney Phaneuf from HitFix who called it a " heavy dose of camp and pop culture " .
MuuMuse 's Bradley Stern described the video as " an eye @-@ popping 7 @-@ minute deep dive into astonishing new levels of self @-@ importance and certifiable insanity . " The video was also noted as Gaga 's most ambitious project since those for her previous singles " Bad Romance " and " Telephone " . Kevin Rutherford from Billboard said that Gaga " has no problem attaching art to music " and that " she 's not showing signs of stopping anytime soon with her new music video . " Isaiah Thomas from El Espectador noted that the video was a response by Gaga against accusations of " selling out " to the corporate world . Especially the ending of the video justified this with Gaga murdering the corporate heads who supposedly destroyed her freedom in the beginning of the video . Dharmic X from Complex described the release as " vibrant " and " leftfield " , as is expected from a release by Gaga . Samantha Grossman from Time expected the video to be full of the strange imagery and the extravagant costumes , making it " bizarre " .
Negative reviews came from Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani , who found the plot to be " muffled " , ultimately deducing that the final output was " unsexy " for a song talking about sexual submissiveness . Cinquemani found inspirations from the 1952 musical film Million Dollar Mermaid , in the scenes involving synchronized swimming . Contactmusic.com 's Elinor Cosgrave highlighted the video 's " mix of symbolism " , though criticized the references to Christ and rebirth .
= = Live performances = =
" G.U.Y. " was included in the setlist of her Manhattan residency show at Roseland Ballroom . Following the performance of " Applause " , Gaga appeared in a white jumpsuit and green colored wig which she had introduced during the Artpop era . She stood in the middle of the Ballroom stage and sang the opening lyrics while purple neon lights flooded the stage . On April 2 , her performance of the song was broadcast on Late Show with David Letterman along with her song " Dope " . Amanda Holpuch from The Guardian recalled that the performance of " G.U.Y. " received " as much love as [ Gaga 's ] first big hit ' Just Dance ' " . April Spanos from The Village Voice rendered the performances of " Applause " and " G.U.Y. " as the " power duo " of the night . She added that the latter was " particularly pleasant to hear live ; the Zedd beat was made to be experienced in a club and its crunch was felt all over the dancefloor . " Conversely , Hilary Hughes from USA Today felt that the simplest moments of the performances were the ones featuring toned down versions of her singles like " Born This Way " and " Poker Face " , rather than the " extravagant " choreography during " Bad Romance " and " G.U.Y. " On the final day of the Roseland shows , Gaga took a bow with her dancers after the performance , saying " Roseland , thank you for all the wonderful memories you 've given us ... Thank you for giving us this historic opportunity . "
The song was also included in the set list of her ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour , being the second track performed . The singer wore a bejeweled leotard which had the Jeff Koons blue gazing ball attached in the middle ; the ball was previously used in the album cover art for Artpop . Gaga accessorized the dress with a pair of feathered wings while wearing a blond bob wig reminiscent of her looks from The Fame era . Following the performance of the album title song , " Artpop " , Gaga loosened the wings and was joined by her dancers on the ramp to perform " G.U.Y. " During the intermediate verses Gaga performed a choreographed routine reminiscent of the music video with a dancer . The performance ended with the singer and the dancers reaching the main stage and dancing energetically . It received positive review from Ross Raihala of St. Paul Pioneer Press who said that the song sounded " terrific " in its live rendition . Chuck Yarborough from The Plain Dealer noticed that Gaga sang with a backing track during the performance of " G.U.Y. " , but concluded that " she and a gifted crew of dancers kept up a manic pace that matched the frenzy of the evening " .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Digital download – Remixes
" G.U.Y. " ( St. Lucia Remix ) – 5 : 29
" G.U.Y. " ( Rami Samir Afuni Remix ) – 4 : 28
" G.U.Y. " ( Wayne G Throwback Anthem ) – 7 : 53
" G.U.Y. " ( Lovelife Remix ) – 3 : 15
" G.U.Y. " ( KDrew Remix ) – 4 : 45
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood , California
Mastered at Oasis Mastering Studios , Burbank , California
Stefani Germanotta P / K / A Lady Gaga ( BMI ) Sony ATV Songs LLC / House of Gaga Publishing , LLC / GloJoe Music Inc . ( BMI ) , Zedd Music Empire ( ASCAP ) , All rights administered by Kobalt Songs Music Publishing .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Artpop .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Artaxerxes III =
Artaxerxes III Ochus of Persia / ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz / c . 425 BC – 338 BC ; ( Old Persian : Artaxšaçā ) was the Great King ( Shah ) of Persia and the eleventh king of the Achaemenid Empire , as well as the first Pharaoh of the 31st dynasty of Egypt . He was the son and successor of Artaxerxes II and was succeeded by his son , Arses of Persia ( also known as Artaxerxes IV ) . His reign coincided with the reign of Philip II in Macedon and Nectanebo II in Egypt .
Before ascending the throne Artaxerxes was a satrap and commander of his father 's army . Artaxerxes came to power after one of his brothers was executed , another committed suicide , the last murdered and his father , Artaxerxes II died . Soon after becoming king , Artaxerxes murdered all of the royal family to secure his place as king . He started two major campaigns against Egypt . The first campaign failed , and was followed up by rebellions throughout the western part of his empire . In 343 BC , Artaxerxes defeated Nectanebo II , the Pharaoh of Egypt , driving him from Egypt , stopping a revolt in Phoenicia on the way .
In Artaxerxes ' later years , Philip II of Macedon 's power was increasing in Greece , where he tried to convince the Greeks to revolt against Achaemenid Persia . His activities were opposed by Artaxerxes , and with his support , the city of Perinthus resisted a Macedonian siege .
There is evidence for a renewed building policy at Persepolis in his later life , where Artaxerxes erected a new palace and built his own tomb , and began long @-@ term projects such as the Unfinished Gate .
According to a Greek source , Diodorus of Sicily , Bagoas poisoned Artaxerxes , but a cuneiform tablet ( now in the British Museum ) suggests that the king died from natural causes .
= = Name = =
Artaxerxes III ( Old Persian : , Artaxšaçrā , " he whose empire is well @-@ fitted " or " perfected " , or Arta : " honoured " + Xerxes : " a king " ( " the honoured king " ) , according to Herodotus " the great warrior " ) was the throne name adopted by Ochus when he succeeded his father in 358 BC . He is generally referred to as Ochus , but in Iran he is known as Ardeshir III ( اردشیر سوم Modern Persian form of Artaxerxes ) . In Babylonian inscriptions he is called " Umasu , who is called Artakshatsu " . The same form of the name ( probably pronounced Uvasu ) occurs in the Syrian version of the Canon of Kings by Elias of Nisibis .
= = Early life and accession = =
Before ascending the throne Artaxerxes had been a satrap and commander of his father 's army . In 359 BC , just before ascending the throne , he attacked Egypt as a reaction to Egypt 's failed attacks on coastal regions of Phoenicia . In 358 BC his father , Artaxerxes II , died , it was said because of a broken heart caused by his children 's behaviour , and , since his other sons , Darius , Ariaspes and Tiribazus had already been eliminated by plots , Artaxerxes III succeeded him as king . His first order was the execution of over 80 of his nearest relations to secure his place as king .
In 355 BC , Artaxerxes forced Athens to conclude a peace which required the city 's forces to leave Asia Minor and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies . Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebellious Cadusians , but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings . One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus , who later occupied the Persian throne as Darius III .
Artaxerxes then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor , as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt . The order was however ignored by Artabazus of Lydia , who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king . Athens sent assistance to Sardis . Orontes of Mysia also supported Artabazus and the combined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artaxerxes in 354 BC . However , in 353 BC , they were defeated by Artaxerxes ’ army and were disbanded . Orontes was pardoned by the king , while Artabazus fled to the safety of the court of Philip II of Macedon .
= = First Egyptian Campaign = =
In around 351 BC , Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt , which had revolted under his father , Artaxerxes II . At the same time a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor , which , being supported by Thebes , threatened to become serious . Levying a vast army , Artaxerxes marched into Egypt , and engaged Nectanebo II . After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh , Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius . Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt .
= = Rebellion of Cyprus and Sidon = =
Soon after this defeat , Phoenicia , Asia Minor and Cyprus declared their independence from Persian rule . In 343 BC , Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels to Idrieus , prince of Caria , who employed 8 @,@ 000 Greek mercenaries and forty triremes , commanded by Phocion the Athenian , and Evagoras , son of the elder Evagoras , the Cypriot monarch . Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus . Artaxerxes initiated a counter @-@ offensive against Sidon by commanding the satrap of Syria and Mezseus , and the satrap of Cilicia to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check . Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes , the Sidonese king , who was aided by 40 @,@ 000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes . As a result , the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia .
After this , Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330 @,@ 000 men against Sidon . Artaxerxes ' army comprised 300 @,@ 000 foot soldiers , 30 @,@ 000 cavalry , 300 triremes , and 500 transports or provision ships . After gathering this army , he sought assistance from the Greeks . Though refused aid by Athens and Sparta , he succeeded in obtaining a thousand Theban heavy @-@ armed hoplites under Lacrates , three thousand Argives under Nicostratus , and six thousand Æolians , Ionians , and Dorians from the Greek cities of Asia Minor . This Greek support was numerically small , amounting to no more than 10 @,@ 000 men , but it formed , together with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went over to him afterwards , the force on which he placed his chief reliance , and to which the ultimate success of his expedition was mainly due .
The approach of Artaxerxes sufficiently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king , and then admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town . Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens to be transfixed with javelins , and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek his mercy , Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate . Sidon was then burnt to the ground , either by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens . Forty thousand people died in the conflagration . Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a high price to speculators , who calculated on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out from among the ashes . Tennes was later put to death by Artaxerxes . Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported the revolt to Hyrcania the south coast of the Caspian Sea .
= = Second Egyptian Campaign = =
The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the invasion of Egypt . In 343 BC , Artaxerxes , in addition to his 330 @,@ 000 Persians , had now a force of 14 @,@ 000 Greeks furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor : 4 @,@ 000 under Mentor , consisting of the troops which he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt ; 3 @,@ 000 sent by Argos ; and 1000 from Thebes . He divided these troops into three bodies , and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Greek . The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes , Mentor of Rhodes and Nicostratus of Argos while the Persians were led by Rhossaces , Aristazanes , and Bagoas , the chief of the eunuchs . Nectanebo II resisted with an army of 100 @,@ 000 of whom 20 @,@ 000 were Greek mercenaries . Nectanebo II occupied the Nile and its various branches with his large navy . The character of the country , intersected by numerous canals , and full of strongly fortified towns , was in his favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to offer a prolonged , if not even a successful , resistance . But he lacked good generals , and over @-@ confident in his own powers of command , he was able to be out @-@ manoeuvred by the Greek mercenary generals and his forces eventually defeated by the combined Persian armies .
After his defeat , Nectanebo hastily fled to Memphis , leaving the fortified towns to be defended by their garrisons . These garrisons consisted of partly Greek and partly Egyptian troops ; between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian leaders . As a result , the Persians were able to rapidly reduce numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were advancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit the country and flee southwards to Ethiopia . The Persian army completely routed the Egyptians and occupied the Lower Delta of the Nile . Following Nectanebo fleeing to Ethiopia , all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes . The Jews in Egypt were sent either to Babylon or to the south coast of the Caspian Sea , the same location that the Jews of Phoenicia had earlier been sent .
After this victory over the Egyptians , Artaxerxes had the city walls destroyed , started a reign of terror , and set about looting all the temples . Persia gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting . Artaxerxes also raised high taxes and attempted to weaken Egypt enough that it could never revolt against Persia . For the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt , believers in the native religion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen . Before he returned to Persia , he appointed Pherendares as satrap of Egypt . With the wealth gained from his reconquering Egypt , Artaxerxes was able to amply reward his mercenaries . He then returned to his capital having successfully completed his invasion of Egypt .
= = Later years = =
After his success in Egypt , Artaxerxes returned to Persia and spent the next few years effectively quelling insurrections in various parts of the Empire so that a few years after his conquest of Egypt , the Persian Empire was firmly under his control . Egypt remained a part of the Persian Empire until Alexander the Great 's conquest of Egypt .
After the conquest of Egypt , there were no more revolts or rebellions against Artaxerxes . Mentor and Bagoas , the two generals who had most distinguished themselves in the Egyptian campaign , were advanced to posts of the highest importance . Mentor , who was governor of the entire Asiatic seaboard , was successful in reducing to subjection many of the chiefs who during the recent troubles had rebelled against Persian rule . In the course of a few years Mentor and his forces were able to bring the whole Asian Mediterranean coast into complete submission and dependence .
Bagoas went back to the Persian capital with Artaxerxes , where he took a leading role in the internal administration of the Empire and maintained tranquillity throughout the rest of the Empire . During the last six years of the reign of Artaxerxes III , the Persian Empire was governed by a vigorous and successful government .
The Persian forces in Ionia and Lycia regained control of the Aegean and the Mediterranean Sea and took over much of Athens ’ former island empire . In response , Isocrates of Athens started giving speeches calling for a ‘ crusade against the barbarians ’ but there was not enough strength left in any of the Greek city @-@ states to answer his call .
Although there weren 't any rebellions in the Persian Empire itself , the growing power and territory of Philip II of Macedon in Macedon ( against which Demosthenes was in vain warning the Athenians ) attracted the attention of Artaxerxes . In response , he ordered that Persian influence was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and influence of the Macedonian kingdom . In 340 BC , a Persian force was dispatched to assist the Thracian prince , Cersobleptes , to maintain his independence . Sufficient effective aid was given to the city of Perinthus that the numerous and well @-@ appointed army with which Philip had commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give up the attempt . By the last year of Artaxerxes ' rule , Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the Persian Empire , which would crown his career . But the Greeks would not unite with him .
In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned by Bagoas with the assistance of a physician .
= = Legacy = =
Historically , kings of the Achaemenid Empire were followers of Zoroaster or heavily influenced by Zoroastrian ideology . The reign of Artaxerxes II saw a revival of the cult of Anahita and Mithra , when in his building inscriptions he invoked Ahuramazda , Anahita and Mithra and even set up statues of his gods . Mithra and Anahita had until then been neglected by true Zoroastrians ; because they defied Zoroaster ’ s command that God was to be represented only by the flames of a sacred fire . Artaxerxes III is thought to have rejected Anahita and worshipped only Ahuramazda and Mithra . An ambiguity in the cuneiform script of an inscription of Artaxerxes III at Persepolis suggests that he regarded the father and the son as one person , suggesting that the attributes of Ahuramazda were being transferred to Mithra . Strangely , Artaxerxes had ordered that statues of the goddess Anâhita be erected at Babylon , Damascus and Sardis , as well as at Susa , Ecbatana and Persepolis .
Artaxerxes name appears on silver coins ( modeled on Athenian ones ) issued while he was in Egypt . The reverse bears an inscription in an Egyptian script , saying " Artaxerxes Pharaoh . Life , Prosperity , Wealth " .
= = = In literature = = =
It is thought by some that the Book of Judith could have been originally based on Artaxerxes ' campaign in Phoenicia , as Holofernes was the name of the brother of the Cappadocian satrap Ariarathes , the vassal of Artaxerxes . Bagoas , the general that finds Holofernes dead , was one of the generals of Artaxerxes during his campaign against Phoenicia and Egypt .
= = = Construction = = =
There is evidence for a renewed building policy at Persepolis , but some of the buildings were unfinished at the time of his death . Two of his buildings at Persepolis were the Hall of Thirty @-@ Two Columns , purpose of which is unknown , and the palace of Artaxerxes III . The unfinished Army Road and Unfinished Gate , which connected the Gate of All Nations and the One @-@ hundred Column Hall , gave archaeologists an insight into the construction of Persepolis . In 341 BC , after Artaxerxes returned to Babylon from Egypt , he apparently proceeded to build a great Apadana whose description is present in the works of Diodorus Siculus .
The Nebuchadnezzar II palace in Babylon was expanded during the reign of Artaxerxes III . Artaxerxes ' tomb was cut into the mountain behind the Persepolis platform , next to his father 's tomb .
= = Family = =
Artaxerxes III was the son of Artaxerxes II and Statira . Artaxerxes II had more than 115 sons by many wives , most of them however were illegitimate . Some of Ochus ' more significant siblings were Rodogune , Apama , Sisygambis , Ocha , Darius and Ariaspes , most of whom were murdered soon after his ascension . Artaxerxes married his niece and the daughter of Oxathres , brother of the future king Darius III . His children were Arses , the future king of Persia , Bisthanes and Parysatis , wife of Alexander the Great .
= Video Phone ( song ) =
" Video Phone " is a song by American singer Beyoncé from her third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . The track was released as the eighth single from the album . A remixed version featuring Lady Gaga was released later . Musically , the song consists of simple lyrics and hidden innuendos , with Gaga and Beyoncé trading verses with each other , in the remix . The lyrics refer to putting up a show on camera .
The song received generally mixed reviews from most of the critics , who noted that Gaga 's featured appearance failed to add anything to the tune . The original version charted in the lower regions of the charts of Australia and its Urban chart , Spain , United Kingdom and on the US R & B charts . The remixed version charted at sixty @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 , and topped the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . It also charted in Australia and its Urban chart , the Czech Republic , New Zealand , while it bubbled under the main charts of Belgium .
A music video was created to accompany the song featuring Gaga . It portrayed her and Knowles in a number of costumes , brandishing colorful guns towards men and paying homage to the film Reservoir Dogs and pinup legend Bettie Page . It received mixed feedback from critics who called it un @-@ interesting , and felt that it did not present anything new . However , they complimented the costumes and the cinematic homage of the video . The video went on to win the BET award for Video of the Year .
= = Background and composition = =
" Video Phone " was written by Beyoncé Knowles , Shondrae Crawford , Sean Garrett and Lady Gaga in the remixed version . It was produced by Bangladesh , The Pen and Knowles . Initially , " Video Phone " was sent to US urban contemporary radios on September 22 , 2009 . The release was later recalled and in October 2009 , Life & Style reported that Knowles and pop singer Lady Gaga were collaborating for a remixed version of the song . The remixed version featured both Knowles and Lady Gaga trading verses with one another . The remixed version of the song that features Lady Gaga was included on the 2009 deluxe edition of I Am ... Sasha Fierce .
Musically , " Video Phone " is a crunk song . According to the sheet music published at Sheetmusicplus.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate groove tempo of 120 beats per minute and in the key of A minor . It consists of simple lyrics , with hidden innuendos , and is backed by thin @-@ spread beats ; Knowles and Gaga uttering gasps and groans while singing the song . Chris Willman from Yahoo ! said that the lyrics are a reference to " celebration of Skype sex and putting on a solo show , on camera , for a guy you just met at the club . "
The female protagonist sings how she will dance for a man , while he is filming her with his videophone , this being illustrated in the line , " Press ' record ' and I 'll let you film me " , and " You want me naked ? If you like this position you can tape it " . According to James Reed of The Boston Globe the lines " What ? You want me naked / If you likin ' this position , you can tape it " are sung with an accent which was " part Long Island , part Barbados " . Michaelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club commented that " Video Phone " is very similar to Missy Elliott 's songs . Rolling Stone 's Christian Hoard and The Washington Post 's J. Freedom du Lac found similarities between " Video Phone " and the songs by rock band Nine Inch Nails . San Francisco Chronicle 's Aidin Vaziri noted that the song sounded like it was swiped from Björk .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed reviews . Alexis Petridis from The Guardian compared the song to " Diva " , stating that " Video Phone " is " Almost equally weird , but much better , [ and it ] introduces us to the unlikely figure of Beyoncé Knowles , amateur pornographer : ' You want me naked ? If you like this position you can tape it . ' She doesn 't make for the world 's most believable Reader 's Wife , but it doesn 't matter , because the spare , eerie backdrop of groans and echoing electronics is so thrilling . " A writer of Rolling Stone said that Knowles sings in a " dirty groove on the slippery " song . Colin Mcguire from PopMatters wrote that " ' Video Phone ' is sexy enough to the point where it almost becomes uncomfortable to think of her listening back to this with her father in the room . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that the song ended the album abruptly . Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix noted that the song was " smutty " for an artist like Knowles . J. Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post chose the song as a highlight on I Am ... Sasha Fierce saying , " The moaning , groaning ' Video Phone ' positions Beyoncé as the star of a sex tape set to a thrillingly spare soundtrack that sounds like a Nine Inch Nails instrumental . " A negative review for the song was given by Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald who described it as " awful " .
For the collaboration , Fraser McAlpine from BBC Radio 1 reviewed the song negatively , writing : " So anyway , this brings me to ' Video Phone ' – and what exactly is the point of Gaga featuring in this song ? I know Beyoncé fans won 't like me saying this , but I can 't help but think that in this instance it 's a case of ' if you can 't beat em , join em ' [ ... ] For someone as naturally brilliant as Beyoncé ( and a better singer than Gaga and Rihanna put together ) , perhaps she should actually stop trying so hard and do what she does best - singing proper songs . " Chris Willman from Yahoo ! compared the song to Gaga 's " Telephone " , where Knowles appears as a featured artist , and wrote that " Maybe it 's because the lack of a video for Gaga 's " Telephone " leaves more to the imagination , but if this were a contest , I 'd have to say her tune trumps Beyoncé 's . [ ... ] [ Her ] greatest promises of unbridled exhibitionism can 't quite make the genre feel fresh . " The New York Times ' Jon Caramanica commented that " Video Phone " and " Telephone " , " promised a new direction , but all Beyoncé did was show up to prove she could out @-@ Gaga Gaga , then return to her comfort zone . " Kyle Anderson of MTV , felt that " Gaga got a bit lost in the mix " of " Video Phone " . David Balls of the website Digital Spy gave a negative review for the remix version , grading it two out of five starts . He further commented ,
" Needless to say , the pair work their superstar pulling power for all it 's worth . Over sparse and eerie beats , they deliver innuendo @-@ laced lyrics , groan near @-@ orgasmically and generally tease us with the prospect of doing all sorts of naughty things on , well , your video phone . While the promo clip offers some of the intended thrill , the track itself - single number eight from I Am ... - lacks the sparkle of previous offerings . It may provide a brief rush of excitement to the loins , but ultimately leaves you feeling fluffed rather than fully @-@ serviced by the twosome . "
On The Village Voice 's 2009 Pazz & Jop singles list , " Video Phone " was ranked at number 307 .
= = Chart performance = =
After the album 's release in 2008 , the song charted on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Upon release as a single in 2009 , it debuted at number 70 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and eventually peaked at 37 . With " Video Phone " , I Am ... Sasha Fierce became the first album of the 21st century to have seven entries on this chart , following " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , " If I Were a Boy " , " Diva " , " Halo " , " Ego " and " Sweet Dreams " . On the week ending December 12 , 2009 , the extended remix of " Video Phone " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 65 , becoming the lowest peaking song from the album . The song sold 28 @,@ 000 digital downloads , 93 % of which were for the extended remix though radio stations preferred to spin the original album version . " Video Phone " also became Knowles ' fourteenth number @-@ one Hot Dance Club Songs chart @-@ topper . It is also her sixth consecutive chart @-@ topped . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the combined versions of " Video Phone " has sold 287 @,@ 000 copies as of June 2010 .
In Australia , the original version of the song , debuted at 89 and peaked at 66 on the ARIA Singles Chart . The remixed version debuted at 40 on November 30 , 2009 and peaked at 31 the next week . The original and the remixed version , respectively , both peaked at 29 on the ARIA Urban Chart . In New Zealand , the remixed version debuted at 33 and peaked at 32 after two weeks . In the United Kingdom , the original version of " Video Phone " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at 91 , and peaked at 58 . The original and remixed version peaked on the UK R & B Chart at 21 and 36 respectively . Across Europe , the remixed version of the song charted in Spain and outside the official charts in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) . In the Czech Republic , the extended remix of " Video Phone " debuted at thirty @-@ nine on issue date February 17 , 2010 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
A music video for the extended remix of " Video Phone " was directed by Hype Williams , along with producer Cisco Newman and art director Lenny Tso . On October 15 , 2009 , a spokesperson for Williams confirmed to MTV , that reports of Gaga and Beyoncé working on the music video together were true . It was shot at Brooklyn 's Greenpoint neighborhood , under tight security . The artists were reported to be wearing fashionable dresses , with Knowles in " a feathered dress " and Gaga sporting " something wild " . In an interview with New York 's Z100 radio station , Gaga further commented on her collaboration with Knowles , for the music video . She said , " When I was doing her video with her , she called me and she said , ' What do you want to do ? ' [ ... ] And I 'm like , ' I don 't want to show up in some frickin ' hair bow and be fashion Gaga in your video . ' I said , ' I want to do you . ' [ ... ] I want to do my version of Beyoncé . So the whole time I was learning the choreography they were calling me Gee @-@ yoncé . " Later , during an interview with MTV News , she explained :
" What I was excited about is with B [ eyoncé ] , I had no ego . Neither of us had an ego . It wasn 't about competition . It was about , like , ' Man let 's give the world what they want . Let 's do a real girl @-@ power collaboration where we support one another . ' I said , ' I want to do you in your video , and I want to tribute you . I want to dress up like you ' . And Hype Williams ... was so excited . He was like , ' Gaga I want no makeup on your face . ' It was really stripped down — real Beyoncé hair , and we wore the same outfit in the video , and I [ paid tribute to ] her . [ ... ] I wanted to [ work with her ] because this was an era for her in her career where she defined herself aesthetically . And that should be applauded that a woman did that . She 's so great at what she does . "
The video was initially set to premiere on November 5 , 2009 but did not actually premiere until November 17 , 2009 . Two previews of the video were posted online one day before its official release , on November 16 , 2009 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Knowles walking down an alley , accompanied by several men in suits , an homage to Quentin Tarantino 's 1992 film Reservoir Dogs . As the main section of the song begins , cameras zoom in on Knowles as she dances in a black and white latex leotard while holding sunglasses with hand signals on them . When the first verse begins , Knowles seductively dances for two men who have cameras as heads . Another scene shows her teasing men with futuristic toy guns while wearing a skin @-@ colored latex top . During Gaga 's verse , she and Knowles appear wearing white leotards ; they both sing to the camera while shooting more toy guns in open fire . Knowles next brandishes a bow and fires arrows at a cameraman who 's strapped to a rotating dart board . She and Gaga , now in front of a white backdrop , perform a synchronized dance together , with Gaga wearing a pair of yellow Louboutins heels . Knowles then appears dressed as an homage to Bettie Page , while handling several different firearms . Throughout the video , the two singers fire their guns and arrows at men . The video ends with Knowles shooting a gun while perched upon a stationary motorcycle and surrounded by images from the start of the video .
= = = Reception = = =
James Montgomery from MTV commented that " it 's a little surprising that the just @-@ released clip for Beyoncé 's ' Video Phone ' has nary a flame or fish @-@ eye shot ( there are , of course , plenty of outlandish costumes ) . However , don 't make the mistake of thinking this video is by any means straightforward — it 's plenty WTF ! [ ... ] It 's definitely not the Gaga we 're used to seeing , but her appearance isn 't exactly run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill , either . And neither is this video , for that matter . Especially not when you 're watching Beyoncé snap her gum and shake her hips and grope an AK @-@ 47 while the screen pops from electric green to Kool @-@ Aid red . " Jocelyn Vena of the same publication noted , " The clip is charged with energy , and the cynics out there might wonder if putting two sizzling divas in a room together created any kind of rivalry . " Jim Farber from New York 's Daily News compared Knowles ' look to that of pin @-@ up model Bettie Page , and said " The clip for ' Video Phone ' [ ... ] doesn 't offer much in the way of chemistry or even interaction between the two divas . [ The ] clip seems about as innovative as a rotary dial up . " Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone commented that the video was an " almost seizure @-@ inducing parade of cinematic homages and wardrobe changes . " He also compared Knowles ' look to Page , as well as Katy Perry and rapper M.I.A. The Daily Mail gave a positive review of the video , calling it avant @-@ garde and naughty .
New York magazine 's Amy Odell commented that " The intricacy of her [ Knowles ' ] wardrobe [ in the video ] suggests she 's feeling the Gaga pressure . " She further added : " In a burgeoning phenomenon we might call the Gaga Effect , divas everywhere may feel the pressure to push avant @-@ garde fashion to the max to keep up with the pantsless wonder . Beyoncé 's fashion efforts in ' Video Phone ' — which make her epic diva money fan a mere distant memory — deserve a look @-@ by @-@ look analysis , because she tried really hard . " In another review , she said " Together they play with colored fire @-@ spitting water guns and look like the best of diva friends . " Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt commented that the video was " B [ eyoncé ] ' s show — La [ dy ] Gaga 's just guesting in it . " Greenblatt also praised the fashion designs used in the video and the Bettie Page " vibes " . Spin 's Chris Zakorchemny felt that Gaga " does her best Beyonce impression " in the video for the song . However , he said that " Even with Gaga involved , the Hype Williams @-@ produced video doesn 't veer too much into the weird ; it 's certainly not Gaga @-@ setting @-@ men @-@ on @-@ fire weird . " Margaret Wappler of The Arizona Republic praised the video saying that it had " electrifying color schemes and high @-@ shine lighting , resulting in a fantastical pop mirage between Lady Gaga and Beyonce " . She further called it a " kinetic spectacle to behold , with enough guns to make Ted Nugent weep with jealousy and some hot Bettie Page bangs on Beyonce that should prompt plenty of ladies to run to the hairdresser " . Wappler finished her review by concluding that " the whole video has a distinct and not unpleasant 90s vibe . " Francesca Stabile of The Village Voice gave a positive review for the video praising the outfits used in the video and the " oversized sequined sweater that makes an appearance toward the end " .
= = = Achievements = = =
The music video ranked at ninety @-@ nine on BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown . In 2010 , the music video of " Video Phone " received a nomination at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards Japan , in the category of " Best Collaboration Video " . The video received two nominations at the 2010 BET Awards for " Video of the Year " and for " Best Collaboration " , winning the former category on April 27 , 2010 . On August 3 , 2010 , the video received five nominations at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , in the categories of Best Choreography , Best Collaboration , Best Pop Video , Best Female Video and Best Art Direction .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from I Am ... Sasha Fierce liner notes .
Beyoncé – Primary artist , producer
Lady Gaga – Featured artist , extended remix
Tom Coyne – Mastering
Mark " Spike " Stent - Mixing Engineer
Jim Caruana – Vocal Engineer
Eddy Schreyer – Mastering , extended remix
William " Vybe Chyle " Burke – Mixing Engineer , extended remix
Mathew Knowles – Executive producer
Miles Walker – Engineer
Bangladesh – Producer
Phlex – choreographer
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= The Country Wife =
The Country Wife is a Restoration comedy written in 1675 by William Wycherley . A product of the tolerant early Restoration period , the play reflects an aristocratic and anti @-@ Puritan ideology , and was controversial for its sexual explicitness even in its own time . The title itself contains a lewd pun . It is based on several plays by Molière , with added features that 1670s London audiences demanded : colloquial prose dialogue in place of Molière 's verse , a complicated , fast @-@
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treats her as his asset . He constantly asks Horner to “ watch ” her so that she will have no opportunity to make a cuckold out of him . Furthermore , there is a struggle for dominance between men and women . As Pinchwife says , ‘ ” If we do not cheat women , they ’ ll cheat us ” is the very basis for the chief plot of the play , “ which centers upon the exchange of positions of dominance within his own family . ” Pinchwife decides to marry a country woman in the hopes that she will not be clever enough to know how to cheat , but his extremes in preventing her exposure to men leads to his downfall . Only the women are expected to remain faithful to their husbands . As a result , Lady Fidget “ uses sex as a means of revenge against their husbands and achieve a kind of moral victory over them by making them what they most fear to be – cuckolds . ”
= = = Horner ’ s Position of Power = = =
Initially , Horner is confident that he can seek out the married women who are willing to have affairs because they are the ones who do not care about their honor . Horner seems to believe he is in a position of power over the women because their extramarital affair is with him , but his power wanes during the duration of the play . In Act 5 , Scene 4 , Lady Fidget , Dainty Fidget , and Mistress Squeamish barge into Horner ’ s lodgings despite his protest , conveying “ his lower position that alludes to his disguise : a lowly eunuch . ” They talk about him as if he was not present , referring to him as a ‘ beast , ’ ‘ toad , ’ and eunuch . Cohen says , “ As the ladies grow in aggressive self @-@ confidence , Lady Fidget also ‘ claps him on the back ’ thereby revealing the altered socio @-@ sexual roles that are now presented . ” While Horner thinks he is manipulating the women , he has “ exhausted his sexual resources and has , in reality , become that impotent and useless object with the world publicly recognizes him to be . ” Horner ’ s true power is not in relationship to the women , but to the men . He shows his dominance over the men he cuckolds .
= = = Horner ’ s True Intentions Towards Women = = =
Andrew Kaufman claims that although Horner may seem to pretend to despise women because of his pretended state as a eunuch , his hatred towards women is real . When asked whether he enjoys the company of women , “ Horner ’ s language in a constant barrage of hostile wit , discharging hostility which cannot , at the moment , be directly expressed . His characteristic action , verbally , is to ‘ unmask ’ women . ”
= = First performance = =
The Country Wife was first performed in January 1675 , by the King 's Company , at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . This luxurious playhouse , designed by Christopher Wren and with room for 2 @,@ 000 spectators , had opened only the year before . It was of compact design , retaining in spite of its large seating capacity much of the intimate actor / audience contact of the Elizabethan theatre , still with an almost Elizabethan @-@ size forestage or apron stage , on which actors would come forward for maximum audience contact .
The original cast was listed in the first edition of The Country Wife , as was standard practice , and modern scholars have suggested that this information throws light on Wycherley 's intentions . Wycherley wrote with the original actors in mind , tailoring the roles to their strengths . Also , since the audience consisted mostly of habitual playgoers , authors and directors could use the associations of an actor 's previous repertoire to enrich or undercut a character , effects familiar on television and in the cinema today .
Several of the actors were specialised comedians , notably Joseph Haines who played the false @-@ wit character Sparkish , Alithea 's original fiancé . At the outset of his high @-@ profile career as comedian and song @-@ and @-@ dance man , young Haines already had a reputation for eccentricity and dominant stage presence , suggesting that Sparkish is not merely a comic butt for the truewits Horner , Harcourt , and Dorilant to mock , but also a real threat to the romance of Harcourt and Alithea .
Pinchwife was played by the elderly Michael Mohun , who was best known for playing menacing villains , such as Volpone and Iago . Mrs. Pinchwife was Elizabeth Boutell or Bowtel , a young actress who had " a childish look . Her voice was weak , tho ' very mellow ; she generally acted the young innocent lady whom all the heroes are mad in love with " . Boutell 's previous recorded roles had in fact all been unmarried as well as innocent girls , and Margery was her first married role . Matching Boutell and Mohun as a couple would emphasise " her youth and innocence against Mohun 's age and violence " . The other husband to be cuckolded by Horner , Sir Jaspar Fidget , was played by another elderly actor , William Cartwright , best known for comic parts such as Falstaff . This casting suggests that Sir Jaspar was played as a straightforwardly comic part , while Pinchwife would be " alarming as well as funny " .
The male leads Horner and Harcourt were played by the contrasted actors Charles Hart and Edward Kynaston ( or Kenaston ) . The forcefully masculine 45 @-@ year @-@ old Hart " was celebrated for superman roles , notably the arrogant , bloodthirsty Almanzor in John Dryden 's Conquest of Granada " , and also for playing rakish comedy heroes with nonchalance and charisma . Many critics credit the personalities and skills of Hart and Nell Gwyn with creating , as much as any playwright did , the famous flirting / bantering Restoration comedy couple . The beautiful androgynous Kynaston , probably in his early thirties , was a different kind of hero . He had started his career in 1660 as the outstanding Restoration female impersonator – " the prettiest woman in the whole house " – before real women entered the profession in the fall of 1660 . ( The 2004 movie Stage Beauty is loosely based on Kynaston 's career . )
John Harold Wilson argues that the famously virile stage presence of Hart as Horner must be taken into account when interpreting the play . As personified by Hart , Horner will have won women not so much through clever trickery as " the old @-@ fashioned way " , by being " dangerously attractive " , and it is only fools like Sir Jaspar Fidget who really believe him harmless . Harcourt / Kynaston , although by 1675 a well @-@ regarded and skilful actor of male roles , would clearly have been overshadowed by Horner / Hart . The actresses associated with each hero must also have tended to make the Horner plot more striking on the stage than the true @-@ love plot . Horner 's primary mistress Lady Fidget , spokeswoman for " the virtuous gang " of secretly sex @-@ hungry town wives , was played by the dynamic Elizabeth Knepp , who Samuel Pepys declared " the most excellent , mad @-@ humoured thing , and sings the noblest I 've ever heard " , talents that the famous drinking scene in Horner 's lodging seems designed to do justice to . By contrast , the choice of the bit @-@ part actress Elizabeth James as Alithea would have de @-@ emphasised the Harcourt @-@ Alithea plot . Such historical considerations have made modern critics sceptical of Norman Holland 's classic 1959 " right way / wrong way " interpretation of the play , which positions the true @-@ love plot as the most important one .
= = Stage history = =
The play had a good initial run , although Horner 's trick and the notorious china scene immediately raised offence . Wycherley laughed off such criticisms in his next play , The Plain Dealer ( 1676 ) , where he has the hypocritical Olivia exclaim that the china scene in The Country Wife " has quite taken away the reputation of poor china itself , and sullied the most innocent and pretty furniture of a lady 's chamber " . Olivia 's sensible cousin Eliza insists that she 'll go see The Country Wife anyway : " All this will not put me out of conceit with china , nor the play , which is acted today , or another of the same beastly author 's , as you call him , which I 'll go see . " Writing himself into The Plain Dealer as the " beastly author " of the china scene , Wycherley seems more amused than repentant . The Country Wife did in fact survive the complaints to become a dependable repertory play from 1675 till the mid @-@ 1740s , but by then public taste had changed too much to put up with the sex jokes any longer . Its last eighteenth century performance in 1753 was followed by a hiatus of 171 years , until the successful Phoenix Society production in 1924 at the Regent Theatre in London . The first @-@ ever American performance of Wycherley 's original Country Wife took place in 1931 .
During its long banishment from the stage , The Country Wife continued a shadowy existence in the form of David Garrick 's cleaned @-@ up version The Country Girl ( 1766 ) , where Margery is a virgin and Horner her romantic lover . This play was very popular , going through at least twenty editions , reaching the New York stage in 1794 , and surviving in both London and New York into the twentieth century . The few modern critics who have read Garrick 's version typically dismiss it as " sentimental and boring , where The Country Wife is astringent and provocative " . Wycherley 's original is now again a stage classic , with countless professional and amateur performances , an actors ' favourite because of the high number of good parts it offers . The movie Shampoo ( 1975 ) , with Warren Beatty as the Horner character , is a somewhat distant version of The Country Wife after exactly 300 years , reportedly inspired by the Chichester Festival production of 1969 . There was a BBC Play of the Month production of The Country Wife , in 1977 , in which Anthony Andrews plays Horner and Helen Mirren plays Margery .
The Country Wife was also restaged as a musical – Lust . Written by the Heather Brothers , it was first performed at the Queens Theatre in Hornchurch in the London Borough of Havering in 1992 . It later transferred to the Theatre Royal Haymarket in London 's West End , starring Denis Lawson as Horner . The production & Lawson then moved to the John Houseman Theatre in New York in 1995 .
= = Critical reception = =
From its creation until the mid @-@ 20th century , The Country Wife was subject to both aesthetic praise and moral outrage . Many critics through the centuries have acknowledged its linguistic energy and wit , including even Victorians such as Leigh Hunt , who praised its literary quality in a selection of Restoration plays that he published in 1840 ( itself a daring undertaking , for reputedly " obscene " plays that had been long out of print ) . However , in an influential review of Hunt 's edition , Thomas Babington Macaulay swept aside questions of literary merit , claiming with indignation that " Wycherley 's indecency is protected against the critics as a skunk is protected against the hunters . It is safe , because it is too filthy to handle and too noisome even to approach . " Margery Pinchwife , regarded in Wycherley 's own time as a purely comic character , was denounced by Macaulay as a scarlet woman who threw herself into " a licentious intrigue of the lowest and least sentimental kind " .
It was Macaulay , not Hunt , who set the keynote for the 19th century . The play was impossible equally to stage and to discuss , forgotten and obscure .
Academic critics of the first half of the 20th century continued to approach The Country Wife gingerly , with frequent warnings about its " heartlessness " , even as they praised its keen social observation . At this time nobody found it funny , and positive criticism tried to rescue it as satire and social criticism rather than as comedy . Macaulay 's " licentious " Mrs. Pinchwife becomes in the 20th century a focus for moral concern : to critics such as Bonamy Dobrée , she is a tragic character , destined to have her naiveté cruelly taken advantage of by the " grim , nightmare figure " of Horner .
= = Modern criticism = =
The past fifty years have seen a major change , and academic critics have acknowledged the play as a powerful and original work . Norman Holland 's widely influential proposal in 1959 of a " right way / wrong way " reading took Wycherley 's morality with innovative seriousness and interpreted the play as presenting two bad kinds of masculinity – Horner 's libertinism and Pinchwife 's possessiveness – and recommending the golden mean of Harcourt , the true lover , the representative of mutual trust in marriage . A competing milestone approach of the same generation is that of Rose Zimbardo ( 1965 ) , who discusses the play in generic and historical terms as a fierce social satire .
Both these types of reading have now fallen out of favour ; there is little consensus about the meaning of The Country Wife , but its " notorious resistance to interpretation " is having an invigorating rather than damping effect on academic interest . The play 's ideological dimension has been emphasised recently . It was written by a courtier for a courtly and aristocratic audience , and Douglas Canfield has pointed to an unusual complication for a courtly play . Horner 's acts of cuckolding aggression are directed not only at disrupting middle @-@ class families of " the City " , in the usual way of the aristocratic Restoration rake , but also at his own , upper , class , the inhabitants of " the Town " – the new and fashionable quarters ( the future West End ) that had sprung up west of the medieval City walls after the Great Fire of London in 1666 . The courtier code proposed by Wycherley is of a sexual game . Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick argued in Between Men that the game is played not between men and women , but between men by means of women , who are merely the " conduits " of homosocial desire between men . The hierarchy of wits meant that the wittiest and most virile man would win at the game . Thus Horner , as Canfield puts it , " represents not just class superiority , but that subset of class represented by the Town wits , a privileged minority that ... is the jet set identified with the Town and the Court as the loci of real power in the kingdom . " The aggressive attack mounted in the china scene against the class and the generation by which Wycherley was patronised with the expectation that he would defend it ( against Sir Jaspar Fidget and Lady Fidget ) , suggests Canfield , would only let an audience of that class laugh comfortably if Horner were punished by actual impotence in the end , which he is not . " When the play concludes with no poetical justice that makes Horner really impotent " , writes Canfield , " leaving him instead potent and still on the make , the audience laughs at its own expense : the women of quality nervously because they have been misogynistically slandered ; the men of quality nervously because at some level they recognize that class solidarity is just a pleasing fiction . "
= Russian monitor Bronenosets =
Bronenosets ( Russian : Броненосец ) was a Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . The ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was stricken in 1900 from the Navy List , converted into a coal barge in 1903 and renamed Barzha No. 324 . The ship was lost in a storm sometime during World War I.
= = Description = =
Bronenosets was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 t ) and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by Carr and MacPherson of Saint Petersburg . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Bronenosets 's sea trials on 21 October 1864 , she reached a maximum speed of 7 @.@ 75 knots ( 14 @.@ 35 km / h ; 8 @.@ 92 mph ) and she was the fastest ship in the class . The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Bronenosets was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret was protected by eleven layers of armor and the pilothouse above it had eight layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Bronenosets had 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) plates added after completion .
= = Career = =
Construction of the ship began on 17 June 1863 at the Carr and MacPherson Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Bronenosets was laid down on 24 December 1863 and she was launched on 24 March 1864 . She entered service on 6 June 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 148 @,@ 000 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich .
Sometime after Bronenosets was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . Bronenosets was reclassified as a coast defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . During 1903 , the ship was converted into a coal barge by the removal of her turret , her side armor , and its wooden backing , and by the division of her hull into three holds . She was redesignated as Barzha No. 34 , Barzha No. 51 and , in 1914 , Barzha No. 324 . The ship sank in a storm in the Gulf of Finland sometime during World War I.
= Deadalive =
" Deadalive " ( or " DeadAlive " ) is the fifteenth episode of the eighth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , and was directed by Tony Wharmby . " Deadalive " explores the series ' alien mythology story arc . Following its North American premiere on April 1 , 2001 , it received a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 3 and was watched by 12 @.@ 4 million viewers . " Deadalive " garnered mixed reviews from television critics ; while most were happy with the return of actor David Duchovny , some criticized the episode 's plot holes . It later won the show 's last Emmy Award , for Outstanding Makeup .
The season centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction and death of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , known as X @-@ Files . In this episode , agent Mulder is buried . After the body of alien abductee Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) revives before an autopsy , assistant director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) orders Mulder 's body to be exhumed . When Mulder 's body is uncovered , weak vital signs are discovered . Meanwhile , rogue FBI agent Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) uses a nanobot infection in Skinner 's blood as leverage to make him kill Scully 's unborn child . Eventually , Mulder is revived and reunites with Scully .
" Deadalive " was a story milestone for the series , re @-@ introducing Duchovny after his abduction by aliens planning to colonize Earth in the seventh @-@ season finale " Requiem " . Spotnitz and Carter deliberately wrote and structured the episode in such a way so as to imply that Duchovny had been written out of the series . " Deadalive " featured several elaborate @-@ make @-@ up scenes , which head make @-@ up effects artist Matthew Mungle was given only six days to complete . The episode has been analyzed for its themes of disease , suffering , healing , salvation and resurrection ; Mulder seemingly rising from the dead has been seen as an allusion to the resurrection of Jesus .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
In the seventh @-@ season finale " Requiem " , FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) was abducted by aliens . In the eighth @-@ season premiere " Within " , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) took his place on the X @-@ Files , and worked with Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to find Mulder . In " This Is Not Happening " , Scully , Doggett and FBI assistant director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) discovered several returned abductees . Although nearly all were in critical condition , a UFO cult , led by the mysterious Absalom ( Judson Scott ) , was using Jeremiah Smith 's ( Roy Thinnes ) healing powers to treat the abductees . Scully headed to their compound , only to discover Mulder 's deceased body in the woods .
= = = Events = = =
Three months after Mulder 's funeral , Doggett is offered a transfer from the X @-@ Files . He realizes that if he leaves , the office will be closed , as Scully will soon be on maternity leave . Meanwhile , a fishing trawler finds the decomposing body of Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) — an alien abductee who had been taken the same time as Mulder . When Miles revives on the autopsy table , Skinner , despite Doggett 's objections , orders that Mulder 's body be exhumed and brought to a hospital , fearing that he may have been buried alive . When the casket is opened , a decomposing Mulder , contrary to all scientific expectations , shows weak vital signs .
Meanwhile , Scully notices that Miles ( now on life support ) has two heartbeats . At the FBI , Kersh unsuccessfully tries to convince Doggett to stop investigating Mulder 's apparent death . A short while later , as Skinner walks down a hallway , rogue agent Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) activates nanobots that he had previously placed in Skinner 's bloodstream as blackmail . Skinner stumbles in pain , and in an elevator , Krycek reveals himself to Skinner and explains that he has a vaccine which could save Mulder 's life . However , he will only give it if Skinner can ensure that Scully does not give birth to her baby for reasons that he does not disclose . Later , alone in his hospital bed , Miles regains consciousness and goes to take a shower . While doing so , his decaying flesh falls away , revealing a healthy body beneath . He tries to persuade Scully and Doggett that the aliens who abducted him are trying to save humanity . Scully , however , gets a lab report which reveals that Miles 's DNA has substantially changed ; he is now a new being . Skinner later tells Scully that there is a cure for Mulder 's disease , but does not explain Krycek 's demands .
From her medical findings , Scully discovers that an alien virus is keeping the abductees alive long enough to cause a radical transformation to take place , similar to the one that Miles experienced . After Scully tells Doggett about the genetic transformation , he visits Absalom , who believes that the abductees are being resurrected into aliens who will eventually conquer Earth . Skinner — torn by his decision — decides to euthanize Mulder by pulling him off of life @-@ support so that Krycek does not get his way . Doggett , however , catches Skinner attempting to remove the support . Skinner explains Krycek 's demands , but Doggett argues that both options are unreasonable because either Scully 's child will die , or Mulder will succumb to the virus . Doggett tries to locate Krycek in the parking lot of the FBI building , but Krycek nearly runs him down with a car , and purposely smashes the vaccine on the ground . Doggett tries to stop him but he escapes . Dejected , Doggett returns to the hospital and tells Skinner he was right not to trust Krycek . He finds Scully preparing Mulder for the now @-@ destroyed vaccine ; She tells Doggett that keeping Mulder on life @-@ support was incubating the virus and hastening it along , and that Skinner effectively saved Mulder 's life by pulling him off life @-@ support , as it made his temperature drop rapidly without affecting his vital signs . She states that she will be able to use a combination of antiviral drugs to kill the alien virus if they can get him and his temperature to stabilize .
Later , Scully is sitting by Mulder 's bedside when he regains consciousness . He stares blankly at Scully , and asks " Who are you ? " At first , Scully thinks that Mulder does not remember her . However , she quickly realizes that he is actually playing a practical joke . They laugh , and Mulder asks , " Did anybody miss me ? " Scully responds with tears . Later at the FBI , Kersh expresses his disappointment that Doggett did not take his advice to abandon Mulder 's case and rescinds his offer to promote him . He indicates that he will continue to work on The X @-@ Files with Scully and Mulder .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
At the beginning of season seven , several cast and crew members felt it would be the show 's last . Desiring closure if the show was cancelled , X @-@ Files creator Chris Carter brought back several characters from the series ' pilot for the season finale " Requiem " ; this included most notably Billy Miles , played by Zachary Ansley . After an eighth season of the show was confirmed , the mythology of the ongoing alien story arc for the series changed for both practical and artistic reasons . Former series lead David Duchovny left full @-@ time participation in the series after a lengthy lawsuit during the previous season . To replace him , the show 's producers hired Robert Patrick , although Duchovny eventually agreed to return for half of season eight 's episodes . As such , " Deadalive " was one of the first episodes that Duchovny participated in full @-@ time . Further , Frank Spotnitz , executive producer and co @-@ writer of " Deadalive " , noted that the original mythology of the show had been wrapped up much earlier in " One Son " and " Closure " . To create a " new chapter " in the mythology , and to work around Duchovny 's absence , the storyline for the eighth season focused largely on the search for Mulder in the first half and the introduction of Super Soldiers in the second . Due to the change in style and actors , Carter felt that the eighth season of The X @-@ Files was the end of the " Mulder @-@ Scully era " .
Spotnitz wanted " Deadalive " to open in a way that would shock viewers and make them watch the entire episode . He concluded that the best way to do this was to show Mulder 's funeral . He felt that " the death of the hero [ of the series ] was shocking enough " , but that no one expected " Deadalive " to blatantly open with a funeral . He elaborated , " But here we are actually burying the man ... just pushing something as far as you possibly can because the audience can 't quite believe you 're doing it . " The funeral was expensive to film ; several actors , such as Sheila Larken , who played Scully 's mother , needed to be flown in specifically for the scene . Spotnitz later said , " It 's a lot of money to spend but , you know , you just couldn 't really do Mulder 's funeral without having them there , so we did all that . " Despite the fact that the show was filmed in California and under " huge financial pressure " , real snow was used for foreground shots and the background was painted white in post @-@ production . Spotnitz later called the sequence " a fun scene to write and stage " and " a great tease " .
On Duchovny 's request , Spotnitz and Carter wrote a larger role for Skinner than usual , giving him the moral dilemma of whether or not to kill Scully 's unborn child or Mulder . In the end , Spotnitz called the effects of his actions , particularly the aftermath of taking Mulder off life support , a " nice sort of unexpected turn " . Scully 's role in " Deadalive " was partly based on the 1954 film Magnificent Obsession , in which a young man accidentally blinds a woman and subsequently becomes a doctor to cure her . Spotnitz noted , " that movie was on my mind and not in a good way when we were imagining Scully in this operating room where Mulder was being worked on . "
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" Deadalive " was the second episode directed by Tony Wharmby , after the Spotnitz @-@ penned " Via Negativa " . Spotnitz later praised the directing of " Deadalive " as " fantastic " . The majority of the episode — like others from seasons six to nine — was filmed in and around the Los Angeles area . Spotnitz managed to secure sufficient funds to enable the fishing trawler scene to be filmed off the Los Angeles coast , a situation with which he was " very pleased " . He also said that after the series ' move from Vancouver following the fifth season , the J. Edgar Hoover Building set became more important to the show than before . For this reason , the scene in which Skinner collapses was filmed almost entirely on an FBI hallway set . This sequence recalls the sixth season episode " S.R. 819 " , which featured Skinner being poisoned with nanobots by Krycek .
Make @-@ up effects artist Matthew Mungle was responsible for portraying the decomposition of Mulder 's and Miles 's bodies . Spotnitz was particularly impressed with Miles 's autopsy scene , calling it " something new to do [ in the ] late stage of the game " . Since human bodies which have decomposed in water become grotesquely deformed , Miles 's body was " a toned @-@ down version of what the reality would be . " To create the scene , plaster bandages were used to create a cast of the front and back of Ansley 's body ; these , in turn , were used to create a fiberglass cast . This was sculpted over with water clay to create the appearance of a bloated body . Afterwards , a mold of the clay was made and a body suit created with latex . As the project proceeded , Mungle sent photos to Carter , who gave final approval . In Miles 's shower scene , a mix of " red goo " , which included strawberry jam , was placed on Ansley 's skin . Fake skin , created from thin pieces of urethane , was then placed on top of this mixture and warm water was pumped through to create the illusion of shedding flesh . Mungle reportedly had only six days to complete the prosthetics for the episode . Mungle later noted that after being told what the scene would entail he asked , " if we can figure something out , could we show it on TV ? " While the studio approved the footage , Spotnitz later called the sequence " awfully graphic " ; he was surprised the sequence got past censors since it would be difficult to show in a PG @-@ rated film .
Due to Duchovny 's contract , he was only available for shooting on certain days . Spotnitz commented on the irony of " paying all this money to get [ Duchovny 's ] services for a limited time " only to have him spend most of the episode " in a hospital bed , semi @-@ dead " . He later lamented the limited access to Duchovny as it prevented the " most satisfying use of the actor or character " . Some scenes featuring Mulder were filmed using different people . For instance , the scene of Mulder 's exhumation was filmed with a double who wore a mask of Duchovny 's face . Head make @-@ up artist Cheri Montesanto @-@ Medcalf later said " It was brilliant , because nobody knew that . " For the shots of the stunt double as well as Duchovny later in the episode , she used egg whites and a facial mask to give Mulder 's skin a " really cool , old , dried @-@ up cracked skin effect . "
= = Themes = =
" Deadalive " , along with other eighth @-@ season episodes , explores the themes of " human resurrection and salvation ... disease , suffering , and healing " . These emerged in the season 's premiere , " Within " , when Scully is shown Mulder 's tombstone . The arc would continue in " The Gift " , with Mulder 's inoperable brain tumor and the resurrection of a temporarily deceased John Doggett . In " Deadalive " , the theme of resurrection reappears in full force . Billy Miles is found dead but revives ; similarly Mulder is buried for three months , but is brought back to life . This sub @-@ theme would continue into the ninth season in episodes such as " Audrey Pauley " .
The episode is one of many to feature Mulder as a Christlike figure . In We Want to Believe , Amy Donaldson writes that the episode is the most dramatic of Mulder 's " multiple resurrections " . She compares his resurrection to Jesus 's , who Mulder outdoes " by staying in the grave for three months instead of simply three days . " During Mulder 's funeral the minister reads John 11 : 25 – 26 : " Whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die " . According to scripture , Jesus spoke these words when he raised Lazarus of Bethany from the dead ; biblical scholars note that the verse also foreshadows his resurrection . The verse was also used by a necromancer in the seventh @-@ season 's " Millennium " , but for the wrong reason . The necromancer wants to raise the dead by reciting the verse , but only their bodies return as zombies . In " Deadalive " , Mulder returns from the dead in both mind and body .
Donaldson also draws parallels between the eighth season of the show and the Gospels , and between the ninth season and the Acts of the Apostles . In the Gospels , Jesus is brought back to life but then leaves his followers , allowing them to spread his message ; this is recorded in Acts , the fifth book of the New Testament . In The X @-@ Files , Mulder follows a similar course . After returning to life in " Deadalive " , he investigates several cases that season , but disappears at the beginning of season nine in " Nothing Important Happened Today " . During the final season , his quest is continued by Scully , Doggett and Monica Reyes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and release = = =
" Deadalive " premiered on American television on April 1 , 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 3 with an 11 @-@ percent share , meaning it was viewed by 7 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of those watching television . It was watched by 12 @.@ 4 million viewers overall . It won for Outstanding Makeup For a Series at the 53rd Primetime Emmy Awards in 2001 ; it would be the last Emmy win for The X @-@ Files . " Deadalive " was first released as a single @-@ episode DVD in the United Kingdom on August 6 , 2001 for Region 2 . On November 4 , 2003 the episode was released as part of the eighth season DVD box set . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection of episodes in the Super Soldiers story arc .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews ; many critics praised the return of Fox Mulder , although others felt that the episode had various plot holes and was overcomplicated . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave " Deadalive " a full five stars and called its humor and simplistic plot the " icing on the cake . " They praised its stylistic difference from the preceding episode , " This Is Not Happening " , which they described as " atmospheric and doom @-@ laden " . The two called " Deadalive " a " slice of sci @-@ fi hokum , with action scenes , bits of grisly horror [ and ] a reexamination of the show 's mythology " . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A − " and wrote , " Never go away again , David ! I take back everything bad I ever said about you ! I love you as much as ever ! "
Likewise George Avalos and Michael Liedtke of the Contra Costa Times praised the on @-@ screen return of characters such as Mulder and Krycek . They felt so many eighth @-@ season episodes worked well because " Chris Carter seems to be taking an even more active role in the series that is most closely identified with him . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and wrote that , " it ’ s a measure of a show ’ s effectiveness to see how convincingly the writers can threaten a major character , and have that character ’ s subsequent survival not be a cheat " , in regards to Mulder 's resurrection . He applauded the fact that the episode is suspenseful , even though the ending has a certain inevitability . Handlen also positively commented on both Anderson 's performance — although pointing out that she " is largely pushed to the side for the majority " of the episode — and Lea 's reappearance , noting that " it 's always fun to see Krycek " . However , he argued that the conclusion " makes less sense the more you think about it " , but that the final scene with Mulder and Scully " makes up for the contrivance . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She criticized its storyline , noting a number of plot holes — such as Mulder 's survival for three months without food or water — and the fact that his body was neither autopsied nor embalmed . Tom Kessenich , in Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , called the plot " wooden and convoluted " and felt that it " set the stage for ... the countdown toward the end of Fox Mulder 's time on The X @-@ Files " . However , he complimented Anderson on her " effective " performance .
SFX magazine ranked the episode as the sixth " Top 10 Resurrections " , reasoning that it allowed Mulder to be around for the series finale a year later . However , the magazine felt his return made " poor Robert Patrick ’ s Agent Doggett a bit superfluous " , and that the plot was rather complicated . In a list comparing Fringe episodes with those of the X @-@ Files , UGO Networks writer Alex Zalben named " Deadalive " as the best resurrection story , beating out Fringe 's " Unearthed " . Zalben cited the " emotional reunion at the end " as the deciding factor , though " both [ episodes ] kind of suck " .
= Tom Weisner =
Tom Weisner ( born c . 1949 ) is an American politician . He is the mayor of Aurora , Illinois , which is the second largest municipality in the state . He won re @-@ election on April 9 , 2013 . Prior to his election he worked for over eighteen years in high @-@ ranking positions in the city of Aurora and for five years as a volunteer in the Peace Corps .
He has been involved in several interstate new stories . In 2007 , he was embroiled in an interstate advertising controversy when the Governor of Kentucky used video footage of the local casino taken on a visit to Aurora for his re @-@ election campaign , which included a platform against gambling . In 2008 , his city @-@ wide wifi installation initiative was halted due to change in business strategy by the installing company . His decision @-@ making skills again made headlines outside of Illinois when a Planned Parenthood clinic 's permits became an issue .
= = Background = =
Weisner is a native of Batavia , Illinois , but moved to Aurora thirty years before becoming a political candidate . Weisner has been married to Marilyn Hogan Weisner sine 1972 . The Weisners raised two sons ; Thaddeus , who died in 2006 , and Anthony . Weisner earned his bachelor 's degree from Aurora University in organizational management .
Prior to becoming an Aurora city employee in 1986 , Weisner worked in the private sector and spent five years in the Solomon Islands , where he gave medical services and other assistance to natives with the Peace Corps and International Human Assistance Program . He and his wife were stationed in rain forests on the Island of Guadalcanal .
Weisner had held several department head positions in Aurora since beginning his first position as emergency service coordinator in January 1986 . By fall 1987 , Weisner had become the superintendent of the Aurora Department of Motor Vehicles . He later served as the director of equipment services for Aurora and was subsequently appointed Aurora 's director of public property in a 1991 city hall reorganization . In 1999 , he was appointed Aurora 's director of community services and organizational development , which was his last position before running for public office . He resigned from this position in February 2004 during the city 's water contamination crisis . The city 's residents were under a boil water order at the time of his resignation . The order to boil drinking water contaminated with E. coli bacteria lasted for ten days .
Weisner served as a delegate to the 2012 Democratic National Convention .
= = Campaign = =
In November 2002 , two @-@ term incumbent David Stover announced he would not seek re @-@ election . In May 2003 , Weisner announced he would run for election in the February 22 , 2005 municipal primary election . Weisner announced his candidacy for mayor almost two years before the election , in order to solidify his base of support , which might have gone to other potential candidates if he waited . Eventually , a final field of five contested for the two spots on the ballot for the April 5 , 2005 general election , but Weisner had endorsements from eight of the twelve city council members and a huge funding advantage .
In the first Aurora mayoral race without an incumbent in twenty years , Democrat Weisner garnered 60 % of the vote and Republican Richard Irvin finished second with 33 % to advance to the general election . Irvin was the only African @-@ American in the race . Weisner won eight of the city 's 10 wards and nearly two @-@ thirds of its precincts . When Obama visited Aurora on February 25 for his 10th town hall meeting after his 2004 United States Senate election in Illinois , he noted that as a Democrat he was inclined to support Weisner , but he made no endorsement . However , in the final days before the general election , Obama returned to endorse Weisner . The day after the election , the Chicago Tribune reported Weisner took 59 % of the vote , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that he took 68 % . When the results were finally tabulated in Aurora , which spans four counties , the Tribune turned out to be correct . Weisner took the oath of office on April 26 , 2005 .
= = Mayor = =
During the first few weeks of his tenure as mayor , he made national news by considering passing an ordinance against untimely holiday decorations , when citizens complained of Christmas decorations abounding during the summer . At about the same time in June 2005 , he was considering proposing a strict whistleblower protection ordinance in response to an alderman bribery scandal .
In July 2007 , first @-@ term Kentucky Governor Ernie Fletcher visited Weisner and took footage of the Hollywood Casino of Aurora . In August , when Fletcher 's re @-@ election ad campaign began airing on television in Kentucky , journalists began calling Weisner 's office about the ads which used the footage as a backdrop for a message regarding the evils and temptations casinos bring into communities . The footage was included in the very first ads that Fletcher aired and the Kentucky press noted that Aurora City Hall was not pleased with the usage . One Kentucky journalist referred to the Aurora casino as the " unnamed villain " in Fletcher 's anti @-@ gambling ads .
One of Weisner 's major initiatives was to make Aurora the first city in Illinois to construct a complete wireless Internet infrastructure . In January 2008 while it was in the middle of installing the city 's wifi network , MetroFi switched from an advertising @-@ based model to a subscription @-@ based business model and suspended construction . MetroFi had also contracted to install a network for Naperville , Illinois and attempted to sell partially installed networks to both cities . In June 2008 , Metrofi shut down all its wifi operations across the nation .
= = = Mayorality = = =
As of the July 1 , 2007 United States Census Bureau population estimates , Aurora had a population of 170 @,@ 855 . Thus , Weisner served as mayor of a city ranked as the 135th largest incorporated municipality in the United States and the second largest in the state of Illinois . It is located 35 miles ( 56 @.@ 3 km ) west of the Loop in Chicago .
Under Mayor Weisner 's administration , the crime rate fell to a 32 @-@ year low and has been under the national average for 3 years . The City of Aurora has also developed a 21st @-@ century police station with an on @-@ site 911 operations center , county branch court , jail , and training center . The state of the art police station is utilizes green technologies to make it energy efficient and thus reducing energy costs . Part of those green technologies include solar panels and taking advantage of storm water run off to power the building .
Infrastructure improvements and cost saving measures
Mayor Weisner also worked with members of the City Council to insure that 108 miles of Aurora residential and arterial streets were surfaced . Traffic congestion was reduced with the completion of widening East Indian Trail from Farnsworth Ave to Mitchell Road . This project was completed with minimal cost to the city by obtaining a $ 6 million federal grant . Furthermore , under Mayor Weisner , the City of Aurora has made significant efforts in reducing the flooding that occurs when combined sewers lines back up . The City of Aurora also retrofitted several of its buildings , using stimulus funds , to be more energy efficient . The modifications are expected to cut down annual energy costs by 40 % .
Job creation
Peerless Industries moved to Aurora and established a 307 @,@ 813 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 28 @,@ 596 @.@ 8 m2 ) facility . Peerless Industries is one of the largest US @-@ based manufacturers of audio @-@ visual mounting solutions . They have operations in China , Mexico , and two facilities in Melrose Park , IL . Through the utilization of a TIF district , the popular Ballydoyle Irish Restaurant and Pub was able to open a second location within the city . In addition , the previous year , the creation of the Illinois Tollway interchange at Eola Road on Interstate 88 created another avenue of access to Aurora for Chicago @-@ based commerce . The tollway is expected to bring an increased retail and restaurant presence to the city . This has been realized with the introduction of a Chick @-@ Fil @-@ a , Golden Corral , Chipolte , and a Von Maur Dry Goods . In 2009 , 425 new jobs were added to the city with the introduction of the North American headquarters of Freudenberg Household Products .
Budget transparency
The City of Aurora , under Mayor Weisner , has also been the recipient of the Distinguished Budget Presentation Award from the Government Finance Officer 's Association . The award is given to municipalities that conduct their budget process in an open and reader friendly manner . Aurora last won the award in 2009 .
= = Criticism = =
He was cited in The Washington Post in a controversy about the methods a Planned Parenthood clinic used to obtain permits . In October 2008 , he co @-@ authored a Chicago Tribune op @-@ ed article against the Canadian National Railway plan to purchase the Elgin , Joliet and Eastern Railway because he viewed the long @-@ term traffic projections in the plan as substandard .
= = = Re @-@ election = = =
In early March 2008 , two Aurora City Council Aldermen announced their candidacies for mayor . In May 2008 , Weisner announced his intentions to run for re @-@ election in the non @-@ partisan February 24 , 2009 primary election after the two challengers announced . In the shadow of the Rod Blagojevich corruption scandal , his campaign has since been criticized by his opponents for accepting contributions from businesses that the city awarded contracts to . However , he won re @-@ election on April 7 , 2009 .
He ran unopposed for re @-@ election on April 9 , 2013 .
= Round Hill , Brighton =
Round Hill ( sometimes spelt Roundhill ) is an inner suburban area of Brighton , part of the coastal city of Brighton and Hove in England . The area contains a mix of privately owned and privately rented terraced housing , much of which has been converted for multiple occupancy , and small @-@ scale commercial development . It was developed mostly in the late 19th century on an area of high land overlooking central Brighton , and with good views in all directions , the area became a desirable middle @-@ class suburb — particularly the large terraced houses of Roundhill Crescent and Richmond Road , and the exclusive Park Crescent — and within a few decades the whole of the hill had been built up with smaller terraces and some large villas .
Non @-@ residential buildings include the landmark St Martin 's Church , Brighton 's largest place of worship , with its dramatically extravagant interior ; the Brighton Forum , a Gothic Revival former college now in commercial use ; Brighton 's main fire station ; and the oldest working cinema in Britain . The first hospital in England catering for mental illness was established in a house in Roundhill Crescent in 1905 . Brighton 's first Jewish cemetery , although a short distance outside Round Hill according to Brighton & Hove City Council 's definition , has been associated with the suburb throughout its near 200 @-@ year history . The London Road viaduct , a distinctive , sweeping piece of railway architecture , forms the northern boundary of the area and " a literal gateway " between outer and inner suburbia . All of these buildings have been listed by English Heritage for their architectural and historical importance , and the core of Round Hill , around Roundhill Crescent , is one of 34 conservation areas in the city . Round Hill 's steep slopes and road layout encouraged the introduction of another feature which gives the area its character : the " cat 's @-@ creep " staircase . The area has good tree cover , and increasingly heavy traffic along the three main roads which run through the area .
Past features of Round Hill include a windmill , which took advantage of the windy conditions on the 223 @-@ foot ( 68 m ) hilltop until 1913 ; 19th @-@ century laundries , which sought the same advantage ; early 19th @-@ century pleasure gardens , now occupied by the houses of Park Crescent ; the landmark Cox 's Pill Factory , demolished in the 1980s ; glasshouses and smallholdings , some of which survived until after the Second World War despite being surrounded by houses ; and the Kemp Town branch line , a passenger and freight railway which cut through the area and had a short @-@ lived station serving Round Hill . The former St Saviour 's Church survived until 1983 , and a Congregational church elsewhere in the suburb closed but retained its façade after its conversion into housing .
= = Location = =
Round Hill is an approximately triangular area directly north of Brighton city centre . The name is now applied to a wider area than the 223 @-@ foot ( 68 m ) hill at its centre ; its boundaries are now defined as Union Road and The Level ( a large area of open ground ) to the south , the main London Road to the west , the East Coastway railway line to the north — including the London Road viaduct and London Road railway station — and the Lewes Road to the east . Ditchling Road , a third main road , runs through the centre of the suburb . The large , round @-@ topped hill which gave the suburb its name stands between the two main valleys along which the original routes into and out of Brighton developed ( the present London and Lewes Roads ) . Ditchling Road , the middle route , climbs the hill . London and Lewes Roads became turnpikes ( toll roads ) in 1770 , and The Level — originally common land between Ditchling Road and Lewes Road — was enclosed and reserved for public recreation in 1822 .
Round Hill 's elevated , fairly central position gives excellent inward and outward views . To the northeast , the South Downs can be seen ; long views of the English Channel are possible to the south , beyond the city centre and St Peter 's Church ; to the southeast , Elm Grove , Race Hill and Brighton General Hospital can be seen on high ground beyond the Lewes Road valley ; and to the west , Preston Park ( the city 's oldest and largest public park ) can be seen . Crescent and Wakefield Roads have long southward views towards the city centre , as do the small blocks of flats which replaced some large villas in the middle of the suburb . The tall viaduct is the main landmark to the west and north . There are clear views into Round Hill from many parts of Brighton , especially areas to the east and southeast such as Race Hill .
When the railway line was built between Brighton and Lewes in 1846 , the northern slope of Round Hill was effectively severed from the rest of the area . It developed separately as an industrial area and the site of many Brighton Corporation utilities : the Brighton Dust Destructor , an incinerator for rubbish , was built in 1866 , followed by another incinerator in 1898 ; the Municipal Abattoir was established in 1894 ; and in the early 20th century a meat market and a municipal cleansing station for the fumigation and delousing of people and property were built nearby . Although they occupy land that was part of the hill , these buildings were considered to be part of neighbouring Hollingdean . Residents of Round Hill , especially those who owned laundries , often complained about the smell and soot from the incinerators .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 1800 , Round Hill was a steep @-@ sided , round @-@ topped hill rising to 223 feet ( 68 m ) and ploughed up for use by farmers . Some poorly defined tracks crossed it , linking Preston village to the road to Lewes . Two of the largest landowners in the Brighton and Hove area , Thomas Read Kemp and William Stanford ( an ancestor of Charles Thomas @-@ Stanford of the Thomas @-@ Stanford Baronetcy of Preston Manor ) , owned most of the land between them . In the late 19th century , the Stanford family sold some of their land — which almost completely encircled Brighton , Preston and Hove to the north — for housing development , and retained much of it to develop themselves .
The earliest development in the Round Hill area was Ireland 's Pleasure Gardens on the southern slope in 1823 . Also known as the Royal Pleasure Gardens , this venture by James Ireland was intended to be a profitable speculation , attracting the increasing number of visitors and short @-@ term residents who had doubled Brighton 's population in the previous decade . Ireland , a rich businessman with interests in drapery and undertaking , bought a 10 @-@ acre ( 4 ha ) site from Thomas Read Kemp in 1822 and opened the gardens on 1 May 1823 . The vast range of attractions included an aviary , maze , formal gardens with a canal , Gothic @-@ style tower , bowling greens , billiard rooms , assembly rooms with a roof promenade , a grotto and a lake . A cricket ground ( the Royal New Ground ) was also provided , and was said to be " the best in the country " at the time . Despite the range of activities , and occasional high @-@ profile stunts by associates of Ireland ( such as a flying demonstration ) , the gardens never thrived , and soon fell into decline . Ireland sold them in 1826 , and later owners presided over further decline until the facility was eventually closed in the 1840s . Only its south boundary wall and gate piers , decorated with copies of their original stone lions , survive .
Another development of the 1820s , on Thomas Read Kemp 's landholding , was the Jewish cemetery and its chapel . Its location on Florence Place , off Ditchling Road just north of the railway line , places it marginally outside Brighton and Hove City Council 's definition of the Round Hill area , but the site has always been associated with Round Hill . In 1826 , Kemp , who at the time was a member of parliament , donated a parcel of land on the north slope of the hill to the congregation of Brighton 's synagogue . The town had a large Jewish population — about 150 by 1840 . An octagonal brick cemetery chapel ( the Ohel ) , designed by the firm of Thomas Lainson and Son , was built in the burial ground in 1893 . In accordance with Jewish custom , it had facilities for mourners to wash their hands upon leaving the " presence of death " . Money to build the chapel and a fence round the cemetery was raised in the 1890s by charging members of the Middle Street Synagogue two shillings per week for a year ; some prominent members of Brighton 's Jewish community provided interest @-@ free loans as well . Burials include Henry Solomon , Brighton Borough 's chief constable ( murdered in 1844 ) ; Hyam Lewis , a Brighton Town Commissioner and the first Jew in England to hold such a high @-@ ranking municipal position ; Levi Emanuel Cohen , a radical journalist who helped Brighton achieve borough status ; and Sir John Howard , an engineer . The cemetery has been full for many years and is now closed except for family burials where a tomb already exists . It is locked and in poor condition ; many graves are overgrown . The foundation stone commemorating Kemp 's gift of the land survives , though . The cemetery chapel and its surrounding walls and gates are Grade II listed buildings .
In 1838 , a windmill was built at the top of the hill , where the northern end of the present @-@ day Belton Road stands . Although it was demolished in the early 20th century , it has been called " probably the most well @-@ known feature of the Round Hill area " . Its names included Rose Hill Mill , Round Hill Mill and Cutress 's Mill , but its most common name — alluding to the type of windmill it was — was Tower Mill . Ownership changed regularly , and the mill was rarely profitable — even after Charles Cutress converted it to steam power in 1880 . Storm damage soon afterwards caused further problems . The mill was demolished in 1913 , and its bricks were recovered and used in the construction of some houses in Belton Road .
In 1854 , the Diocese of Chichester selected an area of open land on the west side of Ditchling Road as the site of their Training College for Anglican Schoolmistresses , which had outgrown its premises in Black Lion Street in the old town . Viaduct Road was built in front of the Gothic Revival building 's south façade around the same time , and was built up with terraced houses by the early 1860s . In the early 20th century , the Diocese bought three of the four villas nearby and converted them into accommodation for trainee schoolteachers . Before that , the trainee teachers slept in large rooms in the Training College .
= = = Residential development in the 19th century = = =
Between 1838 and 1840 , the local Colbatch family built four large detached villas in the former Rose Hill Park on a southwest @-@ facing part of the hill . They were described as the " grandest and most ostentatious part of Round Hill " , and the first ( Rose Hill Villa , finished in 1838 ) was a " classic Victorian building " . All four were large family homes in the Regency style popular in Brighton over the previous 30 years . Iron gates , protected by gatekeepers who lived in three cottages in the grounds , gave the villas privacy .
The site of the failed Pleasure Gardens then became one of Brighton 's most exclusive residential developments in the 1850s , when prominent and influential local architect Amon Henry Wilds conceived and built the three @-@ part Park Crescent development . The horseshoe @-@ shaped terrace of 48 houses faced inwards towards a private garden formed from the old cricket ground . The " most ambitious scheme " of his long career was also one of his last : construction lasted from 1849 until 1854 , and he died in 1857 .
Contemporary housing developments included the southeast side of Upper Lewes Road , the west side of Lewes Road , and a series of impressive semi @-@ detached villas on Ditchling Road , but Round Hill 's most intensive period of growth began in the mid @-@ 1860s . " Fine curving terraces of Regency @-@ style houses " appeared on the newly built Roundhill Crescent , which curved away from the northwest side of Upper Lewes Road , and semi @-@ detached houses were laid out on Richmond Road behind and at a higher level . The first parts of Roundhill Crescent , still with a post @-@ Regency character despite their late date , were built in 1865 . Further development of the middle @-@ class houses on these roads was patchy — many gaps still existed in 1875 — but lower @-@ class terraced housing spread rapidly elsewhere . Vicar of Brighton Rev. Arthur Wagner bought the northern part of the former Pleasure Gardens — still open land in 1860 — and stipulated that houses costing no more than £ 120 should be built for Brighton 's working @-@ class population . He lent money to builders to increase the pace of development . The tightly packed terraced streets between Upper Lewes Road and Lewes Road were mostly complete by the 1870s , and St Martin 's Church was built nearby to serve the area . Larger individual houses of the 1860s included Prince 's Villa , in an isolated position next to Tower Mill , and Bryn — built in 1869 on Wakefield Road and used as an orphanage from 1875 until 1937 .
Another period of rapid residential development occurred in the 1880s . The gaps in Roundhill Crescent were filled with houses in a more contemporary style than the old @-@ fashioned Regency @-@ style houses of the 1860s . Several streets around Prince 's Road were built between 1880 and 1884 . Also in the 1880s , The Salvation Army founded a place of worship in the area . The citadel could hold 1 @,@ 400 people , and was located on Park Crescent Terrace behind the west side of Park Crescent . Nearby , the Royal Hippodrome ( unrelated to the Hippodrome in Brighton 's old town ) had opened on 31 October 1876 . The 1 @,@ 600 @-@ capacity building hosted a circus until 1889 , then reopened under new ownership on 28 July 1890 as the Gaiety Theatre and cinema . Never a success , it closed permanently in 1900 and passed into commercial use until its demolition for flats in 1930 .
= = = Smallholdings and cat 's @-@ creeps = = =
Despite this intensive building work , there were many gaps between houses and streets , and smallholdings and plant nurseries were common . Two existed in 1838 , including one where grapes were cultivated , and more were planted in the 1850s . When the houses of Prince 's Road were laid out , there were already two nurseries on it . A large nursery existed behind Park Crescent until 1883 , when the Salvation Army Citadel was built on the site . Other areas of green space survive behind Richmond Road , between Wakefield Road and Roundhill Crescent , and along the railway embankment east of Ditchling Road tunnel . Clearly visible from afar , these green spaces give the area a strong visual character and are important wildlife habitats . Another characteristic topographical feature of Round Hill is the " cat 's @-@ creep " , a type of steep , narrow staircase between buildings . Often found in Brighton 's hilly suburbs such as Moulsecoomb and Hollingbury , the best example is found between Roundhill Crescent and Richmond Road . Named Lennox Place , it was planned at the same time as the nearby Mayo , D 'Aubigny and Wakefield Roads , and was meant to be a proper street with houses . It was found to be too steep for horses and carts to negotiate , though , and it was laid out as a footpath with eight steep flights of 15 steps instead . It was a popular play area as well as a short @-@ cut .
= = = Employment and industry in the 19th and 20th centuries = = =
With its sunny , breezy slopes , wide open spaces and distance from the polluted town centre , Round Hill was ideally placed for the development of 19th @-@ century laundries . In many cases , these were small , home @-@ based businesses , but some larger premises also existed . The Brighton and Sussex Laundry Works catered for large institutions such as hotels and schools as well as for small orders , employed many local women , and had its own vans to transport washing around Brighton . Drying was carried out on a large area of open ground attached to the premises . Washing was also transported in and out by train via Lewes Road station , which was behind the building . This enabled work to be taken on from all parts of Sussex . Other long @-@ established businesses included the Northern , Tivoli , Primrose and Mayo Laundries ; and in the 1880s many houses in the newly built Prince 's and Richmond Roads were set up as small @-@ scale laundries , using their gardens for drying . For many years , the suburb was popularly known as " Laundry Hill " , and laundries were the main source of local employment ; but all trace of the industry disappeared by the 1980s .
Another important 20th @-@ century industry was Cox 's Pill Factory , which took over the Brighton and Sussex Laundry Works premises when that company moved to Hove in 1910 . Founded by Arthur Cox in 1839 at Ship Street in the old town , the manufacturing division moved to premises at St Martin 's Place in 1871 . Cox 's speciality was coating pills with a layer of sugar @-@ based material to hide their taste , for which he received a patent in 1854 . His sons bought the former laundry building on Lewes Road for £ 5 @,@ 500 in 1910 and converted it into a factory , adding a landmark clock to the façade . The building was ready in 1912 . Wartime government contracts augmented production for their regular customers , and the business thrived ; it only moved away from the Lewes Road site in 1979 because expansion and modernisation were required . No suitable sites could be found locally , and the company relocated to Barnstaple in Devon . Another factory , which produced golf balls and ( latterly ) rubber products , occupied one of the semi @-@ detached houses on Richmond Road from the 1920s until the 1980s .
= = = Health = = =
In 1905 , Round Hill became a national leader in the field of mental healthcare when the first hospital for the treatment of mental illness was opened in the large house at 101 Roundhill Crescent . It evolved from a dispensary founded in 1899 by Dr Helen Boyle in the nearby suburb of Hanover . Dr Boyle rented the house at Roundhill Crescent , moved the dispensary there and added a 12 @-@ bed hospital for the treatment of what were then termed " nervous disorders " . The Lewes Road Hospital for Women and Children was the first such facility in England : until then , people regarded as suffering from such disorders were sent to lunatic asylums . The hospital expanded in 1911 and moved to Ditchling Road , and later split into two parts housed in Brighton and the Brunswick Town area of Hove respectively . Inpatient facilities at the institutions ceased only in 1988 .
Round Hill was at the centre of a health scare in 1950 – 51 . A smallpox epidemic broke out in Brighton in late December 1950 ; the family of the first sufferer were regular users of the Tivoli Laundry on Crescent Road , and many employees were infected by the soiled linen . Two died , but rapid work by Brighton Corporation 's health department prevented the outbreak spreading beyond Brighton .
= = = Roundhill in the postwar era = = =
The villas erected by the Colbatch family were demolished after the Second World War . The family , which still owned the buildings and the land , drew up plans to replace the four villas and the gatekeepers ' cottages with flats . These were intended for private ownership ; but council housing was so scarce in Brighton at the time ( 1945 ) that Brighton Borough Council bought the land using a compulsory purchase order and redeveloped it with council flats based on the family 's designs . The new flats , built in the early 1950s , were large and well @-@ built , and the old gardens were retained . At first , no young children were allowed to live there , and only higher earning council tenants could apply .
The closure of Cox 's Pill Factory , the Kemp Town branch line and the nearby Vogue cinema in the 1970s and early 1980s prompted large @-@ scale redevelopment . Between 1983 and 1985 , a large area around the junction of Lewes and Upper Lewes Roads was cleared in favour of the Vogue Gyratory system and a Sainsbury 's supermarket . The Vogue Gyratory , a major road junction connecting Upper Lewes Road , Lewes Road , Bear Road and Hollingdean Road , opened in mid @-@ 1984 . Sainsbury 's was completed and opened on 23 April 1985 ; its design featured round @-@ arched exterior arcades which recalled the recently demolished viaduct , and the clock was retrieved from the demolished pill factory and reset on the exterior of the new building . It won Brighton Council 's design award in 1985 .
On the Lewes Road station site at the junction of Richmond Road and D 'Aubigny Road stands Richmond House , a disused office block . In February 2013 , a developer applied for planning permission to demolish the building and replace it with student housing consisting of 144 flats .
= = Buildings = =
Many buildings in the Round Hill area have been listed by English Heritage . A building or structure is defined as " listed " when it is placed on a statutory register of buildings of " special architectural or historic interest " by the Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport , a Government department . Grade I @-@ listed buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest " and greater than national importance ; Grade II * , the next highest status , is used for " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " ; and the lowest grade , Grade II , is used for " nationally important buildings of special interest " .
= = = Religious buildings = = =
Vicar of Brighton Rev. Arthur Wagner , who established a mission chapel in an old school building in 1867 , planned to build a permanent church to serve the Round Hill area . St Martin 's Church was built between 1872 and 1875 as a memorial to Wagner 's father ( and predecessor as Vicar of Brighton ) Rev. Henry Michell Wagner , who died in 1870 . The church was very large , reflecting the density of housing in Round Hill and its proximity to Preston Barracks , where many soldiers were based . This also influenced its dedication — to Martin of Tours , the patron saint of soldiers . Up to 1 @,@ 500 worshippers could be accommodated in the vast , cathedral @-@ like interior . George Somers Leigh Clarke 's plain , " almost ruthless " exterior , of red and yellow brick in the Early English Gothic Revival style , contrasts with the " breathtaking magnificence " of the interior , whose fixtures and decoration were planned by Clarke and designed to his specifications . It is one of 69 Grade II * listed buildings in Brighton and Hove .
A small chapel , opened by the Railway Mission in 1876 but now with an Evangelical congregation , is adjacent to the fire station on Viaduct Road . James Barnes 's Gothic Revival building has three lancet windows on the façade and projecting entrances which resemble porches . There is decorative machicolation on the parapet .
Catherine Booth , wife of the founder of The Salvation Army William Booth , opened a large Salvation Army citadel behind Park Crescent in March 1884 . Designed and built of red brick and terracotta in 1883 by E.J. Hamilton , it could hold 1 @,@ 400 people and had castellated towers at the corners . It was extended in 1925 , but in 2000 it was demolished and replaced with a smaller octagonal Congress Hall designed by David Greenwood . Its design recalls some of the features of the Park Crescent houses opposite .
St Saviour 's Church served the southwestern part of Round Hill until 1981 . The flint and brick building , set below the level of Ditchling Road and on its west side , was in the Early English Gothic Revival style and was meant to have a tower ; only a stub was ever built . The architects were Edmund Scott and F.T. Cawthorn . An extension was built in 1889 , and in 1904 a large reredos designed by Richard Herbert Carpenter and W. Slater was moved to the church from Chichester Cathedral . Congregations declined , and the church was demolished in 1983 ; flats called St Saviour 's Court and a rear archway in Vere Road recall its existence .
At the north end of the suburb , the Lewes Road Congregational Church was built in 1872 . A. Harford 's design has been described as Italianate Gothic . The congregation joined the United Reformed Church , but the church closed in 1993 and the building was sold for redevelopment . The congregation moved to a new building , and the flats of Stanley Court were built behind the old façade .
The cemetery chapel ( Ohel ) at the Jewish burial ground is Grade II @-@ listed . Designed in 1893 by Lainson and Son and built by the Garrett building firm , it is a red @-@ brick octagonal structure in the Queen Anne style , with a tiled turreted roof and corbel @-@ topped piers at each corner , a pedimented entrance and arched windows set below recessed panels . The burial ground is surrounded by walls , stucco @-@ faced gate piers and wrought iron fences which are listed separately at Grade II .
= = = Other buildings = = =
The building now called Brighton Forum , at the junction of Ditchling and Viaduct Roads , forms a local landmark . The Grade II @-@ listed knapped flint Gothic Revival structure , designed by William and Edward Habershon , was built in 1854 on open land at the northern boundary of Brighton Borough as the Diocese of Chichester 's training college for Anglican schoolmistresses . It was extended to the north in 1886 , and was used as a training college until the Second World War , when the Royal Engineers requisitioned it and used it to store their records and archives . After its closure in 1987 , it was briefly threatened with demolition , but in 1988 it was converted into serviced offices under the name Brighton Business Centre ( later Brighton Forum ) .
Standing next to each other at Preston Circus , at the northwest edge of the suburb , are the Duke of York 's Picture House and Brighton 's main fire station . The cinema opened on 22 September 1910 , making it one of the first in the world , and it is still operational as England 's oldest working cinema . The Clayton & Black firm 's ornate Baroque @-@ style building , with a three @-@ bay façade defined by paired pilasters with rustication , cost £ 3 @,@ 000 . The fire station , designed in a " restrained Modernist " style by Graeme Highet in 1938 , curves round the road and features carved motifs by Joseph Cribb . Its materials are brown brick and Portland stone .
The former Tower Mill stood at the top of Round Hill between 1838 and 1913 . Built of about 50 @,@ 000 bricks , and with walls with a maximum thickness of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) , it rose to 60 feet ( 18 m ) and was topped with a copper dome . The four sails were about 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) long and were attached to a walnut wood rotating roof .
= = Transport = =
The East Coastway Line , a railway line currently operated by Southern , forms Round Hill 's northern boundary . London Road station , situated in a cutting between London Road and Ditchling Road , serves the area . Situated 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from Brighton station , it opened on 1 October 1877 and retains its substantial ticket office building . The 400 @-@ yard ( 370 m ) , 27 @-@ arch London Road viaduct ( built in 1846 ) rises to 67 feet ( 20 m ) above the London Road valley immediately west of the station , separating the Round Hill suburb from neighbouring Preston . A 63 @-@ yard ( 58 m ) tunnel then takes the line under Ditchling Road .
Immediately beyond the tunnel was Kemp Town Junction , where the Kemp Town branch line diverged . The first station to serve Round Hill was on this route , which " cut through the area and created a new artery " upon its opening on 2 August 1869 . A three @-@ platform station called Lewes Road opened on 1 September 1873 at the north end of D 'Aubigny Road . The line was expensive to build and maintain : it crossed Lewes Road on a 52 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) -high , 180 @-@ yard ( 160 m ) -long viaduct , and beyond Round Hill there was another short viaduct and a long tunnel . Passenger services at Lewes Road station ceased on 31 December 1932 , but coal trains continued to use its six @-@ siding goods yard . The line closed completely on 14 June 1971 , and the Lewes Road viaduct was demolished in part in 1976 and completely in 1983 .
The main reason for the Kemp Town branch line 's decline was the increasing popularity of buses . The three main roads running through Round Hill — London Road , Ditchling Road and Lewes Road — are used by many regular routes , mainly operated by the Brighton & Hove Bus and Coach Company . Routes 26 , 46 and 50 , which serve Hollingbury and Hollingdean northbound and Brighton city centre , Hove and Southwick southbound , run via Ditchling Road . Routes along London Road include the 5 ( Patcham to Hangleton ) and 56 ( Patcham to the Knoll Estate in Hove ) . Along Lewes Road , regular routes include 21 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 28 , 29 , 38 and 49 , serving places such as Sussex and Brighton Universities , Hove , Lewes , Uckfield , Tunbridge Wells , Moulsecoomb , Bevendean and Queen 's Park . Several other routes use Union Road , the southern boundary of the Round Hill area .
Some bus services are based on old tram routes operated by Brighton Corporation Tramways between 1901 and 1939 , and their trolleybus successors . The Corporation ran eight tram routes , mostly from Brighton Aquarium , to various parts of Brighton . Routes B and D ( a pair of circular services between the Aquarium and Beaconsfield Villas / Ditchling Road ) used Ditchling and London Roads , and route L ( Aquarium to Moulsecoomb ) travelled along Lewes Road . Some routes also used tracks on Viaduct Road . The system 's only fatal accident occurred in 1935 in Round Hill when a tram skidded outside the Diocesan Training College and hit a cyclist .
The three main roads — and Upper Lewes Road , which runs between the Ditchling and Lewes Roads — experience heavy traffic , but little through traffic uses the smaller residential streets such as Roundhill Crescent . Traffic calming measures installed in 2003 have acted as a deterrent . There are high levels of on @-@ street car parking , though . Union Road and the Vogue Gyratory are also high @-@ traffic routes . The Gyratory , " a fiendish maze of one @-@ way systems , roundabouts and crossings " , is the point at which Upper Lewes Road and Lewes Road meet two other routes . Named after the Vogue — latterly a pornographic cinema — it was built in 1983 – 84 on the site of the former Lewes Road viaduct , Cox 's Pill Factory and surrounding buildings in connection with a Sainsbury 's supermarket development . Demolition of the entire complex of roads was already being advocated in 2007 .
= = Conservation area = =
On 6 January 1977 , 29 @.@ 78 acres ( 12 @.@ 05 ha ) at the heart of Round Hill was designated as a conservation area ; as of 2016 it is one of 34 such areas in the city of Brighton and Hove . Its boundaries are ( clockwise from north ) Prince 's Road , Mayo Road , D 'Aubigny Road , Roundhill Crescent , Upper Lewes Road , Wakefield Road , Prince 's Crescent and Ditchling Road . This area includes all the Grade II @-@ listed houses of Roundhill Crescent ( described by Brighton and Hove City Council as " the most important architecturally " ) , two pubs ( including the Tudor Revival @-@ style New Vic , built in the 1920s and representing a late addition to the mostly late 19th @-@ century streetscape ) , and four paired semi @-@ detached villas on Ditchling Road which were some of the earliest houses in the area — they date from about 1850 .
The area 's character derives from its " tight urban form " and lack of 20th @-@ century redevelopment , resulting in a homogeneous streetscape of mostly residential buildings in long terraces ; its steeply sloping land ; and the swathes of trees and gardens which can be seen in long views into the area , which help to " define the unaltered Victorian streetplan " when seen from a distance . Roundhill Crescent " both curves and changes height dramatically along its length " . The houses , which on the northwest side of the road are not a continuous terrace and which date from the 1860s to the 1880s , vary in height and the extent of their architectural detailing ; canted bay windows and original cast @-@ iron balconies feature prominently . Some pairs of semi @-@ detached villas of the 1860s survive on Richmond Road . Prince 's Road , where the 223 @-@ foot ( 68 m ) summit of Round Hill is located , has a long , well @-@ defined frontage of rendered terraced houses dating from the 1880s , with an older flint and brick house with decorative bargeboards and gables breaking up the composition .
Building materials vary greatly . Brick was rarely used at the time Round Hill was developing ( although a few houses in Belton Road were built of it ) ; bungaroosh was often used for walls instead . Characteristic of Brighton but almost unknown elsewhere , this consisted of random assortments of materials such as low @-@ quality brick , cobbles , flints , pebbles , rubble , wood and sand , set in hydraulic lime and shuttered . Bungaroosh was often faced with render or stucco to make it weatherproof . Some flint buildings survive on Prince 's Crescent . When built , most windows in the conservation area 's houses were sashes , and roofs were of Welsh slate .
The area retains many original boundary walls , often in brick and flint or cast iron . Some pavements were laid with blue @-@ brick paving slabs , and a few survive . Elsewhere , granite kerbstones , stone @-@ dressed gutters and road crossing points laid with limestone and brick remain from the 19th @-@ century development of the area , and some cast @-@ iron lamp @-@ posts have survived .
= = Gallery = =
= K Foundation =
The K Foundation was an art foundation set up by Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty ( The KLF ) in 1993 , following their ' retirement ' from the music industry . The Foundation served as an artistic outlet for the duo 's post @-@ retirement KLF income . Between 1993 and 1995 , they spent this money in a number of ways , including on a series of Situationist @-@ inspired press adverts and extravagant subversions in the art world , focusing in particular on the Turner Prize . Most notoriously , when their plans to use banknotes as part of a work of art fell through , they burned a million pounds in cash .
The K Foundation announced a 23 @-@ year moratorium on all projects from November 1995 . They further indicated that they would not speak about the burning of the million pounds during the period of this moratorium .
= = Context = =
In the early 1980s , British musician and artist Jimmy Cauty was the guitarist in an underachieving pop / rock band , Brilliant . Brilliant had been signed to WEA Records by A & R man Bill Drummond , formerly a member of the Liverpool group Big in Japan , the manager of The Teardrop Explodes and Echo & the Bunnymen , and co @-@ founder of the independent record label Zoo Records . In 1986 , Brilliant released their one and only album - Kiss The Lips Of Life - before splitting up . In the same year , Drummond left WEA Records to record a solo album . Whilst out walking on New Year 's Day , 1987 , Drummond hit upon an idea for a hip @-@ hop record but , he said , knowing " nothing , personally , about the technology " , he needed a collaborator . Drummond called Jimmy Cauty who agreed to join him in a new band called The Justified Ancients of Mu @-@ Mu ( The JAMs ) .
The JAMs ' debut release , the single " All You Need Is Love " , was released as an underground white label on 9 March 1987 . By 1991 , the duo — now calling themselves The KLF — had become the best @-@ selling singles band in the world and , according to the Allmusic , were " on the verge of becoming superstars " . Instead , in May 1992 they machine @-@ gunned a music industry audience at the BRIT Awards ( albeit with blanks ) and quit the music business .
By their own account , neither Drummond nor Cauty kept any of the money that they made as The KLF ; it was all ploughed back into their extravagant productions . Cauty told an Australian Big Issue writer in 2003 that all the money they made as The KLF was spent , and that the royalties they accrued post @-@ retirement amounted to approximately one million pounds :
Although the duo had deleted their back catalogue in the UK with immediate effect , international licensees retained the contractual right to distribute KLF recordings for a number of years . The KLF , like any other artist , were also entitled to Performing Right Society royalties every time one of their songs was played on the radio or television . Rather than spend these earnings or invest them for personal gain , the duo decided the money would be used to fund a new art foundation - The K Foundation . " Having created an artistic machine that created money " , said GQ Magazine , " they [ then ] invented a machine for destroying it . " Quite what the Foundation , this money @-@ destroying machine , would do with the million pounds plus was still undecided .
Music journalist Sarah Champion pointed out ( prior to the million pound fire ) that , " Being ' in the money ' doesn 't mean they 'll ever be rich . [ Drummond and Cauty will ] always be skint , but their pranks will get more extravagant . If they earned £ 10 million , they 'd blow it all by buying Jura or a fleet of K Foundation airships or a Van Gogh to be ceremonially burned . " " There are things we 'd like to do which we haven 't done . " , Drummond told a journalist in 1991 . " Totally ludicrous things . We want to buy ships , have submarines . They really are stupid things I know , but I feel confident that in the event of us selling ten million albums we would definitely go out and buy a submarine .... Just to be able to say ' Look we 've got a submarine and 808 State haven 't ' . "
= = K Foundation adverts = =
The first manifestation of the K Foundation was a series of adverts in UK national newspapers in 1993 . The first adverts , in July 1993 , were cryptic , referring to " K Time " and advising readers to " Kick out the clocks " . There was also an advert for their single " K Cera Cera " which was " Available nowhere ... no formats " and which was not planned for release until world peace was established . The single was eventually released , but only in Israel .
" When the first in a strange series of full @-@ page ads appeared in The Independent on July 4 " , said The Face , " people started whispering . The cultish rhetoric , the unfathomable " Divide and Kreate " slogans , the K symbols , all suggested that the kings of cultural anarchy were back . " Each advert cost between £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 15 @,@ 000 .
= = Turner Prize subversion = =
The 1994 K Foundation award was an award given by the K Foundation to the " worst artist of the year " . The Foundation commissioned more press adverts , instructing readers to " Abandon all art now " and then inviting them to vote for the worst artist of the year . The 1993 Turner Prize was being judged at the same time , and , perhaps not coincidentally , both awards had the same shortlist of four artists . The prize being offered by Drummond and Cauty was £ 40 @,@ 000 which was double the £ 20 @,@ 000 offered for the Turner Prize .
Channel 4 Television broadcast coverage of the Turner Prize , during which three more K Foundation adverts were broadcast — these announced the " amending of art history " . During the evening , Rachel Whiteread was announced as the winner of both the Turner Prize and the K Foundation award . Whiteread initially refused to accept the K Foundation prize , but after being told that the money would be incinerated , she reluctantly accepted , with the intention of donating £ 30 @,@ 000 to artists in financial need and the other £ 10 @,@ 000 to the housing charity , Shelter .
= = Money : A Major Body Of Cash = =
During the buildup to the presentation of the K Foundation art award to Rachel Whiteread on 23 November 1993 , the K Foundation presented their first artwork to the press . Nailed To A Wall , " the first of a series of K Foundation art installations that will also include one million pounds in a skip , one million pounds on a table and several variants on the theme of Tremendous Amounts Of Folding " , consisted of one million pounds in £ 50 notes , nailed to a large framed board . Nailed To A Wall had a reserve price of £ 500 @,@ 000 , half the face value of the cash used in its construction , which Scotland on Sunday 's reporter Robert Dawson Scott was " fairly confident ... really was £ 1 million [ in cash ] " . The catalogue entry for the artwork stated : " Over the years the face value will be eroded by inflation , while the artistic value will rise and rise . The precise point at which the artistic value will overtake the face value is unknown . Deconstruct the work now and you double your money . Hang it on a wall and watch the face value erode , the market value fluctuate , and the artistic value soar . The choice is yours . "
Collectively , the K Foundation 's money @-@ as @-@ art works were titled Money : A Major Body Of Cash , " seven pieces , all involving various amounts of cash nailed to , tied to or simply standing on inanimate objects " . The Face magazine neatly summed up the concepts behind the art project :
During the first half of 1994 , the K Foundation attempted to interest galleries in staging Money : A Major Body Of Cash . However , even old friend Jayne Casey , director of the Liverpool Festival Trust , was unable to persuade a major gallery to participate . " ' The Tate , in Liverpool , wanted to be part of the 21st Century Festival I 'm involved with , ' says Casey . ' I suggested they put on the K Foundation exhibition ; at first they were encouraging , but they seemed nervous about the personalities involved . ' A curt fax from ... the gallery curator , informed Casey that the K Foundation 's exhibition of money had been done before and more interestingly " , leaving Drummond and Cauty obliged to pursue other options . The duo considered taking the exhibition across the former Soviet Union by train and on to the United States , but no insurer would touch the project . Then an exhibition at Dublin 's Kilmainham Jail was considered . No sooner had a provisional date of August been set for the exhibition , however , when the duo changed their minds yet again . " Jimmy said : ' Why don 't we just burn it ? ' remembers Drummond . ' He said it in a light @-@ hearted way , I suppose , hoping I 'd say : ' No , we can 't do that , let 's do this ... ' But it seemed the most powerful thing to do . " Cauty : " We were just sitting in a cafe talking about what we were going to spend the money on and then we decided it would be better if we burned it . That was about six weeks before we did it . It was too long , it was a bit of a nightmare . "
= = The K Foundation Burn A Million Quid = =
On 23 August 1994 , in a boathouse on the Scottish island of Jura , Drummond and Cauty incinerated £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in cash . The burning was witnessed by an old friend of Drummond 's , freelance journalist Jim Reid , who subsequently wrote an article about the ceremony for The Observer . It was filmed on Super 8 by their friend Gimpo .
Reid admitted to first feeling shock and guilt about the burning , which quickly turned to boredom . The money took well over an hour to burn as Drummond and Cauty fed £ 50 notes into the fire . Drummond later said that only about £ 900 @,@ 000 of the money was actually burnt – the rest flew straight up the chimney . The press reported that an islander handed £ 1 @,@ 500 into the police ; the money had not been claimed and would be returned to the finder .
On 23 August 1995 , exactly one year after the burning , Drummond and Cauty returned to Jura for the premier screening of the film , now known as Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid . The film was then toured around the UK over the next few months ( plus one showing in Belgrade ) , with a Q & A session at the end of each screening where members of the audience asked Drummond and Cauty why they burnt the money and also offered their own interpretations .
= = Moratorium = =
Drummond and Cauty announced a moratorium on K Foundation activities in the obscure " Workshop For A Non @-@ Linear Architecture " bulletin of November 1995 . The duo had signed a " contract " , agreeing to wind up the K Foundation and not to speak about the money burning for a period of 23 years . The document was signed on the bonnet of a rented car which , they claim , they then pushed over the cliffs at Cape Wrath . This was followed on 8 December 1995 by an advertisement in The Guardian :
In November 1995 , the BBC aired an edition of the Omnibus documentary series about The K Foundation entitled " A Foundation Course in Art " .
The final act of the K Foundation was distributing a van load of Tennent 's Super - a high @-@ alcohol @-@ content lager - to London 's street drinkers on Christmas Day 1995 . However , the Foundation discovered that their choice of location for this endeavour — near Waterloo Station on the South Bank — was unusually devoid of homeless people , many of whom were in homeless shelters for the day . " That was a pity " , said Jimmy Cauty . " If you are down @-@ and @-@ out , would you rather have a bowl of soup or a can of Tennent 's ? " The Sunday Times later called the scheme " ethically dubious " .
Drummond and Cauty would next work together in 1997 , when they attempted to " Fuck the Millennium " as 2K ( music ) and K2 Plant Hire ( conceptual art ) .
= = K Cera Cera and The Magnificent = =
The only music release to bear the name of the K Foundation was " K Cera Cera " , released as a limited edition single in Israel and Palestine in November 1993 . An amalgam of " Que Sera , Sera ( Whatever Will Be , Will Be ) " and John Lennon / Yoko Ono 's " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " , it was credited to the " K Foundation presents The Red Army Choir " . Originally intended for release when " world peace [ is ] established " ( i.e. never ) and in " no formats " , the Israeli release was made " In acknowledgement of the recent brave steps taken by the Israeli Government and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation ( PLO ) " . Said Drummond : " Our idea was to create awareness of peace in the world . Because we were worried it would be interpreted by the public as an attempt by The KLF to return to the music world on the back of a humanist gimmick , we decided to hide behind the Foundation . "
Also made by the duo during the K Foundation 's existence , reported by the NME as a K Foundation work , but officially attributed to " The One World Orchestra featuring The Massed Pipes and Drums of the Children 's Free Revolutionary Volunteer Guards " , was " The Magnificent " , their contribution to the charity album Help . The song , a drum 'n'bass version of the theme tune from The Magnificent Seven with vocal samples from DJ Fleka of Serbian radio station B92 , was recorded on 4 September 1995 . On 5 September 1995 , Drummond and Cauty claimed they would " never make any more records " . Drummond said , " What do you expect us to do , go and make a jungle record ? " ; Cauty added " Yeah , like a jungle novelty record with some strings on it or something . It would just be sad wouldn 't it ? We 're too old . " NME gleefully informed their readers , " The K Foundation 's contribution to the ' Help ' LP is a jungle track . " Help was released on 9 September 1995 .
= M @-@ 107 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 107 was an east – west state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . Running for 9 @.@ 576 miles ( 15 @.@ 411 km ) , it connected Lake of the Clouds and the rest of the Porcupine Mountains State Park to M @-@ 64 in Silver City . The roadway parallels the Lake Superior shoreline in Ontonagon County .
The roadway was built in 1935 and named to honor the 107th Engineer Combat Battalion . The Michigan Legislature named it the " 107th Engineer Memorial Road " in 2001 . M @-@ 107 was transferred from the control of the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) to the Ontonagon County Road Commission on June 4 , 2008 . This transfer decommissioned the M @-@ 107 designation and removed it from the state trunkline system .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 107 existed to connect the Porcupine Mountains State Park with the rest of the Michigan state trunkline highway system , running parallel to the Lake Superior shoreline . It began at an intersection with M @-@ 64 in Silver City . From there , M @-@ 107 ran west into the Porcupine Mountains , crossing the Little Iron River and passing the PMSP Winter Sports Complex . The western end was at the Lake of the Clouds overlook .
= = = Lake of the Clouds = = =
Lake of the Clouds is a lake located in Ontonagon County within the Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park . The lake is situated in a valley between two ridges in the Porcupine Mountains . Surrounded by wilderness , the lake is a popular destination for hikers , campers , and fishermen . The lake is a prominent feature of the park , and can be viewed at the Lake of the Clouds Overlook at the west terminus of former M @-@ 107 .
= = = Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park = = =
Porcupine Mountains State Park was established in 1944 to protect the last large stand of old @-@ growth forest remaining in Michigan . Then in 1972 , Michigan passed the Wilderness and Natural areas Act . This act gave the park the new designation of the Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park . The facilities provided by the park include an extensive network of backcountry trails for hiking and backpacking , rustic trailside cabins , modern campgrounds , swimming and boating areas , and various interpretive programs led by park rangers . The North Country Trail passes through the park . In the winter , a ski area also operates within the park . Because of the copper mining history of the park , it is a cooperating unit of Keweenaw National Historical Park .
= = History = =
The routing of M @-@ 107 had been largely unchanged since designation . The designation was created in 1935 as a tribute to the 107th Engineer Combat Battalion . The highway was dedicated on June 13 , 1954 to the battalion at a ceremony by Highway Commissioner Charles M. Ziegler . This ceremony was attended by approximately 1 @,@ 200 people at a highway turnout located along the roadway 4 miles ( 6 km ) west of Silver City . A 3 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 2 @.@ 7 t ) boulder was placed on a concrete pedestal with a bronze inscription plaque at the location of the ceremony . The Michigan Legislature named M @-@ 107 the " 107th Engineer Memorial Road " in 2001 .
On June 4 , 2008 , a transfer agreement was reached transferring the jurisdiction of M @-@ 107 from MDOT to the Ontonagon County Road Commission . This transfer marked the end of the M @-@ 107 designation as the roadway became a county primary road . The OCRC has named it the " 107th Engineers Memorial Highway " .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Ontonagon County .
= Ching Johnson =
Ivan Wilfred " Ching " Johnson ( December 7 , 1898 – June 16 , 1979 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played for the New York Rangers and New York Americans in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was an original member of the Rangers and was part of two Stanley Cup championship winning teams . He was named to the NHL 's post @-@ season all @-@ star team four times and played in the Ace Bailey Benefit Game , the first all @-@ star game in league history .
A veteran of World War I , Johnson did not begin playing competitive hockey until he was in his 20s and was nearly 30 when he first broke into the NHL . Regarded as one of the hardest bodycheckers to ever play the game , he was a fan favourite and went on to play 436 games with the Rangers and Americans before spending his final seasons in the minor leagues as a player , coach and official . Johnson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 , and is also a member of the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum and the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Johnson was born in Winnipeg , Manitoba on December 7 , 1898 . He was an accomplished football and lacrosse player in his youth . He joined the Canadian Expeditionary Force in 1916 and fought for three years in the trenches of France as part of a mortar outfit . Johnson returned to Winnipeg following the war and worked for an electric light company . He first played competitive hockey in 1919 when he joined the Winnipeg Monarchs of the Winnipeg Senior Hockey League . He played two seasons with the Monarchs before moving to Eveleth , Minnesota where he joined the local team to play three seasons in the United States Amateur Hockey Association ( USAHA ) . He then played three seasons in Minneapolis , concluding in 1925 – 26 with the Minneapolis Millers . He was named a league all @-@ star on defence in both 1924 and 1926 .
First nicknamed " Ivan the Terrible " , Johnson later earned the nickname " Ching " when fans of the defencemen would shout " Ching , Ching Chinaman " to support him . Though he was of Irish descent , he was called " Chinaman " , then " Chink " and finally " Ching " as he was considered to have an Asian looking face . His physical style of defence made him immensely popular with fans , and he was often seen with a wide grin any time he made or received contact during a game .
= = National Hockey League career = =
It was from Minneapolis that Johnson was recruited , along with his defensive partner Taffy Abel , to play for the newly formed New York Rangers . Offered the position at the age of 28 , Johnson insisted on a three @-@ year contract as he believed it would be the only one he would get . He made his NHL debut in the Rangers opening game on November 16 , 1926 in a 1 – 0 victory over the Montreal Maroons . A rugged and physical defenceman , Johnson appeared in only 27 of the Rangers ' 44 games as he suffered a broken collar bone early in the season , but still finished second on the Rangers with 66 penalties in minutes . In 1927 – 28 , his total of 146 penalty minutes led the team and was second in the NHL to Eddie Shore 's 165 . He added a career high 10 goals , and helped the Rangers win their first Stanley Cup . Additionally , he was voted by the fans as the most valuable player of either New York team .
Johnson was lost to the Rangers early in the 1928 – 29 season when he suffered a broken ankle during a December game against the Maroons . A couple days after his injury , he had to be rescued when a fire threatened the Montreal hospital he was convalescing at . Johnson missed virtually the entire regular season with the injury , but returned in time for the 1929 playoffs , and was credited with improving the Rangers ' play as they reached the final against the Boston Bruins .
His contract having expired following the season , Johnson was a hold @-@ out when the Rangers opened their training camp prior to the 1929 – 30 NHL season as the team was reluctant to meet his demands for increased pay . When the impasse dragged into November , he threatened to quit the game altogether , before finally agreeing to a new three @-@ year deal . He appeared in 30 games for the Rangers that season , but again missed significant time , this time suffering a broken jaw . Again , Johnson returned in time for the playoffs , but was forced to wear a steel mask to protect his face .
Johnson remained healthy in 1930 – 31 , appearing in 44 games and was named to the league 's Second All @-@ Star Team on defence . In addition to being named to the First All @-@ Star Team in 1931 – 32 , Johnson finished just one vote behind Howie Morenz for the Hart Trophy as the league 's most valuable player . He was again named to the First All @-@ Star Team in 1932 – 33 and led the Rangers to their second Stanley Cup ; his defensive play was credited as being key to the team 's success .
In 1933 – 34 , Johnson earned his fourth consecutive post @-@ season all @-@ star nod , on the second team . He also participated in the first all @-@ star game in NHL history as the league held a benefit game to raise money for Toronto 's Ace Bailey , whose career was ended by a violent hit early in the season . Johnson contemplated retirement following that season as he again found himself in a dispute with the Rangers on a new contract , but signed prior to the season 's start . His season was again reduced by injury in 1934 – 35 but he returned in time for the playoffs .
Prior to the 1936 – 37 season , the Rangers signed Johnson to serve as the defensive coach while he continued to play . He appeared in 35 games but scored no points . Seeing little playing time , and having an offer to coach a minor league team , Johnson requested that the Rangers give him his outright release following the season . Believing that he had become too slow to play , the team agreed . He subsequently signed with the New York Americans , with whom he played one final NHL season in 1937 – 38 .
= = Post @-@ NHL career = =
At age 40 , Johnson returned to the Minneapolis Millers as a player @-@ coach for the 1938 – 39 season . He quickly became the American Hockey Association 's most popular star as large crowds attended games he participated in , and was named an AHA all @-@ star in 1939 . He served in the dual role for two years before resigning in 1940 . Johnson then coached for a time in California , before returning east to coach the Washington Lions of the American Hockey League . He also served as an official in the Eastern Hockey League . During one game in 1944 in which he was working as a linesman , Johnson forgot he was no longer playing and threw a bodycheck on a player . When asked after the game about the incident , he stated it was " instinct " that led him to throw the hit .
In recognition of his career , Johnson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as a player in 1958 . He was also inducted into the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1994 , and is an honoured member of the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame . The latter hall named him to province 's all @-@ century second all @-@ star team .
After leaving hockey , Johnson worked construction in Washington , D.C. , and later retired to the nearby community of Silver Spring , Maryland . He and his wife Ellen had two children : Geraldine and James . He had four grandchildren and one great @-@ grandchild at the time of his death in 1979 .
= = Career statistics = =
= DNA nanotechnology =
DNA nanotechnology is the design and manufacture of artificial nucleic acid structures for technological uses . In this field , nucleic acids are used as non @-@ biological engineering materials for nanotechnology rather than as the carriers of genetic information in living cells . Researchers in the field have created static structures such as two- and three @-@ dimensional crystal lattices , nanotubes , polyhedra , and arbitrary shapes , as well as functional devices such as molecular machines and DNA computers . The field is beginning to be used as a tool to solve basic science problems in structural biology and biophysics , including applications in crystallography and spectroscopy for protein structure determination . Potential applications in molecular scale electronics and nanomedicine are also being investigated .
The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by Nadrian Seeman in the early 1980s , and the field began to attract widespread interest in the mid @-@ 2000s . This use of nucleic acids is enabled by their strict base pairing rules , which cause only portions of strands with complementary base sequences to bind together to form strong , rigid double helix structures . This allows for the rational design of base sequences that will selectively assemble to form complex target structures with precisely controlled nanoscale features . A number of assembly methods are used to make these structures , including tile @-@ based structures that assemble from smaller structures , folding structures using the DNA origami method , and dynamically reconfigurable structures using strand displacement techniques . While the field 's name specifically references DNA , the same principles have been used with other types of nucleic acids as well , leading to the occasional use of the alternative name nucleic acid nanotechnology .
= = Fundamental concepts = =
= = = Properties of nucleic acids = = =
Nanotechnology is often defined as the study of materials and devices with features on a scale below 100 nanometers . DNA nanotechnology , specifically , is an example of bottom @-@ up molecular self @-@ assembly , in which molecular components spontaneously organize into stable structures ; the particular form of these structures is induced by the physical and chemical properties of the components selected by the designers . In DNA nanotechnology , the component materials are strands of nucleic acids such as DNA ; these strands are often synthetic and are almost always used outside the context of a living cell . DNA is well @-@ suited to nanoscale construction because the binding between two nucleic acid strands depends on simple base pairing rules which are well understood , and form the specific nanoscale structure of the nucleic acid double helix . These qualities make the assembly of nucleic acid structures easy to control through nucleic acid design . This property is absent in other materials used in nanotechnology , including proteins , for which protein design is very difficult , and nanoparticles , which lack the capability for specific assembly on their own .
The structure of a nucleic acid molecule consists of a sequence of nucleotides distinguished by which nucleobase they contain . In DNA , the four bases present are adenine ( A ) , cytosine ( C ) , guanine ( G ) , and thymine ( T ) . Nucleic acids have the property that two molecules will only bind to each other to form a double helix if the two sequences are complementary , meaning that they form matching sequences of base pairs , with A only binding to T , and C only to G. Because the formation of correctly matched base pairs is energetically favorable , nucleic acid strands are expected in most cases to bind to each other in the conformation that maximizes the number of correctly paired bases . The sequences of bases in a system of strands thus determine the pattern of binding and the overall structure in an easily controllable way . In DNA nanotechnology , the base sequences of strands are rationally designed by researchers so that the base pairing interactions cause the strands to assemble in the desired conformation . While DNA is the dominant material used , structures incorporating other nucleic acids such as RNA and peptide nucleic acid ( PNA ) have also been constructed .
= = = Subfields = = =
DNA nanotechnology is sometimes divided into two overlapping subfields : structural DNA nanotechnology and dynamic DNA nanotechnology . Structural DNA nanotechnology , sometimes abbreviated as SDN , focuses on synthesizing and characterizing nucleic acid complexes and materials that assemble into a static , equilibrium end state . On the other hand , dynamic DNA nanotechnology focuses on complexes with useful non @-@ equilibrium behavior such as the ability to reconfigure based on a chemical or physical stimulus . Some complexes , such as nucleic acid nanomechanical devices , combine features of both the structural and dynamic subfields .
The complexes constructed in structural DNA nanotechnology use topologically branched nucleic acid structures containing junctions . ( In contrast , most biological DNA exists as an unbranched double helix . ) One of the simplest branched structures is a four @-@ arm junction that consists of four individual DNA strands , portions of which are complementary in a specific pattern . Unlike in natural Holliday junctions , each arm in the artificial immobile four @-@ arm junction has a different base sequence , causing the junction point to be fixed at a certain position . Multiple junctions can be combined in the same complex , such as in the widely used
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Much of Colbert 's personal life was reflected in his character on The Colbert Report . With the extended exposure of the character on the show , he often referenced his interest in and knowledge of Catholicism , science fiction , and The Lord of the Rings , as well as using real facts to create his character 's history . His alternate persona was also raised in South Carolina , is the youngest of 11 siblings and is married . The actual Colbert 's career history in acting and comedy , however , was often downplayed or even denied outright , and he frequently referred to having attended Dartmouth College ( which was at the forefront of the conservative campus movement in the 1980s ) rather than his actual alma mater , Northwestern . In July 2012 , Colbert added two years to his contract with Comedy Central , extending the run of The Colbert Report until the end of 2014 .
The final episode on December 18 , 2014 featured a rendition of " We 'll Meet Again " and appearances from former guests of the show , including Jon Stewart , Randy Newman , Bryan Cranston , Willie Nelson , Yo Yo Ma , Mandy Patinkin , Neil DeGrasse Tyson , Tom Brokaw , David Gregory , J. J. Abrams , Big Bird , Gloria Steinem , Ken Burns , James Franco , Barry Manilow , Bob Costas , Jeff Daniels , Sam Waterston , Bill de Blasio , Katie Couric , Patrick Stewart , George Lucas , Henry Kissinger , Cookie Monster , Alan Alda , Eliot Spitzer , Vince Gilligan , Paul Krugman , and a text from Bill Clinton , and appearances of Alex Trebek , U.S. and coalition Afghanistan forces , and further characters ( a space station astronaut , Santa , Abraham Lincoln , etc . ) .
= = = Late Show = = =
On April 10 , 2014 , CBS announced in a press release that Colbert " will succeed David Letterman as the host of The Late Show , effective when Mr. Letterman retires from the broadcast . " On January 12 , 2015 , CBS announced that Colbert would premiere as the Late Show host on Tuesday , September 8 , 2015 .
The Late Show is taped in the Ed Sullivan Theater , which was renovated before Stephen Colbert debuted as the new host . Several architectural features of the original theater were restored including the theater 's domed ceiling ( which had been covered up ) and stained @-@ glass windows .
The first guest of the new Late Show was George Clooney . The show has a much more political focus than David Letterman 's Late Show .
= = Politics = =
= = = 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner = = =
On Saturday , April 29 , 2006 , Colbert was the featured entertainer for the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner . Standing a few yards from U.S. President George W. Bush – in front of an audience the Associated Press called a " Who 's Who of power and celebrity " – Colbert delivered a searing routine targeting the president and the media . In his politically conservative character from The Colbert Report , Colbert satirized the George W. Bush Administration and the White House Press Corps with such lines as :
I stand by this man . I stand by this man because he stands for things . Not only for things , he stands on things . Things like aircraft carriers and rubble and recently flooded city squares . And that sends a strong message , that no matter what happens to America , she will always rebound – with the most powerfully staged photo ops in the world .
Colbert received a chilly response from the audience . His jokes were often met with silence and muttering , apart from the enthusiastic laughter of a few in the audience . The major media outlets paid little attention to it initially . Washington Post columnist Dan Froomkin and Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism professor Todd Gitlin claimed that this was because Colbert 's routine was as critical of the media as it was of Bush . Richard Cohen , also writing for The Washington Post , responded that the routine was not funny . The video of Colbert 's performance became an internet and media sensation , while , in the week following the speech , ratings for The Colbert Report rose by 37 % to average just under 1 @.@ 5 million total viewers per episode . In Time magazine James Poniewozik called it " the political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 " . Writing six months later , New York Times columnist Frank Rich referred to Colbert 's speech as a " cultural primary " and called it the " defining moment " of the 2006 midterm elections .
= = = 2008 Presidential bid = = =
Under his fictional persona in The Colbert Report , Colbert dropped hints of a potential presidential run throughout 2007 , with speculation intensifying following the release of his book , I Am America ( And So Can You ! ) , which was rumored to be a sign that he was indeed testing the waters for a future bid for the White House . On October 16 , 2007 , he announced his candidacy on his show , stating his intention to run both on the Republican and Democratic platforms , but only as a " favorite son " in his native South Carolina . He later abandoned plans to run as a Republican due to the $ 35 @,@ 000 fee required to file for the South Carolina primary , however he continued to seek a place on the Democratic ballot and on October 28 , 2007 , campaigned in the South Carolina state capital of Columbia , where he was presented with the key to the city by Mayor Bob Coble .
After announcing his presidential ticket , he asked his viewers to cast their votes by donating to Donorschoose.org , an online charity connecting individuals to classrooms in need . Colbert 's promotion inspired $ 68 @,@ 000 in donations to South Carolina classrooms , which benefited over 14 @,@ 000 low @-@ income students . Colbert teamed up with Donorschoose.org again in 2008 by asking supporters of Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton to do the same . As a lead @-@ up to the Pennsylvania primary , he created a " straw poll that makes a difference " , where people could donate to Pennsylvania classroom projects in honor of their favorite candidate . Colbert viewers donated $ 185 @,@ 000 to projects reaching 43 @,@ 000 students in Pennsylvania public schools .
On November 1 , 2007 , the South Carolina Democratic Party executive council voted 13 – 3 to refuse Colbert 's application onto the ballot . " The general sense of the council was that he wasn 't a serious candidate and that was why he wasn 't selected to be on the ballot " , stated John Werner , the party 's director . In addition , he was declared " not viable " , as he was running in only one state . Several days later he announced that he was dropping out of the race , saying that he did not wish to put the country through an agonizing Supreme Court battle . CNN has reported that Obama supporters pressured the South Carolina Democratic Executive Council to keep Colbert off the ballot . One anonymous member of the council told CNN that former State Superintendent of Education Inez Tenenbaum had placed pressure on them to refuse Colbert 's application despite his steady rise in polls .
Though Colbert 's real @-@ life presidential campaign had ended , Marvel Comics editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada established in an interview on The Colbert Report that Colbert 's campaign was still going strong in the fictional Marvel Universe , citing the cover art of a then @-@ recent issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man which featured a Colbert campaign billboard in the background . Background appearances of Colbert campaign ads continued to appear in Marvel Comics publications , as recently as August 2008 's Secret Invasion No. 5 ( which also features a cameo of an alien Skrull posing as Colbert ) . In October 2008 , Colbert made an extended 8 @-@ page appearance webslinging with Spider @-@ Man in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man issue No. 573 .
= = = 2009 solidarity with U.S. troops in Iraq War = = =
Stephen Colbert arrived in Baghdad , Iraq , on June 5 , 2009 , to film a week of shows called " Operation Iraqi Stephen : Going Commando " sponsored by the USO ( United Service Organizations ) . Colbert had a suit tailored for him in the Army Combat Uniform pattern . During the first episode ( which featured a cameo appearance from U.S. president Barack Obama ) , Colbert had his hair cropped in a military style to show his solidarity with the troops . One Army major said that " shaving of the hair is an amazing show of support " that was " very touching . " USO Senior Vice President John Hanson said the shows are an important diversion for the troops .
= = = 2010 Congressional testimony = = =
On September 24 , 2010 , Colbert testified in character before the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration , Citizenship , and Border Security . He was invited by committee chairwoman Zoe Lofgren to describe his experience participating in the United Farm Workers ' " Take Our Jobs " program , where he spent a day working alongside migrant workers in upstate New York . At the end of his often @-@ humorous testimony , Colbert broke character in responding to a question from Rep. Judy Chu , D @-@ CA , and explained his purpose for being at the hearing :
I like talking about people who don 't have any power , and this seems like one of the least powerful people in the United States are migrant workers who come and do our work , but don 't have any rights as a result . And yet we still invite them to come here and at the same time ask them to leave . And that 's an interesting contradiction to me . And , you know , ' Whatsoever you do for the least of my brothers , ' and these seem like the least of our brothers right now ... Migrant workers suffer and have no rights .
Democratic committee member John Conyers questioned whether it was appropriate for the comedian to appear before Congress and asked him to leave the hearing . Though Colbert offered to depart at the direction of the committee chairwoman , Lofgren requested that he stay at least until all opening testimony had been completed , whereupon Conyers withdrew his request .
Conservative pundits took aim at Colbert 's Congress testimony not long after .
'Painfully awkward and pointless , it made the committee 's majority members look ridiculous . Colbert can be very funny , but his kind of sarcasm only works in some contexts , and a House committee hearing room does not appear to be one of them . ' – Yuval Levin , The Corner
'As John Conyers notes , the media and spectators turned out to see whether Colbert would address the panel seriously as an expert on immigration and make the panel a joke , or stay in character and make the panel a bigger joke , ' – Ed Morrissey , Hot Air .
= = = 2010 Washington D.C. rallies = = =
In September 2010 , following Glenn Beck 's Restoring Honor rally , a campaign developed that called for Colbert to hold his own rally at the Lincoln Memorial . On the September 10 , 2010 , episode of the Daily Show and The Colbert Report , Stewart and Colbert made preannouncements of a future event . On September 16 , 2010 , Stewart and Colbert announced competing rallies on the Washington , DC , Mall on October 30 , 2010 , Stewart 's " Rally to Restore Sanity " , and Colbert 's " March to Keep Fear Alive " . Both were eventually merged into the Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear .
= = = Super PAC and President of the United States of South Carolina = = =
In May 2011 , Colbert filed a request with the Federal Election Commission ( FEC ) asking for a media exemption for coverage of his political action committee , ColbertPAC , on The Colbert Report .
In June 2011 , during a public meeting , the FEC voted 5 – 1 to grant The Colbert Report a limited media exemption . The exemption allows unlimited donations of airtime and show resources to promote the Colbert Super PAC without requiring disclosure to the FEC , but only for ads appearing on The Colbert Report . Following the hearing , Colbert formally filed paperwork for the creation of his Super PAC with the FEC secretary .
After the 2012 New Hampshire primary , a poll for the subsequent South Carolina primary taken by Public Policy Polling ( of 1 @,@ 112 likely GOP voters , Jan 5 – 7 , 2012 ) was reported to place Colbert at 5 % , one point ahead of Jon Huntsman polling at 4 % , in spite of the fact that Colbert was not on the ballot . This poll showed Colbert to be closely behind Rick Perry 's 7 % and Ron Paul 's 8 % ( with Romney at 27 % , Gingrich 23 % and Santorum at 18 % ) . On the January 11 episode of The Colbert Report , Colbert asked his audience if he should run for President in South Carolina , to which he received strong applause . He then stated that he would be making a " Major Announcement " during the next day 's show . On January 12 , Colbert started his show by discussing his role in the Presidential campaign , then addressed the law preventing him from being a Presidential candidate while running his Super PAC . With the help of his lawyer Trevor Potter , he then signed over control of his Super PAC to Jon Stewart , with the organization title then being referred to as " The Definitely Not Coordinating With Stephen Colbert Super PAC " . Immediately after this legal block was out of the way , Colbert announced , " I am forming an exploratory committee to lay the groundwork for my possible candidacy for the President of the United States of South Carolina . I 'm doin ' it ! " He reiterated in the interview portion of that show that " I 'm still in the exploratory phase " of his Presidential campaign .
On the January 16 , 2012 , episode , Colbert encouraged his viewers to vote for Herman Cain in the South Carolina primary . As Cain was still on the ballot , despite having recently dropped out of the race , Colbert announced that he would consider any votes cast for Cain to be in direct support of his own possible candidacy .
= = = Other work = = =
Colbert is co @-@ author of the satirical text @-@ and @-@ picture novel Wigfield : The Can Do Town That Just May Not , which was published in 2003 by Hyperion Books . The novel was a collaboration between Colbert , Amy Sedaris , and Paul Dinello , and tells the story of a small town threatened by the impending destruction of a massive dam . The narrative is presented as a series of fictional interviews with the town 's residents , accompanied by photos . The three authors toured performing an adaptation of Wigfield on stage the same year the book was released .
Colbert appeared in a small supporting role in the 2005 film adaptation of Bewitched . He has made guest appearances on the television series Curb Your Enthusiasm , Spin City , and Law & Order : Criminal Intent , and on the first season of the US improvisational comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? . He voiced the characters of Reducto and Phil Ken Sebben in the Adult Swim 's Harvey Birdman , Attorney at Law , but left the show in 2005 to work on The Colbert Report . His characters were both killed , though he returned to voice Phil for the series finale . Colbert also has provided voices for Cartoon Network 's The Venture Bros. , Comedy Central 's Crank Yankers , and American Dad ! , and for Canadian animated comedy series The Wrong Coast . He appeared as Homer Simpson 's life coach , Colby Krause , in The Simpsons episode " He Loves to Fly and He D 'ohs " .
Colbert filled in for Sam Seder on the second episode of The Majority Report on Air America Radio , and has also done reports for The Al Franken Show . He appeared on a track on Wig in a Box , a tribute album for Hedwig and the Angry Inch . Colbert read the part of Leopold Bloom in Bloomsday on Broadway XXIV : Love Literature Language Lust : Leopold 's Women Bloom on June 16 , 2005 at Symphony Space in New York City . He appeared in a series of TV commercials for General Motors , as a not @-@ too @-@ bright investigator searching for the elusive ( and non @-@ existent in real life ) " Mr. Goodwrench " . He also portrayed the letter Z in Sesame Street : All @-@ Star Alphabet , a 2005 video release .
Colbert is a producer of The 1 Second Film , the world 's largest nonprofit collaborative art film . His video request that IMDb list his credit for The 1 Second Film ( " it is as valid as most of my credits " ) enabled thousands of the film 's producers to be listed in the massive movie database until they were removed in early 2007 .
Colbert has released one book associated with The Colbert Report , I Am America ( And So Can You ! ) . It was released on October 7 , 2007 by Grand Central Publishing . Grand Central Publishing is the successor to Warner Books , which published America ( The Book ) , written by The Daily Show staff . The book contains similar political satire , but was written primarily by Colbert himself rather than as a collaboration with his Colbert Report writing staff .
On November 23 , 2008 , his Christmas special , A Colbert Christmas : The Greatest Gift of All ! , aired on Comedy Central . It was released on DVD in November 2008 .
In January 2010 , Colbert was named the assistant sports psychologist for the US Olympic speed skating team at the 2010 Winter Olympics . He was also invited to be part of NBC 's 2010 Winter Olympics coverage team by Dick Ebersol , chairman of NBC Universal Sports . In April 2011 , Colbert performed as Harry in the concert @-@ style revival of Stephen Sondheim 's musical Company , presented by the New York Philharmonic at the Lincoln Center . The show , featuring Neil Patrick Harris in the starring role , ran for four nights and was filmed for later showings in movie theaters , which began June 15 . In May 2011 , Colbert joined Charleston to Bermuda Race yachting race , as the captain of ship " the Spirit of Juno " . He finished second , five miles behind leaders " Tucana " .
After the resignation of South Carolina Senator Jim DeMint to run the Heritage Foundation , Colbert was named a possible candidate for appointment to the seat being vacated by DeMint , which will trigger a special election in 2014 to finish out DeMint 's term . Although Governor Nikki Haley announced promptly that she had no intention to nominate Colbert to the Senate , a poll showed Colbert as a favorite among South Carolina voters .
Colbert guest @-@ hosted Only in Monroe , a public access television show in Monroe , Michigan , for an episode that aired July 1 , 2015 . He interviewed the program 's regular hosts , and also the rapper Eminem ( whom he pretended never to have heard of ) , and put a humorous slant on the local news and community calendar .
On July 17 , 2016 , Colbert hijacked the 2016 Republican National Convention in Cleveland , Ohio while he was dressed as Caesar Flickerman from the The Hunger Games series . After he was taken down from the stage , he commented " Look , I know I am not supposed to be up here but let 's be honest , neither is Donald Trump . " Colbert also dressed as the character on his show before the stunt to announce the candidates who ended their run in the 2016 election .
= = Personal life = =
Although , by his own account , he was not particularly political before joining the cast of The Daily Show , Colbert has described himself as a Democrat according to a 2004 interview . In an interview at the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard Institute of Politics , he stated that he has " no problems with Republicans , just Republican policies . " Colbert is a practicing Roman Catholic and a Sunday school teacher and an ordained minister with the Universal Life Church Monastery .
Colbert lives in Montclair , New Jersey , with his wife , Evelyn McGee @-@ Colbert , who appeared with him in an episode of Strangers with Candy as his mother . She also had an uncredited cameo as a nurse in the series pilot and a credited one ( as his wife , Clair ) in the film . McGee @-@ Colbert actually met Jon Stewart , later a good friend of Colbert , before she met her husband in 1990 . She is the daughter of prominent Charleston civil litigator Joseph McGee , of the firm Buist Moore Smythe McGee . The couple has three children : Madeleine , Peter , and John . Colbert preferred that his children not watch his show The Colbert Report , saying that " kids can 't understand irony or sarcasm , and I don 't want them to perceive me as insincere . " Colbert took the Myers Briggs personality test during a segment of his The Late Show which resulted in him being an INFP .
Colbert 's mother died at the age of 92 on June 12 , 2013 , after a period of ill health .
= = Awards and honors = =
In 2000 , Colbert and the other Daily Show writers were the recipients of three Emmy Awards as writers for The Daily Show and again in 2005 and 2006 . In 2005 he was nominated for a Satellite Award for his performance on The Colbert Report and again in 2006 . He was also nominated for three Emmys for The Colbert Report in 2006 , including Best Performance in a Variety , Musical Program or Special , which he lost to Barry Manilow . Manilow and Colbert would go on to jokingly sign and notarize a revolving biannual custody agreement for the Emmy on The Colbert Report episode aired on October 30 , 2006 . He lost the same category to Tony Bennett in 2007 and Don Rickles in 2008 .
In January 2006 , the American Dialect Society named truthiness , which Colbert coined on the premiere episode of The Colbert Report , as its 2005 Word of the year . Colbert devoted time on five successive episodes to bemoaning the failure of the Associated Press to mention his role in popularizing the word truthiness in its news coverage of the Word of the Year . On December 9 , 2006 , Merriam @-@ Webster also announced that it selected truthiness as its Word of the Year for 2006 . Votes were accepted on their website , and according to poll results , " truthiness " won by a five @-@ to @-@ one margin .
In June 2006 , after speaking at the school 's commencement ceremony , Colbert received an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts degree from Knox College . Time named Stephen Colbert as one of the 100 most influential people in 2006 and 2012 and in May 2006 , New York magazine listed Colbert ( and Jon Stewart ) as one of its top dozen influential persons in media . Colbert was named Person of the Year by the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen , Colorado on March 3 , 2007 and was also given the Speaker of the Year Award by The Cross Examination Debate Association ( CEDA ) on March 24 , 2007 for his " drive to expose the rhetorical shortcomings of contemporary political discourse " .
Colbert was named the 2nd Sexiest TV News Anchor in September 2006 by Maxim Online , next to Mélissa Theuriau of France and was the only man featured on the list . In November 2006 , he was named a " sexy surprise " by People in the Sexiest Man Alive honors and in the December 2006 issue of GQ he was named one of GQ 's " Men of the Year " . In 2012 , he was listed as No. 69 on Maxim Magazine 's Hot 100 , becoming the first man to be included on the list .
Colbert has been nominated for five TCA Awards for The Colbert Report by the Television Critics Association . He has also received two Peabody Awards . In February 2007 , Ben & Jerry 's unveiled a new ice cream flavor in honor of Colbert , named Stephen Colbert 's AmeriCone Dream . Colbert waited until Easter to sample the ice cream because he " gave up sweets for Lent " . Colbert will donate all proceeds to charity through the new Stephen Colbert AmeriCone Dream Fund , which will distribute the money to various causes .
After the Saginaw Spirit defeated the Oshawa Generals in Ontario Junior League Hockey , Oshawa Mayor John Gray declared March 20 , 2007 ( the mayor 's own birthday ) Stephen Colbert Day , honoring a previous bet with Stephen . At the event , Mayor Gray referred to the publicity the bet brought the city , remarking , " This is the way to lose a bet " .
Colbert was honored for the Gutsiest Move on the Spike TV Guys ' Choice Awards on June 13 , 2007 for his performance at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner . In August 2007 , Virgin America named an airplane . " Air Colbert " , in his honor . On October 28 , 2007 , Colbert received the key to the city of Columbia , South Carolina from Mayor Bob Coble .
On December 20 , 2007 , Colbert was named Celebrity of the Year by The Associated Press . On April 2 , 2008 he received a Peabody Award for The Colbert Report , saying in response , " I proudly accept this award and begrudgingly forgive the Peabody Committee for taking three years to recognize greatness " .
In 2008 , Colbert won the Emmy Award for writing again , this time as a writer for The Colbert Report . Colbert delivered the Class Day address to the graduating class of Princeton University on June 2 , 2008 , and accepted the Class of 2008 Understandable Vanity Award , consisting of a sketch of Colbert and a mirror . He also has been announced as the Person of the Year for the 12th annual Webby Awards .
In January 2010 , Colbert received the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album for his album A Colbert Christmas : The Greatest Gift of All ! . He also announced the nominees for Song of the Year while toting a pre @-@ released Apple iPad . Colbert was the 2011 commencement speaker for Northwestern University , and received an honorary degree . In 2013 , Colbert again won the Emmy award for writing for The Colbert Report . In 2014 , Colbert won the 2014 Best Spoken Word Album for his audiobook America Again : Re @-@ becoming The Greatness We Never Weren 't .
In December 2014 , Paste named his Twitter one of the " The 75 Best Twitter Accounts of 2014 " ranking it at # 7 . Colbert received an honorary degree from Wake Forest University as the 2015 commencement speaker .
= = = Species named in honor = = =
At least four species have been given scientific names honoring Colbert . In 2008 a species of trapdoor spider was named Aptostichus stephencolberti after Colbert . The spider was discovered on the California coastline in 2007 . The spider was named for Colbert after he reported on his television series that Jason Bond , a professor of biology at East Carolina University , had named a different species of spider Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi after the Canadian rock star Neil Young , and began to appeal for a species of animal to be named after him . On a later edition of The Colbert Report , Colbert revealed that Bond would name a spider after him , with Colbert claiming , " And all I had to do was shamelessly beg on national television . "
Other species named for Colbert include a species of Venezuelan diving beetle named Agaporomorphus colberti and a Chilean stonefly named Diamphipnoa colberti , both formally described in 2008 . On his 45th birthday , Colbert was sent a framed print of his eponymous beetle by the biologists who named it .
In 2014 , a species of parasitic wasp from Ecuador , Aleiodes colberti , was named after Colbert , along with newly described species named for celebrities Jon Stewart , Jimmy Fallon , Ellen DeGeneres , and Shakira .
= = = COLBERT Treadmill = = =
In 2009 , NASA engineered a new treadmill for the International Space Station . It was brought to the ISS by the Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS @-@ 128 mission in August 2009 . The complex machine is now used eight hours daily by astronauts and cosmonauts aboard the space station in order to maintain their muscle mass and bone density while spending long periods of time in a zero @-@ gravity environment . While engineers at NASA were constructing this treadmill , it was simply called T @-@ 2 for more than two years . However , on April 14 , 2009 , NASA renamed it the " Combined Operational Load @-@ Bearing External Resistance Treadmill " , or COLBERT . NASA named the treadmill after Colbert , who took an interest during the Node 3 naming census for the ISS module , Tranquility .
Colbert urged his followers to post the name " Colbert " , which upon completion of the census received the most entries totaling 230 @,@ 539 , some 40 @,@ 000 votes more than the second @-@ place choice , Serenity . The COLBERT is expected to last the life of the ISS and will have seen about 38 @,@ 000 miles of running when the Space Station is retired in 2020 but was also built with 150 @,@ 000 @-@ mile lifespan if needed till 2028 or longer . Colbert realized he was the recipient of an extremely rare honor when astronaut Suni Williams came on The Colbert Report to announce that NASA had named the treadmill after him . Despite being a backronym , the COLBERT is the only piece of NASA engineered equipment in space that is named after a living human being .
= = Filmography = =
= = Published works = =
Colbert , Dinello , Sedaris . Wigfield : The Can @-@ Do Town That Just May Not ( Hyperion , May 19 , 2004 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 7868 @-@ 8696 @-@ X
America ( The Book ) : A Citizen 's Guide to Democracy Inaction ( Warner Books ; September 2004 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 53268 @-@ 1
I Am America ( And So Can You ! ) ( Grand Central Publishing ; October 9 , 2007 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 58050 @-@ 3
America Again : Re @-@ becoming the Greatness We Never Weren 't ( Grand Central Publishing ; October 2 , 2012 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 58397 @-@ 9
I Am a Pole ( And So Can You ! ) ( Grand Central Publishing ; May 8 , 2012 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 455 @-@ 52342 @-@ 9
= Rudra Mahalaya Temple =
The Rudra Mahalaya Temple is a ruined temple complex at Siddhpur in the Patan district of Gujarat , India . Its construction was started in 943 AD by Mularaja and completed in 1140 AD by Siddharaj Jaisinh , the rulers of the Solanki dynasty . The temple was destroyed by Allauddin Khilji , and later Ahmed Shah I ( 1410 – 44 ) desecrated and substantially demolished this temple , and also converted part of it into the congregational mosque ( Jami Masjid ) of the city . Two torans ( porches ) and four pillars of the former central structure still stand along with western part of the complex used as mosque .
= = History = =
Siddhpur , historically known as Sristhal . Sidhpur , under the rulers of Solanki dynasty , was a prominent town in the 10th century . In the tenth century ( 943 AD ) Mularaja , the founder of the Solanki dynasty of Gujarat , started the erection of the Rudra Mahalay temple . In his youth , Muladev had slain his maternal uncle , usurped his throne , and murdered the whole of his mother 's kindred ; and in old age his crimes hung heavily on his mind . He made pilgrimages and courted the favour of Brahmins from far and near . To a band of them he gave Sristhal , and committing the kingdom to his son Chamundaraja , he retired there to end his days in their company ( 996 AD ) . But the Rudra Mahalay was still incomplete , nor was it finished till 1140 AD .
An inscription and ballad regarding its construction says ,
In Samvat ten ( ? ) hundred , begun by Maharaj Mahadev ,
In Samvat twelve hundred and two , Siddharaj completed the work ;
In Samvat twelve hundred two , Magh month , Krishna paksh ,
On Monday the fourteenth , in the Nakshatra Shravan and Varyan Yoga ,
Siddharaj , in the Rudra Mala , Shivashankar established .
It was during the 12th century , in 1140 AD , that Siddharaj Jaisinh ( 1094 – 1144 ) consecrated the temple complex and it became the principal temple complex of Siddhpur .
According to another legend , two Parmars from Malwa , named Govinddas and Madhavdas , took up their haunt among the rush grass that covered the neighbourhood of the Rudra Mahalaya , and lived by plunder . There they found the foundations of a temple and Shiva linga , and said that in the night they had seen heavenly beings . This was told to Siddharaj and led to the erection or completion of the temple .
In Mirat @-@ i @-@ Ahmadi , Ali Muhammad Khan writes , " The king on signifying his intention of building the temple , requested the astrologers , it is said , to appoint a fortunate hour ; and they at this time predicted the destruction of the building . " Then Siddha Raja caused images of " horse lords " and other great kings to be placed in the temple , and " near them a representation of himself in the attitude of supplication , with an inscription praying that , even if the land was laid waste , this temple might not be destroyed . "
Alauddin Khilji sent an army under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan Jalesri who dismantled the temple complex in 1296 AD ( Samvat 1353 ) . The temple was further destroyed and the western part of it was converted into congregational mosque ( Jami Mosque ) by Ahmed Shah I ( 1410 – 44 ) of Muzaffarid dynasty in 1414 or 1415 .
= = Architecture = =
The original temple , completed in 1140 to lavish proportions with extensive ornamentation , consisted of a roof measuring 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) , much larger than the Abu temple . Its overall dimensions were 300 by 230 feet ( 91 m × 70 m ) with the central building 150 feet ( 46 m ) in length . It was a triple storied temple with 1 @,@ 600 pillars , 12 entrance doors , and 11 shrines of Rudra positioned around it . The sanctum was located on the west and there was also a ' mandapa ' or hall which had porches on the eastern , northern , and southern wings . Today only a few remnants of this complex are seen , such as two " torans " ( porches ) and four pillars . One " toran " is elaborately ornamented ; the eastern gate which leads to the Saraswati river still stands ; the remaining pillars have highly ornamented carvings . Kirti Stambh of North has survived . The western part of complex converted into the congregation mosque is also there .
= Tropical Storm Kammuri ( 2002 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Kammuri , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Lagalag , killed hundreds of people in the wake of a deadly flood season in China . The system developed from a large monsoonal system that persisted toward the end of July 2002 near the Philippines . On August 2 , a tropical depression formed off the northwest coast of Luzon and moved west @-@ northwestward . Late on August 3 , it intensified into Tropical Storm Kammuri off the coast of Hong Kong . A weakening ridge turned the storm northward toward the coast of China . The storm made landfall with late on August 4 , after reaching peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The system dissipated over the mountainous coastline of eastern China and merged with a cold front on August 7 .
High rainfall from Kammuri affected large portions of China , particularly in Guangdong Province where it moved ashore . In that province , over 100 @,@ 000 people had to evacuate due to flooding and after 6 @,@ 810 houses were destroyed . The floods damaged roads , railroads , and tunnels , and left power and water outages across the region . Rainfall was beneficial in alleviating drought conditions in Guangdong , although further inland the rains occurred after months of deadly flooding . In Hunan Province , the storm 's remnants merged with a cold front , destroying 12 @,@ 400 houses . Across its path , the floods damaged or destroyed 245 @,@ 000 houses and destroyed 60 ha ( 150 acres ) of crop fields . Kammuri caused 153 deaths , most of which were related to the remnants , and damage was estimated at $ 509 million ( ¥ 4 @.@ 219 billion yuan ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Kammuri are uncertain ; they were possibly related to the monsoon trough that moved across the Philippines toward Guam . In late July , a large area of convection persisted in the Philippine Sea , organizing enough for the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression Lagalag on August 1 . Around that time , the system had several weak circulations , one of which persisted in the South China Sea ; this center was located east of an area of thunderstorms due to moderate wind shear . Early on August 2 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression to the north of Luzon . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) followed suit by initiating advisories on Tropical Depression 17W , and the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) followed suit early on August 3 . Initially , it moved generally to the west @-@ northwest , owing to a mid @-@ level ridge over eastern China . The convection became more concentrated , and the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Kammuri late on August 3 , to the south of Hong Kong .
An upper @-@ level low connected to a trough weakened the ridge over China , allowing Kammuri to move slowly northward . Continued wind shear initially prevented the thunderstorms from being located over the center , although the shear gradually decreased , allowing the convection to organize . Kammuri quickly intensified into a severe tropical storm ; the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) at 1800 UTC on August 4 . The JTWC estimated the storm was weaker , with 1 @-@ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . At around 2300 UTC on August 4 , Kammuri made landfall east of Hong Kong in Guangdong Province , just east of Shanwei . An approaching mid @-@ latitude storm caused it to accelerate over land . Kammuri quickly weakened to a tropical depression , and the JTWC discontinued advisories at 1200 UTC on August 5 . The JMA continued tracking the system until Kammuri dissipated on August 7 over central China . The remnants were absorbed by a cold front .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
On August 3 , when Kammuri was located about 390 kilometres ( 240 mi ) southeast of Hong Kong , the HKO issued Standby Signal No. 1 , the first such signal for a storm that season . By that time , the outer rainbands had begun affecting the region . Kammuri dropped heavy rainfall in Hong Kong that reached 280 mm ( 11 in ) in the town of Kwai Chung , most of which fell after the storm passed the region . The rains caused one landslide and damaged one road . Wind gusts in the city reached 99 km / h ( 62 mph ) , and sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) were reported on Waglan Island . There , a storm surge of 0 @.@ 49 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) was also reported . In nearby Macau , outer rainbands delayed airplane flights , and there was some flooding .
In Guangdong Province where Kammuri made landfall , rainfall peaked at 275 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) in Jieyang , and several other stations reported totals of over 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The rains caused flash flooding in the province , which destroyed 6 @,@ 810 houses , leaving thousands homeless . At Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport , officials delayed or canceled 56 flights because of the storm . Similarly , Shantou Waisha Airport was closed for four hours , which delayed or canceled 10 flights . Heavy damage was reported in three coastal cities . Two small electrical dams were destroyed by the storm , causing additional flooding . Widespread areas lost power or water , and floods damaged or destroyed roads , tunnels , and large areas of crop lands . The storm killed two people by electrocution in Shantou , and a landslide killed 10 people in Wuhua County . Another landslide disrupted rail traffic between the region and Beijing . About 100 @,@ 000 people had to evacuate their houses in two cities . There were 27 deaths in the province , and damage was estimated at $ 109 million ( ¥ 904 million yuan ) . After the storm , provincial officials coordinated the rescue effort for missing people . Despite the destruction , the rainfall from Kammuri helped alleviate drought conditions in the province . However , elsewhere in China , the rainfall occurred after months of heavy rainfall had killed 800 people .
Neighboring Fujian Province to Guangdong experienced heavier rainfall , peaking at 315 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 in ) in Quanzhou . Two stations in the city reported the highest daily total on record . In a six @-@ hour period , a total of 104 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) was recorded in Pingtan County . Wind gusts reached 79 km / h ( 49 mph ) in Putian , Fujian . The province experienced river flooding due to the heavy rains ; the Dazhang Stream crested at 34 @.@ 62 m ( 113 @.@ 6 ft ) in Yongtai County , which was above " danger " flood levels . Damage in the province totaled $ 131 million ( ¥ 1 @.@ 085 billion yuan ) . There were 19 deaths in Fujian . Significant flooding from Kammuri occurred inland , related to the storm 's remnants ' merging with a cold front . Rainfall reached 147 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 8 in ) at a station in Jiangxi Province . In Hunan Province , the storms destroyed 12 @,@ 400 houses , leaving over 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . Also in the province , 14 reservoirs surpassed their capacity . A total of 107 people were killed in Hunan , and damage totaled $ 322 million ( ¥ 2 @.@ 665 billion yuan ) .
Across Guangdong , Fujian , and Hunan provinces , floods forced 394 @,@ 000 people to evacuate , and there were 153 deaths . Overall , 72 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed and 173 @,@ 000 sustained damage . In the three provinces , the floods destroyed 60 ha ( 150 acres ) and damaged 292 @,@ 000 ha ( 720 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields . After the storm , thousands of soldiers in the People 's Liberation Army placed sandbags and maintained dykes along Dongting Lake , and , by the end of August , most floods had receded nationwide .
While Kammuri was moving ashore , several ships offshore reported winds of over 74 km / h ( 40 mph ) . High rainfall totals spread as far east as Taiwan , where 591 mm ( 23 @.@ 3 in ) was reported in Taitung County ; this was the station 's highest daily total . Stations in Okinawa reported rainfall totals as high as 178 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) . The remnants of Kammuri spread across South Korea with rainfall .
= St John 's , Ashfield =
St John the Baptist Anglican Church is an active Anglican church located between Alt and Bland Streets , Ashfield , a suburb of Sydney , Australia . Founded in 1840 , on land donated by Elizabeth Underwood , the church building is the oldest authenticated surviving building in Ashfield , having been built at the time when subdivision increased the population density sufficiently to turn Ashfield into a town . It was also the first church built along the Parramatta Road which linked the early colonial towns of Sydney and Parramatta . The earliest remaining parts of the building are one of the first Sydney designs by the colonial architect Edmund Blacket , who later became renowned for his ecclesiastical architecture .
The expansive church grounds contain a cemetery dating back to 1845 that contains the remains of many notable Ashfield residents . Australia 's only memorial to Australian Air Force Cadets occupies a prominent position near the entrance to the church . The St John 's site has been listed on the Local Environment Plan Heritage Schedule , and the Register of the National Trust of Australia .
St John 's is one of three churches , along with St Albans , Five Dock , and St Oswald 's , Haberfield , which make up Christ Church Inner West , operating within the parish of Ashfield , Five Dock , and Haberfield , as part of the South Sydney Region of the Anglican Diocese of Sydney . The church has had 18 rectors , including William George Hilliard who later became the Bishop of Nelson . Andrew Katay has been rector since early 2005 .
= = History = =
St John 's was the first church to be established along Parramatta Road between the colonial towns of Sydney and Parramatta ( then known as Rose Hill ) , during a time of rapid church building when many of the oldest churches in Sydney were erected . Since 1810 the Parish of Ashfield had extended from Balmain to Strathfield , and from Enfield to the Parramatta River , and in 1840 this was formalized into an ecclesiastical district .
= = = Early contributors = = =
The first portion of grounds , an area of 1 acre , 2 roods , and 36 perches ( a total of 0 @.@ 698 ha ) , was provided as a gift by the local landowner Elizabeth Underwood who was subdividing " Ashfield Park " . The Bishop of Australia , William Grant Broughton added urgency by expressing his " intention of having a Place of Worship erected immediately , on the allotment of land appropriated for that purpose " . Another benefactor was William Bland , a doctor and politician who had been sent to the colony having been convicted of manslaughter after pistol duel which left his opponent mortally wounded , and after whom Bland street is named . He gave a donation of £ 200 and land . Fellow local medical practitioner , James Bowman , contributed a " similarly munificent donation " . By mid @-@ 1839 the funds received were thought to be sufficient to commence building . The exact location was determined in February 1840 , and appeals continued to fund a building of sufficient size for the surrounding population .
= = = Church building = = =
The church was founded on 9 September 1840 . The service on that day was read by the first rector , Joseph Kidd Walpole , who had come to the district from Christ Church , Kelso , and had begun to plan the church building . W. G. Broughton made an address at the ceremony . The anniversary sermon was preached by Robert Allwood .
This Foundation Stone of a church dedicated to the honor and worship of Almighty God ! and to be denominated ' The Church of St. John the Baptist ' was laid the 9th day of September , 1840 . By the Right Reverend Father in God William Lord Bishop of Australia In the Fourth Year of the reign of Queen Victoria . Sir George Gipps , Knight . Governor . Rev. Joseph Kidd Walpole , Minister . Among those that are born of women there is not a greater Prophet than John the Baptist ; but he that is last in the Kingdom of God is greater than he . Luke vii , 28 .
Building work on the church began in 1841 , but construction came to a standstill due to construction problems and insufficient subscriptions . The following year the colonial architect Edmund Blacket , as one of his first assignments after arriving in Sydney , was requested to inspect the church 's walls , then still under construction . As a result of his report , the walls were demolished and re @-@ erected , although continued funding problems , and the transfer of J. K. Walpole to Windsor caused further delays . The church was licensed for operation on 1 October 1843 . Much of the interior woodwork was carved by the third rector , Frederick Wilkinson . The roof was strengthened in around 1845 by the installation of timber support columns . On 16 August 1845 , at a cost of £ 100 the church purchased an additional 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) of land from Elizabeth Underwood ( who remained a parishioner until her death , and is buried in a prominent grave within the church cemetery ) . The church was eventually consecrated on 19 August 1845 .
After 29 years , as the Bishop of Sydney Frederic Barker put it " the population of Sydney had invaded these sylvan shades " , so an expansion was required . Blacket designed the current stone transept and chancel , to transform the church into a cruciform plan . These were built during the period 1874 – 1875 at a cost of around £ 150 – raised without the help of grants from the government or the English societies . The foundation stone of the addition was laid by Barker on 24 October 1874 , and included a copy of Australian Churchman and the Sydney Morning Herald . At the time this addition accommodated an extra 250 seats , bringing the total capacity to 446 .
Construction of the choir vestry and a wooden porch outside the western door were completed in 1885 , and dedicated by Bishop Alfred Barry . This work was overseen by the Blacket brothers , who had followed the trade of their late father .
Arthur Blacket then designed the west tower . The eight @-@ bell peal was ordered from England after a generous bequest by one of the " Melanesian boys " , David Marguay , and subsequent fundraising . The tower was then quickly constructed at a cost of around £ 250 in memory of the recently deceased rector James Christian Corlette , and dedicated as The Corlette Memorial Tower on 1 November 1901 . The memorial bells proved depressing amongst the local populace , and were rearranged in 1904 , with louvres added to the previously open arches . This was apparently ineffective , as the bells were removed within a few years .
= = = Music = = =
Prior to the installation of a pipe organ , a seraphine and then an harmonium were used for musical accompaniment . The first organ was installed above the gallery at the western end of the church by William Davidson at the request of the rector J. C. Corlette , and was transferred to the south transept in about 1879 , where it remained until 1882 when it was sold to St Bartholomew 's , Pyrmont , and later St Luke 's , Northmead .
The 1883 Hill and Son organ , including 844 pipes , costing a total of £ 550 , was installed in 1884 , and located in the north @-@ east corner of the transept . It is still in use , with original pipework , making it faithful to the original tones . The organ was refurbished and rebuilt in 1950 , 1975 , and 2008 .
The 1950 change from mechanical to electrical action was motivated by removing the increasingly noisy pedals and trackers . This refurbishment also included detachment of the console ( to the other side of the transept ) , and replacement of the bellows with a " pressure equaliser " . The façade pipes were sprayed to a dull gold colour , covering over the original diapering , described disparagingly at the time as " all over the pipes without much rhyme or reason ; fleurs @-@ de @-@ lys in profusion , dots , bands , triangles in all the colours of the rainbow rioted in confusion " . This work was carried out by R. A. and D. A. Wiltshire .
By 1975 the organ had become unplayable , and a reconversion to mechanical action was undertaken . The console was moved back to the organ side of the transept , with the action going backward under the floor into the organ . This necessitated removal of floor joists and foundation piers , but the unsupported floor caused further problems long term , and during the 2008 rebuild it was re @-@ electrified .
Between 2006 – 2008 Sydney firm " John W Parker – Pipe Organ Builders " refurbished the organ , returning the soundboard action to electric , providing a new roll @-@ top ' detached ' console , and an entirely new wind supply and bellows . The swell box which had been discarded in the 1975 rebuild was reinstated , and the pedal Bourdon 16 ' stop was extended to 8 ' pitch . Octave couplers were provided in Sub and Octave pitches on the Swell also . All manual pipework was washed , cleaned and regulated to original Hill standards and tonality .
The church had a significant choral history , with significant events often celebrated with a full choir , sometimes accompanied by an orchestra . In the late 19th century the St John 's choir participated in regional choir festivals .
= = = Site development = = =
A small hall for Sunday school was erected in 1865 by the generosity of L. H. Smythe . By 1895 the hall had fallen into disrepair , and the needs of the children had outgrown it . The current Parish Hall was planned to replace it . The memorial stone for the replacement building was laid by the Primate of Australia , William Saumarez Smith in inclement weather on 2 February 1895 . The architect was E. A. Scott , and his building design was of a " domestic style ... with a highly decorated front " . It cost £ 625 10s , was complete within three months , and seated up to 400 . However , by 1903 , the Sunday school had once again outgrown the space available , and an additional infants classroom was built nearby . This is now called the Small Hall , and is used as a classroom for the St John 's Preschool .
A rectory was first provided for the rector J. C. Corlette and his large family in 1879 . A block of land , located on what is now the corner of Rectory Avenue and Alt Street , was purchased for £ 444 , and the foundation stone was laid by Bishop Barker in 1880 . This original rectory was sold in 1922 for £ 1800 . The current rectory , on the main grounds of the church , was founded by Archbishop John Charles Wright in the same year , during the rectorship of William George Hilliard , and built at a cost of £ 2500 .
Gravel pathways lined with Phoenix canariensis palms , the lawn in front of the church , and the stone churchyard fence were also constructed in the 1920s . The Alt Street wall was erected in 1922 , and dedicated to the previous rector Alfred Yarnold . The Bland Street wall was dedicated in 1927 by Archdeacon Davies , and commemorates one of the key contributors , R. A. Forsaith .
The cemetery , which had been in existence since soon after the foundation of the church ( the first interment was Frederick Underwood , Elizabeth 's 11 @-@ month @-@ old grandson , on 1 May 1845 ) , was consecrated by the Archbishop of Sydney , Howard West Kilvinton Mowll , on 8 September 1934 . By this stage it reportedly already contained the remains of 1 @,@ 396 people . He was asked by the rector of the time to " set apart the area , containing 4 acres and 4 perches ( 1 @.@ 63 ha ) , as a burial @-@ place for the bodies of Christian people living in and about Ashfield " .
Australia 's only memorial to Australian Air Force Cadets occupies a prominent position on the grounds , and a memorial service attended by the Cadets has been held annually since it was opened by the State Governor Lieutenant General John Northcott in 1946 . It was built by Squadron Leader Arthur Whitehurst who had commanded a squadron at Ashfield during the period 1941 – 1946 , and whose son Douglas Arthur Whitehurst had died in action in World War II .
A children 's playground was installed near the Alt St boundary in 2011 , and opened by Ashfield Municipal Council Mayor Ted Cassidy and Strathfield MP Charles Casuscelli .
= = = Regional influence = = =
A number of local street names were derived from the presence of St John 's . Church Street , which ends directly opposite the church entrance , was originally the track used by Burwood residents to reach the church , using a conveniently located fallen tree across Iron Cove Creek .
As the population of Sydney 's Inner West grew , many of the Anglican churches in the area were established by the congregation of St John 's ( including four during the final thirty years of the nineteenth century ) . These include Balmain , Burwood , Five Dock , St Thomas ' Enfield ( declared a separate parish in 1868 ) , and St Oswald 's Haberfield ( 1908 ) . Because of this involvement , St John 's was later referred to as the " Mother Church of Western Suburbs " .
= = = Rectors = = =
St. John 's has had eighteen rectors to date .
Joseph Kidd Walpole was the first rector , during the period 1840 – 1842 . He was originally from England , and went on mission to Madras in 1836 , but his health gave way , and he was transferred to New South Wales . He was ordained as a Deacon in 1936 , and as a Priest in 1937 . After disappointing progress on the building , he was transferred to Richmond after two years .
William Stone , B.A. was the rector during the period 1842 – 1843 . He grew up in a clerical family in Ireland , married his first cousin , and had nine children , seven of whom joined their parents on the journey to Australia in 1841 . When appointed at St John 's , he set aside a room in their family home , deemed by the Bishop as temporarily licensed as a place of worship since the church was not yet complete . At the time he was also the minister of the Parish of Concord , and earned a government stipend of £ 150 . He was transferred to Sutton Forest in 1843 .
Frederick Wilkinson , M.A. , was the rector during the period 1843 – 1854 . He personally carved much of the woodwork in St Johns . During his rectorship , he also organized for St Mary 's church to be built in Balmain , and then St Thomas ' Enfield . Once St Mary 's was built , he presided alternately in Ashfield and Balmain . During his time at Ashfield , the Wilkinsons lived in a " picturesque , many @-@ gabled wooden house called The Meads in Enfield " ( near Burwood road ) , where he had a large workshop for his wood @-@ carving . He also established a private school at The Meads , which enjoyed a " high reputation as the best collegiate school in the colony " . Apart from a return trip to England ( serving as the ship 's chaplain during the journeys ) , he continued his leadership of St John 's until June 1854 when he accepted ' a special commission for the cure ' at Holy Trinity at Millers Point .
Thomas Hatham / Hattam Wilkinson was the rector during the period 1854 – 1860 . He had originally come to the colonies in the company of his father 's brother , Frederick . Since then he had been curate @-@ in @-@ charge at Balmain under his uncle , got married to Julia Sarah Underwood ( Elizabeth 's daughter ) at St John 's , served a short period as chaplain to Darlinghurst Gaol and three years as the assistant minister of St John the Baptist , Canberra . After his uncle left St John 's , he became the rector . After leaving St John 's , he moved to Enfield , and later Appin , finally returning for burial in the St John 's cemetery after his death in 1876 .
William Lumsdaine was the newly ordained rector during the period 1860 – 1865 . He had come to Australia with his two brothers and a sister in 1836 in the charge of Bishop Broughton . When he became rector , he rented Ashfield Park House , Elizabeth Underwood 's original house as his family residence . Along with Ashfield , he simultaneously held the incumbency for the parishes of Burwood , Enfield , and Five Dock . During his time at St John 's , two of his children died of diphtheria on the same day . After finishing at St John 's , he continued to serve at Five Dock and Burwood . He died in 1902 aged 78 and is buried in the St John 's cemetery .
William Cecil Cave @-@ Browne @-@ Cave was the rector during the period 1865 – 1867 . He was a grandson of the ninth Cave @-@ Browne @-@ Cave Baronet . He was recently married when he arrived at St John 's . Later in his career he held the rectorship at St Thomas ' North Sydney .
Canon James Christian Corlette , D.D. , was the rector during the period 1867 – 1900 . His previous appointment had been in Jamberoo . He was married to Frances Edith Manning , a daughter of the politician Sir William Montagu Manning . In 1877 she was elected to the committee of the newly formed Infant 's Home , as an indication of Anglican support . The home cared for abandoned babies , and was the subject of a storm of protest , with the Roman Catholic Cardinal Patrick Francis Moran accusing it of a " vindication of promiscuous practices " . The Corlettes ' eight children were all born during his time at St John 's . Perhaps not surprisingly , during this period St John 's first began to provide a residence for the rector . Corlette encouraged Ashfield 's Melanesian population to worship at St John 's , and many later returned to the islands as missionaries . He provided more frequent and regular services than his predecessor , and emphasized Saint 's Days , Communion and music . During the period 1868 – 1884 he concurrently held the precentorship at St Andrew 's Cathedral , and in 1897 again served there as canon . In 1893 he was chaplain to the Bishop of Sydney , and became rural dean of Petersham in 1895 . Along with many of his family , he is buried in the St John 's cemetery .
Alfred Yarnold was the rector during the period 1901 – 1916 , which were the final fifteen years of his career . Immediately previously he had spent nineteen years as the rector of Christ Church , Lavender Bay . Overlapping with his time at St John 's , he was also the chaplain to the Archbishop of Sydney , and the rural dean of Petersham . One of Yarnold 's curates was the Rev. Charles Clark , who would later father the Australian historian Manning Clark . Clark 's mother was a teacher in the St John 's Sunday School
William George Hilliard , M.A. , was the rector during the period 1916 – 1926 . He was recently ordained when he joined St John 's , having completed only a four @-@ year curacy at Dulwich Hill . His first wife died during his time at St John 's . When he completed his time at St John 's , he became the Headmaster of a local private school , Trinity Grammar School . In 1934 he became the Bishop of Nelson . He was described as " one of the most popular evangelicals in the Church life of Australia , and a forceful preacher " .
Ainslie Arthur Yeates , M.A. , was the rector during the period 1927 – 1928 . He came to Ashfield from St John 's Woolwich . Soon after he arrived he suffered a breakdown in his health , was very sick throughout his time at Ashfield , and died after a four @-@ year incumbency .
Herbert Stanley Cocks , B.A. Th.L. , was the rector during the period 1931 – 1939 . He brought with him a wide experience of church work . Having been ordained just before World War I he had been a chaplain for the A.I.F. , and after demobilization a missionary , school principal , and chaplain in India . Most recently he had been rector of Holy Trinity , Erskineville .
Leonard Neville Sutton , M.A. , was the rector during the period 1939 – 1949 . He was a keen teacher , having previously been principal at St Andrew 's Cathedral School , chaplain at The King 's School , and vice @-@ principal at Brighton Grammar School . He was very interested in the welfare of young people . This enthusiasm led him to start the St John 's Preschool . The Sunday School also had 350 pupils at the time .
Frederick Allen Seymour Shaw , B.A. Th.L. , was the rector during the period 1949 – 1966 . He had already served as an assistant clergyman at St John 's during 1930 – 1931 . During that time , he was ordained . Eighteen years later he returned to St John 's as the rector .
John R. Seddon , Th.L. Dip.R.E. , was the rector from 1966 until he transferred to St Luke 's Mosman in 1973 .
Percy William " Bill " George Twine , Th.L. L.T.C.L. , was the rector during the period 1973 – 1980 . He had long been an organ player , and inclined toward high church style . He died suddenly whilst still the rector .
Stanford Ronald Colefax , R.F.D. Dip.Th. , was the rector during the period 1980 – 1990 .
Dennis P. Robinson , Th.L. was the rector during the period 1990 – 2003 .
Andrew Katay , B.D. M.Th. , became the rector in early 2005 . He was previously a Senior Associate Minister at St. Barnabas , Broadway , and Anglican chaplain at The University of Sydney , while leading the staff team of the Sydney University Evangelical Union . His arrival at the church marked a change from two traditional communion services to congregations with a variety of styles .
= = = Acting rectors = = =
From time to time , an acting rector or locum tenens has taken on temporary leadership , or filled a gap between rectors .
Septimus Hungerford was acting rector in 1879 . He had previously been the rector of St Peter 's Cathedral , Armidale . Later he became the incumbent at St Thomas ' Enfield .
William Hough took temporary leadership in 1889 whilst J. C. Corlette undertook the precentorship of Goulburn Cathedral .
Arthur Christian Corlette stood in temporarily for his older brother J. C. Corlette in 1898 .
Robert William Phayre Montgomery filled in at St John 's after the death of J. C. Corlette , during the period 1900 – 1901 . He was an Irishman who came to Australia as a missionary chaplain in 1891 . After leaving St John 's he took up a position as vicar of Cressy
Arthur Killworth M.A. LL.B. , acted as rector during the period 1928 – 1931 .
Archdeacon William Apedaile Charlton led St John 's for four months in 1939 after the departure of H. S. Cocks . He had already served in Sydney churches for 55 years .
James R. Le Huray , Th.L. was the acting rector during the period 2004 – 2005 .
= = = Education = = =
In the mid @-@ 1850s St John 's established a Church of England Denominational Day School in a small , plain white stone building near the corner of Charlotte and Bland St , which was reported as being in good repair with 28 pupils in 1867 . However , when the Ashfield public school expanded in 1875 , the church school proved unable to compete , and by 1880 it was closed . The building was sold to the newly begun Ashfield Boy 's College in 1882 , but was demolished in 1885 .
Catholic education in the area flourished , and seeing this , J. C. Corlette wrote to England to Miss Ellen Clarke , suggesting that she start a school for young ladies in Ashfield . This went ahead , the school known as Normanhurst School began in a cottage in Bland Street . Although it was officially non @-@ denominational , Normanhurst maintained strong links with St John 's . The school grew , and moved premises to Orpington Street , but eventually closed down in 1941 .
= = Land and buildings = =
= = = Church = = =
Having evolved over a long period , the church building displays elements of a range of styles including Colonial Gothick Picturesque , Victorian and Federation Free Gothic . The transepts and chancel are constructed from Sydney sandstone , whereas the nave and tower are rendered brick . The roofs are all slate .
The interior has been described as " architecturally much more satisfying than its exterior " . It has a hammerbeam ceiling with a curved rafter roof with colonettes , plaster walls , and stained glass in every window from a range of periods . The reredos and pulpit are distinctive cedar carvings by the early rector F. Wilkinson .
= = = Cemetery = = =
The cemetery is geographically aligned with the church , and takes up a large portion of the land area . The oldest graves are on the eastern side of the path , and typically face west . Newer graves on the western side of the path generally face east .
A number of notable former Ashfield residents are buried at St John 's . First Fleet convict , John Limeburner / Linburner , had been transported for stealing clothing to the value of about one pound , eventually died in 1847 aged 104 . His headstone was defaced by vandals in 1965 . Several members of the Wilkinson and Underwood families were significant in the early European settlement of the Ashfield district . Louise Taplin ( 1855 – 1901 ) was matron of The Infants Home in Ashfield for 15 years until her death , and led the home through the 1890s depression , despite a shortage of salaried staff . Henry Halloran ( 1811 – 1893 ) was a poet and resident of Ashfield , and was married to Elizabeth Underwood 's daughter Elizabeth . Thomas Walker , a banker and philanthropist who owned and developed Yaralla Estate , is in a family grave with his wife Jane , and daughter Eadith 's ashes . Samuel Henry Terry , a wealthy landowner and politician is also buried at St Johns , having spent the last part of his life in an Ashfield residence named The Lilacs . Randolph John Want was a solicitor and member of the New South Wales Legislative Council . Edward Thomas Jones Wrench was one of the founding partners of real estate agents Richardson and Wrench . Amy Schauer was a cookery instructor and author . The graveyard also contains members of the Taverner , Uhr and Rodd families , after whom the localities Taverner 's Hill , Uhr 's Point , and Rodd Point are named . There are also graves of three former rectors : T. H. Wilkinson , W. Lumsdaine , and J. C. Corlette , and members of their families , together with a pioneer clergyman , E. Rogers .
Beside these prominent figures , many of the St John 's graves contain children . Typhoid and whooping cough epidemics took heavy tolls in the Victorian period . Although Ashfield was known as a healthy area , many families lost two or even three children .
Burial rates at St John 's declined rapidly around the turn of the 20th century . The rector 's notes from the time indicate that many funeral services conducted at the church now preceded burial at Rookwood Cemetery . Although the cemetery has never officially been closed , no burial plots have been sold for some years . A memorial garden for the interment of ashes was opened in the time of J. R. Seddon , providing a popular resting place for the Ashfield community .
Since the late 1970s day @-@ release prisoners have assisted with maintenance of the cemetery grounds . In Australia 's bicentennial year , 1988 , a $ 16 @,@ 000 grant was awarded for restoration work in the cemetery , at which time some broken gravestones were cemented together , and some illegible ones were ' cut back ' and the letters repainted .
= = Ministry = =
Andrew Katay became the 18th rector in early 2005 . In 2008 the church was part of an amalgamation with the parish of Five Dock and Haberfield , forming Christ Church Inner West Anglican Community ( CCIW ) with Andrew Katay continuing as the rector of the new parish . There are currently three Sunday services at Ashfield , and two at Five Dock .
Since July 2006 it has run a mothers and children group , which discusses Christian parenting issues , and teaches English to those for whom it is not their native language .
In 2010 the church began an outdoor film festival showing ghost and horror movies in the historic cemetery .
= Colorado recall election , 2013 =
The Colorado recall election of 2013 was a successful effort to recall two Democratic members of the Colorado Senate following their support of new gun control legislation . Initially four politicians were targeted , but sufficient signatures could only be obtained for State Senate President John Morse and State Senator Angela Giron .
During the petition drive , national organizations on both the gun rights and gun control sides became involved by providing mailings and donations . Once the petitions were submitted , Morse and Giron challenged the effort in court , but were denied the injunction that they had requested from the court . A further court hearing resulted in the election being conducted in @-@ person rather than by mail , which also led to Giron complaining of voter suppression .
In the election , held on September 10 , 2013 , both Morse and Giron were recalled by the voters of their districts and replaced with Republicans George Rivera and Bernie Herpin , respectively . It was the first time a state legislator in Colorado had been recalled . In the 2014 Senate elections 13 months later , both Rivera and Herpin were defeated by their Democratic opponents .
= = Background = =
In early 2013 , the Colorado legislature passed a series of gun control bills following the theater shooting in Aurora , Colorado and the Sandy Hook school shooting in Newtown , Connecticut . The new laws provided for a ban on magazines holding more than fifteen rounds of ammunition , a universal background check , and a requirement that buyers pay a fee for the background check .
The initial recall petitions targeted Senate President John Morse and State Representative Mike McLachlan . Two additional petitions were also filed against Senators Evie Hudak and Angela Giron . All four are members of the Colorado Democratic Party .
The recall drive against Morse was spearheaded by the Basic Freedom Defense Fund ( BFDF ) and the El Paso County Freedom Defense Committee . The recall drive against Giron was led by Pueblo Freedom and Rights .
During the petition drive , groups supporting Morse accused the firm collecting the signatures of hiring convicted felons and gathering personal information . Recall backers said that Morse 's group was misleading the public . In addition , the recall drives brought in support from national groups on both sides of the issue . The National Rifle Association ( NRA ) supported the recall effort with mailers and donations . National groups opposing the recall included America Votes , believed to be financially supported by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , as well as California billionaire Eli Broad .
= = Submission and certification of petitions = =
On June 3 , 2013 , BFDF turned in over 16 @,@ 000 signatures petitioning to recall Morse to the Colorado Secretary of State , Republican Scott Gessler , of which only 7 @,@ 178 needed to be certified in order to force a recall election . In addition , over 13 @,@ 000 signatures were turned in to recall Giron , of which 11 @,@ 285 needed to be certified . Efforts to recall McLachlan failed , collecting only about 8 @,@ 500 signatures of the 10 @,@ 587 needed . Likewise , the efforts to recall Hudak also failed , falling short of the 18 @,@ 962 signatures needed .
A group backing Morse alleged that fifty of the signatures on the petitions were forged , including one individual who had been dead for two years . A spokesman for BFDF immediately issued a statement calling for an investigation and stating that if anyone committed fraud the guilty party should be prosecuted " to the fullest extent of the law . " The group calling for the recall also alleged that Morse 's volunteers were harassing those that signed the petition , requesting that they remove their name from the petition .
= = = Challenges = = =
Immediately after the signatures for recalling Morse were certified , he filed a challenge to the petitions . Mark Grueskin , Morse 's attorney , said : " The petitions circulated are as valid as the back of a matchbook . All of the signatures are invalid . " The recall petition was also certified for the effort against Giron . Both Senators claimed the petitions were invalid because they did not use the explicit language that Morse and Giron claim was required under the state constitution . The initial hearings were before the Secretary of State 's Office , which denied the challenges .
On July 9 , 2013 , Morse filed suit in the Denver District Court seeking an injunction to block the recall election . At the same time Secretary of State Gessler filed suit to force Democratic Governor John Hickenlooper to set a date for the recall election . On July 18 , 2013 , Denver District Court Judge Robert Hyatt issued a preliminary ruling that the recall process must proceed even while Morse and Giron challenged the process in court . Hickenlooper then set the recall election for September 10 .
= = Election = =
= = = Campaign = = =
Once the election date was set as September 10 , national organizations on both sides of the gun @-@ control debate started to weigh in . On the recall , pro @-@ gun rights side was the National Rifle Association and Americans for Prosperity , while on the gun control side was the Mayors Against Illegal Guns and Mayor Bloomberg . Morse went door @-@ to @-@ door in an effort to gain voter support and both sides of the campaigns accused the other side of mud @-@ slinging . Morse supporters were upset about an ad alleging ethical misconduct by Morse , noting that he had been cleared of those allegations . Giron supporters were accused of misrepresenting the issue as a choice on women 's rights and abortion .
Financial donations were also an issue . Bloomberg and Broad donated $ 350 @,@ 000 and $ 250 @,@ 000 , respectively , to support the Senators . The Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee also spent $ 250 @,@ 000 to oppose recall . The NRA spent over $ 108 @,@ 000 to support the recall efforts . In total , the Morse and Giron side spent approximately $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 opposing the recall , while the recall supporters spent about $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = Replacement candidates = = =
Early in the recall process , Republican George Rivera announced his candidacy for Giron 's senate seat . Rivera was planning to run against Giron in the 2014 elections but stated he would put his name on the ballot during the recall process . Rivera had to turn in a petition with 1 @,@ 000 signatures in order to qualify to be on the ballot and turned in 1 @,@ 500 signatures on July 26 . Sonia Negrete Winn , a Democrat , also sought to be on the ballot to replace Giron , but failed to obtain the required signatures to be a candidate . In Morse 's district , Republican Bernie Herpin announced his interest in replacing Morse and submitted sufficient signatures to qualify for the ballot .
= = = Ballot challenge = = =
On August 7 , 2013 , the Libertarian Party filed a lawsuit stating that they were denied access to have their candidate on the ballot due to a conflict between state law and the state constitution . State law provided for ten days to obtain ballot petition signatures , while the state constitution provided for fifteen days . On August 12 , Colorado District Court Judge Robert McGahey ruled that the state constitution 's provisions had to be followed , and that prospective candidates had until August 26 to turn in their petitions . The Colorado Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal . The ruling meant that election officials would be unable to conduct the election by mail , as is usual for Colorado , and would have to open up polls for in @-@ person voting . Morse stated that not voting by mail was " bad for everybody . "
On August 27 , 2013 , Hickenlooper asked the Colorado Supreme Court to clarify if a voter had to vote for recall in order to vote for a replacement candidate . At the same time , Libertarian Jan Brooks turned in petitions to be on the ballot against Morse while Democrat Richard Anglund announced his write @-@ in candidacy against Giron . On August 28 , the Supreme Court ruled that a voter did not have to vote to recall in order to vote for a replacement , but that the Senators could only be recalled by a majority vote . Secretary of State Gessler announced that Brooks did not have sufficient signatures to qualify for the ballot , leaving only Republican opponents on the ballot .
= = = Polling = = =
When asked " Will you vote ' yes ' or ' no ' on the question of whether Angela Giron should be recalled from the office of State Senator ? "
= = = Results = = =
Morse conceded on the evening of September 10 . Initial poll returns seemed to indicate that Giron would win her recall election . The final votes were 9 @,@ 131 to recall Morse and 8 @,@ 812 to keep him , a 1 @.@ 78 % difference . The final results also ousted Giron , 19 @,@ 451 to 15 @,@ 376 , an 11 @.@ 7 % difference . Giron 's recall was more surprising , as the district is 47 % Democratic to 23 % Republican , and news reports stated that Giron was stunned at the results . Other sources stated that Giron remained defiant . Giron has claimed that the recall was due to voter suppression . Giron noted that " We were less than two weeks out and we didn 't know what the rules were , " referring to the change from mail @-@ in ballots to in @-@ person voting .
With the recall of Morse and Giron , Herpin and Rivera were elected to the State Senate to replace them , defeating their respective write @-@ in opponents .
= = = = District 3 = = = =
= = = = District 11 = = = =
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Reactions = = =
Giron and Democratic National Committee Chair Debbie Wasserman Schultz claimed that the recall defeat was due to voter suppression . The Denver Post disputed this , saying that the result wasn 't caused by voter suppression but the fact that more people showed up to vote against Giron than to vote for her . Gessler said that the Democrats fared worse where more people turned out . Wasserman Schultz also stated that the money spent by the NRA and the Koch brothers made it impossible for Democrats to win .
Charles C. W. Cooke , writing in the National Review Online , stated that it was a grassroots effort , triggered by the perception that the two senators were not listening to the concerns of the public . Ashby Jones of the Wall Street Journal viewed it as a major win for the NRA and a " stinging defeat " for Mayor Bloomberg .
Reuters journalist Keith Coffman stated that the defeat was a sign that Democrats who control Colorado government had reached too far , not just on gun @-@ control , but in other areas also , such as not considering religious exemptions for same sex adoptions , or same @-@ day voter registration .
= = = Polling = = =
Polling firm Public Policy Polling conducted a poll of Giron 's district between September 7 and 9 , asking likely voters if they supported the recall of Giron , whether they supported various components of the gun control bill , whether they approved of the NRA and Governor Hickenlooper , and who they would vote for in a hypothetical 2014 gubernatorial election between Hickenlooper and Republican Tom Tancredo , as well as various methodological questions . The results found voters supported recalling Giron by 54 % to 42 % , with 4 % undecided .
However , the firm did not release the poll results before the election . The day after the election , when Giron had been recalled by 12 points , they released the poll and company director Tom Jensen explained why they had not initially done so , citing numerous unusual results . These included the district supporting her recall by such a wide margin , despite having been carried by 20 points by Democratic President Barack Obama in the 2012 election ; voters saying they supported universal background checks by 68 % to 27 % ; and voters being split 47 % to 47 % on limiting high @-@ capacity ammunition magazines to 15 bullets . Jensen opined that the NRA had done a " good job of turning the election more broadly into ' do you support gun rights or are you opposed to them . ' " Their decision not to release the poll caused significant controversy , with some statisticians and journalists criticising them and others supporting them .
= = = 2014 elections = = =
In the November 2014 Senate elections 13 months later , both Rivera and Herpin were defeated by large margins by their Democratic opponents . Rivera lost to State Representative Leroy Garcia and Herpin lost to State Representative Michael Merrifield , a noted gun control advocate . Despite reclaiming the two seats , the Democrats lost their overall majority in the Colorado Senate . Rivera lost by 22 @,@ 814 votes ( 45 @.@ 06 % ) to 27 @,@ 813 ( 54 @.@ 94 % ) and Herpin lost by 14 @,@ 978 votes ( 41 @.@ 52 % ) to 18 @,@ 815 ( 52 @.@ 16 % ) .
= = Campaign to recall Evie Hudak ; her resignation = =
On October 4 , 2013 , Colorado Secretary of State Scott Gessler approved a second petition to recall Colorado State Senator Evie Hudak , also an advocate of gun control ; the signature gatherers had 60 days to collect 18 @,@ 300 or more signatures to force a recall election in Colorado Senate District 19 which encompasses Arvada , Colorado and Westminster , Colorado . Hudak later resigned rather than face recall . Because she resigned , the Democrats were able to appoint a replacement ; if she had been recalled , the Republicans could have gained a majority in the state senate .
= SMS Bremse =
SMS Bremse was a Brummer @-@ class minelaying light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine . She was built by AG Vulcan Stettin in 1915 and launched on 11 March 1916 at Stettin , Germany , the second of the two @-@ ship class after her sister , SMS Brummer . She served during the First World War , operating for most of the time in company with her sister . The two ships took part in an ambush on a convoy in the North Sea , where they sank two destroyers in a surprise attack , before hunting down and sinking nine merchantmen , after which they returned to port unscathed .
The Kaiserliche Marine considered sending the two ships to attack convoys in the Atlantic Ocean , but the difficulties associated with refueling at sea convinced the Germans to abandon the plan . Bremse was one of the ships interned at Scapa Flow under the terms of the armistice in November 1918 . On 21 June 1919 , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the scuttling of the fleet . She was salvaged in 1929 by teams working for Ernest Cox , though they had to contend with large quantities of oil and the risks of fires and explosions . Having been brought back to the surface after a decade underwater , she was then scrapped .
= = Construction = =
Bremse was ordered under the contract name " D " and laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1915 . She was launched on 11 March 1916 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . Completed in less than four months , she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 July 1916 . The ship was 140 @.@ 4 meters ( 461 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 6 m ( 20 ft ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 856 t ( 5 @,@ 764 long tons ; 6 @,@ 455 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by two coal @-@ fired and four oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) and a range of 5 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 700 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . In service however , the ship reached 34 kn ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) .
The ship was armed with four 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts ; two were arranged side by side forward and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 20 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 600 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Brummer also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes in a swivel mount amidships . Designed as a minelayer , she carried 400 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick armor plate .
= = Career = =
Over the period 11 – 20 October 1916 , Bremse and Brummer served with the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea . On 10 January 1917 , the two ships laid a minefield off Norderney . They escorted minesweepers on 1 – 13 March based in Emden and Wilhelmshaven . Their first major offensive operation was an attack on a British convoy in October 1917 . Britain had agreed to ship 250 @,@ 000 t ( 250 @,@ 000 long tons ; 280 @,@ 000 short tons ) tons of coal per month to Norway , and a regular stream of convoys carrying shipments of coal was crossing the North Sea by late 1917 . These were usually weakly escorted by only a couple of destroyers and armed trawlers . Attempts to interdict them with U @-@ boats had to that point been ineffective , so Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the chief of the Admiralstab , decided to deploy a surface force to carry out a surprise attack to supplement the U @-@ boat campaign . In addition to damaging British shipping , Scheer sought to divert escorts from the Atlantic theater , where his U @-@ boats were concentrated . Bremse , commanded by Fregattenkapitän Westerkamp , and Brummer , commanded by Fregattenkapitän Leonhardi , were selected for the first such operation . Their high speed and large radius of action , coupled with their resemblance to British light cruisers , made them suited to the task . In preparation for the raid , their crews painted the ships dark gray to further camouflage them as British vessels .
Half an hour after dawn on the morning of 17 October , Brummer and Bremse attacked a westbound convoy about 70 nautical miles ( 130 km ; 81 mi ) east of Lerwick . The convoy consisted of twelve merchantmen and was escorted by the destroyers HMS Strongbow and Mary Rose and a pair of armed trawlers which had departed from Bergen . At dawn lookouts aboard Stronghold reported two unidentified ships closing on the convoy . Mistaking them for British cruisers Strongbow flashed recognition signals , but was suddenly fired upon at a range of 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) by a barrage of 15 cm shells . Mary Rose tried to come to her assistance but was also hit ; both ships were quickly sunk . Brummer and Bremse then turned their attention to the convoy , hunting down and sinking nine of the merchantmen , before returning to port . One of the armed trawlers , the Elise , was fired on by Bremse while attempting to pick up survivors . None of the ships were able to send a wireless report , and despite having a squadron of sixteen light cruisers at sea to the south of the convoy , the British did not learn of the attack until 16 : 00 , when it was too late . Admiral David Beatty said of the action that ' luck was against us . ' The Admiralty responded to the raid by adding more and bigger escorts .
Late in the war , the Admiralstab considered sending Brummer and Bremse on a commerce raiding mission into the Atlantic . They were to operate off the Azores in concert with an oiler . The central Atlantic was out of the normal range of the U @-@ boats , and convoys were therefore lightly defended in the area . The Admiralstab canceled the plan , however , after it was determined that refueling at sea would be too difficult . Another problem was the tendency of the two ships to emit clouds of red sparks when steaming at speeds over 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) ; this would hamper their ability to evade Allied ships at night . On 2 April 1918 , Bremse laid a minefield consisting of 304 mines in the North Sea . She laid another 150 mines in the same area on 11 April . Bremse and her sister ended the month with a fleet sortie with the rest of the battle fleet on 22 – 24 April . On 11 May , Bremse laid another minefield in the North Sea with 400 mines . Three days later , she laid another 420 mines in the North Sea . She was to have been part of the final sortie of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , but the operation was cancelled due to the outbreak of mutiny in the German Fleet .
= = = Internment and scuttling = = =
Along with the most modern units of the High Seas Fleet , Brummer and Bremse were included in the ships specified for internment at Scapa Flow by the victorious Allied powers . The ships steamed out of Germany on 21 November 1918 in single file , commanded by Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . They were met at sea by a combined fleet of 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet arrived in the Firth of Forth later that day , and between 25 and 27 November , they were escorted to Scapa Flow . Upon arrival , all wireless equipment was removed from the ships and the breech blocks of their heavy guns taken to prevent their use . Crews were reduced to minimum levels .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . An armed British naval party had attempted to board Bremse and close her bottom valves , but found that they were already below the rising waterline . Instead they blasted off her anchor chains and she was taken in tow by a tug and the destroyer HMS Venetia , in an attempt to beach her before she sank . They managed to run her bow onto the beach , south of Cava , but the steeply sloping approach meant that her stern settled in deeper water , and she rolled over and sank in 75 ft ( 23 m ) of water at 14 : 30 , leaving her bow visible at low tide .
= = Salvage = =
Though the Admiralty arranged for some of the ships to be salvaged , most were left at the bottom of the sound until entrepreneur Ernest Cox bought the salvage rights and began to raise the remaining ships in the early 1920s . Bremse presented particular challenges . She had come to rest perched precariously on a rock , which sloped away dramatically , causing fears that she might slip off and sink in deeper water . Cox 's salvage team sealed her bulkheads and divided the hull into watertight compartments . The hull was patched up and an airlock fitted , but the team ran into difficulties with the large amount of oil which covered the wreck , more than had been found in any other of the ships salvaged previously . A three @-@ man team using oxyacetylene torches ignited some oil , causing an explosion . The men escaped without serious injuries , and thereafter small explosions and fires were common over the two months it took to prepare the ship , though no one was injured .
By July 1929 the last of the superstructure had been cleared , and Bremse was turned upside down using techniques developed on salvaging some of the destroyers . Compressors were then used to pump air into the hull and bring her to the surface , while she was supported by 9 @-@ inch wires attached to two floating docks anchored on her port shoreward side . The salvage teams had almost raised her when she suddenly toppled onto her side and then heeled over gradually during the night , settling onto the rocks inshore .
It was thought that the failure had been caused by there being too much remaining superstructure , and attempts were made to clean out the large quantity of oil that had spilled out during the attempt to raise her . The decision was made to burn off the oil , but the fire spread and had to be brought back under control . She was again patched up and pumped with air , breaking the surface on 29 November . The Bremse was eventually considered too unsafe to tow to Rosyth for scrapping , as had been done with the other ships Cox had salvaged , and instead she was taken to Lyness on 30 November 1929 and broken up there .
= Kirby 's Dream Land =
Kirby 's Dream Land is a 1992 action @-@ platform video game for the Game Boy , developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo . It is both the first video game in the Kirby series and the debut of Kirby himself . Being the inaugural Kirby title , it created many conventions that would appear in later games in the series , including Kirby 's basic moves . However , Kirby 's trademark " copy " ability would not appear until Kirby 's Adventure , released less than one year later . Kirby 's Dream Land was designed by Masahiro Sakurai , who intended it to be a simple game that could be easy to pick up and play even by those unfamiliar with action games . He offered additional optional challenges for more advanced gamers such as an unlockable hard mode and the ability to edit Kirby 's maximum HP and starting number of lives . Kirby 's Dream Land was re @-@ released on the Nintendo 3DS via the Virtual Console in 2011 and was also one of the games included in the compilation game Kirby 's Dream Collection for the Wii , released to celebrate Kirby 's 20th anniversary .
= = Gameplay = =
The gluttonous King Dedede has stolen all of the food from the inhabitants of Dream Land for a midnight feast , so Kirby , a resident of Dream Land , goes to retrieve the food and stop Dedede . Kirby 's Dream Land plays like other platformers of the 8 @-@ bit and 16 @-@ bit era of video games : Kirby must use various natural abilities and occasionally items or power @-@ ups while heading toward the goal at the end of each level where a boss is fought . All levels are played on a two @-@ dimensional plane , letting Kirby move only left , right , up , and down . Kirby can walk , jump , and fly . Kirby can also inhale objects and enemies , swallowing them or spitting them out as projectiles .
Levels are made up of a series of large " rooms " rather than the single long corridors typical of platformers at the time and the doors between these rooms act as checkpoints returning the player to the beginning of a " room " when they die rather than starting the level over . Like many 1980s @-@ era platformers , the player can accumulate points , with an extra life granted when the player has enough points . However , because Kirby lacks a save function , scores are not recorded . Also , there are no save files , so the player has to start over again when the Game Boy is turned off , if the player chooses to return to the title screen after a Game Over , or if the player resets the game . Once the game has been completed , a code is offered to play an optional Extra Game , in which the difficulty is significantly increased . Completing the extra game offered a second code that lets the player adjust lives and vitality settings to play an even easier or harder game , and listen to music and sound effects freely . Since there is no save function , these codes are allowed to be entered even on a new session where the game has not been beaten yet .
= = Development = =
Kirby 's Dream Land was developed by Masahiro Sakurai of HAL Laboratory . Kirby was a dummy character that the developers used until they could define a more sophisticated image . The designers grew to like Kirby so much that they decided to keep him instead of using a more advanced character . He was originally named Popopo ( ポポポ ) , and Kirby 's Dream Land was titled Twinkle Popo ( ティンクル ・ ポポ , Tinkuru Popo ) . Eventually , he was renamed Kirby and the game was renamed Kirby of the Stars . During the development of what was then referred to as Twinkle Popopo , Popopo / Kirby 's color had not been decided upon . Masahiro Sakurai wanted him to be pink , while Shigeru Miyamoto felt that he should be yellow . Eventually , Nintendo decided to make him pink . Although pink is still Kirby 's main color , later games have shown Kirby in a wide variety of colors , including yellow . When Kirby of the Stars was first released in Japan , it featured Kirby as being pink . However , Nintendo of America designed the North American box art and advertisements with a white Kirby based on the game 's grey @-@ scale visuals .
The music was composed by Jun Ishikawa . He was the only composer for this game , and has been a regular composer in the Kirby series . His most recent work was on Kirby : Triple Deluxe in 2014 . Certain songs were also reused in the Super Smash Bros. series as the background music of the Dream Land stage in Super Smash Bros. and the Green Greens stage in Super Smash Bros. Melee .
= = Reception = =
Kirby 's Dream Land has received generally positive reception . It holds an aggregate score of 64 @.@ 83 % on Game Rankings with six reviews , making it the 13th best Game Boy game and the 7,279th best video game . By May 28 , 1995 Kirby 's Dream Land had sold 1 @.@ 3 million copies . To date , it has sold in excess of 5 million copies worldwide ; Gamasutra cited its new style of gameplay for its success . At the time , it was HAL Laboratory 's most successful game . Gamasutra 's Osamu Inoue attributed the game 's success to Satoru Iwata , formerly an employee of HAL Laboratory , who Inoue comments has a " simple @-@ minded passion for creating games " . Game Informer 's Ben Reeves called it the 14th best Game Boy game and felt that it was a relaxing game . Author Wendy Despain used Kirby 's Dream Land 's plot as an example of how early platform games ' plots progressed , which she collectively described as " the main character needing to reach a villain to put right a wrong . " Humongous Life 's Jonathan Wahlgren called it a strong game , but felt it to be " too elementary " . GamesRadar 's Brett Elston did an article on its music , specifically giving praise to the final boss music , stating that it is the " only song in the original Kirby that had a sense of challenge or conflict instead of skipping through a field of floating cakes . " Nadia Oxford of 1UP.com praised it for its unique platforming mechanics , describing it as the start of a " gluttonous legend " . Allgame 's Joshua Crystal called it a " great game for beginner players and ones that enjoy a fun , but short , experience . " .
In an article detailing various Kirby series video games , IGN stated that it was a decent platformer , but also very basic compared to later titles . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas and Craig Harris included Kirby 's Dream Land in their wishlist for a hypothetical " Virtual Console " for the Nintendo 3DS , commenting that its inclusion would be based on nostalgia rather than it feeling " new and sensational " . They also added that original characters like Kirby were the stars of the Game Boy rather than established characters such as Link , Mario , Samus Aran , and Pit . They would again praise Kirby 's Dream Land for being an original game in their " History of the Game Boy " article , adding that while " attitude " was common in new platforming mascots , Kirby was cheery and adorable , while the game featured " breezy , casual gameplay and lighthearted atmosphere " . GameSpy 's Gerald Villoria , Brian Altano , and Ryan Scott called it " basic " compared to later titles in the series , adding that it lacked a sense of danger because Kirby could fly . Nintendo Power editors George and Bob shared roughly similar opinions of the game ; George stated that it is a really fun game , owing its quality to its excellent play control and well thought out concept , while Bob stated that it is deceptively simple looking , when it in fact features a decent challenge for more experienced gamers . GamesRadar listed Kirby 's Dream Land and its sequel as two of the titles they want in the 3DS Virtual Console .
= = Legacy = =
Kirby 's Dream Land has since spawned dozens of sequels across more than a half @-@ dozen video game consoles . The first direct sequel was Kirby 's Adventure , which was released on the Nintendo Entertainment System console . It introduced the ability to steal powers from enemies , an ability which has been used in the majority of games following it . It was followed by two more Dream Land titles : Kirby 's Dream Land 2 and Kirby 's Dream Land 3 . The series has featured several spin @-@ offs , including the racing game Kirby Air Ride and pinball game Kirby 's Pinball Land . Several other games have featured Kirby 's Dream Land in one way or the other . In Kirby Super Star , the " Spring Breeze " subgame is a shortened remake of Kirby 's Dream Land missing the Castle Lololo level and Kaboola boss fight but adding Kirby 's copy ability from later titles . Super Star 's remake Kirby Super Star Ultra features " Revenge of The King " , which takes inspiration from Kirby 's Dream Land 's extra mode . In Super Smash Bros. and Super Smash Bros. Melee , a stage called " Dream Land " appears , taking elements from Dream Land . The Dream Land stage reappeared in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U as downloadable content in both versions .
= Karl Marx =
Karl Marx ( / mɑːrks / ; German : [ ˈkaɐ ̯ l ˈmaɐ ̯ ks ] ; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883 ) was a philosopher , economist , sociologist , journalist , and revolutionary socialist . Born in Prussia to a middle @-@ class family , he later studied political economy and Hegelian philosophy . As an adult , Marx became stateless and spent much of his life in London , England , where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels and published various works , the most well @-@ known being the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto . His work has since influenced subsequent intellectual , economic , and political history .
Marx 's theories about society , economics and politics — collectively understood as Marxism — hold that human societies develop through class struggle : a conflict between ruling classes ( known as the bourgeoisie ) that control the means of production and working classes ( known as the proletariat ) that work on these means by selling their labour for wages . Through his theories of alienation , value , commodity fetishism , and surplus value , Marx argued that capitalism facilitated social relations and ideology through commodification , inequality , and the exploitation of labour . Employing a critical approach known as historical materialism , Marx propounded the theory of base and superstructure , asserting that the cultural and political conditions of society , as well as its notions of human nature , are largely determined by obscured economic foundations . These economic critiques would result in influential works such as Capital , Volume I ( 1867 ) .
According to Marx , states are run in the interests of the ruling class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all . He predicted that , like previous socioeconomic systems , capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self @-@ destruction and replacement by a new system : socialism . For Marx , class antagonisms under capitalism , owing in part to its instability and crisis @-@ prone nature , would eventuate the working class ' development of class consciousness , leading to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a classless , communist society governed by a free association of producers . Marx actively fought for its implementation , arguing that the working class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio @-@ economic emancipation .
Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history , and his work has been both lauded and criticised . His work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital , and subsequent economic thought . Many intellectuals , labour unions , artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marx 's work , with many modifying or adapting his ideas . Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood and early education : 1818 – 1835 = = =
Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and Henrietta Pressburg ( 1788 – 1863 ) . He was born at 664 Brückergasse in Trier , a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussia 's Province of the Lower Rhine . Marx was ancestrally Jewish ; his maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi , while his paternal line had supplied Trier 's rabbis since 1723 , a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx . Karl 's father , as a child known as Herschel , was the first in the line to receive a secular education ; he became a lawyer and lived a relatively wealthy and middle @-@ class existence , with his family owning a number of Moselle vineyards . Prior to his son 's birth , and to escape the constraints of anti @-@ semitic legislation , Herschel converted from Judaism to Lutheranism , the main Protestant denomination in Germany and Prussia at the time , taking on the German forename of Heinrich over the Yiddish Herschel .
Largely non @-@ religious , Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment , interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire . A classical liberal , he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia , then governed by an absolute monarchy . In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney , in 1819 moving his family to a ten @-@ room property near the Porta Nigra . His wife , a Dutch Jewish woman , Henrietta Pressburg , was semi @-@ literate and was said to suffer from " excessive mother love " , devoting much time to her family and insisting on cleanliness within her home . She was from a prosperous business family that later founded the company Philips Electronics : she was great @-@ aunt to Anton and Gerard Philips , and great @-@ great @-@ aunt to Frits Philips . Her sister Sophie Presburg ( 1797 – 1854 ) , was Marx 's aunt and was married to Lion Philips ( 1794 – 1866 ) Marx 's uncle through this marriage , and was the grandfather of both Gerald and Anton Philips . Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist , upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London . In contrast to her husband , Henrietta retained her Jewish faith .
Little is known of Karl Marx 's childhood . The third of nine children , he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819 . Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 . His surviving siblings , Sophie , Hermann , Henriette , Louise , Emilie and Karoline , were also baptised as Lutherans . Young Karl was privately educated , by Heinrich Marx , until 1830 , when he entered Trier High School , whose headmaster , Hugo Wyttenbach , was a friend of his father . By employing many liberal humanists as teachers , Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government . Subsequently , police raided the school in 1832 , and discovered that literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students . Considering the distribution of such material a seditious act , the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staff during Marx 's attendance .
In October 1835 at the age of 17 , Marx travelled to the University of Bonn wishing to study philosophy and literature ; however , his father insisted on law as a more practical field . Due to a condition referred to as a " weak chest " , Karl was excused from military duty when he turned 18 . While at the University at Bonn , Marx joined the Poets ' Club , a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the police . Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society ( Landsmannschaft der Treveraner ) , at one point serving as club co @-@ president . Additionally , Marx was involved in certain disputes , some of which became serious : in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the university 's Borussian Korps . Although his grades in the first term were good , they soon deteriorated , leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic University of Berlin .
= = = Hegelianism and early activism : 1836 – 1843 = = =
Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier , Marx became more serious about his studies and his life . He became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen , an educated baroness of the Prussian ruling class who had known Marx since childhood . Having broken off her engagement with a young aristocrat to be with Marx , their relationship was socially controversial due to the differences between their religious and class origins , but Marx befriended her father , a liberal aristocrat , Ludwig von Westphalen , and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to him . Seven years after their engagement , on 19 June 1843 , Marx married Jenny in a Protestant church in Kreuznach .
In October 1836 Marx arrived in Berlin , matriculating in the university 's faculty of law and renting a room in the Mittelstrasse . Although studying law , he was fascinated by philosophy , and looked for a way to combine the two , believing that " without philosophy nothing could be accomplished " . Marx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel , whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical circles . During a convalescence in Stralau , he joined the Doctor 's Club ( Doktorklub ) , a student group which discussed Hegelian ideas , and through them became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians in 1837 ; they gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer , with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with Adolf Rutenberg . Like Marx , the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel 's metaphysical assumptions , but adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society , politics , and religion from a leftist perspective . Marx 's father died in May 1838 , resulting in a diminished income for the family . Marx had been emotionally close to his father , and treasured his memory after his death .
By 1837 , Marx was writing both fiction and non @-@ fiction , having completed a short novel , Scorpion and Felix , a drama , Oulanem , and a number of love poems dedicated to Jenny von Westphalen , though none of this early work was published during his lifetime . Marx soon abandoned fiction for other pursuits , including the study of both English and Italian , art history and the translation of Latin classics . He began co @-@ operating with Bruno Bauer on editing Hegel 's Philosophy of Religion in 1840 . Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis , The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature , which he completed in 1841 . It was described as " a daring and original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy " : the essay was controversial , particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin . Marx decided , instead , to submit his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena , whose faculty awarded him his PhD in April 1841 . As Marx and Bauer were both atheists , in March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled Archiv des Atheismus ( Atheistic Archives ) , but it never came to fruition . In July , Marx and Bauer took a trip to Bonn from Berlin . There they scandalised their class by getting drunk , laughing in church , and galloping through the streets on donkeys .
Marx was considering an academic career , but this path was barred by the government 's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians . Marx moved to Cologne in 1842 , where he became a journalist , writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung ( " Rhineland News " ) , expressing his early views on socialism and his developing interest in economics . He criticised both right @-@ wing European governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements whom he thought ineffective or counter @-@ productive . The newspaper attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors , who checked every issue for seditious material before printing ; Marx lamented that " Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at , and if the police nose smells anything un @-@ Christian or un @-@ Prussian , the newspaper is not allowed to appear . " After the Rheinische Zeitung published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy , Tsar Nicholas I requested it be banned ; Prussia 's government complied in 1843 .
= = = Paris : 1843 – 1845 = = =
In 1843 , Marx became co @-@ editor of a new , radical leftist Parisian newspaper , the Deutsch @-@ Französische Jahrbücher ( German @-@ French Annals ) , then being set up by the German socialist Arnold Ruge to bring together German and French radicals , and thus Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843 . Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau , they found the living conditions difficult , so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844 . Although intended to attract writers from both France and the German states , the Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter ; the only non @-@ German writer was the exiled Russian anarchist collectivist Mikhail Bakunin . Marx contributed two essays to the paper , " Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel 's Philosophy of Right " and " On the Jewish Question , " the latter introducing his belief that the proletariat were a revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism . Only one issue was published , but it was relatively successful , largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine 's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria , leading the German states to ban it and seize imported copies ; Ruge nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further issues , and his friendship with Marx broke down . After the paper 's collapse , Marx began writing for the only uncensored German @-@ language radical newspaper left , Vorwärts ! ( Forward ! ) . Based in Paris , the paper was connected to the League of the Just , a utopian socialist secret society of workers and artisans . Marx attended some of their meetings , but did not join . In Vorwärts ! , Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism , at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in Europe .
On 28 August 1844 , Marx met the German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence , beginning a lifelong friendship . Engels showed Marx his recently published The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history . Soon Marx and Engels were collaborating on a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx 's former friend , Bruno Bauer . This work was published in 1845 as The Holy Family . Although critical of Bauer , Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach , but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well .
During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris ( from October 1843 until January 1845 ) , Marx engaged in an intensive study of " political economy " ( Adam Smith , David Ricardo , James Mill etc . ) , the French socialists ( especially Claude Henri St. Simon and Charles Fourier ) and the history of France . " The study of political economy is a study that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life and would result in his major economic work — the three @-@ volume series called Capital . Marxism is based in large part on three
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influences : Hegel 's dialectics , French utopian socialism and English economics . Together with his earlier study of Hegel 's dialectics , the studying that Marx did during this time in Paris meant that all major components of " Marxism " ( or political economy as Marx called it ) were in place by the autumn of 1844 . Although Marx was constantly being pulled away from his study of political economy by the usual daily demands on his time that everyone faces , and the additional special demands of editing a radical newspaper and later by the demands of organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years in which popular uprisings of the citizenry might at any moment become a revolution , Marx was always drawn back to his economic studies . Marx sought " to understand the inner workings of capitalism " .
An outline of " Marxism " had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844 . Indeed , many features of the Marxist view of the world 's political economy had been worked out in great detail . However , Marx needed to write down all of the details of his economic world view to further clarify the new economic theory in his own mind . Accordingly , Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts . These manuscripts covered numerous topics , detailing Marx 's concept of alienated labour . However , by the spring of 1845 his continued study of political economy , capital and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new political economic theory that he was espousing — scientific socialism — needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the world .
The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 had been written between April and August 1844 . Soon , though , Marx recognised that the Manuscripts had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach . Accordingly , Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach 's philosophy in favour of historical materialism . Thus , a year later , in April 1845 , after moving from Paris to Brussels , Marx wrote his eleven " Theses on Feuerbach , " The " Theses on Feuerbach " are best known for Thesis 11 , which states that " philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways , the point is to change it " . This work contains Marx 's criticism of materialism ( for being contemplative ) , idealism ( for reducing practice to theory ) overall , criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical world . It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx 's historical materialism , an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual , physical , material activity and practice . In 1845 , after receiving a request from the Prussian king , the French government shut down Vorwärts ! , with the interior minister , François Guizot , expelling Marx from France . At this point , Marx moved from Paris to Brussels , where Marx hoped to , once again , continue his study of capitalism and political economy .
= = = Brussels : 1845 – 1848 = = =
Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany , Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in February 1845 . However , to stay in Belgium , Marx had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics . In Brussels , he associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe , including Moses Hess , Karl Heinzen , and Joseph Weydemeyer , and soon , in April 1845 , Engels moved from Barmen in Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels . Later , Mary Burns , Engels ' long @-@ time companion , left Manchester , England , to join Engels in Brussels .
In mid @-@ July 1845 , Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the leaders of the Chartists , a socialist movement in Britain . This was Marx 's first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip . Engels had already spent two years living in Manchester , from November 1842 to August 1844 . Not only did Engels already know the English language , he had developed a close relationship with many Chartist leaders . Indeed , Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist and socialist English newspapers . Marx used the trip as an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in various libraries in London and Manchester .
In collaboration with Engels , Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism , The German Ideology . In this work , Marx broke with Ludwig Feuerbach , Bruno Bauer , Max Stirner and the rest of the Young Hegelians , and also broke with Karl Grun and other " true socialists " whose philosophies were still based in part on " idealism " . In German Ideology Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy , which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history .
German Ideology is written in a humorously satirical form . But even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship . Like so many other early writings of his , German Ideology would not be published in Marx 's lifetime and would be published only in 1932 .
After completing German Ideology , Marx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position regarding " the theory and tactics " of a truly " revolutionary proletarian movement " operating from the standpoint of a truly " scientific materialist " philosophy . This work was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian socialists and Marx 's own scientific socialist philosophy . Whereas the utopians believed that people must be persuaded one person at a time to join the socialist movement , the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief , Marx knew that people would tend on most occasions to act in accordance with their own economic interests . Thus , appealing to an entire class ( the working class in this case ) with a broad appeal to the class 's best material interest would be the best way to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society . This was the intent of the new book that Marx was planning . However , to get the manuscript past the government censors , Marx called the book The Poverty of Philosophy ( 1847 ) and offered it as a response to the " petty bourgeois philosophy " of the French anarchist socialist Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon as expressed in his book The Philosophy of Poverty ( 1840 ) .
These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels 's most famous work , a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as The Communist Manifesto . While residing in Brussels in 1846 , Marx continued his association with the secret radical organisation League of the Just . As noted above , Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe toward the mass movement that would bring about a working class revolution . However , to organise the working class into a mass movement , the League had to cease its " secret " or " underground " orientation and operate in the open as a political party . Members of the League eventually became persuaded in this regard . Accordingly , in June 1847 the League of the Just was reorganised by its membership into a new open " above ground " political society that appealed directly to the working classes . This new open political society was called the Communist League . Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing the programme and organisational principles of the new Communist League .
In late 1847 , Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work — a programme of action for the Communist League . Written jointly by Marx and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848 , The Communist Manifesto was first published on 21 February 1848 . The Communist Manifesto laid out the beliefs of the new Communist League . No longer a secret society , the Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing . The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism , that " The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles . " It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie ( the wealthy capitalist class ) and the proletariat ( the industrial working class ) . Proceeding on from this , the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League , as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time , was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism .
Later that year , Europe experienced a series of protests , rebellions , and often violent upheavals that became known as the Revolution of 1848 . In France , a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic . Marx was supportive of such activity , and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father of either 6 @,@ 000 or 5 @,@ 000 francs , allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action . Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed , the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused him of it , subsequently arresting him , and he was forced to flee back to France , where , with a new republican government in power , he believed that he would be safe .
= = = Cologne : 1848 – 1849 = = =
Temporarily settling down in Paris , Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers ' Club with various German socialists living there . Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany , in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany , in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto , believing that in Germany at that time , the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie . On 1 June , Marx started publication of a daily newspaper , the Neue Rheinische Zeitung , which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father . Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events , the newspaper featured Marx as a primary writer and the dominant editorial influence . Despite contributions by fellow members of the Communist League , it remained , according to Friedrich Engels , " a simple dictatorship by Marx " .
Whilst editor of the paper , Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police , and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions , facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor , committing a press misdemeanor , and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting , although each time he was acquitted . Meanwhile , the democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed , and the king , Frederick William IV , introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters , who implemented counter @-@ revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other revolutionary elements from the country . Consequently , the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May . Marx returned to Paris , which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter @-@ revolution and a cholera epidemic , and was soon expelled by the city authorities , who considered him a political threat . With his wife , Jenny , expecting their fourth child , and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium , in August 1849 he sought refuge in London .
= = = Move to London and further writing : 1850 – 1860 = = =
Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life . The headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London . However , in the winter of 1849 – 1850 , a split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by August Willich and Karl Schapper began agitating for an immediate uprising . Willich and Schapper believed that once the Communist League had initiated the uprising , the entire working class from across Europe would rise " spontaneously " to join it , thus , creating revolution across Europe . Marx and Engels protested that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was " adventuristic " and would be suicide for the Communist League . Such an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper / Willich group would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe . This , Marx maintained , would spell doom for the Communist League itself . Changes in society , Marx argued , are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of " a handful of men " . Instead , they are brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving toward revolution through different stages of social development . In the present stage of development ( circa 1850 ) , following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 , Marx felt that the Communist League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms , such as a constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal ( male ) suffrage . In other words , the working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of the bourgeois revolution before stressing the working class agenda and a working class revolution .
After a long struggle which threatened to ruin the Communist League , Marx 's opinion prevailed and , eventually , the Willich / Schapper group left the Communist League . Meanwhile , Marx also became heavily involved with the socialist German Workers ' Educational Society . The Society held their meetings in Great Windmill Street , Soho , central London 's entertainment district . This organisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members , some of whom followed Marx while others followed the Schapper / Willich faction . The issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in the internal split within the Communist League . Marx , however , lost the fight with the Schapper / Willich faction within the German Workers ' Educational Society and , on 17 September 1850 , resigned from the Society .
= = = New York Tribune and journalism = = =
While in London , Marx devoted himself to the task of revolutionary organising of the working class . For the first few years , he and his family lived in extreme poverty . His main source of income was his colleague , Engels , who derived much of his income from his family 's business . Later Marx and Engels both began writing for six different newspapers around the world , in England , the United States , Prussia , Austria and South Africa . Most of Marx 's journalistic writing , however , was as a European correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune . In earlier years , Marx had been able to communicate with the broad masses of the working class by editing his own newspaper or editing a newspaper financed by others sympathetic to his philosophy . Now , in London , Marx was unable to finance his own newspaper and unable to put together financing from others . Thus , Marx sought to communicate with the public by writing articles for the New York Tribune and other " bourgeois " newspapers . At first Marx 's English @-@ language articles were translated from German by Wilhelm Pieper ; eventually , however , Marx learned English well enough to write without translation .
The New York Daily Tribune had been founded in New York City in the United States of America by Horace Greeley in April 1841 . Marx 's main contact on the Tribune was Charles Dana . Later , in 1868 , Charles Dana would leave the Tribune to become the owner and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the New York Sun , a competing newspaper in New York City . However , at this time Charles Dana served on the editorial board of the Tribune .
Several characteristics about the Tribune made the newspaper an excellent vehicle for Marx to reach a sympathetic public across the Atlantic Ocean . Since its founding , the Tribune had been an inexpensive newspaper — two cents per copy . Accordingly , it was popular with the broad masses of the working class of the United States . With a run of about 50 @,@ 000 issues , the Tribune was the most widely circulated journal in the United States . Editorially , the Tribune reflected Greeley 's anti @-@ slavery opinions . Not only did the Tribune have wide readership with the United States and not only did that readership come from the working classes , but the readers seemed to be from the progressive wing of the working class . Marx 's first article for the New York Tribune was on the British elections to Parliament and was published in the Tribune on 21 August 1852 .
Marx was just one of the reporters in Europe that the New York Tribune employed . However , with the slavery crisis in the United States coming to a head in the late 1850s and with the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 , the American public 's interest in European affairs declined . Thus Marx very early began to write on issues affecting the United States — particularly the " slavery crisis " and the " War Between the States " .
From December 1851 to March 1852 , Marx wrote The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon , a work on the French Revolution of 1848 , in which he expanded upon his concepts of historical materialism , class struggle and the dictatorship of the proletariat , advancing the argument that victorious proletariat has to smash the bourgeois state .
The 1850s and 1860s also mark the line between what some scholars see as the idealistic , Hegelian young Marx from the more scientifically minded mature Marx writings of the later period . This distinction is usually associated with the structural Marxism school , and not all scholars agree that it exists . The years of revolution from 1848 to 1849 had been a grand experience for both Marx and Engels . They both became sure that their economic view of the course of history was the only valid way that historic events like the revolutionary upsurge of 1848 could be adequately explained . For some time after 1848 , Marx and Engels wondered if the entire revolutionary upsurge had completely played out . As time passed , they began to think that a new revolutionary upsurge would not occur until there was another economic downturn . The question of whether a recession would be necessary to create a new revolutionary situation in society became a point of contention between Marx and certain other revolutionaries . Marx accused these other revolutionaries of being " adventurists " because of their belief that a revolutionary situation could be created out of thin air by the sheer " will power " of the revolutionaries without regard to the economic realities of the current situation .
The downturn in the United States economy in 1852 led Marx and Engels to wonder if a revolutionary upsurge would soon occur . However , the United States ' economy was too new to play host to a classical revolution . The western frontier in America always provided a relief valve for the pent @-@ up forces that might in other countries cause social unrest . Any economic crisis which began in the United States would not lead to revolution unless one of the older economies of Europe " caught the contagion " from the United States . In other words , economies of the world were still seen as individual national systems which were contiguous with the national borders of each country . The Panic of 1857 broke the mould of all prior thinking on the world economy . Beginning in the United States , the Panic spread across the globe . Indeed , the Panic of 1857 was the first truly global economic crisis .
Marx longed to return to his economic studies . He had left these studies in 1844 and had been preoccupied with other projects over the last thirteen years . By returning to his study of economics , he felt he would be able to understand more thoroughly what was occurring in the world .
= = = The First International and Capital = = =
Marx continued to write articles for the New York Daily Tribune as long as he was sure that the Tribune 's editorial policy was still progressive . However , the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial policy . No longer was the Tribune to be a strong abolitionist paper dedicated to a complete Union victory . The new editorial board supported an immediate peace between the Union and the Confederacy in the Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy . Marx strongly disagreed with this new political position and , in 1863 , was forced to withdraw as a writer for the Tribune .
In 1864 , Marx became involved in the International Workingmen 's Association ( also known as First International ) , to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864 . In that organisation , Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on Mikhail Bakunin ( 1814 – 1876 ) . Although Marx won this contest , the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872 , which Marx supported , led to the decline of the International . The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 , when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months . In response to the bloody suppression of this rebellion , Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets , " The Civil War in France , " a defence of the Commune .
Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers ' revolutions and movements , Marx also sought to understand capitalism , and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying and reflecting on the works of political economists and on economic data . By 1857 he had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital , landed property , wage labour , the state , and foreign trade and the world market ; this work did not appear in print until 1939 , under the title Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy .
Finally in 1859 Marx published A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy , his first serious economic work . This work was intended merely as a preview of his three @-@ volume Das Kapital ( English title : Capital : Critique of Political Economy ) on which he intended to publish at a later date . In A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy , Marx accepts the labour theory of value as advocated by David Ricardo , but whereas Ricardo drew a distinction between use value and value in commodities , Ricardo always had been unable to define the real relationship between use value and value . The reasoning Marx laid out in his book clearly delineated the true relationship between use value and value . He also produced a truly scientific theory of money and money circulation in the capitalist economy . Thus , A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy created a storm of enthusiasm when it appeared in public . The entire edition of the book was sold out quickly .
The successful sales of A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three large volumes that would compose his major life 's work — Das Kapital and the Theories of Surplus Value , which discussed the theoreticians of political economy , particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo . Theories of Surplus Value is often referred to as the fourth volume book of Das Kapital and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought . In 1867 the first volume of Das Kapital was published , a work which analysed the capitalist process of production . Here Marx elaborated his labour theory of value , which had been influenced by Thomas Hodgskin . Marx acknowledged Hodgskin 's " admirable work " Labour Defended against the Claims of Capital at more than one point in Capital . Indeed , Marx quoted Hodgskin as recognising the alienation of labour that occurred under modern capitalist production . No longer was there any " natural reward of individual labour . Each labourer produces only some part of a whole , and each part having no value or utility of itself , there is nothing on which the labourer can seize , and say : ' This is my product , this will I keep to myself . ' " In this first volume of Capital , Marx outlined his conception of surplus value and exploitation , which he argued would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism . Demand for a Russian language edition of Capital soon led to the printing of 3 @,@ 000 copies of the book in the Russian language , which was published on 27 March 1872 . By the autumn of 1871 the entire first edition of the German language edition of Capital had been sold out and a second edition was published .
Volumes II and III of Capital remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life . Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx 's death . Volume II of Capital was prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name Capital II : The Process of Circulation of Capital . Volume III of Capital was published a year later in October 1894 under the name Capital III : The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole . Theories of Surplus Value was developed from the Economic Manuscripts of 1861 – 1863 which comprise Volumes 30 , 31 32 and 33 of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels and from the Economic Manuscripts of 1861 – 1864 which comprises Volume 34 of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels . The exact part of the Economic Manuscripts of 1861 – 1863 which makes up the Theories of Surplus Value are the last part of Volume 30 of the Collected Works , the whole of Volume 31 of the Collected Works , and the whole of Volume 32 of the Collected Works . A German language abridged edition of Theories of Surplus Value was published in 1905 and in 1910 . This abridged edition was translated into English and published in 1951 in London . However , the complete unabridged edition of Theories of Surplus Value was published as the " fourth volume " of Capital in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow .
During the last decade of his life , Marx 's health declined and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work . He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics , particularly in Germany and Russia . His Critique of the Gotha Programme opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party . This work is also notable for another famous Marx 's quote : " From each according to his ability , to each according to his need . "
In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881 , Marx contemplated the possibility of Russia 's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir . While admitting that Russia 's rural " commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia " , Marx also warned that , in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage , it " would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it ( the rural commune ) from all sides " . Given the elimination of these pernicious influences , Marx allowed that " normal conditions of spontaneous development " of the rural commune could exist . However , in the same letter to Vera Zasulich , Marx points out that " at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production . " In one of the drafts of this letter , Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology , motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past . He wrote that " the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak , a crisis that will end in its destruction , in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type — collective production and appropriation " . He added that " the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic , Greek , Roman , etc. societies , and , a fortiori , that of modern capitalist societies " . Before he died , Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas , which were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Family , Private Property and the State .
= = Personal life = =
Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together , but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London , only three survived to adulthood . The children were : Jenny Caroline ( m . Longuet ; 1844 – 1883 ) ; Jenny Laura ( m . Lafargue ; 1845 – 1911 ) ; Edgar ( 1847 – 1855 ) ; Henry Edward Guy ( " Guido " ; 1849 – 1850 ) ; Jenny Eveline Frances ( " Franziska " ; 1851 – 1852 ) ; Jenny Julia Eleanor ( 1855 – 1898 ) and one more who died before being named ( July 1857 ) . There are allegations that Marx also fathered a son , Freddy , out of wedlock by his housekeeper , Helene Demuth .
Marx frequently used pseudonyms , often when renting a house or flat , apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down . While in Paris , he used that of " Monsieur Ramboz " , whilst in London he signed off his letters as " A. Williams " . His friends referred to him as " Moor " , owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair , while he encouraged his children to call him " Old Nick " and " Charley " . He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well , referring to Friedrich Engels as " General " , his housekeeper Helene as " Lenchen " or " Nym " , while one of his daughters , Jennychen , was referred to as " Qui Qui , Emperor of China " and another , Laura , was known as " Kakadou " or " the Hottentot " .
According to Sylvia Nasar , Marx never learned to properly speak English and never visited an English factory despite living in England during his last thirty years .
= = = Death = = =
Following the death of his wife , Jenny , in December 1881 , Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life . It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883 ( age 64 ) . He died a stateless person ; family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery , London , on 17 March 1883 . There were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral .
Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral , including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels . Engels ' speech included the passage :
On the 14th of March , at a quarter to three in the afternoon , the greatest living thinker ceased to think . He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes , and when we came back we found him in his armchair , peacefully gone to sleep — but forever .
Marx 's surviving daughters Eleanor and Laura , as well as Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue , Marx 's two French socialist sons @-@ in @-@ law , were also in attendance . He had been predeceased by his wife and his eldest daughter , the latter dying a few months earlier in January 1883 . Liebknecht , a founder and leader of the German Social @-@ Democratic Party , gave a speech in German , and Longuet , a prominent figure in the French working @-@ class movement , made a short statement in French . Two telegrams from workers ' parties in France and Spain were also read out . Together with Engels 's speech , this constituted the entire programme of the funeral . Non @-@ relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx : Friedrich Lessner , imprisoned for three years after the Cologne communist trial of 1852 ; G. Lochner , whom Engels described as " an old member of the Communist League " ; and Carl Schorlemmer , a professor of chemistry in Manchester , a member of the Royal Society , and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution . Another attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester , a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic .
Upon his own death in 1895 , Engels left Marx 's two surviving daughters a " significant portion " of his $ 4 @.@ 8 million estate .
Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954 . The memorial at the new site , unveiled on 14 March 1956 , bears the carved message : " WORKERS OF ALL LANDS UNITE " , the final line of The Communist Manifesto , and from the 11th " Thesis on Feuerbach " ( edited by Engels ) : " The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways — the point however is to change it " . The Communist Party of Great Britain had the monument with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw erected ; Marx 's original tomb had only humble adornment . In 1970 there was an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the monument using a homemade bomb .
The late Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked that " One cannot say Marx died a failure " because , although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain , his writings had already begun to make an impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia . Within 25 years of his death , the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx 's influence on their politics were each gaining between 15 and 47 per cent in those countries with representative democratic elections .
= = Thought = =
= = = Influences = = =
Marx 's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers , including but not limited to :
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's philosophy ;
the classical political economy ( economics ) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo ;
French socialist thought , in particular the thought of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , Henri de Saint @-@ Simon , Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon , and Charles Fourier .
earlier German philosophical materialism among the Young Hegelians , particularly that of Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer ; as well as the French materialism of the late 18th Century , including Diderot , Claude Adrien Helvétius , and d 'Holbach .
the working class analysis by Friedrich Engels . As well as the early descriptions of class provided by French liberals and Saint @-@ Simonians such as François Guizot and Augustin Thierry .
Marx 's view of history , which came to be called historical materialism ( controversially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin ) certainly shows the influence of Hegel 's claim that one should view reality ( and history ) dialectically . However , Hegel had thought in idealist terms , putting ideas in the forefront , whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist terms , arguing for the primacy of matter over idea . Where Hegel saw the " spirit " as driving history , Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification , obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world . He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head , and that one needed to set it upon its feet . Despite his dislike of mystical terms Marx used Gothic language in several of his works . In Das Kapital he refers to capital as " necromancy that surrounds the products of labour " .
Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought , Marx criticised utopian socialists , arguing that their favoured small @-@ scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty , and that only a large @-@ scale change in the economic system can bring about real change .
The other important contribution to Marx 's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels 's book , The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution .
Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts . Some followers of Marx concluded , therefore , that a communist revolution would inevitably occur . However , Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his " Theses on Feuerbach " that " philosophers have only interpreted the world , in various ways ; the point however is to change it " , and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world .
= = = Philosophy and social thought = = =
Marx 's polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique , and thus he has been called " the first great user of critical method in social sciences " . He criticised speculative philosophy , equating metaphysics with ideology . By adopting this approach , Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases . This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers .
= = = = Human nature = = = =
Like Tocqueville , who described a faceless and bureaucratic despotism with no identifiable despot , Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with Montesquieu , who discussed the nature of the single despot . Instead , Marx set out to analyse " the despotism of capital " . Fundamentally , Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature , which encompasses both human beings and material objects . Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves . For both Marx and Hegel , self @-@ development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition , followed by a realisation that the actual self , as a subjective agent , renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended . Marx further argues that , by moulding nature in desired ways , the subject takes the object as its own , and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human . For Marx , then , human nature — Gattungswesen , or species @-@ being — exists as a function of human labour . Fundamental to Marx 's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that , in order for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object , it must first exert influence upon literal , material objects in the subject 's world . Marx acknowledges that Hegel " grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man , authentic because actual , as the result of his own work " , but characterises Hegelian self @-@ development as unduly " spiritual " and abstract . Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that " the fact that man is a corporeal , actual , sentient , objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual , sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life @-@ expression , or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects . " Consequently , Marx revises Hegelian " work " into material " labour " , and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term " labour power " .
= = = = Labour , class struggle , and false consciousness = = = =
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles .
Marx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour power . He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation . As with the dialectic , Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception . Capitalism mediates social relationships of production ( such as among workers or between workers and capitalists ) through commodities , including labour , that are bought and sold on the market . For Marx , the possibility that one may give up ownership of one 's own labour — one 's capacity to transform the world — is tantamount to being alienated from one 's own nature ; it is a spiritual loss . Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism , in which the things that people produce , commodities , appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt .
Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called " false consciousness " , which relates closely to the understanding of ideology . By " ideology " , Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history , but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal . Marx and Engels 's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half @-@ truths ; they serve an important political function . Put another way , the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods ; it includes the production of ideas as well ( this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests ) . An example of this sort of analysis is Marx 's understanding of religion , summed up in a passage from the preface to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel 's Philosophy of Right :
Religious suffering is , at one and the same time , the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering . Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature , the heart of a heartless world , and the soul of soulless conditions . It is the opium of the people . The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness . To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions .
Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity , here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting / preserving political and economic status quo and inequality .
= = = = Economy , history , and society = = = =
Marx 's thoughts on labour were related to the primacy he gave to the economic relation in determining the society 's past , present and future ( see also economic determinism ) . Accumulation of capital shapes the social system . Social change , for Marx , was about conflict between opposing interests , driven , in the background , by economic forces . This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory . In his evolutionary model of history , he argued that human history began with free , productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised , a trend most apparent under capitalism . Marx noted that this was not an intentional process ; rather , no individual or even state can go against the forces of economy .
The organisation of society depends on means of production . Literally those things , like land , natural resources , and technology , necessary for the production of material goods and the relations of production , in other words , the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production . Together these compose the mode of production , and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of distinct modes of production . Marx differentiated between base and superstructure , with the base ( or substructure ) referring to the economic system , and superstructure , to the cultural and political system . Marx regarded this mismatch between ( economic ) base and ( social ) superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict .
Despite Marx 's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should replace it , his explicit critique of capitalism is guarded , as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones ( slavery and feudal ) . Marx also never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice , although scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts .
Marx 's view of capitalism was two @-@ sided . On one hand , Marx , in the 19th century 's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system , noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation , exploitation , and recurring , cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment ; on the other hand capitalism is also characterised by " revolutionising , industrialising and universalising qualities of development , growth and progressivity " ( by which Marx meant industrialisation , urbanisation , technological progress , increased productivity and growth , rationality and scientific revolution ) , that are responsible for progress . Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history , because it constantly improved the means of production , more so than any other class in history , and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism and its transition to capitalism . Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist can , and has an incentive to , reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment .
According to Marx , capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce . Marx observed that in practically every successful industry , input unit @-@ costs are lower than output unit @-@ prices . Marx called the difference " surplus value " and argued that this surplus value had its source in surplus labour , the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce . Marx 's dual view of capitalism can be seen in his description of the capitalists : he refers to them as vampires sucking worker 's blood , but at the same time , he notes that drawing profit is " by no means an injustice " and that capitalists simply cannot go against the system . The true problem lies with the " cancerous cell " of capital , understood not as property or equipment , but the relations between workers and owners — the economic system in general .
At the same time , Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable , and prone to periodic crises . He suggested that over time , capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies , and less and less in labour . Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labour is the source of profits , he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew . Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth , collapse , and more growth . Moreover , he believed that in the long @-@ term , this process would necessarily enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat . In section one of The Communist Manifesto , Marx describes feudalism , capitalism , and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process :
We see then : the means of production and of exchange , on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up , were generated in feudal society . At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange , the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces ; they became so many fetters . They had to be burst asunder ; they were burst asunder . Into their place stepped free competition , accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it , and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class . A similar movement is going on before our own eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property ; on the contrary , they have become too powerful for these conditions , by which they are fettered , and so soon as they overcome these fetters , they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society , endanger the existence of bourgeois property .
Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end , giving way to socialism , or a post @-@ capitalistic , communist society :
The development of Modern Industry , therefore , cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products . What the bourgeoisie , therefore , produces , above all , are its own grave @-@ diggers . Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable . "
Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism , such as urbanisation , the working class , the proletariat , should grow in numbers and develop class consciousness , in time realising that they have to and can change the system . Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production , they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally , abolishing exploiting class , and introduce a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises . Marx argued in The German Ideology that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class :
Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established , an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself . We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things . The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence . "
In this new society , the self @-@ alienation would end , and humans would be free to act without being bound by the labour market . It would be a democratic society , enfranchising the entire population . In such a utopian world there would also be little if any need for a state , which goal was to enforce the alienation . He theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist / communist system , a dictatorship of the proletariat — a period where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production — would exist . As he wrote in his Critique of the Gotha Program , " between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other . Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat . " While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures ( such as Britain , the US and the Netherlands ) , he suggested that in other countries with strong centralised state @-@ oriented traditions , like France and Germany , the " lever of our revolution must be force " .
= = Legacy = =
Marx 's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought . Followers of Marx have frequently debated amongst themselves over how to interpret Marx 's writings and apply his concepts to the modern world . The legacy of Marx 's thought has become contested between numerous tendencies , each of which sees itself as Marx 's most accurate interpreter . In the political realm , these tendencies include Leninism , Marxism – Leninism , Trotskyism , Maoism , Luxemburgism , and libertarian Marxism . Various currents have also developed in academic Marxism , often under influence of other views , resulting in structuralist Marxism , historical Marxism , phenomenological Marxism , Analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism .
From an academic perspective , Marx 's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology . He has been cited as one of the nineteenth century 's three masters of the " school of suspicion " , alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud , and as one of the three principal architects of modern social science along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber . In contrast to other philosophers , Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method . Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the philosophies of history and science . Working in the Hegelian tradition , Marx rejected Comtean sociological positivism in attempt to develop a science of society . Karl Löwith considered Marx and Søren Kierkegaard to be the two greatest Hegelian philosophical successors . In modern sociological theory , Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives . Isaiah Berlin considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology , " in so far as anyone can claim the title " . Beyond social science , he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy , literature , the arts , and the humanities .
In social theory , twentieth- and twenty @-@ first @-@ century thinkers have pursued two main strategies in response to Marx . One move has been to reduce it to its analytical core , known as Analytical Marxism , which came at the cost of sacrificing its most interesting and perplexing ideas . Another , more common move has been to dilute the explanatory claims of Marx 's social theory and to emphasise the " relative autonomy " of aspects of social and economic life not directly related to Marx 's central narrative of interaction between the development of the " forces of production " and the succession of " modes of production " . Such has been , for example , the neo @-@ marxist theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marx 's social theory , such as E. P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm . It has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists like Antonio Gramsci who have sought to understand the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice , seen in the light of Marxist social theory . Marx 's ideas would also have a profound influence on subsequent artists and art history , with avant @-@ garde movements across literature , visual art , music , film , and theater .
Politically , Marx 's legacy is more complex . Throughout the twentieth century , revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves ' Marxist ' , most notably the Russian Revolution , which led to the founding of the USSR . Major world leaders including Vladimir Lenin , Mao Zedong , Fidel Castro , Salvador Allende , Josip Tito , and Kwame Nkrumah all cited Marx as an influence , and his ideas informed political parties worldwide beyond those where ' Marxist revolutions ' took place . The brutal dictatorships associated with some Marxist nations have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths , but the fidelity of these varied revolutionaries , leaders and parties to Marx 's work is highly contested , and rejected by many Marxists . It is now common to distinguish between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically , and the legacy and influence of those who shaped his ideas for political purposes .
= = Selected bibliography = =
The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law , 1842
Critique of Hegel 's Philosophy of Right , 1843
" On the Jewish Question , " 1843
" Notes on James Mill , " 1844
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 , 1844
The Holy Family , 1845
" Theses on Feuerbach , " 1845
The German Ideology , 1845
The Poverty of Philosophy , 1847
" Wage Labour and Capital , " 1847
Manifesto of the Communist Party , 1848
The Class Struggles in France , 1850
The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon , 1852
Grundrisse , 1857
A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy , 1859
Writings on the U.S. Civil War , 1861
Theories of Surplus Value , 3 volumes , 1862
" Value , Price and Profit , " 1865
Capital , Volume I ( Das Kapital ) , 1867
" The Civil War in France , " 1871
Critique of the Gotha Program , 1875
" Notes on Adolph Wagner , " 1883
Capital , Volume II ( posthumously published by Engels ) , 1885
Capital , Volume III ( posthumously published by Engels ) , 1894
Marx and Engels on the United States ( posthumously published by Progress Publishers , Moscow ) , 1979
= = = Articles and entries = = =
Dead Labour : Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by Paul Craig Roberts
Hegel , Marx , Engels , and the Origins of Marxism , by David North
In Praise of Marx Terry Eagleton synopsising his Why Marx was right chronicle.com 10 April 2011 .
Karl Marx : Did he get it all Right ? by Philip Collins , The Times , 21 October 2008
Karl Marx , Ernest Mandel
Liberalism , Marxism and The State , by Ralph Raico
Marx , Mao and mathematics : the politics of infinitesimals , by Joseph Dauben
Marxism and Ethics from International Socialism Paul Blackledge ( 2008 )
Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx
Portraits of Karl Marx ( International Institute of Social History )
Paul Dorn , The Paris Commune and Marx ' Theory of Revolution
Karl Marx ( 1818 – 1883 ) . The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics . Library of Economics and Liberty ( 2nd ed . ) ( Liberty Fund ) . 2008 .
Marx 's Revenge : How Class Struggle Is Shaping the World . TIME , 25 March 2013 .
Marx Was Right : Five Surprising Ways Karl Marx Predicted 2014 . Rolling Stone , 30 January 2014 .
Karl Marx Was Right . Chris Hedges for Truthdig , 31 May 2015 .
= Mont Blanc massif =
The Mont Blanc massif ( French : Massif du Mont @-@ Blanc ; Italian : Massiccio del Monte Bianco ) is a mountain range in the Alps , located mostly in France and Italy , but also straddling Switzerland at its northeastern end . It contains eleven major independent summits , each over 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) in height , and is named after Mont Blanc ( 4 @,@ 808 @.@ 73 metres ( 15 @,@ 776 @.@ 7 ft ) ) , the highest point in western Europe . Because of its considerable overall altitude , a large proportion of the massif is covered by glaciers , which includes the Mer de Glace and the Miage Glacier – the longest glaciers in France and Italy , respectively .
Not only does the massif form a watershed between the vast catchments of the Rhône and Po rivers , as well as a tripoint between France , Italy and Switzerland , but it also marks a border between two climate regions by separating the northern and western Alps from the southern Alps . The mountains of the massif consists mostly of granite and gneiss rocks , and at high altitudes the vegetation is an arctic @-@ alpine flora .
The valleys that delimit the massif were used as communication routes by the Romans until they left around the 5th century AD . The region has remained of some military importance through to the mid @-@ 20th century . A peasant farming economy operated within these valleys for many centuries until the glaciers and mountains were discovered by the outside world in the 18th century . Word of these impressive sights began to spread , and Mont Blanc was finally climbed in 1786 , marking the start of the sport of mountaineering . The region is now a major tourist destination , drawing in over six million visitors per year . It provides a wide range of opportunities for outdoor recreation and activities such as sight @-@ seeing , hiking , rock climbing , mountaineering and skiing . Around one hundred people a year die across its mountains and , occasionally , bodies have been lost and entombed in its glaciers for decades .
Access into the mountains is facilitated by cable cars , mountain railways and mountain huts which offer overnight refuge to climbers and skiers . The long @-@ distance Tour du Mont Blanc hiking trail circumnavigates the whole massif in an 11 @-@ day trek of 170 kilometres ( 110 mi ) . The Mont Blanc Tunnel connects the French town of Chamonix on the northern side with the Italian town of Courmayeur in the south . The high mountains have provided many opportunities for scientific research , including neutrino measurements within the Tunnel and impacts of climate change on its highest slopes . Recent rises in average temperatures have led to significant glacial retreat across the massif and an awareness of the need for better environmental protection , including a call for World Heritage Site status .
= = Geography = =
The Mont Blanc massif is 46 kilometres ( 29 mi ) long and lies in a southwest to northeasterly direction across the borders of France ( Haute @-@ Savoie and Savoie ) , Italy ( Aosta Valley ) and Switzerland ( western Valais ) . At its widest point the massif is 20 km ( 12 mi ) across . The northern side of the massif lies mostly within France , and is bounded by the valley of the River Arve , containing the towns of Argentière , Chamonix and Les Houches . To the west it is bounded by the Val Montjoie , containing the town of Les Contamines @-@ Montjoie and Le Bon Nant river which flows northwards to a confluence with the Arve near Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains , and thence onwards to the Rhône .
The southern side of the massif lies mostly within Italy and is bounded by the Val Veny and Val Ferret whose watercourses meet just above the town of Courmayeur . From Courmayeur these waters flow southwards as the Dora Baltea towards Aosta , eventually joining the Po river . However , the extreme southwestern end of the massif does lie within France and is bounded by the Vallée des Glaciers ( which connects to the Val Veny over the watershed of the col de la Seigne ) , and its waters flow southwards towards the Isère river and onwards to the Rhône . The northeastern end of the massif falls within Switzerland , and is bounded by a separate valley , confusingly also called Val Ferret , and which separates it from the Pennine Alps further east . Its watercourse , la Dranse de Ferret , flows northwards to join the Rhône at Martigny .
The borders of all three countries converge at a tripoint near the summit of Mont Dolent at an altitude of 3 @,@ 820 metres ( 12 @,@ 533 ft ) . From here the French – Italian border runs southwestwards along a ridge of high summits on the southern side of the massif , many of which are over 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) in height , including the Grandes Jorasses , Rochefort Ridge , Dent du Géant , Mont Maudit , Mont Blanc and its western satellite , the Aiguille de Bionnassay . From here the border turns southwards over the Dômes de Miage and Aiguille de Tré la Tête before dropping down to the Col de la Seigne . North of Mont Dolent the border between France and Switzerland meanders roughly north @-@ northwestwards along a ridge @-@ line of slightly lower peaks , including the Aiguille d 'Argentière , the Aiguille du Chardonnet and the Aiguille du Tour , before dropping down to the Col de Balme . The Swiss – Italian border runs southwest from Mont Dolent , down to the twin passes of Col Ferret .
The massif contains 11 main summits over 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) in altitude , as well as numerous subsidiary points above this height . Crowning the massif is Mont Blanc ( 4 @,@ 808 @.@ 73 metres ( 15 @,@ 776 @.@ 7 ft ) ) , the highest mountain in the Alps and in western Europe . From the summit of Mont Blanc to the River Arve near Chamonix there is a 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) drop over a distance of just 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Because of its great elevation , much of the massif is snow- and ice @-@ covered , and has been deeply dissected by glaciers . The Mer de Glace is the longest glacier in the range as well as the longest in France and the second longest in the Alps . The debris @-@ covered Miage Glacier on the southern side of the massif is the longest in Italy . The summit of Mont Blanc is an ice cap whose thickness varies from year to year .
The entire massif can be circumnavigated by the Tour du Mont Blanc , a walking route of approximately 170 kilometres ( 110 mi ) . It usually takes around 11 days to complete , but is also used for an annual mountain ultramarathon , with top competitors expected to complete the whole route in less than 21 hours .
The main mountain passes , or cols , that connect different valleys and towns around the Mont Blanc massif are :
Col du Bonhomme 2 @,@ 329 m ( 7 @,@ 641 ft ) ( path , links Contamines – Beaufort – Les Chapieux )
Col de la Seigne 2 @,@ 516 m ( 8 @,@ 255 ft ) ( path , links Bourg Saint Maurice – Les Chapieux – Courmayeur )
Col Ferret 2 @,@ 490 m ( 8 @,@ 169 ft ) ( path , links Courmayeur – Orsières – Trient valley )
Col de Balme 2 @,@ 191 m ( 7 @,@ 188 ft ) ( path , links Trient valley – Chamonix )
Col de la Forclaz 1 @,@ 527 m ( 5 @,@ 010 ft ) ( major road , links Argentière – Martigny )
= = = Summits = = =
The first ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel Paccard initiated the sport of alpine mountaineering , and it was during the golden age of alpinism ( 1854 – 65 ) and the silver age of alpinism ( 1865 – 82 ) that the majority of the main summits of the massif were first attained . Members of the England @-@ based Alpine Club were instrumental in many of the first ascents , usually accompanied by guides from the towns of Chamonix or Courmayeur , such as Michel Croz , Michel Payot and Émile Rey , as well as the Swiss guide , Christian Almer . Across the massif there are now more than two thousand different mountaineering routes to the summits , ranging greatly in both length and difficulty . These attract climbers from all over the world who , unlike the early ascensionists , now have access to numerous climbing guidebooks , modern safety equipment , good information on climbing routes and technical difficulty , as well as weather forecasts and mountain accommodation and food .
= = = Glaciers = = =
A wide range of glaciers and glacial structures can be found across the Mont Blanc massif , all of which can be easily reached or viewed . Glaciers cover 170 square kilometres ( 66 sq mi ) of the massif , of which 110 km2 ( 42 sq mi ) fall within France . The Mer de Glace is the largest glacier in the western Alps , and the second largest in Europe . It has a total length of 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from highest snowfield to terminus and an area of 35 – 40 km ² ( 14 – 15 sq mi ) .
At around 10 km ( 6 mi ) in length , the Miage Glacier is Italy 's longest glacier and also the largest debris @-@ covered glacier in Europe . Other large glaciers include the Argentière Glacier ( 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) ) , the Saleina Glacier ( 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) ) , Trient Glacier ( 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) ) , and the Bossons Glacier ( c . 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) ) and Brenva Glacier . Whilst these glaciers appear to show similar fluctuations in length , research shows that each glacier of the Mont Blanc massif has its own individual and distinctive response time to changes in snowfall and climate . The Bossons Glacier is known to respond first , then the Argentière and the Trient Glaciers respond some four to seven years later , with the Mer de Glace reacting last — between eleven and fifteen years after changes are first observed in the movement of ice in the Bossons Glacier .
Even the smallest glaciers can have a significant impact on the environment and on human activity . In 1892 , a large body of water which had accumulated under the surface of the Tête Rousse Glacier , burst suddenly on the night of 11 July . It released 200 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 7 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of water and ice which flowed down the mountainside , killing 175 people in the town of Saint @-@ Gervais . Recent rediscovery of further build @-@ up of water deep within the glacier are a cause of serious concern to this day .
The inexorable downward movement and melting of glaciers can result in objects lost within them reappearing many years later . The first recorded account of a body reappearing from a glacier in the Mont Blanc range was made by Viscount Edmond de Catelin in 1861 . It concerned three alpine guides who were buried in a crevasse during an avalanche on 20 August 1820 near the Rocher Rouges , high up on Mont Blanc , during an expedition organised by Joseph Hamel . Forty years later the remains of two of them were discovered , re @-@ exposed within fissures in the Bossons glacier . They were 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) lower down from the point where they were lost ; the corpse of the third guide was discovered the following year . In 2014 , a group of climbers found a body on the Glacier du Talèfre , close to the Couvercle Hut . It was identified as that of a young Chamonix guide who had been caught in a winter storm during a solo ascent of the Nant Blanc face of the Aiguille Verte in 1982 and was assumed to have fallen into a crevasse . In 2013 , a box of valuable gemstones was found by a climber on the Bossons Glacier . It had re @-@ emerged , having been carried 3 @,@ 048 metres ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) downhill from the site of one of two Air India plane crashes . These occurred at almost identical locations high up near the summit of Mont Blanc : one in 1950 ( Air India Flight 245 ) , and one in 1966 ( Air India Flight 101 ) . Debris from these crashes is still commonly found on the glacier below .
= = Geology = =
The Mont Blanc massif consists predominantly of ancient granite rocks . The Alps have their origins some 770 million years ago when upheaval of the earth 's crust lifted up schist , gneiss and limestone rocks . These were destined to form the base of the Alps range , and this period of upheaval ended some 300 million years ago . Granite intrusions and associated metamorphic rocks formed the base of the mountains we now call the Mont Blanc massif as well as the nearby Aiguilles Rouges . But these rocks were then heavily eroded away , eventually being ground down and inundated by the sea , so allowing sedimentary rocks to form . Then , once again , this part of the earth 's crust was uplifted as a result of the collision of continental plates . The huge mountain ranges of today 's Alps began to form . This happened towards the end of the Tertiary period , some 15 million years ago . Finally , came the Quaternary era , when successive ice ages saw vast glaciers advance , retreat , and then advance again . Their movement across the landscape ground down and shaped the mountains and the valleys we see today .
Both the Mont Blanc massif , and the Aiguilles Rouges range to its north , now form part of the external zone of the Alps , effectively being the outermost layers of rock . The central granites make up Mont Blanc , the steep slopes of the Drus , the Grandes Jorasses and the Dent du Géant , and at the highest points are topped by schists , which are visible in places such as Grands Montets and near Mont Blanc 's summit .
The granite mountains around Chamonix have been eroded into steep needle @-@ shaped peaks ( known as aiguilles ) . Known locally as protogine , these rocks are lower in the mineral biotite mica and richer in quartz than the granites commonly found elsewhere .
A large part of the massif is covered by ice fields and is cut by numerous glaciers , mostly flowing northwestwards on the French side ; southeastwards on the Italian side and eastwards on the Swiss side . With much steeper slopes on the Italian side , many glaciers drop very sharply and some , such as the Miage Glacier and the Brenva Glacier , are very heavily covered in rock debris . The massif is itself defined by broad valleys which formed along fault lines and which have subsequently been shaped by ice during the last glacial period of the ice age .
During the mid @-@ 19th century the granite rocks of the Mont Blanc massif were an important source of stone for constructing buildings ; one hundred Italian stonemasons were brought to the Chamonix valley by Charles Albert of Sardinia for reconstructing the towns of Sallanches and Cluses , both of which had at that time just been destroyed by fires .
= = = Minerals = = =
The massif has been an important source of mineral specimens for crystal @-@ hunters for over 250 years . The mountaineer and explorer , Edward Whymper , noted that the basin of the Glacier de Talèfre was " considered good hunting @-@ ground for crystals " , and that the slopes below les Courtes had yielded many large specimens . He recounted that in 1745 a guide had stated he had collected over 300 pounds ( 136 kg ) of specimens there in just three hours . The first systematic account of the minerals of the Mont Blanc area was published in 1873 by Venance Payot . His list , entitled " Statistique minéralogique des environs du Mt @-@ Blanc " , catalogued 90 mineral types although it also included those present only as very small components of rocks . If these are excluded , it is known today that at least 68 separate mineral species occur across the whole range of the Mont Blanc massif .
In order to preserve the mineralogical heritage of Mont Blanc , in 2008 the commune of Chamonix banned all mineral @-@ hunting activities and collection of specimens without a prior permit being issued by the mayor 's office . Use of explosives , heavy machinery or helicopters for removing material were also banned , and a code of practice put in place which requires an annual declaration of all finds to be made . It also gives a right for the Chamonix crystal museum ( Musée des Cristaux ) to have first option to acquire specimens of significance for its collections . To further protect the scientific value of material collected , all specimens offered for sale must be labelled with details of where they were found . The crystal museum opened to the public in 2006 and tells the story of the early crystal @-@ hunters ( known as cristalliers ) . Many specimens collected from across the massif are displayed there .
= = Climate = =
Located on the watershed between the Rhône and the Po rivers , the Mont Blanc massif is also situated between the two different climatic regions of the northern and western Alps and that of the southern Alps . Climatic conditions on the Mer de Glace are similar to those found on the northern side of the Swiss Alps .
The climate of the Mont Blanc massif is cold and temperate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) , and is greatly influenced by altitude . The main valley settlements around the perimeter of the massif are at an altitude ranging between 600 and 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 900 ft ) . Daytime valley temperatures in July and August may range up to 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , sometimes reaching 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . The greatest snowfall occurs between the months of November and April .
The best weather for mountaineering or hiking occurs between late June to early October but , being the highest part of the Alps , the Mont Blanc massif can create its own weather patterns . Temperatures drop as the mountains gain in height , and the summit of Mont Blanc is a permanent ice cap , with temperatures around − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) . The summit is also prone to strong winds and sudden weather changes . Because of the massif 's great overall height , a considerable proportion is permanently glaciated or snow @-@ covered and is exposed to extremely cold conditions . Even on the high passes of the Tour du Mont Blanc , around 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 500 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , summer temperatures can be between 5 and 15 ° C ( 41 and 59 ° F ) , but feeling much colder because of wind chill in windy or wet conditions .
Precipitation is distributed fairly evenly over all months of the year , and mostly originates from a westerly airflow . There is significant variation in precipitation with altitude . For example , Chamonix has an elevation of approximately 1 @,@ 030 metres ( 3 @,@ 380 ft ) and receives around 1 @,@ 020 mm ( 40 in ) of annual precipitation , whilst the Col du Midi , which is at 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level , receives significantly more , totalling 3 @,@ 100 mm ( 122 in ) . However , at an even higher altitude ( near to the summit of Mont Blanc ) precipitation is considerably less , with only around 1 @,@ 100 mm ( 43 in ) recorded , despite the latter measurements being taken at a height of 4 @,@ 300 metres ( 14 @,@ 100 ft ) .
In the mountains further south of the Mont Blanc range , annual precipitation is significantly less than at equivalent altitudes within the massif . For example , the valleys in the Pelvoux massif at around 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) receive only around 600 to 700 mm ( 24 to 28 in ) of precipitation per year , which is significantly less than that in either Courmayeur or Chamonix .
= = Ecology = =
The massif contains a very rich variety of biodiversity as a result of the huge height range and different habitats found between the valleys and the highest summits . Mild temperatures occur at altitudes between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , whereas arctic conditions occur from 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) up to the highest point at 4 @,@ 808 @.@ 73 metres ( 15 @,@ 776 @.@ 7 ft ) .
Whilst the Mont Blanc massif does not contain any species that are endemic to it , there are many rare and legally protected species found within its four major habitat zones . These are the : montane forests , sub @-@ alpine , alpine and nival zones . The major habitats are coniferous forests , moors , rock and talus slopes , plus glacial moraines . The biological richness is further influenced by the different aspects of the faces , by the geology , and by the influence of man on the lower and middle slopes where forest clearance has created open grassland . The native forest habitats are essential for the survival of many species , with the key conifer species including larch , pine , stone pine and red pine .
= = = Flora = = =
Over a thousand plant species have been recorded across the massif , from the valley bottoms right up to 3 @,@ 800 m ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) where the alpine chrysanthemum ( Leucanthemopsis alpina ) can be found at a record @-@ breaking height .
Early explorers , such as Alexander von Humboldt in 1807 , observed a number of notable species in the mountains around Mont Blanc at altitudes above 3 @,@ 100 metres ( 10 @,@ 200 feet ) . This was well above the permanent snow line , but on rocks that were so steep that little snow could rest . These arctic @-@ alpine species included : Androsace carnea ; Androsace chamaejasme ; Arabis caerulea ; Cardamine bellidifolia ; Draba hirta ; Saxifraga androsacea and Silene acaulis ( occurring down to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . Between 2 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 100 m ( 8 @,@ 200 and 10 @,@ 200 ft ) , Humboldt noted the following species of flowering plants amongst rocky debris around permanent snow fields and the highest alpine glaciers : Achillea nana ; Achillea atrata ; Gentiana nivalis ; Juncus trifidus ; Ranunculus glacialis ; Saxifraga biflora and Saxifraga oppositifolia .
In the mid 1800s , Venance Payot , a Chamonix naturalist , published a number of articles on the flora around the Mont Blanc area , including a list of the flowering plants , ferns mosses and lichens found at les Grands Mulets and elsewhere in the massif around Chamonix and the Aosta Valley .
High up in the middle of the Glacier de Talèfre , completely surrounded by ice , and due south of Les Droites , lies a large triangular region of steep mountainside containing an unusual mixture of high @-@ alpine vegetation . Known as the Jardin de Talèfre , its name derives from the rich assemblage of plants which occur at great altitude there ( between 2 @,@ 650 and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 8 @,@ 690 and 9 @,@ 840 ft ) ) . Described as " one of the loftiest patches of vegetation in Europe upon an islet of rock in the midst of a wilderness of snow and ice " , it is higher than the adjacent ground by some tens of metres and , as a result , was spared glacial scouring and subsequent loss of its vegetation during the Little Ice Age ( between 1300 and 1850 ) . Nevertheless , it would at that time still have been surrounded by ice on all three sides , as evidenced by the three glacial moraines found there today . Species recorded there include : Achillea nana ; Alchemilla pentaphylla ; Arenaria biflora ; Arenaria serpyllifolia ; Cardamine alpina ; Draba frigida ; Empetrum nigrum ; Epilobium alpinum ; Helictotrichon versicolor ; Homogyne alpina ; Jacobaea incana ; Juncus trifidus ; Kalmia procumbens ; Poa laxa ; Potentilla frigida ; Ranunculus glacialis ; Ranunculus pyrenaeus ; Saxifraga aspera ; Saxifraga bryoides ; Saxifraga oppositifolia ; Sedum alpestre ; Sibbaldia procumbens and Trifolium alpinum .
The Saussurea Alpine Botanical Garden above Courmayeur is located at 2 @,@ 173 m ( 7 @,@ 129 ft ) above sea level , and is the highest botanical garden in Europe . It contains around 800 plant species and covers an area of 7 @,@ 000 square metres ( 75 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . It was originally created in 1987 just as a tourist attraction but , with the subsequent designation of the adjacent Pavillon du Mont Frety as a protected area , it has since increased in scientific importance . It can be reached either from the mid @-@ way station of the Skyway Monte Bianco , or on foot from La Palud within two hours and an ascent of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . The botanical garden derives its name from the genus of mountain flowers , Saussurea ( Saw @-@ worts ) which itself was named after Horace @-@ Bénédict de Saussure , whose enthusiasm for scientific research in the mountains led to the first ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786 .
= = = Fauna = = =
The mountains around Mont Blanc are home to many mammal species , including ibex , chamois , deer , mountain hare and alpine marmot ( including a small population of albino marmots within Val Ferret ) . Eurasian lynx have been reintroduced into the French Alps and , although present around the Mont Blanc massif , are extremely unlikely to be encountered . Similarly , wolves were extirpated long ago but have also been reintroduced in recent times , and a small number of individuals are reported to have made their way into the Chamonix area .
Over 80 different bird species have been recorded on the Italian side of the massif from within Val Ferret , including 63 nesting species and nine regional or national rarities . The following birds have been recorded in different habitats right across the Mont Blanc massif :
Valleys and lower pastures : Blackbird ; carrion crow ; chaffinch ; goldfinch ; great tit ; house martin ; house sparrow ; nuthatch ; robin ; swallow ; thrush ; whinchat ; yellowhammer .
Rivers : Dipper ; wagtails .
Forests : Coal tit ; crested tit ; jay ; marsh tit ; mistle thrush ; nutcracker ; willow tit .
Above tree line : Alpine accentor ; alpine chough ; bearded vulture ( rare ) ; black redstart ; citril finch ; meadow pipit ; ptarmigan ; redstart ; snowfinch ; wallcreeper ; wheatear .
Raptors : Buzzard ; golden eagle ; honey buzzard ; kestrel ; peregrine falcon ; sparrowhawk .
Seven of the massif 's largest indigenous mammal species are housed in the Merlet Animal Park near Les Houches , including ibex , chamois , marmot , fallow and roe deer . Located 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) above the village , the park was founded in 1968 and contains eighty animal species from mountain habitats around the world .
= = Human history = =
= = = Early history = = =
The region in which the Mont Blanc massif is located has been occupied by man for at least 70 @,@ 000 years , although , as now — and because of the great height and glaciated nature of the mountains — only the lower parts of the valleys around its perimeter would have been inhabited or used as routes of communication .
The Romans , who occupied the region some 2 @,@ 000 years ago , used the main valleys around the massif for military purposes . They gave the name Alpes Penninae , or Poeninae , to the highest parts of the Alps — which extended from Mont Blanc to Monte Rosa . They took over Aosta from the Salassi Celtic tribe in 25 AD and engineered roads which extended northwards into Europe via the Great St Bernard Pass and the Little St Bernard Pass . Courmayeur , on the southern side of the massif , began to develop as a stop @-@ off along their trans @-@ alpine trading routes between Italy and France . Parts of the modern Tour du Mont Blanc walking trail still follow the route of a Roman road along the Col du Bonhomme and the Col de la Seigne .
The Romans occupied Martigny to the north of the massif , and their influence spread out well beyond the Alps into much of northern Europe . As a result of aggressive pressure from tribes in the north , the imperial forces of Rome were gradually withdrawn from the alpine regions until , by the 5th century AD , they had left completely . The areas left behind were occupied in the western part by the Burgundian tribes from what is today France , whilst the Alemanni tribes from Germany moved into eastern parts , resulting in the linguistic divide found today across the Alps .
For many centuries thereafter , the settlements around the Mont Blanc massif comprised a rural population of peasant mountain farmers , living off animal husbandry , supplemented with a meagre harvest of rye and oats . Some farmers in the valley of Chamonix joined their counterparts from the neighbouring valleys of Maurienne , Beaufortain and Tarentaise and crossed the Alps into southern Germany , Austria and northern Italy to sell their products and bring back goods for sale in local markets .
= = = Tourist beginnings = = =
In 1741 , the Chamouny valley and its glaciers on the north side of the massif were discovered and written about by two aristocratic travelling Englishmen , named William Windham and Richard Pococke . The descriptions of their exploits were published across Europe , bringing the mountains of the Mont Blanc range to the attention of a wide audience for the first time . In 1760 , Horace @-@ Bénédict de Saussure offered a large financial prize to the first people who successfully ascended Mont Blanc . The summit was finally attained on 8 August 1786 by two Chamonix men , the guide Jacques Balmat and Dr. Michel Paccard . The decades that followed saw the gradual opening up of Chamonix to the world , as well as the rest of the Mont Blanc massif . The many published accounts of climbs and impressive sights amongst or around the mountain range attracted numerous wealthy and notable visitors , for whom a visit to marvel at the Sea of Ice ( the Mer de Glace ) became a fashionable thing to experience .
In July 1816 , Mary Shelley and Percy Bysshe Shelley toured the Alps and visited Chamouni ( as it was then known ) , as well as the Mer de Glace and the Bossons Glacier . They jointly published their accounts and letters in a work entitled : History of a Six Weeks ' Tour through a part of France , Switzerland , Germany , and Holland ; with Letters Descriptive of a Sail Round the Lake of Geneva and of the Glaciers of Chamouni . The book concludes with Mont Blanc , a 144 @-@ line poem by Percy Shelley , written whilst in Chamonix and which was inspired by the river Arve , the snow @-@ covered summits , the chaotic glaciers and the forests that he experienced during their visit .
Amongst many other notable visitors were : Goethe ( 1779 ) ; Chateaubriand ( 1805 ) ; Madame de Staël ; Victor Hugo ; Louis Pasteur and Franz Liszt ( 1836 ) , plus two successive wives of Napoleon Bonaparte : Joséphine de Beauharnais ( 1810 ) and Marie Louise of Austria ( 1814 ) . In 1849 , John Ruskin spent a month in Chamonix , from where he painted some of the massif 's mountains before undertaking the Tour of Mont Blanc . When Savoy was eventually annexed to France in 1860 , Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie visited the region to mark the event and undertook to enhance road access leading to the end of the Arve valley .
The 19th century saw considerable economic development which turned the small agricultural town of Chamonix into a base for tourists , with luxurious hotels and mountain lodges being built to accommodate them . A trade in selling local items to visiting foreigners soon developed . Crystals collected from across the massif were much in demand , as were locally produced goods such as horn trinkets and honey .
In just 50 years the Mont Blanc massif , and Chamonix and Courmayeur in particular , had become a popular destination for many travellers , and its economy changed from 80 % agriculture to 80 % tourism . It saw the emergence and spread of the sport of alpine mountaineering , and visitor numbers increased significantly . By the end of the 18th century , Chamonix was home to around 1 @,@ 500 summer visitors . By 1850 it was welcoming 5 @,@ 000 visitors , and by 1892 those numbers had risen to 24 @,@ 000 a year . In 1906 , the eleventh edition of a guidebook written by Edward Whymper about Chamonix and the Mont Blanc range estimated that 130 @,@ 000 visitors had gone there during the previous season . It also reported that the railway service to Chamonix , which had previously been suspended in winter , was now running throughout the year . The tourist boom to the mountains had started . In 1924 , a Winter Sports Week was held in Chamonix , with patronage from the International Olympic Committee . It attracted over 10 @,@ 000 paying visitors and was retrospectively named as the first Winter Olympic Games .
= = = Modern tourism = = =
The Mont Blanc massif is now a significant tourist destination . The region attracts over six million people per annum , with around one in five gaining access to its slopes by means of mechanical infrastructure ( cable cars or funicular railways ) . Some surveys have shown that tourists mostly come to the Mont Blanc massif and its environs for winter sports such as skiing as well as summer outdoor activities like hiking , climbing and cycling .
The Aiguille du Midi Cable Car in Chamonix attracts 500 @,@ 000 people each year and gives views over much of the massif , and up towards Mont Blanc itself . From Chamonix it rises to the summit of the Aiguille du Midi at 3 @,@ 842 metres ( 12 @,@ 605 ft ) , and holds the world record for the highest vertical ascent of any cable car ( 2 @,@ 807 m ( 9 @,@ 209 ft ) ) .
The building of the new Skyway Monte Bianco cable car on the Italian side of the massif is expected to increase visitor numbers to Courmayeur from 100 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 per annum , following complete replacement of an earlier cable car system in 2015 . It takes tourists from La Palud up to the Torino Hut at its top on Pointe Helbronner . Costing over 105 million euros , the Skyway Monte Bianco is regarded as the world 's most expensive cable car installation .
Other recent enhancements to tourist infrastructure across the massif have included construction of a new , and ultra @-@ modern Goûter Hut to accommodate the increasing numbers of mountaineers attempting the popular Goûter Route to the summit of Mont Blanc , and investment of ½ billion euros in Les Grands Montets and other ski areas over a six @-@ year period from 2014 onwards .
Increasing numbers of mountain tourists , ease of access into the high mountain environment , plus promotion and encouragement by tour companies offering ascents of Mont Blanc to people with little or no previous alpine experience , have led to an increase in mountain accidents and even inappropriate demands to be rescued . With up to 30 @,@ 000 climbing parties now attempting to ascend Mont Blanc each year , it has gained the reputation of being one of the world 's deadliest mountains . Deaths from mountaineering @-@ related accidents across the Mont Blanc massif average almost 100 a year , with the majority occurring on Mont Blanc itself . There have also been various stunts , some of which the local authorities have decried as reckless or stupid . In recent years , guards have been placed on the most popular route of ascent to Mont Blanc 's summit at peak periods in order to ensure that those entering the mountain environment are adequately equipped and skilled . This has led to calls to limit access to the most popular summits and for the mountains to be treated with greater respect .
= = = Scientific research = = =
The Mont Blanc massif has provided numerous opportunities for academic research , dating back to the very first ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786 during which Michel Paccard carried scientific equipment to confirm it as the highest summit . In 1820 , an ill @-@ fated expedition led by Dr Hamel included pigeons intended for release at varying altitudes to measure the impact of reduced air density on their ability to fly . In 1890 , Joseph Vallot built a small meteorological observatory at approximately 4 @,@ 350 m ( 14 @,@ 272 ft ) between the Dôme du Goûter and Mont Blanc 's summit from where numerous measurements and scientific experiments were conducted . One study involved taking simultaneous temperature measurements made over many months at Chamonix , the Grands Mulets and at the observatory itself . In 1893 , Pierre Janssen constructed an astronomical observatory on the top of Mont Blanc , partially buried within the summit ice to hold it in place . A 33 cm ( 13 in ) telescope and a spectrograph for measuring the oxygen content of the sun were installed . The observatory was removed when it started to collapse around 1906 .
Three examples of modern @-@ day uses of the high mountains for scientific research include neutrino detection , uranium pollution monitoring and climate change :
A neutrino detector was installed deep inside the Mont Blanc Tunnel in the early ‑ 1980s in order to take advantage of the shielding from background radiation provided by the 4 @,@ 800 meter water equivalent ( m.w.e. ) of solid rock surrounding it in every direction . In February 1987 , the underground neutrino observatory reported the detection of a neutrino event , believed to have originated from the explosion of the SN 1987A supernova .
In 2005 , the technique of remote laser @-@ scanning ( LiDAR ) was used for the first time in any mountain environment to research the impact of climate change on rock face stability . Seven sites in the Mont Blanc massif were selected , with the Tour Ronde being the first to be analysed . An area of its east face of 67 @,@ 400 m2 ( 725 @,@ 000 sq ft ) was laser @-@ scanned from a distance of 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 625 feet ) . This revealed that over a twelve @-@ month period the face had lost 536 m3 ( 18 @,@ 900 cu ft ) of rock . The project concluded that the high rockfall rate on the Tour Ronde and elsewhere in the massif was linked to the degradation of permafrost . This would formerly have held the mountain together more effectively , but is now exposed to greater weathering through the freeze @-@ thaw cycle of water , with maximum occurrence during warm summers . In 2015 , climbers captured video footage of a huge rockfall on the Tour Ronde 's east face , which suggests that instability continues in this area .
In 2001 , researchers from France , Italy and Korea published the results of a study into uranium contamination of the wider environment by wind @-@ borne particles . They analysed an ice core that had been drilled to a depth of 140 m ( 459 ft ) on the Dôme du Goûter , and at an altitude of 4 @,@ 250 m ( 13 @,@ 944 ft ) . It produced an accurate timeline of contamination levels going back 200 years and was the first published uranium concentration data for any alpine or polar icefield . Ice that pre @-@ dated 1940 was shown to contain fairly uniform and low levels of uranium , consistent with natural background contamination . In contrast , ice that had been laid down after World War II showed large excesses . These were attributed to aerial transport of uranium dust , produced by extensive mining and milling operations that occurred in East Germany ( and also in France to a lesser extent ) between 1965 and the end of the 1980s . No evidence was found that either the 1986 Chernobyl disaster or other nuclear power plants had caused the high levels of observed uranium contamination .
= = = Modern military history = = =
A troop garrison , known as the Casermetta , was active for many years at the Col de la Seigne , on the border between France and Italy . In the 1930s , during a period of increased international tension , the Mont Blanc massif was used by both countries wanting to demonstrate their military might , and large drills and troop exercises were undertaken at high altitude . During World War II , at a time when the French army had already been defeated by Nazi Germany , France found itself under attack again , but this time by Italian soldiers in many alpine locations including the area around the Col de la Seigne . Evidence of past fortifications and old firing points are still visible throughout the area
Towards the end of World War II , the highest engagement of the entire war occurred on the glaciers above Chamonix . With the Germans nearly defeated , and their garrison in Chamonix surrounded by the liberating forces , a contingent of Austro @-@ German soldier — who were based around the Torino Hut on the Italian side of the massif — launched a dawn bombardment on Chamonix from positions adjacent to the cable car station on the Col du Midi . Their attack was met with fierce opposition from French resistance fighters , and took place at an altitude of 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 feet ) . Nine of the attacking soldiers were killed , including their commander .
By 1932 France had established the École de Haute Montagne in Chamonix to train mountain troops , but in 1945 it was reconstituted to provide specialised mountaineering training , skiing and tactical skills to the entire army . It was later renamed as the École Militaire de Haute Montagne ( EMHM ) and it continues to fulfil that role to this day , training approximately 1 @,@ 500 troops every year .
= = = Incidents and tragedies = = =
A number of noteworthy incidents have occurred across the massif over the last two centuries which stand out from the routine toll of mountain @-@ related deaths , of which there are now approximately 100 per annum .
1820 First recorded deaths on Mont Blanc . Three Chamoniards die in a climbing group led by Dr Hamel .
1892 175 people are killed in St Gervais and nearby settlements from the sudden release of meltwater from the Tête Rousse Glacier .
1895 Italian mountain guide , Émile Rey , dies during simple descent from Dent du Geant .
1946 A B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress crashes into the Aiguille des Glaciers . All eight crew are killed .
1950 Air India Flight 245 crashes close to summit of Mont Blanc . All 48 passengers and crew are killed .
1961 French jet fighter plane severs cable on Vallée Blanche Cable Car , killing six tourists and leaving 59 trapped .
1966 Air India Flight 101 crashes close to summit of Mont Blanc . All 106 passengers and 11 crew are killed .
1997 British mountain guide is successfully sued by six @-@ year @-@ old boy over father 's death in a climbing accident on the Tour Ronde in 1990 .
1999 Avalanche kills 12 people and destroys 17 houses in villages of Le Tour and Montroc - the worst incident in Chamonix for 90 years .
1999 A lorry fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel kills 39 people .
2012 Ice fall triggers avalanche on Mont Maudit , affecting 28 climbers . Nine climbers killed , nine others injured .
= = Access = =
The Mont Blanc massif is accessible by road from within France via the A40 – E25 , or from Switzerland via Martigny and the Forclaz pass ( 1 @,@ 527 m ( 5 @,@ 010 ft ) ) , or via Orsières to reach the Swiss Val Ferret . From within Italy the A40 from Aosta leads to Courmayeur , as does the higher mountain route from Bourg @-@ Saint @-@ Maurice via the Col du Petit St. Bernard ( 2 @,@ 188 m ( 7 @,@ 178 ft ) ) .
The massif can be quickly crossed in a north – south direction by one of two transport routes , one
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in 651 ; Bede says Aethelwald acted as Penda 's guide during his invasion .
The cause of this war is uncertain . There is a passage in Bede 's Ecclesiastical History that suggests Aethelhere of East Anglia was the cause of the war . On the other hand , it has been argued that an issue of punctuation in later manuscripts confused Bede 's meaning on this point , and that he in fact meant to refer to Penda as being responsible for the war . Although , according to Bede , Penda tolerated some Christian preaching in Mercia , it has been suggested that he perceived Bernician sponsorship of Christianity in Mercia and Middle Anglia as a form of " religious colonialism " that undermined his power , and that this may have provoked the war . Elsewhere the possibility has been suggested that Penda sought to prevent Oswiu from reunifying Northumbria , not wanting Oswiu to restore the kingdom to the power it had enjoyed under Edwin and Oswald . A perception of the conflict in terms of the political situation between Bernicia and Deira could help to explain the role of Aethelwald of Deira in the war , since Aethelwald was the son of Oswald and might not ordinarily be expected to ally with those who had killed his father . Perhaps , as the son of Oswald , he sought to obtain the Bernician kingship for himself .
According to the Historia Brittonum , Penda besieged Oswiu at Iudeu ; this site has been identified with Stirling , in the north of Oswiu 's kingdom . Oswiu tried to buy peace : in the Historia Brittonum , it is said that Oswiu offered treasure , which Penda distributed among his British allies . Bede states that the offer was simply rejected by Penda , who " resolved to extirpate all of [ Oswiu 's ] nation , from the highest to the lowest " . Additionally , according to Bede , Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith was being held hostage " at the court of Queen Cynwise , in the province of the Mercians " — perhaps surrendered by Oswiu as part of some negotiations or arrangement . It would seem that Penda 's army then moved back south , perhaps returning home , but a great battle was fought near the river Winwaed in the region of Loidis , thought to be somewhere in the area around modern day Leeds , on a date given by Bede as 15 November . The identification of the Winwaed with a modern river is uncertain , but possibly it was a tributary of the Humber . There is good reason to believe it may well have been the river now known as Cock Beck in the ancient kingdom of Elmet . The Cock Beck meanders its way through Pendas Fields , close to an ancient well known as Pen Well on the outskirts of Leeds , before eventually joining the River Wharfe . This same Cock Beck whilst in flood also played a significant role in the much later Battle of Towton in 1461 . Another possibility is the River Went ( a tributary of the River Don , situated to the north of modern @-@ day Doncaster ) . It may be that Penda 's army was attacked by Oswiu at a point of strategic vulnerability , which would help explain Oswiu 's victory over forces that were , according to Bede , much larger than his own .
The Mercian force was also weakened by desertions . According to the Historia Brittonum , Cadafael of Gwynedd , " rising up in the night , escaped together with his army " ( thus earning him the name Cadomedd , or " battle @-@ shirker " ) , and Bede says that at the time of the battle , Aethelwald of Deira withdrew and " awaited the outcome from a place of safety " . According to Kirby , if Penda 's army was marching home , it may have been for this reason that some of his allies were unwilling to fight . It may also be that the allies had different purposes in the war , and Kirby suggested that Penda 's deserting allies may have been dissatisfied " with what had been achieved at Iudeu " . At a time when the Winwaed was swollen with heavy rains , the Mercians were badly defeated and Penda was killed , along with the East Anglian king Aethelhere . Bede says that Penda 's " thirty commanders , and those who had come to his assistance were put to flight , and almost all of them slain , " and that more drowned while fleeing than were killed in the actual battle . He also says that Penda 's head was cut off ; a connection between this and the treatment of Oswald 's body at Maserfield is possible . Writing in the 12th century , Henry of Huntingdon emphasised the idea that Penda was suffering the same fate as he had inflicted on others .
= = Aftermath and historical appraisal = =
With the defeat at the Winwaed , Oswiu came to briefly dominate Mercia , permitting Penda 's son Peada to rule its southern portion . Two of Penda 's other sons , Wulfhere and Æthelred , later ruled Mercia in succession after the overthrow of Northumbrian control in the late 650s . The period of rule by Penda 's descendants came to an end with his grandson Ceolred 's death in 716 , after which power passed to descendants of Eowa for most of the remainder of the 8th century .
Penda 's reign is significant in that it marks an emergence from the obscurity of Mercia during the time of his predecessors , both in terms of the power of the Mercians relative to the surrounding peoples and in terms of our historical awareness of them . While our understanding of Penda 's reign is quite unclear , and even the very notable and decisive battles he fought are surrounded by historical confusion , for the first time a general outline of important events regarding the Mercians becomes realistically possible . Furthermore , Penda was certainly of great importance to the development of the Mercian kingdom ; it has been said that his reign was " crucial to the consolidation and expansion of Mercia " .
It has been claimed that the hostility of Bede has obscured Penda 's importance as ruler who wielded an imperium similar to that of other prominent 7th century ' overkings ' . Penda 's hegemony included lesser rulers of both Anglo @-@ Saxon and British origins , non @-@ Christian and Christian alike . The relationships between Penda , as hegemon , and his subordinate rulers would have been based on personal as well as political ties , and they would often have been reinforced by dynastic marriages . It has been asserted that Penda 's court would have been cosmopolitan , multi @-@ ethnic , multi @-@ lingual and tolerant . Though a pagan himself , there is evidence that the contemporary Mercian elite contained significant Christian and British elements . Penda must have been intimate with many Britons and may have been bilingual himself .
Penda was the last great pagan warrior @-@ king among the Anglo @-@ Saxons . Higham wrote that " his destruction sounded the death @-@ knell of English paganism as a political ideology and public religion . " After Penda 's death , the Mercians were converted to Christianity , and all three of Penda 's reigning sons ruled as Christians . His daughters Cyneburh and Cyneswith became Christian and were saintly figures who according to some accounts retained their virginity through their marriages . There was purportedly even an infant grandson of Penda named Rumwold who lived a saintly three @-@ day life of fervent preaching . What is known about Penda is primarily derived from the history written by the Northumbrian Bede , a priest not inclined to objectively portray a pagan Mercian who engaged in fierce conflict with Christian kings , and in particular with Northumbrian rulers . Indeed , Penda has been described as " the villain of Bede 's third book " ( of the Historia Ecclesiastica ) . From the perspective of the Christians who later wrote about Penda , the important theme that dominates their descriptions is the religious context of his wars — for instance , the Historia Brittonum says that Penda prevailed at Maserfield through " diabolical agency " — but Penda 's greatest importance was perhaps in his opposition to the supremacy of the Northumbrians . According to Stenton , had it not been for Penda 's resistance , " a loosely compacted kingdom of England under Northumbrian rule would probably have been established by the middle of the seventh century . " In summarising Penda , he wrote the following :
He was himself a great fighting king of the kind most honoured in Germanic saga ; the lord of many princes , and the leader of a vast retinue attracted to his service by his success and generosity . Many stories must have been told about his dealings with other kings , but none of them have survived ; his wars can only be described from the standpoint of his enemies ...
= = Portrayals = =
In the 1970s , Penda was depicted in two BBC television productions written by David Rudkin . He was played by Geoffrey Staines in Penda 's Fen ( 1974 ) , and by Leo McKern in The Coming of the Cross ( 1975 ) .
= Compton – Belkovich Thorium Anomaly =
The Compton – Belkovich Thorium Anomaly is a hotspot ( volcanic complex ) on the Moon . It is on the far side of the Moon and was found by a gamma @-@ ray spectrometer in 1998 . It is an area of concentrated thorium , a radioactive element . Lunar rock samples from the Apollo missions reveal that most lunar volcanism occurred around 3 to 4 billion years ago , but could have been as recent as 1 billion years ago due to the unknown history of the moon 's far side .
= = Description = =
The Compton – Belkovich Thorium Anomaly was found in 1998 by the Gamma Ray Spectrometer ( GRS ) instrument on board the Lunar Prospector ( LP ) and subsequently identified as a hotspot , located around 61 @.@ 1 ° N 99 @.@ 5 ° E / 61 @.@ 1 ; 99 @.@ 5 . The estimated thorium concentration reaches 5 @.@ 3 µg / g ( 5 @.@ 3 micrograms per gram ) while the surrounding highland basalts only contain between 0 and 2 µg / g . Compared to the Earth 's thorium concentration of 0 @.@ 06 µg / g , the Compton – Belkovich 's is very high . It has unusually high reflectance , identified by a visible imaging study that was carried out later by the Clementine spacecraft in a Clementine Visible Images study . High resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter LRO made it possible to analyze the surface features of the Compton – Belkovich Thorium Anomaly in 2011 .
= = = Location = = =
The anomaly is between the Bel 'kovich crater , which is 214 kilometres ( 133 mi ) wide , and the Compton crater , which is 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) wide . The region as a whole is 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) wide and 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) long .
The center of the region is a volcanic complex , 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) to 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) across , between the Bel 'kovich and the Compton craters . It is 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) from the extent of the northeastern Procellarum KREEP Terrane ( an area which has high abundances of KREEP , a geochemical component of some lunar rocks ) .
= = = Features = = =
In the center of the elevated region is a depression ; this is bounded by scarps and may be some kind of caldera . Just to the north is a feature called Little Dome , 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) in diameter . Further north is an elongated dome , oriented north @-@ south , called Middle Dome . It is 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) long and 0 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) wide . Both Little Dome and Middle Dome have boulders on top that may be volcanic blocks . Big Dome is further to the north at the edge of the anomaly . It is 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) in diameter with a depression in the top .
An extension of the reflective material extends to the south @-@ east from the elevated region by about 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) . This may be a pyroclastic flow . This more highly reflective area also matches an area that shows a Christiansen feature with shorter wavelength . It reflects more strongly in the 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 5 μm range , which indicates quartz or alkali feldspar is the major constituent .
Explosive remains also appear scattered to the east for about 300 km covering an area of 70 @,@ 000 km2 .
= = = Volcanic slope = = =
Volcanic features provide information about the composition of the lava that formed the Compton – Belkovich Thorium Anomaly . On average , many volcanoes on the Moon have slopes of lower than 7 degrees . However , the Compton – Belkovich Thorium Anomaly has a slope which reaches 25 degrees at the highest . This suggests that the region was formed by more viscous lava .
= = = Composition = = =
Using infrared reflectance data from Clementine at 750 nm and 950 nm , the level of iron oxide was determined to be about 3 % by mass .
= = = Formation = = =
A direct analysis of Apollo program samples revealed that most lunar volcanism occurred around 3 to 4 billion years ago . However , volcanic activity on the unsampled lunar back side could have occurred around 1 billion years ago . The smoothness of the surface associated with the anomaly indicates that it could possibly have been formed in a more recent event .
As the lava cooled , it would have crystallized to produce a silicate structure ; incompatible elements such as thorium would have been excluded from the process and formed thorium @-@ rich pockets in the remaining liquid rock . The eruption associated with the thorium anomaly could have created the elevated features to the west and the low and broad area to the east . The latest possible eruptions of lava would have made domes with steeper slopes , and also would have caused small bulges , as they would barely reach the surface .
= That Should Be Me =
" That Should Be Me " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber , included as the tenth and final track on his first studio album , My World 2 @.@ 0 , released on March 19 , 2010 . The song was written by Bieber alongside Luke Boyd and Nasri Atweh and Adam Messinger of The Messengers , the production team who produced the track . " That Should Be Me " is a teen pop ballad in which Bieber sings about losing his love , and according to Monica Herrera of Billboard , plays the " scorned ex . " Most music critics positively received the song , and it debuted at number ninety @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 following the release of My World 2 @.@ 0 . It also serves as the eighth track of Justin 's first remix album My Worlds Acoustic .
In December 2010 , it was announced that Bieber would be working with American country band Rascal Flatts on new music , presumably for his second studio album . However it was revealed that " That Should Be Me " was remixed to include vocals from the country group for the release of Bieber 's second remix album , Never Say Never – The Remixes , released to accompany the release of his 3D concert @-@ documentary film Justin Bieber : Never Say Never . A music video was released to accompany the remixed version of the song , which premiered during Rascal Flatts ' ABC special , Rascal Flatts : Nothing Like This Presented by JC Penney .
= = Background and composition = =
" That Should Be Me " was co @-@ written by Bieber alongside Luke Boyd , as well as Nasri Atweh and Adam Messinger of The Messengers , with the latter also producing the track . The song was recorded by The Messengers at NH Studios in North Hollywood , California . Instrumentation and all vocal arrangements were done by Atweh and Messinger . Additional engineering was performed by Pat Thrall , while the track was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios , also in North Hollywood . The mix was assisted by Christian Plata and Erik Madrid , whereas Atweh and Luke Boyd perform background vocals on the song .
The song is a down @-@ tempo , teen pop song with R & B , pop rock and country pop influences . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " That Should Be Me " is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C minor and raises up half a step after the bridge with Bieber 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of C ♯ 5 . The song follows in the chord progression of Cm – A ♭ 2 – E ♭ – G / B. Described as a " sobbing " ballad by Monica Hererra of Billboard , Bieber " pleads the girl he left behind to take him back . " Herrera called the ballad " orchestral " and said that Bieber plays the " scorned ex " in the song .
= = Reception = =
Fraser McAlpine of British Broadcasting Corporation called the song the " grand finale " of My World 2 @.@ 0 , and said it " is going to cause nothing but emotional pandemonium in households and bedrooms all over the land . " While criticizing the amount of features on the album , Chris Richards of The Washington Post said , " Let him go it alone , and he can be quite the tear @-@ jerker , as evidenced on ' That Should Be Me , ' the album 's closing track . " Rudy Klapper of Sputnikmusic criticized Bieber 's constant role as " teenage lothario " on the album , pointing out " That Should Be Me " as an example . After the release of My World 2 @.@ 0 , " That Should Be Me " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ two , and spent one week on the chart . " That Should Be Me " also appeared on the UK Singles Chart at number 179 .
= = Remix = =
On December 20 , 2010 , Gary LeVox , frontman of American country band Rascal Flatts , revealed to radio station WSIX that the band was collaborating with Bieber , stating , " [ Justin ] asked us to do a duet with him on his next record . It 's actually a really good song ! The kid is really talented . He plays five or six different instruments really well . " Bieber confirmed LeVox 's statements , " I love @ RascalFlatts and Im honored that they are making music with me . And for those that don 't know ... they have great records like this one . # GREATMUSIC . " He then linked a fan video of his with Rascal Flatts ' " My Wish " playing in the background . It was later revealed that the collaboration was for Bieber 's Never Say Never – The Remixes , a remix album that included remixes from My World and My World 2 @.@ 0 , and a musical companion to his film , Justin Bieber : Never Say Never . On the remix , Melinda Newman of HitFix said " Bieber ’ s and LeVox ’ s voices create some nice harmony on an otherwise mundane song . " Derek Evers of AOL Music said Bieber " looks really comfortable belting out a country tune . "
= = Music video = =
It was first revealed that Bieber and Flatts would be shooting a video for the remix version of the song when TMZ revealed photos on Bieber on set of the video shoot . The photos pictured Bieber after a dramatic haircut , changing his trademark style over the previous two years . The video premiered during the ABC special , Rascal Flatts : Nothing Like This Presented by JC Penney , which aired March 12 , 2011 . The video begins with Rascal Flatts arriving in a Cadillac Escalade to a studio . Inside , they are directed to Bieber , who is playing the keyboard . Bieber then sings his lines , playing guitar , and is joined by Joe Don Rooney also on guitar , and Jay DeMarcus now on keyboard . The woman who directed the band into the studio now directs them and Bieber into another room with lights , to film the video . Gary LeVox then sings his lines , joined by Bieber for the chorus while Rooney is on guitar and DeMarcus playing a grand piano . All are wearing black , with Bieber in particular wearing a leather jacket , his signature dog tag , and grey Supras sneakers . During the sequence of the video , more behind @-@ the @-@ scenes action is shown , before it ends with only Bieber 's silhouette shown , as his jacket is on the ground .
The music video won the award for Collaborative Video of the Year at the 2011 CMT Music Awards on June 8 , 2011 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Justin Bieber , Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd
Production – The Messengers
Vocal recording – The Messengers
Vocal arrangement and instrumentation – The Messengers
Engineering – Pat Thrall
Mixing – Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata and Erik Madrid
Background vocals – Atweh , Boyd
Source
= Shea Weber =
Shea Michael Weber ( born August 14 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who currently plays for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is an NHL All @-@ Star and a two @-@ time Olympic gold medalist .
Drafted in the second round , 49th overall by the Nashville Predators in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft , Weber had spent his entire NHL career with the Predators , until being traded to Montreal . He had previously played for the Sicamous Eagles of the Kootenay International Junior Hockey League ( KIJHL ) , the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and the Milwaukee Admirals of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) .
Weber has represented Canada at a number of International Ice Hockey Federation @-@ sanctioned events , winning a World Junior Ice Hockey Championship gold medal in 2005 , an Ice Hockey World Championships gold medal in 2007 , and two Olympic gold medals at the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics .
Weber was traded to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for P.K. Subban in 2016
= = Early life = =
Weber was born on August 14 , 1985 , in Sicamous , British Columbia . His mother , Tracy , was a hairdresser , and his father , James Weber , a sawmill worker . Weber first played organized ice hockey at the age of six . Growing up he played in the Sicamous and District Minor Hockey Association , a division of the British Columbia Amateur Hockey Association ( BCAHA ) , often switching between forward and defenceman positions . In Weber 's second year of bantam , he permanently switched to defence . He credits his father for convincing him to make the switch because he thought Weber would " have a better shot at a pro career as a defenceman " . Between the ages of fourteen and fifteen , Weber grew 5 inches , from 5 @-@ foot @-@ 9 ( 1 @.@ 75 metres ) to 6 @-@ foot @-@ 2 ( 1 @.@ 88 metres ) .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior career = = =
Weber went unselected in his Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft year , but was placed by the Kelowna Rockets on their protected players list during his second season of bantam . At the end of the season , he moved up to junior " B " ice hockey with his hometown Sicamous Eagles of the Kootenay International Junior Hockey League ( KIJHL ) . Weber 's 42 points in 47 games played helped his team to a near perfect season of 43 – 5 – 1 – 1 , winning both the British Columbian Cyclone Taylor Cup KIJHL league championship and the Western Canadian Keystone Cup . In the Keystone Cup championship game , Weber scored the Eagles ' first goal of the game in a 2 – 1 victory over the Spruce Grove Regals . In addition to his championship run with the Eagles , Weber played in five games for the Kelowna Rockets during their 2001 – 02 WHL season .
The following season Weber began his rookie season with the Rockets . Early into the campaign , Weber established a physical presence , often fighting opposing players . Overall he had 167 penalty minutes that season , the most in his entire playing career . Offensively , Weber finished his rookie season with eighteen points in seventy games played . He also scored five points in nineteen playoff games as the Rockets won the franchise 's first Ed Chynoweth Cup as WHL champions , defeating the Red Deer Rebels in the finals . As WHL champions , the Rockets represented the WHL at the 2003 Memorial Cup in Québec City , Québec where they were defeated by the Hull Olympiques 2 – 1 in the semifinal game . At the completion of his rookie WHL season , Weber was eligible to be drafted into the National Hockey League at the 2003 NHL Entry Draft . Heading into the draft , he was ranked 42nd among North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau , and 54th overall by International Scouting Services . On June 21 , 2003 , Weber was drafted in the second round , 49th overall , by the Nashville Predators .
In his second season with the Rockets , Weber was named to the WHL roster for the 2004 ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge in Red Deer and Lethbridge , Alberta . In the two games that were played , he recorded one assist . At the completion of the regular season , Weber had improved his offensive statistics from the previous season , recording 32 points in sixty games played . Weber was named the WHL player of the week for April 6 – 12 , 2004 , after recording one goal and six assists in four Kelowna wins over the Tri @-@ City Americans as the Rockets eliminated the Americans four game to two in the Western Conference semifinals . He finished the WHL playoffs with seventeen points in seventeen games as the Rockets were eliminated four games to three by the Everett Silvertips in the Western Conference finals . Despite being eliminated from the WHL playoffs , the Rockets advanced to their second consecutive Memorial Cup as the host team . At the 2004 Memorial Cup , Weber was named to the tournament all @-@ star team after recording four points in four games played as the Rockets defeated the Gatineau Olympiques 2 – 1 in the championship game to win their first Memorial Cup . At the completion of the season , Weber was named to the WHL Western Conference 's second all @-@ star team .
Weber 's final season with the Rockets proved to be his best with the team , despite a late season injury . On March 5 , 2005 , he injured his left knee after colliding with Vancouver Giants left winger Cam Cunning . The injury resulted in Weber missing the remainder of the regular season and the Rockets ' Western Conference quarterfinals series against the Vancouver Giants . Despite the injury , Weber finished the regular season with WHL career bests for goals ( 12 ) , assists ( 29 ) , and points ( 41 ) in 55 games played . After returning from injury , Weber scored nine goals and seventeen points in eighteen playoff games as the Rockets won the Ed Chynoweth Cup en route to their third consecutive Memorial Cup . For his efforts , he was awarded the airBC Trophy as the most valuable player of the WHL playoffs . At the 2005 Memorial Cup , with what was considered as one of the best tournament fields in Memorial Cup history , the Rockets were eliminated after losing all three of their round robin games . At the completion of the season , Weber was named to the WHL Western Conference first all @-@ star team and was the Western Conference nominee for the Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy as the top defenceman in the WHL , although he ultimately lost the award to Dion Phaneuf . He was also named to the Canadian Major Junior second all @-@ star team .
= = = Nashville Predators = = =
On September 10 , 2004 , Weber signed a three @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 425 @-@ million entry level contract with the Nashville Predators . A year and a half later , Weber made his NHL debut on January 6 , 2006 , versus the Detroit Red Wings , recording three shots on goal in 11 : 08 minutes of icetime . Three months later , on April 6 , 2006 , he scored his first NHL goal against Reinhard Divis of the St. Louis Blues in a 3 – 0 Nashville victory . Weber went on to play in 28 games during his rookie season , finishing with two goals and ten assists . He also scored two goals in four playoff games with the Predators before the team was eliminated in the first round by the San Jose Sharks . With Nashville 's AHL affiliate , the Milwaukee Admirals , still in playoff action , Weber was reassigned to the Admirals roster for the remainder of the AHL playoffs . He compiled six goals and five assists in 14 games during his time with the Admirals , who finished in second place in the Calder Cup , losing to the Hershey Bears in six games in the Calder Cup Finals .
It was during his sophomore season that Weber evolved into one of Nashville 's most important players . By the midpoint of the season , Weber already had 26 points , and his play was recognized on January 14 , 2007 , when he was named to the Western Conference roster for the 2007 NHL YoungStars Game in Dallas , Texas . Weber went on to finish the season with 40 points , finishing eighth on the Predators roster in total points . He added an additional three assists in five playoff games before the Predators were eliminated by the San Jose Sharks for the second consecutive season .
Weber 's third season with the Predators began with a series of injuries . After playing only 2 : 19 minutes of the first period in Nashville 's season opening game versus the Colorado Avalanche , Weber fell awkwardly and dislocated his kneecap . The injury caused him to miss the next six weeks of play before returning to the Nashville lineup during a game with the St. Louis Blues on November 17 , 2007 . Weber was sidelined again shortly thereafter , injuring his leg and missing another 11 games before he returned during a January 15 , 2008 , game versus the Calgary Flames . Weber finished the season with 20 points in 54 games played . He received a single fifth @-@ place vote to tie for 17th with seven other players in James Norris Memorial Trophy voting as the league 's best defenceman .
On June 23 , 2008 , Weber signed a three @-@ year , $ 13 @.@ 5 @-@ million contract extension with the Predators , avoiding restricted free agency . During his first year of the new contract , Weber established himself as one of the top defenceman in the NHL . At the mid @-@ way point of the season , he was among the defencemen statistical leaders , was considered a favourite to win the Norris Trophy , and was named to the Western Conference roster for the 57th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game in Montreal , Quebec . Weber finished the season with career @-@ highs in all major statistical categories , including games played ( 81 ) , goals ( 23 ) , assists ( 30 ) , points ( 53 ) and penalty minutes ( 80 ) . His 23 goals set a new Predators franchise record for goals by a defenceman in a single season . Although he received no first @-@ place votes , Weber finished fourth in the Norris Trophy voting with 186 voting points , behind winner Zdeno Chára ( 1 @,@ 034 points ) , and runners @-@ up Mike Green ( 982 points ) and Nicklas Lidström ( 733 points ) . Weber narrowly missed being named to the NHL Second All @-@ Star Team after receiving four @-@ first place votes and 172 voting points , a single voting point behind Dan Boyle , the final defenceman selected .
Entering his fifth season with the Predators , Weber continued his stellar record . At the February Olympic break , Weber accumulated 35 points in 59 games for the Predators . He also established a strong leadership role and willingness to defend his teammates , highlighted by three consecutive games in March 2010 in which he fought opposing players . Weber 's offensive production slowed after the Olympic break and he finished the season with 43 points in 78 games played . Despite a decrease in offense from the previous season , Weber was a Norris Trophy candidate for the third consecutive year , receiving a single first place vote and 96 voting points to finish as the sixth runner @-@ up behind winner Duncan Keith ( 1 @,@ 096 points ) . Weber also received a single fifth @-@ place vote , tying for 23rd with six other players in Hart Memorial Trophy voting , and was the seventh @-@ ranked defenceman in NHL All @-@ Star Team voting with 83 voting points .
On July 8 , 2010 , Weber was named the fifth captain in Nashville Predators history , replacing Jason Arnott , who was traded to the New Jersey Devils . He became the youngest captain in franchise history and the only Predators captain to have been drafted by the team . On January 11 , 2011 , Weber was among 42 players named to the 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game in Raleigh , North Carolina . For the first time in its history , the NHL used a fantasy draft format to select teams for the All @-@ Star Game , and Weber was selected eighth overall by Team Lidstrom . At the game , Weber recorded four assists and was a + 6 , finishing the game tied with Loui Eriksson for most points and second to Nicklas Lidström for best plus / minus . Shortly after his All @-@ Star Game appearance , Weber recorded his 200th career NHL point — an assist — in a game versus the Detroit Red Wings on February 9 , 2011 . During his sixth season with the Predators Weber averaged 25 : 19 in ice time , and set career highs in games played ( 82 ) , assists ( 32 ) and shots on goal ( 25 ) . Weber also contributed three goals and five points in 12 playoff games as the Predators lost to the Vancouver Canucks after advancing to the Western Conference Semifinals for the first time in their history . At the conclusion of the regular season , Weber was named one of three finalists — along with Zdeno Chára and Nicklas Lidström — for the Norris Trophy , the first finalist nomination of his career . He finished second in Norris Trophy voting , losing with 727 voting points to Lidström 's 736 . Weber also finished 25th in Hart Memorial Trophy voting with two fifth @-@ place votes . For the first time in his career , Weber was voted to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team after receiving 445 voting points , second among defencemen to Lidström 's 464 . On July 1 , 2011 , Weber became a restricted free agent ; despite this , Weber had stated he wanted to remain with the Predators . In order to prevent the possibility of other teams signing him to an offer sheet , the Predators filed for salary arbitration with Weber , giving the team and Weber until their hearing to negotiate a new contract . Failing to come to terms on a new contract by their hearing , Weber 's case went to arbitration on August 2 – the first time in NHL history that a team @-@ elected arbitration candidate had reached a hearing . The following day , he was awarded a one @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 million contract , from which the Predators could not walk away , as they , and not Weber , had elected arbitration .
In the first month of the 2011 – 12 season , Weber hit forward Jannik Hansen from behind in a game against the Canucks on October 20 , 2011 . While Hansen was uninjured on the play , Weber was fined $ 2 @,@ 500 – the maximum allowable financial penalty – by the league the following day .
In Nashville 's first game of the 2012 Stanley Cup Quarter Finals , against Detroit , Weber slammed center Henrik Zetterberg 's head into the glass boards during the closing seconds of the game after being hit by Zetterberg . The force of the blow cracked Zetterberg 's helmet but he suffered no injury and would play in the next game . As punishment , the NHL imposed a $ 2 @,@ 500 fine , the maximum allowable under current collective bargaining agreement , on Weber for retaliatory action . NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman was in attendance at this game . Weber finished the regular season leading all defencemen in shorthanded goals scored , with two .
In the 2012 offseason , with the Predators unable to take Weber to arbitration again ( a player can only be subjected to team @-@ elected arbitration once in his career ) , Weber signed a front @-@ loaded $ 110 million , 14 @-@ year offer sheet , $ 68 million of it as a signing bonus , from the Philadelphia Flyers on July 19 . The offer sheet was the richest in NHL history in terms of total money , money per season and length , surpassing the previous offer sheet record set by Thomas Vanek . The Predators , already having lost Weber 's defensive partner Ryan Suter to unrestricted free agency , matched the offer sheet five days later .
For the 2013 – 14 season , Weber led all NHL defencemen with 23 goals , which also matched his career high . He broke Kimmo Timonen 's Predator record for single @-@ season points by a defenceman with 56 points , which also led the Predators for the season . On April 28 , Weber was named a finalist for the Norris Trophy for the third time in his career ; the other finalists were Zdeno Chára and Duncan Keith , the latter of which won the award at season 's end . Weber finishing third in voting .
Weber was again voted to the NHL Second All @-@ Star Team for the 2014 @-@ 2015 season , his fourth post @-@ season All @-@ Star Team selection .
During the 2015 – 16 season , Weber recorded his first career hat trick on December 5 against the Detroit Red Wings , which was also the first ever by a Nashville Predators defenseman . Weber would continue his goal @-@ scoring ways , tying Paul Kariya 's franchise record for power play goals in a season with 14 and finishing with his third 20 + goal season . Weber was also named a finalist for the Mark Messier Leadership Award . , which he would eventually win .
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
On June 29 , 2016 , Weber was traded to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for defenceman P. K. Subban . The trade surprised many hockey fans because the details to this trade were kept strictly confidential until the deal was already made .
= = International play = =
Through his career , Weber has represented Canada at several international ice hockey tournaments . Weber 's first experience with Hockey Canada came for the national junior team , when , on December 22 , 2004 , he was named to the roster for the 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Grand Forks , North Dakota . There his play with Dion Phaneuf formed the team 's top defensive pair , helping Canada win its first junior gold medal since the 1997 tournament . Despite being held pointless throughout the tournament , Weber finished tied for third among plus @-@ minus leaders with a rating of + 10 .
Weber debuted with the national senior team on April 22 , 2007 , accepting an invitation to join the club for the 2007 IIHF World Championship in Russia . Weber 's experience in this tournament , however , was interrupted by an incident for which he was suspended three games . A minute into Canada 's preliminary round game versus Germany , Weber hit Yannic Seidenberg in the chin with his elbow , giving the German a concussion and sidelining him for the remainder of the tournament . After serving his suspension , Weber continued with the tournament , finishing with two points in six games played , including a goal in Canada 's 5 – 1 quarterfinal victory over Switzerland . Canada went on to win the gold medal in the tournament , defeating Finland 4 – 2 .
On April 14 , 2009 , Weber was named to the national senior team for the 2009 IIHF World Championship in Switzerland , as one of four alternate captains on the team . In Canada 's final preliminary round game , Weber was named Canada 's VIP after scoring one goal and three assists as Canada defeated Slovakia 7 – 3 . Weber finished the tournament with four goals and eight assists for 12 points in nine games played , leading all defencemen in tournament scoring and finishing tied for third overall among all skaters . Despite being defeated by Russia 2 – 1 in the gold medal game , Weber was named to the tournament all @-@ star team and was awarded the tournament 's Best Defenceman award .
On July 2 , 2009 , Weber was invited to the Canadian orientation camp for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . On December 30 , 2009 , he was named to the final Canadian roster for the tournament . In Canada 's qualification round game versus Germany , Weber scored Canada 's second goal of the game in an 8 – 2 victory . His shot passed through the mesh net behind German goaltender Thomas Greiss and a video review was required to award the goal . Weber finished the tournament with six points in seven games , ranking second amongst defencemen in terms of scoring , and was named to the tournament 's all @-@ star team , which defeated the United States 3 – 2 in overtime to win the gold medal . Weber , along with his British Columbian teammates from the Olympic team , will be inducted into the BC Sports Hall of Fame in September 2011 .
After his Nashville Predators failed to make the Stanley Cup playoffs , Weber was considered a lock for the 2013 World Championship team , but Hockey Canada deemed the cost of insuring his large NHL contract too high and ultimately did not select him .
Weber was named an alternate captain for Team Canada in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia .
= = Personal life = =
Weber has a brother , Brandon , who is two years younger than him and grew up playing hockey with Shea 's former Predators teammate Cody Franson . When Weber was 14 , his mother was diagnosed with brain cancer , which surgery mostly removed . She later began suffering from similar symptoms , however , and in early 2010 had a series of seizures . Weber 's mother was placed in an induced coma , and died on August 11 , 2010 .
On July 20 , 2013 , Weber married high school sweetheart , Bailey Munro , who he had met while playing junior hockey in Kelowna . During the summer of 2014 , the couple had their first child , a boy named Beckette Weber .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Transactions = =
June 21 , 2003 – Drafted in the second round , 49th overall by the Nashville Predators in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft
September 10 , 2004 – Signed a three @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 425 @-@ million entry level contract with the Nashville Predators
June 23 , 2008 – Signed a 3 @-@ year , $ 13 @.@ 5 @-@ million contract extension with the Nashville Predators
August 3 , 2011 - Awarded 1 @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 @-@ million contract through team @-@ elected salary arbitration
July 19 , 2012 - Signed a 14 @-@ year , $ 110 @-@ million offer sheet with the Philadelphia Flyers ( matched by the Predators five days later )
June 29 , 2016 - Traded to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for P.K. Subban
= New York State Route 414 =
New York State Route 414 ( NY 414 ) is a north – south state highway in the Southern Tier and Finger Lakes regions of New York in the United States . It extends for 83 @.@ 20 miles ( 133 @.@ 90 km ) from an intersection with NY 352 in the Steuben County city of Corning to a junction with NY 104 in the Wayne County town of Huron . NY 414 spans five counties and roughly parallels NY 14 between Watkins Glen and Huron . It intersects every major east – west arterial in western New York , including the Southern Tier Expressway ( Interstate 86 ( I @-@ 86 ) and NY 17 ) , U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 , and the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) . The route passes through mostly rural areas as it travels between the several villages and cities along its routing .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the portion of modern NY 414 south of Seneca Falls was designated as part of New York State Route 44 , a route extending from Caton to Wolcott , while most of what is now NY 414 north of Seneca Falls became part of NY 89 . NY 44 was renumbered to NY 414 c . 1935 to eliminate numerical duplication with US 44 . NY 414 was shifted onto its current alignment between Seneca Falls and Huron in the late 1950s , placing it on what had been NY 89 north of the hamlet of Magee and New York State Route 89A between Magee and the overlapped routes of US 20 and NY 5 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Steuben and Chemung counties = = =
NY 414 begins at an intersection with NY 352 ( Denison Parkway ) in the Steuben County city of Corning . It initially heads north on Cedar Street , following it past two largely commercial blocks that make up part of the Market Street Historic District . Past the district , the route changes names to Centerway and crosses over the Chemung River , which flows east – west through the center of Corning . Across the river , the route traverses more commercial neighborhoods to reach Pulteney Street , designated as NY 415 west of this point . Along this stretch , NY 414 passes the former Corning Armory and the Corning Museum of Glass , the latter located on the southwest corner of the junction with NY 415 .
The route continues on , meeting the Southern Tier Expressway ( STE ) at exit 46 . The composition of the exit 's ramps is unorthodox in that the westbound on @-@ ramp for I @-@ 86 and NY 17 is about 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) north of the remainder of the interchange . This layout is caused by several factors , including a nearby wye connecting two Norfolk Southern Railway lines — the east – west Southern Tier Line and the north – south Corning Secondary . Another is the alignment of the STE itself , which runs in close proximity to NY 414 for a short distance as it bypasses northern Corning while avoiding the hilly terrain north of the city . North of the STE , the amount of development along the highway significantly decreases as it follows the Corning Secondary northeastward into the mountains that surround the city of Corning .
Over the next 7 miles ( 11 km ) , NY 414 and the rail line head due northeast through a valley surrounding Post Creek , traversing rural , isolated areas as both cross into Chemung County . Past the county line , the valley turns to the north , reflecting a similar curve in the creek 's routing . NY 414 and the Corning Secondary turn to match , and the route passes over the rail line via a bridge just east of the county line . As the highway heads north , it runs parallel to the county line for 4 miles ( 6 km ) and passes through the hamlet of Chambers , the only developed location along an otherwise nondescript and undeveloped stretch that leads to Schuyler County and the town of Dix .
= = = Schuyler County = = =
In Dix , NY 414 makes a large reverse S @-@ curve , turning to the east and northeast as it follows the Corning Secondary through another creek valley , this one surrounding Shequaga Creek . The creek eventually heads east toward Montour Falls ; however , NY 414 and the rail line continue northeast to the outskirts of Watkins Glen , a village located inside of a wide valley holding Seneca Lake . At the western edge of the gully , the Corning Secondary breaks from NY 414 to follow the ridge north through Watkins Glen State Park . The route , meanwhile , descends the side of the valley to enter Watkins Glen , where it merges with NY 14 at the foot of the hill .
As one road , NY 14 and NY 414 travel down Franklin Street , the main thoroughfare of Watkins Glen . The routes pass by several blocks of homes as they follow the western base of the ravine and meet the east end of NY 329 , which ascends the side of the valley to serve Watkins Glen State Park . NY 414 continues to follow NY 14 to Watkins Glen 's central business district , where NY 414 splits from the overlap to travel east at an intersection that also acts as the eastern terminus of NY 409 . From this point north , NY 14 and NY 414 follow opposite sides of Seneca Lake , with NY 414 running along the east lake shore .
The route initially heads east from Watkins Glen to skirt the southern edge of the lake , but turns north upon exiting the village and passing the southeastern tip of the waterbody . Just outside Watkins Glen , NY 414 comes to a fork . The left fork carries NY 414 to the foot of the valley , bringing it very close to Seneca Lake . The right fork holds NY 79 , which travels up the side of the valley toward the village of Burdett . NY 414 continues to parallel Seneca Lake , but gradually ascends the side of the lake valley as it heads north through the town of Hector and enters Seneca County .
= = = Seneca County = = =
Soon after entering Seneca County , NY 414 turns to the northeast , traveling away from Seneca Lake . It continues on a northeast alignment across more level terrain to the village of Lodi , where it intersects and forms an overlap with NY 96A . The two routes head due north from Lodi , crossing relatively flat farmland to reach the neighboring village of Ovid . At the northern edge of the community , NY 96A splits from the concurrency at a junction that also features NY 96 . While NY 96A travels to the west , NY 96 — which enters Ovid from the east — forms a concurrency with NY 414 and follows the latter north out of the village . The overlap continues for 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) across more farmland to a junction east of the Seneca Army Depot . NY 96 heads northwest to straddle the eastern border of the depot while NY 414 progresses northward through the sparsely populated towns of Romulus and Varick .
At the Varick – Fayette town line 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) north of NY 96 , NY 414 intersects the eastern terminus of NY 336 . The route continues into Fayette , serving the town center and several large farms on its way into the town of Seneca Falls . Just past the town line , the highway connects to Finger Lakes Regional Airport and passes by a large field that hosts the annual Empire Farm Days exhibition every August . North of here is the hamlet of Seneca Falls , where the farmlands are replaced by densely populated residential blocks . The highway follows Ovid Street across the Cayuga – Seneca Canal to the village center , where it intersects US 20 and NY 5 at Fall Street . NY 414 turns west here , following both routes through the northwestern portion of Seneca Falls . Here , the route passes the National Women 's Hall of Fame and the Women 's Rights National Historical Park .
West of the village , US 20 , NY 5 , and NY 414 become a major commercial strip as it heads through an area situated between the hamlet of Seneca Falls and the village of Waterloo . Roughly midway between the two communities , NY 414 splits from US 20 and NY 5 , becoming a commercial strip itself as it heads north through the northern portion of the town of Seneca Falls as Mound Road . Near the northern end of the strip , the route crosses the main line of the Finger Lakes Railway at a grade crossing . Past the crossing , the businesses give way to mostly undeveloped areas that persist into the neighboring town of Tyre , where it intersects NY 318 in the small hamlet of Magee as Ridge Road . Just north of this intersection , NY 414 intersects the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) at exit 41 . North of the Thruway , NY 414 maintains a constant north @-@ northwest alignment across rolling farmland into Wayne County .
= = = Wayne County = = =
Across the county line , NY 414 veers slightly to the west and east as it heads north across rural terrain to the village of Clyde , located on the Erie Canal and the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision . The route traverses the lightly populated southern half of the village prior to crossing the canal and the railroad to enter the village 's center . As it proceeds through Clyde 's business district , NY 414 intersects NY 31 , overlapping the route for just 150 feet ( 46 m ) as NY 31 moves from Park to Genesee Streets . NY 414 , meanwhile , continues north through the community on Glasgow Street , passing several blocks of homes and the Clyde @-@ Savannah Central School District 's combined middle and high schools before exiting Clyde for more rural regions of Wayne County .
North of Clyde , NY 414 intersects a number of roads of local importance as it heads north @-@ northwest across gentle terrain in the mostly open towns of Galen and Rose as Main Street . Aside from Rose and North Rose , the two communities of note along NY 414 between Clyde and the route 's end , NY 414 traverses little more than nondescript cultivated fields . In the latter hamlet , NY 414 crosses the Ontario Midland Railroad at a grade crossing in the center of the community . The route ends about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of North Rose at an intersection with NY 104 in the town of Huron , located at the southern tip of Sodus Bay . While NY 414 ends here , the right @-@ of @-@ way of the highway continues north along the eastern edge of the bay to the Lake Ontario shoreline as the county @-@ maintained Lake Bluff Road .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 36 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Owego to Seneca Falls via Ovid . From Ovid north to Seneca Falls , Route 36 followed what is now NY 414 ( via NY 96 and County Route 148 or CR 148 in Romulus ) . The portion of modern NY 414 between Watkins Glen and Ovid became Route 45 on June 16 , 1911 ; however , the route was realigned one year later to use what is now NY 96A from Lodi to Interlaken instead . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the Owego – Interlaken and Ovid – Romulus segments of legislative Route 36 became part of NY 15 , which continued northwest from Romulus to Rochester . From Interlaken to Ovid , NY 15 initially followed the post @-@ 1912 alignment of legislative Route 45 to Lodi and the pre @-@ 1912 routing of Route 45 to Ovid .
The portion of legislative Route 45 south of Lodi remained unnumbered until c . 1927 when it was designated as NY 78 . By 1929 , the route was extended northward over a new highway that followed the eastern edge of Seneca Lake between Ovid and Geneva . Also altered by this time was NY 15 , which was realigned to follow what had been legislative Route 36 from Interlaken to Ovid . The former routing of NY 15 between Lodi and Ovid became part of the extended NY 78 . The remainder of what is now NY 414 south of Watkins Glen and north of Romulus remained unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , even though parts of the highway were state @-@ maintained as early as 1926 . Among these state @-@ maintained but unnumbered segments was the Romulus – Seneca Falls section of the old Route 36 . Another significant section of continuous state maintenance existed from Clyde to Huron .
= = = Designation = = =
In the 1930 renumbering , NY 78 was split into two new routes . North of Ovid , it served as the basis for NY 15A , which continued southeast to Interlaken over the original alignment of NY 15 . The remainder of NY 78 became part of NY 44 , a lengthy north – south route extending from NY 13 in Caton to Ridge Road ( then NY 3 and later US 104 ) in Wolcott . From Caton to Watkins Glen , NY 44 was assigned to what is now NY 225 and NY 414 . North of Romulus , the route utilized the alignment of legislative Route 36 from Romulus to Seneca Falls and modern NY 89 from a junction east of Seneca Falls to Wolcott . In the vicinity of Seneca Falls , NY 44 overlapped with US 20 and NY 5 . US 44 was assigned c . 1935 ; as a result , NY 44 was renumbered to NY 414 to eliminate numerical duplication with the new U.S. Highway .
Also assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering was NY 89 , which utilized modern NY 414 north of the hamlet of Magee and the portion of Lake Bluff Road between the current NY 104 super two and Ridge Road . Between Magee and its current alignment east of the village of Seneca Falls , NY 89 used what is now NY 318 . In the early 1950s , a north – south connector between NY 89 in Magee and a junction with US 20 and NY 5 midway between Waterloo and Seneca Falls was designated NY 89A . This route became part of a larger realignment of NY 414 in the late 1950s . In the rerouting , NY 414 was altered to overlap US 20 and NY 5 west out of Seneca Falls before following what had been NY 89A and NY 89 north to US 104 ( Ridge Road ) near the Huron hamlet of Resort . NY 89 , meanwhile , was realigned to follow the former alignment of NY 414 to Wolcott .
NY 414 has been truncated twice over the years . The first of these occurred on January 1 , 1949 , when it was cut back on its southern end to Corning . NY 414 was truncated to its current northern terminus in the mid @-@ 1960s following the construction of the super two highway for US 104 between Sodus and NY 414 . US 104 continued to use the former alignment of NY 414 along Lake Bluff Road to connect to Ridge Road until the remainder of the super two east to Red Creek was completed in the early 1970s . This portion of Lake Bluff Road is now maintained by Wayne County as CR 254 . In Seneca County , NY 414 was realigned slightly in the early 1950s to bypass the hamlet of Romulus to the east , moving it off CR 148 and NY 96 and onto a new road leading directly to Ovid .
= = = Corning area = = =
In the city of Corning , NY 44 , and later NY 414 , originally entered from the north on Baker Street and met NY 17 at Pulteney Street . The two routes then overlapped along Pulteney Street to Centerway , where they crossed the Chemung River via Centerway and Pine Street . At Market Street , NY 17 and NY 44 turned east and remained concurrent to Conhocton Street , where NY 44 headed south to Caton while NY 17 continued east on Market to the hamlet of Gibson . When the overlap through Corning was eliminated in 1949 , NY 414 was truncated to the western end of the overlap at the intersection of Baker and Pulteney Streets .
NY 414 was re @-@ extended across the Chemung River in the mid @-@ 1960s after NY 17 was moved onto Denison Parkway , a new divided highway through Corning that bypassed Pulteney Street . NY 414 followed its original routing across the river to Market Street , then continued south on Pine Street for an additional block to intersect NY 17 . The portion of NY 414 south of Pulteney Street was realigned slightly c . 1979 following the completion of the Briscoe Bridge across the Chemung River . Instead of entering downtown Corning on Pine Street , NY 414 used Cedar Street instead . When the Corning Bypass ( part of the Southern Tier Expressway ) was built in the mid @-@ 1990s , Baker Street was split into two segments . NY 414 was subsequently rerouted onto its current alignment through the city .
= = Major intersections = =
= Boy ( I Need You ) =
" Boy ( I Need You ) " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her ninth studio album , Charmbracelet ( 2002 ) . It was written by Carey , Justin Smith , Norman Whitfield and Cameron Giles , and produced by the former and Just Blaze . The song was released as the album 's second single on November 26 , 2002 . Initially , " The One " had been chosen as the second single from the album , however , halfway through the filming of a music video for it , the singer decided to release " Boy ( I Need You ) " instead . Considered by Carey as one of her favorites , the track is a reworked version of rapper Cam 'ron 's song " Oh Boy " released earlier that year .
The song was met with generally mixed reviews from contemporary critics . Many praised Carey 's versatility and considered it as one of the stand @-@ out tracks of Charmbracelet for having a different production when compared to the others . However , the sample hook of the song was described as " annoying " . The single failed to make much impact on the charts around the world ; it reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hip @-@ Hop / R & B Songs chart and number 57 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart . Elsewhere , the song reached the top 20 in the United Kingdom , while peaking within the top 40 in Australia , the Netherlands , Ireland and New Zealand .
The music video , directed by Joseph Kahn , incorporates elements of Japanese culture and features Carey 's alter @-@ ego Bianca . It was also the first time that Carey worked with Kahn in a music video , which premiered on an episode of MTV 's Making the Video in 2003 . Following the release of " Through the Rain " , Carey embarked on several stateside , European and Asian promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet , as well as its accompanying singles . Carey performed " Boy ( I Need You ) " live on several television shows appearances around the world .
= = Background = =
After she received Billboard 's Artist of the Decade Award and the World Music Award for Best @-@ Selling Female Artist of the Millennium in 2000 , Carey parted from Columbia Records and signed a record @-@ breaking $ 100 million five @-@ album recording contract with Virgin Records America America ( EMI ) . She often stated that Columbia had regarded her as a commodity , with her separation from Tommy Mottola exacerbating her relations with label executives . Just a few months later , in July , 2001 , it was widely reported that Carey had suffered a physical and emotional breakdown , and her relationship with the Latin icon Luis Miguel ended . In an interview the following year , she said , " I was with people who didn 't really know me and I had no personal assistant . I 'd do interviews all day long and get two hours of sleep a night , if that . " Carey began posting a series of disturbing messages on her official website , and displayed erratic behavior on several live promotional outings . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey came out pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt , and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble . While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention .
Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website : " I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself . " Following the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters . On July 26 , she was hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . News websites and programs began reporting how Carey threatened to commit suicide by slitting her wrists the night before , and how Patricia , Carey 's mother , hastily called for help . When questioned regarding Carey 's suicidal rumor , Berger claimed she had broken dishes out of desperation , and as a result , accidentally cut her hands and feet . Carey was inducted at an un @-@ disclosed hospital in Connecticut , and remained hospitalized and under doctor 's care for two weeks , followed by an extended absence from the public . Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records America and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both Glitter , as well as its soundtrack of the same name .
Critics panned Glitter , as well as its accompanying soundtrack ; both were unsuccessful commercially . The accompanying soundtrack album , Glitter , became Carey 's lowest @-@ selling album to that point . The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch dismissed it as " an absolute mess that 'll go down as an annoying blemish on a career that , while not always critically heralded , was at least nearly consistently successful . " Following the negative cloud that was ensuing Carey 's personal life at the time , as well as the project 's poor reception , her unprecedented $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records America ( EMI Records ) was bought out for $ 50 million . Soon after , Carey flew to Capri , Italy for a period of five months , in which she began writing material for her new album , stemming from all the personal experiences she had endured throughout the past year . Carey later said that her time at Virgin was " a complete and total stress @-@ fest [ ... ] I made a total snap decision which was based on money and I never make decisions based on money . I learned a big lesson from that . " Later that year , she signed a contract with Island Records , valued at more than $ 24 million , and launched the record label MonarC . To add further to Carey 's emotional burdens , her father , with whom she had little contact since childhood , died of cancer that year .
= = Recording and release = =
Carey started writing songs for then untitled Charmbracelet in 2002 , before she signed the record deal . She decided to concentrate on " getting some much @-@ needed rest " and traveled to Capri and moved into the studio , which she had reserved to record the album . While at Capri , Carey could focus on her writing and recording , without being subjected to any stress or pressure . According to her , she would write the songs in her apartment upstairs , and would record them at the studio downstairs , at night . Thus , most of the album was recorded in Capri although she traveled to Atlanta , New York and Philadelphia to record a few tracks . The result was that Charmbracelet was her " most personal album " she had ever made .
While Carey paved a lot of the album with slower and autobiographical ballads , she also attempted at making an album with a mixture of several different genres . According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , the album showed off Carey 's musical and vocal versatility , especially when viewing the differences in the record 's first and second singles , " Ms. Carey is known for her voice , of course : she can hit high notes that barely sound human , and few singers leap around the octaves as gracefully as she does . But as she tries to regain her audience , her greatest weapon may be her versatility : Ms. Carey also knows how to make a hip @-@ hop hit by holding back and letting the beat shine . " Carey decided to work with Just Blaze after she heard the song " Oh Boy " he had produced for Cam 'ron . Together they produced " Boy ( I Need You ) " , a remake of " Oh Boy " , and " You Got Me " . Carey described the former as one of her favorites on the album . " It 's definitely one of my favorites , ' cause I love the original . It was cool to have him out there doing his thing in such a random environment , " she said . " Boy ( I Need You ) " was released as the second single from the album on November 26 , 2002 . Initially , " The One " was scheduled to be released as the second single and the music video was shot for the song . However , halfway through the filming , the track was changed to " Boy ( I Need You ) " .
= = Reception = =
" Boy ( I Need You ) " received mostly mixed reviews from contemporary critics . Jon Pareles of The New York Times complimented the track on its differences with most of the content on Charmbracelet . Entertainment Weekly writer Tom Sincalir said that " the herky @-@ jerky [ track ] , on which Cam 'ron guests , [ adds ] some welcome energy " to the album . Michael Paoletta of Billboard considered it as one of Charmbracelet 's stand @-@ out tracks , while Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani said " Boy ( I Need You ) " , along with " You Got Me " , " provide further evidence that Carey should keep her rappers on the remix . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic noted that Carey did not " completely abandon hip @-@ hop , but whenever it rears its head on Charmbracelet , it 's utterly jarring " citing the song as an example , while describing the sampled vocal hook as " annoying " . Erlewine , however , selected it as a Track Pick from the album review . The single failed to make much impact on the charts around the world ; it reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hip @-@ Hop / R & B Songs chart and number 57 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart . Elsewhere , the song reached number 17 in the United Kingdom , while peaking within the top 40 in Australia , the Netherlands , Ireland and New Zealand .
= = Music video and live performances = =
Described as " Speed Racer meets Hello Kitty meets me and Cam 'ron " by Carey , the video was directed by Joseph Kahn , stars actor Will Yun Lee and incorporates elements of Japanese culture and features Carey 's alter @-@ ego Bianca . When asked about the music video , Kahn replied , " To me , videos aren 't movies , they 're their own art form @-@ like poetry . If you 're a poet , you want to make poetry . " Carey also revealed that the music video marked the first time she worked with Kahn . The music video production and recording was shown in a MTV 's Making the Video episode in 2003 . The video was likened to a " clear extension of Janet 's " Doesn 't Really Matter " for its similar settings and theme of Japanese pop culture . Following the release of " Through the Rain " , Carey embarked on several stateside , European and Asian promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet , as well as its accompanying singles . Three days prior to the album 's stateside release , a one @-@ hour special titled Mariah Carey : Shining Through the Rain aired on MTV , in which Carey was interviewed and sang several songs from Charmbracelet and of her catalog . During the interview , Carey addressed rumors of her breakdown and its cause , as well as of the album and its inspiration , followed by a question and answer with fans . During the album 's month of release , Carey appeared on several television talk shows , launching her promotional tour on Today , where she performed a four song set @-@ list at Mall of America for a crowd of over 10 @,@ 000 . Carey also performed the song on Top of the Pops and on The Graham Norton Show .
= = Formats and track listings = =
CD single — part 1
" Boy ( I Need You ) "
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Remix ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Copenhaniacs Remix ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Enhanced Music Video ]
CD single — part 2
" Boy ( I Need You ) "
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Street Remix ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Topnotch L8 Mix ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Topnotch Tox Mix ]
12 " Vinyl "
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Radio Edit ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ LP Version ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Instrumental ]
" Boy ( I Need You ) " [ Acapella ]
= = Charts = =
= Joseph Priestley =
Joseph Priestley FRS ( / ˈpriːstli / ; 24 March [ O.S. 13 March ] 1733 – 6 February 1804 ) was an 18th @-@ century English theologian , dissenting clergyman , natural philosopher , chemist , educator , and Liberal political theorist who published over 150 works . He is usually credited with the discovery of oxygen , having isolated it in its gaseous state , although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier also have a claim to the discovery .
During his lifetime , Priestley 's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of soda water , his writings on electricity , and his discovery of several " airs " ( gases ) , the most famous being what Priestley dubbed " dephlogisticated air " ( oxygen ) . However , Priestley 's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community .
Priestley 's science was integral to his theology , and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism . In his metaphysical texts , Priestley attempted to combine theism , materialism , and determinism , a project that has been called " audacious and original " . He believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian Millennium . Priestley , who strongly believed in the free and open exchange of ideas , advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters , which also led him to help found Unitarianism in England . The controversial nature of Priestley 's publications combined with his outspoken support of the French Revolution aroused public and governmental suspicion ; he was eventually forced to flee in 1791 , first to London and then to the United States , after a mob burned down his home and church . He spent the last ten years of his life living in Northumberland County , Pennsylvania .
A scholar and teacher throughout his life , Priestley also made significant contributions to pedagogy , including the publication of a seminal work on English grammar , books on history , and he prepared some of the most influential early timelines . These educational writings were some of Priestley 's most popular works . It was his metaphysical works , however , that had the most lasting influence : leading philosophers including Jeremy Bentham , John Stuart Mill , and Herbert Spencer credit them among the primary sources for utilitarianism .
= = Early life and education ( 1733 – 55 ) = =
Priestley was born to an established English Dissenting family ( i.e. they did not conform to the Church of England ) in Birstall , near Batley in the West Riding of Yorkshire . He was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley , a finisher of cloth . To ease his mother 's burdens , Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one . He returned home , five years later , after his mother died . When his father remarried in 1741 , Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle , the wealthy and childless Sarah and John Keighley , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Fieldhead . Because Priestley was precocious — at the age of four he could flawlessly recite all 107 questions and answers of the Westminster Shorter Catechism — his aunt sought the best education for the boy , intending him for the ministry . During his youth , Priestley attended local schools where he learned Greek , Latin , and Hebrew .
Around 1749 , Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying . Raised as a devout Calvinist , he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation , but doubted he had had one . This emotional distress eventually led him to question his theological upbringing , causing him to reject election and to accept universal salvation . As a result , the elders of his home church , the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike , refused him admission as a full member .
Priestley 's illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time . In preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon , he studied French , Italian , and German in addition to Aramaic , and Arabic . He was tutored by the Reverend George Haggerstone , who first introduced him to higher mathematics , natural philosophy , logic , and metaphysics through the works of Isaac Watts , Willem ' s Gravesande , and John Locke .
= = = Daventry Academy = = =
Priestley eventually decided to return to his theological studies and , in 1752 , matriculated at Daventry , a Dissenting academy . Because he had already read widely , Priestley was allowed to skip the first two years of coursework . He continued his intense study ; this , together with the liberal atmosphere of the school , shifted his theology further leftward and he became a Rational Dissenter . Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism , Rational Dissenters emphasised the rational analysis of the natural world and the Bible .
Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most , save the Bible , was David Hartley 's Observations on Man ( 1749 ) . Hartley 's psychological , philosophical , and theological treatise postulated a material theory of mind . Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in which both religious and moral " facts " could be scientifically proven , a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life . In his third year at Daventry , Priestley committed himself to the ministry , which he described as " the noblest of all professions " .
= = Needham Market and Nantwich ( 1755 – 61 ) = =
Robert Schofield , Priestley 's major modern biographer , describes his first " call " in 1755 to the Dissenting parish in Needham Market , Suffolk , as a " mistake " for both Priestley and the congregation . Priestley yearned for urban life and theological debate , whereas Needham Market was a small , rural town with a congregation wedded to tradition . Attendance and donations dropped sharply when they discovered the extent of his heterodoxy . Although Priestley 's aunt had promised her support if he became a minister , she refused any further assistance when she realised he was no longer a Calvinist . To earn extra money , Priestley proposed opening a school , but local families informed him that they would refuse to send their children . He also presented a series of scientific lectures titled " Use of the Globes " that was more successful .
Priestley 's Daventry friends helped him obtain another position and in 1758 he moved to Nantwich , Cheshire ; this time there was happier . The congregation cared less about Priestley 's heterodoxy and he successfully established a school . Unlike many schoolmasters of the time , Priestley taught his students natural philosophy and even bought scientific instruments for them . Appalled at the quality of the available English grammar books , Priestley wrote his own : The Rudiments of English Grammar ( 1761 ) . His innovations in the description of English grammar , particularly his efforts to dissociate it from Latin grammar , led 20th @-@ century scholars to describe him as " one of the great grammarians of his time " . After the publication of Rudiments and the success of Priestley 's school , Warrington Academy offered him a teaching position in 1761 .
= = Warrington Academy ( 1761 – 1767 ) = =
In 1761 , Priestley moved to Warrington and assumed the post of tutor of modern languages and rhetoric at the town 's Dissenting academy , although he would have preferred to teach mathematics and natural philosophy . He fitted in well at Warrington , and made friends quickly . On 23 June 1762 , he married Mary Wilkinson of Wrexham . Of his marriage , Priestley wrote :
This proved a very suitable and happy connexion , my wife being a woman of an excellent understanding , much improved by reading , of great fortitude and strength of mind , and of a temper in the highest degree affectionate and generous ; feeling strongly for others , and little for herself . Also , greatly excelling in every thing relating to household affairs , she entirely relieved me of all concern of that kind , which allowed me to give all my time to the prosecution of my studies , and the other duties of my station .
On 17 April 1763 , they had a daughter , whom they named Sarah after Priestley 's aunt .
= = = Educator and historian = = =
All of the books Priestley published while at Warrington emphasised the study of history ; Priestley considered it essential for worldly success as well as religious growth . He wrote histories of science and Christianity in an effort to reveal the progress of humanity and , paradoxically , the loss of a pure , " primitive Christianity " .
In his Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life ( 1765 ) , Lectures on History and General Policy ( 1788 ) , and other works , Priestley argued that the education of the young should anticipate their future practical needs . This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington 's aspiring middle @-@ class students . He recommended modern languages instead of classical languages and modern rather than ancient history . Priestley 's lectures on history were particularly revolutionary ; he narrated a providentialist and naturalist account of history , arguing that the study of history furthered the comprehension of God 's natural laws . Furthermore , his millennial perspective was closely tied to his optimism regarding scientific progress and the improvement of humanity . He believed that each age would improve upon the previous and that the study of history allowed people to perceive and to advance this progress . Since the study of history was a moral imperative for Priestley , he also promoted the education of middle @-@ class women , which was unusual at the time . Some scholars of education have described Priestley as the most important English writer on education between the 17th @-@ century John Locke and the 19th @-@ century Herbert Spencer . Lectures on History was well received and was employed by many educational institutions , such as New College at Hackney , Brown , Princeton , Yale , and Cambridge . Priestley designed two Charts to serve as visual study aids for his Lectures . These charts are in fact timelines ; they have been described as the most influential timelines published in the 18th century . Both were popular for decades , and the trustees of Warrington were so impressed with Priestley 's lectures and charts that they arranged for the University of Edinburgh to grant him a Doctor of Law degree in 1764 .
= = = = History of Electricity = = = =
The intellectually stimulating atmosphere of Warrington , often called the " Athens of the North " ( of England ) during the 18th century , encouraged Priestley 's growing interest in natural philosophy . He gave lectures on anatomy and performed experiments regarding temperature with another tutor at Warrington , his friend John Seddon . Despite Priestley 's busy teaching schedule , he decided to write a history of electricity . Friends introduced him to the major experimenters in the field in Britain — John Canton , William Watson , and the visiting Benjamin Franklin — who encouraged Priestley to perform the experiments he wanted to include in his history . In the process of replicating others ' experiments , Priestley became intrigued by unanswered questions and was prompted to undertake experiments of his own design . ( Impressed with his Charts and the manuscript of his history of electricity , Canton , Franklin , Watson , and Richard Price nominated Priestley for a fellowship in the Royal Society ; he was accepted in 1766 . )
In 1767 , the 700 @-@ page The History and Present State of Electricity was published to positive reviews . The first half of the text is a history of the study of electricity to 1766 ; the second and more influential half is a description of contemporary theories about electricity and suggestions for future research . Priestley reported some of his own discoveries in the second section , such as the conductivity of charcoal and other substances and the continuum between conductors and non @-@ conductors . This discovery overturned what he described as " one of the earliest and universally received maxims of electricity " , that only water and metals could conduct electricity . This and other experiments on the electrical properties of materials and on the electrical effects of chemical transformations demonstrated Priestley 's early and ongoing interest in the relationship between chemical substances and electricity . Based on experiments with charged spheres , Priestley was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse @-@ square law , similar to Newton 's law of universal gravitation . However , he did not generalise or elaborate on this , and the general law was enunciated by French physicist Charles @-@ Augustin de Coulomb in the 1780s .
Priestley 's strength as a natural philosopher was qualitative rather than quantitative and his observation of " a current of real air " between two electrified points would later interest Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell as they investigated electromagnetism . Priestley 's text became the standard history of electricity for over a century ; Alessandro Volta ( who later invented the battery ) , William Herschel ( who discovered infrared radiation ) , and Henry Cavendish ( who discovered hydrogen ) all relied upon it . Priestley wrote a popular version of the History of Electricity for the general public titled A Familiar Introduction to the Study of Electricity ( 1768 ) . He marketed the book with his brother Timothy , but unsuccessfully .
= = Leeds ( 1767 – 73 ) = =
Perhaps prompted by Mary Priestley 's ill health , or financial problems , or a desire to prove himself to the community that had rejected him in his childhood , Priestley moved with his family from Warrington to Leeds in 1767 , and he became Mill Hill Chapel 's minister . Two sons were born to the Priestleys in Leeds : Joseph junior on 24 July 1768 and William three years later . Theophilus Lindsey , a rector at Catterick , Yorkshire , became one of Priestley 's few friends in Leeds , of whom he wrote : " I never chose to publish any thing of moment relating to theology , without consulting him . " Although Priestley had extended family living around Leeds , it does not appear that they communicated . Schofield conjectures that they considered him a heretic . Each year Priestley travelled to London to consult with his close friend and publisher , Joseph Johnson , and to attend meetings of the Royal Society .
= = = Minister of Mill Hill Chapel = = =
When Priestley became its minister , Mill Hill Chapel was one of the oldest and most respected Dissenting congregations in England ; however , during the early 18th century the congregation had fractured along doctrinal lines , and was losing members to the charismatic Methodist movement . Priestley believed that by educating the young , he could strengthen the bonds of the congregation .
In his magisterial three @-@ volume Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion ( 1772 – 74 ) , Priestley outlined his theories of religious instruction . More importantly , he laid out his belief in Socinianism . The doctrines he explicated would become the standards for Unitarians in Britain . This work marked a change in Priestley 's theological thinking that is critical to understanding his later writings — it paved the way for his materialism and necessitarianism ( the belief that a divine being acts in accordance with necessary metaphysical laws ) .
Priestley 's major argument in the Institutes was that the only revealed religious truths that could be accepted were those that matched one 's experience of the natural world . Because his views of religion were deeply tied to his understanding of nature , the text 's theism rested on the argument from design . The Institutes shocked and appalled many readers , primarily because it challenged basic Christian orthodoxies , such as the divinity of Christ and the miracle of the Virgin Birth . Methodists in Leeds penned a hymn asking God to " the Unitarian fiend expel / And chase his doctrine back to Hell . " Priestley wanted to return Christianity to its " primitive " or " pure " form by eliminating the " corruptions " which had accumulated over the centuries . The fourth part of the Institutes , An History of the Corruptions of Christianity , became so long that he was forced to issue it separately in 1782 . Priestley believed that the Corruptions was " the most valuable " work he ever published . In demanding that his readers apply the logic of the emerging sciences and comparative history to the Bible and Christianity , he alienated religious and scientific readers alike — scientific readers did not appreciate seeing science used in the defence of religion and religious readers dismissed the application of science to religion .
= = = Religious controversialist = = =
Priestley engaged in numerous political and religious pamphlet wars . According to Schofield , " he entered each controversy with a cheerful conviction that he was right , while most of his opponents were convinced , from the outset , that he was willfully and maliciously wrong . He was able , then , to contrast his sweet reasonableness to their personal rancor " , but as Schofield points out Priestley rarely altered his opinion as a result of these debates . While at Leeds he wrote controversial pamphlets on the Lord 's Supper and on Calvinist doctrine ; thousands of copies were published , making them some of Priestley 's most widely read works .
Priestley founded the Theological Repository in 1768 , a journal committed to the open and rational inquiry of theological questions . Although he promised to print any contribution , only like @-@ minded authors submitted articles . He was therefore obliged to provide much of the journal 's content himself ( this material became the basis for many of his later theological and metaphysical works ) . After only a few years , due to a lack of funds , he was forced to cease publishing the journal . He revived it in 1784 with similar results .
= = = Defender of Dissenters and political philosopher = = =
Many of Priestley 's political writings supported the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts , which restricted the rights of Dissenters . They could not hold political office , serve in the armed forces , or attend Oxford and Cambridge unless they subscribed to the Thirty @-@ nine Articles of the Church of England . Dissenters repeatedly petitioned Parliament to repeal the Acts , arguing that they were being treated as second @-@ class citizens .
Priestley 's friends , particularly other Rational Dissenters , urged him to publish a work on the injustices experienced by Dissenters ; the result was his Essay on the First Principles of Government ( 1768 ) . An early work of modern liberal political theory and Priestley 's most thorough treatment of the subject , it — unusually for the time — distinguished political rights from civil rights with precision and argued for expansive civil rights . Priestley identified separate private and public spheres , contending that the government should only have control over the public sphere . Education and religion , in particular , he maintained , were matters of private conscience and should not be administered by the state . Priestley 's later radicalism emerged from his belief that the British government was infringing upon these individual freedoms .
Priestley also defended the rights of Dissenters against the attacks of William Blackstone , an eminent legal theorist , whose Commentaries on the Laws of England ( 1765 – 69 ) had become the standard legal guide . Blackstone 's book stated that dissent from the Church of England was a crime and that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects . Furious , Priestley lashed out with his Remarks on Dr. Blackstone 's Comment
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the AWACS as required by the ROE . Furthermore , the USAF investigation report incorrectly stated that Martin had no authority to terminate the engagement when , in fact , he did . The GAO report added that the failure of Wickson and May to report their contact to Martin was indicative of a well @-@ known , general lack of discipline among F @-@ 15 aircrews involved in OPC and this was not discussed in the USAF report .
The GAO investigation also uncovered evidence that a rivalry between F @-@ 15 and F @-@ 16 pilots may have contributed to Wickson 's and May 's " urgency to engage hostile aircraft " but was not discussed in the USAF investigation . During the GAO 's investigation , USAF OPC officers confirmed that the rivalry between the F @-@ 15 and F @-@ 16 communities was particularly pronounced and intense partly due to the fact that F @-@ 16 aircraft had scored all the air @-@ to @-@ air combat kills in Iraq and Bosnia since the end of the Gulf War . Pilkington stated to the GAO that , " the shootdown pilots ' haste was due in part to the planned entry of two F @-@ 16s into the TAOR 10 to 15 minutes after the F @-@ 15s and that if the F @-@ 15 pilots had involved the chain of command , the pace would have slowed down , ruining the pilots ' chances for a shootdown . " The GAO concluded that if the evidence of a lack of mission discipline by Wickson and May had been included in the USAF report , such information " could have been useful in subsequent administrative and disciplinary actions . "
Another aspect that the GAO investigation revealed was that the training F @-@ 15 pilots received for identifying helicopters was not adequate . Visual ID training was accomplished by reviewing slides on a 35mm projector . Helicopters only made up about 5 % of the training slides and nearly all the pictures depicted helicopters from the ground looking up because the pictures were provided by the U.S. Army . Investigators also learned from interviewing other F @-@ 15 pilots that helicopter recognition was not regarded as an important skill within the F @-@ 15 pilot community because helicopters are not considered a threat to F @-@ 15s in air @-@ to @-@ air combat .
The GAO found no evidence of improper or unlawful command influence by USAF leaders on the investigation or subsequent administrative and military justice actions . The GAO noted , however , that it was unable to obtain complete confirmation of this finding because the DoD denied the GAO request to interview key USAF officials including Santarelli , Dallager , Starr , and Mangin .
= = Compensation = =
On 26 August 1994 , the U.S. Department of Defense announced that it would pay US $ 100 @,@ 000 ( ex gratia ) in compensation to the families of each of the non @-@ U.S. personnel killed in the incident . At this time , the U.S. government , citing the Feres precedent , did not offer compensation to the families of the U.S. victims . This was the first time that the U.S. had offered compensation to the victims of a friendly fire incident .
In 1998 Congressman Lamar S. Smith , chairman of the Subcommittee on Immigration and Claims , held hearings on the compensation issue . He questioned the DoD representatives as to why compensation had not also been offered to the U.S. family members . In November 1999 the U.S. Congress passed legislation authorizing payment of compensation to the families of the American Black Hawk victims .
= = Aftermath = =
Five days after the shootdown , USAF OPC officials began including Black Hawk flight times in the daily ATO and included the correct IFF code in the ATO provided to Eagle Flight . OPC officially ended on 31 December 1996 . Over the six years of the operation , coalition participants flew a total of 62 @,@ 000 fixed @-@ wing and rotary @-@ wing sorties . The Black Hawk shootdown was the only serious accident to occur during the operation .
Wickson resigned and May retired from the USAF soon after Fogleman 's investigation was completed . Lawrence Tracy retired immediately after Wang 's court @-@ martial on an early ( 15 @-@ year ) retirement option . As of May 2005 Jim Wang was still serving in the USAF , but he remained at the rank of captain , having been denied promotion . Interviewed in 2005 about the shootdown , Tracy stated , " Jim ( Wang ) and all of us at first were held up as scapegoats . I think that was to cover up for the pilots . They had their fangs out . They wanted to kill something because it had been ages since an F @-@ 15 had shot anything down . We were held accountable for their actions . "
Andrus retired from the USAF in 1995 , Pilkington in 1996 , Emery in 1997 , and Santarelli in 1998 , all at the same rank they held at the time of the shootdown , except Emery , who retired as a brigadier general . Richardson was promoted to brigadier general on 1 July 1999 and retired on 1 September 2001 . Dallager was appointed as superintendent of the USAF Academy in June 2000 and was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 August of the same year . Dallager 's appointment and promotion were criticized by observers because of his involvement in the controversial shootdown after @-@ actions and refusal to testify for the senate investigation . Dallager retired on 1 September 2003 , but at the rank of major general .
A monument to the 26 victims of the shootdown was constructed at Giebelstadt Army Airfield , Germany and dedicated on 14 April 1996 . After U.S. military presence ceased at Giebelstadt , due to base closures , the monument was moved to Fort Rucker , Alabama on 10 March 2006 , and rededicated on 14 April 2007 .
" The 53rd FS ' Tigers ' never fully recovered from the dark blemish on their otherwise exemplary record . The only way the USAF could make the issue and the pain go away was by closing the unit . This was done on March 10 , 1999 , leaving USAFE with only one Eagle squadron for the next war in its theater . "
= = = Books = = =
Diehl , Alan E. ( 2003 ) . Silent Knights : Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover @-@ Ups . Potomac Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .
Hall , Allen L. ( 2002 ) . Michael , My Son , and the Story of the Eagle Flight Detachment . New York : Vantage Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 533 @-@ 13789 @-@ 6 .
Piper , Joan L. ( 2001 ) . Chain of Events : The Government Cover @-@ up of the Black Hawk Incident and the Friendly @-@ fire Death of Lt. Laura Piper . Brassey 's . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 344 @-@ 5 .
Snook , Scott A. ( 2000 ) . Friendly Fire : The Accidental Shootdown of U.S. Black Hawks over Northern Iraq . Princeton University Press .
= = = Web = = =
Arana @-@ Barradas , Louis A. ( 1996 ) . " Black hawk incident " tragic series of errors " " . Retrieved 16 February 2007 .
Bacon , Kenneth H. ( 1995 ) . " DoD News Briefing : Mr. Kenneth H. Bacon , ATSD PA " . DefenseLink . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
CBS News ( 27 February 2001 ) . " ' A Great Deal of Arrogance ' " . CBS News . Retrieved 16 November 2007 .
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= Alphonse Elric =
Alphonse Elric ( Japanese : アルフォンス ・ エルリック , Hepburn : Arufonsu Erurikku ) , commonly called Al ( アル , Aru ) , is a fictional character and one of the protagonists in the Fullmetal Alchemist manga series and its adaptations created by Hiromu Arakawa . Alphonse is a child who lost his body during an alchemical experiment to bring his deceased mother back to life and had his soul attached to a suit of armor by his older brother Edward . As a result , Alphonse is almost invulnerable as long as the armor 's seal is not erased , but is unable to feel anything . To recover their bodies , the Elrics travel around their country Amestris to obtain the Philosopher 's Stone — an alchemical object that could restore them . In the animated adaptations of Fullmetal Alchemist , Alphonse is voiced by Rie Kugimiya in Japanese . In the English adaptations , he is voiced by Aaron Dismuke in the first series and by Maxey Whitehead in the second .
As a result of appearing in the series mostly in his armor , Arakawa has been focused on searching ways to make it appear as Alphonse is expressing emotions despite not having a body . Alphonse has also appeared in materials related to the manga , including video games and light novels that follow his journey . His character has been well received by readers of the series ; he has consistently appeared in the top ten series ' popularity polls . The character has received positive remarks from critics , with some commending his design and his relationship with Edward .
= = Appearances = =
Alphonse is one of the protagonists from the series alongside his older brother Edward . Alphonse loses his entire body while he and Edward are trying to revive his mother Trisha using alchemy . Edward sacrifices his right arm to seal Alphonse 's soul into a suit of armor . Edward later becomes an alchemist from the state military of Amestris , and starts traveling with Alphonse to search for a method to recover Alphonse 's body . They seek the Philosopher 's Stone , which would allow them to restore their physical forms . Besides being a powerful alchemist , Alphonse is a skilled hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighter ; having been trained by Izumi Curtis . While Alphonse cannot feel anything because he has no body , he is nearly invincible as long as the blood mark made by Edward on his armor to contain his soul is not defaced .
Believing that the immortal creatures known as the homunculi will lead them to more clues to recover their bodies , the Elrics try to use them . However , they meet the homunculi 's creator " Father " , who secretly controls the military and blackmails the Elrics into working under him . Seeking to protect their friends , the Elrics travel to the northern area of the country in order to request help from General Olivier Mira Armstrong . After the two are successful in their plan , Alphonse 's original body tries to recover the soul resulting in him losing consciousness several times . Separated from his brother to assist his friends ' escape from the military men serving Father , Alphonse is captured by the homunculus Pride to use him against Edward . Joining forces with his father Van Hohenheim , Alphonse traps Pride and himself within a cave where the homunculus remains powerless . State Alchemist Solf J. Kimblee later comes to Pride 's aid , and Alphonse is rescued by some of his comrades .
Seeking to transmute the whole country , Father transports the Elrics to his base to use them as two of the five sacrifices required to achieve his goal . At the same moment , Alphonse finds his original body , but refuses to recover it because its weakened state would not help them to fight the homunculi . In the final fight against Father , Alphonse requests help from the alchemist May Chang to return Edward 's right arm in exchange for Alphonse 's soul . As Edward , with his restored arm , fights Father , Alphonse 's soul disappears from the armor . Following Father 's defeat , Edward sacrifices his ability to use alchemy to restore Alphonse 's soul and original body . The two return to Resembool , where they live until they decide to separate to study alchemy . Alphonse joins with two chimera comrades and they travel to the country of Xing to learn more alchemy with May 's help .
= = = In the first anime = = =
The first half of the anime 's plot follows that of the manga , but the plots severely diverge from each other near the middle of the story . After Kimblee uses alchemy to transform Al 's armor into explosive material , Scar transfers all of his incomplete Philosopher 's Stone into Al to save his life . As a result , Alphonse 's armor becomes the Philosopher 's Stone . Because he houses the Stone in his body , he becomes the primary target of the homunculi 's leader Dante , who is trying to cheat death . Once captured by the homunculi for Dante , Al is to be eaten by Gluttony to complete the Stone inside Gluttony 's body . But when he sees his brother killed trying to save him , Al uses the stone 's power to heal Edward 's body and re @-@ bind his soul to it . This destroys Al 's own body as he uses up the whole of the Philosopher 's Stone in the transmutations . Then Edward , using his own body , resurrects Alphonse . As a result , Edward disappears and Alphonse continues studying alchemy to find him .
In the film sequel Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa , Alphonse continues searching for his brother until learning that he is in a parallel world . With help from the homunculus Wrath , Alphonse opens the gate to the parallel world , but at the same time causes a soldier named Dietline Eckhart , who is from the parallel world , to start attacking Amestris . Joining forces with Edward , Alphonse defeats Eckhart and decides to stay with his brother to live in the parallel world .
= = = In other media = = =
Aside from the initial anime and manga , Alphonse appears in almost all the Fullmetal Alchemist original video animations ( OVAs ) . In the first one , he appears as a chibi version of himself at the movie 's wrap @-@ up party , and in the fourth OVA , he plays a part in the battle against the homunculi . Alphonse also appears in all Fullmetal Alchemist video games on all platforms , which feature his and Ed 's journey to find the Philosopher 's Stone . In the film The Sacred Star of Milos Alphonse goes with his brother to search for the criminal Melvin Voyager who broke free from a prison in their country . Makoto Inoue 's Fullmetal Alchemist light novels also feature the Elrics ' journey , but in all of them they encounter different characters to those from the video games . Two character CDs with tracks based on Alphonse were released under the name of Hagaren Song File – Alphonse Elric ( Hagaren Song File - アルフォンス ・ エルリック ) and Theme of Alphonse Elric . The tracks from the CD are performed by Alphone 's Japanese voice actress , Rie Kugimiya . He is also featured in several of the Fullmetal Alchemist Trading Card Games .
= = Creation and conception = =
In a prototype from the series , Alphonse 's soul was sealed in a flying squirrel instead of armor as a result of human transmutation . He appeared as the father to the other protagonist , Edward , in their searching for a way to recover their bodies . To match the designs from the manga magazine Monthly Shōnen Gangan , the two characters were redesigned . Alphonse was given a huge suit of armor to contrast him with Edward 's short stature . Since Alphonse mostly appears with his armor , Arakawa tends to make sketches of his human form so that she would not forget how to draw him . Some events from the Elrics ' lives are social problems she integrated into the plot . Their journey across the country to help people is meant to gain an understanding of the meaning of family . As Alphonse is mostly seen with his armor , during various chapters from the manga Arakawa was unable to draw him crying . During Chapter 40 , Arakawa saw his conversation with Edward as a way to let him express his feeling and to make him appear as though he is crying . When comparing the two brothers during the time Alphonse obtained the ability to use alchemy without a circle like Edward , Arakawa stated nobody was better at alchemy as the two had different preferences in the same way as other alchemists appearing in the series . When making omakes , Arakawa tends to draw Alphonse doing something comical to contrast him with the other characters . She states that she does it because Alphonse may enjoy making fun of other people .
In the Japanese animated adaptations of Fullmetal Alchemist , Alphonse was voiced by Rie Kugimiya . For the English version , Aaron Dismuke took the role for the first anime , Conqueror of Shamballa and some of the OVAs . He has found Alphonse to be his favorite character , and likes the way he " sticks up for people " . He also said that he tries to be like Alphonse when voicing him , though he added , " I don 't really see a lot of myself in him " . In Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood , Dismuke was replaced by Maxey Whitehead , as Dismuke 's voice had changed with age .
= = Reception = =
In popularity polls from the manga made by Monthly Shōnen Gangan , Alphonse was initially ranked in the third place , while later polls placed him fourth . He has also been highly ranked in the Animage 's Anime Grand Prix polls in the category of best male characters in both 2004 . Merchandise based on Alphonse 's appearance , including figurines , keychains and plush toys , has been marketed . UGO Networks listed one of his statues tenth in their article of " Insanely Expensive Comic Book Collectibles We 'd Blow Our Wad On . "
Several publications for manga , anime , and other pop culture media have both praised and criticized Alphonse 's character . Chis Beveridge from Mania Entertainment has praised Al for being " quite the likeable character " and liked his role in the first series . The character 's madness and disbelief over his own existence has been praised ; Beveridge said it " could make up a series all by itself .. " In a later volume review , Beveridge said the series ' change of focus to Alphonse " as an actual young boy " was " a nice change of pace . " T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews ' Samuel Arbogast wrote that the interaction between the Elric brothers as they travel is interesting and that Alphonse 's armor was of the most notable characters designs from the series . The brothers were also noted to " becoming men " by Active 's Anime Holly Ellingwood after the first appearance of Van Hohenheim in the manga as the two investigate ways to recover their bodies . Lydia Hojnacki said Al 's character is as important as his brother to the series after commenting on Edward as she considered Al to be Edward 's yang .
Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network praised Alphonse 's development in the manga , especially where he refuses to recover his weakened body and instead helps his friends . As a result , Silverman brought a comparison between the two brothers and wondered whether Edward would have done the same . Chris Beveridge found the character 's growth in Conqueror in Shamballa appealing as he starts visually resembling Edward . After Aaron Dismuke 's voice matured , Anime News Network writer Justin Sevakis criticized him for his part in the Fullmetal Alchemist : Premium OVA Collection , writing that " he simply no longer sounds like Alphonse " .
= Chad Mottola =
Charles Edward " Chad " Mottola ( born October 15 , 1971 ) is an American retired professional baseball player who played five seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) as an outfielder . Considered a journeyman , Mottola played professionally from 1992 through 2007 , appearing in 59 MLB games and 1 @,@ 801 minor league games . He was the hitting coach for the Toronto Blue Jays during the 2013 season , but his contract was not renewed for 2014 .
Mottola is an alumnus of the University of Central Florida ( UCF ) , where he played college baseball for the UCF Knights baseball team . A highly regarded prospect , Mottola was selected by the Cincinnati Reds with the fifth overall selection of the 1992 MLB Draft .
Mottola played in minor league baseball for different organizations , receiving major league playing time with the Cincinnati Reds in 1996 , the Toronto Blue Jays in 2000 and 2006 , the Florida Marlins in 2001 and the Baltimore Orioles in 2004 . As he received less playing time in 2007 , he began to mentor younger teammates , which helped him transition into a coaching career .
= = Career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Mottola attended St. Thomas Aquinas High School in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , graduating in 1989 . After leading all Broward County high school players in batting average ( .573 ) , home runs ( 14 ) and runs batted in ( RBIs ) ( 48 ) as a senior , Mottola was named to Florida 's Class 3A All @-@ State first team . Out of high school , the Baltimore Orioles selected Mottola in the tenth round of the 1989 Major League Baseball Draft , with the 243rd overall selection . Mottola did not sign with the Orioles , opting to pursue a college baseball career .
Mottola then enrolled at the University of Central Florida ( UCF ) , which he chose to attend over the University of New Orleans , as it was closer to his home . At UCF , he played for the UCF Knights baseball team in NCAA 's Division I. As a freshman , he hit .321 in 57 games , but did not hit a home run . He gained 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) for his sophomore season . As a sophomore , Mottola was named the American South Conference 's Player of the Week on April 3 , 1991 , after batting .542 with one home run and eight RBIs in six games . During the season , he batted .343 with nine home runs and 54 RBIs . During the college offseason , he played collegiate summer baseball in the Cape Cod Baseball League .
In his junior season , he batted .345 with 14 home runs , tying the UCF single @-@ season record . Professional scouts considered him a first round prospect , due to his intelligence , size , ability to hit for power , his strong throwing arm , running speed , instincts and polish .
= = = Professional career = = =
The Cincinnati Reds drafted Mottola in the first round of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft with the fifth overall selection , one selection ahead of Derek Jeter . He signed with the Reds the day of the draft , receiving a signing bonus of $ 400 @,@ 000 , as he attended the United States national baseball team tryouts for the 1992 Summer Olympics , and did not want to have his contract status on his mind during the tryouts . He was the first UCF athlete to be selected in the first round of an MLB draft .
In his first professional season , Mottola led the Billings Mustangs to the Pioneer League championship , batting .286 with 12 home runs and 37 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . Baseball America rated Mottola as the 71st best prospect in baseball before the 1993 season . Playing a full season for the first time in 1993 , he batted .280 for the Winston @-@ Salem Spirits with 21 home runs and led the Class @-@ A Advanced Carolina League with 91 RBIs . He was named a Carolina League All @-@ Star outfielder after the 1993 season . Prior to the 1994 season , Baseball America rated Mottola as the 43rd best prospect in baseball .
Mottola started the 1995 season with the Chattanooga Lookouts of the Class @-@ AA Southern League , receiving a promotion to the Class @-@ AAA Indianapolis Indians of the International League that season . Despite his minor league success , Mottola 's path to the Reds was blocked by outfielders Reggie Sanders , Curtis Goodwin , Eric Davis , Vince Coleman , Mike Kelly , Steve Gibraltar and Eric Anthony , all of whom the Reds had in spring training that season . General Manager Jim Bowden commented that Mottola needed more minor league seasoning before he would be promoted to the Reds . He made his major league debut with the Cincinnati Reds on April 22 , 1996 . In 35 games for the Reds , Mottola batted .215 with three home runs and six RBIs . For Indianapolis , he batted .262 with 9 home runs , 47 RBIs and nine stolen bases in 102 games .
Though he was considered a top prospect , the Reds held him out of winter league baseball during the 1995 – 96 offseason . The Reds added Deion Sanders and Rubén Sierra to their outfield competition for the 1997 season , prompting Mottola to question the Reds commitment to him . After he spent the 1997 season in the minors , the Reds traded Mottola to the Texas Rangers for a player to be named later in April 1998 . He spent most of the 1998 season with the Oklahoma City RedHawks of the Class @-@ AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , but suffered a broken thumb that required surgery , limiting his season .
Granted free agency after the 1998 season , Mottola signed with the Chicago White Sox for the 1999 season . He batted .321 with 164 hits , 32 doubles and 20 home runs for the Charlotte Knights . With the Syracuse SkyChiefs , the Class @-@ AAA affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays , in 2000 , Mottola batted .309 in 134 games with 505 at @-@ bats , 156 hits , 85 runs , 25 doubles , 3 triples , 33 home runs , 102 RBI , 37 walks , 30 stolen bases and 99 strikeouts . He led the league in home runs and also in slugging percentage , had the second highest RBI , was fourth in the league in hits and extra @-@ base hits , and had the seventh highest batting average . He was named an International League All @-@ Star outfielder in 2000 , and won the International League Most Valuable Player Award . He was also named the Blue Jays minor league player of the year that season , and earned a promotion to the Blue Jays in September .
After the 2000 season , the Blue Jays traded Mottola to the Florida Marlins for a player to be named later or cash . He played for the Marlins ' Class @-@ AAA affiliate , the Calgary Cannons of the PCL , and appeared in five games for the Marlins . In 2002 , Mottola returned to Syracuse . He began the 2003 season with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays organization , playing for the Class @-@ AAA Durham Bulls , but was released . He signed with the Boston Red Sox on June 12 to replace Julio Zuleta , who had signed to play in Japan , on the Class @-@ AAA Pawtucket Red Sox . Mottola signed with the Orioles for the 2004 season , splitting his time between MLB and the Class @-@ AAA Ottawa Lynx . In 2005 , he returned to the Blue Jays organization , playing with Syracuse . He was promoted to MLB in 2006 , but spent the majority of the 2005 through 2007 seasons with Syracuse .
= = = Transition to coaching = = =
Mottola retired after the 2007 season . During his final seasons , Mottola began to play less and serve as a mentor to younger players , making for a transition into a coaching career . After the 2007 season , Mottola accepted a job as the hitting coach of the Gulf Coast Blue Jays of the Rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast League . On October 6 , 2008 , Mottola was announced as the Blue Jays roving minor league hitting instructor for the 2009 season . From 2010 to 2012 , he was the hitting coach for the Las Vegas 51s , Toronto 's Triple @-@ A affiliate at the time .
On November 24 , 2012 , Mottola was promoted to be the Toronto Blue Jays hitting coach for the 2013 season . On October 7 , 2013 , the Blue Jays announced that Mottola would not be returning for the 2014 season .
In November 2013 , Mottola was hired by the Tampa Bay Rays as their minor @-@ league hitting co @-@ ordinator .
= = Personal = =
Mottola was born in Augusta , Georgia and grew up in Pembroke Pines , Florida . When Mottola signed with the Reds in 1992 , he bought his parents a house . Mottola 's father , Chuck , died of a heart attack at the age of 50 in October 1995 . His mother , Elaine , works as an administrative assistant at St. Bernadette 's School in Davie , Florida .
Mottola met his wife , Emily , at UCF . She played for the school 's volleyball team . They had their first son , Luke , in 2005 .
= Yellowhammer =
The yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella ) is a passerine bird in the bunting family that is native to Eurasia and introduced to New Zealand , Australia , Uruguay , Brazil , Argentina , Chile , the Falkland Islands , South Africa , United States and Canada . Most European birds remain in the breeding range year @-@ round , but the eastern subspecies is partially migratory , with much of the population wintering further south . The male yellowhammer has a bright yellow head , streaked brown back , chestnut rump and yellow underparts . Other plumages are duller versions of the same pattern . The yellowhammer is common in open areas with some scrubs or trees , and forms small flocks in winter . It has a characteristic song with an " A little bit of bread and no cheese " rhythm . The song is very similar to that of its closest relative , the pine bunting , with which it interbreeds .
Breeding commences mainly in April and May , with the female building a lined cup nest in a concealed location on or near the ground . The 3 – 5 eggs are patterned with a mesh of fine dark lines , giving rise to the old name for the bird of " scribble lark " . The female incubates the eggs for 12 – 14 days to hatching , and broods the altricial downy chicks until they fledge 11 – 13 days later . Both adults feed the chick in the nest and raise two or three broods each year . The nest may be raided by rodents or corvids , and the adults are hunted by birds of prey . Yellowhammers feed on the ground , usually in flocks outside the breeding season . The diet is mainly seeds , supplemented by invertebrates in the breeding season . Changes to agricultural practices have led to population declines in western Europe , but its large numbers and huge range mean that the yellowhammer is classed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
This conspicuous yellow bird has inspired poems by Robbie Burns and John Clare , and its characteristic song has influenced works by Beethoven and Messiaen . The children 's writer Enid Blyton helped to popularise the standard English representation of the song .
= = Taxonomy = =
The bird family Emberizidae contains around 300 seed @-@ eating species , the majority of which are found in the Americas , although the genus Emberiza , with more than forty members , is confined to the Old World . Within its genus , the yellowhammer is most closely related to the pine bunting , with which it forms a superspecies ; they have at times been considered as one species . The white @-@ capped and cirl buntings are also near relatives of the species pair . Where their ranges meet , the yellowhammer and pine bunting interbreed ; the yellowhammer is dominant , and the hybrid zone is moving further east .
The yellowhammer was described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name . Emberiza is derived from the German embritz , a bunting , and citrinella is the Italian for a small yellow bird . The English name is thought to have come from ammer , another German word for a bunting , and was first recorded in 1553 as yelambre .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are three recognised subspecies . E. c. citrinella ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) , the nominate subspecies , occurs in southeast England and most of Europe east to the northwestern corner of Russia and western Ukraine , E. c. caliginosa ( Clancey , 1940 ) is the form found in Ireland , the Isle of Man and Great Britain ( except southeast England ) , and E. c. erythrogenys ( Brehm , 1855 ) breeds from Russia , central Ukraine and the eastern Balkans eastwards to Siberia and northwest Mongolia , and also has isolated populations to the east of the Black Sea and in the Caucasus .
= = Description = =
The yellowhammer is a large bunting , 16 – 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a 23 – 29 @.@ 5 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 6 in ) wingspan ; it weighs 20 – 36 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 29 oz ) . The male of the nominate subspecies E. c. citrinella has a bright yellow head , heavily streaked brown back , rufous rump , yellow underparts , and white outer tail feathers . The female is less brightly coloured , and more streaked on the crown , breast and flanks . Both sexes are less strongly marked outside the breeding season , when the dark fringes on new feathers obscure the yellow plumage . The juvenile is much duller and less yellow than the adults , and often has a paler rump .
After breeding , adults have a complete moult which takes at least eight weeks ; males acquire more yellow in the plumage each time they moult . Juveniles have a partial moult not long after fledging , replacing the head , body and some covert feathers .
Differences between the subspecies are small and geographically gradual . On average , the male of E. c. caliginosa is slightly smaller and darker than the same sex of the nominate subspecies , and also has more streaking on its back , a greenish tint to the yellow of the head and more chestnut on the flanks . The male of the eastern form , E. c. erythrogenys , is paler and less streaked than E. c. citrinella . Its flanks , undertail and wing bars are usually whiter , and its crown and throat are brighter yellow . It is not usually possible to distinguish females of the three subspecies using plumage features .
Females and juveniles , especially of the pale eastern subspecies , E. c. erythrogenys , may be confused with pine buntings , but they always have a yellow tint to their plumage , a paler rufous rump and more uniform upperparts than that species . Young and female yellowhammers can be distinguished from cirl buntings by the grey @-@ brown rump of the latter species . Male hybrids with pine bunting are typically white @-@ faced and have some yellow on the head , underparts or flight feathers , but females are usually indistinguishable from yellowhammers .
= = = Voice = = =
The song of the cock yellowhammer is a series of short notes , gradually increasing in volume and followed by one or two more protracted notes . It is often represented as " A little bit of bread and no cheese " , and the full version can be confused with the almost identical song of the pine bunting . If the final notes are omitted , confusion with the cirl bunting is possible . Other vocalisations include a zit contact call , a see alarm , and a trilled tirrr given in flight .
Yellowhammer males learn their songs from their fathers , and over the course of time regional dialects have developed , with minor differences to the conclusion of the basic song ; all are mutually recognised by birds from different areas . Each male has an individual repertoire of song variants within its regional dialect ; females tend to mate with males that share their dialect , and prefer those with the largest repertoires .
The pine bunting and yellowhammer are so closely related that each responds to the other 's song . The male yellowhammer 's song is more attractive to females , and is one reason for the dominance of that species where the ranges overlap .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The yellowhammer breeds across Eurasia between the 16 – 20 ° C ( 61 – 68 ° F ) July isotherms . It is the commonest and most widespread European bunting , although it is absent from high mountains , Arctic regions , the western Netherlands , most of Iberia and Greece , and low @-@ lying regions of other countries adjoining the Mediterranean Sea . It breeds in Russia east to Irkutsk , and in most of Ukraine . The Asian range extends into northwest Turkey , the Caucasus and northern Kazakhstan .
Most European yellowhammers winter within their breeding range , only the far north being vacated , although some birds move south of their breeding range in Spain , Italy and other Mediterranean countries . Distances travelled can be up to 500 km ( 310 mi ) for northern birds . Asian birds are more strongly migratory , deserting much of the north to winter in Iraq , Iran and southern Central Asia . The yellowhammer has occurred as a vagrant in the United Arab Emirates , Egypt , Kuwait , Morocco , Malta , the Himalayas ( winter vagrant from northern Afghanistan to central Nepal ) , the Balearic Islands , Iceland and the Faroes .
Yellowhammers of the British and Irish race , E. c. caliginosa were introduced to New Zealand by local acclimatisation societies in 1862 , and soon spread over the main islands . They sometimes visit New Zealand 's subantarctic islands , although rarely staying to breed , and have reached Australia 's Lord Howe Island on a number of occasions . At the beginning of the 20th century , this bunting was seen as a serious agricultural pest in its adopted country .
The yellowhammer is a bird of dry open country , preferably with a range of vegetation types and some trees from which to sing . It is absent from urban areas , forests and wetlands . Probably originally found at forest edges and large clearing , it has benefited from traditional agriculture , which created extensive open areas with hedges and clumps of trees .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding normally starts in early May , but often in April in the south of the range . Yellowhammers are monogamous and breed when aged one year . The males establish territories along hedges or woodland fringes and sing from a tree or bush , often continuing well into July or August . The male displays to the female by raising his wings and running towards her . The nest is built by the female on or near the ground , and is typically well hidden in tussocks , against a bank or low in a bush . It is constructed from nearby plant material , such as leaves , dry grass and stalks , and lined with fine grasses and sometimes animal hair . It is 11 @.@ 5 – 13 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) across with a cup 4 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) deep .
The clutch is usually three to five whitish eggs , typically patterned with a network of fine dark lines . The eggs average 21 mm × 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 in × 0 @.@ 63 in ) in size and weigh 2 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 10 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The female incubates the eggs for 12 – 14 days to hatching , and broods the altricial downy chicks until they fledge 11 – 13 days later . Both adults feed the chick in the nest and two or three broods are raised each year .
The adult annual survival rate in the UK is around 54 % , and that for juveniles in their first year is 53 % . The typical lifespan is three years , although there are records from Great Britain and Germany of birds surviving for more than 13 years .
= = = Feeding = = =
Foraging is mainly on the ground , and the bird 's diet consists mainly of seeds . Oily seeds , such as those of brassicas , are ignored in favour of more starchy items . Typical food plants include common nettle , docks , common knotgrass , fat hen , common chickweed and yarrow . Grasses are also important , particularly cereals , and grain makes up a significant part of the food consumed in autumn and winter , wheat and oats being preferred to barley . When not breeding , yellowhammers forage in flocks which can occasionally number hundreds of birds , and often contain other buntings and finches .
The yellowhammer adds invertebrates to its diet in the breeding season , particularly as food for its growing chicks . A wide range of species is taken , including springtails , grasshoppers , flies , beetles , caterpillars , earthworms , spiders and snails .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Predators of the yellowhammer include the sparrowhawk , northern goshawk , lesser spotted eagle and hobby . It is not a significant host of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite , although as a ground @-@ nesting bird its eggs and chicks are vulnerable to predation from small mammals such as mice and other rodents . Nests are also raided by crows , Eurasian jays and Eurasian magpies . Predation accounted for more than 60 % of nest failures in a 2012 survey in Germany .
Thirteen species of fleas in the genera Ceratophyllus and Dasypsyllus have been found on this bunting , and internal parasites include Ascaridia galli . The yellowhammer may carry haematozoan blood parasites such as Haemoproteus coatneyi . Males with high parasite levels produced fewer offspring ( there is no such effect for females ) , and tend to be less brightly coloured . The striking plumage of the male may therefore have arisen as a signal of fitness to breed . Yellowhammers infected with Haemoproteus may have lower winter survival rates due to a tendency to having shorter wings .
= = Status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) estimates the European population of the yellowhammer to be from 54 – 93 million individuals , suggesting a Eurasian total of 73 – 186 million birds . Although the population appears to be in a decline , the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger the IUCN vulnerability criteria . The large numbers and huge breeding range of about 12 @.@ 9 million km2 ( 5 million sq mi ) , mean that this bunting is classified by the IUCN as being of least concern .
Populations have declined in recent decades in western Europe , including the British Isles , Belgium , the Netherlands , Austria and Italy . The yellowhammer is a red @-@ list ( severely declining ) species in Ireland and the UK . In eastern Europe , numbers appear to be stable , although the trend in Russia is unknown . Changes to agricultural practices are thought to be responsible for reduced breeding densities . The introduced population in New Zealand has been very successful , with breeding densities much higher than in the UK .
= = In culture = =
The yellowhammer is a conspicuous , vocal and formerly common country bird , and has attracted human interest . Yellowham Wood and Yellowham Hill , near Dorchester , both derive their names from the bird . Robbie Burns ' poem " The Yellow , Yellow Yorlin ' " gets its title from a Scottish name for the yellowhammer , which is given an obvious sexual connotation : I met a pretty maid , an ' unto her I said , / " I wad fain fin ' your yellow , yellow yorlin ' . " More factual descriptions of the bird and its behaviour can be found in John Clare 's " The Yellowhammer 's Nest " and " The Yellowhammer " , whose final lines read :
Enid Blyton helped to popularise the bird 's song as " little bit of bread and no cheese " in books such as The Ship of Adventure and Five Go Off in a Caravan , and wrote a poem called " The Yellow @-@ hammer " .
Beethoven 's student , Carl Czerny , and biographer Anton Schindler , both suggested that the composer got the idea for the first four notes of his 5th symphony from the yellowhammer 's call , although it is more likely that the opening of the 4th Piano Concerto was actually the work in question . Beethoven also used the yellowhammer theme in two piano sonatas , no . 21 in C major ( the " Waldstein " , Op.53 ) and No. 23 in F minor ( the " Appassionata " , Op.57 ) .
Olivier Messiaen often used birdsong as an inspiration for his music , and the yellowhammer features in Chronochromie , Catalogue d 'oiseaux , La fauvette des jardins and Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité , appearing in four movements of the last piece .
An old legend links the yellowhammer to the Devil . Its tongue was supposed to bear a drop of his blood , and the intricate pattern on the eggs was said to carry a concealed , possibly evil , message ; these satanic associations sometimes led to the persecution of the bird . The unusual appearance of the eggs also led to " scribble lark " , an old name for the bird .
= Remain in Light =
Remain in Light is the fourth studio album by American new wave band Talking Heads , released on October 8 , 1980 , on Sire Records . It was recorded at locations in the Bahamas and the United States between July and August 1980 and was produced by the quartet 's long @-@ time collaborator Brian Eno . The album peaked at number 19 on the Billboard 200 in the US and at number 21 on the UK Albums Chart . Two singles were released from Remain in Light : " Once in a Lifetime " and " Houses in Motion " as well as promotional single " Crosseyed and Painless " . The record was certified Gold in the US and in Canada during the 1980s .
The members of Talking Heads wanted to make an album that dispelled notions of frontman and chief lyricist David Byrne leading a back @-@ up band . They decided to experiment with African polyrhythms and , with Eno , recorded the instrumental tracks as a series of samples and loops , a novel idea at the time . Additional musicians were frequently used throughout the studio sessions . The lyric @-@ writing process slowed Remain in Light 's progress , but was concluded after Byrne drew inspiration from academic literature on Africa . The artwork for the album 's cover was crafted with the help of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 's computers and designing company M & Co . Following the album 's completion , Talking Heads expanded to nine members for promotional concerts .
Remain in Light was widely acclaimed by critics . Praise centred on its cohesive merging of disparate genres and sonic experimentation . The record has been featured in several publications ' lists of the best albums of the 1980s and the best albums of all time , and it is often considered Talking Heads ' magnum opus . In 2006 , it was remastered and reissued with the addition of four unfinished outtakes .
= = Origins = =
In January 1980 , the members of Talking Heads returned to New York City after the tours in support of their 1979 critically acclaimed third album , Fear of Music , and decided to take time off to pursue personal interests . Byrne worked with Eno , the record 's producer , on an experimental collaboration named My Life in the Bush of Ghosts . Jerry Harrison produced an album for soul singer Nona Hendryx at the Sigma Sound Studios branch in New York City ; the singer and the location were later used during the recording of Remain in Light on Harrison 's advice . Husband and wife Chris Frantz and Tina Weymouth discussed the possibility of leaving the band after the latter suggested that Byrne 's level of control was excessive . Frantz was not open to the idea of ending Talking Heads , and the two decided to take a long vacation in the Caribbean to ponder the state of the band and their marriage . During the trip , the couple became involved in Haitian Vodou religious ceremonies and practised with several types of native percussion instruments . While in Jamaica they socialised with the famous reggae rhythm section of Sly and Robbie .
Frantz and Weymouth ended their holiday by purchasing an apartment above Compass Point Studios in Nassau , the Bahamas , where the band had recorded their second album More Songs About Buildings and Food . Byrne joined the duo and Harrison there in the spring of 1980 . The band members realised that it had been solely up to Byrne to bear the creative burden of crafting songs even though the tracks were performed as a quartet . The conception of Remain in Light occurred partly because they tired of the notion of a singer leading a back @-@ up band ; the ideal they aimed for , according to Byrne , was " sacrificing our egos for mutual cooperation " . The frontman additionally wanted to escape " the psychological paranoia and personal torment " of what he had been writing and feeling in 1970s New York City . Instead of the band writing music to Byrne 's lyrics , Talking Heads performed instrumental jam sessions without words , using the Fear of Music song " I Zimbra " as a starting point .
Eno arrived in the Bahamas three weeks after Byrne and was at first reluctant to work with the band again after collaborating on the previous two full @-@ length releases . He changed his mind after hearing the instrumental demo tapes and noted , " I absolutely love the direction you 're going in . " Both parties decided to experiment with the communal African way of making music , in which individual parts mesh as polyrhythms to create a cohesive whole . Afrodisiac , the 1973 Afrobeat record from Nigerian musician Fela Kuti , became the template for the album . Weymouth has commented that the advent of the 1980s marked the beginnings of hip @-@ hop music , which made Talking Heads realise that the musical landscape was changing . Before the studio sessions , long @-@ time friend David Gans instructed the band members that " the things one doesn 't intend are the seeds for a more interesting future " . He encouraged them to experiment and improvise when recording and to make use of " mistakes " .
= = Recording and production = =
Recording sessions started at Compass Point Studios in July 1980 . The album 's creation required the use of additional musicians , particularly extra percussionists . Talking Heads used the working title Melody Attack throughout the studio process after watching a Japanese game show of the same name . Harrison has commented that the ambition was to blend rock and African genres , rather than simply imitate African music . Eno 's production techniques and personal approach were key to the record 's conception . The process was geared to promote the expression of instinct and spontaneity without overtly focusing on the sound of the final product . Sections and instrumentals were recorded one at a time in a discontinuous process . Samples and loops played a key part at a time when computer programs could not yet adequately perform such functions . The band 's performances and jam sessions acted as sampling and looping mechanisms . Eno has compared the creative process to " looking out to the world and saying , ' What a fantastic place we live in . Let 's celebrate it . ' "
After a few sessions in the Bahamas , engineer Rhett Davies left following an argument with the producer over the fast speed of recording . Steven Stanley , who since the age of 17 had engineered for musicians such as Bob Marley , stepped in to cover the workload . He is credited by Frantz with helping create the track " Once in a Lifetime " , which was later released as a single . A Lexicon 224 digital reverb effects unit , obtained by engineer and mixer Dave Jerden , was used on the album . The machine was one of the first of its kind and able to simulate environments such as echo chambers and rooms through interchangeable programs . Like Davies , Jerden was unhappy with the fast pace at which Eno wanted to record sonically complicated compositions , but did not complain . The basic tracks focused wholly on rhythms and were all performed in a minimalist method using only one chord . Each section was recorded as a long loop to enable the creation of compositions through the positioning or merging of loops in different ways .
The tracks made Byrne rethink his vocal style and he tried singing to the instrumental songs , but sounded " stilted " . Few vocal sections were recorded in the Bahamas . The writing process for the lyrics occurred when the band returned to the US and was split between New York City and California . Harrison booked Talking Heads into Sigma Sound , which focused primarily on R & B music , after convincing the owners that the band 's work could bring them a new type of clientele . In New York City , Byrne struggled with writer 's block . Harrison and Eno spent their time tweaking the compositions recorded in the Bahamas , while Frantz and Weymouth often did not show up at the studio . Doubts began to surface about whether the album would be completed . The recording sessions only built up pace after the recruitment of guitarist Adrian Belew at the request of Byrne , Harrison and Eno . He was advised to add guitar solos to the Compass Point tracks , making use of a Roland guitar synthesiser .
Byrne recorded all the tracks , as they were after Belew had performed on them , in a cassette and looked to Africa to break his writer 's block . He realised that , when African musicians forget words , they often improvise and make new ones up . The lyricist used a portable tape recorder and tried to create onomatopoeic rhymes in the style of Eno , who believed that lyrics were never the center of a song 's meaning . Byrne continuously listened to his recorded scatting until convinced that he was no longer " hearing nonsense " . After the frontman was satisfied , Harrison invited Nona Hendryx to Sigma Sound to record backing vocals for the album . She was advised extensively on her vocal delivery by Byrne , Frantz , and Weymouth , and often sang in a trio with Byrne and Eno . The voice sessions were followed by the overdubbing process . Brass player Jon Hassell , who had been working on parts of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts , was hired to perform trumpet and horn sections . In August 1980 , half of the album was mixed by Eno and engineer John Potoker in New York City with the assistance of Harrison , while the other half was mixed by Byrne and Jerden at Eldorado Studios in Los Angeles .
= = Packaging and title = =
The cover art was conceived by Weymouth and Frantz with the help of Massachusetts Institute of Technology researcher Walter Bender and his MIT Media Lab team . Using Melody Attack as inspiration , the couple created a collage of red warplanes flying in formation over the Himalayas . The planes are an artistic depiction of Grumman Avenger planes in honour of Weymouth 's father , Ralph Weymouth , who was a US Navy Admiral . The idea for the back cover included simple portraits of the band members . Weymouth attended MIT regularly during the summer of 1980 and worked with Bender 's colleague , Scott Fisher , on the computer renditions of the ideas . The process was tortuous because computer power was limited in the early 1980s and the mainframe alone took up several rooms . Weymouth and Fisher shared a passion for masks and used the concept to experiment with the portraits . The faces ( except for eyes , noses and mouths ) were blotted out with blocks of red colour . Weymouth considered superimposing Eno 's face on top of all four portraits to insinuate his egotism — the producer wanted to be on the cover art together with Talking Heads — but decided against it in the end .
The rest of the artwork and the liner notes were crafted by the graphic designer Tibor Kalman and his company M & Co . Kalman was a fervent critic of formalism and professional design in art and advertisements . He offered his services for free to create publicity , and discussed using unconventional materials such as sandpaper and velour for the LP sleeve . Weymouth , who was sceptical of hiring a designing firm , vetoed Kalman 's ideas and held firm on the MIT computerised images . The designing process made the band members realise that the title Melody Attack was " too flippant " for the music recorded , and they adopted Remain in Light instead . Byrne has noted , " Besides not being all that melodic , the music had something to say that at the time seemed new , transcendent , and maybe even revolutionary , at least for funk rock songs . " The image of the warplanes was relegated to the back of the sleeve and the doctored portraits became the front cover . Kalman later suggested that the planes were not removed altogether because they seemed appropriate during the Iranian hostage crisis of 1979 – 81 .
Weymouth advised Kalman that she wanted simple typography in a bold sans serif font . M & Co. followed the instructions and came up with the idea of inverting the " A " s in " TALKING HEADS " . Weymouth and Frantz decided to use the joint credit acronym C / T for the artwork , while Bender and Fisher used initials and code names because the project was not an official MIT venture . The design credits read " HCL , JPT , DDD , WALTER GP , PAUL , C / T " . The final mass @-@ produced version of Remain in Light boasted one of the first computer @-@ designed record jackets . Psychoanalyst Michael A. Brog has called its front cover a " disarming image , which suggests both splitting and obliteration of identity " and which introduces the listener to the album 's recurring theme of " identity disturbance " ; he states , " The image is in bleak contrast to the title with the obscured images of the band members unable to ' remain in light ' . "
= = Promotion and release = =
Brian Eno advised Talking Heads that the music on Remain in Light was too dense for a quartet to perform . The band expanded to nine musicians for the tours in support of the album . The augmenting members recruited by Harrison were Belew , Funkadelic keyboardist Bernie Worrell , bassist Busta " Cherry " Jones , Ashford & Simpson percussionist Steven Scales , and backing vocalist Dolette MacDonald . The larger group performed sound checks in Frantz and Weymouth 's loft by following the rhythms established by Worrell , who had studied at the New England Conservatory and Juilliard School . Their first appearance was on 23 August 1980 at the Heatwave festival in Canada in front of 70 @,@ 000 people ; Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times called the band 's new music a " rock @-@ funk sound with dramatic , near show @-@ stopping force " . On August 27 , the expanded Talking Heads performed a showcase of tracks to an audience of 125 @,@ 000 at the Wollman Rink in New York City 's Central Park . The Canada and New York gigs were the only ones initially planned , but Sire Records decided to support the nine @-@ member band on an extended tour .
Remain in Light was released worldwide on October 8 , 1980 . Talking Heads and Eno originally agreed to credit all songs in alphabetical order to " David Byrne , Brian Eno , Chris Frantz , Jerry Harrison and Tina Weymouth " after failing to devise an accurate mathematical formula for the split , but the album was released with the credits " David Byrne , Brian Eno , Talking Heads " . Frantz , Harrison , and Weymouth disputed Byrne and Eno 's attempt to claim sole credits , especially for a process they had partly funded . According to Weymouth , Byrne told Kalman to doctor the credits on Eno 's advice . Later editions rectified the error . Remain in Light received its world premiere airing in its entirety on 10 October 1980 on WDFM . It was certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association in February 1981 after shipping 50 @,@ 000 copies , and by Recording Industry Association of America in September 1985 after shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies . Over one million copies have been sold worldwide .
= = Content = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
Remain in Light contains eight songs that possess a " striking free @-@ associative feel " according to psychoanalyst Michael A. Brog , in that there is no long @-@ lasting coherent thought process that can be followed in the stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness lyrics . David Gans instructed Byrne to be freer with his lyrical content by advising him that " rational thinking has its limits " . The frontman included a bibliography with the album press kit along with a statement that explained how the album was inspired by African mythologies and rhythms . The release stressed that the major inspiration to the lyrics was Professor John Miller Chernoff 's African Rhythm and African Sensibility , which examined the musical enhancement of life in the continent 's rural communities . The academic travelled to Ghana in 1970 to study native percussion and wrote about how Africans have complicated conversations through drum patterns . One of the songs , " The Great Curve " , exemplifies the African theme by including the line " The world moves on a woman 's hips " , which Byrne used after reading Professor Robert Farris Thompson 's book African Art in Motion . He additionally studied straight speech , from John Dean 's Watergate testimony to the stories of African American former slaves .
Like all the other tracks , album opener " Born Under Punches ( The Heat Goes On ) " borrows from " preaching , shouting and ranting " . The expression " And the Heat Goes On " , used in the title and repeated in the chorus , is based on a New York Post headline Eno read in the summer of 1980 whilst Byrne rewrote the song title " Don 't Worry About the Government " from Talking Heads ' debut album , Talking Heads : 77 , into the lyric " Look at the hands of a government man " . The " rhythmical rant " in " Crosseyed and Painless " — " Facts are simple and facts are straight . Facts are lazy and facts are late . " — is influenced by old school rap , specifically Kurtis Blow 's " The Breaks " given to Byrne by Frantz . " Once in a Lifetime " borrows heavily from preachers ' diatribes . Some critics have suggested that the song is " a kind of prescient jab at the excesses of the 1980s " . Byrne disagreed with the categorisation and commented that its lyrics are meant to be taken literally ; he stated , " We 're largely unconscious . You know , we operate half awake or on autopilot and end up , whatever , with a house and family and job and everything else , and we haven 't really stopped to ask ourselves , ' How did I get here ? ' . "
= = = Music = = =
Byrne has described the album 's final mix as a " spiritual " piece of work , " joyous and ecstatic and yet it 's serious " ; he has pointed out that , in the end , there was " less Africanism in Remain in Light that we implied ... but the African ideas were far more important to get across than specific rhythms " . According to Eno , the record uniquely blends funk and punk rock or new wave music . None of the compositions include chord changes and instead rely on the use of different harmonics and notes . " Spidery riffs " and layered tracks of bass and percussion are used extensively throughout the album . The first side contains the more rhythmic songs recorded — " Born Under Punches ( The Heat Goes On ) " , " Crosseyed and Painless " , and " The Great Curve " — which include long instrumental interludes . The last @-@ named track contains extended synthesiser @-@ treated guitar solos from Adrian Belew .
The second side of Remain in Light features more introspective songs . " Once in a Lifetime " pays homage to early rap techniques and the music of art rock band The Velvet Underground . The track was originally called " Weird Guitar Riff Song " because of its composition . It was conceived as a single riff before the band added a second , boosted riff over the top of the first . Eno alternated eight bars of each riff with corresponding bars of its counterpart . " Houses in Motion " incorporates lengthy brass performances from Jon Hassell , while " Listening Wind " features Arabic music elements . The final track on the album , " The Overload , " was Talking Heads ' attempt to emulate the sound of British post @-@ punk band Joy Division . The song was made despite no band member having heard the music of Joy Division ; rather , it was based on an idea of what the British quartet might sound like based on descriptions in the music press . The track features " tribal @-@ cum @-@ industrial " beats created primarily by Harrison and Byrne .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The album has attained widespread acclaim from media outlets since its release . Ken Tucker of Rolling Stone explained that it was a brave and absorbing attempt to locate a common ground in the early 1980s divergent and often hostile musical genres ; he concluded , " Remain in Light yields scary , funny music to which you can dance and think , think and dance , dance and think , ad infinitum . " Robert Christgau , writing in The Village Voice , described the record as one " in which David Byrne conquers his fear of music in a visionary Afrofunk synthesis — clear @-@ eyed , detached , almost mystically optimistic " . Michael Kulp of The Daily Collegian commented that the album deserves the tag " classic " like each of the band 's three previous full @-@ length releases , while John Rockwell , writing in The New York Times , suggested that it confirmed Talking Heads ' position as " America 's most venturesome rock band " . Sandy Robertson of Sounds praised the record 's innovative nature , while Billboard wrote , " Just about every LP Talking Heads has released in the last four years has wound up on virtually every critics ' best of list . Remain in Light should be no exception . "
AllMusic 's William Ruhlmann noted that Talking Heads ' musical transition , first witnessed in Fear of Music , comes to full fruition in Remain in Light ; he stated , " Talking Heads were connecting with an audience ready to follow their musical evolution , and the album was so inventive and influential . " In the 1995 Spin Alternative Record Guide , Eric Weisbard praised Eno 's production effort which helped rein in any excessive appropriations of African music by Talking Heads . In 2004 , Slant Magazine 's Barry Walsh labelled its results as " simply magical " after the band turned rock music into a more global entity in terms of its musical and lyrical scope . In a 2008 review , Sean Fennessey of Vibe concluded , " Talking Heads took African polyrhythms to NYC and made a return trip with elegant , alien post @-@ punk in tow . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Remain in Light was named the best album of 1980 by Sounds , ahead of The Skids ' The Absolute Game , and by Melody Maker , while The New York Times included it in its unnumbered shortlist of the 10 best records issued that year . It figured highly in other end @-@ of @-@ year best album lists , notably at number two , behind The Clash 's London Calling , by Robert Christgau , and at number six by NME . It featured at number three — behind London Calling and Bruce Springsteen 's The River — in The Village Voice 's 1980 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll , which aggregates the votes of hundreds of prominent reviewers .
In 1989 , Rolling Stone named Remain in Light as the fourth best album of the decade . In 1993 , it was included at number 11 in NME 's list of The 50 Greatest Albums Of The ' 80s , and at number 68 in the publication 's Greatest Albums Of All Time list . In 1997 , The Guardian collated worldwide data from renowned critics , artists , and radio DJs , which placed the record at number 43 in the list of the 100 Best Albums Ever . In 1999 , it was included by Vibe as one of its 100 Essential Albums Of The 20th Century . In 2002 , Pitchfork Media featured Remain in Light at number two behind Sonic Youth 's Daydream Nation in its Top 100 Albums Of The 1980s list . In 2003 , VH1 named the record at number 88 during its 100 Greatest Albums countdown , while Slant magazine included it in its unnumbered shortlist of 50 Essential Pop Albums . Rolling Stone placed it at number 129 in its December 2015 issue of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , higher than three other Talking Heads releases . In 2006 , Q ranked Remain in Light at number 27 in its list of the 40 Best Albums of the 80s . In 2012 , Slant listed the album at number six on its list of the " Best Albums of the 1980s " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by David Byrne , Brian Eno , Chris Frantz , Jerry Harrison , and Tina Weymouth .
The remastered reissue was produced by Andy Zax with the help of Talking Heads .
The DVD portion of the European reissue contains videos of the band performing " Crosseyed and Painless " and " Once in a Lifetime " on German music show Rockpop in 1980 .
= = Personnel = =
Those involved in the making of Remain in Light were :
= = Chart positions = =
= Louboutins ( song ) =
" Louboutins " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez . Written and produced by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and C. " Tricky " Stewart , the record was recorded by fellow recording artist and label @-@ mate Brandy Norwood , but was given to Lopez following Norwood 's departure from Epic Records . Lopez originally released the song as the lead single from her seventh studio album , Love ? ; however , after Lopez herself moved record labels to Island Records , the new lead single , " On the Floor " , was released and " Louboutins " was not included on the album . The electro @-@ R & B song uses the celebrity footwear brand Louboutins as metaphor for female empowerment , with the lyrics focusing on women who need to leave their bad relationships with their heads held high .
Lopez premiered " Louboutins " at the American Music Awards on November 22 , 2009 , where she accidentally fell on her rear @-@ end in the middle of the performance . Ryan Seacrest and will.i.am praised Lopez 's showmanship and professionalism for swiftly recovering from the fall to continue the performance . It made its radio premiere a day later on KIIS @-@ FM 's On Air With Ryan Seacrest before being sent for radio adds on December 8 , 2009 . It was then released as a digital download on December 21 , 2009 in the United States and Canada .
" Louboutins " eventually topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart but failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 as it garnered little airplay . Subsequently in 2010 , Lopez announced that her ten @-@ year partnership with Sony Music was over , making the single her last release under Epic Records . A video for the single was never filmed and further promotion of the song was cancelled .
= = Background = =
During an interview with Vibe magazine in November 2009 , Tricky Stewart revealed that he was working on records for Lopez 's upcoming album . He then revealed that he and The @-@ Dream had originally produced " Louboutins " for R & B singer Brandy Norwood . She recorded the song after her 2008 album , Human . Norwood released a statement in which she admitted that the song was once hers : " It is true I had a song called ' Louboutins ' that I loved and still love to pieces , but God never blesses you with another person 's blessing " . Stewart later revealed that when Norwood lost her deal , the song was left over and neither he nor The @-@ Dream wanted the record to " die " . " Louboutins " was subsequently offered to Lopez , who fell in love with the song . Christian Louboutin said he was " flattered " that Lopez had recorded a song about his shoe designs and was grateful that she had asked if she was pronouncing the name correctly .
= = Writing and composition = =
" Louboutins " is a song which " tells the story of a woman stuck in a dead @-@ end relationship with a man who clearly does not deserve her , and with her journey to realizing that and eventually walking out on him " , and her frustration that her man is not 100 % committed . The introduction was said to be similar to " 4 Minutes " by Madonna and Justin Timberlake , though the melody is " backed with trumpets and synth beats " . A reviewer from Prefix said that the record didn 't sound like a typical Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream production .
Stewart told Vibe how he and The @-@ Dream came up with the song 's concept . He said " That was Dream and I just getting in the room and clicking , ... We were both on two different keyboards , two different drum machines and once again just got behind the mic and the rest is history . " Lyrics include lines like , " But it 's the last time , I 'm movin ' on / I 'm throwing on my Louboutins . " Lopez described the idea behind the song as " that point in a bad relationship and you 're like , ' Damn , I really have to leave . It 's just not good for me , ' ... It 's not the girl who 's like , ' I 'm gonna take my stuff , and I 'm gonna put on my sweatpants , and I 'm gonna cry , ' ... This girl is like putting on her hottest dress and her sexiest Louboutin shoes , and leaving your ass " . In the chorus Lopez singles " I 'm throwing on my Louboutins " eight times and overall the word " Louboutins " is spoken thirty @-@ two times across the song . Prefix magazine said that " Louboutins " is used as a metaphor for female empowerment .
= = Critical reception = =
" Louboutins " received mixed reception from critics . Elana Gorgan of Softpedia focused on the single cover and concept of the song . She said " While the idea of the track is original , critics and fans alike say , the artwork is lackluster at best ... There is a certain old vibe to the cover , what with the font of the writing and the shot in itself , but it 's not helping the singer in any way garner much interest in the release . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said " [ Louboutins ] does for the ultra high @-@ end shoe brand what Crocs do for sexy . " She pointed out how the song was not as good as Lopez 's previous material and at one point even called the song " Poo " . Further to this , Peter Gicas of E ! Online was also critical of the song , suggesting that the song leaked online before its official debut to warn fans of what Lopez was about to inflict on them . " The track begins with the singer insisting , " I 'm taking back my love . " Personally , we wish we could take back the last three minutes and 49 seconds . " Tom Stacks of Entertainment Weekly was less than impressed saying " J. Lo needs to move on from her recording career . She had some fun , catchy songs ( ' If You Had My Love , ' ' Love Don 't Cost a Thing ' ) , but trying to regain musical relevance by singing about pricey high @-@ heels just seems a little sad . I say focus on getting the movie career back on track ... "
Becky Bain of ' Idolator ' was more positive of the song saying she " actually forgot Lopez is still considered a singer , what with her two @-@ year hiatus to focus on all her fragrances and clothing lines and babies and such . It 's nice to have her back — yes , not every J @-@ Lo song was a hit , but we all danced to ' If You Had My Love ' and ' Waiting for Tonight ' back in the day . ' Louboutins ' ... definitely has the catchiest chorus she 's had in years . This could actually bring Jennifer out of the pit her last album Brave dug her into . " Nick Levine from Digital Spy described the track as " a Tricky and The @-@ Dream @-@ produced club banger with a chorus that succeeds through sheer attrition , with a proper Janet Jackson @-@ style dance break . [ ... ] Truth be told , it 's not a J.Lo classic to rival ' Play ' or ' Love Don 't Cost a Thing ' , and it 's about as original as starting your day with a bowl of Kellogg 's Cornflakes , but it does burrow into your brain after a few spins . "
= = Live performances = =
MTV was first to name Lopez as one of the many performers to take to the stage at the 2009 American Music Awards. which aired on November 22 , 2009 . She later confirmed this on a KIIS @-@ FM interview with DJ SKEE , saying that the performance would debut her new single , " Louboutins " . The performance took on a boxing theme , and featured famous ring announcer Michael Buffer introducing Lopez to the stage . Lopez performed in a boxing @-@ like outfit and had a costume change halfway through the performance . The performance began in the ring and ended with Lopez walking through the audience . However the performance did not go as planned when the choreographed " dramatic stunt of climbing up a human pyramid of semi @-@ naked male dancers " went wrong . " She lost her balance after jumping off a dancer 's back , and landed on her derriere . " In E ! Online 's " Top Five Worst Concert Diggers " , Lopez 's fall was ranked at number five . However , according to The Daily Mail 's Natalie Trombetta , Lopez responded in a professional way , " ever the professional , Jennifer quickly recovered her poise and carried on with the show . " Close friend and American TV presenter Ryan Seacrest , agreed calling it " the greatest recovery ever ! " According to MTV , " the tumble was edited out of the West Coast feed of the show , out of respect for Lopez , by the show 's producers " . Becky Bain of ' Idolator ' suggested that the tumble was more talked about than the actually single itself , which was confirmed when MTV reported that it was one of the most searched things on the internet . After the incident will.i.am praised Lopez for being a true entertainer . " That shows she 's a true entertainer and devoted , She came out of it and still rocked it . It doesn 't matter how you fall – just how you get up . She got up . "
Lopez reprised the performance on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 3 , 2009 where she also laughed and joked about the incident . She also performed on the season six @-@ finale of So You Think You Can Dance on December 16 , 2009 . The performance took on a holiday theme and was choreographed by the show 's team . Lopez 's final performance of the song came on December 31 , 2009 where she performed " Louboutins " along with a medley of previous hits including " Waiting For Tonight " and " Let 's Get Loud " at Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest . Lopez 's choice of outfit , a shimmering skin @-@ tight catsuit , received attention from the media with the NY Daily News praising her for her " flawless physique " .
= = Music video = =
Christian Louboutin said that he would dedicate his time to creating some " scene @-@ stealing designs for the single 's video " , out of his appreciation for the song . According to Rap @-@ Up , Lopez was scheduled to film the music video for the song in January 2010 . She outlined the concept of the video in a radio interview , where she said : " It 's gonna be a lot of dancing , I definitely want to do some dancing because it 's been a while and I want to do a dance video , and it 's going to be really empowering . It 's going to be about that woman , you know when you have that moment when you realize you have to really get out of here that 's the moment we 're trying to cauterize in the video . Even when you know that it 's gonna hurt later , you feel good about making the decision , so you 're like " I decided ! I 'm walking up out the house right now " and that 's the part we 're gonna do in the video except I 'm gonna dance my way out the house . "
However following Lopez 's departure from Epic Records in 2010 , the video was never filmed .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Louboutins " – 3 : 48
= = Chart performance = =
" Louboutins " was to be the second consecutive song from Lopez 's seventh album , Love ? , to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart following " Fresh Out the Oven " , however , neither of the songs were included on the album 's final track listing . According to Billboard , " Louboutins " failed to attain enough airplay to enter the Billboard charts . Later in 2010 , the New York Daily News suggested that this lack of success played a role in Lopez 's departure from Epic Records and Sony Music in earlier in the year .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Mycenastrum =
Mycenastrum is a fungal genus in the family Agaricaceae . The genus is monotypic , containing one widely distributed species , Mycenastrum corium , known by various common names : the giant pasture puffball , leathery puffball , or tough puffball . The roughly spherical to turnip @-@ shaped puffball @-@ like fruit bodies grow to a diameter of 6 – 24 cm ( 2 – 9 in ) . Initially covered by a thick , felted , whitish layer , the puffballs develop a characteristic checkered skin ( peridium ) in age . When the internal spore mass , the gleba , is firm and white , the puffball is edible , although some individuals may suffer mild gastrointestinal symptoms after eating it . As the spores mature , the gleba turns first yellowish then purplish brown . Spores are released when the peridium eventually splits open into irregularly shaped sections . Microscopically , the gleba consists of spherical , dark brown spores with rounded bumps on their surfaces , and a capillitium — intricately branched fibers that form long thorn @-@ like spines . The puffball grows on or in the ground in prairie or desert habitats . Although widely distributed , it is not commonly encountered . Mycenastrum corium is a threatened species in Europe .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally described in 1805 as Lycoperdon corium in the second volume of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's Flore Française . They attributed authorship to French botanist Louis Ben Guersent , who discovered it in an alfalfa field between the town of La Sotte and Rouen in northern France . Synonyms include Scleroderma corium published by Arthur Harmount Graves in 1830 , and Steerbekia corium published by Elias Magnus Fries in 1849 . The species was given its current name by Nicaise Auguste Desvaux in 1842 , who circumscribed the genus Mycenastrum to contain it . Generic synonyms are Vassiliĭ Matveievitch Czernajew 's 1845 Endonevrum and Stephan Schulzer von Müggenburg 's 1876 Pachyderma .
In 1948 , Sanford Myron Zeller circumscribed the new family Mycenastraceae , containing both Mycenastrum as the type genus , and Bovista . A 2001 molecular study supported the inclusion of Mycenastrum corium in the Lycoperdales , where it was traditionally placed . In a more recent ( 2008 ) cladistic analysis , Mycenastrum was shown to be a sister group to the Lycoperdaceae ; authors Larsson and Jeppson agreed with Zeller ( 1949 ) and Pilat 's ( 1958 ) decision to regard Mycenastrium as a monotypic genus in the separate family Mycenastraceae . Despite this , several taxonomic authorities prefer to fold Mycenastraceae into the Agaricaceae .
It is commonly known as the " leathery puffball " , the " tough puffball " , or the " giant pasture puffball " .
María Homrich & Jorge E. Wright published the variety Mycenastrum corium var. diabolicum in 1973 from South America . M. corium subspecies ferrugineum was described in 2005 from Jefferson County , Colorado , by Orson K. Miller .
= = = Former Mycenastrum = = =
Most species historically named as Mycenastrum have since been transferred to other genera , usually Scleroderma , but also Glyptoderma , Bovista , and Gastropila . Many , including those species that have not been reclassified are poorly known ; the nomenclatural authority Index Fungorum considers only four of these former Mycenastrum species to be currently valid : Bovista bovistoides , B. lycoperdoides , Gastropila fragilis , and Glyptoderma coelatum .
= = Description = =
The fruit body usually grows to a diameter of 6 – 15 cm ( 2 – 6 in ) , although extremes of 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) and 27 cm ( 11 in ) have been reported . Its shape ranges from roughly spherical , to obovate ( egg @-@ shaped ) or pyriform ( pear @-@ shaped ) , sometimes plicate ( crumpled , wrinkled ) around a somewhat fibrous , persistent tuft of mycelium . The puffball is initially covered by a thick , felted , whitish layer ( the exoperidium ) . This is continuous at first but eventually cracks and peels away in thin flakes , exposing a leathery to corky , nearly smooth , light brown to dark pinkish @-@ brown surface . This tough layer of tissue ( the endoperidium ) measures about 2 mm thick , encloses the gleba . In maturity , the endoperidium opens by irregular splits that eventually extend towards the base in a star @-@ shaped manner . These torn segments of endoperidium sometimes turn inside out , sometimes drying rigid , exposing a felt @-@ like internal surface . The gleba is white when young and has a cheesy appearance and consistency . As the puffball matures , it undergoes a lytic process involving water loss . Subsequently , the gleba becomes olivaceous , olive @-@ brown , and finally dark olive when dry , and then develops a characteristic pungent smell . Fruit bodies that grow underground have a conspicuously different morphology – a smooth , chocolate @-@ brown coloured surface that lacks the patches characteristic of above @-@ ground fruit bodies , and their capillitia are bifurcate with stumpy spines . The fungus is edible when the gleba is white . Its odor and taste have been described as pungent or earthy and its taste astringent .
Its spores are spherical , measuring 8 – 13 µm , and have a surface of irregular , coarse warts . The capillitium refers to late @-@ maturing , thick @-@ walled cells in the gleba . The main axes of these branched cells are 20 – 30 µm thick , and they are covered with numerous spines .
Mycenastrum corium subsp. ferrugineum has a deep rusty red to reddish orange gleba , clearly distinguishing it from the glebal coloring of the main subspecies . M. corium var. diabolicum has an extremely spiny capillitium .
= = = Uses = = =
The puffball is edible when the gleba is still firm and white . They are reportedly consumed by the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh . In Mexico , a large collection was consumed by several people who confused the species with Calvatia , a puffball genus containing popular edible members . Of the five who ate the fungus , two had gastrointestinal symptoms including stomachache , flatulence , and diarrhea ; the other three did not have symptoms . The large European bird great bustard ( Otis tarda ) has been recorded feeding on the puffball .
Because of their thick outer peridium , Mycenastrum corium puffballs can withstand hard blows without breaking , and children have used them as replacements for balls . The puffballs have also been used medicinally in Mexico as a hemostatic , as a throat and lung tonic , and for their purported anti @-@ inflammatory properties .
= = Puffball maturation = =
The manner in which the puffball splits open ( dehisces ) has been described by 19th @-@ century American mycologist William Henry Long . The thick and leathery peridium of the mature puffball remains unopened for several months without splitting . After several alternating cycles of wetting and drying , fissures develop across the top . These fissures usually radiate from a common center near the top of the fruit body and finally produce very irregular star @-@ like teeth . In time , the entire upper half of the puffball is open and exposed during dry weather . In this condition , the spores are blown out by the wind and widely distributed . During every rainy spell the puffball promptly closes only to open again when dry weather returns . At each alternate opening and closing the peridium is split more and more , until finally it is expanded into a flat shape , or even curls backward . In the puffball , the outer layer of the peridium comprises cells arranged so that when wet they adsorb water and expand , thus closing the top of the puffball . Upon drying , these outer cells lose water and gradually shrink , thus producing an unequal tension between the outer and inner cells of the peridium . This tension causes the irregular star @-@ like pieces of the peridium to gradually separate and curve outward , thus opening the top of the puffball during dry weather .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
Mycenastrum corium is a saprobic species , consuming dead organic debris . It is usually found fruiting on the ground singly , scattered , in rings , or in clusters , but is can also grow underground . Fruiting occurs at low elevations in groups in open habitats dominated by sagebrush and saltbrush , or in grassy or shrubby wet areas in dry prairie . Other reported habitats include old haystacks , on silage , and roadsides . Mature fruit bodies can be broken loose from attachment to the substrate and be rolled around by wind , similar to some Bovista puffballs . Although the species is not frequently encountered , it has been suggested that this is because it grows in locations " rather seldom visited by mycologists " . M. corium could be a useful indicator species for climate change .
The puffball is widely distributed , and has been recorded in Africa ( Zimbabwe ) , Asia ( China , India , Iran , Mongolia , and Yemen ) , South America ( Argentina , Chile and Uruguay ) , North America , Australia , and New Zealand . In Europe it is found in southern Scandinavia and is widespread to the south of the continent . Although it was reported in Scotland in 2010 ( its first appearance on the British mainland ) , the grassland habitat where it was found has since become heavily eroded , and may be unsuitable for future appearances of the species . Mycenastrum corium is a threatened species in Europe , and is listed as vulnerable in the Regional Red List of Poland . In North America , it is most common in western regions of the United States and Canada , but it has also been recorded in eastern Canada . Poorly known in Mexico , it has been recorded from Baja California , Chihuahua , Nuevo León , San Luis Potosi , Sonora , Mexico City . The variety M. corium var. diabolicum occurs in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , tropical Asia , the Caribbean , and South America .
= New York State Route 30 =
New York State Route 30 ( NY 30 ) is a state highway in the central part of New York in the United States . It extends for 300 @.@ 71 miles ( 483 @.@ 95 km ) from an interchange with NY 17 in the Southern Tier to the Canadian border in the state 's North Country , where it continues into Quebec as Route 138 . On a regional level , the route serves to connect the Catskill Park to the Adirondack Park . In the latter , NY 30 is known as the Adirondack Trail . Aside from the state parks , the route serves the city of Amsterdam ( where it meets the New York State Thruway ) and several villages .
NY 30 was assigned in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to most of its modern routing south of Wells , replacing a series of designations that had been assigned to the highway in the 1920s . The portion of what is now NY 30 north of Speculator was initially part of NY 10 . When that route was truncated to Arietta c . 1960 , NY 30 was extended northward over NY 10 's former alignment by way of an overlap with NY 8 .
= = Route description = =
The New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) maintains all but 0 @.@ 97 miles ( 1 @.@ 56 km ) of NY 30 's 301 @-@ mile ( 484 km ) alignment . The only section not maintained by the state is located in the city of Amsterdam , where the route is locally maintained from Prospect Street ( two blocks north of NY 67 ) to the northern city line .
= = = Hancock to Schoharie = = =
NY 30 begins at an interchange with NY 17 in the town of Hancock adjacent to the confluence of the East Branch of the Delaware River and the Beaverkill River . The route follows the East Branch northeast to Downsville , where it meets NY 206 . NY 206 follows NY 30 across the East Branch into Catskill Park , where the routes split near Brock Mountain . NY 30 exits the park , runs along the south side of the Pepacton Reservoir , before crossing over to the north side of the river . Near Margaretville , NY 30 briefly overlaps NY 28 before turning northward toward Roxbury , where the route passes the John Burroughs Memorial State Historic Site . New York Governor David Paterson designated the stretch of NY 30 within Delaware County the " David C. Brinkerhoff Memorial Highway " , after the New York State Trooper who was slain in pursuit of Travis Trimm near the village on April 25 , 2007 .
From Roxbury , NY 30 follows the East Branch to Grand Gorge in northeastern Delaware County , where the East Branch comes to an end amidst the mountains . NY 30 , meanwhile , intersects NY 23 in the center of the hamlet .
North of Grand Gorge , NY 30 crosses into Schoharie County and intersects NY 990V , one of four reference routes in New York erroneously signed as a touring route , near the northeastern edge of the Schoharie Reservoir in Gilboa . From NY 990V northward , NY 30 follows the Schoharie Creek through Schoharie County to Middleburgh , where it intersects NY 145 . To the north in Schoharie , NY 30 meets NY 443 before splitting into NY 30 and NY 30A north of the village , with Schoharie Creek largely following NY 30A . While NY 30A connects to Interstate 88 ( I @-@ 88 ) by way of an interchange a short distance to the north , NY 30 has no connection to the freeway . Just past I @-@ 88 , NY 30 intersects NY 7 . Shortly after passing NY 7 , NY 30 enters Schenectady County .
= = = Schoharie to Adirondack Park = = =
In Schenectady County , Schoharie Creek breaks from NY 30A and returns to the vicinity of NY 30 as it intersects U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Esperance . From Esperance northward , the creek becomes roughly equidistant from both NY 30 and NY 30A as all three entities cross into Montgomery County . Near the northeastern corner of the county , NY 30 enters the city of Amsterdam . The route meets the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) and NY 5S via separate interchanges before heading downhill as a four @-@ lane divided highway approaching the Mohawk River ( here part of the Erie Canal ) . Historically , the bridge over the river was a straight line to Market Street , which is visible as one approaches northbound . Segments of downtown Market Street remain in use today . With the 1977 creation of the Amsterdam Mall , NY 30 , together with NY 5 and NY 67 , were re @-@ routed onto splits . After the splits rejoin , NY 30 continues on Market Street and leaves the city and , for all purposes , the county .
In adjacent Fulton County , NY 30 crosses NY 29 near Broadalbin , then curves gently to the east after an intersection with County Route 155 ( CR 155 ) , a historical routing of NY 29 . 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) , NY 30 turns left toward Mayfield ; CR 155 continues eastward . The concurrency between the two routes is unsigned .
NY 30 historically followed School Street through the village of Mayfield . The new routing has it heading toward Riceville , where NY 30A rejoins NY 30 . Here , the Adirondack Trail begins as NY 30 turns right , following the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 30A into Adirondack Park shortly before entering Mayfield .
= = = Adirondack Park and Franklin County = = =
NY 30 runs through the Adirondacks , accessing communities such as Speculator , Blue Mountain Lake , and Tupper Lake as a scenic byway named the Adirondack Trail . From Wells to Speculator , NY 30 is concurrent to NY 8 , then with NY 28 from Indian Lake to Blue Mountain Lake . Between Blue Mountain Lake and Long Lake , NY 30 is concurrent with the western third of NY 28N .
Near Tupper Lake , it skirts the boundary between Franklin and Saint Lawrence for a considerable distance before entering Tupper Lake and intersecting NY 3 . The two routes overlap to Harrietstown , where NY 30 splits from NY 3 and heads north along a series of lakes , including Upper Saranac Lake and Meacham Lake . North of Duane , NY 30 exits Adirondack Park and heads north towards Malone . Within the village , NY 30 briefly overlaps US 11 . The Adirondack Trail ends at the east end of the overlap . The route continues north out of the village to the Canadian border in Constable , where it becomes Route 138 upon entering Quebec at the Trout River Border Crossing .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
Route 30 made up part of the privately owned Middletown and Roxbury Turnpike . The turnpike , which accessed the villages of Middletown and Roxbury , was created in 1808 . The highway was about 23 miles ( 37 km ) long , as that is the current stretch of Route 30 from Middletown to Roxbury .
The stretch of Route 30 from Middleburgh to Schoharie was also once part of the Middleburgh and Schoharie Plank Road .
= = = Designation = = =
Prior to 1930 , the modern routing of NY 30 carried a large number of designations . Between Margaretville and Grand Gorge in the town of Roxbury , what is now NY 30 was designated as part of NY 19 . From Mayfield north to Malone , most of the current routing of NY 30 carried a designation . The portion from the modern junction of NY 30 and NY 30A in Mayfield to Speculator was part of NY 54 . From Speculator to Indian Lake , NY 30 was the northernmost segment of NY 80 . Between Indian Lake and Long Lake , NY 30 comprised the western half of NY 10A . Past Long Lake , NY 30 was part of NY 10 north to the modern junction of NY 30 and NY 186 west of Harrietstown . From NY 186 to modern NY 86 in Paul Smiths , the present alignment of NY 30 was unnumbered . Between Paul Smiths and Malone , NY 30 was part of NY 3 . The remainder of NY 30 was unnumbered .
In the 1930 renumbering , NY 30 was largely assigned to its current alignment between the Hancock hamlet of East Branch and Wells , where it terminated at NY 8 . Past Wells , the modern alignment of NY 30 was designated as NY 8 to Spectator and as NY 10 north to the Canadian border . NY 10 was truncated southward to NY 8 in Arietta c . 1960 , at which time NY 30 was extended north to Quebec along the former alignment of NY 10 .
= = = Realignments = = =
NY 30 has been realigned in two areas along its routing . The first realignment was in the Schoharie Valley near the hamlets of Breakabeen and Fultonham . NY 30 was originally routed along the base of Toepath Mountain near Fultonham and along a pair of village streets in Breakabeen . In the 1950s , a proposal was made to reroute NY 30 onto a new routing in the base of the valley surrounding Schoharie Creek . The proposal was approved , and the new alignment of NY 30 opened c . 1970 . The former routing of NY 30 from Max V. Shaul State Park near Breakabeen to Fultonham , still visible from the modern alignment of the route , was closed to the public and guardrails were installed to stop motor traffic from using the route . However , biking and walking was still allowed , and the old highway is now a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long trail known as " Old Route 30 " . The trail is not maintained ; thus , the quality of the blacktop along Old Route 30 has deteriorated over the years . There are significant potholes and overhanging trees , but the path is still traversable .
The second realignment of NY 30 was in the vicinity of the village of Northville . NY 30 originally entered the village by way of Bridge Street and followed Bridge , Main , and Reed streets through the village . It continued along the eastern bank of the Great Sacandaga Lake on what is now Old State Road and Old Northville Road and rejoined its modern alignment in the town of Hope . The route was realigned c . 1961 to follow a new highway along the western lakeshore , bypassing Northville entirely . The portion of Bridge Street from NY 30 to the Northville village line remains state @-@ maintained as NY 920H , an unsigned reference route 0 @.@ 23 miles ( 0 @.@ 37 km ) in length . Farther north , the portion of Old Northville Road from the Fulton – Hamilton county line to its junction with NY 30 is maintained by Hamilton County as CR 15 .
= = NY 30A = =
NY 30A ( 34 @.@ 86 miles or 56 @.@ 10 kilometres ) is a loop of NY 30 , running west of NY 30 from north of Schoharie to south of Mayfield through Fultonville , Fonda , Johnstown , and Gloversville . It was assigned in the late 1950s .
= = Major intersections = =
= Joseph Merrick =
Joseph Carey Merrick ( 5 August 1862 – 11 April 1890 ) , sometimes named incorrectly as John Merrick , was an English man with severe deformities who was exhibited as a human curiosity named the Elephant Man . He became well known in London society after he went to live at the London Hospital . Merrick was born in Leicester , and began to develop abnormally during the first few years of his life . His skin appeared thick and lumpy , he developed enlarged lips , and a bony lump grew on his forehead . One of his arms and both of his feet became enlarged and at some point during his childhood he fell and damaged his hip , resulting in permanent lameness . When he was 11 , his mother died from bronchopneumonia , and his father soon remarried . Merrick left school at the age of 13 and had difficulty finding employment . Rejected by his father and stepmother , he left home . In late 1879 , Merrick , aged 17 , entered the Leicester Union Workhouse .
In 1884 , after four years in the workhouse , Merrick contacted a showman named Sam Torr and proposed that Torr should exhibit him . Torr agreed and arranged for a group of men to manage Merrick , whom they named the Elephant Man . After touring the East Midlands , Merrick travelled to London to be exhibited in a penny gaff shop on Whitechapel Road which was rented by showman Tom Norman . Norman 's shop , directly across the street from the London Hospital , was visited by a surgeon named Frederick Treves , who invited Merrick to be examined and photographed . Soon after Merrick 's visits to the hospital , Tom Norman 's shop was closed by the police , and Merrick 's managers sent him to tour in Europe .
In Belgium , Merrick was robbed by his road manager and abandoned in Brussels . He eventually made his way back to London ; unable to communicate , he was found by the police to have Dr. Treves 's card on him . Treves came and took Merrick back to the London Hospital . Although his condition was incurable , Merrick was allowed to stay at the hospital for the remainder of his life . Treves visited him daily , and the pair developed quite a close friendship . Merrick also received visits from the wealthy ladies and gentlemen of London society , including Alexandra , Princess of Wales .
Aged 27 , Merrick died on 11 April 1890 . The official cause of death was asphyxia , although Treves , who dissected the body , said that Merrick had died of a dislocated neck . He believed that Merrick , who had to sleep sitting up because of the weight of his head , had been attempting to sleep lying down to " be like other people " .
The exact cause of Merrick 's deformities is unclear . The dominant theory throughout much of the 20th century was that Merrick suffered from neurofibromatosis type I. In 1986 , a new theory emerged that he had Proteus syndrome . In 2001 , it was proposed that Merrick had suffered from a combination of neurofibromatosis type I and Proteus syndrome . DNA tests conducted on his hair and bones have proven inconclusive .
In 1979 , Bernard Pomerance 's play about Merrick called The Elephant Man debuted , and David Lynch 's film , also called The Elephant Man , was released the following year . In late 2014 and early 2015 , Bradley Cooper starred in a Broadway revival of The Elephant Man , directed by Scott Ellis .
= = Early life and family = =
Joseph Carey Merrick was born 5 August 1862 at 50 Lee Street in Leicester , to Joseph Rockley Merrick and his wife Mary Jane ( née Potterton ) . Joseph Rockley Merrick ( c . 1838 – 1897 ) was the son of London @-@ born weaver Barnabas Merrick ( c . 1791 – 1856 ) who moved to Leicester during the 1820s or 1830s , and his third wife Sarah Rockley . Mary Jane Potterton ( c . 1837 – 1873 ) had been born at Evington , Leicestershire , her father being William Potterton , who was described as an agricultural labourer in the 1851 census of Thurmaston , Leicestershire . She is said to have had some form of physical disability and as a young woman worked as a domestic servant in Leicester before marrying Joseph Rockley Merrick , then a brougham driver , in 1861 .
The following year , Joseph Carey Merrick was born , apparently healthy , and had no outward symptoms of any disorder for the first few years of his life . Named after his father , he was given the middle name Carey by his mother , a Baptist , after the preacher William Carey . The Merricks had three more children , John Thomas ( born 21 April 1864 , died of smallpox 24 July of the same year ) , William Arthur ( born January 1866 ) who died of scarlet fever on 21 December 1870 aged four and Marion Eliza ( born 28 September 1867 ) , who was born with physical disabilities and died of myelitis and " seizures " in 1891 . When writing of Joseph in his book The Elephant Man : A Study in Human Dignity , Ashley Montagu states that " John Thomas [ sic ] Merrick was born on 21 April 1864 " . Montagu believed Treves 's statement in his book The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences that Merrick 's first name was John , not Joseph , and confused him with his younger brother .
A pamphlet titled " The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick " , produced c . 1884 to accompany his exhibition , states that he started to display symptoms at approximately five years of age , with " thick lumpy skin ... like that of an elephant , and almost the same colour " . According to a 1930 article in the Illustrated Leicester Chronicle , he began to develop swellings on his lips at the age of 21 months , followed by a bony lump on his forehead and a loosening and roughening of the skin . As he grew , a noticeable difference between the size of his left and right arms appeared and both his feet became significantly enlarged . The Merrick family explained his symptoms as the result of Mary 's being knocked over and frightened by a fairground elephant while she was pregnant with Joseph . The concept of maternal impression — that the emotional experiences of pregnant women could have lasting physical effect on their unborn children — was still common in 19th century Britain . Merrick held this belief about the cause of his affliction for his entire life .
In addition to his deformities , at some point during his childhood , Merrick suffered a fall and damaged his left hip . This injury became infected and left him permanently lame . Although affected by his physical deformities , Merrick attended school and enjoyed a close relationship with his mother . She was a Sunday school teacher , and his father worked as an engine driver at a cotton factory , as well as running a haberdashery business . On 19 May 1873 , less than three years after the death of her youngest son William , Mary Jane Merrick died from bronchopneumonia . Joseph Rockley Merrick moved with his two children to live with Mrs. Emma Wood Antill , a widow with children of her own . They married on 3 December 1874 .
= = Employment and the workhouse = =
Merrick left school aged 13 , which was usual for the time . His home @-@ life was now " a perfect misery " , and neither his father nor his stepmother demonstrated affection towards him . He ran away " two or three " times , but was brought back by his father each time . At 13 , he found work rolling cigars in a factory , but after three years , his right hand deformity had worsened and he no longer had the dexterity required for the job . Now unemployed , he spent his days wandering the streets , looking for work and avoiding his stepmother 's taunts .
Merrick was becoming a greater financial burden on his family and eventually , his father secured him a hawker 's licence which enabled him to earn money selling items from the haberdashery shop , door to door . This endeavour was unsuccessful , since Merrick 's facial deformities rendered his speech increasingly unintelligible and prospective customers reacted with horror to his physical appearance . Housewives refused to open doors for him and now people not only stared at him but began to follow him out of curiosity . Merrick failed to make enough money as a hawker to support himself . On returning home one day in 1877 , he was severely beaten by his father and he left home for good .
Merrick was now homeless on the streets of Leicester . His uncle , a barber named Charles Merrick , heard of his nephew 's situation , sought him out and offered him accommodation in his home . Merrick continued to hawk around Leicester for the next two years but his efforts to earn a living met with little more success than before . Eventually , his disfigurement drew such negative attention from members of the public that the Commissioners for Hackney Carriages withdrew his licence when it came up for renewal . With young children to provide for , Charles could no longer afford to support his nephew . In late December 1879 , now 17 years old , Merrick entered the Leicester Union Workhouse .
Merrick became one of 928 residents in the workhouse . The group was segregated by age and gender , and therefore Merrick was housed with the other men between 16 and 60 . On 22 March 1880 , only 12 weeks after entering , Merrick signed himself out of the workhouse and spent two days looking for work . With no more success than before , he found himself with no option but to return to the workhouse . This time he stayed for four years . Around 1882 , Merrick underwent surgery on his face . The protrusion from his mouth had grown to 8 – 9 inches and severely inhibited his speech and made it difficult to eat . He was operated on at the Leicester Infirmary and had a large part of the mass removed .
= = Life as a curiosity = =
Merrick concluded that his only escape from the workhouse might be through the world of human novelty exhibitions . He knew of a Leicester music hall comedian and proprietor named Sam Torr . Merrick wrote to Torr , who came and visited him at the workhouse . Torr decided that he could make money exhibiting Merrick ; although , to retain Merrick 's novelty , he would have to be a travelling exhibit . To this end , he organised a group of managers for Merrick : music hall proprietor J. Ellis , travelling showman George Hitchcock , and fair owner Sam Roper . On 3 August 1884 , Merrick departed the workhouse to start his new career .
The showmen named Merrick the Elephant Man , and advertised him as " Half @-@ a @-@ Man and Half @-@ an @-@ Elephant " . They showed him around the East Midlands , including in Leicester and Nottingham , before moving him on to London for the winter season . George Hitchcock contacted an acquaintance , showman Tom Norman , who ran penny gaff shops in London 's East End exhibiting human curiosities . Without a meeting , Norman agreed to take over Merrick 's management and in November , Hitchcock travelled with Merrick to London .
When Tom Norman first saw Merrick , he was dismayed by the extent of his deformities , fearing his appearance might be too horrific to be a successful novelty . Nevertheless , he exhibited Merrick in the back of an empty shop on Whitechapel Road . Merrick had an iron bed with a curtain drawn around to afford him some privacy . Norman observed Merrick asleep one morning and learned that he always slept sitting up , with his legs drawn up and his head resting on his knees . His enlarged head was too heavy to allow him to sleep lying down and , as Merrick put it , he would risk " waking with a broken neck " . Norman decorated the shop with posters that had been created by Hitchcock , depicting a monstrous half @-@ man , half @-@ elephant . A pamphlet titled " The Autobiography of Joseph Carey Merrick " was created , outlining Merrick 's life to date . This biography , whether written by Merrick or not , provided a generally accurate account of his life . It contained an incorrect date of birth but , throughout his life , Merrick was vague about when he was born .
Norman gathered an audience by standing outside the shop and drawing a crowd through his showman patter . He would then lead his onlookers into the shop , explaining that the Elephant Man was " not here to frighten you but to enlighten you . " Drawing aside the curtain , he allowed the onlookers — often visibly horrified — to observe Merrick up close , while describing the circumstances leading to his present condition , including his mother 's alleged accident with an elephant .
The Elephant Man exhibit was moderately successful , and made money primarily from the sales of the autobiographical pamphlet . Merrick was able to put his share of the profits aside , hoping to earn enough to one day buy a home of his own . The shop on Whitechapel Road was directly across the road from the London Hospital , an excellent location , as medical students and doctors visited the shop , curious to see Merrick . One visitor was a young house surgeon named Reginald Tuckett . Like his colleagues , Tuckett was intrigued by the Elephant Man 's deformities and told his senior colleague Frederick Treves .
Frederick Treves first met Merrick that November at a private viewing , before Norman opened the shop for the day . Treves later recalled in his 1923 Reminiscences that Merrick was " the most disgusting specimen of humanity that I had ever seen ... at no time had I met with such a degraded or perverted version of a human being as this lone figure displayed . " The viewing lasted no more than 15 minutes after which Treves returned to work . Later that day , he sent Tuckett back to the shop to ask if Merrick might be willing to come to the hospital for an examination . Norman and Merrick agreed . To enable him to travel the short distance without drawing undue attention , Merrick wore a costume consisting of an oversized black cloak and a brown cap with a burlap sack that covered his face , and rode in a cab hired by Treves .
At the hospital , Treves examined Merrick , observing that he was " shy , confused , not a little frightened , and evidently much cowed . " At this point , Treves assumed that the Elephant Man was an " imbecile " . He measured Merrick 's head circumference at the large size of 36 inches ( 91 cm ) , his right wrist at 12 inches ( 30 cm ) and one of his fingers at 5 inches ( 13 cm ) in circumference . He noted that his skin was covered in papillomata ( warty growths ) , the largest of which exuded an unpleasant smell . The subcutaneous tissue appeared to be weakened and caused a loosening of the skin , which in some areas hung away from the body . There were bone deformities in the right arm , both legs , and , most conspicuously , in the large skull . Despite the corrective surgery to his mouth in 1882 , Merrick 's speech remained barely intelligible . His left arm and hand were not large and were not deformed . His penis and scrotum were normal . Apart from his deformities and the lameness in his hip , Treves concluded that Merrick appeared to be in good general health . Norman later recalled that Merrick went to the hospital for examination " two or three " times and during one of their meetings , Treves gave Merrick his calling card . On one of the visits , Treves had photographs taken , and he provided Merrick with a set of copies which were later added to his autobiographical pamphlet . On 2 December , Treves presented Merrick at a meeting of the Pathological Society of London in Bloomsbury . Eventually , Merrick told Norman that he no longer wanted to be examined at the hospital . According to Norman , he said he was " stripped naked and felt like an animal in a cattle market . "
During this time in Victorian Britain , tastes were changing in regard to freak show exhibitions like the Elephant Man . Shows like Norman 's were a cause for public concern , both on the grounds of decency and due to the disruption caused by crowds gathering outside them . Not long after Merrick 's last examination with Frederick Treves , the police closed down Norman 's shop on Whitechapel Road , and Merrick 's Leicester managers withdrew him from Norman 's care . In 1885 , Merrick went on the road with Sam Roper 's travelling fair . He befriended two other performers , " Roper 's Midgets " — Bertram Dooley and Harry Bramley — who on occasion defended Merrick from public harassment .
= = Europe = =
The dampening of public enthusiasm for freak shows and human oddities continued and the police and magistrates became increasingly vigilant in closing shows down . Merrick remained a horrifying spectacle for his viewers and Roper grew nervous about the negative attention the Elephant Man drew from local authorities . Merrick 's group of managers decided that he should go on tour in Continental Europe , with the hope that authorities there would be more lenient . Merrick 's management was assumed by an unknown man ( possibly named Ferrari ) and they left for the Continent . The Elephant Man was no more successful there than in Britain , and similar action was taken by authorities to move him out of their jurisdictions . In Brussels , Merrick was deserted by this new manager , who stole Merrick 's £ 50 ( 2015 equivalent £ 4 @,@ 900 ) savings . Abandoned , Merrick made his way by train to Ostend , where he attempted to board a ferry for Dover but was refused passage . He travelled to Antwerp and was able to board a ship bound for Harwich in Essex . From there , he travelled by train to London and arrived at Liverpool Street station .
Merrick arrived at Liverpool Street Station on 24 June 1886 , safely back in his own country , but with nowhere to go . He was not eligible to enter a workhouse in London for more than one night and would be accepted only by Leicester Union , where he was a permanent resident . Leicester was still 98 miles ( 158 km ) away . He approached strangers for help , but his speech was unintelligible and appearance repugnant . He drew a crowd of curious onlookers until a policeman helped him into an empty waiting room , where he huddled in a corner , exhausted . Unable to make himself understood , his only identifying possession was Frederick Treves 's card . The police contacted Treves , who went to the station . Recognising Merrick , Treves took him in a hansom cab to the London Hospital . Merrick was admitted for bronchitis , washed , fed and put to bed in a small isolation room in the hospital 's attic .
= = London Hospital = =
With Merrick admitted into the hospital , Treves now had time to conduct a more thorough examination . He discovered that Merrick 's physical condition had deteriorated over the previous two years and that he had become quite crippled by his deformities . Treves also suspected that Merrick now suffered from a heart condition and that he had only a few years left to live . Merrick 's general health improved over the next five months under the care of the hospital staff . Although some nurses were initially upset by his appearance , they overcame this and cared for him . The problem of his unpleasant odour was mitigated through frequent bathing and Treves gradually developed an understanding of Merrick 's speech . A new set of photographs was taken . The question of Merrick 's long @-@ term care had to be addressed . Francis Carr Gomm , the chairman of the hospital committee , had supported Treves in his decision to admit Merrick , but by November , long @-@ term plans needed to be made . The London Hospital was not equipped or staffed to provide care for the incurable , which Merrick clearly was .
Carr Gomm contacted other institutions and hospitals more suited to caring for chronic cases , but none would accept Merrick . Gomm wrote a letter to The Times , printed on 4 December , outlining Merrick 's case and asking readers for suggestions . The public response — in letters and donations — was significant , and the situation was even covered by the British Medical Journal . With the financial backing of the many donors , Gomm was able to make a convincing case to the committee for keeping Merrick in the hospital . It was decided that he would be allowed to stay there for the remainder of his life . He was moved from the attic to two rooms in the basement adjacent to a small courtyard . The rooms were adapted and furnished to suit Merrick , with a specially constructed bed and — at Treves 's instruction — no mirrors .
Merrick settled into his new life at the London Hospital . Treves visited him daily and spent a couple of hours with him every Sunday . Now that Merrick had found someone who understood his speech , he was delighted to carry on long conversations with the doctor . Treves and Merrick built a friendly relationship , although Merrick never completely confided in him . He told Treves that he was an only child , and Treves had the impression that Merrick 's mother , whose picture Merrick always carried with him , had abandoned him as a baby . Merrick was also reluctant to talk about his exhibition days , although he expressed gratitude towards his former managers . It did not take Treves long to realise that , contrary to his initial impressions , Merrick was not intellectually impaired .
Treves observed that Merrick was very sensitive and showed his emotions easily . At times Merrick was bored and lonely , and demonstrated signs of depression . He had spent his entire adult life segregated from women , first in the workhouse and then as an exhibit . The women he met were either disgusted or frightened by his appearance . His opinions about women were derived from his memories of his mother and what he read in books . Treves decided that Merrick would like to be introduced to a woman and it would help him feel normal . The doctor arranged for a friend of his named Mrs. Leila Maturin , " a young and pretty widow " , to visit Merrick . She agreed and with fair warning about his appearance , she went to his rooms for an introduction . The meeting was short , as Merrick quickly became overcome with emotion . He later told Treves that Maturin had been the first woman ever to smile at him , the first to shake his hand . She kept in contact with him and a letter written by Merrick to her , thanking her for the gift of a book and a brace of grouse ( a pair of birds ) , is the only surviving letter written by Merrick . This first experience of meeting a woman , though brief , instilled in Merrick a new sense of self @-@ confidence . He met other women during his life at the hospital , and appeared taken with them all . Treves
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believed that Merrick 's hope was to go to live at an institution for the blind , where he might meet a woman who could not see his deformities .
Merrick wanted to know about the " real world " , and questioned Treves on a number of topics . One day he expressed a desire to see inside what he considered a " real " house and Treves obliged , taking him to visit his Wimpole Street townhouse and meet his wife . At the hospital Merrick filled his days with reading and constructing models of buildings out of card . He entertained visits from Treves and his house surgeons . He rose each day in the afternoon and would leave his rooms to walk in the small adjacent courtyard , after dark .
As a result of Carr Gomm 's letters to The Times , Merrick 's case attracted the notice of London 's high society . One person who took a keen interest was actress Madge Kendal . Although she probably never met him in person , she was responsible for raising funds and public sympathy for Merrick . She sent him photographs of herself and employed a basket weaver to go to his rooms and teach him the craft . Other ladies and gentlemen of high society did visit him however , bringing gifts of photographs and books . He reciprocated with letters and hand made gifts of card models and baskets . Merrick enjoyed these visits and became confident enough to converse with people who passed his windows . A young man , Charles Taylor , the son of the engineer responsible for modifying Merrick 's rooms , spent time with him , sometimes playing the violin . Occasionally , he grew bold enough to leave his small living quarters and would explore the hospital . When he was discovered , he was always hurried back to his quarters by the nurses , who feared that he might frighten the patients .
On 21 May 1887 , two new buildings were completed at the hospital and the Prince and Princess of Wales came to open them officially . Princess Alexandra wished to meet the Elephant Man , so after a tour of the hospital , the royal party went to his rooms for an introduction . The princess shook Merrick 's hand and sat with him , an experience that left him overjoyed . She gave him a signed photograph of herself , which became a prized possession , and she sent him a Christmas card each year .
On at least one occasion , Merrick was able to fulfill a long @-@ held desire to visit the theatre . Treves , with the help of Madge Kendal , arranged for him to attend the Christmas pantomime at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . Treves sat with some nurses , concealed in Baroness Burdett @-@ Coutts 's private box . According to Treves , Merrick was " awed " and " enthralled " . " The spectacle left him speechless , so that if he were spoken to he took no heed . " For weeks following the show Merrick talked about the pantomime , reliving the story as if it had been real .
= = Last years = =
On three occasions Merrick left the hospital and London on holiday , spending a few weeks at a time in the countryside . Through elaborate arrangements that allowed Merrick to board a train unseen and have an entire carriage to himself , he travelled to Northamptonshire to stay at Fawsley Hall , the estate of Lady Knightley . He stayed at the gamekeeper 's cottage and spent the days walking in the estate 's woods , collecting wild flowers . He befriended a young farm labourer who later recalled Merrick as an interesting and well @-@ educated man . Treves called this " the one supreme holiday of [ Merrick 's ] life " , although in fact there were three such trips .
Merrick 's condition gradually deteriorated during his four years at the London Hospital . He required a great deal of care from the nursing staff and spent much of his time in bed , or sitting in his quarters , with diminishing energy . His facial deformities continued to grow and his head became even more enlarged . He died on 11 April 1890 , at the age of 27 . At around three o 'clock in the afternoon , Treves 's house surgeon visited Merrick and found him lying dead across his bed . His body was formally identified by his uncle , Charles Merrick . An inquest was held on 15 April by Wynne Edwin Baxter , who had come to notoriety conducting inquests for the Whitechapel murders of 1888 .
Merrick 's death was ruled accidental and the certified cause of death was asphyxia , caused by the weight of his head as he lay down . Treves , who performed an autopsy on the body , said that Merrick had died of a dislocated neck . Knowing that Merrick had always slept sitting upright out of necessity , Treves came to the conclusion that Merrick must have " made the experiment " , attempting to sleep lying down " like other people " .
Treves dissected Merrick 's body and took plaster casts of his head and limbs . He took skin samples , which were later lost during the Second World War , and mounted his skeleton , which remains in the pathology collection at the Royal London Hospital . Although the skeleton has never been on public display , there is a small museum dedicated to his life , housing some of his personal effects .
= = Medical condition = =
Ever since Joseph Merrick 's days as a novelty exhibit on Whitechapel Road , his condition has been a source of curiosity for medical professionals . His appearance at the meeting of the Pathological Society of London in 1884 drew interest from the doctors present , but none of the answers nor the attention that Treves had hoped for . The case received only a brief mention in the British Medical Journal , and the Lancet declined to mention it at all . Four months later , in 1885 , Treves brought the case before the meeting for a second time . By then , Tom Norman 's shop on Whitechapel Road had been closed , and the Elephant Man had moved on . Without Merrick , Treves made do with the photographs he had taken during his examinations . One of the doctors present at the meeting was Henry Radcliffe Crocker , a dermatologist who was an authority on skin diseases . After hearing Treves 's description of Merrick , and viewing the photographs , Crocker proposed that Merrick 's condition might be a combination of dermatolysis , pachydermatocele and an unnamed bone deformity , all caused by changes in the nervous system . Crocker wrote about Merrick 's case in his 1888 book Diseases of the Skin : their Description , Pathology , Diagnosis and Treatment .
In 1909 , dermatologist Frederick Parkes Weber wrote an article about von Recklinghausen disease ( now known as neurofibromatosis type I ) in the British Journal of Dermatology . He gave Merrick as an example of the disease , which German pathologist Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen had described in 1882 . Symptoms of this genetic disorder include tumours of the nervous tissue and bones , and small warty growths on the skin . One characteristic of neurofibromatosis is the presence of light brown pigmentation on the skin called café au lait spots . These were never observed on Merrick 's body . Neurofibromatosis type I was the accepted diagnosis through most of the 20th century , although other suggestions included Maffucci syndrome and polyostotic fibrous dysplasia ( Albright 's disease ) .
In a 1986 article in the British Medical Journal , Michael Cohen and J.A.R. Tibbles put forward the theory that Merrick had suffered from Proteus syndrome , a congenital disorder identified by Cohen in 1979 . They cited Merrick 's lack of reported café au lait spots and the absence of any histological proof that he had suffered from neurofibromatosis type I. Unlike neurofibromatosis , Proteus syndrome affects tissue other than nerves , and it is a sporadic disorder rather than a genetically transmitted disease . Cohen and Tibbles said that Merrick showed the following signs of Proteus syndrome : " macrocephaly ; hyperostosis of the large skull ; hypertrophy of long bones ; and thickened skin and subcutaneous tissues , particularly of the hands and feet , including plantar hyperplasia , lipomas , and other unspecified subcutaneous masses . "
In a letter to Biologist in June 2001 , British teacher and Chartered Biologist Paul Spiring , speculated that Merrick might have suffered from a combination of neurofibromatosis type I and Proteus syndrome . This hypothesis was reported by Robert Matthews , a correspondent for The Sunday Telegraph . The possibility that Merrick had both conditions formed the basis for a 2003 documentary film entitled The Curse of The Elephant Man that was produced for the Discovery Health Channel by Natural History New Zealand . During 2002 , genealogical research for the film led to a BBC appeal to trace Merrick 's maternal family line . In response to the appeal , a Leicester resident named Pat Selby was discovered to be the granddaughter of Merrick 's uncle George Potterton . A research team took DNA samples from Selby in an unsuccessful attempt to diagnose Merrick 's condition . During 2003 , the filmmakers commissioned further diagnostic tests using DNA that was extracted from Merrick 's hair and bone . However , the results of these tests proved inconclusive and therefore the precise cause of Merrick 's medical condition remains unknown .
= = Legacy = =
In 1923 , Frederick Treves published a volume entitled The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences , in which he detailed what he knew of Merrick 's life and their personal interactions . This account is the source of much of what is known about Merrick , but there were several inaccuracies in the book . Merrick never completely confided in Treves about his early life , so these details were consequently sketchy in Treves 's Reminiscences . A more mysterious error is that of Merrick 's first name . Treves , in his earlier journal articles as well as his book , insisted on calling him John Merrick . The reason for this is unclear ; Merrick clearly signed his name as " Joseph " in the examples of his handwriting that remain . In the handwritten manuscript for The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences , Treves began his account by writing " Joseph " and then crossed it out and replaced it with " John " . Whatever the reason for the error , it is one that persisted throughout much of the 20th century ; later biographers who based their work on Treves 's book have continued the error .
Treves 's depiction of Tom Norman , the showman who had exhibited Merrick , was that of a cruel drunk who had ruthlessly exploited his charge . In a letter to the World 's Fair newspaper , and later in his own memoirs , Norman denied this characterisation and said that he provided his show attractions with a way of earning a living , and that at the London Hospital , Merrick was still on display , but with no control over how or when he was viewed . According to Nadja Durbach , author of The Spectacle of Deformity : Freak Shows and Modern British Culture , Norman 's view gives an insight into the Victorian freak show 's function as a means of survival for poor people with deformities , as well as the attitude of medical professionals of the time . Durbach cautions that both Treves 's and Norman 's memoirs must be understood as " narrative reconstructions ... that reflect personal and professional prejudices and cater to the demands and expectations of their very different audiences " .
In 1971 , anthropologist Ashley Montagu published The Elephant Man : A Study in Human Dignity which drew on Treves 's book and explored Merrick 's character . Montagu reprinted Treves 's account alongside various others such as Carr Gomm 's letter to the Times and the report on Merrick 's inquest . He pointed out inconsistencies between the accounts and sometimes disputed Treves 's version of events ; he noted , for example , that while Treves claimed Merrick knew nothing of his mother 's appearance , Carr Gomm refers to Merrick carrying a painting of his mother with him , and he criticised Treves 's assumption that Merrick 's mother was " worthless and inhuman " . However , Montagu also perpetuated some of the errors in Treves 's work , including his use of the name " John " rather than " Joseph " .
Between 1979 and 1982 , Merrick 's life story became the basis of several works of dramatic art ; these were based on the accounts of Treves and Montagu . In 1979 , a Tony Award @-@ winning play , The Elephant Man , by American playwright Bernard Pomerance was staged . The character based on Merrick was played by Philip Anglim , and later by David Bowie and Mark Hamill . In 1980 , a film also titled The Elephant Man , directed by David Lynch , was released ; it received eight Academy Award nominations . Merrick was played by John Hurt and Frederick Treves by Anthony Hopkins . In 1982 , US television network ABC broadcast an adaptation of Pomerance 's play , starring Anglim . Merrick also appears in two episodes of the second season of the BBC historical crime drama Ripper Street , portrayed by actor Joseph Drake .
In 1980 , Michael Howell and Peter Ford published The True History of the Elephant Man , presenting the fruits of their detailed archival research . Howell and Ford brought to light a large amount of new information about Merrick . In addition to proving that his name was Joseph , not John , they were able to describe in more detail his life story . They refuted some of the inaccuracies in Treves 's account , showing that Merrick 's mother did not abandon him , and that Merrick deliberately chose to exhibit himself to make a living .
= R U Professional =
" R U Professional " is a 2009 satirical song by the American indie rock band The Mae Shi , inspired by a July 2008 outburst by actor Christian Bale on the set of Terminator Salvation . Bale was filming with actress Bryce Dallas Howard when he berated director of photography , Shane Hurlbut , for walking into his line of sight . An audio recording of the incident appeared on website TMZ on February 2 , 2009 . The Mae Shi composed and recorded the song later in the same day , and released it the next day . The group stated that the piece was created to honor Bale . The song parodies Bale by sampling his voice from the 2008 diatribe . The chorus incorporates Bale 's use of the word professional from his flare @-@ up . The lyrics reference several films the actor starred in , including Newsies , Swing Kids , American Psycho , and The Dark Knight .
The song was made available on YouTube and via download on MediaFire the next day . " R U Professional " received a generally positive reception , and was praised as an effective parody of Bale 's on @-@ set disturbance . MTV compared its style to new wave groups like Devo . The Los Angeles Times described it as a lively pop music tribute to the actor . USA Today categorized the song as fun dance music and called it creatively motivated . The Toronto Sun wrote positively of its creative lyrics and use of audio from the Bale oration . El País classed the piece as an electropop song that contributed to the viral spread of the Bale rant online . Dose placed the song within the genre of an electro jam session . Publications including The A.V. Club and Pitchfork Media were impressed with the group 's ability to compose and release the song twenty @-@ four hours after the audio of the incident appeared online . The Irish Independent wrote that they thought the group may have used a melody they already had and adapted it for the song to release it so quickly .
= = Background = =
In July 2008 , actor Christian Bale was immersed in shooting a scene for the film Terminator Salvation in New Mexico . While performing with actress Bryce Dallas Howard , Bale shouted at the film 's director of photography , Shane Hurlbut , for walking into his line of sight . Hurlbut responded calmly , apologized to Bale , and continued shooting for seven hours after the incident .
An audio recording of the incident appeared on the website TMZ on February 2 , 2009 . During the four @-@ minute audio recording , Bale can be heard shouting and swearing at Hurlbut and threatening to quit the film if Hurlbut did it again and was not fired . Prior to releasing the audio on the internet , TMZ had reported on the incident on their website in July 2008 . TMZ reported that film executives for Terminator Salvation had sent a copy of the audio recording to the film 's insurance company in case Bale quit the film .
In a statement to Los Angeles radio station KROQ @-@ FM on February 6 , 2009 , Bale said he had behaved inappropriately , and that he and Hurlbut had talked after the incident and fully resolved the issue . Bale acknowledged that the two worked together for several hours after the incident , and for a month afterwards as well . He noted that he had viewed a draft version of the film and praised the cinematography work done by Hurlbut .
= = Inspiration and composition = =
The Mae Shi explained the group 's inspiration to write the song in a statement . The group felt Bale 's outburst was irrational and was motivated to write a piece about it . The Mae Shi emphasized in their statement that this was not a traditional song associated with their group 's normal work , but rather a homage to Bale .
The Mae Shi drummer Brad Breeck commented in an interview that the band decided to make a song about the incident late in the evening of February 2 , 2009 . Breeck noted that they listened to the audio of the Bale diatribe and put together their tribute piece within a span of two hours before putting it online . Jacob Cooper , another drummer in the band , commented to The Arizona Daily Star that he was surprised how popular their piece became when they had devoted relatively little time to composing and recording it .
The lyrics of the song include references to films Bale appeared in including Newsies , Swing Kids , American Psycho , and The Dark Knight . The song begins with the phrase , " He is the Dark Knight , he is professional . " The piece incorporates audio clips from the incident through the use of sampling . The chorus of the song references Bale 's use of the word professional in his altercation : " Oh , whoo wow / He is professional / But I think he 's lost control " . Lyrics include : " Swing Kid with a violent streak " , " Step back , stay out of his light / Better not try to put up a fight / Newsies will get you tonight / ' Cause they 're professional ! " , and " Don 't look too deep in his eyes / he can 't hide what 's inside of his mind / and it might get a little bit ugly / and you might meet an American Psycho " .
= = Release and reception = =
" R U Professional " was made available on YouTube and MediaFire on February 3 , 2009 . The video description on YouTube by the group stated , " Song By The Mae Shi celebrating the life and work of Xtian Bale . Bale 's performance as John Connor in the upcoming Terminator 4 ' Redemption ' Film will no doubt be one of the greatest of all time . He will win every Oscar for his performance , even the special effects and animation ones . " The Independent reported that the band would appear at a music festival , " The Fans Strike Back " , and requested they perform " R U Professional " .
Several media outlets attempted to place the work within a particular genre . MTV compared the song 's style to the group Devo and new wave music . El País described the piece as an electropop song that contributed to the viral spread of the Christian Bale rant after its release on the Internet . Dose described it as an electro jam session which made adept use of sampling from the audio of Bale 's rhetoric . The Los Angeles Times called the piece a lively pop music tribute to the actor . USA Today called the song fun dance music and creatively motivated . The Toronto Sun praised its original lyrics and use of audio from the incident , and described the piece as a fusion of electro @-@ pop styles and a good song for dancing . New Musical Express recommended the piece , and described it as electro @-@ rock which astutely sampled Bale throughout the song . The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch described the piece as a form of new wave music which used the most spasmodic segments of the incident , and commented that the end product was comedic . The Arizona Daily Star described the piece as a pop music dance song .
Multiple sources remarked upon the speed with which The Mae Shi were able to put the song together and release it . The A.V. Club highlighted the song among Internet memes inspired by the Bale melee , and wrote that though the piece was put together quickly it was quite entertaining and inventive . The Irish Independent was surprised at the speed multiple different satirical adaptations of the Bale commotion audio including " R U Professional " were put together . The newspaper questioned whether the song was composed in one day , and speculated that the melody might have been written by the group previously and modified to use with audio from the Bale incident . Pitchfork Media was impressed that " R U Professional " was made in twenty @-@ four hours .
Various websites commented that the song was a unique way to pay tribute to Christian Bale and his body of work . Boing Boing called the song an amusing homage to Bale . C7nema commented that the song was hilarious and dedicated to Bale 's odd behavior . The Celebrity Cafe wrote that the piece was better than " Bale Out " by RevoLucian which also dealt with the incident . Chicagoist wrote that the song by The Mae Shi was their favorite of the Christian Bale remixes . Chico News & Review called the piece a caring accolade to Bale 's on @-@ set tirade .
= Louis Howe =
Louis McHenry Howe ( January 14 , 1871 – April 18 , 1936 ) was an American reporter for the New York Herald best known for acting as an early political advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt .
Born to a wealthy family in Indianapolis , Indiana , Howe was a small , sickly , and asthmatic child . The family moved to Saratoga , New York , after serious financial losses , and Howe became a journalist with a small paper that his father purchased . Howe married Grace Hartley and spent the next decade freelancing for the New York Herald and working various jobs . He was assigned to cover the New York state legislature in 1906 , and soon became a political operative for Thomas Mott Osborne , a Democratic opponent of the Tammany Hall political machine .
After Osborne fired Howe in 1909 , Howe attached himself to rising Democratic star Franklin D. Roosevelt , with whom he would work for the rest of his life . Howe oversaw Roosevelt 's campaign for the New York State Senate , worked with him in the Navy Department , and acted as an advisor and campaign manager during Roosevelt 's 1920 vice presidential run . After Roosevelt contracted polio in 1921 , resulting in partial paralysis , Howe became Roosevelt 's public representative , keeping his political career alive during his recovery . He arranged Roosevelt 's 1924 " Happy Warrior " convention speech that returned him to the public eye , and helped to run Roosevelt 's narrowly successful 1928 campaign to become Governor of New York . Howe then spent the next four years laying the groundwork for Roosevelt 's landslide 1932 presidential victory . Named Roosevelt 's secretary , Howe helped the president to shape the early programs of the New Deal , particularly the Civilian Conservation Corps . Howe grew ill shortly after Roosevelt 's election , and died before the end of his first term .
Howe also acted as a political advisor to Franklin 's wife , Eleanor , and he encouraged her to take an active role in politics , introducing her to women 's groups and coaching her in public speaking . Eleanor later called Howe one of the most influential people in her life . Franklin Roosevelt biographer Jean Edward Smith called Howe " a backroom man without equal in Democratic politics " , and Roosevelt publicly credited Howe and James Farley for his first election to the presidency in 1932 .
= = Early life = =
Howe was born in 1871 in Indianapolis , Indiana , to wealthy parents , Eliza and Edward P. Howe , who owned a store and part of a wholesale business . Edward P. Howe , originally from Cincinnati , Ohio , had been a captain with the Union Army in the Civil War and made an unsuccessful run for the Indiana State Senate as a Democrat before Louis ' birth . Louis had two stepsisters , Maria and Cora , from his mother 's previous marriage . Howe was sickly and fragile as a child , suffered from asthma , and was generally kept home by his parents ; he would never grow to more than five feet tall . Fearing to expose Howe to public school , his parents instead enrolled him in an all @-@ girls seminary .
Edward speculated heavily in real estate , and gradually lost the family 's wealth in the depression that followed the Panic of 1873 . When Louis was seven , the family lost their home , moving to Saratoga , New York , with help from Eliza 's family . Edward 's health collapsed , but he nonetheless took a job as a reporter for a Saratoga newspaper , later purchasing a small Democratic paper of his own , The Saratoga Sun . Louis 's health , in contrast , improved during his teenage years , allowing him to leave the house more often and consider attending Yale University . On his way to a cousin 's wedding rehearsal , he suffered a bicycle accident in which he fell into gravel , permanently scarring his face . Ultimately , the dual obstacles of his still @-@ questionable health and finances caused him to abandon his university ambitions and instead take a job with his father 's paper .
In 1896 , he met Grace Hartley , a well @-@ off twenty @-@ year @-@ old who was on vacation with her mother at one of Saratoga 's sanitariums . Though she was initially unimpressed with him , Howe courted her assiduously for two years , and the couple became engaged in 1898 , marrying the following year . The pair had three children , one of whom died in infancy .
= = Journalism and early political career = =
Howe hoped to travel to Cuba to cover the 1898 Spanish – American War for the New York Herald , but the war ended before he could secure the paper 's approval . Not long after , the Howes ' marriage ran into trouble as the financial difficulties of Howe 's father again threatened the family 's position . Grace 's mother had given the couple a large house for a wedding present , which Louis mortgaged in an attempt to save his father 's newspaper from bankruptcy . The Sun was nonetheless sold , and Louis fired in 1901 , though he soon after successfully begged to return to his job . Louis continued working as a freelancer for the Herald ; one of his most notable stories was to interview Vice President Theodore Roosevelt on his return to Washington , D.C. after the death of President William McKinley . During this period , Grace went to live with her mother , where she gave birth to the couple 's first child , Mary .
In 1903 , after a failed attempt to make a living writing fiction , Howe worked for a time as a manager for a Saratoga country club . In January 1906 , Howe began covering the New York State Legislature in Albany for the Herald . Later that year , Howe was hired by Thomas Mott Osborne , a rich Democrat , as a political operative . Osborne was a member of the " Upstarters " , a group opposed to the influence of the Tammany Hall political machine in New York politics . He employed Howe to oppose the gubernatorial candidacy of William Randolph Hearst , the Democratic nominee , newspaper magnate , and ally of Tammany . Howe and Osborne 's other operatives successfully spread dissent and chaos among the Democratic campaign , and Hearst lost the election to Charles Evans Hughes .
Howe biographer Julie M. Fenster describes the anti @-@ Hearst campaign as a " personal turning point " for Howe , in which he got his first taste of politics , learned the practical mechanics of party organization , and had an opportunity to make news rather than simply reporting it . He pursued a permanent position with Osborne , declining an opportunity to go to Jamaica as a correspondent for the Herald , and was hired in November 1906 . For the next three years , Howe blended his two jobs — reporter and political operative — using information from each in service of the other . Osborne intended eventually to run for governor himself . However , he was made a nonviable candidate by his unusual propensity to travel in a variety of disguises and his close friendship with a young handyman , with whom Osborne was rumored to have a homosexual relationship . Howe lost interest in Osborne as a patron and began searching for another upcoming name with whom to associate ; Osborne fired him in 1909 .
= = Assistant to Roosevelt = =
Howe first met Franklin D. Roosevelt when Roosevelt was a freshman New York state senator leading a movement to block Tammany Hall nominee William F. Sheehan from the US Senate . Roosevelt was successful , marking him as the new leader of the anti @-@ Tammany " insurgents " . Howe interviewed Roosevelt for the Herald , and they began to regularly meet to discuss politics , becoming good friends in the process . In 1912 , Roosevelt became ill with typhoid fever during his re @-@ election campaign , and hired Howe to campaign on his behalf . Howe managed the final six weeks of Roosevelt 's campaign , focusing particularly on rural areas that he felt politicians traditionally neglected . His initiatives included a mass mailing to farmers telling them that Roosevelt was likely to become chairman of the Senate Agricultural Committee . In November , Roosevelt was re @-@ elected by a larger margin than in his previous race .
After the election , the administration of President Woodrow Wilson appointed Roosevelt to be Assistant Secretary of the Navy . Roosevelt brought Howe with him as his chief of staff . Though previously ignorant on naval matters , Howe studied diligently and was soon considered an expert . Through patronage positions and the hosting of visiting state officials , Howe and Roosevelt also began to build a national network of Democratic supporters to support an eventual presidential run . Howe also helped Roosevelt make connections with labor leaders by encouraging Roosevelt to personally inspect work conditions and meet with workers . In 1914 , Howe managed a brief Roosevelt campaign for the US Senate , but Roosevelt was easily defeated by Tammany candidate James W. Gerard in the Democratic primary . Howe appears to have been opposed to Roosevelt 's run for the Senate , feeling that Roosevelt was moving too fast ; Howe described his role as " to provide the toe weights " to slow down the ambitious younger man . In 1918 , the relationship between Howe and Roosevelt became briefly strained when the Roosevelts ' marriage nearly ended over Franklin 's affair with his wife Eleanor 's secretary , Lucy Mercer ; a divorce would have meant the end of Franklin 's political career , and therefore Howe 's as well .
By 1920 , Roosevelt , on Howe 's advice , had made peace with Tammany boss Charles Murphy , and again sought New York state office . In July , however , he was drafted by the Democratic National Convention as the vice presidential nominee on a ticket with Ohio governor James M. Cox . Roosevelt selected Howe as his campaign manager . The Cox — Roosevelt ticket lost overwhelmingly to Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge , but both Roosevelt and Howe saw themselves as having successfully built Roosevelt a national reputation ; not long after the election , Howe boasted to several friends that Roosevelt would soon occupy the White House , taking Howe with him .
= = = Roosevelt 's polio = = =
In mid @-@ 1921 , Howe was vacationing with the Roosevelts at Campobello Island when Franklin began to run a high fever and reported paralysis in his legs . A doctor was sent for , and Roosevelt was diagnosed with poliomyelitis . Howe remained by Roosevelt 's bedside throughout the early days of his illness , cheering him up , tending to his needs , and even changing his bedpans . By September of that year , Howe had been formally invited to join the Roosevelt household , and began visiting his own family only on weekends .
In the months that followed , Howe became Roosevelt 's " advance man " . As described by historian Hazel Rowley , Howe " had to boost Franklin 's spirits , help Eleanor in every way possible , be Franklin 's stand @-@ in at work , and keep up Frankin 's political prospects " . Howe emphasized the need for everyone to keep the extent of Roosevelt 's paralysis a secret , setting in motion a campaign of concealment that would last for the rest of Roosevelt 's life . In collaboration with Roosevelt 's secretary Marguerite LeHand , Howe wrote a series of letters to the press , supposedly written by Roosevelt , assuring the public that Roosevelt would not suffer any " permanent effect " from his illness . Howe also encouraged Eleanor to become active in politics herself through women 's suffrage organizations ; to this end , he introduced her to Marion Dickerman , who would become one of Eleanor 's closest friends . Eleanor later titled the chapter of her memoirs about Franklin 's polio and its aftermath , " Louis Howe Takes Charge " .
In 1924 , Howe and Eleanor collaborated to arrange for Franklin to give the speech to nominate New York governor Alfred E. Smith as a presidential candidate at the 1924 Democratic National Convention . Franklin initially felt the idea was too risky , knowing that if he fell down before the convention due to his limited mobility , his political career would be effectively over , but Howe and Eleanor persuaded him to attempt it . When the convention came , Franklin successfully walked to the podium with the aid of crutches and his son James Roosevelt and received an ovation from the crowd . The walk to the podium and Franklin 's speech , in which he famously nicknamed Smith the " Happy Warrior , " has been regarded by later historians as the key moment in Franklin 's political resurgence .
= = = Gubernatorial and presidential elections = = =
After the success of the nomination speech , Howe and Roosevelt planned that the latter would run for Governor of New York in 1932 and President in 1936 . However , Governor Smith was named the Democratic presidential candidate in 1928 , and persuaded the state convention to draft Roosevelt . Howe predicted disaster , feeling that a Republican challenger was sure to beat Roosevelt in what was expected to be nationally a Republican year . Though Howe remained Roosevelt 's unofficial campaign manager , he was technically subordinate to a state campaign manager selected by Smith , as well as Smith 's personal campaign manager , Belle Moskowitz , with whom Howe frequently clashed . In the fall election , Roosevelt won the governorship by a small margin , though Smith was defeated by Herbert Hoover both nationally and in New York State .
After the election , rather than take a job with Roosevelt 's administration in Albany , Howe remained in New York City to prepare for Roosevelt 's 1932 presidential run . During this period , he worked closely with James Farley , chairman of the New York State Democratic Committee and another devoted Roosevelt supporter . Roosevelt would later publicly credit the pair with being the two men who had done the most to secure his election .
In 1931 , Howe began raising money for the campaign from Democrats like Henry Morgenthau , Sr. and Joseph P. Kennedy as well as recruiting delegates for the 1932 national convention . Roosevelt 's main rival at the convention was Smith , who was seeking his second consecutive nomination . Howe suffered from severe asthma attacks throughout the convention , but remained in telephone contact with Roosevelt — who was not present , per the custom of the day — and continued to meet with delegates who were brought to visit him . Roosevelt was nominated by the convention after agreeing to make another rival , John Nance Garner , his vice presidential candidate , and after some of Smith 's Tammany Hall supporters , led by William Gibbs McAdoo , began to defect .
In the election that followed , Roosevelt faced unpopular incumbent Herbert Hoover . The onset of the Great Depression , for which Hoover 's Republicans were widely blamed , meant that Roosevelt 's victory was virtually assured , and in November , he was elected by a landslide .
= = Roosevelt presidency = =
During the administration Howe 's official title was Secretary to the President , a role equivalent to the current White House Chief of Staff posting . After FDR 's inauguration , Howe took up residence in the White House Lincoln Bedroom . Howe described his role in the administration as the president 's " no @-@ man " , checking Roosevelt 's natural enthusiasm and preventing unsound proposals from reaching wider discussion . He was also a strong supporter of the Civilian Conservation Corps , one of the many public works programs of Roosevelt 's " New Deal " . Howe persuaded the Governor of Kentucky to name him an honorary colonel , echoing the name of President Wilson 's famous advisor , Colonel House ; later , Howe printed business cards containing all his nicknames , reading : " Colonel Louis Rasputin Voltaire Talleyrand Simon Legree Howe " .
Howe 's health declined in 1934 , and he was hospitalized for heart problems and breathing difficulties . He spent the last two years of his life in and out of Bethesda Naval Hospital . Though he experienced increasing periods of confusion , he continued to give orders to his staff by telephone ; Roosevelt had instructed them to treat Howe 's calls with courtesy , but to double @-@ check his instructions with himself and other staff . Howe died on April 18 , 1936 . Roosevelt gave him a state funeral three days later in the White House East Room .
= = Influence on Eleanor Roosevelt = =
Eleanor Roosevelt had initially disliked Howe , particularly his chain @-@ smoking , but became friends with him in the course of campaigning . During the long train rides in Franklin 's 1920 vice presidential campaign , Howe encouraged her to become interested in politics herself and coached her in how to talk with reporters . Eleanor later wrote that Howe 's interest during this campaign sparked a major change in her life :
In later years I learned that he had always liked me and thought I was worth educating , and for that reason he made an effort on this trip to get to know me . He did it cleverly . He knew that I was bewildered by some of the things expected of me as a candidate 's wife ... Largely because of Louis ' early interpretation of the standards and ethics of the newspaper business , I came to look with interest and confidence on the writing fraternity ... I did receive an intensive education on this trip , and Louis Howe played a great part in this education from that time on .
In the 1920s , Howe introduced her to representatives of women 's political organizations , with which she became active , and watched and critiqued her speeches to these groups . The pair even developed a system of hand signals that Howe would use while she spoke to warn her if she was lapsing into a bad habit . He encouraged her to express herself in print as well , and acted for a time as her literary agent .
After Franklin 's 1932 election , Howe told Eleanor that given ten years , he could make her president as well . He encouraged her to break with her predecessors as First Lady and make the role more active and political . In a 1951 magazine article , Eleanor listed Howe as one of the seven people who had most influenced her life .
= = Fictional portrayals = =
Howe was portrayed by Ed Flanders in the 1976 television miniseries Eleanor and Franklin , Walter McGinn in Eleanor and Franklin : The White House Years the 1977 American made @-@ for @-@ television film and a sequel to Eleanor and Franklin ( 1976 ) and by Hume Cronyn in the 1960 movie Sunrise at Campobello . David Paymer portrayed Howe in the 2005 movie Warm Springs , alongside Kenneth Branagh as Roosevelt .
= M @-@ 94 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 94 is a state trunkline in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs for 86 @.@ 983 miles ( 139 @.@ 986 km ) from K. I. Sawyer to Manistique . The highway is part of the Lake Superior Circle Tour during a concurrency with M @-@ 28 . M @-@ 94 crosses the Siphon Bridge in Manistique , unique for the fact that the bridge roadway is below water level .
M @-@ 94 has been realigned several times . It has had its own roadway between the M @-@ 28 junctions in Munising and Shingleton . Other changes have flip @-@ flopped M @-@ 94 with M @-@ 28 between Harvey and Munising and extended it across the former K.I. Sawyer Air Force Base .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 94 begins at an intersection with M @-@ 553 and crosses the former K. I. Sawyer AFB . Then it overlaps US 41 for a little over a mile near Skandia . East of Skandia , M @-@ 94 runs through forest lands and serves the communities of Sundell and Rumely before entering Eben Junction . There M @-@ 94 intersects the southern section of H @-@ 01 . Further east is Chatham where there are junctions with the northern section of H @-@ 01 and M @-@ 67 . M @-@ 94 turns southerly briefly before returning to an east – west direction to head to the community of Forest Lake and ultimately Munising . There M @-@ 94 joins a concurrency with M @-@ 28 and the Lake Superior Circle Tour from Munising to Shingleton . Until the turn at Shingleton , the route is more decidedly east – west than north – south . Between Shingleton and Manistique , M @-@ 94 is more north – south .
South of Shingleton , M @-@ 94 runs through forest lands as a part of the Great Manistique Swamp . Along the way are national forest campgrounds located near Steuben . South of Crooked Lake , M @-@ 94 curves to the east before turning almost due south to the Manistique area . In Manistique , M @-@ 94 enters town on North 5th St before turning to follow Deer Street and River Street . On River Street , the trunkline uses the Siphon Bridge to cross the Manistique River and then uses Elk and Maple streets before terminating at US 2 at Lakeshore Drive .
= = = Siphon Bridge = = =
In Manistique , M @-@ 94 crosses the Manistique River on the " Siphon Bridge " . Built as a part of a raceway flume on the river , the water level actually used to be higher than the road surface . This produced a siphon effect , giving the bridge its nickname . The Manistique Pulp and Paper Company was organized in 1916 and needed a dam on the Manistique River to supply their mill . This dam would have needed to flood a large section of the city . The shallow river banks meant difficulties in any bridge construction . Instead of expensive dikes , a concrete tank was built lengthwise in the river bed . The sides of this tank provided man @-@ made banks higher than the natural banks . The Michigan Works Progress Administration described the bridge as having , " concrete bulkheads , formed by the side spans of the bridge , [ that ] allow the mill to maintain the water level several feet above the roadbed . " The bridge acted as a siphon because the water level was above the roadway , and the structure has been featured in Ripley 's Believe It or Not !
= = History = =
The December 1927 Michigan State Highway Department Official Highway Service Map shows M @-@ 94 routed from Au Train west to Munising and further along its current routing to Manistique . In 1928 or 1929 , M @-@ 94 was rerouted to run along Munising @-@ Van Meer @-@ Shingleton Road ( now H @-@ 58 and H @-@ 15 ) and southerly to Shingleton . This routing was abandoned on November 7 , 1963 . It was later extended westward to Harvey in 1939 . In 1941 , the portion of M @-@ 94 west from Munising to Harvey was made a part of M @-@ 28 , and M @-@ 94 was extended along its current routing from Munising to US 41 . M @-@ 94 was extended for the last time in 1998 over US 41 and through the old K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base to end at a newly designated M @-@ 553 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hudson Bay expedition =
The Hudson Bay expedition of Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de La Pérouse was a series of military raids on the lucrative fur trading posts and fortifications of the Hudson 's Bay Company on the shores of Hudson Bay by a squadron of the French Royal Navy . Setting sail from Cap @-@ Français in 1782 , the expedition was part of a global naval war between France and Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War .
Operating under secret orders from the Marquis de Castries , France 's marine minister , La Pérouse sailed from Cap @-@ Français in May 1782 , and arrived before the Prince of Wales Fort in early August . That fort and York Factory both surrendered without a fight , although some of the stored furs at York were spirited away by a company ship that evaded the French fleet .
Many of the British prisoners were put on a sloop which they sailed back to England . Men on La Pérouse 's fleet , which had sailed with minimal winter provisioning to maintain secrecy , suffered from scurvy and other diseases because of their hardships . The Hudson 's Bay Company finances suffered because of the raid , and it contributed to reductions in the native population that did business with the company .
= = Background = =
Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de La Pérouse , a captain in the French Navy , first proposed the idea of an expedition against the fur trading posts of the Hudson 's Bay Company to Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu , the French minister of ports , during a visit to France in late 1780 . France 's marine minister , the Marquis de Castries , and King Louis XVI approved the plan , and Castries issued La Pérouse secret orders that could override those of any fleet commander La Pérouse served under in the event an opportunity presented itself for such an expedition . The idea was to organize a small fleet in secret and make as rapid as possible a journey north to Hudson Bay from either Newport , Rhode Island or Boston , Massachusetts , the most northerly ports of North America open to French ships .
La Pérouse 's duties during the 1781 campaign season did not provide him with any chances to exercise his secret orders , but the aftermath of the disastrous French loss in the April 1782 Battle of the Saintes presented him with the opportunity . France and Spain had been planning an assault on Jamaica , but the losses incurred during the battle , including the capture of Admiral Paul , Comte de Grasse and his flagship Ville de Paris , led them to call off the expedition . La Pérouse , on his arrival at Cap @-@ Français after the battle , raised the idea with de Grasse 's successor , Louis @-@ Philippe de Vaudreuil . Vaudreuil approved of the plan , and provided La Pérouse with three ships : a ship of the line Sceptre ( 74 guns ) , and the frigates Astrée ( 38 ) and Engageante ( 34 ) . Astrée was under the command of Paul Antoine Fleuriot de Langle , and Engageante was led by Lieutenant André Charles de la Jaille .
Preparations for the expedition were carried out secretly and in some haste , since the French were aware of the short season in the far north . The ships ' crews and most of their officers were not informed of the fleet 's destination , and La Pérouse , seeking to avoid all suspicion , even avoided carrying cold @-@ weather clothing . Admiral Vaudreuil recorded the fleet 's destination in his records as France , with possible stops in Newport or Boston , and Langle and la Jaille were given sealed orders to be opened only upon reaching the latitude of Nova Scotia . The fleet took on 250 regular infantry from the Régiment Auxerrois , 40 gunners , 4 field guns , and two mortars . These troops were told they were being sent to supplement the French army at Newport . After two weeks of preparation , the fleet sailed from Cap @-@ Français on May 31 , 1782 .
= = Expedition = =
The fleet reached Resolution Island at the entrance to the Hudson Strait without incident on July 17 , and proceeded through the strait and into Hudson Bay . While sailing in the bay , the fleet encountered the company ship Seahorse , which was making sail for Fort Prince of Wales . La Pérouse sent one of the frigates to chase after her . Seahorse 's captain , William Cristopher , suspecting from its behavior that the French ship lacked good charts for the bay , escaped by a ruse . He gave orders to have his sails furled as if he was preparing to anchor ; this prompted the French captain , believing shallow waters to lie ahead , to actually drop his anchor . Once he had done so , Cristopher raised his sails and sped off before the Frenchman could raise the anchor again .
= = = Prince of Wales Fort = = =
On August 8 La Pérouse arrived at Prince of Wales Fort , an impressive but crumbling stone fortress that was defended by 39 civilians . Its governor , Samuel Hearne , surrendered the fort without firing a shot when the size of the French force became evident the next day . He did so despite requests from some of his men to " allow them to mow down the French troops with the heavy guns loaded with grapeshot " . After resupplying his ships and confiscating the fort 's guns , the French proceeded to loot the premises . According to Hearne , the French took more than 7 @,@ 500 beaver skins , 4 @,@ 000 marten pelts , and 17 @,@ 000 goose quills . They also spent two days trying to destroy the fort , but were only able to destroy the gun mounts and damage the upper ramparts . Many of the prisoners were put aboard the company sloop Severn , which had been anchored by the fort ; others were taken aboard the French ships , and some were incorporated into the French crews .
= = = York Factory = = =
La Pérouse then collected most of the company 's small boats , and sailed for York Factory , a company outpost on a peninsula between the Hayes and Nelson Rivers , on August 11 . According to Pérouse 's report , he arrived in the area , about 5 leagues ( 15 miles ; 24 km ) from York , on August 20 . The fort 's defenses faced the Hayes River , where the company ship King George was anchored , and the fast @-@ flowing Hayes River would have made an approach there impractical in the face of that opposition .
La Pérouse sailed into the mouth of the Nelson , and moved the troops to the smaller company ships on August 21 to prepare for an amphibious landing , with the plan of approaching the fort from the rear , a distance of about 16 miles ( 26 km ) . He then proceeded with his engineer to take soundings in the Nelson River , and discovered that even the smaller boats would have difficulty approaching proper land due to its shallowness . His small boat then became mired in mud by the receding tide , and did not become freed until 3 am the next morning . Captain Langle then proposed to Major Rostaing , the commander of the troops , that they cross the muddy shallows on foot . He was agreeable , and the troops then set out to across the shallows . Unknown to them , conditions improved only marginally once land was reached , and they spent the next two days wading through bogs and muck to reach the fort . While they did this , La Pérouse returned to the fleet , because bad weather was threatening the safety of the fleet . Both frigates lost their anchors when sharp rocks underwater cut through their cables in the turbulent conditions .
York Factory was occupied by 60 white men and 12 Indians . When the French ships were spotted , Governor Humphrey Marten loaded trade goods onto the King George so they would not fall into French hands . When the French arrived on August 24 , Marten surrendered the fort . ( Although La Pérouse sent a frigate after the King George when she sailed off during the night after the fleet 's arrival , her captain , Jonathan Fowler , successfully eluded the pursuit due to his superior knowledge of the shallow waters of the bay . ) Major Rostaing took the British of the garrison prisoner , destroyed what goods he could not take , and burned the wooden fort to the ground . He was careful to preserve a cache of supplies for use by Indians that came to fort to trade . ( These acts of kindness and others by La Pérouse in the treatment of his captives brought him recognition from Hearne , Louis XVI , and the British government . )
La Pérouse did not learn of the capitulation until August 26 , and continuing bad weather and difficulties with the frigates meant that he did not effect a junction with Rostaing until August 31 . The terms of capitulation included the surrender of Fort Severn , another small outpost . He chose not to actually go to Fort Severn on account of the lateness of the season and the poor condition of his ships and men , who were suffering from scurvy and other maladies . During the process of loading goods and supplies onto the fleet , five small boats overturned and 15 men drowned .
= = Aftermath = =
La Pérouse then began the journey back to the Atlantic , towing the Severn as far as Cape Resolution . There she was cut loose to make her way back to England , while La Pérouse sailed for Cadiz with Sceptre and Engageante ; Astrée made sail for Brest to deliver news of the expedition 's success to Paris . The expedition took a tremendous toll on his ships ' crews . By the time the ships returned to Europe , Sceptre had only 60 men ( out of an original complement , including land troops , of almost 500 ) fit to work ; about 70 men died of scurvy . Engageante had suffered 15 deaths from scurvy , and almost everyone was sick with one malady or another . Both ships had also suffered damage due to cold weather and battering by ice floes . Fleuriot de Langle received a brevet promotion to capitaine de vaisseau upon his arrival in Brest in late October .
According to the company , the goods taken at Prince of Wales alone were worth more than £ 14 @,@ 000 , and La Pérouse 's raid so damaged the company finances that it paid no dividends until 1786 . When peace finally came with the 1783 Treaty of Paris , the French agreed to compensate the company for its losses . The raid did permanent damage to the company 's trading relationships . The Chipewyans who traded with the company suffered severely due to the company 's inability to provision them , and by an ongoing smallpox epidemic that was ravaging Indian populations throughout North America ; the Chipewyans lost half their population by some estimates . The company 's inability to trade with them for two season drove many survivors to develop trading relationships with Montreal .
Neither Hearne nor Marten was sanctioned by the company for surrendering ; both returned to their posts the following year . When the French took Prince of Wales Fort , they found Samuel Hearne 's journal , which La Pérouse claimed as a prize . The journal contained Hearne 's accounts of his explorations of the northern reaches of North America . Hearne pleaded with La Pérouse for its return , a request the latter granted on condition that it be published . Whether Hearne had intended to publish it anyway is unclear , but by 1792 , the year of Hearne 's death , he had prepared a manuscript , and submitted it for publication . It was published in 1795 as A Journey from Prince of Wale 's Fort in Hudson 's Bay to the Northern Ocean .
La Pérouse was rewarded by King Louis with a rise in pay of 800 livres ; the exploit also drew popular acclaim in Europe and North America . His next major assignment was to lead a voyage of exploration into the Pacific Ocean in 1785 . His fleet , in which Fleuriot de Langle served as second in command , was last seen in the vicinity of Australia in spring 1788 ; although remnants of the expedition have been found , his fate is unknown .
= Cocktails ( The Office ) =
" Cocktails " is the eighteenth episode of the third season of the US version of The Office . It was written by actor Paul Lieberstein and directed by Lost series creator J. J. Abrams , his first such credit for The Office . NBC hired Abrams and Joss Whedon to each direct an episode during their February sweeps week . Michael Patrick McGill , Dan Cole , Owen Daniels , and Jean Villepique guest starred .
In the episode , Michael , Dwight , Jim and Karen attend a cocktail party at CFO David Wallace 's house . While there , Michael and Jan make their relationship public , Karen makes Jim uncomfortable by pointing out all of her ex @-@ boyfriends in attendance , and Dwight inspects the home . Meanwhile , the rest of the office goes to a bar and Pam tries to be more honest with Roy .
The first American broadcast of " Cocktails " occurred on February 22 , 2007 to an estimated 8 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode was positively received by television critics , with one believing it was one of the best of the season .
= = Synopsis = =
Jan ( Melora Hardin ) , Michael ( Steve Carell ) , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , Jim ( John Krasinski ) , and Karen ( Rashida Jones ) attend a cocktail party hosted by Dunder @-@ Mifflin 's CFO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) . Jan and Michael choose to make their relationship public at this event . With the branch managers away , the remainder of the office goes to happy hour at Poor Richard 's . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) reminds Roy ( David Denman ) that , as her boyfriend , he needs to attend as well . Understanding that he needs to be a better boyfriend , Roy shows up along with his brother , Kenny .
At the party , Karen plays a joke on Jim by identifying many people at the party as former boyfriends . Dwight takes it upon himself to give the house a thorough inspection , and spends the night criticizing the layout of the Wallaces ' house , while Michael 's public displays of affection make Jan uncomfortable . Towards the end of the evening , David invites Jim to play basketball in the backyard . As Michael and Jan drive home together , they have an awkward argument regarding their future together .
At Poor Richard 's , Pam tells Roy she wants a fresh start in their relationship and tells him about the " Casino Night " kiss . Roy reacts violently , and , along with his brother , begins destroying the bar . Pam , seeing his destructive response , immediately calls off their relationship for good . After Roy 's brother uses the jet ski money to pay off the bar for damages , Roy stares off into the distance , saying , " I am gonna kill Jim Halpert . "
= = Production = =
" Cocktails " was written by Paul Lieberstein , who plays Human Resources representative Toby Flenderson on the series . Lost series creator J. J. Abrams was hired on as episode director , his first such credit for the series . Abrams disliked the American series when it first premiered , due to his love for the original British series . The director explained , " I resented it before I saw it , because I thought , ' well , how are you going to do what Ricky and Steve did . In fact , the first season I didn 't get into it at all . In the second season , they really found their voice . And that 's despite having to make 22 episodes , which is twice the length of what the BBC show did . And I thought that the show became brilliant . I was really impressed by how it worked . "
Abrams had been rumored as director since December 2006 , and NBC confirmed this the following month . He and Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon were both hired to direct an episode during February sweeps week . Abrams had known cast member Kate Flannery years before , when he used to write in a restaurant where Flannery worked as a waitress . The two were reunited on The Office set , where he stated that he was pleased with her success .
Jenna Fischer found her character 's break @-@ up scene with Roy " really dark , " as she is friends with David Denman outside of the show . She explained , " To see him turn like that , for me it was even more shocking because I know him as a big teddy bear . He played it so well and I think that cliffhanger of ' I ’ m gonna kill Jim Halpert ' is one of the best last lines of our episodes ever . " " Cocktails " included recurring guest star Michael Patrick McGill as Kenny Anderson , who called working on The Office " a blast . " Other guest stars included Dan Cole as Dan Gore , Owen Daniels as the Wallaces ' son , and Jean Villepique as Rachel Wallace .
The season three DVD contains a number of deleted scenes . Notable cut scenes included Stanley reacting violently when he sees Ryan talking to his daughter Melissa ; Pam and Roy talking about her Dunder Mifflin painting , the talking head interview with Jan over relationships , Dwight 's upstairs house inspection , and his conversation with the CFO 's son ; and Michael showing off his framed " love contract " .
= = Reception = =
" Cocktails " first aired in the United States on February 22 , 2007 . An estimated 8 @.@ 3 million viewers tuned in to the episode , a drop of less than 10 percent from the previous week . Among adults aged 18 – 49 , The Office earned a 4 @.@ 2 / 10 ratings share , an increase of seventeen percent from its lead @-@ in .
Television critics tended to view " Cocktails " positively . Kevin Fitzpatrick of UGO Networks praised the episode 's writing and directing , explaining that " Alot [ sic ] of the credit goes to Paul Lieberstein for his ruthlessly funny writing , but ol ' J.J. really knows how to run with the material and make awkward situations just that much more painful with his direction , one of the best episodes of the series . " Buddy TV writer Oscar Dahl noted that " besides a couple of crafty camera moves , his work was mostly invisible , which is exactly what you want from a director on The Office . " IGN 's Brian Zoromski appreciated the spotlight on female characters Jan , Pam , and Karen , and thought there were " quite a few great little moments this episode , " including " a great Creed moment as he revealed he runs a fake ID company out of his car . " Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West enjoyed Karen conning Jim at the party , called Rashida Jones ' performance " brilliantly played " ; West also liked Pam 's newfound confidence , but believed she was " dumb " for telling Roy of her kiss with Jim .
= Wars of the Delian League =
The Wars of the Delian League ( 477 – 449 BC ) were a series of campaigns fought between the Delian League of Athens and her allies ( and later subjects ) , and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia . These conflicts represent a continuation of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , after the Ionian Revolt and the first and second Persian invasions of Greece .
The Greek alliance , centered on Sparta and Athens , that had defeated the second Persian invasion had initially followed up this success by capturing the Persian garrisons of Sestos and Byzantium , both in Thrace , in 479 and 478 BC respectively . After the capture of Byzantium , the Spartans elected not to continue the war effort , and a new alliance , commonly known as the Delian League , was formed , with Athens very much the dominant power . Over the next 30 years , Athens would gradually assume a more hegemonic position over the league , which gradually evolved into the Athenian Empire .
Throughout the 470s BC , the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region , primarily under the command of the Athenian politician Cimon . In the early part of the next decade , Cimon began campaigning in Asia Minor , seeking to strengthen the Greek position there . At the Battle of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia , the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory , destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships ' marines to attack and rout the Persian army . After this battle , the Persians took an essentially passive role in the conflict , anxious not to risk battle where possible .
Towards the end of the 460s BC , the Athenians took the ambitious decision to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian empire . Although the Greek task force achieved initial success , they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in Memphis , despite a 3 year long siege . The Persians then counterattacked , and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months , before being wiped out . This disaster , coupled with ongoing warfare in Greece , dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia . In 451 BC , a truce was agreed in Greece , and Cimon was able to lead an expedition to Cyprus . However , whilst besieging Kition Cimon died , and the Athenian force decided to withdraw , winning another double victory at the Battle of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus in order to extricate themselves . This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia , and some ancient historians claim that a peace treaty , the Peace of Callias , was agreed to cement the final end of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
= = = Chronology = = =
Thucydides provides a succinct list of the main events occurring between the end of the second Persian invasion and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War , but almost no chronological information . Various attempts have been made to reassemble the chronology , but there is no definitive answer . The assumption central to these attempts is that Thucydides is describing the events in the appropriate chronological order . The one firmly accepted date is 465 BC for the beginning of the Siege of Thasos . This is based on an anonymous ancient scholiast 's annotations to one of the existing manuscripts of Aeschines 's works . The scholiast notes that the Athenians met disaster at ' Nine @-@ Ways ' in the archonship of Lysitheus ( known to be 465 / 464 BC ) . Thucydides mentions this attack on the ' Nine @-@ Ways ' in connection with the beginning of the Siege of Thasos , and since Thucydides says that the siege ended in its third year , the Siege of Thasos therefore dates to c . 465 – 463 BC .
Similarly , the anonymous scholiast provides a probable date for the Siege of Eion . This annotation places the fall of Eion in the archonship of Phaidon ( known to be 476 / 475 BC ) . The Siege may therefore have been between either 477 – 476 BC or 476 – 475 BC ; both have found favour . The Battle of Eurymedon may be dated to 469 BC by Plutarch 's anecdote about the Archon Apsephion ( 469 / 468 BC ) choosing Cimon and his fellow generals as judges in a competition . The implication is that Cimon had recently achieved a great victory , and the most likely candidate is Eurymedon . However , since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred after the Athenian siege of Naxos ( but before the Siege of Thasos ) , the date of Eurymedon is clearly constrained by the date of Naxos . Whilst some accept a date of 469 or earlier for this Naxos , another school of thought places it as late as 467 BC . Since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred before Thasos , the alternative date for this battle would therefore be 466 BC .
The dating of Naxos is intimately connected with two other events in the Greek world which occurred at the same time . Thucydides claims that Pausanias , having been stripped of his command after the Siege of Byzantium , returned to Byzantium as a private citizen soon after and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians . He then crossed the Bosporus and settled in Colonae in the Troad , until he was accused of collaborating with the Persians and was recalled by the Spartans for trial ( after which he starved himself to death ) . Thucydides again provides no chronology of these events . Shortly afterwards , the Spartans accused the Athenian statesman Themistocles , then in exile in Argos , of complicity in Pausanias 's treason . As a result , Themistocles fled from Argos , eventually to Asia Minor . Thucydides states that on his journey , Themistocles inadvertently ended up at Naxos , at that time being besieged by Athenians . The three events , Pausanias 's treason , Themistocles 's flight and the Siege of Naxos therefore occurred in close temporal sequence . These events certainly happened after 474 BC ( the earliest possible date for Themistocles 's ostracism ) , and have generally been placed in around 470 / 469 BC . However , there are several incongruities in the story of Themistocles if this date is accepted . A much later date for Pausanias 's expulsion from Byzantium has been proposed , and if accepted , this pushes these three events into c . 467 BC , which resolves the problems regarding Themistocles , and also probably explains some incidental details mentioned in Plutarch 's biography of Cimon . However , this modified timeline is not universally accepted by historians .
The Egyptian and Cyprian campaigns are somewhat easier to date . Thucydides says that the Egyptian campaign lasted six years and that three years later , the Athenians and Spartans signed a five @-@ year truce . This treaty is known to date to 451 BC , so the Egyptian campaign dates from c . 460 – 454 BC . The Cyprian campaign , which directly followed the truce , thus dates to 451 – 450 BC .
= = Background = =
The Greco @-@ Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor , and in particular Ionia , by the Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC . The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule , eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city . While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants , this was a form of government on the decline . By 500 BC , Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian place @-@ men . The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras . Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian @-@ sponsored expedition in 499 BC , Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy . This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia , and indeed Doris and Aeolis , beginning the Ionian Revolt .
The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras , and during their only campaigning season ( 498 BC ) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis . After this , the Ionian Revolt carried on ( without further outside aid ) for a further 5 years , until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians . However , in a decision of great historic significance , the Persian king Darius the Great decided that , despite successfully subduing the revolt , there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt . The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius 's empire , and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with . Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece , beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria .
In the next two decades there would be two Persian invasions of Greece , including some of the most famous battles in history . During the first invasion , Thrace , Macedon and the Aegean islands were added to the Persian Empire , and Eretria was duly destroyed . However , the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon . Between the two invasions , Darius died , and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes then led the second invasion personally in 480 BC , taking an enormous ( although oft @-@ exaggerated ) army and navy to Greece . Those Greeks who chose to resist ( the ' Allies ' ) were defeated in the twin battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium on land and at sea respectively . All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus fell into Persian hands , but then seeking to finally destroy the Allied navy , the Persians suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis . The following year , 479 BC , the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea , ending the invasion and the threat to Greece .
According to tradition , on the same day as Plataea , the Allied fleet defeated the demoralised remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale . This action marks the end of the Persian invasion , and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , the Greek counterattack . After Mycale , the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted , with the Persians now powerless to stop them . The Allied fleet then sailed to the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians , and besieged and captured the town of Sestos . The following year , 478 BC , the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantium ( modern day Istanbul ) . The siege was successful , but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies , and resulted in Pausanias 's recall . The siege of Byzantium was the last action of the Hellenic alliance which had defeated the Persian invasion .
= = Delian League = =
After Byzantium , Sparta was eager to end her involvement in the war . The Spartans were of the view that , with the liberation of mainland Greece , and the Greek cities of Asia Minor , the war 's purpose had already been reached . There was also perhaps a feeling that obtaining long @-@ term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible . In the aftermath of Mycale , the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion . Xanthippus , the Athenian commander at Mycale , had furiously rejected this ; the Ionian cities were originally Athenian colonies , and the Athenians , if no @-@ one else , would protect the Ionians . This marked the point at which the leadership of the Hellenic alliance effectively passed to the Athenians ; with the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium , the leadership of the Athenians became explicit .
The loose alliance of city states which had fought against Xerxes 's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league . With the withdrawal of these states , a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians . This alliance , now including many of the Aegean islands , was formally constituted as the ' First Athenian Alliance ' , commonly known as the Delian League . According to Thucydides , the official aim of the League was to " avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king . " In reality , this goal was divided into three main efforts - to prepare against any future invasion , to seek revenge against Persia , and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war . The members were given a choice of either offering armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury ; most states chose the tax . League members swore to have the same friends and enemies , and dropped ingots of iron into the sea to symbolize the permanence of their alliance . The ingots of iron were cast into the ocean because the oath the league members swore stipulated that their allegiance would not end , or be otherwise broken , until the iron floated to the surface . In other words , that they had made a pact perceived to be eternal . The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of the alliance , dying ( according to Plutarch ) a few years later in Pontus , whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be .
= = Non @-@ Persian campaigns = =
= = = Military Expansion of the League = = =
Thucydides provides just one example of the use of force to extend membership of the League , but since his account seems to be selective , there were presumably more ; certainly , Plutarch provides details of one such instance . Karystos , which had collaborated with the Persians during the second Persian invasion , was attacked by the League at some point in the 470s BC , and eventually agreed to become a member . Plutarch mentions the fate of Phaselis , which Cimon compelled to join the league during his Eurymedon campaign .
= = = Internal Rebellions = = =
Naxos attempted to leave the League c . 470 / 467 BC but was attacked by the Athenians and forced to remain a member . A similar fate awaited the Thasians after they tried to leave the League in 465 BC . Thucydides does not provide more examples , but from archaeological sources it is possible to deduce that there were further rebellions in the following years . Thucydides leaves us under no illusions that the behaviour of the Athenians in crushing such rebellions led firstly to the hegemony of Athens over the league , and eventually to the transition from the Delian League to the Athenian Empire .
= = = Conflicts in Greece = = =
During the period 479 – 461 , the mainland Greek states were at least outwardly at peace with each other , even if divided into pro @-@ Spartan and pro @-@ Athenian factions . The Hellenic alliance still existed in name , and since Athens and Sparta were still allied , Greece achieved a modicum of stability . However , over this period , Sparta became increasingly suspicious and fearful of the growing power of Athens . It was this fear , according to Thucydides , which made the second , larger ( and more famous ) Peloponnesian War inevitable .
Athens sent troops in 462 BC to aid Sparta with the Messenian Revolt ( c . 465 – 461 BC ) , under the terms of the old Hellenic alliance . The Spartans however , in the fear that Athens might interfere in the political situation between the Spartans and their helots , sent the Athenians home . This event directly led to the ostracism of Cimon ( who had been leading the troops ) , the ascendancy of the radical democrats ( led by Ephialtes and Pericles ) over the previously dominant aristocratic faction ( led by Cimon ) in Athens , and the First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta ( and their respective allies ) .
This conflict was really the Athenians ' own struggle , and need not have involved the Delian allies . After all , the League members had signed up to fight against the Persians , not fellow Greeks . Nevertheless , it does seem that at least at the Battle of Tanagra , a contingent of Ionians fought with the Athenians . The conflicts in Greece during these years are , however , not directly relevant to the history of the Delian League .
It can be seen , however , that the First Peloponnesian War may have hastened the transition of the Delian League from an Athenian @-@ dominated alliance to an Athenian @-@ ruled empire . During the early years of the war , Athens and her non @-@ Delian allies scored a series of victories . However , the collapse of the simultaneous Delian League expedition in Egypt in 454 BC caused panic in Athens , and resulted in decreased military activity until 451 BC , when a five @-@ year truce was concluded with Sparta . During the panic , the treasury of the League was moved from Delos to the perceived safety of Athens in 454 BC . Although Athens had in practice had a hegemonic position over the rest of the league since the rebellion of Naxos ( 470 / 467 BC ) was put down , the process by which the Delian league gradually transformed into the Athenian Empire accelerated after 461 BC . The transfer of the treasury to Athens is sometimes used as an arbitrary demarcation between the Delian League and the Athenian Empire . An alternative ' end @-@ point ' for the Delian League is the final end of hostilities with the Persians in 450 BC , after which , despite the fact that the stated aims of the League were fulfilled , the Athenians refused to allow member states to leave the alliance .
= = Campaigns against Persia = =
= = = Thrace = = =
= = = = Siege of Eion = = = =
According to Thucydides , the League 's opening campaign was against the city of Eion , at the mouth of the Strymon river . Since Thucydides does not provide a detailed chronology for his history of the league , the year in which this campaign took place is uncertain . The siege seems to have lasted from autumn of one year into the summer of the next , with historians supporting either 477 – 476 BC or 476 – 475 BC . Eion seems to have been one of the Persian garrisons left in Thrace during and after the second Persian invasion , along with Doriskos . The campaign against Eion should probably be seen as part of a general campaign aimed at removing the Persian presence from Thrace . Even though he does not directly cover this period , Herodotus alludes to several failed attempts , presumably Athenian , to dislodge the Persian governor of Doriskos , Mascames . Eion may have been worthy of particular mention by Thucydides because of its strategic importance ; abundant supplies of timber were available in the region , and there were nearby silver mines . Furthermore , it was near the site of the future Athenian colony of Amphipolis , which was the site of several future disasters for the Athenians .
The force which attacked Eion was under the command of Cimon . Plutarch says that Cimon first defeated the Persians in battle , whereupon they retreated to the city , and were besieged there . Cimon then expelled all Thracian collaborators from the region in order to starve the Persians into submission . Herodotus indicates that the Persian commander , Boges , was offered terms upon which he might be allowed to evacuate the city and return to Asia . However , not wanting to be thought a coward by Xerxes , he resisted to the last . When the food in Eion ran out , Boges threw his treasure into the Strymon , killed his entire household and then immolated them , and himself , on a giant pyre . The Athenians thus captured the city and enslaved the remaining population .
= = = = Skyros = = = =
Following the action at Eion , and possibly in the same campaign , the Athenians , still under Cimon , attacked the island of Skyros . This was not an anti @-@ Persian action , but a pragmatic assault on a native population that had lapsed into piracy . As a result of this action , the Athenians " liberated the Aegean " , and they sent colonists to the island to prevent the island returning to piracy .
= = = = Chersonesos = = = =
Cimon returned a decade later to complete the expulsion of Persian forces from Europe . This action seems to have occurred concurrently with the Siege of Thasos , and so is generally dated to 465 BC . Evidently , even at this point , some Persian forces were holding ( or had re @-@ taken ) some part of the Chersonesos with the help of native Thracians . Cimon sailed to the Chersonesos with just 4 triremes , but managed to capture the 13 ships of the Persians , and then proceeded to drive them out of the peninsula . Cimon then turned the Chersonesos ( of which his father , Miltiades the Younger , had been tyrant before the Greco @-@ Persian Wars began ) over to the Athenians for colonisation .
= = = Asia Minor = = =
Once the Persian forces in Europe had largely been neutralised , the Athenians seem to have gone about starting to extend the League in Asia Minor . The islands of Samos , Chios and Lesbos seem to have become members of the original Hellenic alliance after Mycale , and presumably were also therefore original members of the Delian League . However , it is unclear exactly when the other Ionian cities , or indeed the other Greek cities of Asia Minor , joined the league , though they certainly did at some point .
Cimon 's Eurymedon campaign itself seems to have begun in response to the assembly of a large Persian fleet and army at Aspendos , near the mouth of the Eurymedon River . It is usually argued that the Persians were the would @-@ be aggressors , and that Cimon 's campaign was launched in order to deal with this new threat . Cawkwell suggests that the Persian build @-@ up was the first concerted attempt to counter the activity of the Greeks since the failure of the second invasion . It is possible that internal strife with the Persian empire had contributed to the length of time it took to launch this campaign . Cawkwell suggests that the Persian forces gathered at Aspendos were aiming to move along the southern coast of Asia Minor , capturing each city , until eventually the Persian navy could begin operating in Ionia again .
Plutarch says that upon hearing that the Persian forces were gathering at Aspendos , Cimon sailed from Cnidus ( in Caria ) with 200 triremes . It is highly likely that Cimon had assembled this force because the Athenians had had some warning of a forthcoming Persian campaign to re @-@ subjugate the Asiatic Greeks . According to Plutarch , Cimon sailed with these 200 triremes to the Greek city of Phaselis ( in Lycia ) but was refused admittance . He therefore began ravaging the lands of Phaselis , but with the mediation of the Chian contingent of his fleet , the people of Phaselis agreed to join the league . They were to contribute troops to the expedition , and to pay the Athenians ten talents . By capturing Phaselis , the furthest east Greek city in Asia Minor ( and just to the west of the Eurymedon ) , he effectively blocked the Persian campaign before it had begun , denying them the first naval base they needed to control . Taking further initiative , Cimon then moved to directly attack the Persian fleet at Aspendos .
= = = = Battle of the Eurymedon = = = =
Thucydides gives only the barest of details for this battle ; the most reliable detailed account is given by Plutarch . According to Plutarch , the Persian fleet was anchored off the mouth of the Eurymedon , awaiting the arrival of 80 Phoenician ships from Cyprus . Several different estimates for the size of the Persian fleet are given . Thucydides says that there was
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Branch auditioned for the seventh season of American Idol and was chosen by the judges to move on to the preliminary round in Hollywood . Footage of her performance was not included on the show , but she appeared in a montage at the end of the episode . A week later she was eliminated from the competition . Branch told The New York Times her decision to enter the contest was not due to a desire to " be somebody " , but because she felt she should take any opportunity with the belief that God would bless her efforts .
Two years later , the video for Branch 's fourth single " I Am America " was released on YouTube . Her husband , Michael Branch , wrote the song partly in response to criticism of the Tea Party protests from Democrats , while also drawing on his own difficulties in life . In an interview for Billy Kelly of the Washington Times ' Tea Party Report , Branch told how soon after her husband wrote the song he had her quickly learn the lyrics and then recorded her performing the song . She originally felt the song was too confrontational for her , but decided the message was so important that she should record the song . In the music video , footage of Tea Party rallies is interspersed with scenes of Branch singing on a sound stage and kids holding signs containing political messages and scripture . " I Am America " was played on the July 7 , 2010 , broadcast of Glenn Beck 's radio show and a week later Fox News host Bill O 'Reilly devoted a portion of his “ Pinheads and Patriots ” segment to the song , saying that " for honoring legitimate protest " Branch was a patriot . About 21 days after being uploaded the video had nearly 475 @,@ 000 views . " I Am America " soon became a popular song with the Tea Party movement and has been described as the movement 's anthem . The New York Times described Branch as having a " dynamic presence " on stage when singing the song .
Glenn Beck played another Krista Branch song titled " Remember Who We Are " on his Insider Extreme radio program early in August 2010 and the song was featured in a video from Branch promoting Beck 's Restoring Honor rally . The lyrics for " Remember Who We Are " contain a mixture of defiant metaphors with a Christian rock style of music . Branch 's husband said he wrote the song to " remind us of who Americans are in the wake of the most trying of times . " He stated that Americans stand up and come together in the face of adversity , saying he prayed the song would bring people hope . Calling it an " inspiring patriotic song " , the video for the song was made the " Video of the Day " on Glenn Beck 's site on September 3 2010 .
Her first EP I Am America was released on September 3 , 2010 by Soundmindpro Publishing , a company established by Branch 's husband . The EP included " Remember Who We Are " as well as " I Am America " and " Foreign Land " , a song about departed American soldiers . Jeremiah Holdsworth of IndieVision felt the songs were strong , noting their patriotic themes and subtle religious subtext , and said the song " Foreign Land " particularly moved him . Branch released a new single on July 22 , 2011 , called " Lead Me On " , a cover of the Amy Grant song and released a video for the song a month later . The song was described as pro @-@ Israel with the music video containing imagery related to the history of the Jewish people , including a prominent emphasis on the Holocaust .
In addition to her performances in the United States , Branch has performed for teens in Guatemala and Slovakia . She performed at the 2011 Sunbelt Ag Expo in conjunction with the American Bible Society , singing patriotic songs to support American soldiers and performing the national anthem for the Expo . Branch attended the Washington Times ' 30th anniversary celebration on October 3 , 2012 , and performed several songs for the event . Branch regularly performs with Oklahoma jazz saxophonist Grady Nichols . She is working on her debut album , which is scheduled to be released in early 2013 .
= = = 2012 Republican presidential primaries = = =
Branch 's music has gained prominence as a result of its use during the 2012 Republican presidential primary . When she was performing " I Am America " at events across the country , Herman Cain was often the keynote speaker . Branch and her husband came to appreciate his political views and her husband signed on with Cain 's campaign . " I Am America " was later adopted by the candidate as his campaign 's official theme . Cain said when interviewed about the song , " The first time I heard that song , the message was so right @-@ on I felt goose bumps just listening to it . " The song was later described by the National Journal as having " underscored Cain 's anti @-@ elitist appeal " with its lyrics . Campaign ads featuring " I Am America " gave the song increased exposure . A campaign ad using " I Am America " that included Cain 's chief of staff was the subject of numerous parodies also featuring the song . On The Colbert Report , comedian Stephen Colbert satirically claimed Cain got the line " I Am America " from Colbert 's book , I Am America ( And So Can You ! ) . Several parodies of the ad were then shown on the program using the song .
Rick Santorum announced in March 2012 that he has adopted Branch 's song " Remember Who We Are " as an official theme song for his campaign , having been without a theme song prior to the announcement . Santorum said he chose the song because " few songs express the beauty and strength of who we are as free Americans better than Krista ’ s . " The song is seen as representing the emotion of his campaign effort . David Weigel described Branch as the " muse of the insurgent conservative candidate " due to her songs being used by Cain and Santorum in their primary campaigns .
= = Politics = =
Branch has said her patriotism and admiration for America is the unifying principle of her music . She suggests the Tea Party is animated not by rebelliousness , but by patriotism and love of freedom . Her music often incorporates political themes and religious views that have led to her songs resonating with Tea Party supporters and commentators such as Glenn Beck and Bill O 'Reilly .
The artist has performed at political rallies led by Beck , and at campaign rallies for Herman Cain . Her husband joined Cain 's presidential campaign as state director for Tennessee after hearing him speak at events where Branch performed . Branch said Cain was a natural choice for her and her husband because she felt their beliefs aligned with Cain 's . Since 2010 , she received three payments that totaled $ 10 @,@ 000 for live entertainment services provided at political rallies from several political action committees associated with Cain 's campaign .
= = Discography = =
= Cause and Effect ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Cause and Effect " is the 18th episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 118th overall . It was originally released on March 23 , 1992 , in broadcast syndication . It was written by Brannon Braga , who sought to write an unusual type of time travel related plot , and directed by cast member Jonathan Frakes .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , the Enterprise is caught in a time loop which results in the destruction of the ship and the loss of all hands after a collision with the USS Bozeman . As events re @-@ occur , they begin to feel a sense of déjà vu and upon investigating , realize their predicament . Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) realizes how to a pass a brief message to himself in the next loop , which allows him to save the ship from destruction .
Cheers actor Kelsey Grammer was offered the role of Captain Morgan Bateson and accepted . Due to scheduling conflicts , Kirstie Alley was unable to appear in her Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan role as Lt. Saavik . Plans for the USS Bozeman were changed due to the budget , which resulted in a modification to the USS Reliant model created for The Wrath of Khan and the use of the movie @-@ era Enterprise bridge . " Cause and Effect " received Nielsen ratings of 13 @.@ 0 percent , making it the sixth most watched episode of the season . Critics praised the episode , specifically the opening sequence in which the Enterprise is destroyed , the writing of Braga and the direction of Frakes .
= = Plot = =
The viewer is shown through the episode that Enterprise is caught in a time loop ( referred to in @-@ universe as a " temporal causality loop " ) . The loop begins with the senior members of the crew playing poker and continues for about a day when they discover a spatial anomaly . While studying the anomaly , a ship suddenly emerges from it , and though Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) takes Lt. Commander Data 's ( Brent Spiner ) advice over Commander William T. Riker 's ( Jonathan Frakes ) for avoiding a collision , the new ship clips the warp nacelle , causing a critical failure and the destruction of the Enterprise moments later , at which point the loop restarts .
Initially , the crew are unaware of the loop . However , Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) begins to hear noises before she goes to bed following the poker game . Having a sense of déjà vu during the poker game and able to predict the cards Data will deal during a subsequent loop , Crusher takes a tricorder with her to her room , records the voices , and later analyzes them to discover they are the panicked commands and broadcasts of the crew . The senior staff work out that they are stuck in the loop ; the voices they are hearing are those of themselves from the previous loop just prior to the destruction of the ship . They evaluate the voices to determine that the loop is restarted due to the collision of the two ships but do not know how to avoid that collision in the first place . Data suggests that his positronic brain can be used to send a short message to himself in the next loop which may help them to avoid the collision . When they arrive at the anomaly , and after the collision , Data sends the message .
On the following loop , Crusher again has a feeling of déjà vu during the poker game , but when Data deals the next hand , all the cards are threes , followed by a hand where all players have three of a kind . The number 3 begins appearing throughout other parts of the ship 's operations while , again , they determine they are stuck in a time loop . When they reach the anomaly and the ship appears from it , Data suddenly realizes that the 3 stands for the number of command pips on Riker 's uniform , and executes Riker 's option instead of his own . This allows Enterprise to safely clear the oncoming ship . The anomaly disappears and the time loop ends , and the crew realize they have been trapped in the loop for over 17 days , while the other ship , the USS Bozeman , has been missing for over 90 years . Picard welcomes the Bozeman 's crew to the 24th century .
= = Production = =
The script was written by Brannon Braga , who sought to write a time @-@ travel related episode without using a " screwed up time @-@ lines " type plot . Braga called it the most enjoyable episode he wrote all season , as he had never seen a timeloop episode before but he did not know how to get the crew out of the loop , nor what the message was which would be passed to a future loop . The poker game was not in the original plan , which he attributed to a sugar rush after eating pancakes . He felt that the destruction of the Enterprise was the best possible teaser for the episode , and he was pleased how he managed to tie the poker game into the overall plot . Braga named the USS Bozeman for his hometown of Bozeman , Montana , while the registration number of NCC @-@ 1941 was a reference to the 1979 film 1941 .
Cast member Jonathan Frakes directed the episode , having prepared for it while shooting the episode " The Outcast " . He said that he was not involved in the casting process , as they had offered the role of Captain Morgan Bateson to Kelsey Grammar , who 'd accepted . Grammar was a Star Trek fan , and in his role as Frasier Crane on Cheers , he filmed on the Paramount lot near where The Next Generation was produced . Frakes found it a challenge to film the same scenes with the same dialogue over and over but in a way which made them look different . Marvin V. Rush , the director of photography , worked with cameraman Waverly Smothers to develop an attachment for a camera using a bungee cord which allowed for a different style of shooting . Frakes also worked while at home planning out shots in order to ensure that there was a variety to each loop . Executive producer had made it clear that Frakes could not re @-@ use footage and each loop needed to be filmed fresh , in order to prevent the episode from looking like a clip show .
Several changes took place to the script because of filming and casting difficulties . The crew planned planned to make the USS Bozeman a Star Trek : The Original Series @-@ era Constitution class ship , similar to the original USS Enterprise . However , no model was available to use and the costs in creating a new one , along with costumes and props , was prohibitive enough that the plan was scrapped . Instead , the USS Reliant model created for Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan was used . Greg Jein and Michael Okuda made the relevant changes , removing the rollbar and adding sensor arrays , resulting in it being described as a Soyuz class vessel . The bridge of the Bozeman was a re @-@ dressed version of the film series Enterprise bridge . It was then intended to get Kirstie Alley in a cameo role behind Grammer in the USS Bozeman shots , reprising her role as Lt. Saavik from the movie The Wrath of Khan , but could not do so due to scheduling difficulties . Rob Legato organized the large scale miniature effects for the episode on set 10 , with large scale but low detailed versions of the Enterprise created along with just nacelle models for the Bozeman to collide with .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode aired during the week commencing May 10 , 1992 , in broadcast syndication . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received ratings of 13 @.@ 0 percent . This means that it was watched by 13 percent of all households watching television during its timeslot . It was the sixth most watched episode of the season , behind both parts of " Unification " , " A Matter of Time " , " Power Play " and " The Game " .
James Van Hise in his book The Unauthorized Trek : The Complete Next Generation , said that the episode " fascinated " him due to the " experimental " nature . He praised the direction of Frakes , who saved it from being a series of " potentially boring repetition [ s ] " , adding that he " clearly has a firm grasp on the series . " Juliette Harrisson listed " Cause and Effect " as the seventh most groundbreaking episode of the series in 2012 for Den of Geek . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com , giving it a rating of nine out of ten . He praised the means in which Frakes made each repetition different , and the writing by Braga which he described as a " tour de force " . He said that " Cause and Effect " had " the best teaser in the history of Star Trek " , and summed it up by saying " This is an absolute triumph of craft from both Braga and Frakes , and just a fun episode , with the added bonus of Captain Frasier Crane at the end . I almost didn 't need to rewatch this one , as it ’ s one of my go @-@ to episodes when I want to watch a Star Trek episode for the heck of it , and I have yet to tire of it . "
Zack Handlen gave " Cause and Effect " a grade of A in his review for The A.V. Club . He called the opening sequence " strong " , and said that one of the " tricks " of this episode was that it does not break its own rules in finding a resolution . He summarized by saying " Once again , TNG does what it does best : You take an ostensibly goofy idea , and then you make it sting by thinking through the consequences . " In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Cause and Effect " was placed in 62nd place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
Viviane Casimir published an article in the Winter 1997 issue of the journal Extrapolation that used Lieutenant Commander Data 's ability to transmit a message to himself as an example of assigning special mental abilities to a cyborg . In Computers Of Star Trek Lois Gresh and Robert Weinberg noted a contradiction between the description of Data being built around a neural net and examples of traditional von Neumann architecture . They noted how , in " Cause and Effect " , when a crew member removed the cover to Data 's " brain " , it exposed flashing lights reminiscent of the large computers of the fifties and sixties , that reflected the values in the CPUs accumulator and other registers .
" Cause and Effect " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on June 10 , 1997 . The episode was later released in the United States on September 3 , 2002 , as part of the Star Trek : The Next Generation season four DVD box set . The first Blu @-@ ray release was in the United Kingdom on July 29 , 2013 , followed by the United States on July 30 . Elements of the episode were expanded upon in several non @-@ canon novels . In Ship of the Line by Diane Carey followed up on the events of " Cause and Effect " . Captain Bateson also appears in several more books set before and after the events of this episode , including The Captain 's Daughter by Peter David and the Star Trek : Destiny novel Lost Souls .
= Japanese cruiser Kasuga =
Kasuga ( 春日 ) was the name ship of the Kasuga @-@ class armored cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy , built in the first decade of the 20th century by Gio . Ansaldo & C. , Sestri Ponente , Italy , where the type was known as the Giuseppe Garibaldi class . The ship was originally ordered by the Argentine Navy during the Argentine – Chilean naval arms race , but the lessening of tensions with Chile and financial pressures caused the Argentinians to sell her before delivery . At this time tensions between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire were rising , and the ship was offered to both sides before she was purchased by the Japanese .
During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , Kasuga participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea and was lightly damaged during the subsequent Battle of Tsushima . In addition she frequently bombarded the defenses of Port Arthur . The ship played a limited role in World War I and was used to escort Allied convoys and search for German commerce raiders in the Indian Ocean and Australasia . Kasuga became a training ship in the late 1920s and was then disarmed and hulked in 1942 for use as a barracks ship . The ship was sunk shortly before the end of World War II in 1945 and was salvaged three years later and broken up for scrap .
= = Background = =
Kasuga was the next @-@ to @-@ last of the 10 Giuseppe Garibaldi @-@ class armored cruisers to be built . The first ship had been completed in 1895 and the class had enjoyed considerable export success , and had been gradually improved over the years . The last two ships of the class were ordered on 23 December 1901 by the Argentine Navy in response to the order by Chile for two second @-@ class battleships . The possibility of war between Argentina and Chile , however , abated before the vessel was completed , and a combination of financial problems and British pressure forced Argentina to dispose of Bernardino Rivadavia and her sister ship Mariano Moreno . The Argentine government attempted to sell the ships to Russia , but negotiations failed over the price demanded by the Argentinians . The Japanese government quickly stepped in and purchased them due to increasing tensions with Russia despite the high price of ¥ 14 @,@ 937 @,@ 390 ( £ 1 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 ) for the two sisters . Already planning to attack Russia , the government delayed their surprise attack on Port Arthur that began the Russo @-@ Japanese War until the ships had left Singapore and could not be delayed or interned by any foreign power .
= = Design and description = =
Kasuga had an overall length of 111 @.@ 73 meters ( 366 ft 7 in ) , a beam of 18 @.@ 71 meters ( 61 ft 5 in ) , a molded depth of 12 @.@ 1 meters ( 39 ft 8 in ) and a deep draft ( ship ) of 7 @.@ 31 meters ( 24 ft 0 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 600 long tons ) at normal load . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , using steam from 8 coal @-@ fired Scotch marine boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) and a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , Kasuga barely exceeded this , reaching a speed of 20 @.@ 05 knots ( 37 @.@ 13 km / h ; 23 @.@ 07 mph ) during her sea trials on 20 September 1903 despite 14 @,@ 944 ihp ( 11 @,@ 144 kW ) produced by her engines . She had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her complement consisted of 560 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of one 40 @-@ caliber Armstrong Whitworth 10 @-@ inch / 40 Type 41 gun in a single turret forward and two 8 @-@ inch / 45 Type 41 guns , in a twin @-@ gun turret aft . Ten of the quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ inch / 40 Type 41 guns that comprised her secondary armament were arranged in casemates amidships on the main deck ; the remaining four guns were mounted on the upper deck . Kasuga also had ten QF 3 @-@ inch / 40 Type 41 guns and six QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns to defend herself against torpedo boats . She was fitted with four submerged 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each side .
In 1924 two of her 3 in / 40 guns were removed , as were all of her QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns , and a single 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft gun was added . By August 1933 , all ten of her casemated 6 @-@ inch guns had been removed in addition to four more 3 in / 40 guns .
The ship 's waterline armor belt had a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) amidships and tapered to 70 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) towards the ends of the ship . Between the main gun barbettes it covered the entire side of the ship up to the level of the upper deck . The ends of the central armored citadel were enclosed by transverse bulkheads 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The forward barbette , the conning tower , and gun turrets were also protected by 150 @-@ millimeter armor while the aft barbette only had 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor . Her deck armor ranged from 20 to 40 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the 6 @-@ inch guns on the upper deck were protected by gun shields .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship 's keel was laid down on 10 March 1902 with the temporary name of San Mitra and she was launched on 22 October 1902 and renamed Bernardino Rivadavia by the Argentinians . The vessel was sold to Japan on 30 December 1903 and renamed Kasuga , after Kasuga Shrine in Nara prefecture , on 1 January 1904 . Kasuga and her newly renamed sister Nisshin were formally turned over to Japan and commissioned on 7 January . The sisters departed Genoa on 9 January under the command of British captains and manned by British seamen and Italian stokers . When they arrived at Port Said , Egypt , five days later , they encountered the Russian protected cruiser Aurora and reached Suez on the 16th , accompanied by the British armored cruiser King Alfred . The Japanese ships reached Singapore on 2 February where they were slightly delayed by a coolie strike .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
Kasuga and Nisshin reached Yokosuka on 16 February just as Japan initiated hostilities with its surprise attack on Port Arthur , and began working up with Japanese crews . The sisters were assigned to reinforce the battleships of the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet under the overall command of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō on 11 April . In an effort to block the Russian ships in Port Arthur , Togo ordered a minefield laid at the mouth of the harbor on 12 April and Kasuga and Nisshin were tasked to show themselves " as a demonstration of our power " . Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Russian Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships and Kasuga and Nisshin , he turned back for Port Arthur and his flagship ran into the minefield just laid by the Japanese . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . In addition to this loss , the battleship Pobeda was damaged by a mine . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , making use of the long @-@ range capabilities of Kasuga and Nisshin 's guns to blindly bombard Port Arthur on 15 April from Pigeon Bay , on the southwest side of the Liaodong Peninsula , at a range of 9 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) . In early May , the sisters fired at ranges up to 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) although this proved to be ineffective .
On 15 May , the battleships Yashima and Hatsuse were sunk by Russian mines . That same day , off Port Arthur , Kasuga collided in the fog with the protected cruiser Yoshino , which capsized and sank with the loss of 318 officers and enlisted men . With a third of Japan 's battleships lost , Tōgō decided to use Kasuga and Nisshin in the line of battle together with his four remaining battleships . The first test of this decision would have occurred on 23 June when the Pacific Squadron sortied in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok , but the new squadron commander , Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese battleline ( including Kasuga and Nisshin ) shortly before sunset , as he did not wish to engage his numerically superior opponents in a night battle . On 27 July , the sisters forced a Russian force of one battleship and several cruisers and gunboats to return to port because of long @-@ range gun fire after they sortied to provide fire support to the Russian Army .
Kasuga and Nisshin participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August , but only played a minor role as they were in the rear of the Japanese battleline . During the battle , the ship 's executive officer was Kantarō Suzuki , later Prime Minister of Japan . Kasuga was not significantly damaged , although she was hit three times with 11 crewmen wounded . Kasuga fired 33 ten @-@ inch shells along with an unknown number of eight @-@ inch shells during the battle . After the battle the sisters returned to Pigeon Bay where they engaged the Russian fortifications .
At the Battle of Tsushima on 26 May 1905 , Kasuga was fifth in the line of battle . At about 14 : 10 , Kasuga opened fire on the battleship Oslyabya , the lead ship in the second column of the Russian fleet . Due the limited visibility and heavy smoke during the battle detailed knowledge is not available about her activities during the rest of the day 's action . The surviving Russian ships had been located near the Liancourt Rocks by the Japanese the following morning and Tōgō reached them about 10 : 00 . Heavily outnumbering the Russians , he opted for a long @-@ range engagement to minimize any losses and Kasuga opened fire at the obsolete battleship Imperator Nikolai I at a range of 9 @,@ 100 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ship hit her target 's funnel on her third salvo and the Russians surrendered shortly afterwards .
During the course of the battle , Kasuga fired 50 ten @-@ inch and 103 eight @-@ inch shells ; due to the poor visibility and sinking of many Russian ships , the only confirmed hits made by the ship were two against the battleship Oryol with ten @-@ inch shells , one of which broke up on the armor of the aft twelve @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) turret . In return she was struck by one 12 @-@ inch , one 6 @-@ inch , and one unidentified shell , none of which significantly damaged her .
Shortly after the Battle of Tsushima , Kasuga was assigned to the 3rd Fleet ) for the invasion and occupation of Sakhalin in July – August . On 2 September 1911 , the ship escorted the ex @-@ Russian torpedo depot ship Anegawa to Vladivostok to be returned to the Russians . At the start of 1914 , Kasuga was overhauled with her boilers replaced by 12 Kampon Type 1 water @-@ tube boilers .
= = = World War I = = =
Kasuga served as the flagship of Destroyer Squadron ( Suiraisentai ) 3 from 13 December 1915 to 13 May 1916 and 12 September 1916 to 13 April 1917 . After the incursion of the German commerce raider SMS Wolf into the Indian Ocean in March 1917 , the British Admiralty requested that the Japanese government reinforce its ships already present , there and in Australian waters . The ship was sent south and escorted Allied shipping between Colombo , Ceylon and Freemantle , Australia in April – May . She was based at Singapore through November . On 11 January 1918 , Kasuga ran aground on a sandbank in the Bangka Strait , in the Dutch East Indies , where she was stuck until June , when she could finally be refloated for repairs .
= = = Interwar years and World War II = = =
Kasuga arrived in Portland , Maine on 3 July 1920 for the centennial celebrations of the State of Maine and then made port visits in New York City and Annapolis , Maryland . In August 1920 Kasuga visited the city of Cristobal in the Republic of Panama , after transiting the Panama Canal , from 22 – 25 August 1920 , with an official reception for the crew before heading to San Francisco .
She was used to transport Japanese soldiers and supplies to Siberia in 1922 as part of Japan 's Siberian Intervention . During the time , Kasuga was commanded by Mitsumasa Yonai , another future Prime Minister of Japan . On 15 June 1926 , the ship helped to rescue the crew of the freighter SS City of Naples that struck a rock off the coast of Japan and broke up . Two of her crewmen were later awarded silver medals for gallantry during the rescue by King George V.
From 1927 to 1942 , Kasuga was used as a training vessel for navigators and engineers . On 27 July 1928 she rescued the crew of the semi @-@ rigid airship N3 after it exploded in heavy weather during fleet maneuvers . In January – February 1934 , Kasuga ferried 40 scientists to Truk to observe a total solar eclipse on 14 February . She was hulked and disarmed in July 1942 and used as a floating barracks for the rest of the Pacific War . Kasuga capsized at her mooring at Yokosuka on 18 July 1945 during an air raid by United States Navy aircraft from TF @-@ 38 . Her wreck was salvaged in August 1948 and broken up for scrap by the Uraga Dock Company .
= Qutayba ibn Muslim =
Qutaiba ibn Muslim ( Arabic : قتيبة بن مسلم , full name : أبو حفص قتيبة بن أبي صالح مسلم بن عمرو الباهلي Abū Ḥafṣ Qutaiba ibn Abī Ṣāliḥ Muslim ibn ʿAmr al @-@ Bāhilī ) ( 669 – 715 / 716 ) was an Arab commander of the Umayyad Caliphate army who became governor of Khurasan and distinguished himself in the conquest of Transoxiana ( Arabic : Māwarāʾ al @-@ Nahr ) during the reign of al @-@ Walid I ( 705 – 715 ) . A capable soldier and administrator , he consolidated Muslim rule in the area and expanded the Caliphate 's border to include most of Transoxiana . From 705 to ca . 710 he consolidated Muslim control over the native principalities of Tokharistan and conquered the principality of Bukhara , while in 710 – 712 he conquered Khwarizm and completed the conquest of Sogdiana with the capture of Samarkand . The latter opened the road to the Jaxartes valley , and during the last years of his life Qutaiba led annual campaigns there , extending Muslim control up to the Ferghana Valley . To increase his strained manpower , Qutaiba initiated the wide @-@ scale levy of native Khurasani and Transoxianian soldiers who fought alongside the Arab Muslim troops . Following Walid 's death , Qutaiba , insecure of his position under the new regime , rebelled but failed to secure the support of his army , and was defeated and killed . Most of his conquests in Transoxiana were lost in the years after his death ; only in the 740s was the Muslim position restored to the line reached by Qutaiba , and only after the Battle of Talas in 751 did the region come solidly under Muslim control .
= = Origin and early life = =
Qutayba was born in 669 CE in Basra , where his family was influential . His father , Muslim ibn ʿAmr , had enjoyed the favour of the Umayyads , and fell at the Battle of Maskin at the close of the Second Islamic Civil War . Qutayba rose at first as the protege of Anbasa ibn Sa 'id , but was noticed by the powerful governor of Iraq and the East , al @-@ Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , during the suppression of the revolt of Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath in 700 / 701 . Under al @-@ Hajjaj 's patronage , he took Rayy from the rebel Umar ibn Abi 'l @-@ Salt in 701 , and became the city 's governor .
Then , in late 704 or early 705 , Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik ibn Marwan appointed Qutayba as governor of Khurasan . The choice of Qutayba , who hailed from the relatively weak Bahila tribe , was intended by al @-@ Hajjaj to heal the destructive feud between the South Arab or " Yemeni " ( Azd and Rabi 'ah ) and North Arab ( Qaysi ) tribal confederations in Khurasan by providing a governor who did not belong to either . The Bahila were neutral between the two groups , but generally allied themselves to the Qays , thus furthering al @-@ Hajjaj 's policy of emasculating Azdi power , which had been dominant in Khurasan during the governorship of Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab . Furthermore , as Qutayba lacked a strong tribal base of his own , he could be expected to remain firmly attached to his patron . Qutayba would spend the next ten years of his life in Central Asia , consolidating and expanding Muslim rule there . In this endeavour , both his military and diplomatic and organisational abilities came him in good stead ; most importantly , he was able to enlist the support of the local Iranian population and the powerful dihqan ( the Iranian " gentry " ) class .
= = Conquests in Central Asia = =
The Arabs had reached Central Asia in the decade after their decisive victory in the Battle of Nihavend in 642 , when they completed their conquest of the former Sassanid Empire by seizing Sistan and Khurasan . The first Arab attacks across the Oxus ranged as far as Shash ( Tashkent ) and Khwarizm , but they were little more than raids aiming at seizing booty and extracting tribute , and were interrupted by the intertribal warfare that broke out in Khurasan during the Second Islamic Civil War ( 683 – 692 ) . Subsequent governors , most notably Sa 'id ibn Uthman and al @-@ Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah , made attempts to conquer territory across the river , but they failed . The native princes , for their part , tried to exploit the Arabs ' rivalries , and with the aid of the Arab renegade Musa ibn Abdallah ibn Khazim , who in 689 seized the fortress of Tirmidh for his own domain , they managed to eject the Arabs from their holdings . Nevertheless , the Transoxianian princes remained riven by their own feuds , and failed to unite in the face of the Arab conquest , a fact which would be suitably exploited by Qutayba after 705 .
= = = Conquest of Tokharistan and Bukhara = = =
The first task which Qutayba set himself was the suppression of the rebellion in Lower Tokharistan , which was accomplished swiftly with the reconquest of Balkh . Qutayba then secured the submission of the local princes in the upper Oxus valley , most notably of Tish , king of al @-@ Saghaniyan , who invited Qutayba to aid him in his dispute with the ruler of nearby Akharun ( or Akhrun ) and Shuman , in the northern mountainous districts of Tokharistan . After extensive negotiations led by Sulaym the Persian , the tarkhan Nizak , ruler of the Hephthalite principality of Badghis , surrendered to Qutayba , and pledged to accompany him in his expeditions .
In 706 – 709 , Qutayba occupied himself with the long and bloody conquest of Sogdia . The Sogdians were at the time divided by civil war in which Bukhara had been seized by the ruler of nearby Wardana , the Wardan Khudah , while another local magnate , Khunuk Khudah , had declared himself king of Bukhara ( Bukhar Khudah ) . Taking advantage of the conflict , Qutayba was able to easily capture the city of Baykand after a two @-@ month siege . He left a small garrison there and departed , but the inhabitants launched a revolt soon after . The Arab army then turned back and proceeded to sack the city . The men of fighting age were executed , the women and children sold off as slaves , and enormous booty amassed , especially in armour and weapons , which equipped the Arab army . The brutal punishment meted out to Baykand shocked the region : the Sogdians patched up their quarrels and the Sogdian princes of Kish and Nasaf united behind the Wardan Khudah . Arab accounts mention the participation of Turgesh troops as well , but this is probably an anachronism . In the campaign of 707 , Qutayba was able to capture two outlying towns , Tumuskath and Ramithana , before he was threatened in his rear by the allied Sogdian army . Qutayba avoided a battle , and engaged in negotiations to gain time , before executing a rapid retreat to safety through the Iron Gate to beyond the Oxus , crossing the river at Tirmidh . The campaign of 708 was also a failure , which drew the ire of al @-@ Hajjaj . For 709 , al @-@ Hajjaj drew up a new plan for his subordinate : the Arabs launched a direct attack on Bukhara , which caught the alliance — possibly weakened by the death of its leader , the Wardan Khudah — by surprise . The city was taken by storm , a tribute of 200 @,@ 000 dirhams imposed , and an Arab garrison installed . In its direct aftermath , Tarkhun , the ruler of Samarkand sent envoys to Qutayba and became a tributary vassal to the Caliphate .
This success was followed however by the rebellion in the autumn of 709 of much of Lower Tokharistan under Nizak of Badhgis , with the support of the principalities of Yalqan and Faryab , and the city of Balkh . In an effort to raise the entire region in revolt , Nizak also forced the nominal suzerain of Tokharistan , the Yabghu , to join the uprising . The year was too advanced for a direct confrontation and the Muslim levy @-@ based army mostly disbanded , but Qutayba ordered his brother Abd al @-@ Rahman to take the garrison of Merv , some 12 @,@ 000 men , and head to Balkh to secure the Muslim position there . This move proved effective in discouraging the rebellion of more local princes , and in spring , Abd al @-@ Rahman was able to re @-@ establish Muslim control over Tokharistan almost without bloodshed . Most of the rebel rulers fled or capitulated , and finally , Nizak was captured and executed on al @-@ Hajjaj 's orders , despite promises of pardon , while the Yabghu was exiled to Damascus and kept there as a hostage . Tokharistan was more firmly incorporated into the Caliphate , as Arab district representatives were appointed alongside the local princes , who were gradually relegated to secondary positions . Qutayba 's brother Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Muslim was installed with a garrison near Balkh to oversee the affairs of the province . Despite the swift end of Nizak 's revolt , the king of Shuman and Akharun decided to rebel as well . Qutayba led his forces against him , besieged his citadel and took it . The king fell in battle , and his supporters were executed . Qutayba then marched west over the Iron Gate , taking Kish and Nasaf and visiting Bukhara , where he settled relations between the Arabs and the locals , installed the young Sogdian prince Tughshada in the position of Bukhar Khudah and established an Arab military colony in the city . Later , in 712 / 713 , Qutayba built a mosque in the city 's citadel , but although the Arab authorities encouraged the conversion of the native population by paying them to attend prayers , Islamization proceeded slowly .
At the same time , Qutayba began to adopt a measure that marked a radical departure from previous practice in the East : he ordered the raising of native Khurasani auxiliary levies , usually some ten to twenty thousand strong and mostly composed of non @-@ converts , to supplement the Arab tribal army , the muqatila . This measure was later expanded to include the newly conquered territories in Sogdiana and Khwarizm . Gibb suggests that this move may be seen as an answer to the need for more troops to control the conquered territories and continue Muslim expansion , as well as a means of placing the local manpower in Arab service and depleting it at the same time , reducing the risk of anti @-@ Arab revolts . Gibb also suggests that the creation of an indigenous force may have been an attempt by Qutayba to establish a power base of his own . From ca . 712 , Qutayba also appears to have recruited a special corps , known as the " Archers " , from among the Khurasani , Tokharian and Sogdian nobility . Their skill was such that they were known as rumāt al @-@ buduq ( " archers who pierce the pupils of the eyes " ) , and they apparently served as a bodyguard . Among the local Khurasani converts , Hayyan an @-@ Nabati emerged as the foremost leader , and appears frequently in Tabari 's account both as the main military leader of the Khurasani conscripts and as chief negotiator with the Sogdians .
Later in 711 , al @-@ Hajjaj ordered Qutayba to march against the Hephthalite kingdom of Zabulistan , whose ruler , titled Zunbil , had long remained an indomitable thorn in the Arabs ' side and menaced their province of Sistan . Repeated expeditions against him had failed , and a truce had been agreed in exchange for tribute . In addition , the existence of a free Zabulite kingdom was a threat to the security of Muslim control over the Hephthalite principalities of Tokharistan , who might be encouraged to seek support from it . Thus Qutayba led a large army south , but the Zunbil readily offered his submission and the payment of tribute . Satisfied with this easy success , and unwilling to hazard a campaign in the mountains of Zabulistan , Qutayba departed . No garrisons were installed , and as soon as the Arab army had departed , the Zunbil ceased the payment of tribute . Qutayba 's victories , parallel with the conquests of Muhammad ibn Qasim in northwestern India , awoke such enthusiasm and hopes among the Muslims that al @-@ Hajjaj is reputed to have offered the governorship of China to whomever of the two first reached it .
= = = Conquest of Khwarizm and the expeditions in the Jaxartes valley = = =
Taking advantage of Qutayba 's absence in the south , the inhabitants of Samarkand overthrew their ruler Tarkhun due to his passive stance towards the Arabs , and installed the prince Ghurak in his stead . As Qutayba prepared to march against Samarkand during the winter of 711 / 712 , he received envoys from the king of Khwarizm ( the Khwarizmshah ) . Khwarizm had been previously subdued in the mid @-@ 690s by Umayya ibn Abdallah , but as soon as his forces departed , the Khwarizmshah had renounced the treaty , and subsequent efforts by Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab against Khwarizm had failed . The Khwarizmshah , whose name is given as Jigan or Chigan by Bal 'ami , faced a rebellion by his younger brother Khurrazadh and a powerful rival , the king of Khamjird , and asked Qutayba for help , offering recognition of the Caliphate 's suzerainty , money , livestock and the payment of tribute in exchange . Qutayba , after announcing that he would head for Sogdia , advanced with his troops in a lightning campaign to the Khwarizmian capital Hazarasp . His brother Abd al @-@ Rahman defeated and killed Khamjird 's troops in battle and took 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , who were then executed . Khurrazadh and his followers were also captured and executed . The Khwarizmians however rebelled shortly after Qutayba 's departure and killed the Khwarizmshah . Qutayba replaced the governor , Iyas ibn Abdallah ibn Amr , with his own brother Abdallah ibn Muslim , but the revolt persisted until , after the capture of Samarkand , a strong force under al @-@ Mughir ibn Abdallah could be sent to subdue the region . The local Afrighid dynasty was left in place , with Askajamuk II , the son of Azkajwar II , as the new Khwarizmshah , but the conquest of Khwarizm was accompanied by great brutality : the 11th @-@ century Khwarizmian scholar al @-@ Biruni compares the events with a barbarian sack , as the Arabs proceeded to massacre most of the upper classes who had fomented the revolt , and destroyed a great many objects of Khwarizmian culture , including manuscripts .
After leaving Khwarizm , Qutayba initially turned towards Merv , for his army had grown weary and demanded an end to the campaign . During the march , however , Qutayba suddenly turned the army around towards Samarkand . The Sogdians had disbanded most of their forces , and the Arabs , reinforced with levies from Bukhara and Khwarizm , were able to brush aside the local resistance and advance straight to the city itself and lay siege to it . Ghurak and the inhabitants of the city resisted the Arabs with determination , and called upon the rulers of Shash and the Ferghana Valley for aid . The ruler of Shash indeed sent a strong army to aid them , but it was ambushed and destroyed by the Arabs . The news of this arrived at the time where the Arab siege weapons had effected a breach in the city walls , forcing Ghurak to sue for peace . Qutayba initially granted surprisingly lenient terms : the payment of an annual tribute and the provision of an auxiliary corps as with Bukhara and Khwarizm , as well as the construction of a mosque inside the city and the celebration of prayers there by the Arab army . Once inside the city however , Qutayba proceeded to occupy and garrison it . One of his brothers ( accounts differ between Abd al @-@ Rahman and Abdallah ) was left as governor , and orders were given prohibiting any non @-@ Muslim access to the city citadel . Ghurak and his retinue left the city and founded a new town , Farankath , further to the north . This treachery enabled Qutayba to bring most of Transoxiana under his ( albeit tentative ) control , but it also considerably tarnished his prestige among the Sogdians .
Arab sources indicate that at about his time , the Sogdian princes called upon the Western Turks or the Turgesh for help against the Arabs , although the chronology and veracity of these accounts is open to question . At any rate , over the next two years Qutayba engaged in an effort to push the Caliphate 's borders further and gain control of the Jaxartes valley . A large force , supported by some 20 @,@ 000 Transoxianian levies , marched into the valley in early 713 . The native levies were dispatched against Shash , which was reportedly taken , while Qutayba with the Arabs marched in the direction of Khujand and Ferghana . Little is known of these expeditions , although successful battles are recorded before Khujand and at Minak in Ushrusana , and the dispatch of an Arab embassy to the Chinese court is verified by Chinese sources . Al @-@ Tabari reports that Qutayba marched into Chinese @-@ held territory up to Kashgar , but this claim is dismissed by modern scholars . In 714 , Qutayba renewed his expeditions along the Jaxartes , probably with Shash as his base , but his campaign was cut short upon receiving the news of the death of al @-@ Hajjaj . Unsure of his position now that his patron was gone , he disbanded the army and returned to Merv .
= = = Rebellion and death = = =
Caliph Walid quickly re @-@ confirmed Qutayba as governor , and even made his province independent from the governor of Iraq , but Qutayba 's position was not secure : the Arab army was tired of constant campaigning and was still riven by factional rivalries , while Qutayba himself had alienated the most powerful Arab tribal groups . He was generally popular among the native Iranians , but the leader of the native auxiliaries , Hayyan an @-@ Nabati , had secretly turned against him . Qutayba was completely unaware of the situation however , and began preparations for the campaign of 715 , during which he intended to finally capture the Ferghana Valley and complete the subjugation of the Jaxartes valley . His only concern was that his old rival , Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab , might be restored to the Caliph 's favour after al @-@ Hajjaj 's death , and he took few precautions except for removing his family and belongings from Merv to Shash and placing a guard on the Oxus .
His campaign against Ferghana was under way when news reached the army of Caliph Walid 's death and the accession of his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al @-@ Malik to the throne . The new Caliph was a bitter enemy of Qutayba , for the latter had argued in favour of excluding him from the succession . Although Sulayman re @-@ confirmed him in his position as governor , Qutayba feared that he would soon be removed . At the last , after negotiations with the new regime in Damascus failed , Qutayba resolved to rebel . The Khurasani Arabs refused to support him , and the native auxiliaries , although favourably disposed towards him , were prevented from declaring their support by Hayyan al @-@ Nabati . Only his family , his fellow Bahili tribesmen and his bodyguard , the Archers , remained faithful . The opposition , led by the Tamim tribe , coalesced around their leader Waki ibn Abi Sud al @-@ Tamimi . In August 715 ( according to al @-@ Tabari ) or early 716 ( according to Ibn Qutaybah ) , Qutayba and other members of his family were killed at Ferghana by Arab soldiers . Waki ibn Abi Sud succeeded him as governor , and ordered the army to return to Merv , where it was disbanded .
After Qutayba 's death , the Arab position in Transoxiana swiftly crumbled . His successors did not command his prestige among the local population and were unable to maintain his conquests in the face of local revolts and invasion by the Turgesh khaganate , and most of Transoxiana was abandoned or became hotly contested territory in the years after his death . During this period , the Arabs suffered the grave defeats of the " Day of Thirst " and the Battle of the Pass and were weakened by internal conflicts as well . Only after 738 , under Nasr ibn Sayyar , were the Umayyads able to restore the Caliphate 's control over most of Transoxiana , and only with the decisive victory of the new Abbasid Caliphate against the Chinese armies at the Battle of Talas in 751 did the local princes accept Muslim control as final . In the south too , the Zunbil of Zanbulistan ceased his payment of tribute to the Caliphate and remained resolutely independent for decades after .
Qutayba 's role in the conquest and gradual Islamization of Central Asia was crucial , and in later times , a number of locations in Ferghana where his tomb was supposedly located ( Narshakl and Jamal Qarsh ) were venerated by pilgrims . His descendants too continued to hold influential positions : his son Qatan served as governor of Bukhara , Salm , another son , governed Basra and Rayy , and his nephew Muslim was governor of Balkh . His grandsons , especially the numerous sons of Salm , continued in high office under the Abbasids until well into the 9th century .
= Bahrain Thirteen =
The Bahrain Thirteen are thirteen Bahraini opposition leaders , rights activists , bloggers and Shia clerics arrested between 17 March and 9 April 2011 in connection with their role in the national uprising . In June 2011 , they were tried by a special military court , the National Safety Court , and convicted of " setting up terror groups to topple the royal regime and change the constitution " ; they received sentences ranging from two years to life in prison . A military appeal court upheld the sentences in September . The trial was " one of the most prominent " before the National Safety Court . A retrial in a civilian court was held in April 2012 but the accused were not released from prison . The sentences were upheld again on 4 September 2012 . On 7 January 2013 , the defendants lost their last chance of appeal when the Court of Cassation , Bahrain 's top court upheld the sentences .
The thirteen are Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja , Abdulhadi al @-@ Mukhodher , Abduljalil al @-@ Miqdad , Abduljalil al @-@ Singace , Abdulla al @-@ Mahroos , Abdulwahab Hussain , Hasan Mushaima , Ibrahim Sharif , Mohamed Habib al @-@ Miqdad , Mohamed Hasan Jawad , Mohamed Ismail , Sa ’ eed al @-@ Nuri and Salah al @-@ Khawaja . They were originally twenty @-@ one , but seven were tried in absentia and one was released in April 2012 . The thirteen became popular heroes in Bahrain , and analysts speculated that the government was concerned that their release might re @-@ energize the protest movement and frustrate government supporters who oppose any royal pardons .
The trial , conviction and sentencing of the Bahrain Thirteen drew expressions of concern from European Union , Denmark , France , Ireland , United Kingdom and United States , and international organizations including the United Nations , Amnesty International , Human Rights Watch , Reporters Without Borders , Committee to Protect Journalists and Human Rights First . The government of Bahrain maintained that trials were fair . The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry ( BICI ) , an independent inquiry commissioned by the King of Bahrain , concluded in November 2011 that there had been a discernible pattern of mistreatment to the defendants while in prison .
= = Background = =
In February 2011 the Bahraini authorities sought to repress pro @-@ democracy protests around the Pearl Roundabout , a traffic circle near the financial district in Bahrain 's capital Manama ( part of the wider Arab Spring movement ) . On 17 February , in an attack by police that subsequently became known as Bloody Thursday ; four protesters died and more than 300 were injured . Protests involving up to one fifth of the population continued over the next month until the government called in Gulf Cooperation Council troops and police and declared a three @-@ month state of emergency . Despite the brutal crack @-@ down that followed , smaller @-@ scale protests and clashes continued , mostly outside Manama 's business districts . By April 2012 , more than 80 people had died during the uprising . As of December 2012 , protests are ongoing .
= = = Naming = = =
Amnesty International coined the name " Bahrain 13 " to refer to the men , which was later adopted by some media sources . Their case is known locally as the Case of Icons ( Arabic : قضية الرموز ) and the Group of 21 ( Arabic : مجموعة الـ21 ) . They were originally twenty @-@ one , but seven were tried in absentia and one was released in April 2012 . The seven tried in absentia were either hiding or outside the country .
= = Role in the Bahraini uprising = =
The Bahrain Thirteen played an important role in mobilizing the public opinion against the government , organizing protests and shaping political demands . Some of the group were already in detention when the uprising began , having been arrested in the Manama incident the previous August , and were released on 22 February 2011 . Abdulwahab Hussain and Hassan Mushaima , leaders of opposition parties Al Wafa ' and Haq Movement respectively , were among the leaders of the 1990s uprising in Bahrain .
Mushaima was a leading member in Al Wefaq opposition group until resigning in 2005 due to their decision to run in 2006 parliamentary election . He then founded the Haq Movement . In 2010 , the London @-@ based activist was sentenced in absentia over an alleged plot to overthrow the government , however the charges were dropped in February 2011 as a part of government concessions to the opposition . This allowed Mushaima to return to Bahrain on 26 February and join the protest movement . Abduljalil al @-@ Singace , a blogger and once the chair of University of Bahrain Engineering Department followed Mushaima 's path ; he resigned from his position in Al Wefaq as public relations chief and joined Haq in 2005 as the head of human rights department . He was among the arrested in August 2010 and joined the uprising when he was released on 22 February . The Haq Movement supported protest plans .
Abdulwahab Hussain was also a member of Al Wefaq who resigned in 2005 . Unlike Mushaima and al @-@ Singace , Hussain left politics in 2005 . He returned in 2009 when he co @-@ founded Al Wafa ' opposition group and became its official spokesperson . He played a bigger role in the uprising ; he was not arrested when the uprising began nor was he outside the country . Hussain led the first demonstration in the uprising in the early hours of 14 February . He is also credited with suggesting autonomous action and total decentralization of the protest movement which was adopted by February 14 Youth Coalition , the group behind the call for an uprising in order to avoid getting infiltrated by government .
Abduljalil al @-@ Miqdad is a prominent Shia and political activist , and a co @-@ founder of Al Wafa ' . He resigned from the Bahrain Ulama Council in 2005 . The relationship between al @-@ Miqdad and Al Wafa ' is comparable to that of Isa Qassim and Al Wefaq ; its unofficial spiritual leader . Sa 'eed al @-@ Nori is a religious , political activist and vocal critic of the government , and member of Al Wafa ' . He was among the arrested in August 2010 . Mohamed Ismail is a political activist with close relations to Abdulwahab Hussain .
In March 2011 , Haq , Al Wafa ' and Bahrain Freedom Movement formed a " Coalition for a [ Bahraini ] Republic " , calling for the downfall of the current regime by escalation of peaceful protests and the establishment of a democratic republic . While they accepted a western @-@ style constitutional monarchy in principle , saying it was " not very different from a republic " , they doubted the regime would voluntarily implement such a radical change and argued that toppling it was unavoidable . The newly found coalition supported a controversial , yet peaceful protest heading to the Royal Court in Riffa . The rally ended in chaos after it was dispersed by security forces and " pro @-@ government Sunni vigilantes " .
Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja , described by the Index on Censorship as one of the best @-@ known human rights activists in the world , is the co @-@ founder of the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights and a vocal critic of the government . Al @-@ Khawaja was arrested in 2004 and 2007 , and reportedly beaten in 2005 over his opposition activities . He holds Danish and Bahraini dual citizenship . His role in the uprising was much less ; his activities were limited to " organising peaceful awareness @-@ raising and human rights education " . He said he had intentionally kept himself away from the Pearl Roundabout in order to avoid " giv [ ing ] the authorities any reason to arrest " him . Salah al @-@ Khawaja is a former member of Islamic Action Society ( Amal ) and brother of Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja . During the uprising , he sought to document events and contact international media .
Ibrahim Sharif is an opposition leader and president of the secular , leftist , cross @-@ sectarian National Democratic Action Society ( Wa 'ad ) . Wa 'ad is allied with Al Wefaq opposition group . They organized many protests calling for an elected government and a constitutional monarchy . Sharif is the only Sunni member of Bahrain Thirteen , the rest being Shia . His Sunni identity undermines the attempts of government of Bahrain to visualize the protest movement as a sectarian and pro @-@ Iranian plot , and shows that it has support from parts of the Sunni community . Ten days before the uprising , Sharif demanded " local reform " in a rally in solidarity with the 2011 Egyptian Revolution , however Wa 'ad only announced a day before the protests that it supported " the principle of the right of the youth to demonstrate peacefully " .
Mohamed Habib al @-@ Miqdad -cousin of Abduljalil al @-@ Miqdad- is a prominent religious and political leader , president of al @-@ Zahraa Society for Orphans and holds Bahraini and Swedish dual citizenship . Al @-@ Miqdad is also a vocal critic of the government . Abdulla al @-@ Mahroos is a religious and political activist , vice president of al @-@ Zahraa Society for Orphans and a vocal critic of the government . Abdulhadi al @-@ Mukhodher is a Shia cleric . Mohamed Hasan Jawad is a rights activist . He is also an uncle of Nabeel Rajab , a Bahraini opposition leader , and a father of Hussain Jawad , a prominent human rights defender , arrested in February 2015 . All of the four ( Mohamed Habib al @-@ Miqdad , Abdulla al @-@ Mahroos , Abdulhadi al @-@ Mukhodher and Mohamed Hasan Jawad ) were among the arrested in August 2010 .
= = Arrests = =
The arrests of the Bahrain Thirteen took place between 17 March 2011 and 9 April , due to their role in the uprising . The first to be arrested were Abdulhadi al @-@ Mukhodher , Abduljalil al @-@ Singace , Abdulwahab Hussain , Ibrahim Sharif , Hassan Mushaima and Saeed al @-@ Nuri , and the last was Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja . Most were arrested by security forces during the night . According to the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights , no warrants were shown and many of the detainees were beaten during their arrest . They were held in al @-@ Qurain military prison and on 28 November they were transferred to Jaw prison .
= = Torture = =
Following their arrest the activists were kept in solitary confinement for weeks during which they were allegedly subjected to torture by Bahrain National Security Agency ( NSA ) officers seeking to secure confessions and for punishment . This reportedly included sexual assaults .
In April , a patient in the Military Hospital saw Ibrahim Sharif with his face swollen , raising concerns that he may have been tortured . According to Amnesty International , Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja suffered fractures of the jaw and head and bruising of the arms during his first month in detention , allegedly as a result of torture . After a six @-@ day hospitalization during which he underwent several operations , torture was reportedly resumed . According to Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) signs of mistreatment were visible on al @-@ Khawaja 's face during the first trial session in May and Hassan Mushaima and Abdulwahab Hussain were seen to have noticeable limps . Bahrain Centre for Human Rights published detailed allegations of the torture allegedly inflicted on the Bahrain Thirteen .
On 8 May 2011 , the authorities declared that none of the Bahrain Thirteen had been subjected to torture , stating that information from the Military Hospital and the Salmaniya Medical Complex showed that neither hospital had admitted or treated any of the detainees . Rumours of admissions and hospitalization were said to have been fabricated and politically motivated .
The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry , established by the King of Bahrain in June 2011 , which found that hundreds of detainees had been subjected to torture and other forms of physical and psychological abuse , observed a discernible pattern of mistreatment with regard to 14 political leaders including the Bahrain Thirteen . According to the Commission 's report , torture at al @-@ Qurain prison , where the Bahrain Thirteen were held , stopped after 10 June .
= = Trial , conviction , and retrial = =
= = = Military courts = = =
The Bahrain Thirteen were sent for trial initially by the National Safety Court , a special military court set up in March 2011 to try protesters , opposition leaders , rights activists , health workers and other supporters or perceived supporters of the Bahraini uprising . The trial was " one of the most prominent " before the National Safety Court . The first hearing on 8 May 2011 marked the first time the fourteen defendants originally charged had seen their families since their arrest and for some it was the first time they had met with their lawyers . All fourteen denied the charges against them .
The two main charges were of " setting up terror groups to topple the royal regime and change the constitution " and of " collaborating with a foreign state " , an apparent reference to Iran , and other charges included " insulting the army , inciting hatred , disseminating false information and taking part in rallies without notifying the authorities . " Front Line Defenders and Human Rights First observers were denied entry to the trial , but a few Bahraini NGO observers were present . According to Human Rights Watch all of the activities with which the fourteen were charged " related to speech and peaceful assembly " and none were criminal offenses .
On 22 June , seven of the defendants were sentenced to life imprisonment , four to fifteen years in prison , two to five years and one to two years . After they protested loudly when the sentence was read , they were forcibly removed from the court . Amnesty International concluded that an appeal session on 6 September had heard no evidence to support charges . The military appeal court hearing on 28 September took a few minutes before the court upheld all the convictions . In November , the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry asked for a retrial in civilian courts , because they were convicted in military courts .
On 29 January the fourteen began a one @-@ week hunger strike which was joined , according to rights activist Mohamed al @-@ Maskati , by another 150 prisoners . The object of the hunger strike was to demand an end to the political crackdown , protest against their trials and demand the release of prisoners of conscience . Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja subsequently went on a new 110 @-@ day hunger strike . He was transferred to hospital in April as he kept reducing the amount of his glucose intake . On 30 April 2012 , the Court of Cassation reduced Al @-@ Hur Yousef al @-@ Somaikh 's sentence from two years to six months and he was released as he had already served his sentence . The court also announced that the thirteen other defendants would be retried by a ( civilian ) criminal court of appeal , but they were not released from prison , leading to criticism from the United Nations .
= = = Civilian courts = = =
The first hearing before the High Criminal Court of Appeal , due to take place on 8 May , was postponed to 22 May . Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja , on the ninetieth day of his hunger strike , was brought to court in a wheelchair . All the defendants pleaded not guilty . Al @-@ Khawaja and Abdulwahab Hussain told of being subjected to torture during the initial weeks of their detention , the former stating that he had been sexually assaulted and the latter that he had been forced to sign a written statement . On 19 June , defence lawyers asked the court to disregard confessions that the BICI report had suggested were obtained by torture but the public prosecutor insisted on their inclusion in the evidence . According to Bahrain Centre for Human Rights , these confessions were the sole evidence submitted to the court .
During the same session , cleric Mohamed Habib al @-@ Miqdad made a long testimony in which he described alleged torture and renounced his accusation that Nasser Al Khalifa , the son of the king had tortured him in person . The thirteen asked their defense lawyers to stop representing them after the judge decided to continue hearings in secret and subsequently banned media coverage of the case , due to " national security reasons " . New lawyers were appointed by court and the judge declared that the final judgment would be given even if the defendants refused to attend . The Court originally expected to give its final verdict on 14 August was attended by a number of foreign diplomats , but the session was deferred until 4 September with no specific reason given . The verdict was expected to have a significant impact on the course of the uprising and analysts suggested that the government was uncertain how to deal with the defendants who became popular heroes , given that their release was likely to give new impetus to the protest movement .
A few days prior to the expected verdict on 4 September , which was also the expected day of the verdict of 28 health workers and Zainab al @-@ Khawaja , Human Rights First said it could be a " transformative day for human rights " in Bahrain " if the right decisions are made " . On 4 September , the appeal court upheld the sentences on all of the Thirteen ; who did not attend the session . Analysis said the decision was likely to fuel political tensions and street clashes , and highlight the low chances of any reconciliation in near future . Witnesses reported that protesters set tires on fire and clashed with security forces in several Shia villages following the verdict and one protester was severely injured by a stun grenade .
On 7 January , the Cassation Court , Bahrain 's top court upheld the sentences . With the court decision the thirteen defendants ( who did not attend the trial ) had exhausted their last chance to appeal . The only avenue that remains for their release is a royal pardon .
= = Reactions = =
= = = International = = =
= = = = Supranational bodies = = = =
EU – Catherine Ashton , the High Representative of European Union said she was " disappointed and concerned " by the sentences . " I am disappointed and concerned at the decision of the Bahraini Court of Appeal to uphold the harsh sentences against Mr Abdulhadi Khawaja and nineteen other individuals , " she added .
GCC - Abdullatif Al Zayani the secretary @-@ general of Gulf Cooperation Council supported the verdict and affirmed that judiciary of Bahrain was independent . " [ C ] ourt verdicts have to be respected by all , " he added .
UN – Ban Ki @-@ moon , Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , said he was deeply concerned by what he described as " the harsh sentences " and urged the government of Bahrain to allow all defendants to exercise their right to appeal and to act in strict accordance with its international human rights obligations , including the right to due process and a fair trial . Following 4 September verdict , he expressed his concern and asked government of Bahrain to fulfill implementation of BICI report and to engage in a meaningful dialogue that " addresses the legitimate aspirations of all Bahrainis " .
Navi Pillay , the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights ( OHCHR ) , expressed serious concern at the trials , which bore the marks of " political persecution " . She called for an immediate end to trials of civilians in the Court of National Safety and the immediate release of all peaceful demonstrators arrested in connection with the February protest movement . Rupert Colville , spokesperson for OHCHR , also referred to the sentences as " harsh " and expressed deep concern over " serious due process irregularities " . Four United Nations Special Rapporteurs demanded immediate release of Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja .
= = = = States = = = =
Denmark – Villy Søvndal , Denmark 's Foreign Minister said the appeal court sentence was " very disappointing " and that further international action would be taken to secure release of al @-@ Khawaja and " the other human rights and democracy fighters in Bahrain " . Jeppe Kofod , the Foreign policy spokesperson asked the Danish parliament to discuss possible sanctions on Bahrain . Eight parties in the Danish parliament appealed to king of Bahrain to release Abdulhadi al @-@ Khawaja and his daughter , Zainab .
France - A spokesperson for the French Foreign Office said he was especially concerned by the sentence of al @-@ Khawaja and hoped that it will be reviewed on appeal . He affirmed the right of freedom of expression and urged authorities to implement Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry 's recommendations .
Iran - Spokesman of the Foreign Ministry criticized the verdicts saying they would only serve to " complicate the situation even further " . " The only solution to the crisis in Bahrain and to restore calm and stability is to respond to the legitimate demands of the population , " he added .
Ireland - Eamon Gilmore , the deputy prime minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade criticized the sentence of al @-@ Khawaja and expressed his great concerns . " I have strongly and actively supported international efforts urging the Bahraini government to exercise clemency and to allow his release on humanitarian grounds , particularly in light of clear findings documented by the Bahraini International Commission of Inquiry as to how Mr al @-@ Khawaja was seriously ill @-@ treated following his initial detention , " he added .
UK – The United Kingdom Foreign Office Minister Alistair Burt expressed extreme concerned about the process that surrounded the sentencing of 21 opposition members as well as the nature of many of the charges . He found it deeply worrying that civilians were being tried before tribunals chaired by a military judge , with reports of abuse in detention , lack of access to legal counsel and coerced confessions . Following 4 September sentences , the minister said he was " very disappointed " by the verdict .
United States – The United States expressed its concern at the severity of the sentences handed down to the Bahrain Thirteen . Barack Obama said keeping them in jail meant starting a real dialogue was impossible . Although avoiding direct reference to the Thirteen , the US called for the release of " those imprisoned for their political views " . A State Department Deputy Spokesman , referring to President Obama 's observation that such steps were at odds with the universal rights of Bahrain ’ s citizens , noted that the cases would go through an appeals process and urged the Bahraini government to abide by its commitment to transparent judicial proceedings . Amnesty International criticized the US for its " indifference and soft approach " and urged it to demand the detainees ' release instead of engaging in wishful thinking about the appeal process .
= = = = Non @-@ governmental organizations = = = =
A number of rights groups criticized the sentences . Amnesty International designated the Thirteen prisoners of conscience and called for their immediate and unconditional release . It also called for an independent investigation of their allegations of mistreatment and urged that those responsible should be brought to justice , criticizing the Bahraini authorities for what it called a travesty of justice and said sentences were yet another proof that Bahrain was not on the path of reforms . Human Rights Watch demanded the prisoners ' immediate release ; according to HRW 's Middle East and North Africa Deputy Director Joe Stork , the military court ’ s original verdict was " absolutely mind @-@ boggling " , failing to mention a single actual criminal offense beyond acts relating to the defendants ' basic human rights .
Reporters Without Borders was shocked by the lengthy sentences and very worried about the physical condition of al @-@ Singace whose release it demanded , along with that of all the other prisoners of conscience . The Committee to Protect Journalists condemned the sentences and dismissed the charges as political score @-@ settling . The Arabic Network for Human Rights Information condemned the sentences as vindictive . The International Federation for Human Rights and the World Organization Against Torture expressed their " utmost concern " at the sentences and demanded the immediate and unconditional release of the Bahrain Thirteen . Human Rights First criticized what it called a " large political show trial " and declared that the sentences revealed the " travesty " of Bahrain ’ s military courts . Upon reading the appeal sentence , it criticized it and said reform claims were " sham " .
English PEN said it was shocked by the lengthy sentence handed down to al @-@ Singace and demanded his release along with all of those imprisoned for peaceful expression of opinion . Jane Kinninmont of Chatham House said that the government " may be trying to show their strength ahead of a planned dialogue with political societies " and that western pressure is limited due to Saudi support . Front Line Defenders , who 's al @-@ Khawaja was its Middle East Protection Coordinator for three years condemned his sentence and demanded his immediate and unconditional release . Brazilian political cartoonist , Carlos Latuff produced a cartoon labeled " The Lady Justice of Bahrain " depicting king of Bahrain holding a blood stained sword in a hand and dropping Scales of Justice in the trash with the other .
= = = Domestic = = =
The government of Bahrain said that trials were fair and judiciary independent . " The court provided all assurances of a fair trial through a team of 17 defense attorneys selected by the defendants . The trial was attended by many diplomats of various nationalities ... as well as representatives of human rights and other civil society organizations , " Information Affairs Authority said . Responding to the various international reactions , the Human Rights Affairs Ministry rejected " any intervention by any state or organization " . Government supporters praised the sentences asking for no pardons to be given to the thirteen . Mohammed Khalid , a former MP and a hard @-@ line cleric wrote " God is great ! God is great ! " on Twitter .
Many Sunnis ( who compromise a substantial minority ) support the government and see the Thirteen as dangerous revolutionaries that would destabilize the country should they succeed in toppling the monarchy . Government hardliners and Sunni political groups often call for harsh and no compromise approach , including calling for no pardons and death sentences . To their many supporters ( in Bahrain and abroad ) however , the Thirteen are heroes and prisoners of conscience jailed unfairly for nothing more than calling for democracy . Their faces appear daily in banners during protests .
Isa Qassim , Bahrain 's top Shia cleric criticized the trials as unfair . He said the sentences were " like a dam preventing people from participating in dialogue " . The prominent human rights activist al @-@ Khawaja family did not welcome the retrial . Maryam al @-@ Khawaja considered it " sad news not good news " , describing the court as a tool used by the regime against its people . She said she was not shocked by the civil court sentence , as there were " no international consequences and accountability for the Bahrain regime " . Al @-@ Khawaja 's wife found the decision ridiculous and said that the government was " playing for time " . Bahrain Centre for Human Rights maintained that the sentences were based on confessions extracted under torture and the testimony of the alleged torturers . Its head , Nabeel Rajab , criticized the military trial sentence as unfair and falling short of international standards .
Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights expressed its concern at what it called " violations " against the Bahrain Thirteen . The Al Wefaq political party said that the sentences were hindering efforts at dialogue and damaging the country 's international reputation . It rejected the appeal sentence and said they were contradictory to solving the crisis . The Bahraini Press Association described the verdict as " unfair and outrageous " and " marred by abuses and violations of all legal and human rights standards " . Human rights lawyer Mohamed al @-@ Tajer said the appeal verdict was " shocking " and that " [ t ] he judge dismissed the appeal " . In an op @-@ ed in Al Wasat , Kassim Hussain argued that the most remembered words about the case of Bahrain Thirteen would be Ibrahim Sharif 's words : " These [ political ] trials are trials of ideas " .
= Dunstanburgh Castle =
Dunstanburgh Castle is a 14th @-@ century fortification on the coast of Northumberland in northern England , located between the villages of Craster and Embleton . The castle was built by Earl Thomas of Lancaster between 1313 and 1322 , taking advantage of the site 's natural defences and the existing earthworks of a former Iron Age fort . Thomas was a leader of a baronial faction opposed to King Edward II , and probably intended Dunstanburgh to act as a secure refuge , should the political situation in southern England deteriorate . The castle also served as a statement of the earl 's wealth and influence , and would have invited comparisons with the neighbouring royal castle of Bamburgh . Thomas probably only visited his new castle once , before being captured at Battle of Boroughbridge as he attempted to flee royal forces for the safety of Dunstanburgh . Thomas was executed , and the castle became the property of the Crown , before passing into the Duchy of Lancaster .
Dunstanburgh 's defences were expanded in the 1380s by John of Gaunt , the Duke of Lancaster , in the light of the threat from Scotland and the peasant uprisings of 1381 . The castle was maintained in the 15th century by the Crown , and formed a strategic northern stronghold in the region during the Wars of the Roses , exchanging hands between the rival Lancastrian and Yorkist factions several times . The fortress never recovered from the sieges of these campaigns , and by the 16th century the Warden of the Scottish Marches described it as having fallen into " wonderfull great decaye " . As the Scottish border became more stable , the military utility of the castle steadily diminished , and King James I finally sold the property off into private ownership in 1604 . The Grey family owned it for several centuries ; increasingly ruinous , it became a popular subject for artists , including Thomas Girtin and J. M. W. Turner , and formed the basis for a poem by Matthew Lewis in 1808 .
By the 1920s , the castle 's then owner , Sir Arthur Sutherland , could no longer afford to maintain the property , and he placed it into the guardianship of the state in 1930 . When the Second World War broke out in 1939 , measures were taken to defend the Northumberland coastline from a potential German invasion . The castle was used as an observation post and the site was refortified with trenches , barbed wire , pill boxes and a mine field . The Dunstanburgh Castle golf course was built around the property in 1900 , and expanded by Sutherland in 1922 . In the 21st century the castle is owned by the National Trust and run by English Heritage . The ruins are protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building , and are part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest , forming an important natural environment for birds and amphibians .
Dunstanburgh Castle was built in the center of a designed medieval landscape , surrounded by three artificial lakes called meres covering a total of 4 @.@ 25 hectares ( 10 @.@ 5 acres ) . The curtain walls enclose 9 @.@ 96 acres ( 4 @.@ 03 ha ) , making it the largest castle in Northumberland . The most prominent part of the castle is the Great Gatehouse , a massive three @-@ storey fortification , considered by historians Alastair Oswald and Jeremy Ashbee to be " one of the most imposing structures in any English castle " . Multiple rectangular towers protect the walls , including the Lilburn Tower , which looks out towards Bamburgh Castle , and the Egyncleugh Tower , positioned above Queen Margaret 's Cove . Three internal complexes of buildings , now ruined , supported the earl 's household , the castle constable 's household and the running of the surrounding estates . A harbour was built to the south @-@ east of the castle , of which only a stone quay survives .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory - 13th century = = =
The site of Dunstanburgh Castle in north @-@ east Northumberland was probably first occupied in prehistoric times . A promontory fort with earthwork defences was built on the same location at the end of the Iron Age , possibly being occupied from the 3rd century BC into the Roman period . By the 14th century , however , the defences had been long abandoned , and the land was being used for arable crops . Dunstanburgh formed part of the barony of Embleton , a village that lay inland to the west , traditionally owned by the earls of Lancaster .
The origins and the earliest appearance of the name " Dunstanburgh " are uncertain . Versions of the name , " Dunstanesburghe " and " Donstanburgh " were in use by the time of the castle 's construction , however , and Dunstanburgh may stem from a combination of the name of the local village of Dunstan , and the Old English word " burh " , meaning fortress .
= = = Early 14th century = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
Dunstanburgh Castle was constructed by Thomas , the Earl of Lancaster , between 1313 and 1322 . Thomas was an immensely powerful English baron , the second richest man in England after the King , with major land holdings across the kingdom . He had a turbulent relationship with his cousin , King Edward II , and had been a ringleader in the capture and killing of Edward 's royal favourite , Piers Gaveston in 1312 .
It is uncertain exactly why Thomas decided to build Dunstanburgh . Although it was located on a strong defensive site , it was some distance from the local settlements and other strategic sites of value . Thomas held some lands in Northumberland , but they were insignificant in comparison to his other estates in the Midlands and Yorkshire , and up until 1313 he had paid them little attention .
In the years following Gaveston 's death , however , civil conflict in England rarely seemed far away , and it is currently believed that Thomas probably intended to create a secure retreat , a safe distance away from Edward 's forces in the south . He also probably hoped to erect a prominent status symbol , illustrating his wealth and authority , and challenging that of the King 's . He may perhaps also have hoped to create a planned town alongside the castle , possibly intending to relocate the population of Embleton there .
Building work on the castle had commenced by May 1313 , with labourers beginning the process of excavating the moat and starting to construct the castle buildings . Some of the outer wall may have been built by workers from Embleton as part of their feudal dues to Thomas . The operations were overseen by a mason , Master Elias , possibly Elias de Burton , who had been previously involved in the construction of Conwy Castle in North Wales . Iron , Newcastle coal and Scandinavian wood was brought in for use in the project . By the end of the year £ 184 had been spent , and work continued for several years . A licence to crenellate - a form of royal authorisation for a new castle - was issued by Edward II in 1316 , and a castle constable was appointed in 1319 , charged with defending both the castle and the surrounding manors of Embleton and Stamford . By 1322 the castle was probably complete .
The resulting castle was huge , protected on one side by the sea cliffs , with a stone curtain wall , a massive gatehouse and six towers around the outside . A harbour was built on the south side of the fortress , enabling access from the sea . Northumbria was a lawless region in this period , suffering from the activities of thieves and schavaldours , a type of border brigand , many of whom were members of Edward II 's household , and the harbour may have represented a safer way to reach the castle than land routes .
= = = = Loss = = = =
Thomas of Lancaster made little use of his new castle ; the only time he might have visited it was in 1319 , when he was on his way north to join Edward 's military campaign against Scotland . Civil war then broke out in 1321 between Edward and his enemies among the barons . After the initial royalist successes , Thomas fled the south of England for Dunstanburgh in 1322 , but was intercepted on route by Sir Andrew Harclay , resulting in the Battle of Boroughbridge , in which Thomas was captured and then later executed .
The castle passed into royal control , and Edward considered it a useful fortress for protection against the threat from Scotland . Initially it was managed by Robert de Emeldon , a merchant from Newcastle , and protected by a garrison of 40 men at arms and 40 light horsemen . Roger Maduit , a politically rehabilitated former member of Thomas 's army , was appointed as constable , followed by Sir John de Lilburn , a Northumberland schavaldour in 1323 , who was in turn replaced by Roger Heron .
Maduit and the castle 's garrison took part in the Battle of Old Byland in 1322 , and the garrison was subsequently increased to 130 men , predominantly light horsemen , and formed a key part of the northern defences against the Scots . By 1326 , the castle was given back to Thomas 's brother , Henry of Lancaster , with Lilburn returning as its constable , and continued to be of use in defence against the Scottish invasions over the next few decades .
= = = Late 14th century = = =
Dunstanburgh Castle was acquired by John of Gaunt through his marriage to Henry of Lancaster 's granddaughter , Blanche , in 1362 . Gaunt was the younger brother of King Edward III and , as the Duke of Lancaster , was one of the wealthiest men of his generation . He became the Lieutenant of the Scottish Marches and visited his castle in 1380 .
Dunstanburgh Castle was not a primary strategic target for Scottish attack , as it was positioned away from the main routes through the region , but it was kept well garrisoned during the Scottish wars . The surrounding manor of Embleton had nonetheless suffered from Scottish raids and Gaunt had concerns over the condition of the castle 's defences , ordering the building of additional fortifications around the gatehouse . Part of the surrounding lands around the castle may have been brought into agricultural production at this time , either to feed a growing garrison , or to protect the crops against Scottish attacks .
In 1381 the Peasants ' Revolt broke out in England , during which Gaunt was targeted by the rebels as an especially hated member of the administration . He found himself stranded in the north of England in the early part of the revolt but considered Dunstanburgh insufficiently secure to function as a safe haven , and was forced to turn to Alnwick Castle instead , which refused to let him in , fearing that his presence would invite a rebel attack .
The experience encouraged Gaunt to further expand Dunstanburgh 's defences over the next two years . A wide range of work was carried out under the direction of the constable , Thomas of Ilderton , and the mason Henry of Holme , including blocking up the entrance in the gatehouse to turn it into a keep . In 1384 a Scottish army attacked the castle but they lacked siege equipment and were unable to take the defences . Gaunt lost interest in the property after he gave up his role as the Lieutenant of the Marches . Dunstanburgh Castle remained part of the Duchy of Lancaster , but the Duchy was annexed to the Crown when Gaunt 's son , Henry IV , took the throne of England in 1399 .
= = = 15th - 16th centuries = = =
The Scottish threat persisted , and in 1402 Dunstanburgh Castle 's constable , probably accompanied by its garrison , took part in the Battle of Humbleton Hill . Henry VI inherited the throne in 1422 and during the next few decades , numerous repairs were undertaken to the property 's buildings and outer defences , which had fallen into disrepair . The Wars of the Roses , a dynastic conflict between the rival houses of Lancaster and York , broke out in the middle of the 15th century . The castle was initially held by the Lancastrians , and the castle 's constable , Sir Ralph Babthorpe , died at the Battle of St Albans in 1455 , fighting for the Lancastrian Henry VI .
The castle formed part of a sequence of fortifications protecting the eastern route into Scotland , and in 1461 King Edward IV attempted to break the Lancastrian stranglehold on the region . Sir Ralph Percy , one of the joint constables , defended the castle until September 1461 , when he surrendered it to the Yorkists . In 1462 , Henry VI 's wife , Margaret of Anjou , invaded England with a French army , landing at Bamburgh ; Percy then switched sides and declared himself for the Lancastrians .
Another Yorkist army was dispatched north in November under the joint command of the earls of Warwick and Worcester , and Sir Ralph Grey . They besieged the castle , which surrendered that Christmas . Percy was left in charge of Dunstanburgh as part of Edward IV 's attempts at reconciliation , but the next year he once again switched sides , returning the castle to the Lancastrians . Percy died at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor in 1464 , and the Earl of Warwick reoccupied the castle that June following a short siege .
The castle was probably damaged during the wars , but , other than minor repairs in 1470 , nothing was spent on repairs and it fell into disrepair . It was used as a base for piracy in 1470 , and by the 1520s its roof was robbed for lead for use at the castle at Wark @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , and further lead and timber were taken for the moot hall in Embleton . By 1538 it was described in a royal report to Henry VIII as " a very ruinous house and of small strength " , and it was observed that only the gatehouse was still habitable . Some repairs were carried out to the walls by Sir William Ellerker , the King 's receiver , but a 1543 survey showed it to still be in poor condition .
In 1550 the Warden of the Middle and Eastern Marches , Sir Robert Bowes , described Dunstanburgh as being " in wonderfull great decaye " . A report in 1584 suggested that it would cost Queen Elizabeth I £ 1 @,@ 000 to restore the castle , but argued that it was too far from the Scottish border to be worth repairing . Alice Craster , a wealthy widow , occupied the castle from 1594 to 1597 , probably living in the gatehouse , where she carried out restoration work , and farming the surrounding estate . For much of the 16th century , local farmers bought the right to use the outer bailey of the castle to store their cattle in the event of Scottish raids , at the price of six pence a year .
= = = 17th - 19th centuries = = =
In 1603 , the unification of the Scottish and English crowns eliminated the need for any residual need for Dunstanburgh Castle as a royal fortress . The following year , King James I sold the castle to Sir Thomas Windebank , Thomas Billott and William Blake , who in turn sold it onto Sir Ralph Grey , a nearby landowner , the following year . Ralph 's son , William Lord Grey , was affirmed as the owner of the castle in 1625 .
The Grey dynasty maintained their ownership of the castle , which passed into Lady Mary Grey 's side of the family following a law case in 1704 . The lands around the castle and the outer bailey were used for growing wheat , barley and oats , and the walls were robbed of their stone for other building work . A small settlement , called Novia Scotia , was built on the site of the castle 's harbour , possibly by Scottish immigrants . Several engravings were published of the castle in the 18th century , including a somewhat inaccurate depiction by Samuel and Nathaniel Buck in 1720 , and by Francis Grose and William Hutchinson in 1773 and 1776 respectively .
Mary 's descendants , the earls of Tankerville , owned the property until the heavily endebted Charles Bennet , the 6th earl , sold it for £ 155 @,@ 000 in 1869 to the trustees of the estate of the late Samuel Eyres . There had been some attempts at restoration in the early 19th century , and the passageway through the gatehouse was modified and reopened in 1885 . The historian Cadwallader Bates undertook fieldwork at the castle in the 1880s , publishing a comprehensive work in 1891 , and a professional architectural plan of the ruins was produced in 1893 . Nonetheless , a representative of the estate expressed his concern to the Society of Antiquities in Newcastle upon Tyne about the condition of the castle in 1898 , noting the poor repair of much of the stonework and the importance of the ongoing preservation work that the estate was undertaking .
Dunstanburgh 's ruins became a popular topic for artists from the end of the 18th century onwards . Thomas Girtin toured the region , and painted the castle , his picture dominated by what art historian Souren Melikian describes as " the forces of nature unleashed " , with " wild waves " and dark clouds swirling around the ruins . J. M. W. Turner was influenced by Girtin , and when he first painted the castle in 1797 he similarly focused on the wind and the waves around the ancient ruins , taking some artistic licence with the view of the castle to reinforce its sense of isolated and former grandeur . Turner drew on his visit to produce further works in oils , watercolours , etchings and sketches , through until the 1830s , making the castle one of the most common subjects in his corpus of work .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
A golf course was constructed alongside the castle in 1900 , and the estate was later sold to Sir Arthur Sutherland , a wealthy shipowner , in 1919 . Sutherland opened an additional course at the castle in 1922 , designed by the Scottish golfer , James Braid . The costs of maintaining the property became too much for him and , after undertaking eight years of clearance work in the 1920s , he placed the castle into the guardianship of the state in 1930 , with the Commissioners of Works taking control of the property . Archaeological investigations were carried out as part of the clearance work by H. Honeyman in 1929 , exposing more of the main gatehouse , and further work was carried out under Robert Bosanquet in the 1930s . Aerial photography was carried out by Walter de Aitchison for the Ordnance Survey .
Shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War , concerns grew in the British government about the threat of German invasion along the east coast of England . The bays just to the north of Dunstanburgh Castle were vulnerable targets for an enemy amphibious landing , and efforts were made to fortify the castle and the surrounding area in 1940 , as part of a wider line of defences erected by Sir Edmund Ironside .
The castle itself was occupied by a unit of the Royal Armoured Corps , who served as observers ; the soldiers appear to have relied on the stone walls for protection rather than trenches , and , unusually , no additional firing points were cut out of the stonework , as typically happened elsewhere . The surrounding beaches were defended with lines of barbed wire , slit trenches and square weapons pits , reinforced by concrete pillboxes to the north and south of the castle , at least partially laid down by the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment .
A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) wide ditch was dug at the north end of the moat to prevent tanks from breaking through and following the track south past the castle , and a 545 @-@ foot by 151 @-@ foot ( 166 m by 46 m ) wide anti @-@ personnel minefield was laid to the south @-@ west to prevent infantry soldiers from circumventing the castle 's defences and advancing down into Craster . After the end of the war , the barbed wire was cleared away from the beaches by local Italian prisoners of war , although the two pillboxes , the remnants of the anti @-@ tank ditch and some of the trenches and weapons pits still remain .
In 1961 , Arthur 's son , Sir Ivan Sutherland , passed the estate to the National Trust . Archaeological surveys were carried out in 1985 , 1986 and 1989 by Durham University , and between 2003 and 2006 researchers from English Heritage carried a major archaeological investigation of 35 hectares ( 86 acres ) of land around the castle .
In the 21st century , the castle remains owned by the National Trust and is managed by English Heritage . The site is a Scheduled Ancient Monument and the ruins are protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building . It lies within the Northumberland Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , and is part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest , with parts of the site comprising a Special Protection Area for the conservation of wild birds . The National Trust has encouraged the land around the outside of the castle to remain waterlogged to enable the conservation of amphibians and bird species , and the inside of the castle is protected from grazing animals to encourage nesting birds .
= = Architecture and landscape = =
= = = Landscape = = =
Dunstanburgh Castle occupies a 68 @-@ acre ( 27 @.@ 5 ha ) site within a larger 610 @-@ acre ( 246 ha ) body of National Trust land along the coast . The castle is situated on a prominent headland , part of the Great Whin Sill geological formation . On the south side of the castle there is a gentle slope across low @-@ lying , boggy ground , but along the northern side , the Gull Crag cliffs form a natural barrier up to 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high . The cliffs are punctuated by various defiles , formed from weaknesses in the black basalt rock , including the famous Rumble Churn .
The landscape around the castle was carefully designed in the 14th century as a deer park or planned borough , and would have looked similar to those at the contemporary castles of Framlingham , Kenilworth , Leeds and Whittington ; in particular , Kenilworth may have been a specific model for Dunstanburgh . The area around the castle was dominated by three shallow artificial lakes , called meres , and accessed by three gates on the north , west and south sides . The meres were fed from a fresh water spring 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 600 m ) inland , linked to the meres by an underground stone channel . The meres were originally bounded by a sod @-@ cast boundary bank and ditch ; today this is heavily eroded , and up to 3 @-@ foot 3 inches ( 1 m ) high . The main route by land into the castle would have been from the village of Embleton , through the West Gate .
The North Mere is 5 @.@ 6 @-@ acres ( 2 @.@ 25 ha ) large , and is blocked off on its northern end by a sod @-@ cast bank , adjacent to the site of the North Gate . The southern half takes the form of a 331 @-@ foot ( 101 m ) long moat , which was recorded as being 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) deep in the medieval period , terminating in the West Gate . The northern part of this mere occasionally floods in the 21st century , creating a temporary lake , and the moated section usually still contains some standing water . The West Mere , covering 2 @.@ 25 @-@ acres ( 1 ha ) , stretches away from the location of West Gate and is blocked at the far end by a small , stone dam . Three rectangular fishponds were built alongside the West Mere , the smallest , probably a stew pond for raising young fish , being fed with water from the lake . A protective earthen bank , probably originally reinforced by a timber palisade , ran for approximately 490 feet ( 150 m ) along either side of the West Gate , where a gatehouse was probably built . At the far end of the lake complex was the South Mere , 2 @.@ 25 @-@ acres ( 1 ha ) in size , with the South Gate positioned in its eastern corner .
A harbour was built south @-@ east of the castle , which would originally have been used to receive first building materials , then later senior members of the castle household or important guests . All that remains of the harbour is its 246 @-@ foot ( 75 m ) quay , built from basalt boulders , and it may not have been in frequent use during the medieval period , since it could only have been safely used during periods of good weather . West of the castle is a later shieling , the earthwork remains of a longhouse . South of this is a rectangular earthwork , with walls over 3 @-@ foot 3 inches ( 1 m ) high , which may have been a siege fortification from 1462 . If this is in fact such a siegework , it would be a unique survival in England from this period .
= = = Architecture = = =
Dunstanburgh Castle 's buildings are located around the outside of the fortification 's outer bailey , enclosed by a stone curtain wall , which enclose 9 @.@ 96 acres ( 4 @.@ 03 ha ) , making it the largest castle in Northumberland . Possibly from the very start of the castle , and certainly by the 1380s , the castle buildings formed three distinct complexes supporting the Earl 's household , the castle 's constable and the administration of the Embleton barony respectively . The inside of the bailey still shows the marks of former strip farming , which can be seen in winter .
The southern and western parts of the walls were originally faced with a local ashlar sandstone with a core of basalt rubble ; the sandstone was mostly quarried at Howick . The sandstone has since been stripped from the western parts of the wall , and the sandstone along the eastern end of the walls gives way to small limestone blocks , originally only laid 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) high with a 4 @-@ foot 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) parapet , but later raised in height with additional basalt boulders , probably during the Wars of the Roses . It is uncertain if the curtain wall originally extended above the cliffs along the northern edge of the castle .
Moving counter @-@ clockwise around the curtain wall from the north @-@ west , the rectangular Lilburn Tower looks out across Embleton beach . The tower was named after an early castle constable , John de Lilburn , but may have been built under Thomas of Lancaster ; it was intended as a high @-@ status residence , 59 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) high , 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) square with 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick walls , with a guardroom for soldiers on the ground floor . The rectangular towers at Dunstanburgh reflects the local tradition in Northumberland , and are similar to those at nearby Alnwick . Further along the wall there are the remains of a small tower , called Huggam 's House by local tradition . Earthworks around the inside of the curtain wall suggest that there may once have been a complex of buildings stretching between Lilburn Tower and Huggam 's House .
On the south @-@ west corner of the walls are the castle gatehouses . The most prominent of these is the Great Gatehouse , a massive three @-@ storey fortification , comprising two drum @-@ shaped towers of ashlar stone ; originally 79 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) high . This was heavily influenced by the Edwardian gatehouses in North Wales , such as that at Harlech , but contains unique features , such as the frontal towers , and is considered by historians Alastair Oswald and Jeremy Ashbee to be " one of the most imposing structures in any English castle " . In the 1380s this gatehouse was further strengthened with a 31 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) long barbican , of which only the rubble foundations now survive , around 2 @-@ foot 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 7 m ) high .
The passageway through the gatehouse was protected by a portcullis and possibly a set of wooden gates . The ground floor contained two guardrooms , each 21 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) wide , and latrines , with spiral staircases in the corner of the gatehouse running up to the first floor , where relatively well @-@ lit chambers with fireplaces probably accommodated the garrison 's officers . The staircases continued up to the second floor , containing the castle 's great hall , an
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antechamber and bedchamber , originally intended for the use of Thomas of Lancaster and his family . Four towers extended above the gatehouse 's lead @-@ covered roof for an additional two storeys of height , giving extensive views of the surrounding area . This design may have influenced the construction of Henry IV 's gatehouse at Lancaster Castle .
Immediately to the west of the Great Gatehouse is John of Gaunt 's Gatehouse , originally either two or three storeys tall , but now only surviving at the foundation level . This gatehouse replaced the Great Gatehouse as the main entrance , and would have contained a porter 's lodge , defended by a combination of a portcullis and a 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) long barbican . A inner bailey was approximately 50 @-@ foot by 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m by 15 m ) , defended by a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) high mantlet wall , was constructed in the 1380s behind John of Gaunt 's Gatehouse and the Great Gatehouse . This complex comprised a vaulted inner gatehouse , 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) square , and six buildings , including an antechamber , kitchen and bakehouse .
Further along the south side of the walls is the Constable 's Tower , a square tower containing comfortable accommodation for the castle 's constable , including stone window seats . On the inside of the walls are the foundations of a hall and chamber , built before 1351 , part of a larger complex of buildings used by the constable and his household , approximately 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) square . To the west of the Constable 's Tower is a small turret that projects from the upper wall - an unusual feature , similar to that at Pickering Castle - and a mural garderobe ; and to the east a small oblong turret with a single chamber , 10 @.@ 75 @-@ foot by 7 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 28 m by 2 @.@ 3 m ) .
In the south @-@ east corner of the walls , the Egyncleugh Tower - whose name means " eagle 's ravine " in the Northumbrian dialect - overlooks Queen Margaret 's Cove below . A three storey , square building , 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) across , Egyncleugh Tower was designed to house a castle official , and included a small gateway and drawbridge into the castle , either for the use of the castle constable , or possibly for the local people .
There is a postern gate in the eastern wall , added in the 1450s , and a further gateway in the north @-@ eastern corner , which gave access to Castle Point and Gull Crag below . Along the inside of the curtain walls are the foundations of a yard , 200 @-@ foot by 100 @-@ foot ( 61 m by 30 m ) , and a large rectangular building , usually identified as a grange or a barn . This would have probably supported the administration of the Embleton estates , and have included the auditor 's chamber and other facilities .
= = = Interpretation = = =
Early analysis of Dunstanburgh Castle focused on its qualities as a military , defensive site , but more recent work has emphasised the symbolic aspects of its design and the surrounding landscape . Although the castle was intended as a secure bolt @-@ hole for Thomas of Lancaster should events go awry in the south of England , it was however " clearly not an inconspicuous hiding place " , as the English Heritage research team have pointed out : it was a spectacular construction , located in the centre of a huge , carefully designed medieval landscape . The meres surrounding the castle would have reflected the castle walls and towers , turning the outcrop into a virtual island and producing what the historians Oswald and Ashbee have called " an awe @-@ inspiring and beautiful sight " .
The different elements of the castle were also positioned for particular effect . Unusually , the huge Great Gatehouse faced south @-@ east , away from the main road , hiding its extraordinary architectural features . This may have been because Thomas intended to establish a new settlement in front of it , but the gatehouse was also probably intended to be viewed from the harbour , where the most senior visitors were expected to arrive . The Lilburn Tower was positioned so as to be clearly - and provocatively - visible to Edward II 's castle at Bamburgh , 9 miles ( 15 km ) away along the coast , and would have been elegantly framed by the entranceway to the Great Gatehouse for any visitors . It was also positioned on a set of natural basalt pillars , which - although inconvenient to build upon - would have enhanced its dramatic appearance and reflection in the meres .
The design of the castle may also have alluded to Arthurian mythology , which were a popular set of ideals and beliefs among the English ruling classes at the time . Thomas appears to have had an interest in the Arthurian legends , and used the pseudonym " King Arthur " in his correspondence with the Scots . Dunstanburgh , with an ancient fort at its center encircled by water , may have been an allusion to Camelot , and in turn to Thomas 's claim to political authority over the failing Edward II , and was also strikingly similar to contemporary depictions of Sir Lancelot 's castle of " Joyous Garde " .
= = Folklore = =
Dunstanburgh Castle has closely associated with the legend of Sir Guy the Seeker since at least the early 19th century . Different versions of the story vary slightly in their details , but typically involve a knight , Sir Guy , arriving at Dunstanburgh Castle , where he was met by a wizard and led inside . There he comes across a noble lady imprisoned inside a crystal tomb and guarded by a sleeping army . The wizard offers Guy a choice of either a sword or a hunting horn to help free the lady ; he incorrectly chooses the horn , which wakes the sleeping knights . Sir Guy finds himself outside Dunstanburgh Castle , and spends the rest of his life attempting to find a way back inside .
It is unclear when the story first emerged , but similar stories , possibly inspired by medieval Arthurian legends , exist at the nearby locations of Hexham and the Eildon Hills . Matthew Lewis wrote a poem , Sir Guy the Seeker , popularising the story in 1808 , with subsequent versions produced by W. G. Thompson in 1821 and James Service in 1822 . The tale continues to be told as part of the local oral tradition .
Several other oral traditions about the castle survive . One of these involves a child prisoner within the castle , who escaped , throwing the key to her dungeon into a nearby field , sometimes argued to be an outcrop of land north @-@ west of the castle , which from then onwards was infertile . Another centres on a man called Gallon who was left in charge of the castle by Margaret of Anjou and entrusted with a set of valuables ; captured by the Yorkists , he escaped and later returned to reclaim six Venician glasses . The historian Katrina Porteous has noted that in the 14th century there are records of receivers and bailiffs at the castle called Galoun , potentially linked to the origins of the Gallon of this story .
There are local stories of tunnels stretching from Dunstanburgh Castle to Craster Tower , Embleton and Proctor Steads , as well as a tunnel running from the castle well to the west of the castle . These stories may be linked to the presence of the drainage system around the castle .
= Ogre ( game ) =
Ogre is a board wargame first released in 1977 as the first Metagaming Concepts Microgame , designed by Steve Jackson . It is an asymmetrical forces game , set in the late 21st century . One player has a single giant robot tank ( called an " Ogre " ) pitted against a second player 's headquarters , defended by a mixture of conventional tanks , infantry , and artillery . The concept was strongly influenced by Keith Laumer 's novel Bolo ( 1976 ) , and Colin Kapp 's short story " Gottlos " ( 1969 ) . The Ogre itself is named after the large and strong mythological beast ogre .
Since its initial release in 1977 Ogre has been reprinted many times , most recently in 2014 . After Jackson founded his own company , Steve Jackson Games , Ogre , its sequel G.E.V. , and further expansions were published in the Pocket Box format . On March 8 , 2008 , Steve Jackson Games announced the planned production of Ogre 6th Edition . In 2012 , a new version of Ogre successfully completed funding on Kickstarter.com , for release in November 2012 . After multiple delays , the elaborate 29 pound Designer 's edition was shipped to all Kickstarter backers in November 2013 .
= = Game description = =
Ogre uses a hex map depicting barren terrain with only ridgelines and large , radioactive craters as obstacles . The defender sets up his forces in the more congested part of the map and the Ogre enters the opposite side at the beginning of the game . The basic version of the game has the attacker using a single Ogre heavy tank ( referred to as a " Mark III Ogre " ) , while the advanced scenario gives the attacker the larger , more powerful " Mark V Ogre " tank versus an increased number of defenders . The defender is allocated a certain number of infantry and ' armor units ' , but gets to decide the exact composition of his own armored forces .
The different types of units encourage a combined @-@ arms approach with each type being better than the others in different aspects . Heavy tanks have high attack and defense with moderate speed and low range . Missile tanks have moderate attack and defense with moderate range and low speed . G.E.V.s ( " ground effect vehicles " — roughly , heavily armored hovercraft ) have very high speed ( moving twice per turn ) , low attack , low range , and moderate defense . Howitzers have very high attack and range but are easily destroyed ( once an attacker has managed to get close enough ) , immobile , and expensive . However , according to the game 's designer , this balanced mix of units was not quite right in the first edition ; the second edition sped up heavy tanks , slowed down G.E.V.s , and changed the defender 's purchasing from " attack factors " to " armor units " ( everything is considered equivalent , except howitzers , which are worth two of anything else ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Martin Easterbrook began his 1977 review of Ogre ( first edition ) by saying " Be warned : this game could become a craze " adding that " the idea of the microgames themselves is remarkable enough in itself " . He rated the game 8 out of 10 but criticized the game 's title and " flimsy equipment , weak infantry " .
Reviewing the first Steve Jackson Games editions of Ogre ( after the designer had moved away from Metagaming ) , Tony Watson called Ogre " a legend in the ranks of SF gamedom , and deservedly so ... as well as being a lot of fun to play , it 's an interesting extrapolation on high @-@ tech armoured warfare " . It was noted that the rules had remained essentially the same in the new edition , and the most significant changes being to the physical design — with larger ( still black and white ) counters , and full colour maps by Denis Loubet . Watson also welcomed the retention of the original artwork alongside new pieces — " no one draws a GEV or Ogre like Mr. Chung " .
Reviewing the combined edition of 1991 , Allen Varney stated : " [ Ogre and G.E.V. : ] two simulation board games of armored combat on a future battlefield are among the best the field has ever seen : fast , elegant , and endlessly replayable " . Whilst praising the production values of the 2 @-@ color playing pieces Varney found the box somewhat ' flimsy ' .
In his 2007 essay , game designer Erick Wujcik said " I think [ Ogre 's ] success really boils down to four essentials : Ogre is fast , ... asymmetrical , ... open @-@ ended , ... [ and ] is a teaching tool . Ogre had restructured my mind pretty completely ... but it wasn 't until 2002 ... that I realized how effective Ogre is at getting across so many important component mechanisms of play and design . "
= = Editions = =
The first and second editions of Ogre were released in 1977 . The first edition featured artwork by Winchell Chung , while the second had a much larger print run and rulebook artwork by Clark Bradly rather than Chung . The third edition , released in 1982 , introduced double @-@ sided counters .
An edition called OGRE : Deluxe Edition was released in 1987 . The rulebook cover artwork was the Denis Loubet illustration that was also used for the Ogre computer game ( see Spinoffs below ) . The board was sturdier than the previous edition 's paper map , and the counters were provided with stand @-@ up plastic bases . G.M. magazine 's 1989 review of OGRE : Deluxe Edition highlighted the game 's ease of introduction and short playing time , but pointed out that most gamers either like the game or loathe it .
In 1990 , Ogre was combined with another game called G.E.V. ( an Ogre sequel ) in a Ogre / G.E.V. box . The Ogre rules were designated as 4th edition and the G.E.V. rules were designated as 3rd edition . Ogre / G.E.V. was released into a single 5 3 / 8 " x 8 1 / 2 " box , and the rules were combined into a single 4 " x 7 " booklet . The rules were printed so that the booklet was flipped over to see the other rules . Counters were in green and white ( 2 @-@ sided ) , and maps were the same as the 3rd edition maps for both Ogre and G.E.V. , but printed in the same sheet . In 2000 , Ogre / G.E.V. was released again and designated as 5th edition , with new cover art by Phillip Reed , sold in a VHS box , but rules still in a 4 " x 7 " , 44 @-@ page booklet and counters in black , red and white ( 2 @-@ sided ) .
A " new " Deluxe Ogre ( 2000 ) was a re @-@ issued version of the original Ogre , packaged with miniatures rather than counters , and the original " crater " map printed on a larger scale . Deluxe Ogre won the Wargamer Award for Excellence in 2001 .
In 2011 Steve Jackson announced a sixth edition , The Ogre Designer 's Edition , combining Ogre and G.E.V. with larger full color flat counters for most units and constructible cardboard figures for the Ogres .
Steve Jackson Games released a reprinted version of the original 1977 game in 2014 . It was sold at the game 's original price of $ 2 @.@ 95 .
= = Kickstarter Project = =
In May 2012 , a new designers edition of Ogre was funded on Kickstarter.com. The original goal was $ 20 @,@ 000 and the final funding was a total of $ 923 @,@ 680 . As the funding grew , more and more options and upgrades were added , with the final game weighing over 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) . It began shipping to its Kickstarter supporters in October 2013 , and is expected to arrive at retail stores on December 6 , 2013 .
= = Spinoffs = =
Ogre spawned a sequel , G.E.V. , focusing on the G.E.V. hovertank and the other " conventional " armor and infantry types .
Other games based on Ogre include :
Shockwave , an expansion that introduced new unit types including cruise missiles and a map that could be used with the G.E.V. map .
Ogre Miniatures , an adaptation of the game to miniature wargaming , using 1 : 285 scale miniatures . This adaptation won the 1992 Origins Award for Best Miniatures Rules . In addition to miniatures from Steve Jackson Games , a set of Ogre miniatures was also developed by Ral Partha which won the 1992 Origins Award for Best Vehicular Miniatures Series . The first set of Ogre miniatures , produced by Martian Metals under license of Metagaming Concepts in 1979 , won the H.G. Wells Award for Best Vehicular Model Series of 1979 .
Diceland : Ogre , a paper dice game by Cheapass Games .
Computer adaptations , including the 1986 Ogre release by Origin Systems , Inc. for Apple II , Amiga , Atari 8 @-@ bit , Atari ST , Commodore 64 , DOS , and Macintosh .
= = Books = =
The OGRE Book ( 1982 ) was a collection of articles and rules variants from The Space Gamer . It was reissued in 2001 , expanded from 40 pages to 128 with further retrospective from Steve Jackson .
GURPS Ogre ( 2000 ) was a supplement for the role @-@ playing game GURPS .
= Music of Final Fantasy XII =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy XII was composed primarily by Hitoshi Sakimoto . Additional music was provided by Masaharu Iwata and Hayato Matsuo , who also orchestrated the opening and ending themes . Former regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu 's only work for this game was " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " , the theme song sung by Angela Aki . The Final Fantasy XII Original Soundtrack was released on four Compact Discs in 2006 by Aniplex . A sampling of tracks from the soundtrack was released as an album entitled Selections from Final Fantasy XII Original Soundtrack , and was released in 2006 by Tofu Records . Additionally , a promotional digital album titled The Best of Final Fantasy XII was released on the Japanese localization of iTunes for download only in 2006 . " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " was released by Epic Records as a single in 2006 , and Symphonic Poem " Hope " , the complete music from the game 's end credits , was released by Hats Unlimited in 2006 . An abridged version of the latter piece , which originally accompanied a promotional video for the game , was included in the official soundtrack album . An album of piano arrangements , titled Piano Collections Final Fantasy XII , was released by Square Enix in 2012 .
The soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics ; while several felt that it was an excellent album , others disagreed , finding it to be a good soundtrack but lacking in substance . Common complaints about the album were the large number of filler tracks , which seemed to be uninspired and hurt the soundtrack as a whole . However , several reviewers commented on " Kiss Me Good @-@ bye " , finding it to be one of the soundtrack 's strongest areas . The singles for the soundtrack were very well received by critics , who found them to be very enjoyable but short in duration , and the piano album was considered by reviewers to be one of the best in the series . The game 's soundtrack was nominated for a British Academy of Film and Television Arts award for Best Original Score .
= = Creation and influence = =
Hitoshi Sakimoto composed most of the game 's soundtrack ; Nobuo Uematsu , following his departure from Square Enix in 2004 , only contributed the theme song , " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " , sung by Angela Aki . Uematsu noted that Aki 's style of playing the keyboard while singing reminded him of his childhood idol , Elton John , which was one of the reasons he chose her . Aki was approached for the role three years before the release of the game . She based her words for the song on " a scene of a new journey after good @-@ bye " , which was the sense she had gotten from Uematsu 's melody , and was encouraged by Uematsu not to limit herself in her lyrics to what she thought the producers wanted . Sakimoto was brought in to compose the soundtrack to the game by Yasumi Matsuno , the producer of the game , five months before the game was officially announced . Sakimoto experienced difficulty following in Uematsu 's footsteps , but he decided to create a unique soundtrack in his own way , although he cites Uematsu as his biggest musical influence .
Sakimoto did not meet with Uematsu for direction on creating the soundtrack and tried to avoid copying Uematsu 's style from previous Final Fantasy soundtracks . However , he did attempt to ensure that his style would mesh with Uematsu 's " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " and the overall vision of the series . The soundtrack also includes songs composed by Uematsu for previous Final Fantasy games , with new arrangements by Sakimoto . These tracks include " Final Fantasy ~ FFXII Version ~ " , " Victory Fanfare ~ FFXII Version ~ " , " Chocobo FFXII Arrange Ver . 1 " , " Chocobo ~ FFXII Version ~ " , and " Clash on the Big Bridge ~ FFXII Version ~ " . Of these , all but " Clash on the Big Bridge " are recurring pieces used in almost every Final Fantasy game . " Clash on the Big Bridge " plays during the battle with Gilgamesh , as it did in Final Fantasy V. Sakimoto created the music for the game based on the atmosphere of the game and the emotional changes of the characters , rather than the story , so that the music would not be affected by changes in the development of the game . Sakimoto stated in an interview included in a bonus disc of the collector 's edition of the game that his favorite pieces from the soundtrack are the " world " themes in the outdoor areas , and that his overall favorite is " The Cerobi Steppe " .
= = Soundtrack = =
Final Fantasy XII Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XII , containing musical tracks from the game , and was composed and produced by Hitoshi Sakimoto . Additional music was provided by Masaharu Iwata and Hayato Matsuo , who also orchestrated the opening and ending themes . The soundtrack spans four discs and 100 tracks , covering a duration of 4 : 54 : 34 . It was released on May 31 , 2006 in Japan by Aniplex , bearing the catalog numbers SVWC @-@ 7351 ~ 4 . The limited edition of the soundtrack included a 28 @-@ page booklet featuring artwork for the game and providing information about the soundtrack .
An album entitled Selections from Final Fantasy XII Original Soundtrack was released on October 31 , 2006 by Tofu Records containing 31 tracks from the full Final Fantasy XII soundtrack . The tracks were the same versions as on the full soundtrack , although some tracks that repeated were cut shorter . The album covers a duration of 73 : 23 and has a catalog number of TOF @-@ 033 . Additionally , a promotional digital album titled The Best of Final Fantasy XII was released on the Japanese localization of iTunes for download only on March 15 , 2006 . The album contains 11 tracks handpicked by Hitoshi Sakimoto , including versions of " Theme of Final Fantasy XII " and " Chocobo FFXII Arrange Ver . 1 " that were ultimately not used in the game .
The game 's soundtrack was nominated for a British Academy of Film and Television Arts award for Best Original Score . Final Fantasy XII Original Soundtrack has sold 31 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2010 . It reached # 7 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for six weeks . The album received mixed reviews from critics . Jared 's review from Square Enix Music Online cited that the soundtrack " utilizes ambiance , power , intensity and beauty " and termed the album to be " amazing " , though he felt that the lack of melody " hurts this soundtrack " and that some of the tracks were " bare of inspiration " . Meghan Sullivan of IGN thought that the composer was " trying too hard to evoke emotion " and that many of the songs were " over @-@ the @-@ top and bombastic " , though she did feel that there were certain tracks that " manage [ d ] to be stirring " . She also stated that Uematsu 's only work for the soundtrack , " Kiss Me Good @-@ bye " , is a " strong end to a surprisingly trite collection " . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot , on the other hand , felt that it was a " beautifully composed soundtrack " that sounded " fantastic " . Patrick Gann of RPGFan found it to be " a great work " , but " somewhat lacking in substance " , concluding that he had " a lot of mixed feelings about it " , while Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan disagreed , enjoying the soundtrack and finding it to be an " excellent " album , and " better than [ he ] could have expected " .
Track list
= = = Piano album = = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy XII is an album of piano arrangements of music from the game . The thirteen tracks on the album , totaling 1 : 01 : 48 in length , were composed by Sakimoto and arranged and performed by Casey Ormond . The album was released by Square Enix on November 7 , 2012 with the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10347 , and was also published that same day as part of Final Fantasy XII OST & Piano Collections , a pack containing the album and the original soundtrack album with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10348 ~ 52 . A book of sheet music for the album has also been released .
Sakimoto originally heard of Ormond due to an arrangement he had made of " The Skycity of Bhujerba " in 2009 , which , after discussion between the two about several other arrangements Ormond made of Sakimoto 's work , lead to the two officially working together on Valkyria Chronicles Piano Pieces , an album of piano arrangements for Valkyria Chronicles . The style of arrangements on the Final Fantasy XII album range from classical to a " moody piece with plenty of sultry jazz tones " , one of the two pieces located at the end of the album which Ormond had arranged prior to officially beginning the project . Many of the pieces contain an " improvisational " sense , even when not technically jazz @-@ based , and several depart notably from the style of the original works . Ormond based many of the changes in theme or mood of his arrangements off of where the pieces were used in the original game , attempting to highlight the perspectives of different characters or ideas from the scenes they were played in .
The album was well received by reviewers , with Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online calling it one of the best Final Fantasy piano arrangement albums , a claim echoed by Derek Heemsbergen of RPGFan . Heemsbergen added that " Ormond shows reverence for Sakimoto 's original material while exploring musical ideas in a style all his own " and praised the variety of the music . Kotowski praised both the " variety of moods " covered by the pieces as well as the overall cohesiveness of the album .
= = Singles = =
= = = Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye = = =
Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye is the theme song of Final Fantasy XII , and is the third Japanese single by Angela Aki . The only vocal piece in the game , it was set to tunes composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged by Kenichiro Fukui and produced by Motoki Matsuoka . The single was released by Epic Records in Japan on March 15 , 2006 , covering a duration of 19 : 59 and bearing the catalog number ESCL @-@ 2810 . A limited edition was also released bearing the catalog number ESCL @-@ 2808 featuring a DVD containing the Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye video clip which included both shots of Aki performing the single and clips from the video game . Unlike previous Final Fantasy games , the theme song is sung in English in both the Japanese and North American versions of the game . The version featured on the CD single has a slightly different arrangement and Japanese lyrics ; however , the English version that was featured in the game is included as a bonus track . An English version of the single was released as a digital single on May 16 , 2006 under the title Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye [ EP ] in North America through Tofu Records .
" Kiss Me Good @-@ bye " reached # 6 on the Oricon charts and remained on the charts for 18 weeks . The release was seen by critics as an excellent single , with Gann feeling that both the Final Fantasy XII and non @-@ game tracks held their weight equally .
= = = Symphonic Poem " Hope " = = =
Symphonic Poem " Hope " ( 交響詩 「 希望 」 , Kōkyōshi " Kibō " ) is a single released by violinist Taro Hakase and is the full version of the game 's ending credits music . The piece has been described as a " mini @-@ symphony " for Final Fantasy XII inspired by the main theme for the game . The single contains five tracks , arranged by Taro Hakase and Yuji Toriyama and produced by Taro Hakase , and features performance by the London Philharmonic Orchestra . A shorter edit blending the first , second and fifth movements of the symphonic poem was used in a promotional video for the game , and appears as a single track in the official soundtrack release . Symphonic Poem " Hope " was released on March 1 , 2006 by Hats Unlimited bearing the catalog number HUCD @-@ 10015 .
Hope was found by critics to be an enjoyable single , though at only 9 minutes long , Gann felt he could have " gotten by without it " , although he said that for other listeners , their " collection may not be complete without this little gem " . Dave of Square Enix Music Online concurred with that sentiment , saying that " despite the length of the album , it easily grew on " him . " Hope " reached # 15 on the Oricon charts and remained on the charts for 16 weeks .
= = Legacy = =
" Kiss Me Good @-@ bye " was performed by the Chicagoland Pops Orchestra and Angela Aki for Play ! A Video Game Symphony , a worldwide video game music orchestral concert series . The Eminence Symphony Orchestra performed " Victory Fanfare " , " Clan Headquarters " , and " Penelo 's Theme " at the three " Passion " concerts held in Australia and Singapore in December 2006 . " Penelo 's Theme " was again played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Selections of music from the game also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= Maryland Route 500 =
Maryland Route 500 ( MD 500 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Queens Chapel Road , the highway runs 2 @.@ 22 miles ( 3 @.@ 57 km ) from Michigan Avenue at the District of Columbia boundary in Chillum north to MD 410 in Hyattsville . MD 500 connects Washington with the northwestern Prince George 's County cities of Mount Rainier and Hyattsville . The state highway also connects those communities with a pair of stations on the Green Line of the Washington Metro . Queens Chapel Road was constructed as the original MD 210 from Washington to Hyattsville in the 1910s . MD 500 was built from Hyattsville through University Park to U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in the early 1930s . MD 500 assumed the course of MD 210 in the mid @-@ 1940s . The highway was relocated in West Hyattsville and expanded to a divided highway toward Washington in the early 1950s . MD 500 was truncated at MD 410 when University Park took over the highway prior to the construction of the Metro Green Line through the town in the late 1980s .
= = Route description = =
MD 500 begins at an intersection with Eastern Avenue at the District of Columbia boundary in Chillum . On the other side of the border , the highway heads into Washington as Michigan Avenue . MD 500 heads northeast as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The highway veers north and forms the western boundary of Mount Rainier as the highway intersects Chillum Road , which heads west as MD 501 . MD 500 crosses the Northwest Branch Anacostia River and enters the city of Hyattsville . The state highway veers to the northeast and Ager Road splits to the north ; the county highway which leads to the West Hyattsville station on the Washington Metro 's Green Line . There is no direct access from southbound Ager Road to northbound MD 500 . The missing connection is provided at the intersection with Hamilton Street , which heads east as MD 208 . MD 500 continues northeast through the intersection with Queensbury Road and Belcrest Road ; the latter provides access to the Prince George 's Plaza Metro Station . The highway reaches its northern terminus at MD 410 ( East – West Highway ) . County @-@ maintained Adelphi Road continues north on the other side of the intersection .
= = History = =
Queens Chapel Road is named for the Queen 's Chapel , a Catholic church founded on the estate of the Queen family in 1722 in what is now the Langdon neighborhood of Washington . In addition to the extant portion of Queens Chapel Road in Maryland , the road continued into the District of Columbia along what are now Michigan Avenue and 18th Street to Brentwood Road just north of US 1 in the city 's Brookland neighborhood . The segment of Queens Chapel Road from the District of Columbia boundary to just south of Ager Road was paved as a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) concrete road by Prince George 's County with state aid by 1915 . The pavement was extended to Ager Road when that road and Hamilton Street were paved by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1923 . The segment of Queens Chapel Road from Hamilton Street to US 1 in University Park was paved in concrete between 1930 and 1933 .
The portions of Queens Chapel Road south of Ager Road and north of Hamilton Street were originally designated MD 210 and MD 500 , respectively . The portion of modern Queens Chapel Road from south of Ager Road to Hamilton Street originally did not exist . Instead , Queens Chapel Road turned north along what is now Jamestown Road , then made a sharp curve east onto modern Hamilton Street . The highway had a T intersection with Ager Road and continued east to another T intersection where the road turned north while Hamilton Street continued east into Hyattsville . Ager Road , Hamilton Street , and the portion of Queens Chapel Road connecting them were part of MD 209 , which was renumbered as an extension of MD 410 by 1946 ; MD 210 was renumbered as an extension of MD 500 at the same time .
By 1942 , the Maryland State Roads Commission proposed relocating Queens Chapel Road near Northwest Branch to eliminate the highway 's circuitous course and extend Ager Road to the new highway . MD 500 was relocated from Northwest Branch to Hamilton Street as the first carriageway of an ultimate divided highway in 1949 . The second carriageway of the new highway was added in 1951 and 1952 . The portion of the state highway from the District of Columbia to Northwest Branch was expanded to a divided highway in 1951 and 1952 ; this work included rebuilding the highway 's bridge across Northwest Branch to carry the expanded highway . In addition , the remainder of MD 500 from Hamilton Street to US 1 was widened and resurfaced in 1951 . The divided highway was extended northeast from Hamilton Street to MD 410 in 1973 . MD 500 was reduced from six lanes to four lanes when the highway was re @-@ striped in 2005 .
The Maryland State Highway Administration transferred maintenance of Queens Chapel Road from MD 410 to US 1 to the town of University Park in August 1988 ahead of the construction of the Washington Metro 's Green Line underneath the town ; the town subsequently closed the road through town . A 1991 traffic study showed the majority of traffic along the University Park segment of Queens Chapel Road was through traffic before it was closed , and recommended the highway be closed at the southern end of town and only allow traffic to exit the town onto US 1 . After Metro construction was completed in the summer of 1992 , the University Park Town Council elected to keep the road closed to through traffic ; this measure was affirmed by a town referendum in January 1993 . Today , there is a cul @-@ de @-@ sac at the southwest end of town adjacent to the MD 500 – MD 410 intersection ; the intersection with US 1 at the northeast end of town only allows traffic to exit Queens Chapel Road .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Prince George 's County .
= Tonga at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games =
Tonga competed in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the British Crown Dependency of Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 . Their participation marked their second Commonwealth Youth Games appearance . The delegation of Tonga consisted of three officials and four competitors ( two men and two women ) participating in three different sports — athletics , boxing and swimming . This was a decrease in the number of athletes from the nation 's last appearance at the Games , when nine athletes were sent to the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games in Pune . Heamasi Sekona won a bronze in the light heavyweight class of boxing without winning a single bout . Sekona was the only medalist from Tongan side . None of the rest three athletes advanced past the qualifying stages , and thus did not win any medals . Katiloka ranked eighth overall in the qualifying round for triple jump ; middleweight boxer , Pomale , lost to Cody Crowley of Canada in his first round match . Additionally , Prescott ranked 18th and 13th in the heat rounds of 50 m and 100 m backstroke events respectively . Sekona 's was the first medal for Tonga in the history of the Games .
= = Background = =
Independent Tonga became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970 , and debuted in the Commonwealth Games in 1974 in Christchurch , New Zealand . Tonga did not participate in first two — 2000 Edinburgh and 2004 Bendigo — Commonwealth Youth Games . It entered nine athletes ( two men and seven women ) in the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games in Pune , India , competed in athletics , table tennis and tennis ; but failed to win any medal . Tonga was one of the 63 nations that participated in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the British Crown Dependency of Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 , making its second Commonwealth Youth Games appearance . Tonga finished last in the medal table , in 22nd , sharing the position with nine other Commonwealth Games Associations .
= = Delegation = =
The Tonga Association of Sports and National Olympic Committee selected a delegation consisting of three officials and four competitors for the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games . None of the athletes had previously participated in the Commonwealth Youth Games . The first , Ana Katiloka , was the sole athlete to represent the nation in athletics . Two pugilists — Tevita Pomale and Heamasi Sekona — competed in the middleweight and light heavyweight classes . Irene Prescott , as the only swimmer from Tongan side , participated in two events . Also in the delegation as a chef de mission of Tonga for the Games was Hiko Fungavaka . The delegation was also accompanied by the head boxing coach Lolo Heimuli . The final member of the delegation was Sione Prescott as an extra official .
= = Athletics = =
Athletics events were held in the National Sports Center Athletics Stadium . Ana Katiloka represented Tonga in the triple jump event of athletics . This event took place on 11 September 2011 . Katiloka 's best jump in the event was 10 @.@ 41 m , and she finished last ( eighth ) in the final standings . The gold medal in this event was won by Nat Apikotoa of Australia with a best jump of 12 @.@ 55 m .
= = Boxing = =
Tonga 's boxing squad consisted of two pugilists , Tevita Pomale and Heamasi Sekona , who participated in the middleweight and light heavyweight classes , respectively . Pomale was eliminated in the first round after losing to Cody Crowley of Canada . Sekona won a bronze medal in the light heavyweight class without winning a single match . He received a bye in his first match ( quarterfinals ) , and lost to Calum Evans of Wales in the semifinals by a points difference of 23 – 14 . The semifinal appearance of Sekona guaranteed him a bronze medal , which he shared with Jack Massey of England — another semifinalist who lost to gold medalist of the event , Brandon Allan of Australia .
Bye = Athlete received a bye .
= = Swimming = =
Irene Prescott was the sole swimmer in the delegation of Tonga . She competed in two events , the 50 – and 100 m backstrokes . Prescott took a time of 33 @.@ 52 to complete her preliminary heat of the 50 m backstroke and finished in 18th place , not high enough to ensure a berth in the final . She was also eliminated in the preliminary heat of 100 m backstroke after ranking 13th with a time of 1 : 13 @.@ 42 .
= Italian cruiser Puglia =
Puglia was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . She was the last of six Regioni @-@ class ships , all of which were named for regions of Italy . She was built in Taranto between October 1893 and May 1901 , when she was commissioned into the fleet . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Puglia served abroad for much of her early career , including periods in South American and East Asian waters . She saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 , primarily in the Red Sea . During the war she bombarded Ottoman ports in Arabia and assisted in enforcing a blockade on maritime traffic in the area . She was still in service during World War I ; the only action in which she participated was the evacuation of units from the Serbian Army from Durazzo in February 1916 . During the evacuation , she bombarded the pursuing Austro @-@ Hungarian Army .
After the war , Puglia was involved in the occupation of the Dalmatian coast , and in 1920 her captain was murdered in a violent confrontation in Split with Croatian nationalists . The old cruiser was sold for scrapping in 1923 , but much of her bow was preserved at the Vittoriale degli italiani museum .
= = Design = =
Puglia was slightly larger than her sister ships . 88 @.@ 25 meters ( 289 @.@ 5 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 13 m ( 39 @.@ 8 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . Puglia was capable of steaming at a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 – 78 .
Puglia was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Puglia was protected by a 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick deck , unlike her sisters which all had decks twice as thick . Her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Puglia was built by the new Regia Marina shipyard in Taranto , the first major warship to be built there . Her keel was laid down in October 1893 , and she was launched on 22 September 1898 . Fitting @-@ out work proved to be a lengthy process , and she was not ready for service until 26 May 1901 . By this time , her design was over ten years old and the ship was rapidly becoming obsolescent ; in comparison , Germany had already commissioned the world 's first light cruisers , the Gazelle class , which were significantly faster and better armed . This new type of ship rapidly replaced protected cruisers like Puglia .
Puglia was immediately deployed to East Asian waters following her commissioning . In July , she was in Australia during the visit of the British Prince George , son of then @-@ King Edward VI . The ship was still on the China station as of 1904 . Puglia was present in Rio de Janeiro in January 1908 when the Great White Fleet arrived in the port . She greeted the American fleet with a 15 @-@ gun salute . The German cruiser SMS Bremen was also moored in the harbor at the time , as was the Brazilian fleet .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
At the outbreak of Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Puglia was stationed in eastern Africa , where Italy had colonies in Eritrea and Somaliland . She was joined there by her sisters Italian cruiser Elba and Liguria and the cruisers Piemonte and Etna . Puglia and the cruiser Calabria , which had recently arrived from Asian waters , bombarded the Turkish port of Aqaba on 19 November to disperse a contingent of Ottoman soldiers there . Hostilities were temporarily ceased while the British King George V passed through the Red Sea following his coronation ceremony in India — the ceasefire lasted until 26 November .
In early 1912 , the Italian Red Sea fleet searched for a group of seven Ottoman gunboats thought to be planning an attack on Eritrea , though they were in fact immobilized due to a lack of coal . Puglia and Calabria carried out diversionary bombardments against Jebl Tahr , and Al Luḩayyah , while Piemonte and the destroyers Artigliere and Garibaldino searched for the gunboats . On 7 January , they found the gunboats and quickly sank four in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay ; the other three were forced to beach to avoid sinking as well . Puglia and the rest of the Italian ships returned to bombarding the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . The cruiser fleet in the Red Sea then began a campaign of coastal bombardments of Ottoman ports in the area . A blockade was proclaimed of the Ottoman ports , which included Al Luḩayyah and Al Hudaydah . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
= = = World War I = = =
Italy declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic , which could also be easily seeded with minefields . The threat from these underwater weapons was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations .
The closest Puglia came to engaging a hostile vessel came on 27 January 1915 , when while patrolling off Durazzo , she encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian scout cruiser Novara , but the Austro @-@ Hungarian ship retreated without either vessel firing a shot . In late February 1916 , Puglia and the cruiser Libia covered the withdrawal of elements of the Serbian Army from Durazzo . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Army was pursuing the retreating Serbians , and Puglia provided gunfire support to delay the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . She was converted into a minelayer later that year . She entered service in this role on 1 July , and she remained on active duty through the early 1920s .
After the war , Puglia had been assigned to patrol the Dalmatian coast . On 11 July 1920 , men from the ship became involved in the unrest in Split . During a violent confrontation with a group of Croats , the ship 's captain and a sailor were shot and killed . Puglia was sold for scrapping on 22 March 1923 . While the ship was being dismantled , the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini donated the ship 's bow section to the writer and ardent nationalist Gabriele D 'Annunzio , who had it installed at his estate as part of the Vittoriale degli italiani museum .
= Star Trek : Insurrection =
Star Trek : Insurrection is a 1998 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures . It is the ninth feature film in the Star Trek film franchise , and is the third film in the series to star the cast of the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . In addition to that cast , F. Murray Abraham , Donna Murphy and Anthony Zerbe also appeared in main roles . The crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ E rebel against Starfleet after they discover a conspiracy with a species known as the Son 'a to steal the peaceful Ba 'ku 's planet for its rejuvenating properties .
Paramount Studios sought a change in pace after the previous film , Star Trek : First Contact . Michael Piller was asked to write the script , which was created from story ideas by Piller and executive producer Rick Berman . The story 's first drafts featured the Romulans , and the Son 'a and Ba 'ku were introduced in the third draft . After Ira Steven Behr reviewed the script , Piller revised it and added a subplot involving a romantic interest for Jean @-@ Luc Picard . The ending was further revised after test screenings .
The special effects depicting outer space were completely computer generated , a first for a Star Trek film . The Ba 'ku village was fully built on location at Lake Sherwood , California , but suffered weather damage . Sets from the television series Star Trek : Voyager and Star Trek : Deep Space Nine were reused and redressed . Michael Westmore created the make @-@ up for the new alien races , and Robert Blackman revised the Starfleet dress uniform designs . Sanja Milkovic Hayes created costumes for the Ba 'ku from cellulose fibers , which were baked and glued together . Jerry Goldsmith produced the film 's score ; his fourth for the franchise .
Insurrection was the highest @-@ grossing film on its opening weekend , making US $ 22 @.@ 4 million . The film made over $ 70 @.@ 1 million in the United States and an additional $ 42 @.@ 4 million in other territories , for a theatrical run of about $ 112 @.@ 5 million worldwide . Critical responses to the film were mixed ; the performance of Patrick Stewart and the directing of Jonathan Frakes were praised , while other critics compared it to an extended episode of television series . Insurrection was nominated for both a Saturn Award and a Hugo Award , but the only award it received was a Youth in Film Award for Michael Welch . The film has been released on videotape , DVD and Blu @-@ ray home video formats .
= = Plot = =
Lieutenant Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) is temporarily transferred to an undercover mission observing the peaceful Ba 'ku people . While on their planet , he malfunctions and reveals the presence of the joint Federation – Son 'a task force observing the Ba 'ku . Admiral Matthew Dougherty ( Anthony Zerbe ) contacts the USS Enterprise @-@ E to obtain Data 's schematics but adamantly states the presence of the Enterprise is not needed . Captain Picard decides to ignore these orders and takes the Enterprise to capture Data . After stopping Data , Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) becomes suspicious of Dougherty 's insistence that the Enterprise is no longer needed . His crew investigates the cause of Data 's malfunction . They discover that the Ba 'ku are technologically advanced , but have rejected its use to live simpler lives . Due to unique radiation or " metaphasic particles " emanating from their planet 's rings , they are effectively immortal . Dougherty 's allies , the Son 'a , are a decrepit race who use medical techniques to prevent death ; their excessive use of cosmetic surgery gives them a mummified appearance . The Enterprise crew also begin to experience the rejuvenation effects of the planet : Lt. Commander Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) finds his eyes have regenerated and he no longer requires ocular implants ; Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) and Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) rekindle their long @-@ abandoned relationship ; and Picard develops a romantic relationship with the Ba 'ku woman Anij ( Donna Murphy ) .
Data and Picard discover a submerged and cloaked Federation ship containing a gigantic holodeck set up to recreate the Ba 'ku village . Data 's malfunction stems from a Son 'a attack , received when he discovered the vessel . Picard confronts Dougherty and learns that top Federation officers and the Son 'a secretly planned to deceptively move the Ba 'ku to the ship and forcibly relocate them to another planet , allowing the Son 'a to collect the rejuvenating radiation ( but poisoning the planet in the process ) . Dougherty orders the Enterprise to leave . Picard states the rejuvenation benefit of the radiation does not justify Dougherty 's plans for the Ba 'ku and violates the Prime Directive . He plans to alert the Federation of the forced relocation .
Picard is joined by some of his crew to help the Ba 'ku escape from being abducted while Riker takes the Enterprise to a transmission range and communicate the violation to Star Fleet . The Son 'a send robotic probes to locate and capture the fleeing Ba 'ku . The Son 'a leader , Ahdar Ru 'afo ( F. Murray Abraham ) , convinces Dougherty to allow two Son 'a ships to attack the Enterprise . Riker defeats the attacking ships and the Enterprise escapes . Their plan exposed , Ru 'afo insists upon harvesting the radiation source immediately . Picard , Anij , and several Ba 'ku are transported as prisoners onto the Son 'a ship . Picard reveals to Dougherty that the Son 'a and the Ba 'ku are the same race and involving the Federation in a blood feud . The Son 'a are a splinter faction of Ba 'ku who gave up their bucolic existence a century earlier to embrace the use of technology . They attempted to seize power but failed , and the Ba 'ku elders exiled them from the planet , denying them the rejuvenating effects of the rings . The Son 'a developed an artificial and imperfect means to extend their lives at the cost of disfigurement . Ru 'afo kills Admiral Dougherty when he backs out of the plan and Ru 'afo proceeds with his plan .
While Picard is escorted to be executed , he convinces the Son 'a Gallatin ( Gregg Henry ) to help him stop Ru 'afo . Picard masterminds a ruse to transport Ru 'afo and his bridge crew to the holoship and shutdown the harvester . Ru 'afo discovers the deception and transports to the radiation harvester ship to manually restart the process . Picard follows and sets the harvester to self @-@ destruct , which kills Ru 'afo while Picard is rescued by the Enterprise . The remaining Son 'a are forgiven and welcomed back by the Ba 'ku . Picard arranges a meeting between Gallatin and his Ba 'ku mother . The Enterprise crew take a moment to enjoy their rejuvenated selves before returning to their previous mission .
= = Cast = =
Patrick Stewart thought that the first Next Generation film , Star Trek Generations , was too much like a television episode but thought that his character , Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard , was redefined as a " movie hero " in Star Trek : First Contact . He was concerned that in the new film , the character would return to that scene in the television series . Michael Piller said that he felt that in order to be a hero , Picard " should be acting out of a moral and ethical mindset , and stand for principles that are important to mankind " . Stewart was later pleased with the film 's romantic sub @-@ plot , calling it " charming " and saying that he was " feeling very good about it . " He thought that the film had a lighter tone than previous films , saying , " It shows our crew having a little more fun than we normally see them doing " . Stewart was disappointed that a scene in which Picard and Anij kiss was cut from the final version of the film , saying that " It was a studio decision , but still somewhat inexplicable to me as I feel the audience were waiting for some kind of romantic culmination to the relationship , which did happen and was extremely pleasant . " Stewart received a producer 's credit on the film .
Jonathan Frakes appeared as Commander William Riker , and as with First Contact he directed the project . Brent Spiner starred as Lieutenant Commander Data . Spiner had asked for his character to be killed off in Insurrection because he was concerned that he was getting too old to play the role . His copy of the script came with a note from the production team saying , " Sorry , kill you later " . The underwater scene required Spiner to wear more make @-@ up than usual because it needed to be waterproof . LeVar Burton reprised his role of Lieutenant Commander Geordi La Forge ; a month before the release of Insurrection he appeared in the role in a guest appearance in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Timeless " .
Michael Dorn returned as Lieutenant Commander Worf ; Dorn had portrayed that character in Deep Space Nine since 1995 . Reprising her role as Doctor Beverly Crusher , Gates McFadden said that " Shooting Star Trek and getting paid to do it is great . But what 's actually changed my life the most is travelling around and ... being a tiny little part of this huge mythology that has changed people 's lives , in many ways for the better . " Marina Sirtis appeared once more as Counselor Deanna Troi . She was positive about the film , saying " we 've been involved with this for eleven years , we 've done 179 episodes , three movies , and there are still surprises . There are more layers in this movie , it 's not as black and white . It goes back to a lot of what Gene Roddenberry felt about Star Trek – I think he 's going to be very happy up there when he sees this movie . "
Before the casting process , no actors had been considered for the roles of the Son 'a leader , the Ba 'ku woman , and the Starfleet admiral . The Son 'a leader , Ahdar Ru 'afo , was portrayed by F. Murray Abraham , who won an Academy Award for his performance in Amadeus . Abraham was given the role without an audition . Abraham said of the franchise , " I was around when the series was first introduced to television and it was a hoot " , He praised his make @-@ up and prosthetics , saying " The idea that you can be somebody else behind the mask is an extraordinary feeling – it 's very primitive and mysterious . A gap opens somewhere in the brain and it encourages wildness . It had me chewing at the scenery " . He was particularly pleased to be working with Patrick Stewart .
Donna Murphy played the Ba 'ku woman Anij , who is Picard 's love interest . Eighty actresses auditioned for the role , which was awarded to Murphy who had previously won two Tony Awards for her roles in the Broadway musicals Passion and The King and I. Murphy was such a favorite of Frakes and the producers that after auditioning , only a small number of other actresses were seen . She said of the role , " I feel a great honor and responsibility to be a part of this film , because I know that the Star Trek audience has such a devotion to and affection for these richly drawn characters . "
Anthony Zerbe originally auditioned for the role of Ru 'afo , and was considered to be the best choice for it . However , the production team decided instead to cast him in the role of Admiral Matthew Dougherty . During Zerbe 's audition , instead of reading the lines provided , he recited Dante 's Inferno before seamlessly moving into the script . Frakes and the producers unanimously decided to award him the part of Dougherty . In the film 's smaller roles , Stephanie Niznik played Ensign Kell Perim and Daniel Hugh Kelly appeared as Sojef . Gregg Henry appeared as Gallatin , and child actor Michael Welch played the Ba 'ku child Artim . Michael Horton returned as the tactical officer he portrayed in First Contact ; his character was called Lieutenant Daniels in this film . Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave guitarist Tom Morello played a Son 'a warrior . Morello 's make @-@ up regime began at 5am , at which time he said he would normally " be crawling back into my coffin " .
Several of the film 's actors had previously appeared in the Star Trek franchise . Bruce French , who portrayed Son 'a Officer Number 1 , appeared as Sabin Genestra in the The Next Generation episode " The Drumhead " and as the Ocampa doctor in the Voyager pilot episode . Son 'a Officer Number 3 was played by Joseph Ruskin , who appeared in four episodes across the Star Trek franchise : The Original Series episode " The Gamesters of Triskelion " , and the Deep Space Nine episodes " Improbable Cause " and " Looking for par 'Mach in All the Wrong Places " and the Voyager episode " Gravity " . McKenzie Westmore , daughter of make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore , played a Ba 'ku woman . She previously appeared as a child in The Next Generation season one episode " When the Bough Breaks " and as Ensign Jenkins in the Voyager episode " Warhead " . Scenes cut from the film would have featured two of the actors who played Ferengi on Deep Space Nine : Max Grodénchik , more familiar as Rom , was to have appeared as a Trill in the library scene . Armin Shimerman reprised his role as Quark in a scene in which he tries to set up timeshares on the Ba 'ku planet at the end of the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
Following the success of First Contact , Paramount Pictures wanted a change in pace to give the follow @-@ up film a lighter tone . Since Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home was light in tone , yet was the most successful of all the Star Trek films at the box office , Paramount reasoned that this success could be repeated with the new film . Michael Piller was asked to write the script , and accepted the position . Piller was in development hell with another project which he wished to get out of . He wanted to give the crew a feeling of family , with a story featuring overtones of the Joseph Conrad novel Heart of Darkness . Rick Berman wanted to see Picard undertake a rescue mission in a similar manner to the 1937 film , The Prisoner of Zenda . Berman also originated an idea to have Picard kidnapped , and replaced with a surgically modified imposter . Piller was doubtful about Berman 's idea , reasoning that the audience would not want to see an entire film in which Picard is not the lead star – the character would look like Patrick Stewart but would be different . A further idea from Berman would have seen the return of Lore , last seen in the episode " Descent " , in a film which was described as similar in tone to Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan .
Piller initially thought to write a Fountain of Youth @-@ type story , later saying , " Everybody 's consumed with images of youth . There 's commercials , plastic surgery – our culture seems obsessed with youth . " He called the initial treatment " Heart of Lightness " . Eric A. Stillwell was Piller 's executive assistant and script coordinator . When Piller agreed to write a book about the making of Insurrection , Pocket Books hired Stillwell as Piller 's typist and research assistant . The book went unpublished , and it was alleged that Paramount Pictures suppressed it . Following Piller 's death in 2005 , the book was published on the internet .
Piller created a first draft treatment for the film entitled Star Trek : Stardust , with the title taken from the song by Hoagy Carmichael after hearing Nat King Cole 's version on the radio . The treatment featured Picard resigning from Starfleet after he is sent to retrieve a population and their youth @-@ giving power , and bring them to an alien government , and included a betrayal by Picard 's rogue colleague . The draft went through several versions with only the crew 's mission and the Briar Patch – named after the area from the Br 'er Rabbit stories – remaining . Berman suggested that Data become the renegade crew @-@ member that Picard must deal with . The plot was similar to The Next Generation episode " Homeward " in that a people were being relocated through use of a holodeck . The use of a duck blind to observe cultures was previously used in the episode " Who Watches the Watchers " .
In one draft , Picard kills Data early in the film , and the android is later resurrected to help the Captain in the finale . The first two drafts featured the Romulans as the protagonists , since they had never prominently appeared in a Star Trek film . The second draft was seen by Jonathan Dolgen at the studio ; Dolgen was not pleased and Patrick Stewart thought that it would have been only suitable for a television episode . In the third draft , the Son 'a were introduced as the children of the Ba 'ku and the alien race that wanted to plunder the planet . That version also included the crew sub @-@ plots , such as the Troi @-@ Riker romance and the regeneration of La Forge 's eyes . Stewart , who was concerned that the film was a step back in scope from First Contact , was consulted on the treatments .
Piller drafted the first version of the script and asked Ira Steven Behr , executive producer of Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , to review it . Behr was critical of the script , describing the Son 'a as " paper tigers " . Piller said that " I knew he was right . There 's no question that first draft was trying to tell two stories , and that 's one too many for a movie . " Piller re @-@ drafted the script , adding a romantic subplot for Picard in the shape of Anij , a Ba 'ku woman . He added gravitas to the Son 'a to make them more menacing , and the ending was changed to include a massive Son 'a collector ship and a confrontation between Picard and Ru 'afo aboard the ship . A version of the script was subsequently leaked onto the internet . At the same time , Piller and Berman were exploring titles for the film – including Prime Directive , The Directive , The Resignation , The Enemy Within , Breach of Promise , Dereliction of Duty and Apostasy – because they reasoned that they could not submit it to the studio under the title of Stardust . They could not settle on a title so they submitted it as Star Trek IX .
The studio was pleased with the post @-@ Behr version of the script , which was the first version of the script they saw – having previously only seen pre @-@ script treatments . In a memo to Piller , it was described as " easily the funniest and sexiest Star Trek story to date " . They gave Piller a series of directions , including a request for a resolution to the Troi and Riker romance and for the character of Reginald Barclay to be replaced with expanded roles either for Beverley Crusher , Worf , or a new character .
Patrick Stewart sought a change to the script to have the crew defend the Ba 'ku village in the manner of the Battle of the Alamo instead of fleeing into the mountains . Piller could not find a feasible way to include this in the script , and the budget ruled out the creation of Alamo @-@ like structures in the mountains . Several titles were considered for the film as shooting approached . Star Trek : Where Time Stands Still , Star Trek : Forever and Star Trek : Beyond Paradise were all considered but were rejected . Piller 's favorite was Star Trek : Sacred Honor , but the studio rejected this because they were concerned that it sounded too religious . When shooting began , the film was still called Star Trek IX .
The final version of the script was distributed to the cast , but Patrick Stewart did not receive a copy . Berman was concerned that if anyone had a problem with it , they would call Stewart to complain and it would appear as though Stewart was being left out because he had criticized the story . LeVar Burton called Stewart to praise the script . Stewart was sent a copy and requested a meeting to discuss changes . Piller feared the worst , but after a twenty @-@ minute meeting with Stewart , who requested several dialogue changes , the script was finalized . During pre @-@ production , the marketing department wanted to decide a title , preferring Star Trek : Revolution . Alan Spencer – a friend of Piller – suggested Insurrection , which was selected from a choice of Insurrection , Rebellion , High Treason and Act of Treason .
After filming was complete , test screenings were held , and the production team became aware of a problem with the ending . In the original ending , Ru 'afo is ejected into space from the Son 'a collector ship and de @-@ ages rapidly as he floats amongst the rings of the planet Ba 'ku . The revised ending saw the Enterprise swoop in at the last minute to save Picard and destroy the collector ship with Ru 'afo aboard . The studio liked the new ending but wanted a bigger space battle . The production team agreed providing they could postpone the release to allow enough time for this . Because the studio wanted Insurrection to be released in time for Christmas , no further revisions were made to the ending .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Insurrection was the first Star Trek film with space @-@ based effects produced entirely using computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . While CGI had been used for specific effects since Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ; Insurrection was the first Star Trek film to be made without using physical models of spacecraft . Santa Barbara Studios produced the effects , which included CGI starship models . The texture on the model of the Enterprise @-@ E was created from a series of close @-@ up photographs of the model Enterprise which had been used in First Contact . The planet @-@ based effects , such as phaser fire , transporter effects and the Son 'a drones were created by Blue Sky Studios . Peter Lauritson was the co @-@ producer for post @-@ production .
Herman Zimmerman was the production designer , and had three months to design and construct 55 full sets for the film – eighteen more than used in the previous film in the series . Zimmerman said that it was " probably the most scenery we 've built for a Star Trek motion picture since the first one , when everything was brand new " . The Ba 'ku village was built in full scale on location at Lake Sherwood , California , with architectural designs combining Thai , Balinese and Polynesian styles . The village included a bakery , a farm with a full irrigation system , a city hall , and a city square which was referred to as the " rotunda " . The location shoot lasted for six weeks . The buildings included sections built with styrofoam , which were cut out using computer aided design and computer @-@ aided manufacturing techniques . These were covered in hardcoat to make them look as though they were made from stone , but they were not made waterproof . The set suffered water damage following record @-@ levels of rainfall during the spring of 1998 . The foam warped as it dried out in the sun , causing delays in shooting while repairs were made .
Sets built for use in Star Trek : Voyager were redressed to appear as the Enterprise @-@ E in Insurrection ; Captain Janeway 's quarters became Picard 's , the Voyager briefing room became Riker 's quarters , and part of the Voyager engineering set became the Enterprise library . The interior of the scoutship manned by Data was originally the cockpit of the Voyager 's shuttlecraft , while the interior of the Enterprise shuttlecraft used the interior set from a Star Trek : Deep Space Nine Runabout . Filming began on March 31 , 1998 and concluded on July 2 . According to Frakes , half of the time shooting was spent on location . The scenes in which the Enterprise crew and the Ba 'ku take refuge in the mountains were shot on location above Lake Sabrina in the Sierra Nevada in locations which could only be reached by helicopter . The location was around 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) above sea level , and a medic was on standby with oxygen if the cast or crew required it .
After filming , parts of the interior sets of the So 'na ships were added using CGI . Stage 15 on the Paramount lot was used for the climactic scene between Picard and Ru 'afo . Because of the dangers of the four @-@ story scaffolding @-@ like set , the actors were attached by safety cables at all times . Paramount 's B tank – which was used to represent San Francisco Bay in Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home – was used to shoot footage of Picard , Data and Anij at the Ba 'ku lake . For a scene in which Data walks along a lake @-@ bed , the actor 's tricorder prop was covered with plastic to make it watertight .
= = = Costumes and make @-@ up = = =
Make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore aimed to create a look for the Son 'a that was not exaggerated . He consulted several sculptors ; Dean Jones , who was on the production staff for Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , created the look . The prosthetics for Ru 'afo consisted of overlapping layers that were stretched over Abraham 's head . Westmore said Abraham 's prosthetics was " like a rubber band , F. Murray Abraham could turn his head and the skin would look translucent . It was so thin , and the layers were pulling on each other . " The two other aliens on the Son 'a vessels also had specific prosthetic make @-@ up designs created . The Tarlac 's look was based reptilian skin , while the Ellora required only nose and forehead prosthetics .
The film also gave costume designer Robert Blackman an opportunity to address issues with the Starfleet dress uniforms , which Blackman had changed on several occasions during The Next Generation . The uniforms appeared for the first time in the episode " Lonely Among Us " , and were based on the 18th century designs for the Royal Navy . For Insurrection , Blackman initially thought of creating a uniform with short jackets in blue , red and gold , which he later said was " not a good idea " . His eventual design removed the color palettes for specific divisions . Blackman said , " No matter what , white over black has a formal look to it . " Sanja Milkovic Hayes created the remaining new costumes for the film . She avoided making the Ba 'ku look too cute , and used material made from cellulose fiber specifically created for Insurrection . She said it was organic , and was simply cooked and then glued together . The Son 'a costumes were made from layers of crushed velvet and metal strips . The female bodysuits were made of latex ; Hayes wanted them to appear " sexy , but not vulgar " and described the outfits as " very conservative " .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Insurrection was composed by Jerry Goldsmith ; his fourth score for the franchise . Goldsmith continued using the march and Klingon themes written for Star Trek : The Motion Picture in 1979 , adding new themes and variations . Insurrection opens with Alexander Courage 's Star Trek : The Original Series fanfare , introducing a six @-@ note motif used in many of the film 's action sequences . The Ba 'ku are scored with a pastoral theme with repeating harps , string sections and a woodwind solo . The Ba 'ku 's ability to slow time was accompanied with a variation of this music .
Goldsmith used quick bursts of brass music to accompany the starship sequences . For scenes in which observers are watching the Ba 'ku unseen , Goldsmith used a " spying theme " that resembles his conspiracy theme from Capricorn One . Composed of a piano , timpani percussion , and brass , the theme builds until it is interrupted by the action theme as Data opens fire . Goldsmith did not write a motif for the Son 'a , but scored the action sequence without designating the Son 'a as an antagonist , suggesting the film 's revelation that the Son 'a and Ba 'ku are related . The film 's climax is scored with the action theme , which is balanced with " sense of wonder " music similar to cues from The Motion Picture .
One scene in the film shows Patrick Stewart and Brent Spiner conducting a duet of A British Tar from the Gilbert and Sullivan comic @-@ opera H.M.S. Pinafore . This replaced the original idea of Picard and Data reciting scenes from Shakespeare 's play King Lear . Stewart had suggested that they sing Three Little Maids from School are we from The Mikado instead , but the producers described this as " too vulgar " . Stewart and Spiner had previously sung together on Spiner 's 1991 album Ol ' Yellow Eyes Is Back .
In 2013 , GNP Crescendo Records re @-@ released the soundtrack for the film as an expanded collector 's edition [ GNPD 8082 ] , featuring previously unreleased tracks by Goldsmith plus four bonus tracks .
Track listing for the expanded edition ( tracks in italics also on the original release ) :
Ba 'ku Village ( 6 : 53 )
Out of Orbit / Take Us In ( 1 : 44 )
Come Out ( 2 : 34 )
In Custody ( 1 : 14 )
Warp Capability / The Planet / Children 's Story ( 2 : 33 )
The Holodeck ( 4 : 35 )
How Old Are You / New Sight ( 6 : 14 )
Lost Ship / Prepare the Ship ( 2 : 39 )
As Long As We Can ( 1 : 40 )
Not Functioning / Send Your Ships ( 2 : 55 )
Growing Up / Wild Flowers / Photon Torpedo ( 2 : 55 )
The Drones Attack ( 4 : 15 )
The Riker Maneuver ( 3 : 15 )
Stay With Me ( 1 : 48 )
The Same Race ( 2 : 50 )
The Collector ( 1 : 10 )
No Threat ( 4 : 18 )
Tractor Beam ( : 38 )
The Healing Process ( revised ) ( 5 : 04 )
The Healing Process ( original version ) ( 7 : 17 )
End Credits ( 5 : 30 )
Ba 'ku Village ( alternate ending ) ( 3 : 53 )
The Holodeck ( alternate opening ) ( 1 : 12 )
Growing Up ( alternate ) ( 1 : 21 )
Tractor Beam ( alternate ) ( : 38 )
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
The world premiere of Insurrection launched the 1998 CineVegas film festival . It went on general release in North America on December 11 , 1998 . The film grossed $ 22 @.@ 4 million over the opening weekend ; the most of any film during that period . It averaged a total of $ 8 @,@ 417 per location across 2 @,@ 620 theaters , but fell short of the opening weekend takings of both First Contact and Generations , which were $ 30 @.@ 7 million and $ 23 @.@ 1 million respectively .
Insurrection was the highest @-@ grossing film during the first week of its release in the United States , and stayed in the top ten for a further three weeks . During its first week of release in the UK , it was the highest @-@ grossing film , exceeding the takings of the Will Smith film Enemy of the State . It went on to gross $ 70 @,@ 187 @,@ 658 in the US and $ 42 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 overseas for a total of $ 112 @,@ 587 @,@ 658 worldwide against a $ 58 million budget . It was the first Star Trek film to be promoted through the official website , which was called the " Star Trek Continuum " at the time . Following the success of the film , Rick Berman said that he wanted to release the next film in the series three years after Insurrection . Referencing Stanley Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey , he said , " The notion of releasing a science fiction film in the year 2001 is very seductive . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The critical response to Insurrection was mixed . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 55 % based on 67 reviews , with critic consensus being that , " Although not terrible , the sluggishly paced Insurrection plays like an extended episode of the TV series . " The Los Angeles Daily News said that the film had the " bare bones of one of those pseudo @-@ philosophical political allegories Trek has always done so entertainingly . But the movie blows it . " It praised the directing of Jonathan Frakes and the computer generated special effects and gave the film two and a half stars overall . The Daily Herald also gave the film two and a half stars , describing it as a " slickly made " movie with a plot " scaled down to its TV roots " , and criticized the " frivolous " romance between Riker and Troi . The Washington Times gave the film one and a half stars , saying that it was " consistently flat @-@ footed and slow on the uptake " , and that there was " ramshackle confusion during the climactic scenes " .
The Daily Mail praised the moral point the film was attempting to raise as well as the acting abilities of Patrick Stewart , giving the movie four stars . The Scottish Daily Record praised F. Murray Abraham and described Anthony Zerbe as " ever @-@ dependable " . It said the plot was good , but that it was simply an extended episode of The Next Generation , and gave it a score of six out of ten . The British newspaper The People also said it was an extended television episode .
The Independent said that Insurrection " never stops being familiarly jolly and antiquated " , and called the entire Star Trek film franchise " old @-@ fashioned " . The Washington Post also called the film old fashioned , but " in the best sense of the word " , and said that the film did what the " doctor – make that Dr. ' Bones ' McCoy – ordered " . British journalist Simon Rose , writing for The Daily Mirror was more critical of the film , saying that it failed to break the odd @-@ numbered Star Trek film curse , and that it was " feeble " , " moribund " and " tedious " . However , Josh Spiegel writing for The Buffalo News said that Insurrection broke the odd @-@ numbered film rule . Further criticism came from the Birmingham Evening Mail , which said that it was " an adult form of entertainment equivalent to Teletubbies for babies " , and that there were " lots of repetition , rubbery faces , gibberish dialogue , characters leaping up and down in funny suits and some very basic effects " . The reviewer gave the film two stars for fans , and none for non @-@ fans . In Folklore / Cinema : Popular Film as Vernacular Culture , the actions of Data and the Ba 'ku child Artim in Insurrection are seen as " a metamorphosis motif where a child becomes computerlike and a computer / android becomes more childlike " . Data specifically " is a metaphor for a child who seeks to understand what being human means and then , like the velveteen rabbit , wishes to become . From confronting his father and evil brother to finding his mother , Data also represents the potential within all of us to quest for a fuller humanity " .
= = = Accolades and nominations = = =
The film was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film at the 25th Saturn Awards ; the prize was shared by Armageddon and Dark City . In 1999 , it was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , which went to The Truman Show . It was nominated for Best Family Feature Film : Drama at the 20th Youth in Film Awards and won the individual award for Best Performance in a Feature Film : Supporting Young Actor for Michael Welch .
= = Home media = =
The first home media release of the film was made simultaneously on VHS and DVD on May 11 , 1999 , in the United States , and outside the US on VHS later that year . The film was released on June 5 , 2000 , in the United Kingdom , and was one of the first titles to be released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment International in Europe and Japan .
A video game which followed up on the events of Insurrection was released in 2000 . Entitled Star Trek : Hidden Evil , it was set nine months after the events depicted in the film . In its narrative , Son 'a colony has been created on Ba 'ku , and an archaeological discovery which shares similarities with The Next Generation episode " The Chase " is made . The game was developed by Presto Studios and published by Activision .
An Insurrection " Special Collector 's Edition " two @-@ disc set was released in 2005 at the same time as three other Next Generation films and Star Trek : Enterprise 's fourth season , marking the first time that every film and episode of the franchise was available on home video . The film was presented with the same technical specifications as the previous release and a new DTS soundtrack , but it shipped without an audio commentary . The DVD includes a text track by Michael and Denise Okuda that provides production trivia and relevant facts about the Star Trek universe . The second disc contains six " making @-@ of " videos , including one about the construction of the Ba 'ku village and one about Michael Westmore 's make @-@ up designs for the film .
As part of a collection of Star Trek : The Next Generation films , Insurrection was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on September 22 , 2009 . The Blu @-@ ray transfer is presented in 1080p high definition enhanced for widescreen television and features 5 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD audio in English , French and Spanish . The release also contains " Creating the Illusion " featurettes and new commentary by Jonathan Frakes and Marina Sirtis .
Insurrection was released on Netflix streaming on July 1 , 2015 .
= Polish legislative election , 1957 =
Parliamentary elections were held in Poland on 20 January 1957 . They were the second election to the Sejm – the bicameral parliament of the People 's Republic of Poland , and the third ever in the history of Communist Poland . It took place during the liberalization period , following Władysław Gomułka 's ascension to power . Although freer than previous elections , they were not a free election . Polish voters of 1957 were given the right to vote against some official candidates ; de facto having a small chance to express a vote of no confidence against the government and the Party , but no possibility to elect any real opposition , whose members were not allowed to run in the elections . The elections resulted in a predictable victory for the Front of National Unity coalition dominated by the ruling Polish communist party – the Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) , and communist leader , Władysław Gomułka .
The elections , while victorious for Gomułka , did not guarantee lasting changes in the Polish society . The new regime was much more liberal than its Stalinist predecessor , and enjoyed moderate support during the first few years after the election in the " little stabilization " period of 1957 – 1963 . However , by mid @-@ 1960s it faced opposition from the competing factions in the communist party itself . Coupled with growing popular opposition to the communist rule , Gomułka would be removed from power in the aftermath of the 1968 political crisis and the Polish 1970 protests .
The previous elections in Poland were held in 1952 . These were followed by the 1961 elections .
= = Background = =
The elections were originally planned for the December of 1956 but due to significant political changes in the government , resulting from Władysław Gomułka 's ascension to power , they were delayed until early 1957 . Among the various promises made by First Secretary Gomułka , during the Polish October peaceful revolution , to the restless Polish population was that of free elections . He knew that this was a promise that he could not keep without seeing his party defeated . In the January 1957 elections the new ' democratic ' aspect was the reintroduction of the secret ballot , and more importantly , there were more candidates than available seats in the parliament ; in the 1952 elections the number of candidates equaled the number of seats in the Sejm . Another liberalizing factor was that unlike in previous elections , intimidation by the secret police ( Służba Bezpieczeństwa ) and the government against the opposition was limited .
The candidates were divided into two groups - one officially supported by the party and the ' independents ' ( broadly following the communist party line but not declared members of the party ) . The latter would be only considered if over half of the registered voters in the district voted against the official candidates ; otherwise all seats from the district ( on average between 3 and 6 ) would be awarded to the official candidates .
Over 60 @,@ 000 candidates were registered for the 459 seats in the Sejm . The government was not prepared to release its hold on power , so the candidates were screened and only 720 or 723 out of 60 @,@ 000 were finally allowed to participate and be published on the official list by the Front of National Unity ( Polish : Front Jedności Narodu , FJN ) , the only organization allowed to put forth candidates in Polish elections . Factors such as the number of signatures in support of a candidate were deemed to be irrelevant .
According to an official government press agency dispatch , about half of the candidates ( approx . 360 ) were PZPR members . A majority of the remainder belonged to PZPR allies ( Democratic Party ( SD ) , United People 's Party ( ZSL ) ) . There was no opposition party in Poland since all political groupings had to support the program of the PZPR . As a result , no real opposition candidates were permitted to run in the elections , but in theory the Polish voters could have stripped the communists from their claimed legitimacy by abstaining from voting . Another means of preventing the PZPR from obtaining a political victory would have occurred if all of the PZPR candidates were struck out , leaving only 100 to be elected .
Despite the lack of genuine opposition , the liberalized election format allowed for various power struggles to be played out , primarily between the communist party candidates . A particularly notable case was the rivalry between certain candidates from the main communist party ( PZPR ) and one of the lesser communist parties ( ZSL ) .
A day before the elections , Gomułka appealed to Polish citizens not to vote against the Party 's candidates , asserting that ' crossing them out would equal crossing Poland off the map of Europe ' and would bring upon Poland the fate of Hungary . The fear of a possible Soviet intervention , in case of Gomułka 's loss , was also repeated by Radio Free Europe , which noted that Gomułka 's argument while " cruel " , is likely " entirely correct . " Gomułka also persuaded the Catholic Church to urge voters to go to the polls and declare a vote of confidence in the government . Supporting him , Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński officially declared his support for the ' no crossing ' policy .
= = Results = =
The Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) won 237 ( 239 after by @-@ elections ) seats out of 459 while the remainder went its satellite parties ( Democratic Party and United People 's Party ) and a few independents . PZPR 237 seats gave it 51 @.@ 7 % of total , ZSL with 120 ( 118 after by @-@ elections ) had 26 @.@ 1 % , the independents with 63 had 14 % ( non @-@ party faction , 51 , and Catholics from the Znak association , 12 ) and SD with 39 had 8 @.@ 5 % . The FJN alliance was victorious , with 80 @.@ 8 % of the seats .
Overall , the FJN alliance gained 8 seats compared to its 1952 results , but the independents nearly doubled their presence , from 37 to 63 ( this is explained as the Sejm of 1957 had 459 seats , an increase of 34 from the 1952 , which had only 425 seats ) . PZPR was the biggest loser , with 34 seats less than in 1952 , ZSL gained 28 , and SD , 14 . However , as the other parties and " independents " were in fact subordinate to PZPR , its control of the Sejm was , in fact , total . The representational pattern in the Sejm would be nearly stable for the next 30 years , following a slight swing from the independents to PZPR in 1961 .
According to official data , turnout was 94 @.@ 14 % , which are considered to be somewhat suspect considering heavy snowfalls and unfavorable weather conditions prevailing in Poland at the time , and 98 @.@ 4 % of votes were cast for official candidates . Approximately 10 @.@ 6 % of the voters disobeyed the calls for " no crossing " , but in the end only one seat ( in Nowy Sącz ) remained unfilled due to no candidate achieving absolute majority .
The new Sejm had its first session on 20 February . Its senior marshal ( speaker ) was Bolesław Drobner ; its Sejm marshal was Czesław Wycech . Only 12 % of the new deputies were members of the previous , 1952 , Sejm .
Two by @-@ elections were held after the main election . The first took place on 17 March 1957 at Nowy Sącz . The second took place at Wieluń on 5 May 1957 to replace the incumbent who died on February 5 . Those by @-@ elections were won by the PZPR and the ZSL respectively . Two more by @-@ elections took place on October 19 , 1958 in Myślenice and Oleśnica . In those by @-@ elections , ZSL lost the seats to PZPR .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite Gomułka 's hopes , the elections , while victorious for him , did not mean the end of opposition to the communist rule . For a while , support for the Gomułka @-@ led communist party ran high . Reflecting this , the period 1957 @-@ 1963 is known as " little stabilization " . While his regime was much more liberal than the one he succeeded , this gave rive to an opposition within the PZPR party , as some communist politicians , like General Mieczysław Moczar , saw Gomułka as " too soft . " Meanwhile , dissension with the communist rule would grow , and the Polish 1970 protests , soon after the 1968 Polish political crisis , would eventually cause him to lose support with the PZPR party ; suffering from nervous exhaustion , Gomułka would be forced to resign and replaced by Edward Gierek .
= Enlighten Canberra =
Enlighten Canberra
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occurred is that schools developed links with nearby enterprises , and students went to work for only one or two days a week ; the factories and other works disliked having to teach , while students and their families complained that they had little choice in what trade to learn .
While the vocational proposal would not survive Khrushchev 's downfall , a longer @-@ lasting change was a related establishment of specialized high schools for gifted students or those wishing to study a specific subject . These schools were modeled after the foreign @-@ language schools that had been established in Moscow and Leningrad beginning in 1949 . In 1962 , a special summer school was established in Novosibirsk to prepare students for a Siberian math and science Olympiad . The following year , the Novosibirsk Maths and Science Boarding @-@ School became the first permanent residential school specializing in math and science . Other such schools were soon established in Moscow , Leningrad , and Kiev . By the early 1970s , over 100 specialized schools had been established , in mathematics , the sciences , art , music , and sport . Preschool education was increased as part of Khrushchev 's reforms , and by the time he left office , about 22 % of Soviet children attended preschool — about half of urban children , but only about 12 % of rural children .
= = = Foreign and defense policies = = =
When Khrushchev took control , the outside world still knew little of him , and initially was not impressed by him . Short , heavyset , and wearing ill @-@ fitting suits , he " radiated energy but not intellect " , and was dismissed by many as a buffoon who would not last long . British Foreign Secretary Harold Macmillan wondered , " How can this fat , vulgar man with his pig eyes and ceaseless flow of talk be the head — the aspirant Tsar for all those millions of people ? "
Khrushchev biographer Tompson described the mercurial leader :
He could be charming or vulgar , ebullient or sullen , he was given to public displays of rage ( often contrived ) and to soaring hyperbole in his rhetoric . But whatever he was , however he came across , he was more human than his predecessor or even than most of his foreign counterparts , and for much of the world that was enough to make the USSR seem less mysterious or menacing .
= = = = United States and allies = = = =
= = = = = Early relations and U.S. visit ( 1957 – 60 ) = = = = =
Khrushchev sought to find a lasting solution to the problem of a divided Germany and of the enclave of West Berlin deep within East German territory . In November 1958 , calling West Berlin a " malignant tumor " , he gave the United States , United Kingdom and France six months to conclude a peace treaty with both German states and the Soviet Union . If one was not signed , Khrushchev stated , the Soviet Union would conclude a peace treaty with East Germany . This would leave East Germany , which was not a party to treaties giving the Western Powers access to Berlin , in control of the routes to the city . This ultimatum caused dissent among the Western Allies , who were reluctant to go to war over the issue . Khrushchev , however , repeatedly extended the deadline .
Khrushchev sought to eliminate many conventional weapons , and defend the Soviet Union with missiles . He believed that unless this occurred , the huge Soviet military would continue to eat up resources , making Khrushchev 's goals of improving Soviet life difficult to achieve . In 1955 , Khrushchev abandoned Stalin 's plans for a large navy , believing that the new ships would be too vulnerable to either conventional or nuclear attack . In January 1960 , Khrushchev took advantage of improved relations with the U.S. to order a reduction of one @-@ third in the size of Soviet armed forces , alleging that advanced weapons would make up for the lost troops . While conscription of Soviet youth remained in force , exemptions from military service became more and more common , especially for students .
The Soviets had few operable ICBMs ; in spite of this Khrushchev publicly boasted of the Soviets ' missile programs , stating that Soviet weapons were varied and numerous . The First Secretary hoped that public perception that the Soviets were ahead would result in psychological pressure on the West and political concessions . The Soviet space program , which Khrushchev firmly supported , appeared to confirm his claims when the Soviets launched Sputnik 1 into orbit , a launch many westerners , including United States Vice President Richard Nixon were convinced was a hoax . When it became clear that the launch was real , and Sputnik 1 was in orbit , Western governments concluded that the Soviet ICBM program was further along than it actually was . Khrushchev added to this misapprehension by stating in an October 1957 interview that the USSR had all the rockets , of whatever capacity , that it needed . For years , Khrushchev would make a point of preceding a major foreign trip with a rocket launch , to the discomfiture of his hosts . The United States learned of the primitive state of the Soviet missile program from overflights in the late 1950s , but only high U.S. officials knew of the deception . In January 1960 , Khrushchev told the Presidium that Soviet ICBMs made an agreement with the U.S. possible because " main @-@ street Americans have begun to shake from fear for the first times in their lives " . The perceived " missile gap " led to a considerable defense buildup on the part of the United States .
In 1959 , during Nixon 's visit to the Soviet Union , Khrushchev took part in what later became known as the Kitchen Debate , as Nixon and Khrushchev had an impassioned argument in a model kitchen at the American National Exhibition in Moscow , with each defending the economic system of his country . Khrushchev was invited to visit the United States , and did so that September , spending thirteen days . Khrushchev arrived in Washington , DC on his first visit to the United States on September 15 , 1959 . The first visit by a Soviet premier to the United States resulted in an extended media circus . Khrushchev brought his wife , Nina Petrovna , and adult children with him , though it was not usual for Soviet officials to travel with their families . The peripatetic premier visited New York City , Los Angeles , San Francisco ( visiting a supermarket ) , Coon Rapids , Iowa ( visiting Roswell Garst 's farm ) , Pittsburgh , and Washington , concluding with a meeting with U.S. President Eisenhower at Camp David . Khrushchev was supposed to visit Disneyland , but the visit was canceled for security reasons , much to his disgruntlement . He did , however , visit Eleanor Roosevelt at her home in Hyde Park , New York . While visiting an IBM facility in California , Khrushchev expressed little interest in the computers , but greatly admired the self @-@ service cafeteria , and , on his return , introduced self @-@ service in the Soviet Union .
Khrushchev 's U.S. visit resulted in an informal agreement with U.S. president Dwight Eisenhower that there would be no firm deadline over Berlin , but that there would be a four @-@ power summit to try to resolve the issue , and the premier left the U.S. to general good feelings . Khrushchev returned from the U.S. convinced that he had achieved a strong personal relationship with Eisenhower ( who in fact was unimpressed by the Soviet leader ) and that he could achieve détente with the Americans . He pushed for an immediate summit , but was frustrated by French President Charles de Gaulle , who postponed it until 1960 , a year in which Eisenhower was scheduled to pay a return visit to the Soviet Union .
= = = = = U @-@ 2 and Berlin crisis ( 1960 – 61 ) = = = = =
A constant irritant in Soviet – U.S. relations was the overflight of the Soviet Union by American U @-@ 2 spy aircraft . On April 9 , 1960 , the U.S. resumed such flights after a lengthy break . The Soviets had protested the flights in the past , but had been ignored by Washington . Content in what he thought was a strong personal relationship with Eisenhower , Khrushchev was confused and angered by the flights ' resumption , and concluded that they had been ordered by CIA Director Allen Dulles without the U.S. President 's knowledge . On May 1 , a U @-@ 2 was shot down , its pilot , Francis Gary Powers , captured alive . Believing Powers to have been killed , the U.S. announced that a weather plane had been lost near the Turkish @-@ Soviet border . Khrushchev risked destroying the summit , due to start on May 16 in Paris , if he announced the shootdown , but would look weak in the eyes of his military and security forces if he did nothing . Finally , on May 5 , Khrushchev announced the shootdown and Powers ' capture , blaming the overflight on " imperialist circles and militarists , whose stronghold is the Pentagon " , and suggesting the plane had been sent without Eisenhower 's knowledge . Eisenhower could not have it thought that there were rogue elements in the Pentagon operating without his knowledge , and admitted that he had ordered the flights , calling them " a distasteful necessity " . The admission stunned Khrushchev , and turned the U @-@ 2 affair from a possible triumph to a disaster for him , and he even appealed to U.S. Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson for help .
Khrushchev was undecided what to do at the summit even as he boarded his flight to Paris . He finally decided , in consultation with his advisers on the plane and Presidium members in Moscow , to demand an apology from Eisenhower and a promise that there would be no further U @-@ 2 flights in Soviet airspace . Neither Eisenhower nor Khrushchev communicated with the other in the days before the summit , and at the summit , Khrushchev made his demands and stated that there was no purpose in the summit , which should be postponed for six to eight months , that is until after the 1960 United States presidential election . The U.S. President offered no apology , but stated that the flights had been suspended and would not resume , and renewed his Open Skies proposal for mutual overflight rights . This was not enough for Khrushchev , who left the summit . Eisenhower accused Khrushchev " of sabotaging this meeting , on which so much of the hopes of the world have rested " . Eisenhower 's visit to the Soviet Union , for which the premier had even built a golf course so the U.S. President could enjoy his favorite sport , was canceled by Khrushchev .
Khrushchev made his second and final visit to the United States in September 1960 . He had no invitation , but had appointed himself as head of the USSR 's UN delegation . He spent much of his time wooing the new Third World states which had recently become independent . The U.S. restricted him to the island of Manhattan , with visits to an estate owned by the USSR on Long Island . The notorious shoe @-@ banging incident occurred during a debate on October 12 over a Soviet resolution decrying colonialism . Infuriated by a statement of the Filipino delegate Lorenzo Sumulong which charged the Soviets with employing a double standard by decrying colonialism while dominating Eastern Europe , Khrushchev demanded the right to reply immediately , and accused Sumulong of being " a fawning lackey of the American imperialists " . Sumulong resumed his speech , and accused the Soviets of hypocrisy . Khrushchev yanked off his shoe and began banging it on his desk . This behavior by Khrushchev scandalized his delegation .
Khrushchev considered U.S. Vice President Nixon a hardliner , and was delighted by his defeat in the 1960 presidential election . He considered the victor , Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy , as a far more likely partner for détente , but was taken aback by the newly inaugurated U.S. President 's tough talk and actions in the early days of his administration . Khrushchev achieved a propaganda victory in April 1961 with the first manned spaceflight and Kennedy a defeat with the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion . While Khrushchev had threatened to defend Cuba with Soviet missiles , the premier contented himself with after @-@ the @-@ fact aggressive remarks . The failure in Cuba led to Kennedy 's determination to make no concessions at the Vienna summit scheduled for June 3 , 1961 . Both Kennedy and Khrushchev took a hard line , with Khrushchev demanding a treaty that would recognize the two German states and refusing to yield on the remaining issues obstructing a test @-@ ban treaty . Kennedy on the other hand had been led to believe that the test @-@ ban treaty could be concluded at the summit , and felt that a deal on Berlin had to await easing of East – West tensions . Kennedy described negotiating with Khrushchev to his brother Robert as " like dealing with Dad . All give and no take . "
An indefinite postponement of action over Berlin was unacceptable to Khrushchev if for no other reason than that East Germany was suffering a continuous " brain drain " as highly educated East Germans fled west through Berlin . While the boundary between the two German states had elsewhere been fortified , Berlin , administered by the four Allied powers , remained open . Emboldened by statements from former U.S. Ambassador to Moscow Charles E. Bohlen and United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Chairman J. William Fulbright that East Germany had every right to close its borders , which were not disavowed by the Kennedy Administration , Khrushchev authorized East German leader Walter Ulbricht to begin construction of what became known as the Berlin Wall , which would surround West Berlin . Construction preparations were made in great secrecy , and the border was sealed off in the early hours of Sunday , August 13 , 1961 , when most East German workers who earned hard currency by working in West Berlin would be at their homes . The wall was a propaganda disaster , and marked the end of Khrushchev 's attempts to conclude a peace treaty among the Four Powers and the two German states . That treaty would not be signed until September 1990 , as an immediate prelude to German reunification .
= = = = = Establishing relations with Cuba = = = = =
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Cuba were officially restored in May 1960 . Alexandr Alexeyev was named Soviet Ambassador to Cuba two years later , in May 1962 .
= = = = = Cuban Missile Crisis and the test ban treaty ( 1962 – 1964 ) = = = = =
Superpower tensions culminated in the Cuban Missile Crisis ( in the USSR , the " Caribbean crisis " ) of October 1962 , as the Soviet Union sought to install medium range nuclear missiles in Cuba , about 90 miles ( 140 km ) from the U.S. coast . Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro was reluctant to accept the missiles , and , once he was persuaded , warned Khrushchev against transporting the missiles in secret . Castro stated , thirty years later , " We had a sovereign right to accept the missiles . We were not violating international law . Why do it secretly — as if we had no right to do it ? I warned Nikita that secrecy would give the imperialists the advantage . "
On October 16 , Kennedy was informed that U @-@ 2 flights over Cuba had discovered what were most likely medium @-@ range missile sites , and though he and his advisors considered approaching Khrushchev through diplomatic channels , could come up with no way of doing this that would not appear weak . On October 22 , Kennedy addressed his nation by television , revealing the missiles ' presence and announcing a blockade of Cuba . Informed in advance of the speech but not ( until one hour before ) the content , Khrushchev and his advisors feared an invasion of Cuba . Even before Kennedy 's speech , they ordered Soviet commanders in Cuba that they could use all weapons against an attack — except atomic weapons .
As the crisis unfolded , tensions were high in the U.S. ; less so in the Soviet Union , where Khrushchev made several public appearances , and went to the Bolshoi Theatre to hear American opera singer Jerome Hines , who was then performing in Moscow . By October 25 , with the Soviets unclear about Kennedy 's full intentions , Khrushchev decided that the missiles would have to be withdrawn from Cuba . Two days later , he offered Kennedy terms for the withdrawal . Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and a secret promise that the U.S. would withdraw missiles from Turkey , near the Soviet heartland . As the last term was not publicly announced at the request of the U.S. , and was not known until just before Khrushchev 's death in 1971 , the resolution was seen as a great defeat for the Soviets , and contributed to Khrushchev 's fall less than two years later . Castro had urged Khrushchev to launch a pre @-@ emptive nuclear attack on the U.S. in the event of any invasion of Cuba , and was angered by the outcome , referring to Khrushchev in profane terms ;
On October 28 , 1962 , he told his son Sergei Khrushchev that the Lockheed U2 shot down over Cuba and killing Major Rudolf Anderson was by the " Cuban military at the direction of Raul Castro " . Khrushchev invited Castro to Moscow later , and was able to restore good relations .
After the crisis , superpower relations improved , as Kennedy gave a conciliatory speech at American University on June 10 , 1963 , recognizing the Soviet people 's suffering during World War II , and paying tribute to their achievements . Khrushchev called the speech the best by a U.S. president since Franklin Roosevelt , and , in July , negotiated a test ban treaty with U.S. negotiator Averell Harriman and with Lord Hailsham of the United Kingdom . Plans for a second Khrushchev @-@ Kennedy summit were dashed by the U.S. President 's assassination in November 1963 . The new U.S. President , Lyndon Johnson , hoped for continued improved relations but was distracted by other issues and had little opportunity to develop a relationship with Khrushchev before the premier was ousted .
= = = = Eastern Europe = = = =
The Secret Speech , combined with the death of Polish communist leader Boleslaw Bierut , who suffered a heart attack while reading the Speech , sparked considerable liberalization in Poland and Hungary . In Poland , a worker 's strike in Poznań developed into disturbances which left more than 50 dead in October 1956 . When Moscow blamed the disturbances on Western agitators , Polish leaders ignored the claim , and instead made concessions to the workers . With anti @-@ Soviet displays becoming more common in Poland , and crucial Polish leadership elections upcoming , Khrushchev and other Presidium members flew to Warsaw . While the Soviets were refused entry to the Polish Central Committee plenum where the election was taking place , they met with the Polish Presidium . The Soviets agreed to allow the new Polish leadership to take office , on the assurance there would be no change to the Soviet @-@ Polish relationship .
The Polish settlement emboldened the Hungarians , who decided that Moscow could be defied . A mass demonstration in Budapest on October 23 turned into a popular uprising . In response to the uprising , Hungarian Party leaders installed reformist Premier Imre Nagy . Soviet forces in the city clashed with Hungarians and even fired on demonstrators , with hundreds of both Hungarians and Soviets killed . Nagy called for a cease @-@ fire and a withdrawal of Soviet troops , which a Khrushchev @-@ led majority in the Presidium decided to obey , choosing to give the new Hungarian government a chance . Khrushchev assumed that if Moscow announced liberalization in how it dealt with its allies , Nagy would adhere to the alliance with the Soviet Union . However , on October 30 Nagy announced multiparty elections , and the next morning that Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact . On November 3 , two members of the Nagy government appeared in Ukraine as the self @-@ proclaimed heads of a provisional government and demanded Soviet intervention , which was forthcoming . The next day , Soviet troops crushed the Hungarian uprising , with a death toll of 4 @,@ 000 Hungarians and several hundred Soviet troops . Nagy was arrested , and was later executed . Despite the international outrage over the intervention , Khrushchev defended his actions for the rest of his life . Damage to Soviet foreign relations was severe , and would have been greater were it not for the fortuitous timing of the Suez crisis , which distracted world attention .
In the aftermath of these crises , Khrushchev made the statement for which he became well @-@ remembered , " We will bury you " ( in Russian , " Мы вас похороним ! " ( My vas pokhoronim ! ) ) . While many in the West took this statement as a literal threat , Khrushchev made the statement in a speech on peaceful coexistence with the West . When questioned about the statement during his 1959 U.S. visit , Khrushchev stated that he was not referring to a literal burial , but that , through inexorable historical development , communism would replace capitalism and " bury " it .
Khrushchev greatly improved relations with Yugoslavia , which had been entirely sundered in 1948 when Stalin realized he could not control Yugoslav leader Josip Tito . Khrushchev led a Soviet delegation to Belgrade in 1955 . Though a hostile Tito did everything he could to make the Soviets look foolish ( including getting them drunk in public ) , Khrushchev was successful in warming relations , ending the Informbiro period in Soviet @-@ Yugoslav relations . During the Hungarian crisis , Tito initially supported Nagy , but Khrushchev persuaded him of the need for intervention . Still , the intervention in Hungary damaged Moscow 's relationship with Belgrade , which Khrushchev spent several years trying to repair . He was hampered by the fact that China disapproved of Yugoslavia 's liberal version of communism , and attempts to conciliate Belgrade resulted in an angry Beijing .
= = = = China = = = =
After completing his takeover of mainland China in 1949 , Mao Zedong sought material assistance from the USSR , and also called for the return to China of territories taken from it under the Tsars . As Khrushchev took control of the USSR , he increased aid to China , even sending a small corps of experts to help develop the newly communist country . This assistance was described by historian William Kirby as " the greatest transfer of technology in world history " . The Soviet Union spent 7 % of its national income between 1954 and 1959 on aid to China . On his 1954 visit to China , Khrushchev agreed to return Port Arthur and Dalian to China , though Khrushchev was annoyed by Mao 's insistence that the Soviets leave their artillery as they departed .
Mao bitterly opposed Khrushchev 's attempts to reach a rapprochement with more liberal Eastern European states such as Yugoslavia . Khrushchev 's government , on the other hand , was reluctant to endorse Mao 's desires for an assertive worldwide revolutionary movement , preferring to conquer capitalism through raising the standard of living in communist @-@ bloc countries .
Relations between the two nations began to cool in 1956 , with Mao angered both by the Secret Speech and by the fact that the Chinese had not been consulted in advance about it . Mao believed that de @-@ Stalinization was a mistake , and a possible threat to his own authority . When Khrushchev visited Beijing in 1958 , Mao refused proposals for military cooperation . Hoping to torpedo Khrushchev 's efforts at détente with the U.S. , Mao soon thereafter provoked the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis , describing the Taiwanese islands shelled in the crisis as " batons that keep Eisenhower and Khrushchev dancing , scurrying this way and that . Don 't you see how wonderful they are ? "
The Soviets had planned to provide China with an atomic bomb complete with full documentation , but in 1959 , amid cooler relations , the Soviets destroyed the device and papers instead . When Khrushchev paid a visit to China in September , shortly after his successful U.S. visit , he met a chilly reception , and Khrushchev left the country on the third day of a planned seven @-@ day visit . Relations continued to deteriorate in 1960 , as both the USSR and China used a Romanian Communist Party congress as an opportunity to attack the other . After Khrushchev attacked China in his speech to the congress , Chinese leader Peng Zhen mocked Khrushchev , stating that the premier 's foreign policy was to blow hot and cold towards the West . Khrushchev responded by pulling Soviet experts out of China .
= = Removal = =
Beginning in March 1964 , Supreme Soviet presidium chairman and nominal head of state Leonid Brezhnev began discussing Khrushchev 's removal with his colleagues . While Brezhnev considered having Khrushchev arrested as he returned from a trip to Scandinavia in June , he instead spent time persuading members of the Central Committee to support the ousting of Khrushchev , remembering how crucial the Committee 's support had been to Khrushchev in defeating the Anti @-@ Party Group plot . Brezhnev was given ample time for his conspiracy ; Khrushchev was absent from Moscow for a total of five months between January and September 1964 .
The conspirators , led by Brezhnev , First Deputy Premier Alexander Shelepin , and KGB Chairman Vladimir Semichastny , struck in October 1964 , while Khrushchev was on vacation at Pitsunda , Abkhaz ASSR . On October 12 , Brezhnev called Khrushchev to notify him of a special Presidium meeting to be held the following day , ostensibly on the subject of agriculture . Even though Khrushchev suspected the real reason for the meeting , he flew to Moscow , accompanied by the head of the Georgian KGB , General Aleksi Inauri , but otherwise taking no precautions .
Khrushchev arrived at the VIP hall of Vnukovo Airport ; KGB Chairman Semichastny waited for him there , flanked by KGB security guards . Semichastny informed Khrushchev of his ouster and told him not to resist . Khrushchev did not resist , and the hardliners ' coup went off smoothly ; Khrushchev felt betrayed by Semichastny , as he considered him a friend and ally until that very moment , not suspecting that he had joined his enemies within the Party . Khrushchev was then taken to the Kremlin , to be verbally attacked by Brezhnev , Suslov and Shelepin . He had no stomach for a fight , and put up little resistance . Semichastny was careful not to create the appearance of a coup ;
I didn 't even close the Kremlin to visitors . People were strolling around outside , while in the room the Presidium was meeting . I deployed my men around the Kremlin . Everything that was necessary was done . Brezhnev and Shelepin were nervous . I told them : Let 's not do anything that isn 't necessary . Let 's not create the appearance of a coup .
That night , after his ouster , Khrushchev called his friend and Presidium colleague Anastas Mikoyan , and told him :
I 'm old and tired . Let them cope by themselves . I 've done the main thing . Could anyone have dreamed of telling Stalin that he didn 't suit us anymore and suggesting he retire ? Not even a wet spot would have remained where we had been standing . Now everything is different . The fear is gone , and we can talk as equals . That 's my contribution . I won 't put up a fight .
On October 14 , 1964 , the Presidium and the Central Committee each voted to accept Khrushchev 's " voluntary " request to retire from his offices for reasons of " advanced age and ill health . " Brezhnev was elected First Secretary ( later General Secretary ) , while Alexei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev as premier .
= = Life in retirement = =
Khrushchev was granted a pension of 500 rubles per month , and was assured that his house and dacha were his for life . Following his removal from power , Khrushchev fell into deep depression . He received few visitors , especially since Khrushchev 's security guards kept track of all guests and reported their comings and goings . In the fall of 1965 , he and his wife were ordered to leave their house and dacha to move to an apartment and to a smaller dacha . His pension was reduced to 400 rubles per month , though his retirement remained comfortable by Soviet standards . The depression continued . His doctor prescribed sleeping pills and tranquilizers , but even so , when one of his grandsons was asked what the ex @-@ premier was doing in retirement , the boy replied , " Grandfather cries . " He was made a nonperson to such an extent that the thirty @-@ volume Soviet Encyclopedia omitted his name from the list of prominent political commissars during the Great Patriotic War .
As the new rulers made their conservatism in artistic matters known , Khrushchev came to be more favorably viewed by artists and writers , some of whom visited him . One visitor whom Khrushchev regretted not seeing was former U.S. Vice President Nixon , then in his " wilderness years " before his election to the presidency , who came to Khrushchev 's Moscow apartment while the former premier was at his dacha .
Beginning in 1966 , Khrushchev began his memoirs . He dictated them into a tape recorder , and , after attempts to record outdoors failed due to background noise , recorded indoors , knowing that every word would be heard by the KGB . However , the security agency made no attempt to interfere until 1968 , when Khrushchev was ordered to turn over his tapes , which he refused to do . However , while Khrushchev was hospitalized with heart ailments his son , Sergei , was approached by the KGB and told that there was a plot afoot by foreign agents to steal the memoirs . Since copies had been made , some of which had been transmitted to a Western publisher , and since the KGB could steal the originals anyway , Sergei Khrushchev turned over the materials to the KGB , but also instructed that the smuggled memoirs be published , which they were in 1970 under the title Khrushchev Remembers . Under some pressure , Nikita Khrushchev signed a statement that he had not given the materials to any publisher , and his son was transferred to a less desirable job . Upon publication of the memoirs in the West , Izvestia denounced them as a fraud . When Soviet state radio carried the announcement of Khrushchev 's statement , it was the first time in six years he had been mentioned in that medium .
In his final days , Khrushchev visited his son @-@ in @-@ law and former aide , Alexei Adzhubei , and told him , " [ n ] ever regret that you lived in stormy times and worked with me in the Central Committee . We will yet be remembered ! "
= = Death = =
Khrushchev died of a heart attack in a hospital near his home in Moscow on September 11 , 1971 , and is buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow , having been denied a state funeral , and interment in the Kremlin Wall . Fearing demonstrations , the authorities did not announce Khrushchev 's death until the hour of his wake , and surrounded the cemetery with troops . Even so , some artists and writers joined the family at the graveside for the interment .
Pravda ran a one @-@ sentence announcement of the former premier 's death ; Western newspapers contained considerable coverage . Veteran New York Times Moscow correspondent Harry Schwartz wrote of Khrushchev , " Mr. Khrushchev opened the doors and windows of a petrified structure . He let in fresh air and fresh ideas , producing changes which time already has shown are irreversible and fundamental . "
= = Legacy = =
Many of Khrushchev 's innovations were reversed after his fall . The requirement that one @-@ third of officials be replaced at each election was overturned , as was the division in the Party structure between industrial and agricultural sectors . His vocational education program for high school students was also dropped , and his plan for sending existing agricultural institutions out to the land was ended . However , new agricultural or vocational institutions thereafter were located outside major cities . When new housing was built , much of it was in the form of high rises rather than Khrushchev 's low @-@ rise structures , which lacked elevators or balconies .
Some of Khrushchev 's agricultural projects were also easily overturned . Corn became so unpopular in 1965 that its planting fell to the lowest level in the postwar period , as even kolkhozes which had been successful with it in Ukraine and other southern portions of the USSR refused to plant it . Lysenko was stripped of his policy @-@ making positions . However , the MTS stations remained closed , and the basic agricultural problems , which Khrushchev had tried to address , remained . While the Soviet standard of living increased greatly in the ten years after Khrushchev 's fall , much of the increase was due to industrial progress ; agriculture continued to lag far behind , resulting in regular agricultural crises , especially in 1972 and 1975 . Brezhnev and his successors continued Khrushchev 's precedent of buying grain from the West rather than suffer shortfalls and starvation . Neither Brezhnev nor his colleagues were personally popular , and the new government relied on authoritarian power to assure its continuation . The KGB and Red Army were given increasing powers . The government 's conservative tendencies would lead to the crushing of the " Prague Spring " of 1968 .
Though Khrushchev 's strategy failed to achieve the major goals he sought , Aleksandr Fursenko , who wrote a book analyzing Khrushchev 's foreign and military policies , argued that the strategy did coerce the West in a limited manner . The agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba has been adhered to . The refusal of the western world to acknowledge East Germany was gradually eroded , and , in 1975 , the United States and other NATO members signed the Helsinki Agreement with the USSR and Warsaw Pact nations , including East Germany , setting human rights standards in Europe .
The Russian public 's view of Khrushchev remains mixed . According to a major Russian pollster , the only eras of the 20th century that Russians evaluate positively are those under Nicholas II , and under Khrushchev . A poll of young Russians found that they felt Nicholas II had done more good than harm , and all other 20th @-@ century Russian leaders more harm than good — except Khrushchev , about whom they were evenly divided . Subsequent polls , however , have found Brezhnev and Lenin the most popular Russian leaders of the century . Khrushchev biographer William Tompson related the former premier 's reforms to those which occurred later :
Throughout the Brezhnev years and the lengthy interregnum that followed , the generation which had come of age during the ' first Russian spring ' of the 1950s awaited its turn in power . As Brezhnev and his colleagues died or were pensioned off , they were replaced by men and women for whom the Secret Speech and the first wave of de @-@ Stalinization had been a formative experience , and these ' Children of Twentieth Congress ' took up the reins of power under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev and his colleagues . The Khrushchev era provided this second generation of reformers with both an inspiration and a cautionary tale .
= Pacers – Pistons brawl =
The Pacers – Pistons brawl ( colloquially known as the Malice at the Palace ) was an altercation that occurred in a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) game between the Indiana Pacers and the Detroit Pistons on November 19 , 2004 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan . The Associated Press ( AP ) called it " the most infamous brawl in NBA history " .
With less than a minute left in the game , a fight broke out on the court between several players . After the fight was broken up , a fan threw a drink from the stands at Pacers player Ron Artest while he was lying on the scorer 's table . Artest then entered the crowd and sparked a massive brawl between players and fans that stretched onto the court .
After the game , the NBA suspended nine players for a total of 146 games , which led to $ 11 million in salary being lost by the players . Five players were also charged with assault , and eventually sentenced to a year of probation and community service . Five fans also faced criminal charges and were banned from attending Pistons home games for life . The fight also led the NBA to increase security between players and fans , and to limit the sale of alcohol in games .
= = Before the brawl = =
The meeting was the first between the two teams since the previous season 's Eastern Conference Finals , which the Pistons won in six games en route to their first NBA title since the " Bad Boys " era of the late 1980s and early 1990s . This caused the game to receive much hype from the media and fans . Having won two games in a row , the Pacers came into the game with a 6 – 2 record , while the Pistons , the defending champions , began their season 4 – 3 . The game was televised nationally on ESPN , as well as on the Pacers ' and Pistons ' local broadcast affiliates , Fox Sports Midwest and WDIV ( Detroit 's NBC affiliate ) , respectively .
The game , like many previous meetings between the two teams , was dominated by defense . The Pacers got off to a quick start , opening up a 20 @-@ point lead with seven minutes to go before halftime . The Pistons managed to cut into the lead , trailing by 16 points by halftime . The Pistons opened the third quarter with a 9 – 2 run , but the Pacers ended it with a buzzer @-@ beating three @-@ pointer and a layup from Jamaal Tinsley heading into the fourth quarter . Richard Hamilton and Lindsey Hunter started the last quarter with consecutive three @-@ point field goals , as the Pistons cut into the lead again . But Stephen Jackson 's back @-@ to @-@ back field goals pushed the lead back to 93 – 79 with 3 : 52 remaining , essentially putting the Pistons away . Despite the lopsided score near the end of the game , most key players on both teams remained in the game .
The Pacers were led by the 24 @-@ point effort of Ron Artest , who scored 17 in the first quarter . Jermaine O 'Neal notched a double @-@ double with 20 points and 13 rebounds . Tinsley had 13 points , eight assists and a career @-@ high eight steals . Hamilton led the Pistons with 20 points . Rasheed Wallace and Ben Wallace both recorded a double @-@ double . Despite being outrebounded by the Pistons , the Pacers managed to shoot 41 % from the field .
= = Altercation = =
The brawl began with 45 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the game , when Indiana led 97 – 82 . The Pistons ' Ben Wallace was fouled hard from behind by the Pacers ' Ron Artest ( now known as Metta World Peace ) , who slapped him across the back of the head during a layup attempt . Wallace later said that Artest had warned him he would be hit . Wallace responded by shoving Artest in the face with both hands , causing players from both teams to quickly get in between them as they attempted to keep Wallace and Artest separated .
Pistons coach Larry Brown was not yet very concerned , because fights in the NBA rarely lasted for more than a few seconds . During the altercation , Artest lay down on the scorer 's table to relax while putting on a headset to speak with Pacers radio broadcaster Mark Boyle . The microphone was not live . Boyle recalled that the broadcasting team knew Artest 's personality and " there was no way we were going to put an open mic in front of [ him ] in that situation " . Pacers president Donnie Walsh later stated that Artest was following advice he had received on how to calm down and avoid trouble in a volatile situation . After unsuccessfully attempting to break up the confrontation , referees prepared to eject various players before the game resumed . Sportscaster Mike Breen , calling the game for ESPN , believed Wallace would be ejected , while Bill Walton was of the opinion that Stephen Jackson should be ejected as well , for shouting at the Pistons players and aggravating the situation . However , Breen expressed concern that , if ejected , Wallace would have to walk past the Pacers bench , which could trigger another incident .
Ninety seconds after Wallace shoved Artest , most of both teams ' players and coaches were huddled at midcourt , attempting to calm down Wallace ( Tayshaun Prince was the only player on either team to not leave the bench during the entire incident ; others became automatically eligible for one @-@ game suspensions ) . While Artest was lying on the table , Wallace threw a towel at him , causing Artest to briefly stand up before being held back by coaches . A spectator , John Green , then threw a plastic cup of Diet Coke at Artest , hitting him in the chest . Artest jumped off the table , ran into the stands , and grabbed a man , Michael Ryan , who he mistakenly believed was responsible . Boyle stood up to try and hold back Artest and was trampled in the effort , suffering five fractured vertebrae and a gouge on his head . Jackson followed Artest into the stands and punched a fan , William Paulson , in the face in retaliation for the man throwing another drink in Artest 's face while he was being restrained by other spectators . Pacers players Eddie Gill , David Harrison , Reggie Miller , Fred Jones , and Jamaal Tinsley , the Pistons ' Rasheed Wallace , and numerous personnel ( including Pistons radio analyst and former player Rick Mahorn ) also quickly entered the stands to retrieve Artest and Jackson , and to break up the fighting . Green punched Artest twice in the head from behind , as did Ben Wallace 's brother , David , to Jones . More fans then began throwing drinks and other objects , while a number of fans spilled out onto the court .
As Artest walked out of the stands , he was confronted by two more fans , Alvin " A.J. " Shackleford and Charlie Haddad , who ran onto the court . Artest punched Shackleford in the face , causing Haddad to intervene by pushing away Artest , before both fans fell over . While Haddad was on the ground , Anthony Johnson struck him in the back of the head . As Haddad stood up , Jermaine O 'Neal punched him in the jaw after a running start , while slipping in liquid and falling backwards , causing witnesses Scot Pollard , ESPN sideline reporter Jim Gray , and a Pistons executive , Tom Wilson , to briefly fear that O 'Neal would kill Haddad . O 'Neal later claimed that Haddad had been asked to leave the arena earlier that night , and was well @-@ known to security because of claims that he wanted to fight an NBA player in order to receive compensation . William Wesley , Austin Croshere , and Miller pulled Artest away from the fans , but the scene became chaotic as outnumbered arena security struggled to reestablish order . Although Auburn Hills police had plans to handle many disorders , and had three officers in the arena , they were unprepared for players entering the stands .
Pacers coach Rick Carlisle said after the game , " I felt like I was fighting for my life out there . " One reporter who attempted to stop Tinsley from entering the stands recalled that the player " went through me like I was butter " , and former NBA Commissioner David Stern , watching the game on TV , recalled that he said , " Holy [ mouths a swear word ] . " ( O 'Neal later said , " As bad as it looked on TV , it was at least 20 times worse in person . " ) Pacers assistant coach Chuck Person compared the situation to being " trapped in a gladiator @-@ type scene where the fans were the lions and we were just trying to escape with our lives . That 's how it felt . That there was no exit . That you had to fight your way out . " Players ' children and others in the audience cried from fear and shock . Derrick Coleman stood near Brown and Brown 's ball boy son to protect them . The remaining seconds of the game were called off and the Pacers were awarded the 97 – 82 win . Fans booed the Indiana players as they were escorted from the court by officials and security , and continued to throw beverages and other objects ( including a folding chair that nearly hit O 'Neal ) at them as they walked under the tunnel to the locker room . No players from either team spoke to the media before leaving the arena . Eventually , police officers were able to swarm the arena , threatening to handcuff those who wouldn 't leave . Nine spectators were injured , and two were taken to the hospital .
In the Pacers ' locker room , O 'Neal and Carlisle nearly got into a fight over the coaches trying to restrain the players when they were defending themselves . Artest asked Jackson whether he thought the players would get in trouble . Jackson responded , " We 'll be lucky if we have a freaking job . " The conversation convinced an amazed Jackson and Pollard that Artest " wasn 't in his right mind , to ask that question " . Auburn Hills police entered the locker room to make arrests , but the team rushed Artest onto the bus and refused to take him off . The police decided to protect the Pacers as they left the arena and to later contact the team after reviewing game film . Outside of the arena , there were dozens of police cruisers lining the roads out of the parking lots .
= = Charges = =
= = = Suspensions = = =
On November 20 , 2004 , the NBA suspended Artest , Jackson , O 'Neal , and Wallace indefinitely , saying that their actions were " shocking , repulsive , and inexcusable " . The following day , the NBA announced that nine players would be suspended for a total of what eventually became 146 games – 137 games for Pacers players and nine games for Pistons players . David Harrison was also seen fighting with fans , but the NBA stated that he wouldn 't be suspended because " the incident occurred as the players were attempting to leave the floor " .
Artest was given the longest suspension ; he was suspended for the remainder of the 2004 – 05 NBA season , a suspension that eventually totaled 86 games ( 73 regular season and 13 subsequent playoff games ) , the longest suspension for an on @-@ court incident in NBA history . The players suspended also lost in excess of $ 11 million in salary due to the suspensions , with Artest alone losing almost $ 5 million .
In the week following the announcement of the suspensions , the players ' union appealed the suspensions of Artest , Jackson , and O 'Neal , saying they thought that commissioner Stern had " exceeded his authority " . ( Jackson felt that despite losing millions the players were fortunate , however , as Stern could have expelled them from the league . ) A federal arbitrator upheld the full length of all suspensions , except that of O 'Neal , which was reduced to 15 games . However , the NBA appealed the decision of the arbitrator to reduce O 'Neal 's suspension in federal court , and on December 24 , a judge issued a temporary injunction allowing O 'Neal to play , until a full hearing was held on the NBA 's appeal .
O 'Neal played in two more games before the NBA 's case was brought before the U.S. District Court in Brooklyn , New York on December 30 . The NBA argued that under the terms of the Collective Bargaining Agreement ( CBA ) , Stern had absolute authority to hand out suspensions and hear appeals for all on @-@ court incidents . But the judge ruled that because O 'Neal 's behavior was an off @-@ court incident , arbitration was allowed under the CBA , and thus the arbitrator was within his rights to reduce the suspension . Despite O 'Neal 's successful appeal , no further appeals were made to reduce Artest 's and Jackson 's suspensions .
= = = Legal charges = = =
Green was identified by county prosecutor John Gorcyca , who had been his neighbor . On November 30 , Palace Sports and Entertainment , the owner of the Pistons , banned Green and Haddad from attending any events at Palace properties ( including the Palace of Auburn Hills and the DTE Energy Music Theatre ) , revoked their season tickets and issued them refunds . Green had several previous criminal convictions , including counterfeiting , carrying a concealed weapon , felony assault , and three drunken driving convictions , and he was on court @-@ ordered probation from a DUI conviction at the time of the brawl .
On December 8 , 2004 , five Indiana players and five fans ( John Ackerman , John Green , Bryant Jackson , William Paulson , and David Wallace , Ben Wallace 's brother ) were charged for assault and battery . Player O 'Neal ( who also threw usher Melvin Kendziorski onto the scorer 's table when attempting to enter the stands ) and spectator Green , who Gorcyca said " single @-@ handedly incited " the brawl by throwing a cup of liquid at Artest , were charged with two counts , and Artest , Harrison , Jackson , and Anthony Johnson were charged with one count each . Three fans , including David Wallace , received one count of the same charge ; two fans ( Haddad and Shackleford ) who entered the court during the fight were charged with trespassing , and Bryant Jackson , who had prior criminal convictions , was charged with felony assault for throwing a chair . All of the fans involved were banned from attending Pistons games .
On March 29 , 2005 , Bryant Jackson pleaded no contest to a felony assault charge for throwing the chair , and on May 3 , 2005 , he was sentenced to two years probation and ordered to pay $ 6 @,@ 000 in restitution . David Wallace was also convicted , and sentenced to one year of probation and community service for punching Pacers guard Fred Jones from behind .
All five players who were charged pleaded no contest to the charges . On September 23 , 2005 , Artest , Jackson , and O 'Neal were all sentenced to one year on probation , 60 hours of community service , a $ 250 fine , and anger management counseling . A week later , Harrison received the same sentence , and on October 7 , 2005 , Johnson , the last player to be charged , received a similar sentence ( he was ordered to serve 100 hours of community service ) .
On March 27 , 2006 , a jury found Green guilty on one count of assault and battery for punching Artest in the stands , but acquitted him of an assault charge for throwing the cup . On May 1 , 2006 , Green was sentenced to 30 days in jail and two years ' probation . On November 7 , 2006 , the Pistons issued a letter to Green informing him that he was banned for life from attending any Pistons home games under orders from the NBA ( although the ban does not extend to other events at the Palace of Auburn Hills ) .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Public reaction = = =
Several NBA players and coaches said the brawl was the worst fight they had ever seen . Pacers fans began to refer to the team as " the Thugs " . Pistons CEO Tom Wilson later stated that Artest 's action took away physical barriers , such as tables and benches , that normally separate fans and players , and Indianapolis Star reporter Mark Montieth claimed that " in a way , [ Artest ] provoked [ the forthcoming assault ] passively by lying down " . In the post @-@ game commentary on ESPN 's NBA Shootaround , ESPN 's studio analysts laid the blame on the Pistons ' fans instead of on the players . John Saunders of ESPN referred to the fans as " a bunch of punks " . Tim Legler said that " the fans crossed the line " . Stephen A. Smith stated that " some of them ( the fans ) should be arrested as far as I 'm concerned " . Their commentary prompted ESPN vice president Mark Shapiro to place calls to host Saunders , as well as analysts Legler , Smith , and Greg Anthony . Shapiro felt their commentary was biased . The following Tuesday , Shapiro stated , " I wish the studio hadn 't laid the blame solely on the backs of the fans Friday night . "
Although a significant portion of media criticism was directed at the Pistons fans , 46 % of the voters in the ESPN SportsNation poll believed that the fans were to blame for the incident . Other commentators said that Artest and the other players involved were to blame .
= = = Events after the brawl = = =
The Pacers and Pistons played for the first time after the brawl on December 25 at the Conseco Fieldhouse in Indianapolis . The Pistons won 98 – 93 without any incidents . Neither Artest nor Jackson played due to their suspensions ; O 'Neal played in his first game back after the arbitrator reduced his suspension to 15 games . Three months later , on February 17 , 2005 , the NBA imposed new security guidelines for all NBA arenas . The new policies included a size limit of 24 US fl oz ( 710 ml ) for alcohol purchases and a hard cap of two alcoholic beverage purchases for any individual person , as well as a ban of alcohol sales after the end of the third quarter . They also later ordered that each team put at least three security guards between the players and the fans .
On March 25 , 2005 , the Pacers played at The Palace for the first time since the brawl . The game was delayed 90 minutes after a series of bomb threats were aimed at the Pacers locker room , but the game eventually started after no explosives were found . Two of the key figures in the original incident missed the game , as Artest was still suspended and O 'Neal had an injured shoulder . In the game , the Pacers stopped the Pistons ' twelve @-@ game winning streak with a 94 – 81 win .
In the playoffs , Detroit entered as the second seed of the Eastern Conference , and Indiana as the sixth . After the Pistons defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in five games , and the Pacers upset the third seed Boston Celtics in seven games , the two teams met in the second round . Although the Pacers went ahead two games to one , the Pistons clinched the series in six games with three straight wins . After eliminating Indiana , Detroit defeated the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Finals in seven games , then advanced to the NBA Finals , where they lost to the San Antonio Spurs in seven games .
After serving his suspension of the rest of the 2004 – 05 season , Ron Artest returned to the Pacers at the beginning of the 2005 – 06 season . After playing 16 games he demanded to be traded , and the Pacers put him on the injured list . The Pacers ' Walsh said that Artest 's demands were " the last straw " , and many Pacers players who had fought in the brawl to help their teammate felt betrayed . Jackson later said , " I put my career on the line for him , going into the stands and fighting ... I lost $ 3 million [ but ] there was no ' thank you ' or nothing . " After more than a month of inactivity , Indiana traded Artest to the Sacramento Kings for Peja Stojaković . Artest faced Ben Wallace for the first time after the fight in November 2006 , and finally made his return to Detroit in January 2007 . During the Kings ' 91 – 74 loss to the Pistons , Artest was booed constantly , but there were no unusual incidents . After a year 's stop with the Houston Rockets in the 2008 – 09 season , Artest signed with the Los Angeles Lakers . After winning his first NBA championship in 2010 , Artest apologized to Jackson and other Pacers for being " so young and egotistical " , stating " sometimes I feel like a coward when I see those guys . I 'm on the Lakers , but I had a chance to win with you guys . I feel almost like a coward . " On September 16 , 2011 , Artest legally changed his name to Metta World Peace .
During the 2011 – 12 season , only one of the nine players that were suspended after the brawl was still with his original team : Ben Wallace , who signed with the Chicago Bulls as a free agent in 2006 , later traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers , and rejoined the Pistons on August 7 , 2009 . Most of the players involved were traded to other teams , and since then all the players , minus Artest , have retired . The Pistons advanced to four straight Eastern Conference Finals after the brawl , and six straight overall , making them the first team since the Los Angeles Lakers in the 1980s to advance to six straight conference finals though they only won the championship once in that streak . However , after losing to the Pistons in the 2005 playoffs , the Pacers failed to finish above .500 until the 2011 – 12 season and missed the playoffs for five straight seasons from 2006 through 2010 . Many Pacers from the 2004 – 05 season believe that the brawl and its consequences ruined a potential championship team , with Artest as the cause . The Pacers have attempted to rebuild by obtaining " character guys " as players .
On November 19 , 2009 , John Green , one of the fans who helped begin the brawl , appeared on ESPN First Take , where he talked about the incident and the changes he had made since then . Green recounted that he had an alcohol problem at the time and had since made an effort to deal with that . He also said that Ron Artest had apologized to him several months earlier , and wished to work together in some type of community service in Detroit .
= York Museum Gardens =
The York Museum Gardens are botanic gardens in the centre of York , England , beside the River Ouse . They cover an area of 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of the former grounds of St Mary 's Abbey , and were created in the 1830s by the Yorkshire Philosophical Society along with the Yorkshire Museum which they contain .
The gardens are held in trust by the City of York Council and are managed by the York Museums Trust . They were designed in a gardenesque style by landscape architect Sir John Murray Naysmith , and contain a variety of species of plants , trees and birds . Admission is free . A variety of events take place in the gardens , such as open @-@ air theatre performances and festival activities .
There are several historic buildings in the gardens . They contain the remains of the west corner of the Roman fort of Eboracum , including the Multangular Tower and parts of the Roman walls . In the same area there is also the Anglian Tower , which was probably built into the remains of a late Roman period fortress . During the Middle Ages , the tower was expanded and the Roman walls were incorporated into York 's city walls . Most of the other buildings dating from the Middle Ages are associated with St Mary 's Abbey , including the ruins of the abbey church , the Hospitium , the lodge and part of the surviving precinct wall . The remains of St. Leonard 's Hospital chapel and undercroft are on the east side of the gardens . The Yorkshire Philosophical Society constructed several buildings in the gardens during the 19th and early 20th century , including the Yorkshire Museum and its octagonal observatory . The museum houses four permanent collections , covering biology , geology , archaeology and astronomy .
= = History = =
The gardens , which were given to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society by the British Royal Family in 1828 , occupy part of the former grounds of St. Mary ’ s Abbey . The society acquired the land to build a museum to house its collections ; the Yorkshire Museum was completed in 1830 . The land was granted to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society under the condition that botanical gardens would be established on the site . These were created during the 1830s in a gardenesque style design by landscape architect Sir John Murray Naysmith . They originally contained a conservatory , a pond and a menagerie , which was destroyed when a bear escaped from it and had brief control of the area . The then Princess Victoria visited the gardens in 1835 , the year that they were first open to the public . In 1854 the gardens were described as " one of the principal attractions of York " . At this time entrance as free to members and for non @-@ members entrance cost one shilling except on Saturday when it cost six pence .
In 1960 , the gardens and the Yorkshire Museum were given in trust to the City of York Council and they became a public park . Since 2002 , they have been managed by the York Museums Trust , along with York Castle Museum and York Art Gallery . The gardens are maintained by the Askham Bryan College of Agriculture .
= = Description = =
York Museum Gardens cover an area of 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) on the north bank of the River Ouse , just outside the city walls in the centre of York . There are four entrances to the gardens : on Marygate ( off Bootham ) by St Olave 's Church , on Museum Street by Lendal Bridge , via a path at the side of King 's Manor , and from the riverside walk next to the River Ouse . The site slopes gently down towards the river and is made up of historical buildings and undulating lawns interspersed with plants and trees . The gardens are open to the public during daylight hours , so the opening and closing times vary throughout the year . Normally admission is free but there are charges for some events . In 2010 it was estimated that the gardens attract 1 @.@ 3 million visitors a year . Drinking alcohol , cycling and ball games are not allowed in the gardens .
The gardens are home to a population of semi @-@ tame grey squirrels and many species of birds . Until 2006 a family of peacocks had been in residence for at least 70 years . There are approximately 4 @,@ 500 plants and trees in the collection , some of the varieties native to England and some from other parts of the world . Planting consists of large beds containing predominantly shrubs and trees , and lawns interspersed with individual trees . Species of tree include a monkey puzzle tree along with oak and chestnut trees ; three of the trees in the gardens are classed as United Kingdom champion trees . There is a rockery next to the Marygate entrance , by the ruins of the abbey church , and in front of the entrance to the Yorkshire Museum there is a terrace bordered with beds of white roses , the symbol of Yorkshire .
There is also a geological oddity close to the main gates , consisting of a large boulder of pink granite that was discovered during construction of the city 's railway station . Since this type of stone is not local it was determined as having been transported there from Shap in Cumbria by glacial action during the last ice age .
= = Activities = =
As well as being a popular recreational space for both residents and visitors , the gardens are the venue for special events such as open @-@ air theatre and music performances . In 1970 , bands including Roxy Music , Hawkwind and Pink Fairies staged concerts , and in 2007 The Lord Chamberlain 's Men presented a production of Romeo & Juliet . During the 20th @-@ century revival of the York Mystery Plays , performances were held on a fixed stage in the gardens among the ruins of St. Mary 's Abbey . In the 1950s , York actress Dame Judi Dench acted in the plays performed in the gardens , and played the Virgin Mary in 1957 . 2012 sees the York Mystery Plays return to the gardens between 2 – 27 August and will involve over one thousand local volunteers . Several of York 's festivals use the gardens as a venue for events ; in 2006 , between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 people celebrated the Chinese New Year with displays that included lion dancers , and in 2007 during the Jorvik Viking festival there were demonstrations of Viking craft skills and battle training . The gardens are the location of York ’ s Saluting Station , one of only 12 in the United Kingdom , with 21 @-@ gun salutes being fired at noon to celebrate occasions related to the British Royal Family throughout the year . At these times a military band marches to the gardens before the salute is fired .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Roman = = =
In the northeast of Museum Gardens there are remains of the west corner of the fortifications that surrounded the Roman fort of Eboracum . The original defences , consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation , were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD . Later those were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation , and eventually wooden battlements were added , which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers . These stone defences are some of the few Roman remains that are visible above ground in York .
The Multangular Tower is the western corner tower of the Roman fortress , and consists of both Roman and medieval architecture . The tower has 10 sides , from which it derives its modern name " multangular " , and is 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high . It was built in its late Roman form during the early 4th century , when it was constructed with three floors to house a catapult . Five Roman stone coffins are in the Multangular Tower , which were brought from graveyards in other areas of York .
A 76 foot ( 23 m ) section of 4th @-@ century wall connects the Multangular Tower to a small interval tower . The side of the wall and towers facing into Museum Gardens is carefully faced in stone , as during the Roman period it was on display . The other side is rougher because it was originally covered by an earth bank . The wall and towers were still in use after the end of the Roman period in Britain , and were subsequently incorporated into the medieval city walls . As late as the English Civil War they were being used to defend the city , and there is a hole in the wall along from the Multangular Tower that was made by a cannonball during this period . The Roman parts of the wall and towers are constructed of regular rectangular limestone blocks with a band of red tile running through them . The later medieval additions can be identified by the use of much larger blocks of limestone that cut through the red tiles in places and by the cross shaped arrow slits on the Multangular Tower .
To the north of the Multangular Tower there is a stretch of the medieval city wall with the remains of the original Roman wall running parallel to it on the city side . Built into this part of the wall is the stone Anglian Tower , which was once thought to have been built during the reign of Edwin of Northumbria , but now is generally thought to be of the very late Roman period . Behind the Anglian Tower are a series of banks showing the level of the defences during the Roman , early Middle Ages , Norman , and late medieval periods .
= = = Medieval = = =
Main article for St. Mary 's Abbey : St. Mary 's Abbey , York
The gardens contain several buildings dating back to the medieval period , most of them relating to St Mary 's Abbey . The Benedictine Abbey 's origins date back to 1086 when Alan Count of Brittany granted St Olave 's Church and the adjoining land to the monk Stephen of Whitby , who became the first abbot of St. Mary 's . When St Olave 's Church became too small , a larger church in a Romanesque style was built nearby , the foundation stone of which was laid in 1089 by William II . This was replaced between 1270 and 1279 by a church in a Gothic style . The abbey became the wealthiest monastery in the North of England , worth over £ 2 @,@ 085 a year before it was dissolved by Henry VIII on 25 November 1539 . Over the next 200 years the abbey fell into disrepair and the abbey church was largely dismantled for its stone .
Stones from the abbey church can be seen lining paths throughout the gardens , but the major ruins of the church are on the western side . The church was aligned on a northeast axis because of the shape and size of the site , instead of pointing to the east , the normal alignment for churches in England . Part of the north and west walls that formed the nave and crossing , designed in Gothic style by architect Simon of Pabenham in the 13th century , remain standing . The ruins include dummy lancet windows , tracery windows and " tracery remains to show that the patterns alternated between a single large circle over two lights and three small circles over three lights " . The column capitals are decorated with foliage in a stiff @-@ leaf style as well as in a naturalistic style , although this stonework is weatherworn and so this decoration is hard to distinguish . Sections of the foundations of the church and its Norman predecessor are exposed , and a plan of their layouts can be seen in the grass . Finds excavated from the site , including life @-@ sized statues of Christian saints , can be seen in the Yorkshire Museum .
St Mary 's Lodge was built around 1470 as an addition to the late 12th @-@ century buildings that formed the gatehouse at the main entrance to the abbey , – now the Marygate entrance to the gardens . Some remains of the 12th @-@ century gatehouse can still be seen , in particular the archway attached to the side of the lodge . The lodge is built of stone , and does not contain timber framing like the nearby Hospitium . The lodge , along with the attached railings , gates and gate piers are all Grade I listed buildings , which means that they are of outstanding interest . Originally , the lodge may have been used as a guesthouse for the abbey , and was the point where the poor could claim alms from the abbey . After the abbey 's dissolution , the lodge became a courthouse until 1722 , when part of the building became the Brown Cow pub . In 1840 John Philips , the Yorkshire Museum 's curator , restored and converted it to use as his home while retaining its external appearance . The lodge subsequently became used as offices , and during the early 21st century became the headquarters of the York Museums Trust .
Along with the lodge , some of the abbey 's precinct walls are still standing . A section of the remaining walls runs along the north @-@ west part of the gardens and extends further along Marygate to Bootham . The walls were constructed in 1266 and increased in height and crenellated in 1318 under a royal licence from Edward III . Originally there was a defensive ditch along the outside of the walls . The walls include several towers , not all of them dating from the medieval period ; the semicircular tower near the gatehouse is a 19th @-@ century reconstruction . The walls and towers were used for the abbey 's defence , e.g. in disputes with the City of York over land ownership and taxes , and played a role in the defence of the city during the Siege of York .
The Hospitium is located between the ruins of St. Mary 's Abbey Church and the River Ouse and is thought to have originally been a guest house for visitors to the abbey of low social rank , or possibly a barn . It was originally part of a group of buildings in the abbey grounds that included a brew @-@ house , stables , mill and , near the main gate , a boarding school with 50 pupils . The oldest parts of the ground floor were built around 1300 , but the upper storey has been extensively restored in modern times . The ruined gateway at the side dates back to the 15th century , and was probably the entrance to a passage that ran towards the water @-@ gate by the river .
The remains of St. Leonard 's Hospital chapel and undercroft are on the east side of the gardens , by the Museum Street entrance . The hospital was the largest in England during the Middle Ages , and was run by a community of men and women of the Augustinian order . During the 14th century , the hospital could have contained as many as 240 patients , 18 clergy and 30 choristers . St. Leonard 's Hospital was closed during the dissolution of the monasteries , when it was surrendered to Henry VIII by Thomas Magnus . The undercroft and chapel were part of the infirmary built between 1225 and 1250 . The interior of the undercroft , accessible from the gardens , has a rib vaulted ceiling and houses a collection of Roman and medieval stonework . In 1999 , the hospital and surrounding area in Museum Gardens was one of three sites in York to feature in an edition of the British Channel 4 television show Time Team .
Between the Museum Street entrance to the gardens and the River Ouse is a short stretch of York 's city walls , which ends at the medieval Lendal Tower .
= = = 19th and 20th century = = =
William Hincks was instrumental in establishing the gardens . Henry John Wilkinson reports as follows : " Mr. Hincks was lecturer on botany at the York School of Medicine , and the services he rendered to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society for over ten years deserve our grateful thanks . He devoted his leisure time to convert the " waste land " into a botanical and ornamental * garden , and in this work he was ably assisted by the late sub @-@ curator , Henry Baines . "
The Yorkshire Philosophical Society constructed several buildings in the gardens during the 19th and early 20th centuries , including the Yorkshire Museum , one of the first purpose @-@ built museums in Britain . The Yorkshire Museum was designed by architect William Wilkins in a Greek Revival style and was officially opened in February 1830 . On 26 September 1831 the inaugural meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held at the Yorkshire Museum . Three of the museum 's permanent collections are housed in the Yorkshire Museum building all of which have English designated collection status , which means they are " pre @-@ eminent collections of national and international importance " . The biology collection contains 200 @,@ 000 specimens , including both fauna and flora , with most of the collection made up of insects . There are two stuffed specimens of the extinct great auk , an almost complete skeleton of an extinct moa and a large collection of specimens from the Yorkshire region including the remains of elephants , cave bears and hyena from Kirkdale Cave dated to the Quaternary period , around 125 @,@ 000 years ago
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. The geological collection contains over 112 @,@ 500 specimens of rocks , minerals and fossils . Fossils make up most of the collection numbering over 100 @,@ 000 samples , and include important specimens from the Carboniferous , Mesozoic and Tertiary periods . The archaeology collection has close to a million objects that date from around 500 @,@ 000 BC to the 20th century , including the Coppergate Helmet discovered in York in 1982 , and the Ormside Bowl , an intricate example of an Anglian silversmith .
Most of the museum 's astronomy collection is housed in the octagonal observatory in the centre of the gardens , built during 1832 and 1833 . The design of its rotating roof is credited to John Smeaton designer of the Eddystone Lighthouse . A 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 11 cm ) telescope built in 1850 by the instrument maker Thomas Cooke of York was installed during the observatory 's 1981 restoration . It is Yorkshire 's oldest working observatory and as of August 2007 was opened to the public by a team of volunteers . The building is currently opened every Thursday and Saturday 11 @.@ 30 until 2 @.@ 30 . The clock in the observatory was made by Barraud of London in 1811 , and during the 19th century it was used to set the time for other clocks in York .
At the eastern , Museum Street , entrance to the gardens is Museum Gardens ' Lodge built in 1874 to a design by George Fowler Jones in a Victorian Gothic revival style . The lodge now houses the Yorkshire Philosophical Society 's offices and reading room .
The curator 's house , built in 1844 and originally called the keeper 's house , is located by King 's Manor . It was designed by J B Atkinson and was built using reclaimed limestone from St. Mary 's Abbey .
= = = = Tempest Anderson Hall = = = =
The Tempest Anderson Hall is a 300 @-@ seat auditorium @-@ style lecture theatre built in 1912 as an annexe to the Yorkshire Museum . Dr Tempest Anderson , a York surgeon and vulcanologist , presented the hall to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society to replace its existing lecture theatre . Designed by E Ridsdale Tate , it is an early example of the use of reinforced concrete and is a Grade I listed building . In the late 20th century it housed a cinema , but it is now used as a conference venue and lecture theatre .
= Montel Vontavious Porter =
Hassan Hamin Assad ( born Alvin Burke Jr . ; October 28 , 1973 ) is an American professional wrestler and rapper , better known by his ring name Montel Vontavious Porter ( abbreviated as MVP ) . He is perhaps most known for his tenure with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , and has also worked for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) .
Assad was trained by former professional wrestlers Soulman Alex G and Norman Smiley . Following the completion of his training , Assad began wrestling for numerous independent promotions , including a stint in TNA . During his time in these promotions , he won various championships in singles competition . Assad signed with WWE in 2005 and was assigned to Deep South Wrestling ( DSW ) , one of the company 's developmental territories .
After being promoted to the SmackDown ! brand , Assad made his WWE wrestling debut in October 2006 . In May 2007 , he won the United States Championship , giving him his first title reign with the company . That same year , he captured the WWE Tag Team Championship alongside Matt Hardy . Assad won the United States Championship for a second time on March 17 , 2009 . Following his tenure in WWE , Assad joined NJPW in February 2011 . He would spend the next two years with the promotion , becoming the inaugural IWGP Intercontinental Champion in May 2011 .
= = Early life = =
Assad was born in Liberty City , Miami , but grew up in Opa @-@ locka , Florida . His father was a police officer . He joined a gang when he was 12 , describing it as " a graffiti gang " , which later turned into a street gang . He spent six months in a juvenile detention center after a robbery . He later completed 9 ½ years of an 18 ½ year prison sentence for armed robbery and kidnapping which he started at the age of sixteen . While in prison , he converted to Islam and changed his name from Alvin Burke Jr. to Hassan Hamin Assad . Due to his past criminal record , Assad 's visits to other countries on international tours are subject to permits and background checks for recent behavior .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 2002 – 2005 ) = = =
Assad entered the professional wrestling business through the help of a corrections officer in his prison who also worked as a wrestler in the independent circuit . After being trained by former professional wrestlers Soulman Alex G and Norman Smiley , Assad made his wrestling debut in 2002 . He worked for many different companies on the independent circuit using the name Antonio Banks , including appearances with Full Impact Pro ( FIP ) and Future of Wrestling ( FOW ) , where he won the latter 's Tag Team Championship with Punisher . During his time in FIP , he wrestled Homicide for the World Heavyweight Championship at the Ring of Honor show Do or Die IV on February 19 , 2005 , but did not win the title . He also made sporadic appearances for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , and wrestled on the April 20 , 2003 , episode of TNA Xplosion . He appeared again for TNA on the August 6 , 2004 , episode of Impact ! , with Sal Rinauro as his tag team partner , losing to America 's Most Wanted . He also wrestled for Coastal Championship Wrestling ( CCW ) and Elite Wrestling Entertainment in 2005 , competing against wrestlers like Jerry Lynn and D 'Lo Brown . In CCW , he won the Heavyweight Championship on August 20 , 2005 , by defeating Blackhart and Bruno Sassi in a three @-@ way match .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Deep South Wrestling ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
In 2005 , after a number of live events and dark matches , Assad signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and was assigned to their developmental territory Deep South Wrestling . He originally wrestled under his " Antonio Banks " ring name , but then developed the Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) in @-@ ring persona : an arrogant , self @-@ obsessed athlete partially inspired by the fictional NFL wide receiver Rod Tidwell ( Cuba Gooding , Jr . ) from the 1996 film Jerry Maguire and the real @-@ life wide receiver Terrell Owens .
= = = = Feud with Kane ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
As MVP , he made his first appearance on WWE television on the August 4 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , during which announcers described him as a coveted free agent . The initial angle involved MVP appearing backstage and in arena crowds , often flanked by women and / or a bodyguard , and talking to SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long about the contract his ( unseen ) agent was supposedly aggressively negotiating . Throughout his segments , commentators described MVP as arrogant , noting that he would stop conversations in the middle to answer his mobile phone or admire his own jewelry while people were speaking to him . Finally , on September 26 , 2006 , video of a press conference announcing the signing of MVP to " the largest contract in SmackDown ! history " was uploaded to WWE.com.view
MVP made his in @-@ ring debut at No Mercy as a villain with a ring entrance featuring an NFL @-@ like inflatable tunnel , before defeating Marty Garner . During the match , commentators Michael Cole and John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) decried the choice of opponent , since it had been implied that it would be someone " more competent " , and joined in with fans mocking his athletic suit styled ring gear , calling him " pathetic " while the fans chanted Power Ranger . On the following week 's SmackDown ! , MVP made a demand for a tougher opponent to prove his mettle , which was answered by Kane making his SmackDown ! debut . The two feuded for the next two months , with MVP narrowly scoring wins over Kane in a Street Fight and a Steel Cage match before losing to Kane in an Inferno match at Armageddon , from which he suffered storyline 1st degree burns . Because of the burns he was " out of action " for a short time , during which color commentator JBL expressed rage with the fans for cheering a match where the only way of achieving victory is to set an opponent on fire .
= = = = United States and Tag Team Champion ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
When the Kane feud died down , MVP began a feud with the WWE United States Champion Chris Benoit over Benoit 's title . During the buildup for a title match with Benoit , MVP appeared on SmackDown ! introducing various supposed champions from around the world , defeating them in squash matches . MVP lost to Benoit at WrestleMania 23 and at Backlash , but finally defeated Benoit in a Two out of three falls match at Judgment Day , with MVP taking the United States Championship , his first WWE title , in two straight falls . MVP credits his time working with Benoit for improving his in @-@ ring skill .
His first major feud as the champion was against Matt Hardy , whom he started claiming to be better than at everything , after defeating him at the Great American Bash . When MVP was legitimately diagnosed with the heart condition Wolff @-@ Parkinson @-@ White syndrome , it was written into the storyline , with MVP blaming the condition for his losing an arm wrestling match against Hardy . When MVP was given an interview segment during SmackDown ! , the VIP Lounge , it was used to bow out of a scheduled boxing match at Saturday Night 's Main Event – with Evander Holyfield replacing him , and eventually punching out MVP during the bout . On the August 24 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , MVP bragged to General Manager Theodore Long that he was so good , he could win the WWE Tag Team Championship with anybody , prompting Long to grant him a Championship match alongside the next person who entered the room , who turned out to be Matt Hardy . The following week , MVP and Hardy took the championship from Deuce ' n Domino , making MVP a double champion . MVP and Hardy 's contentious relationship had them competing with each other in various ways while MVP proclaimed himself " Captain " of the team and refused to defend his United States Championship . In the months coming , MVP started getting along better with Hardy and helped him defeat Finlay on SmackDown ! .
Their reign together came to an end on the November 16 , 2007 episode of SmackDown after Hardy demanded a shot at the United States Championship , but MVP declined , and announced they had a Tag Team Championship defense against John Morrison and The Miz instead . They lost the match , and immediately afterwards , MVP invoked the rematch clause , but they lost that match as well . MVP then attacked Hardy , targeting his knee , which in storyline had been injured during the matches , and put him " out of action " . Hardy suffered a legitimate ruptured appendix while he was off television , putting their feud on hold . While Hardy recovered , MVP engaged in short feuds with Rey Mysterio and Ric Flair . He participated in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXIV , and during the match , Hardy made an unannounced return and knocked MVP from the ladder with his signature Twist of Fate maneuver , reigniting their feud . At Backlash in 2008 , MVP dropped the title to Hardy , ending his record reign at 343 days , which was at the time the longest reign of the WWE era , and the third longest in the entire history of the championship ( the record has since broken by Dean Ambrose in 2014 ) .
Beginning on the August 29 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , MVP developed a losing streak that lasted over five months , losing in both singles and tag team matches . At Unforgiven , he challenged for the WWE Championship in the Championship Scramble match , but was unsuccessful . The losing streak meant that , in storyline , MVP did not receive " his contract incentive bonus " , and also was no longer allowed his usual entrance with the NFL @-@ like inflatable tunnel . During this losing streak he had a short feud with The Great Khali . On the January 16 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , MVP finally broke the losing streak by defeating Big Show in a Last Man Standing match with help from Triple H , as he was fighting to ensure that Triple H would be allowed to compete in the Royal Rumble match , in the process turning him into a fan favorite . At the SmackDown taping on March 17 , he won the United States Championship for the second time by defeating Shelton Benjamin . At WrestleMania XXV , MVP competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match for the second year in a row , but failed to win .
= = = = Brand switches and Departure ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
On April 13 , 2009 , MVP was drafted as the first overall pick to the Raw brand as a part of the 2009 WWE Draft . As a result of being the reigning WWE United States Champion , he transferred the title to Raw for the first time in history . He lost the title to Kofi Kingston on the June 1 episode of Raw . He then formed a tag team with Mark Henry , and they challenged Jeri @-@ Show ( Chris Jericho and The Big Show ) for the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship at the Breaking Point pay @-@ per @-@ view , but they failed to win the championship .
After beginning a feud with The Miz , MVP faced him for the WWE United States Championship at Royal Rumble on January 31 , 2010 , but was unable to win . After this preliminary title retention , both also participated in the Rumble itself . MVP entered 14th and was surprise @-@ attacked by Miz ( who was not yet an official entrant ) who hit him with the United States title belt . MVP later recovered and entered the match ( having not been eliminated ) to double @-@ eliminate both himself and Miz . MVP challenged The Miz for the title a second time at the February 21 Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view but was once again unable to win . He also competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXVI , but was unable to win .
As part of the 2010 WWE Supplemental Draft , MVP was drafted back to the SmackDown brand . He made his SmackDown return on the April 30 episode , interrupting CM Punk 's promo , and later teaming up with Rey Mysterio to defeat Punk and Luke Gallows . On June 1 , MVP was announced as the mentor of Percy Watson for the second season of WWE NXT ; Watson was eliminated from the competition on August 17 , finishing fifth overall . On the November 5 episode of SmackDown , MVP fought in a Triple Threat Match for the number one contendership of Dolph Ziggler 's Intercontinental Championship against Cody Rhodes and Drew McIntyre . The match was won by MVP , and the championship match was set for the following week 's SmackDown , but MVP was unsuccessful in winning the title . MVP was announced as part of Team Mysterio , teaming with Rey Mysterio , The Big Show , Chris Masters and Kofi Kingston to take on Team Del Rio ( Alberto Del Rio , Tyler Reks , Jack Swagger , Drew McIntyre and Cody Rhodes ) at Survivor Series . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , MVP was the first man eliminated in the match by McIntyre , who was aided by Del Rio holding MVP 's foot down so he couldn 't kick out . MVP 's last match with the WWE aired on December 3 , teaming with Kaval in a losing effort against Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler ; afterward , he and Kaval were attacked by Kane . Later then , MVP has had his release from WWE contract .
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2011 , Assad signed a one @-@ year contract with New Japan Pro Wrestling , pursuing his noted passion for puroresu . TMZ reported that Assad 's prior convictions had made it difficult for him to acquire a visa but that he would be debuting in February . As WWE owned the rights to the name Montel Vontavious Porter , but not MVP , Assad was able to continue working under the abbreviated ring name . In storyline MVP was brought in to the promotion by NOSAWA Rongai , who wanted him to join the villainous Kojima @-@ gun , led by Satoshi Kojima . In his debut match for the promotion on February 20 at The New Beginning , MVP teamed with fellow Kojima @-@ gun member Taichi to defeat Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma in a tag team match by making Honma submit to his Take it to the Bank crucifix neck crank . On March 6 , MVP entered the 2011 New Japan Cup , used to determine the new number one contender to the IWGP Heavyweight Championship , defeating Karl Anderson in his first round match . On March 19 , MVP suffered his first loss in New Japan , when he was defeated by Togi Makabe in the second round of the New Japan Cup . The following day , MVP achieved a major victory when he tapped IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi out with the TTB in a tag team match , where he teamed with Satoshi Kojima and Tanahashi with Hirooki Goto . On May 3 , the returning Minoru Suzuki took over as the new leader of Kojima @-@ gun , after its members Taichi and Taka Michinoku had turned on Satoshi Kojima .
In May 2011 , MVP took part in the Invasion Tour 2011 , New Japan 's first tour of the United States . On May 13 in Rahway , New Jersey , he entered the tournament to determine the first ever IWGP Intercontinental Champion , defeating Kazuchika Okada in his first round match . The following day in New York City , MVP defeated Tetsuya Naito to advance to the finals of the tournament . On the third and final day of the tour in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , MVP defeated Toru Yano in the finals to become the first IWGP Intercontinental Champion . Earlier in the event , MVP showed his allegiance to Satoshi Kojima by saving him from the debuting Lance Archer , thus breaking away from the newly renamed Suzuki @-@ gun . On June 18 at Dominion 6 @.@ 18 , MVP made his first successful defense of the IWGP Intercontinental Championship by defeating Toru Yano . After the match , Yano attacked him and cut his hair . The two would face each other in a third title match on July 18 , where MVP was once again victorious . After the match MVP was attacked and challenged by Yano 's Chaos stablemate Masato Tanaka . In August , MVP took part in the 2011 G1 Climax , where he managed to win six out of his nine matches , but a loss to Karl Anderson on the final day of the tournament caused him to narrowly miss advancing to the finals . On October 10 at Destruction ' 11 , MVP lost the IWGP Intercontinental Championship to Masato Tanaka , ending his reign at 148 days . MVP received a rematch for the title on December 4 , but was again defeated by Tanaka , following interference from his stablemate Yujiro Takahashi .
On January 4 , 2012 , at Wrestle Kingdom VI in Tokyo Dome , MVP teamed with Shelton Benjamin , making a special one @-@ time appearance , to defeat Tanaka and Takahashi in a tag team match . MVP reunited with Benjamin on June 16 at Dominion 6 @.@ 16 , where they defeated Karl Anderson and Tama Tonga in a tag team match . In August , MVP took part in his second G1 Climax tournament , where he won four out of his eight matches and failed to advance to the finals . In November , MVP took part in the 2012 World Tag League , where he teamed with Shelton Benjamin under the tag team name " Black Dynamite " . MVP and Benjamin finished their tournament on December 1 with a record of three wins , one over the reigning IWGP Tag Team Champions K.E.S. ( Davey Boy Smith , Jr. and Lance Archer ) , and three losses , failing to advance from their block .
On January 4 , 2013 , at Wrestle Kingdom 7 in Tokyo Dome , MVP teamed with Akebono , Manabu Nakanishi and Strong Man in an eight @-@ man tag team match , where they defeated Bob Sapp , Takashi Iizuka , Toru Yano and Yujiro Takahashi . On February 26 , Assad announced that he had parted ways with New Japan and would be next focusing on a television project with Lionsgate Television . He later explained his reasons behind leaving the promotion , saying that he wanted to stay closer to his home in addition to just " recharging the batteries " .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
At the January 30 , 2014 , tapings of Impact Wrestling , Assad returned to TNA using the MVP name , revealing himself to be the storyline " investor " responsible for signing The Wolves and counteracting Dixie Carter 's agenda in recent weeks , establishing himself as a face . On the February 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP made his in @-@ ring debut , defeating Rockstar Spud . The following week it was announced that MVP would captain a team to face opposition representing Dixie Carter and captained by Bobby Roode in a Lethal Lockdown match at Lockdown , to determine whether MVP or Dixie would gain complete control over wrestling operations at TNA . On March 9 , 2014 , at Lockdown , MVP 's team defeated Dixie 's team with an assist from special referee Bully Ray , earning MVP total control of wrestling operations .
On the edition of May 8 of Impact Wrestling , after telling Eric Young how " proud " he was of Young 's TNA World Heavyweight Championship victory , MVP attacked Young and announced himself as the number one contender to the title at Slammiversary XII , turning heel again in the process . However , TNA announced on the Friday before the event that due a torn meniscus , MVP was deemed medically unfit to compete and thus removed from the match . According to PWInsider , the original plans were to crown MVP as champion . On the June 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP and Kenny King helped Lashley win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Eric Young , but firing Earl Hebner in the process . On the following week 's episode on June 26 , MVP attempted to fire Bobby Roode only to be told by Board of Directors representative Earl Sullivan Armstrong that he was officially relieved of his duties as Director of Wrestling Operations and that his replacement was Kurt Angle . From there , MVP acted as Lashley and King 's manager ( and occasional partner after his knee 's condition improved ) , while feuding with Angle in promos , until Lashley lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Roode on September 18 , 2014 , at the tapings for the edition of October 28 of Impact Wrestling. on the November 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP faced Bobby Roode for the World Heavyweight Championship but lost the match . On January 7 , 2015 , MVP and King along with new members Samoa Joe , Low Ki , and Roode 's friend Eric Young all helped Lashley regain the championship from Roode . On the following night 's tapings of the January 16 , 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP presented the group as his " family " and officially christened them Beat Down Clan . Later that night , Low Ki defeated Austin Aries to win back the TNA X Division Championship , which he had lost to Aries the previous night , following which MVP attempted to present Lashley as the centerpiece of the Clan as well as a " founding member " ( officially establishing the MVP @-@ Lashley @-@ King trio as the foundation of the BDC as a faction ) . However , Lashley refused to become a part of this new group and decided to leave , but was attacked by the other members with MVP saying that the title belongs to the BDC . On February 6 , 2015 at Lockdown , Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Austin Aries , Gunner , and Lashley ) defeated The BDC ( MVP , Samoa Joe , Low Ki , and Kenny King ) in a Lethal Lockdown match. on the February 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , The BDC ( MVP and Samoa Joe ) defeated Lashley and Kurt Angle . MVP would win the number one contendership for Lashley 's TNA World Heavyweight Championship on the February 20 broadcast of Impact Wrestling by last eliminating Kurt Angle in an over @-@ the @-@ top rope gauntlet match , but would lose to Lashley by pinfall in the ensuing title match the following week .
On the April 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP , Kenny King and Low Ki faced the newly formed Rising a losing effort . On the May 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP faced Galloway in a losing effort . On the May 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , The Beat Down Clan ( MVP , Low Ki and Kenny King ) , Bram and Eric Young defeated Galloway , Micah , Chris Melendez , Lashley , and Kurt Angle in a Hardcore War . On the June 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , The Beat Down Clan ( MVP , Kenny King and Low Ki ) faced The Rising ( Drew Galloway , Eli Drake and Micah ) in a losing effort . On the June 24 , 2015 ( aired July 1 ) episode of Impact Wrestling , The Beat Down Clan defeated The Rising in a 4 @-@ on @-@ 3 Handicap match , forcing The Rising to dissolve . On the July 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , MVP competed in a 20 @-@ man battle royal for the # 1 World Title Contendership , where he was in the final three , the match was won by Drew Galloway .
On July 17 , 2015 , MVP left TNA . He was reportedly released in the fallout of a contract dispute between TNA and Lucha Underground . MVP had pushed for TNA to sign Hernandez , even though he was at the time still under contract to Lucha Underground . When Lucha Underground contacted TNA , they released Hernandez and were forced to re @-@ edit all segments he had been involved in at the past tapings .
= = = Lucha Underground ( 2016 ) = = =
MVP announced on March 31 , 2016 , that he would be joining Lucha Underground . However , on April 8 , he announced his release from the company due to inadvertently violating terms of his contract by interviewing members of the roster for his podcast .
= = Other media = =
Assad made a cameo appearance in the film MacGruber , alongside fellow WWE Superstars Chris Jericho , The Great Khali , Big Show , Kane , and Mark Henry .
MVP released his first hip hop song titled " Holla to the World " featuring Dwane Sweazie in June 2011 . A music video for the song , featuring cameos from Carlito and Hernandez , was released the following October . The song was released as a single through iTunes on April 5 , 2012 . On March 18 , 2013 , he released his second song entitled " Tokyo " . On January 30 , 2014 , MVP released his third single , titled " Return of the Ronin " . The song also became MVP 's entrance theme in TNA .
= = Personal life = =
In August 2007 , Assad was diagnosed with Wolff – Parkinson – White syndrome , a rare condition that causes the heart to beat faster than normal . The condition was discovered during his tenure with WWE , when he had undergone a routine check @-@ up in accordance with WWE 's Talent Wellness Policy , which otherwise would have gone undetected until it was too late .
Assad has acquired numerous tattoos through his life , including ; a portrait of Malcolm X on the upper left portion of his chest , the sarcophagus of King Tut and pyramids on his left upper biceps , the legend " Monte Cristo " along with the phrase " The best revenge is living well " in script on his right forearm ( both references to the book The Count of Monte Cristo ) , and an Eye of Horus on the back of his left arm . He also has a star on his right shoulder . He also has a number of homemade gang related tattoos that he had done when he was a teenager .
Assad has stated that he was a video game fan growing up , and that the finishing maneuver he used on the independent circuit , the Malicious Intent , was inspired by a similar move performed by a character in the Tekken series . He has been a fan of Manchester United F.C. since he was 13 , and his favorite player is Eric Cantona . Despite his earlier conversion to Islam , Assad has since described himself as a nonbeliever and an atheist .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
As Montel Vontavious Porter / MVP
305 / Play of the Day ( Leaping reverse STO ) – 2010 – present
Drive @-@ By Kick ( Running big boot to the face of a kneeling opponent while using their knee for leverage ) – 2008 – present
Irreversible Crisis ( Crossface / Scissored armbar combination ) – 2011 – 2014
Oyasumi ( Jumping single underhook DDT followed by a keylock ) – 2011 – 2012
Playmaker ( Overdrive ) – 2007 – 2009
TTB – Take it to The Bank ( Crucifix neck crank ) – 2011
As Antonio Banks
Malicious Intent ( Reverse roundhouse kick ) – 2002 – 2005
TTB – Take it to The Bank ( Arm trap crossface ) – 2004 – 2006
Signature moves
Ballin ' Elbow ( Running delayed elbow drop , with theatrics )
Facebreaker knee smash
Flapjack
Kesa @-@ gatame – 2015 – present
Multiple suplex variations
Exploder
Release / Rolling German
Snap overhead belly @-@ to @-@ belly
Running big boot to a standing or cornered opponent
Single leg Boston crab
With Shelton Benjamin
Double team finishing moves
Fade to Black ( Aided Brainbuster )
Managers
Quentin Michaels
Nicknames
" The Franchise Playa "
" BDC Leader "
" The Ballin ' Superstar "
" Mr BDC "
" Black Godzilla "
" The International Baller "
" The Master Manipulator "
" Half Man , Half Amazing "
Entrance themes
" Get Back " by Ludacris ( Independent circuit )
" Move Bitch " by Ludacris featuring Mystikal and I @-@ 20 ( Independent circuit )
" I 'm Comin ' " by Silkk the Shocker ( WWE ) ( 2006 – 2010 )
" Ballin " by Unknown ( WWE ) ( December 3rd , 2010 )
" Most Valiantly Person " by Yonosuke Kitamura ( NJPW )
" Return of the Ronin " by MVP ( TNA ; January 30 , 2014 – July 18 , 2015 )
" The Anthem " by Jess Jamez and MVP ( TNA ; used as a part of The Beat Down Clan )
Wrestlers trained
Jonny Vandal
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Coastal Championship Wrestling
CCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Future of Wrestling
FOW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Punisher
New Japan Pro Wrestling
IWGP Intercontinental Championship ( 1 time )
IWGP Intercontinental Championship Tournament ( 2011 )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him 23 of the best 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE United States Championship ( 2 times )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Improved ( 2007 )
Most Underrated ( 2008 )
= Kumbakonam =
Kumbakonam , also spelt as Coombaconum in the records of British India , is a town and a special grade municipality in the Thanjavur district in the southeast Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is located 40 km ( 25 mi ) from Thanjavur and 273 km ( 170 mi ) from Chennai and is the headquarters of the Kumbakonam taluk of Thanjavur district . The town is bounded by two rivers , the Kaveri River to the north and Arasalar River to the south . According to the 2011 census , Kumbakonam has a population of 140 @,@ 156 and has a strong Hindu majority ; but it also has sizeable Muslim and Christian populations . Kumbakonam is known as a " temple town " due to the prevalence of a number of temples here and is noted for its Mahamaham festival which attracts people from all over the globe .
Kumbakonam dates back to the Sangam period and was ruled by the Early Cholas , Pallavas , Medieval Cholas , Later Cholas , Pandyas , the Vijayanagar Empire , Madurai Nayaks , Thanjavur Nayaks and the Thanjavur Marathas . It rose to be a prominent city between the 7th and 9th centuries AD , when it served as a capital of the Medieval Cholas . The town reached the zenith of its prosperity during the British Raj when it was a prominent centre of European education and Hindu culture ; and it acquired the cultural name , the " Cambridge of South India " . In 1866 , Kumbakonam was officially constituted as a municipality , which today comprises 45 wards , making it the second largest municipality in Thanjavur district .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Kumbakonam " , roughly translated in English as the " Pot 's Corner " , is believed to be an allusion to the mythical pot ( kumbha ) of the Hindu god Brahma that contained the seed of all living beings on earth . The kumbha is believed to have been displaced by a pralaya ( dissolution of the universe ) and ultimately came to rest at the spot where the town of Kumbakonam now stands . This event is now commemorated in the Mahamaham festival held every 12 years . Kumbakonam is also known as Baskarashetram and Kumbam from time immemorial and as Kudanthai in ancient times . Kumbakonam is also spelt as Coombaconum in the records of British India . Kumbakonam was also formerly known by the Tamil name of Kudamukku . Kumbakonam is also identified with the Sangam age settlement of Kudavayil .
= = History = =
The region around Kumbakonam was inhabited as early as the Sangam Age ( 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD ) . The present @-@ day Kumbakonam is believed to be the site of the ancient town of Kudavayil where the Early Chola king Karikala held his court . Some scholars identify Kumbakonam as the site of the fabled prison of Kudavayir @-@ kottam where the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai was imprisoned by the Early Chola king Kocengannan . Kumbakonam is identified with the town of Malaikūrram which had served as the Chola capital as early as the 7th century and with the town of Solamaligai which had also served as a Chola capital . According to the Sinnamanur plates , Kumbakonam was the site of a battle between the Pallava king Sri Vallabha and the then Pandya king in 859 and between the Pandya king Srimara Pandya and a confederacy of the Cholas and Gangas .
Kumbakonam came into limelight during the rule of the Medieval Cholas who ruled from the 9th century to the 12th century . The town of Pazhaiyaarai , 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from Kumbakonam was the capital of the Chola Empire in the 9th century .
Following the decline of the Chola kingdom , Kumbakonam was conquered by the Pandyas in 1290 . Following the demise of the Pandya kingdom in the 14th century , Kumbakonam was conquered by the Vijayanagar Empire . Krishnadevaraya ( 1509 – 29 ) , the emperor of Vijayanagara visited the town in 1524 and is believed to have bathed in the famous Mahamaham tank during the Mahamaham festival . Kumbakonam was ruled by the Madurai Nayaks and the Thanjavur Nayaks from 1535 to 1673 when it fell to the Marathas . Each of these foreign dynasties had a considerable impact on the demographics and culture of the region . When the Vijayanagar Empire fell in 1565 , there was a mass influx of poets , musicians and cultural artists from the kingdom .
According to the chronicles of the Hindu monastic institution , the Kanchi matha , the matha was temporarily transferred to Kumbakonam in the 1780s following an invasion of Kanchipuram by Hyder Ali of Mysore . When Tipu Sultan invaded the east coast of South India in 1784 , Kumbakonam bore the brunt of his invasion . The produce fell sharply and the economy collapsed . Kumbakonam did not recover from the calamity till the beginning of the 19th century .
Kumbakonam was eventually ceded to the British East India Company in 1799 by the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Serfoji II ( 1777 -1832 ) and reached the zenith of its prosperity in the late 19th and early 20th century when it emerged as an important center of Brahminism , Hindu religion and European education in the Madras Presidency . The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 fostered trade contacts with the United Kingdom . In 1877 , railway lines were completed linking Kumbakonam with the ports of Madras , Tuticorin and Nagapattinam . The Tanjore district court was established in Kumbakonam in 1806 and functioned from 1806 to 1863 .
Kumbakonam continued to grow even after India 's independence though it fell behind the nearby town of Thanjavur in terms of population and administrative importance . The population growth rate began to fall sharply after 1981 . This decline has been attributed to limited land area and lack of industrial potential . During the Mahamaham festival of 1992 , there was a major stampede in which 48 people were killed and 74 were injured . On July 16 , 2004 , a devastating fire accident in the Sri Krishna school killed 94 children .
= = Geography = =
Kumbakonam is located at 10 @.@ 97 ° N 79 @.@ 42 ° E / 10 @.@ 97 ; 79 @.@ 42 . It is situated 273 km ( 170 mi ) south of Chennai , 96 km ( 60 mi ) east of Tiruchirappalli , and about 40 km ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Thanjavur . It lies in the region called the " Old delta " which comprises the north @-@ western taluks of Thanjavur district that have been naturally irrigated by the waters of the Cauvery and its tributaries for centuries in contrast to the " New Delta " comprising the southern taluks that were brought under irrigation by the construction of the Grand Anicut canal and the Vadavar canal in 1934 . It has an average elevation of 26 metres ( 85 ft ) . The town is bounded by two rivers , the Cauvery River on the north and Arasalar River on the south .
Although the Cauvery delta is usually hot , the climate of Kumbakonam and other surrounding towns is generally healthy and moderate . Kumbakonam is cooler than Chennai , the capital of Tamil Nadu . The maximum temperature in summer is about 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) while the minimum temperature is about 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Kumbakonam receives an annual rainfall of 114 @.@ 78 cm ( 45 @.@ 19 in ) every year . The region is covered with mainly alluvial or black soil which is conducive for rice cultivation . Other crops grown in Kumbakonam include mulberry , cereals and sugarcane .
The town of Kumbakonam is surrounded by extensive paddy fields . Methods of irrigation were considerably improved following the opening of the Mettur Dam in 1934 . The fauna of the Cauvery Delta is limited to cattle and goats . The town is situated at the western flank of the Kumbakonam @-@ Shiyali ridge which runs along the Kollidam river basin separating the Ariyalur @-@ Puducherry depression from the Nagapattinam depression . This granular ridge projects further eastwards penetrating the Puducherry depression and forms a hard layer of cretaceous rock underneath the sedimentary top soil .
= = Temples = =
Kumbakonam is known for its temples and mathas ( monasteries ) . There are around 188 Hindu temples within the municipal limits of Kumbakonam . Apart from these , there several thousand temples around the town thereby giving the town the sobriquets " Temple Town " and " City of temples " .
Adi Kumbeswarar Temple is considered to be the oldest Shaiva ( the sect of the god Shiva ) shrine in the town , believed to be constructed by the Cholas in the 7th century . The Nageswaraswamy Temple has a separate shrine for the Sun god Surya who is believed to have worshipped Shiva at this place . Adi Kumbeswarar temple , Nageswaraswamy temple and Kasi Viswanathar temple are Shiva temples in the town revered in the Tevaram , a Tamil Shaiva canonical work of the 7th – 8th century . Kumbakonam has one of the few temples dedicated to the god Brahma .
Sarangapani temple is the largest Vaishnava ( the sect of the god Vishnu ) shrine present in Kumbakonam . The present structure of the temple having a twelve storey high tower was constructed by Nayak kings in the 15th century . It is one of the " Divya Desams " , the 108 temples of Vishnu revered by the 12 Alvar saint @-@ poets . The Ramaswamy temple , which has scenes from the Hindu epic Ramayana depicted on its walls , was constructed by Govinda Dikshitar , the minister of successive Nayak rulers , Achuthappa Nayak ( 1560 – 1614 ) and Raghunatha Nayak ( 1600 – 34 ) . He added a commercial corridor between the temple and the older Chakrapani temple , which in modern times is called Chinna Kadai Veethi , a commercial street in the town .
Pilgrims from all parts of India take a holy dip once every 12 years during the Mahamaham festival in the Mahamaham tank . An estimated 2 million pilgrims participated in the festival during the 2004 event . Govinda Dikshitar constructed the sixteen mandapams ( shrines ) and stone steps around this tank .
Kumbakonam also has a number of mathas . The Sri Sankara matha of Kanchipuram was moved to Kumbakonam during the reign of Pratap Singh ( 1739 – 63 ) and remained in Kumbakonam until the 1960s . There are also two Vellalar mathas in the nearby towns of Dharmapuram and Thiruppanandal and a Raghavendra matha in Kumbakonam . There is also a branch of the Vaishnava Ahobila mutt in Kumbakonam .
The Thenupuriswarar Temple at Patteeswaram , the Oppiliappan Kovil , the Swamimalai Murugan temple and the Airavateswarar temple at Darasuram are located in the vicinity of Kumbakonam . The Airavatesvara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola II ( 1146 – 73 ) during 12th century is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur , the Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram that are referred as the Great Living Chola Temples .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Kumbakonam had a population of 140 @,@ 156 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 021 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 12 @,@ 791 were under the age of six , constituting 6 @,@ 495 males and 6 @,@ 296 females.The average literacy of the city was 83 @.@ 21 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . There were a total of 9 @,@ 519 workers , comprising 32 cultivators , 83 main agricultural labourers , 1 @,@ 206 in house hold industries , 7 @,@ 169 other workers , 1 @,@ 029 marginal workers , 24 marginal cultivators , 45 marginal agricultural labourers , 212 marginal workers in household industries and 0 other marginal workers .
Kumbakonam has a strong Hindu majority ; but it also has sizeable Muslim and Christian populations . Among Hindus , Kallars , Thondaimandala Mudaliars , Brahmins and Dalits are the numerically dominant Tamil @-@ speaking groups . Brahmins are more numerous and affluent in Kumbakonam than in other parts of Tamil Nadu . There are also large populations of Moopanars , Vanniyars , Konars and Nadars . Amongst Muslims , the Sunnis are dominant . However , there is also a significant Shia minority . Most of the Muslims are Marakkayars or Labbays . The majority of Muslims in Kumbakonam are involved in commerce or maritime trade . Kumbakonam also has a large population of Protestant Christians largely due to the efforts of the German missionary Christian Friedrich Schwarz . The Catholics in Kumbakonam are mainly affiliated to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kumbakonam which was separated from the Archdiocese of Pondicherry in 1899 .
The population of Kumbakonam is predominantly Tamil @-@ speaking . The commonly used dialects is the Central Tamil dialect . There are significant minorities speaking Thanjavur Marathi , Telugu , Kannada and Saurashtrian as their mother tongue .
Residential areas make up 32 @.@ 09 % of the town 's total area while commercial enterprises and industrial units make up 2 @.@ 75 % and 1 @.@ 21 % respectively . The non @-@ urban portion of the town constitutes about 44 @.@ 72 % of the total area . Kumbakonam has a total of 45 slums with a population of 49 @,@ 117 .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Kumbakonam had 86 @.@ 07 % Hindus , 9 @.@ 57 % Muslims , 3 @.@ 99 % Christians , 0 . % Sikhs , 0 . % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 23 % Jains , 0 @.@ 13 % following other religions and 0 . % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
= = Municipal administration and politics = =
The Kumbakonam municipality was officially constituted in the year 1866 . Initially , the municipality exercised its jurisdiction over an area of 7 @.@ 68 km2 ( 2 @.@ 97 sq mi ) and its affairs were administered by a town @-@ level committee or municipal committee . Later it was constituted special @-@ grade municipality and currently , exercises its authority over an area of 12 @.@ 58 km2 ( 4 @.@ 86 sq mi ) out of the town 's total area of 64 @.@ 02 km2 ( 24 @.@ 72 sq mi ) . It comprises 45 wards and is the second biggest municipality in Thanjavur district .
The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town planning and the Computer Wing . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 45 members , one each from each of the 45 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson who is assisted by a Deputy Chairperson .
Kumbakonam is a part of the Kumbakonam Legislative Assembly constituency and elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . Despite being a hub of militant Communism in the 1950s , Kumbakonam voted for the Indian National Congress in the first five state elections held between 1952 and 1977 . The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam won the elections in 1977 and between 1977 and 1989 , the seat was alternatively held by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam , All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or the Indian National Congress . Since 1989 , barring an interregnum of five years between 1991 and 1996 , the seat has been held by Ko . Si . Mani of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam . Kumbakonam was a part of the Kumbakonam Lok Sabha constituency from 1952 till 1977 , when the constituency was disbanded . The assembly segments in the erstwhile Kumbakonam Lok Sabha constituency were included in the Mayiladuthurai Lok Sabha constituency and have remained so ever since .
Law and order in Kumbakonam in maintained by the Thanjavur sub division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police ( DSP ) . There are four police stations in the town , one of them being an all @-@ women police station . There are special units like prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police ( SP ) .
= = Economy = =
The important products of Kumbakonam include brass , bronze , copper and pewter vessels , silk and cotton cloths , sugar , indigo and pottery . Kumbakonam is considered to be the chief commercial centre for the Thanjavur region . In 1991 , around 30 % of the population was engaged in economic activity . Rice production is an important activity in Kumbakonam . Of 194 industrial units in Kumbakonam , 57 are rice and flour mills . Kumbakonam is also a leading producer of betel leaves and nuts ; the betel leaves produced in Kumbakonam are ranked amongst the best in the world in terms of quality . The A. R. R. Agencies , a leading manufacturer of arecanut slices has its factory in Kumbakonam . The main administrative offices of T. S. R. & Co . , a cosmetic company , are also based in Kumbakonam . Kumbakonam is also famous for its metal works . The Tamil Nadu Handicraft Development Corporation had been established in the nearby town of Swamimalai in order to train bronze artisans . Kumbakonam is an important silk @-@ weaving centre and more than 5 @,@ 000 families were employed either directly or indirectly in silk weaving . Silk weaved in Kumbakonam is regarded as one of the finest in the subcontinent . They are largely used in the manufacture of Thirubuvanam silk sarees . Kumbakonam was also an important salt @-@ manufacturing area during British rule . The town lends its name to the Kumbakonam Degree Coffee , a blend of coffee prepared using undiluted pure milk . In recent times , Kumbakonam has emerged as an important manufacturer of fertilizers .
Apart from its manufactures , tourism is also a major source of income for the town . The Hindu temples and colonial @-@ era buildings have been recognised for their tourism potential . The 12th @-@ century Airavatesvara Temple in the town of Darasuram near Kumbakonam is an UNESCO World Heritage Site . Kumbakonam is also frequented by art collectors interested in handloom cloth and other curios . Banks such as the Axis Bank , Bank of Baroda , State Bank of India , Tamilnad Mercantile Bank , Canara Bank , Indian Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , Bank of India , Union Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Lakshmi Vilas Bank , ICICI Bank , ING Vysya Bank , Karur Vysya Bank , Punjab National Bank , Syndicate Bank and Vijaya Bank have their branches in Kumbakonam . The City Union Bank was founded in Kumbakonam in 1904 as the Kumbakonam Bank Limited and it is headquartered in the town .
= = Transport and utility services = =
Kumbakonam is well @-@ connected by road and rail with the rest of India . The nearest international airport is at Tiruchirapalli , which is 91 km ( 57 mi ) from Kumbakonam . The nearest seaport is located at Nagapattinam which is about 50 km ( 31 mi ) away . The town has around 141 km ( 88 mi ) of roads , 544 municipal roads making up 122 @.@ 29 km ( 75 @.@ 99 mi ) . There are also around 18 @.@ 71 km ( 11 @.@ 63 mi ) of state highways running through Kumbakonam . Over 87 % of the municipal roads are paved . There are regular government and private bus services to Chennai , Thanjavur , Mannargudi , Tiruchirapalli , Chidambaram , Mayiladuthurai , Nagapattinam , Coimbatore , Palani , Tiruppur , Thoothukudi , Madurai , Puducherry , and Tirunelveli . The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation ( KSRTC ) operates daily services from Bengaluru and mysuru to Kumbakonam . On March 1 , 1972 , the Cholan Roadways Corporation was established by the Government of Tamil Nadu with its headquarters in Kumbakonam in order to improve transportation facilities in the districts of central Tamil Nadu . The organisation acquired the fleets of buses earlier owned by private operators – Sri Ramavilas Service , Raman and Raman Limited and Sathi Vilas . On July 1 , 1997 , the organization was renamed Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation , Kumbakonam and presently forms division no . 1 of the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation . The corporation runs a reconditioning unit and a tyre re @-@ threading unit in Kumbakonam . Kumbakonam is connected by rail with most important towns and cities in South India . The Mysuru- Mayiladuthurai Express connects Kumbakonam with Mysuru and Bengaluru . There are regular express trains that connect Kumbakonam with major cities in the state like Chennai , Coimbatore , Madurai and Tiruchirapalli . There are passenger trains that connect Kumbakonam with Thanjavur , Tiruchirapalli , Chidambaram and Mayiladuthurai .
The traditional modes of transportation are bullock carts . It is recorded that as late as the 1950s , landlords and rich farmers travelled mostly by bullock carts with the exception of rare long journeys which they undertook by buses or motor vehicles . Kumbakonam has an efficient local bus transportation system . The mofussil bus stand is located in the south @-@ east of Kumbakonam and is situated just opposite to the Arignar Anna Bus Stand where the long @-@ distance buses are stationed . There are occasional ferries that transport people and goods across the Cauvery . Till the beginning of the 20th century , students of the Government Arts College used to cross the Cauvery on coracle ferries in order to attend college . Since the construction of a bridge in 1944 , the practice of transporting men and goods by coracles has greatly diminished .
Electricity supply to Kumbakonam is regulated and distributed by the Kumbakonam circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Kumbakonam municipality from Cauvery river and Coleroon river ; the distribution is managed through head works located at Valayapettai and Kudithangi , supplying 3 @,@ 265 kl ( 863 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water to the town . About 18 t ( 40 @,@ 000 lb ) of solid waste is collected from the town everyday ; 53 % domestic wastes and 32 % commercial wastes . The collected wastes are dumped in yards outside the town and segregated to produce organic manure . Kumbakonam municipality has partial underground drainage connectivity and the municipality is implementing the underground drainage to the uncovered areas . The major sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks and public conveniences . Roadside drains carry untreated sewage out of the town to let out raw into the sea or accumulates in low @-@ lying area .
Kumbakonam comes under the Cauvery River Delta Area ( CRDA ) of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Apart from telecom , BSNL also provides broadband internet service . There are two government hospitals , 34 private hospitals & clinics and numerous medical shops catering to the healthcare need of the town .
= = Education = =
The Raja Veda Padasala , established by Govinda Dikshitar during 1542 in Kumbakonam , teaches Sanskrit vedic scriptures in specialised fields of Rig Veda , Yajur Veda , Sama Veda , Agamas and Sastras . Kumbakonam emerged as an important centre of education in the late 19th century and was known as the " Cambridge of South India " . The Government Arts College , established in Kumbakonam in 1867 , is one of the oldest educational institutions in the Madras Presidency . It began as a provincial school on October 19 , 1854 , before being upgraded to a government college in 1867 . It was affiliated to the Madras University in 1877 . One of the early principals of the college was William Archer Porter , a Cambridge Wrangler , who , along with T. Gopala Rao , was instrumental in its elevation to a government college . He is also credited with framing the college 's acclaimed educational policy . In 1881 , it became a full @-@ fledged college and high school courses ceased to be taught . Notable faculty members included U. V. Swaminatha Iyer ( 1855 – 1942 ) while the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan ( 1887 – 1920 ) who studied from 1904 until 1906 when he dropped out and V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1869 – 1946 ) , an Indian politician and administrator , are its notable alumni . The Government Arts College for Women was started in 1963 and had a total strength of 2 @,@ 597 pupils in February 2006 . The college offers various undergraduate courses and one post @-@ graduate course and is affiliated to the Bharathidasan University . Other colleges in Kumbakonam include Idhya Colleges of Arts and Sciences , Annai College of Arts and Sciences , Government College Of Fine Arts and Arasu Engineering College . The Shanmugha Arts , Science , Technology & Research Academy has a satellite campus based in Kumbakonam where all disciplines of Engineering , arts and sciences are taught .
The Native High School , founded in 1876 , and the Town Higher Secondary School , one of whose students was Srinivasa Ramanujan , were some of the oldest schools in the Madras Presidency . At present , there a total of 36 government and private schools in Kumbakonam .
= Theatre Royal , Drury Lane =
The Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , commonly known as Drury Lane , a West End theatre , is a Grade I listed building in Covent Garden , London . The building faces Catherine Street ( earlier named Bridges or Brydges Street ) and backs onto Drury Lane . The building is the most recent in a line of four theatres which were built at the same location , the earliest of which dated back to 1663 , making it the oldest theatre site in London still in use . According to the author Peter Thomson , for its first two centuries , Drury Lane could " reasonably have claimed to be London 's leading theatre " . For most of that time , it was one of a handful of patent theatres , granted monopoly rights to the production of " legitimate " ( meaning spoken plays , rather than opera , dance , concerts , or plays with music ) drama in London .
The first theatre on the site was built at the behest of Thomas Killigrew in the early 1660s , when theatres were allowed to reopen during the English Restoration . Initially known as " Theatre Royal in Bridges Street " , the theatre 's proprietors hired a number of prominent actors who performed at the theatre on a regular basis , including Nell Gwyn and Charles Hart . In 1672 the theatre caught fire and Killigrew built a larger theatre on the same plot , renamed the " Theatre Royal in Drury Lane " ; it opened in 1674 . This building lasted nearly 120 years , under the leaderships of Colley Cibber , David Garrick and Richard Brinsley Sheridan , the last of whom employed Joseph Grimaldi as the theatre 's resident Clown .
In 1791 , under Sheridan 's management , the building was demolished to make way for a larger theatre which opened in 1794 . This new Drury Lane survived for 15 years before burning down in 1809 . The building that stands today opened in 1812 . It has been the residency of a number of well known actors including ; Edmund Kean , comedian Dan Leno , and the musical composer and performer Ivor Novello . From the Second World War , the theatre has primarily hosted long runs of musicals , including Oklahoma ! ( 1947 – 1953 ) , My Fair Lady ( 1958 – 1963 ) , 42nd Street ( 1984 – 1989 ) and Miss Saigon ( 1989 – 1999 ) , the theatre 's longest @-@ running show . The theatre is owned by the composer Andrew Lloyd Webber .
= = First theatre : Theatre Royal , Bridges Street ( 1663 ) = =
After the eleven @-@ year @-@ long Puritan Interregnum , which had seen the banning of pastimes regarded as frivolous , such as theatre , the English monarchy was restored to the throne with the return of Charles II in 1660 . Soon after , Charles issued Letters Patent to two parties licensing the formation of new acting companies . One of these went to Thomas Killigrew , whose company became known as the King 's Company , and who built a new theatre in Drury Lane . The Letters Patent also granted the two companies a shared monopoly on the public performance of legitimate drama in London ; this monopoly was challenged in the 18th century by new venues and by a certain slipperiness in the definition of " legitimate drama , " but remained legally in place until 1843 . The new playhouse , architect unknown , opened on 7 May 1663 and was known from the placement of the entrance as the " Theatre Royal in Bridges Street . " It went by other names as well , including the " King 's Playhouse . " The building was a three @-@ tiered wooden structure , 112 feet ( 34 m ) long and 59 feet ( 18 m ) wide ; it could hold an audience of 700 . Set well back from the broader streets , the theatre was accessed by narrow passages between surrounding buildings .
The King himself frequently attended the theatre 's productions , as did Samuel Pepys , whose private diaries provide much of what we know of London theatre @-@ going in the 1660s . The day after the Theatre Royal opened , Pepys attended a performance of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher 's The Humorous Lieutenant . He has this to say in his diary :
The house is made with extraordinary good contrivance , and yet hath some faults , as the narrowness of the passages in and out of the Pitt , and the distance from the stage to the boxes , which I am confident cannot hear ; but for all other things it is well , only , above all , the musique being below , and most of it sounding under the very stage , there is no hearing of the bases at all , nor very well of the trebles , which sure must be mended .
Performances usually began at 3 pm to take advantage of the daylight : the main floor for the audience , the pit , had no roof in order to let in the light . A glazed dome was built over the opening , but according to one of Pepys ' diary entries , the dome was not entirely effective at keeping out the elements : he and his wife were forced to leave the theatre to take refuge from a hail storm . Green baize cloth covered the benches in the pit and served to decorate the boxes , additionally ornamented with gold @-@ tooled leather , and even the stage itself . The backless green benches in the pit were in a semicircular arrangement facing the stage , according to a May 1663 letter from one Monsieur de Maonconys : " All benches of the pit , where people of rank also sit , are shaped in a semi @-@ circle , each row higher than the next . " The three galleries formed a semicircle around the floor seats ; both the first and second galleries were divided up into boxes .
The King 's Company was forced with some reluctance to commission the technically advanced and expensive Theatre Royal playhouse by the success of the rival Duke 's Company , which was drawing fascinated crowds with their " moveable " or " changeable " scenery and visually gorgeous productions at the former Lisle 's Tennis Court at Lincoln 's Inn Fields . Imitating the innovations at Lincoln 's Inn Fields , the Theatre Royal also featured moveable scenery with wings or shutters that could be smoothly changed between or even within acts . When not in use , the shutters rested out of sight behind the sides of the proscenium arch , which also served as a visual frame for the on @-@ stage happenings . The picture @-@ frame @-@ like separation between audience and performance was a new phenomenon in English theatre , though it had been found on the Continent earlier . However , theatre design in London remained ambivalent about the merits of the " picture @-@ box " stage , and for many decades to come , London theatres including Drury Lane had large forestages protruding beyond the arch , often including the thrust stages found in the Elizabethan theatres . The players could still step forward and bridge the distance between performer and audience , and in addition , it was not unusual for audience members to mount the stage themselves .
Killigrew 's investment in the new playhouse put the two companies on a level as far as technical resources were concerned , but the offerings at the Theatre Royal nevertheless continued to be dominated by actor @-@ driven " talk " drama , contrasting with William Davenant 's baroque spectacles and operas at Lincoln 's Inn Fields . Internal power structures were the main reason for this difference : while Davenant skilfully commanded a docile young troupe , Killigrew 's authority over his veteran actors was far from absolute . Experienced actors Michael Mohun ( who Pepys called " the best actor in the world " ) and Charles Hart held out for shares and good contracts in the King 's Company . Such a division of power between the patentee , Killigrew , and his chief actors led to frequent conflicts that hampered the Theatre Royal as a business venture . Nevertheless , it was mostly at the struggling Theatre Royal , rather than at the efficiently run Lincoln 's Inn Fields , that the plays were acted that are classics today . This applies especially to the new form Restoration comedy , dominated in the 1660s by William Wycherley and the Theatre Royal 's house dramatist John Dryden . Actors such as Hart and Charles II 's mistress Nell Gwyn developed and refined the famous scenes of repartee , banter and flirtation in Dryden 's and Wycherley 's comedies . With the appearance of actresses for the first time at Drury Lane and Lincoln 's Inn Fields in the 1660s , British playwrights wrote parts for outspoken female characters , daring love scenes and provocative breeches roles . In any case , the competition between the King 's Company and the Duke 's was good for the rebirth and development of English drama .
The Great Plague of London struck in the summer of 1665 , and the Theatre Royal , along with all other public entertainment , was shut down by order of the Crown on 5 June . It remained closed for 18 months until the autumn of 1666 , during which time it received at least a little interior renovation , including widening of the stage . Located well to the west of the City boundary , the theatre was unaffected by the Great Fire of London , which raged through the City in September 1666 , but it burned down six years later on 25 January 1672 .
= = Second theatre : Theatre Royal , Drury Lane ( 1674 ) = =
During the 20th century , one illustration was repeatedly – and wrongly – published as " Christopher Wren , design for the Theatre Royal Drury Lane , 1674 " . Since 1964 , this presumption has been disputed by scholars . Careful inspection of the drawing at All Soul 's Library shows that it has one pencil inscription : " Play house " [ sic ] , which may have been added by a librarian or by anyone else . No sign of a signature ( by Wren or anyone else ) or a date appears anywhere on the drawing . Robert D. Hume of Penn State University explained that use of the drawing " rests almost entirely on the supposition that the so @-@ called " Wren section " at All Souls represents this theatre . It could just as easily be a discarded sketch unconnected to Drury Lane in any way . "
Comparative evidence for Drury Lane 's 1674 design can be found in the Theatre Royal , Bristol , built in 1766 , whose design was modelled , in part , on Drury Lane 's . The site measured 112 ft ( 34 m ) east @-@ west and 59 ft ( 18 m ) north @-@ south . The building was smaller than this , however , as reliable surveys and maps of the period show three passageways measuring between 5 and 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide surrounding the Theatre Royal on three sides . The building therefore probably measured between 40 and 50 ft ( 12 and 15 m ) wide ( the average width of all " Restoration " Theatres ) and between 90 and 100 ft ( 27 and 30 m ) long . Architect Robert Adam designed Drury Lane 's 1674 interior . The theatre was managed , from 1747 to Adam 's retirement in the 1770s , by David Garrick .
The King 's Company never recovered financially from the loss of the old Theatre Royal Bridges Street . The cost of constructing the new theatre , replacing their costumes and scenery lost in the fire and competitive pressure from the rival Duke 's Company contributed to its decline . Eventually , in 1682 , the King 's Company merged with the Duke 's . The 1674 Theatre Royal building contained a warren of rooms , including storage space and dressing rooms used by the management and performers , nearly seventy people in total , as well as some fifty technical staff members . Additionally three rooms were provided for scripts , including a library for their storage , a separate room for copying actors ' parts and a special library for the theatre 's account books , ledger books and music scores . This jumble of rooms often made communication among various departments difficult , a problem that Garrick corrected during his tenure as manager . The entire complex occupied 13 @,@ 134 square feet ( 1 @,@ 220 m2 ) bounded by Drury Lane ( east ) , Brydges Street ( west ) , Great Russell Street ( north ) and Little Russell Street ( south ) .
From 1674 , theatregoers accessed the Drury Lane via a long ten foot wide passageway from Bridges Street . The passageway opened onto a yard ( previously a " Riding Yard " ) in which the theatre stood . It 's likely that the yard remained open to the sky at this date , on three sides of the Theatre Royal walls . Henri Misson , a visitor from France , offers a description of the theatre in 1698 : his use of the word " amphitheatre " supports the view that Drury Lane had a circular line of boxes surrounding its pit :
The Pit is an Amphitheatre , fill 'd with Benches without Backboards , and adorn 'd and cover 'd with green Cloth . Men of Quality , particularly the younger Sort , some Ladies of Reputation and Virtue , and abundance of Damsels that haunt for Prey , sit all together in this Place , Higgledy @-@ piggledy , chatter , toy , play , hear , hear not . Farther up , against the Wall , under the first Gallery and just opposite to the Stage , rises another Amphitheatre , which is taken by persons of the best Quality , among whom are generally very few Men . The Galleries , whereof there are only two Rows , are fill 'd with none but ordinary People , particularly the Upper one .
As Misson points out , the seating was divided by class , and tickets were priced accordingly . Box seats , used by the nobility and wealthy gentry , cost 5 shillings ; the benches in the pit where some gentry sat , but also critics and scholars , cost 3 shillings ; tradesmen and professionals occupied the first gallery with seats costing 2 shillings , while servants and other " ordinary people " , as Misson refers to them , occupied the 1 shilling seats of the upper gallery . Seats were not numbered and were offered on a " first come , first served " basis , leading many members of the gentry to send servants to reserve seats well ahead of performances . The stage was 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep with a raked floor from the footlights to the backdrop . The angle of the rake rose one inch for every 24 inches ( 610 mm ) of horizontal stage . The stage floor included grooves for wings and flats in addition to trap doors in the floor . The proscenium arch covered the stage equipment above the stage that included a pair of girondels – large wheels holding many candles used to counteract the light from the footlights . Towards the latter part of the 18th century , doors were placed on either side of the stage , and a series of small spikes traced the edge of the stage apron to prevent audiences from climbing onto the stage . At the very back of the stage , a wide door opened to reveal Drury Lane .
An added difficulty for Killigrew and his sons Thomas and Charles was the political unrest of 1678 – 1684 with the Popish Plot and the Exclusion Bill crisis distracting potential audiences from things theatrical . This affected both the King 's and the Duke 's companies , but most of all the King 's which had no profit margin to carry them through the lean years . In 1682 the companies merged , or rather , the King 's was absorbed by the Duke 's . Led at the time by Thomas Betterton , the United Company , as it was now called , chose Drury Lane as their production house , leaving the Duke 's Company 's theatre in Dorset Garden closed for a time . In 1688 Betterton was removed from managerial control by Alexander Davenant , son of William Davenant , the original patent holder for the Duke 's Company . Davenant 's management ( with Charles Killigrew ) proved brief and disastrous , and by 1693 he was fleeing to the Canary Islands in the wake of embezzlement charges . The Theatre Royal found itself in the hands of lawyer Christopher Rich for the next 16 years .
Neither Davenant 's nor Killigrew 's sons were much better than crooks , and Rich attempted to recoup their depredations of the company 's resources by cost @-@ cutting tyranny , pitting actor against actor and slashing salaries . By 1695 the actors , including day @-@ to @-@ day manager and acting legend Thomas Betterton , were alienated and humiliated enough to walk out and set up a cooperative company of their own . Nine men and six women departed , all of them established professional performers , including such draws as tragedian Elizabeth Barry and comedian Anne Bracegirdle , leaving the United Company – henceforth known as the " Patent Company " – in " a very despicable condition , " according to an anonymous contemporary pamphlet :
The disproportion was so great at parting , that it was almost impossible , in Drury Lane , to muster up a sufficient number to take in all the parts of any play ; and of them so few were tolerable , that a play must of necessity be damned , that had not extraordinary favour from the audience . No fewer than sixteen ( most of the old standing ) went away ; and with them the very beauty and vigour of the stage ; they who were left being for the most part learners , boys and girls , a very unequal match for them that revolted .
A private letter from 19 November 1696 reported that Drury Lane " has no company at all , and unless a new play comes out on Saturday revives their reputation , they must break . " The new play is assumed to have been John Vanbrugh 's The Relapse , and it turned out the success the company needed . Christopher Rich continued as its head until 1709 , when the patent in question was actually revoked amid a complex tangle of political machinations . A lawyer named William Collier was briefly given the right to mount productions in Drury Lane , but by 1710 the troupe was in the hands of the actors Colley Cibber , Robert Wilks , and Thomas Doggett – a triumvirate that eventually found themselves sharply satirised in Alexander Pope 's Dunciad . In 1713 Barton Booth replaced Doggett .
Cibber was the de facto leader of the triumvirate , and he led the theatre through a controversial but generally successful period until 1733 , when he sold his controlling interest to John Highmore . It is likely that the sale was at a vastly inflated price and that Colley 's goal was simply to get out of debts and make a profit ( see Robert Lowe in his edition of Cibber 's Apology ) . Members of the troupe at the time were most displeased ; an actor 's revolt was organised and executed ; Charles Fleetwood came to control the theatre . Fleetwood 's tenure was tumultuous ; his abolition of the practice of allowing footmen free access to the upper gallery led to riots in 1737 , and Fleetwood 's gambling problems entangled the theatre in his own financial difficulties . It was during this period that actor Charles Macklin ( a native of Inishowen in County Donegal in Ulster ) rose to fame , propelled by a singular performance as Shylock in an early 1741 production of The Merchant of Venice , in which he introduced a realistic , naturalistic style of acting , abandoning the artificial bombast typical to dramatic roles prior .
In 1747 Fleetwood 's playhouse patent expired . The theatre and a patent renewal were purchased by actor David Garrick ( who had trained under Macklin earlier ) and partner James Lacy . Garrick served as manager and lead actor of the theatre until roughly 1766 , and continued on in the management role for another ten years after that . He is remembered as one of the great stage actors and is especially associated with advancing the Shakespearean tradition in English theatre – during his time at Drury Lane , the company mounted at least 24 of Shakespeare 's plays . Some of Shakespeare 's surge in popularity during this period can be traced to the Licensing Act of 1737 , which mandated governmental approval of any play before it could be performed and thereby created something of a vacuum of new material to perform . Garrick shared the stage with company including Peg Woffington , Susannah Cibber , Hannah Pritchard , Kitty Clive , Spranger Barry , Richard Yates and Ned Shuter . It was under Garrick 's management that spectators were for the first time barred from the stage itself .
Garrick commissioned Robert Adam and his brother James to renovate the theatre 's interior , which they did in 1775 . Their additions included an ornate ceiling and a stucco facade facing Bridges Street . This facade was the first time any structure that might be considered part of the theatre proper actually abutted the street : the building , like the 1663 original , had been built in the centre of the block , hemmed in by other structures . The narrow passage from Bridges street to the theatre now became an interior hallway ; some theatre office space also went up behind the new facade .
With a series of farewell performances , Garrick left the stage in 1776 and sold his shares in the theatre to the Irish playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan . Sheridan and his partners , Thomas Linley the elder and Doctor James Ford ( court physician to King George III ) , completed their purchase of Drury Lane two years later , and Sheridan owned it until 1809 . Sheridan premiered his own comedy of manners The School for Scandal in 1777 . Active management of the theatre was carried out by a number of parties during Sheridan 's ownership , including himself , his father Thomas , and , from 1788 to 1796 and 1800 to 1802 , the popular actor John Philip Kemble . Linley took up the post of Musical Director at the theatre , receiving a retainer of £ 500 per annum .
Sheridan employed dozens of children as extras at Drury Lane including Joseph Grimaldi who made his stage debut at the theatre in 1780 . Grimaldi became best known for his development of the modern day white @-@ face clown and popularised the role of Clown in many Pantomimes and Harlequinades . Towards the end of the 1790s , Grimaldi starred in Robinson Crusoe , which confirmed him as a key Christmas pantomime performer . Many pantomimes followed , but his career at Drury Lane became turbulent , and he left the theatre for good in 1806 .
= = Third theatre : 1794 = =
The theatre was in need of updating by the end of the 18th century and was demolished in 1791 , with the company moving temporarily to the new King 's Theatre , in the Haymarket . A third theatre was designed by Henry Holland and opened on 12 March 1794 . In the design of the theatre boxes , Henry Holland asked John Linnell for assistance . The designs by Linnell survive in the V & A Print Room – there are also designs by Henry Holland and Charles Heathcote Tatham who were involved in the design process . This was a cavernous theatre , accommodating more than 3 @,@ 600 spectators . The motivation behind building on such a large scale ? In the words of one owner :
I was aware of the very popular notion that our theatres ought to be very small ; but it appeared to me that if that very popular notion should be suffered to proceed too far it would in every way deteriorate our dramatic performances depriving the proprietors of that revenue which is indispensable to defray the heavy expenses of such a concern .
New technology facilitated the expansion : iron columns replaced bulky wood , supporting five tiers of galleries . The stage was large , too : 83 feet ( 25 m ) wide and 92 feet ( 28 m ) deep . Holland , the architect , said it was " on a larger scale than any other theatre in Europe . " Except for churches , it was the tallest building in London .
The " very popular notion that our theatres ought to be very small " proved hard to overcome , however . Various accounts from the period bemoan the mammoth size of the new theatre , longing for the " warm close observant seats of Old Drury , " as one May 1794 theatre @-@ goer put it . Actress Sarah Siddons , then part of the Drury Lane company , called it " a wilderness of a place " ( and left Drury Lane along with her brother John Philip Kemble in 1803 ) . Not only was any sense of intimacy and connection to the company on stage lost , but the very size of the theatre put a great deal of the audience at such a distance from the stage so as to make hearing a player 's voice quite difficult . To compensate , the productions mounted in the new theatre tended more toward spectacle than the spoken word . An example of such a spectacle is a 1794 production that featured real water flowing down a rocky stream into a lake large enough on which to row a boat . This water issued from tanks in the attics above the house , which were installed – along with a much @-@ touted iron safety curtain – as proof against fire .
Richard Sheridan continued as theatre owner during the entire lifetime of this third building . He had grown in stature as a statesman during this time , but troubled finances were to be his undoing . The 1794 rebuilding had cost double the original estimate of £ 80 @,@ 000 , and Sheridan bore the entirety of the debt . Productions were more expensive to mount in the larger structure , and increased audience revenues failed to make up the difference .
An assassination attempt against King George III took place at the theatre on 15 May 1800 . James Hadfield fired two pistol shots from the pit toward the King , sitting in the royal box . The shots missed by inches , Hadfield having been jostled by a Mr Dyte . Hadfield was quickly subdued , and George , apparently unruffled , ordered the performance to continue .
The comedy actor John Bannister became acting @-@ manager in 1802 . With Sheridan 's son Tom , and in the circle of Richard Wroughton ( stage @-@ manager ) , William Dowton , Michael Kelly , Tom Dibdin and their likes , he helped to see the Theatre Royal through its next catastrophe . On 24 February 1809 , despite the previously mentioned fire safety precautions , the theatre burned down . On being encountered drinking a glass of wine in the street while watching the fire , R.B. Sheridan was famously reported to have said : " A man may surely be allowed to take a glass of wine by his own fireside . " Already on the shakiest financial ground , Sheridan was ruined entirely by the loss of the building . He turned to brewer Samuel Whitbread , an old friend , for help . As well as investing strongly in the project , Whitbread agreed to head a committee that would manage the company and oversee the rebuilding of the theatre , but asked Sheridan to withdraw from management himself , which he did entirely by 1811 .
= = Modern theatre : 1812 = =
The present Theatre Royal in Drury Lane , designed by Benjamin Dean Wyatt on behalf of the committee led by Whitbread , opened on 10 October 1812 with a production of Hamlet featuring Robert Elliston in the title role . The new theatre made some concessions toward intimacy , seating 3 @,@ 060 people , about 550 fewer than the earlier building ( though this size is still considered an extremely large theatre ) . On 6 September 1817 , gas lighting was extended from the audience area to the stage , making it the first British theatre to be gaslit throughout . In 1820 the portico that still stands at the theatre 's front entrance on Catherine Street was added , and in 1822 the interior underwent a significant remodelling . The colonnade running down the Russell Street side of the building was added in 1831 .
Productions relying more on scenery and effects than on dialogue and acting remained commonplace in the new facility . The 1823 production of Cataract of the Ganges had a finale featuring a horseback escape up a flowing cataract " with fire raging all around . " Effects for an 1829 production were produced by hydraulic apparatus that reportedly could discharge 39 tons of water .
There were those concerned that the theatre was failing in its role as one of the very few permitted to show legitimate drama . Management of the theatre after it reopened in 1813 fell to Samuel James Arnold , overseen by an amateur board of directors and a subcommittee focusing on the theatre as a centre for national culture . ( Lord Byron was briefly on this subcommittee , from June 1815 until leaving England in April 1816 . ) Actor Edmund Kean was the on @-@ stage highlight ; like Macklin before him , he made his reputation as Shylock , premiering in the role in 1814 . Kean remained until 1820 through praise and notorious disputes with local playwrights such as Charles Bucke .
Elliston leased the theatre from 1819 until he went bankrupt in 1826 . An American , Stephen Price , followed ( 1826 – 1830 ) ; then through most of the remainder of the 19th century , Drury Lane passed quickly from one proprietor to another . A colonnade was added to the Russell Street frontage , in 1831 , by architect Samuel Beazley . In 1833 , Alfred Bunn gained control of both Drury Lane and Covent Garden , managing the former from 1833 to 1839 , and again from 1843 to 1850 . Following the lead of the Lyceum Theatre , London , Bunn championed English opera , rather than the Italian operas that had played earlier at the theatre . These included Fair Rosamond and Farinelli by John Barnett ; a series of twelve operas by Michael Balfe including The Maid of Artois and The Bohemian Girl ; Maritana and others by William Vincent Wallace and several by Julius Benedict . In 1837 , actor @-@ manager Samuel Phelps ( 1804 – 1878 ) joined the company at Drury Lane , appearing with William Charles Macready , the gifted actor @-@ manager in a number of Shakespeare plays . He also created the role of Captain Channel in Douglas Jerrold 's melodrama , The Prisoner of War ( 1842 ) , and of Lord Tresham in Robert Browning 's A Blot in the ' Scutcheon ( 1843 ) . Macready was briefly manager in 1841 – 1843 , putting significant reforms in place . Nevertheless , most productions there were financial disasters .
The theatrical monopoly first bestowed by Royal Letters Patent 183 years earlier was abolished by the Theatres Act 1843 , but the patent had been largely toothless for decades and this had little immediate effect . On the other hand , other theatres , used to presenting musical entertainments , continued to do so , and Drury Lane continued as one of the most accepted venues for legitimate theatre . The 19th @-@ century run of financial and artistic failures at Drury Lane was interrupted by four plays produced over a twenty @-@ five @-@ year period by the actor @-@ playwright Dion Boucicault : The Queen of Spades ( 1851 ) , Eugenie ( 1855 ) , Formosa ( 1869 ) , and The Shaughraun ( 1875 ) . But this period of general decline culminated with F. B. Chatterton 's 1878 resignation ; in his words , " Shakespeare spells ruin , and Byron bankruptcy . " During the 19th century , Drury Lane staged ballet as well , with performers including Italy 's Carlotta Grisi .
One famous musical director of Drury Lane was the eccentric French conductor and composer of light music Louis @-@ Antoine Jullien ( 1812 – 1860 ) , who successfully invited Berlioz to visit London and give concerts in the Theatre .
The house 's fortunes rose again under the management of Augustus Harris from 1879 . In the 1880s and 1890s , the theatre hosted many of the productions of the Carl Rosa Opera Company . Harris focused increased resources on the theatre 's annual pantomime , beginning at Christmas 1888 , adding a well @-@ known comedian , Dan Leno . These spectacular Christmas shows were a major success , often playing into March . They were choreographed by the theatre 's dance master , John D 'Auban . Many of the designs under Harris were created by the imaginative designer C. Wilhelm , including the spectacular drama , Armada ( 1888 ) , and many of the pantomimes . Productions relying on spectacle became the norm at Drury Lane under the managements first of Harris , from 1879 to 1896 , and then of Arthur Collins from 1896 to 1923 . Examples include the 1909 play , The Whip , which featured not only a train crash , but also twelve horses recreating the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes on an on @-@ stage treadmill .
The last major interior renovation was in 1922 under the ownership of managing director Sir Alfred Butt at a cost of ₤ 150 @,@ 000 , leaving a four @-@ tiered theatre able to seat just over 2 @,@ 000 people . It was decorated with one of the most notable interiors produced by the specialist ornamental plasterwork company of Clark and Fenn . Composer and performer Ivor Novello , immensely popular in his time though little @-@ remembered today , presented his musicals in Drury Lane from 1931 until the theatre was closed in 1939 because of the outbreak of the Second World War . During the war the theatre served as the headquarters for the Entertainments National Service Association ; it sustained some minor bomb damage as well . The theatre reopened with Noël Coward 's Pacific 1860 in 1946 .
In the post @-@ war years , four of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals made their London debuts in Drury Lane , holding the stage almost continuously for nearly a decade , including Oklahoma ! ( 1947 – 1950 ) , Carousel ( musical ) ( 1950 – 1951 ) , South Pacific ( 1951 – 1953 ) and The King and I ( 1953 – 1956 ) . American imports also included Lerner and Loewe 's My Fair Lady , which began a five @-@ year run in 1958 . Productions in the 1960s included Camelot ( 1964 – 1965 ) , Hello , Dolly ! ( 1965 – 1967 ) and The Great Waltz ( 1970 – 1972 ) . In 1974 , Monty Python recorded an album at the theatre , Live at Drury Lane .
The theatre became part of the West End theatre scene and still stages popular musical productions . Later long runs at the theatre include productions of A Chorus Line ( 1976 – 1979 ) , 42nd Street ( 1984 – 1989 ) , Miss Saigon ( 1989 – 1999 , the theatre 's longest @-@ running show ) , The Producers ( 2004 – 2007 ) , an original musical , The Lord of the Rings ( 2007 – 2008 ) , Oliver ! ( 2009 – 2011 ) and Shrek the Musical ( 2011 – 2013 ) . Charlie and the Chocolate Factory the Musical has been playing since 2013 and is booking through January 2017 . The Drury Lane is owned and managed by Really Useful Theatres , owned by Andrew Lloyd Webber . The seating plan for the theatre remains the same and the auditorium is still one of the largest in London 's West End . The building was Grade I listed in February 1958 . It is one of the 40 theatres featured in the 2012 DVD documentary series Great West End Theatres , presented by Donald Sinden .
= = 350th anniversary = =
On 15 May 2013 , Lloyd Webber revealed a £ 4 million restoration of the theatre to mark its 350th anniversary . Using a team of specialist heritage tradesmen , the detailed restoration has returned the public areas of the Rotunda , Royal Staircases and Grand Saloon , all
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ystaspes and Rhodugune in 550 BCE . Hystaspes was a leading figure of authority in Persia , which was the homeland of the Persians . Darius 's inscription states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE . According to Herodotus , Hystaspes was the satrap of Persis , although most historians state that this is an error . Also according to Herodotus ( III.139 ) , Darius , prior to seizing power and " of no consequence at the time " , had served as a spearman ( doryphoros ) in the Egyptian campaign ( 528 – 525 BCE ) of Cambyses II , then the Persian Great King . Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus 's army and a noble of his court .
Before Cyrus and his army crossed the Aras River to battle with the Armenians , he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle . However , once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River , he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia ( the known world ) . When Cyrus awoke from the dream , he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire , as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world . However , his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne , not Darius , causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs . This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly , until Cyrus himself returned . Darius did not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II ascended the throne peacefully ; and , through promotion , Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambyses 's personal lancer .
= = Accession = =
The rise of Darius to the throne contains two variations , an account from Darius and another from Greek historians . Some modern historians have inferred that Darius 's rise to power might have been illegitimate . To them , it seems likely that Gaumata ( a pretender to the throne ) was in fact Bardiya ( the legitimate heir ) , and that under cover of revolts , Darius killed the heir to the throne and took it himself .
Darius 's account , written at the Behistun Inscription states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya , but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people . A would @-@ be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people , stating he was Bardiya . The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses 's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence . On 1 July , the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata , as " Bardiya " . No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life . Darius , who had served Cambyses as his lance @-@ bearer until the deposed ruler 's death , prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE , along with Otanes , Intraphrenes , Gobryas , Hydarnes , Megabyzus and Aspathines , killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati .
Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius 's ascension : Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated , Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire . At first , the seven discussed the form of government ; a democratic republic was strongly pushed by Otanes , an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus , while Darius pushed for a monarchy . After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting , while a monarchy would be led with a single @-@ mindedness not possible in other governments , Darius was able to convince the other nobles that a monarchy was the correct form of government . To decide who would become the monarch , the six nobles ( Otanes stated that he had no interest in becoming king ) decided on a test . All six nobles would gather outside mounted on their horses at sunrise , and the nobles ' horse which neighed first would become Great King . According to Herodotus , Darius had a slave , Oebares who helped Darius win this contest . Before the contest , Oebares rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius 's horse had a fondness for . When the six nobles gathered outside , Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius 's horse , who became excited at the smell and neighed . Immediately after , lightning and thunder occurred leading the other six noblemen to believe to be an act of God , causing them to dismount and kneel before Darius . Darius did not believe that he had achieved the throne through fraud but through brilliant sagacity , even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse stating " Darius , son of Hystaspes , obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebases , his groom . "
According to the accounts of Greek historians , Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt . He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya . After the killing , Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata , a Magian who resembled Bardiya , on the throne and declared him the Great King . Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor , and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius , created a plan to oust the pseudo @-@ Bardiya . After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians , Darius was crowned king the following morning .
= = Early reign = =
Following his coronation at Pasargadae , Darius moved to Ecbatana . He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong , and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken out . Darius ended the Elamite revolt when the revolutionary leader Aschina was captured and executed in Susa . After three months the revolt in Babylonia had ended . While in Babylonia , Darius learned a revolution had broken out in Bactria , a satrapy which had always been in favour of Darius , and had initially volunteered an army of soldiers to quell revolts . Following this , revolts broke out in Persis , the homeland of the Persians and Darius and then in Elam and Babylonia , followed by in Media , Parthia , Assyria , and Egypt . By 522 BCE , there were revolts against Darius in most parts of the Achaemenid Empire leaving the empire in turmoil . Even though Darius did not seem to have the support of the populace , Darius had a loyal army , led by close confidants and nobles ( including the six nobles who had helped him remove Gaumata ) . With their support , Darius was able to suppress and quell all revolts within a year . In Darius 's words , he had killed a total of eight " lying kings " through the quelling of revolutions . Darius left a detailed account of these revolutions in the Behistun Inscription .
One of the significant events of Darius 's early reign was the slaying of Intaphernes , one of the seven noblemen who had deposed the previous ruler and installed Darius as the new monarch . The seven had made an agreement that they could all visit the new king whenever they pleased , except when he was with his wife . One evening , Intaphernes went to the palace to meet Darius , but was stopped by two officers who stated that Darius had retired for the night . Becoming enraged and insulted , Intaphernes drew his sword and cut off the ears and noses of the two officers . While leaving the palace , he took the bridle from his horse , and tied the two officers together . The officers went to the king and showed him what Intaphernes had done to them . Darius began to fear for his own safety ; he thought that all seven noblemen had banded together to rebel against him and that the attack against his officers was the first sign of revolt . He sent a messenger to each of the noblemen , asking them if they approved of Intaphernes 's actions . They denied and disavowed any connection with Intaphernes 's actions , stating that they stood by their decision to appoint Darius as King of Kings .
Taking precautions against further resistance , Darius sent soldiers to seize Intaphernes , along with his son , family members , relatives and any friends who were capable of arming themselves . Darius believed that Intaphernes was planning a rebellion , but when he was brought to the court , there was no proof of any such plan . Nonetheless , Darius killed Intaphernes 's entire family , excluding his wife 's brother and son . She was asked to choose between her brother and son . She chose her brother to live . Her reasoning for doing so was that she could have another husband and another son , but she would always have but one brother . Darius was impressed by her response and spared both her brother 's and her son 's life .
= = Military campaigns = =
After securing his authority over the entire empire , Darius embarked on a campaign to Egypt where he defeated the armies of the Pharaoh and secured the lands that Cambyses had conquered while incorporating a large portion of Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire .
Through another series of campaigns , Darius I would eventually reign over the territorial apex of the empire , when it stretched from parts of the Balkans ( Thrace @-@ Macedonia , Bulgaria @-@ Paeonia ) in the west , to the Indus Valley in the east .
= = = Invasion of Indus Valley = = =
In 516 BCE , Darius embarked on a campaign to Central Asia , Aria and Bactria and then marched into Afghanistan to Taxila in modern @-@ day Pakistan . Darius spent the winter of 516 @-@ 515 BCE in Gandhara , preparing to conquer the Indus Valley . Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE . Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez . Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia .
= = = Babylonian revolt = = =
After Bardiya was murdered , widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire , especially on the eastern side . Darius asserted his position as king by force , taking his armies throughout the empire , suppressing each revolt individually . The most notable of all these revolts was the Babylonian revolt which was led by Nebuchadnezzar III . This revolt occurred when Otanes withdrew much of the army from Babylon to aid Darius in suppressing other revolts . Darius felt that the Babylonian people had taken advantage of him and deceived him , which resulted in Darius gathering a large army and marching to Babylon . At Babylon , Darius was met with closed gates and a series of defences to keep him and his armies out . Darius encountered mockery and taunting from the rebels , including the famous saying " Oh yes , you will capture our city , when mules shall have foals . " For a year and a half , Darius and his armies were unable to retake the city , though he attempted many tricks and strategies — even copying that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he captured Babylon . However , the situation changed in Darius 's favour when , according to the story , a mule owned by Zopyrus , a high @-@ ranking soldier , foaled . Following this , a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a deserter , enter the Babylonian camp , and gain the trust of the Babylonians . The plan was successful and Darius 's army eventually surrounded the city and overcame the rebels .
During this revolt , Scythian nomads took advantage of the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia . Darius first finished defeating the rebels in Elam , Assyria , and Babylon and then attacked the Scythian invaders . He pursued the invaders , who led him to a marsh ; there he found no known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe .
= = = European Scythian campaign = = =
The Scythians were a group of north Iranian nomadic tribes , speaking an Iranian language ( Scythian languages ) who had invaded Media , killed Cyrus in battle , revolted against Darius and threatened to disrupt trade between Central Asia and the shores of the Black Sea as they lived between the Danube River , River Don and the Black Sea .
Darius crossed the Black Sea at the Bosphorus Straits using a bridge of boats . Darius conquered large portions of Eastern Europe , even crossing the Danube to wage war on the Scythians . Darius invaded European Scythia in 513 BC , where the Scythians evaded Darius 's army , using feints and retreating eastwards while laying waste to the countryside , by blocking wells , intercepting convoys , destroying pastures and continuous skirmishes against Darius 's army . Seeking to fight with the Scythians , Darius 's army chased the Scythian army deep into Scythian lands , where there were no cities to conquer and no supplies to forage . In frustration Darius sent a letter to the Scythian ruler Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender . The ruler replied that he would not stand and fight with Darius until they found the graves of their fathers and tried to destroy them . Until then , they would continue their strategy as they had no cities or cultivated lands to lose . Despite the evading tactics of the Scythians , Darius ' campaign was so far relatively successful . As presented by Herodotus , the tactics used by the Scythians resulted in the loss of their best lands and of damage to their loyal allies . This gave Darius the initiative . As he moved eastwards in the cultivated lands of the Scythians in Eastern Europe proper , he remained resupplied by his fleet and lived to an extent off the land . While moving eastwards in the European Scythian lands , he captured the large fortified city of the Budini , one of the allies of the Scythians , and burnt it .
Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus , where he built " eight great forts , some eight miles distant from each other " , no doubt as a frontier defence . In his Histories , Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts were still standing in his day . After chasing the Scythians for a month , Darius 's army was suffering losses due to fatigue , privation and sickness . Concerned about losing more of his troops , Darius halted the march at the banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace . He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the Scythians to respect the Persian forces .
= = = Persian invasion of Greece = = =
Darius 's European expedition was a major event in his reign , which began with the invasion of Thrace . Darius also conquered many cities of the northern Aegean , Paeonia , while Macedonia submitted voluntarily , after the demand of earth and water , becoming a vassal kingdom . He then left Megabyzus to conquer Thrace , returning to Sardis to spend the winter . The Greeks living in Asia Minor and some of the Greek islands had submitted to Persian rule already by 510 BCE . Nonetheless , there were certain Greeks who were pro @-@ Persian , although these were largely based in Athens . To improve Greek @-@ Persian relations , Darius opened his court and treasuries to those Greeks who wanted to serve him . These Greeks served as soldiers , artisans , statesmen and mariners for Darius . However , the increasing concerns amongst the Greeks over the strength of Darius 's kingdom along with the constant interference by the Greeks in Ionia and Lydia were stepping stones towards the conflict that was yet to come between Persia and certain of the leading Greek city states .
When Aristagoras organized the Ionian Revolt , Eretria and Athens supported him by sending ships and troops to Ionia and by burning Sardis . Persian military and naval operations to quell the revolt ended in the Persian reoccupation of Ionian and Greek islands , as well as the re @-@ subjugation of Thrace and the conquering of Macedonia in 492 BC under Mardonius . Macedon had been a vassal kingdom of the Persians since the late 6th century BC , but remained having autonomy . Mardonius ' 492 campaign made it a fully subordinate part of the Persian kingdom . These military actions as a direct response to the revolt in Ionia as well commenced the beginning of the First Persian invasion of ( mainland ) Greece . At the same time , anti @-@ Persian parties gained more power in Athens , and pro @-@ Persian aristocrats were exiled from Athens and Sparta . Darius responded by sending troops led by his son @-@ in @-@ law across the Hellespont . However , a violent storm and harassment by the Thracians forced the troops to return to Persia . Seeking revenge on Athens and Eretria , Darius assembled another army of 20 @,@ 000 men under his Admiral , Datis , and his nephew Artaphernes , who met success when they captured Eretria and advanced to Marathon . In 490 BCE , at the Battle of Marathon , the Persian army was defeated by a heavily armed Athenian army , with 9 @,@ 000 men who were supported by 600 Plataeans , 1 @,@ 000 soldiers from each of eleven Greek city @-@ states ( 11 @,@ 000 men in total ) and 10 @,@ 000 lightly armed soldiers led by Miltiades .
The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece . Darius began preparations for a second force which he would command , instead of his generals ; however , before the preparations were complete , Darius died , thus leaving the task to his son Xerxes .
= = Family = =
Darius was the son of Hystaspes and the grandson of Arsames . Both men belonged to the Achaemenid tribe and were still alive when Darius ascended the throne . Darius justifies his ascension to the throne with his lineage . He claimed he could trace his ancestors back to Achaemenes , even though he was only distantly related . With this in mind , Darius married Atossa , daughter of Cyrus , with whom he had four sons : Xerxes , Achaimenes , Masistes and Hystaspes . He also married Artystone , another daughter of Cyrus , with whom he had two sons , Arsames and Gobryas . Darius married Parmys , the daughter of Bardiya , with whom he had a son , Ariomardus . Furthermore , Darius married Phratagone , with whom he had two sons , Abrokomas and Hyperantes . He also married another woman of the nobility , Phaidime , the daughter of Otanes . It is unknown if he had any children with her . Before these royal marriages , Darius had married an unknown daughter of his good friend and lace carrier Gorbyas from an early marriage , with whom he had three sons , Artobazanes , Ariabignes and Arsamenes . Any daughters he had with her are not known . Although Artobazanes was Darius 's first @-@ born , Xerxes became heir and the next king through the influence of Atossa ; she had great authority in the kingdom as Darius loved her most of all his wives .
= = Death = =
After becoming aware of the Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon , Darius began planning another expedition against the Greek @-@ city states ; this time , he , not Datis , would command the imperial armies . Darius had spent three years preparing men and ships for war when a revolt broke out in Egypt . This revolt in Egypt worsened his failing health and prevented the possibility of his leading another army . Soon after , Darius died . In October 486 BCE , the body of Darius was embalmed and entombed in the rock @-@ cut sepulchre that had been prepared for him several years earlier .
Xerxes , the eldest son of Darius and Atossa , succeeded to the throne as Xerxes I ; however , prior to Xerxes 's accession , he contested the succession with his elder half @-@ brother Artobarzanes , Darius 's eldest son who was born to his commoner first wife before Darius rose to power .
In 1923 German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld made casts of the cuneiform inscriptions on Darius 's tomb . They are currently housed in the archives of the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Museum , Smithsonian Institution , Washington , DC .
= = Government = =
= = = Organization = = =
Early in his reign , Darius wanted to reorganise the structure of the empire and reform the system of taxation he inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses . To do this , Darius created twenty provinces called satrapies ( or archi ) which were each assigned to a satrap ( archon ) and specified fixed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay . A complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus , beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land . Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents .
Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent . Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent . The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15 @,@ 000 silver talents .
The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families . These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces . Each of these provinces were divided into sub @-@ provinces with their own governors which were chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap . To assess tributes , a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap . To ensure that one person did not gain too much power , each satrap had a secretary who observed the affairs of the state and communicated with Darius , a treasurer who safeguarded provincial revenues and a garrison commander who was responsible for the troops . Additionally , royal inspectors who were the " eyes and ears " of Darius completed further checks on each satrap .
The imperial administration was coordinated by the chancery with headquarters at Persepolis , Susa , and Babylon with Bactria , Ecbatana , Sardis , Dascylium and Memphis having branches . Darius chose Aramaic as a common language , which soon spread throughout the empire . However , Darius gathered a group of scholars to create a separate language system only used for Persis and the Persians , which was called Aryan script which was only used for official inscriptions .
= = = Economy = = =
Darius introduced a new universal currency , the daric , sometime before 500 BCE . Darius used the coinage system as a transnational currency to regulate trade and commerce throughout his empire . The daric was also recognized beyond the borders of the empire , in places such as Celtic Central Europe and Eastern Europe . There were two types of darics , a gold daric and a silver daric . Only the king could mint gold darics . Important generals and satraps minted silver darics , the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia . The daric was a major boost to international trade . Trade goods such as textiles , carpets , tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia , Europe and Africa . To further improve trade , Darius built the Royal Road , a postal system and Phoenician @-@ based commercial shipping .
The daric also improved government revenues as the introduction of the daric made it easier to collect new taxes on land , livestock and marketplaces . This led to the registration of land which was measured and then taxed . The increased government revenues helped maintain and improve existing infrastructure and helped fund irrigation projects in dry lands . This new tax system also led to the formation of state banking and the creation of banking firms . One of the most famous banking firms was Murashu Sons , based in the Babylonian city of Nippur . These banking firms provided loans and credit to clients .
The daric was called dārayaka within the empire and was most likely named after Darius . In an effort to further improve trade , Darius built canals , underground waterways and a powerful navy . He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire , so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King , satraps and other high officials , which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places .
= = = Religion = = =
While there is no absolute consensus about the adherence of the kings before Darius , such as Cyrus and Cambyses , it is well established that Darius was an adherent of Zoroastrianism or at least a firm believer in Ahura Mazda . As can be seen at the Behistun Inscription , Darius believed that Ahura Mazda had appointed him to rule the Achaemenid Empire . Darius had dualistic convictions and believed that each rebellion in his kingdom was the work of druj , the enemy of Asha . Darius believed that because he lived righteously by Asha , Ahura Mazda supported him . In many cuneiform inscriptions denoting his achievements , he presents himself as a devout believer , perhaps even convinced that he had a divine right to rule over the world .
In the lands that were conquered by his empire , Darius followed the same Achaemenid tolerance that Cyrus had shown and later Achaemenid kings would show . He supported faiths and religions that were " alien " as long as the adherents were submissive and peaceable , sometimes giving them grants from his treasury for their purposes . He had funded the restoration of the Israelite temple which had originally been decreed by Cyrus , was supportive towards Greek cults which can be seen in his letter to Gadatas , and supported Elamite priests . He had also observed Egyptian religious rites related to kingship and had built the temple for the Egyptian god , Amun .
= = = Construction = = =
During Darius 's Greek expedition , he had begun construction projects in Susa , Egypt and Persepolis . He had linked the Red Sea to the river Nile by building a canal which ran from modern Zaqāzīq to modern Suez . To open this canal , he travelled to Egypt in 497 BCE , where the inauguration was carried out with great fanfare and celebration . Darius also built a canal to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean . On this visit to Egypt he erected monuments and executed Aryandes on the charge of treason . When Darius returned to Persis , he found that the codification of Egyptian law had been finished .
Additionally , Darius sponsored large construction projects in Susa , Babylon , Egypt , and Persepolis . In Susa , Darius built a new palace complex in the north of the city . An inscription states that the palace was destroyed during the reign of Artaxerxes I , but was rebuilt . Today only glazed bricks of the palace remain , the majority of them in the Louvre . In Pasargadae Darius finished all incomplete construction projects from the reign of Cyrus the Great . A palace was also built during the reign of Darius , with an inscription in the name of Cyrus the Great . It was previously believed that Cyrus had constructed this building , however due to the cuneiform script being used , the palace is believed to have been constructed by Darius .
In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed . Even though Darius was a Zoroastrian , he built temples dedicated to the Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion . Several temples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet . Darius also created several roads and routes in Egypt . The monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in the official languages of the Persian Empire , Old Persian , Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs . To construct these monuments Darius employed a large number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities . Several of these workers were deportees who had been employed specifically for these projects . These deportees enhanced the empire 's economy and improved inter @-@ cultural relations . At the time of Darius 's death construction projects were still under way . Xerxes completed these works and in some cases expanded his father 's projects by erecting new buildings of his own .
= Russian ironclad Petropavlovsk =
The Russian ironclad Petropavlovsk ( Russian : Петропавловск ) was ordered as a 58 @-@ gun wooden frigate by the Imperial Russian Navy in the early 1860s , but was converted while under construction into a 22 @-@ gun armored frigate . She served as the flagship of the Baltic Fleet during the 1860s and 1870s . The ship was decommissioned in 1885 , but was not sold for scrap until 1892 .
= = Description = =
Petropavlovsk was 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 4 m ) long between perpendiculars , with a beam of 50 feet 4 inches ( 15 @.@ 3 m ) and a draft of 22 feet 2 inches ( 6 @.@ 8 m ) ( forward ) and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) ( aft ) . She displaced 6 @,@ 040 long tons ( 6 @,@ 140 t ) and was fitted with a blunt iron ram at her bow . Petropavlovsk was considered to be seaworthy ; her total crew numbered 680 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was fitted with a horizontal return @-@ connecting @-@ rod steam engine built by the Baird Works of Saint Petersburg . It drove a single four @-@ bladed propeller using steam that was provided by an unknown number of rectangular boilers . During the ship 's sea trials , the engine produced a total of 2 @,@ 805 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 092 kW ) and gave the ship a maximum speed of 11 @.@ 8 knots ( 21 @.@ 9 km / h ; 13 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 375 long tons ( 381 t ) of coal , but her endurance is unknown . She was ship rigged with three masts .
As a heavy frigate , Petropavlovsk was intended to be armed with 54 of the most powerful guns available to the Russians , the 7 @.@ 72 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) 60 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun , and four long 36 @-@ pounder smoothbores . Her armament was revised when she was converted to an ironclad and she was completed with an armament of twenty 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled guns and two 60 @-@ pounder guns ; all of the 8 @-@ inch guns were located on the lower deck and the 60 @-@ pounders were mounted on the upper deck as chase guns . Later another pair of 60 @-@ pounder guns were added on the upper deck . In 1877 , the armament on her upper deck was changed and consisted of one 8 @-@ inch , one 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and ten 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) rifled guns .
The entire ship 's side was protected with wrought @-@ iron armor that extended 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) below the waterline . It was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships , backed by 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of teak , that reduced to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , backed by six inches of teak , in steps beginning 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) from the ship 's ends .
= = Construction and service = =
Petropavlovsk , named for the Siege of Petropavlovsk during the Crimean War , was laid down on 12 January 1861 as a 58 @-@ gun heavy frigate at the New Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . She was reordered as ( converted into ) a 22 @-@ gun armored frigate on 29 October 1861 while still under construction . The ship was launched on 15 August 1865 and commissioned on 1 August 1867 . During the 1860s and 1870s , Petropavlovsk served as the flagship of the Baltic Fleet . She was decommissioned on 15 June 1885 , stricken from the Navy List on 4 January 1892 and subsequently sold for scrap .
= A. J. Foyt IV =
Anthony Joseph " A. J. " Foyt IV ( born May 25 , 1984 ) is an American race car driver and also is a scouting assistant for the Indianapolis Colts . He competed in the IndyCar Series and briefly in the NASCAR Nationwide Series , then called the Busch Series . He is the grandson of A. J. Foyt .
He began his career racing karts . He moved up through the open wheel racing ranks , winning the 2002 Infiniti Pro Series . When Foyt made his first Indianapolis 500 race in 2003 , he became the youngest driver to start in the event . He continued in IndyCar for two more years until his back was injured at the 2005 Indianapolis 500 . Later that season he made several NASCAR Busch Series starts . He was scheduled to continue in the Busch Series in 2006 , but the team was bought out and his contract didn 't allow him to race in a non @-@ Dodge car . He returned to IndyCar late that season . He has not raced since 2009 , although he drove for his grandfather 's A. J. Foyt Enterprises team in trials for the 2010 Indianapolis 500 .
= = Personal life = =
Foyt was born in Louisville , Kentucky , but lists his hometown as Hockley , Texas , the long @-@ time residence of his grandfather , racing legend A. J. Foyt , who guided him through much of his career .
Foyt appeared in the 2005 film , The Dukes of Hazzard and is an avid Texas Longhorns fan . In March 2007 , he was charged with DUI stemming from an incident in December of the previous year .
He is married to Indianapolis Colts vice @-@ president Casey Irsay , daughter of team owner Jim Irsay , in July 2009 . On September 19 , 2010 , it was announced by commentators during the Indy Japan 300 that Casey Foyt had given birth to a son , A. J. Foyt V. Foyt is sometimes referred to by the nickname " Quattro " or the stylized " AJIV " or " AJ4 " .
= = Early career in IndyCar = =
Foyt began racing Junior Dragsters as a nine @-@ year @-@ old and won two titles . He then moved to karts for many years before moving to formula race cars in 2001 . In 2001 , he won six of nine SCCA events to claim the Southwest Regional championship . He finished third in SCCA 's national point championships and was the series ' Rookie of the Year . That same year , he competed at the World Karting Association 's Dirt World Championships at Daytona Beach , Florida and finished second in the Briggs Heavy feature event . Foyt competed in his first USAC Silver Crown event that August . In 2002 , A.J. moved to his grandfather 's team , A.J. Foyt Enterprises , in the newly formed Infiniti Pro Series and won the championship with four wins in seven events . In 2003 , he moved up to Foyt Enterprises ' IRL IndyCar Series team , finishing 21st in the final standings .
Foyt currently holds the record for the youngest driver to race in the Indy 500 . His rookie race in 2003 occurred on his 19th birthday . He took the record from Josele Garza who was slightly over 2 months older for his first start in 1981 .
He continued to struggle in IndyCars , finishing 18th in the 2004 points and 20th in 2005 . In the 2005 Indianapolis 500 Foyt was involved in an accident with a top Champ Car driver , Bruno Junqueira , who suffered a broken back . The season did not improve as the team switched from Toyota to Chevrolet power mid @-@ season and Foyt was replaced for the late @-@ season road course events by Jeff Bucknum .
= = NASCAR = =
In October 2005 , Foyt announced that at the end of the 2005 season , he would leave Foyt Enterprises and drive in the NASCAR Busch Series for the # 38 Akins Motorsports team and was signed as a developmental driver for Evernham Motorsports . He ran several events in the # 38 late in 2005 , but failed to produce results . In 2006 , he was scheduled to run the entire Busch Series schedule in the # 38 and be a competitor for the Rookie of the Year award . However , early in the 2006 season , Akins was purchased by Braun Racing , which switched the # 38 from Dodge to Chevrolet bodies . Foyt had an exclusive contract with Dodge that prevented him from continuing with the team . After a week off , Ray Evernham found him a ride with FitzBradshaw Racing , but he failed to qualify for his first race with the team and has not attempted a NASCAR race since .
= = Return to IndyCar = =
= = = 2006 = = =
On September 5 , 2006 , Foyt was tabbed by the 2005 IndyCar Championship team , Andretti Green Racing , to replace injured regular AGR driver Dario Franchitti . Foyt drove the # 27 Klein Tools / Canadian Club Dallara Honda in the IRL season 's final event at Chicagoland Speedway and finished 14th .
= = = 2007 = = =
In January 2007 , Foyt signed with Vision Racing to return to the IRL for the 2007 season as well as drive with the team in the 2007 24 Hours of Daytona .
On August 5 , 2007 , during the Firestone Indy 400 , Foyt was involved in a spectacular seven @-@ car crash in which Dario Franchitti 's car was sent airborne and then came down on Foyt 's car . While Foyt was uninjured , Franchitti 's car left visible tire marks on Foyt 's helmet . Foyt 's crew was able to repair the car and get him back on the track where he completed enough laps to secure an 8th @-@ place finish . The following week at the Meijer Indy 300 , Foyt 's crew gave him great pit stops which allowed him to take to lead with 10 laps remaining . Even though Foyt was passed a few laps later by Tony Kanaan and Scott Dixon , he managed to hold on the rest of the way and drive to a career @-@ best 3rd @-@ place finish , the first Top @-@ 5 finish of his career . It was also the best finish in Vision Racing 's team history , tying Tomas Scheckter 's 3rd @-@ place finish at the Milwaukee Mile in 2006 .
= = = 2008 = = =
Foyt returned to be one of Vision Racing 's drivers in the 2008 24 Hours of Daytona . He returned to the Vision team for the 2008 IndyCar Series season driving the # 2 car that was formerly driven by Tomas Scheckter .
On March 28 , Foyt seemed to have earned a career best start for an IndyCar Series race at Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway for the 2008 GAINSCO Auto Insurance Indy 300 with the third best qualifying time . His Vision Racing teammate , Ed Carpenter also earned a career best start with the 2nd best qualifying time . However , both cars failed technical inspection , meaning they had to start at the rear of the field . Foyt drove his No. 2 entry from the last position ( 25th ) to a ninth @-@ place finish in the race .
Two races later at Twin Ring Motegi in Japan , Foyt had his first top @-@ 10 start of the season for the Indy Japan 300 when qualifying was rained out . The starting grid was based on driver points standings . Of the drivers there , Foyt was eighth in the championship points standings . He was helped with some drivers ahead of him racing in the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach . Foyt had contact with the wall , forcing him to retire from the race early , with a 15th @-@ place finish .
The following week at Kansas Speedway , Foyt and his teammate Ed Carpenter shared the third row , with Foyt qualifying 5th . It was his best career start and second top @-@ 10 start in a row . In the RoadRunner Turbo Indy 300 , Foyt had his chances of a high finish end as his car was caught in the pits when an accident involving Buddy Rice occurred . Foyt would drive to an eighth @-@ place finish . Foyt 's best finish of the season came in the Iowa Corn Indy 250 in June at the Iowa Speedway where he finished fifth . Foyt finished 19th in points .
= = = 2009 – 2010 = = =
Vision Racing was unable to secure sponsorship to run a second car in 2009 , leaving Foyt out of a ride . He returned to A. J. Foyt Enterprises for the 93rd Indianapolis 500 , driving the # 41 ABC Supply entry for his grandfather , A. J. Foyt . Foyt finished 16th on the lead lap as his teammate Vitor Meira was injured in a late @-@ race crash . Paul Tracy was drafted as the substitute driver for Meira at the next race , but Foyt stepped into the car for his home race at Texas Motor Speedway . Ryan Hunter @-@ Reay drove the car for the rest of the season and Texas would be Foyt 's last race of 2009 .
In 2010 he was again entered in a second Foyt Enterprises car for the Indy 500 . After the morning practice session on the final day of qualifying A. J. Foyt IV and his grandfather got in an argument regarding the car 's setup resulting in the younger A. J. quitting the team . Jaques Lazier was drafted in on short notice to qualify the car but failed to find enough speed to make the field .
= = Football = =
Foyt has been employed by the Indianapolis Colts since 2010 as a scouting assistant .
= = Motorsports career results = =
= = = American Open @-@ Wheel racing results = = =
( key )
= = = = Indy Lights = = = =
= = = = IRL IndyCar Series = = = =
1 Run on same day .
2 Non @-@ points paying , exhibition race .
3 Foyt was entered , practiced , and made a qualifying attempt on Pole Day , but failed to make the top 24 . On Bump Day , he quit the team and was replaced by Jaques Lazier .
= = = Indy 500 results = = =
= = = NASCAR = = =
( key ) ( Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time . Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time . * – Most laps led . )
= = = = Busch Series = = = =
= Astrid Peth =
Astrid Peth is a fictional character played by Kylie Minogue in the long @-@ running British science fiction television series Doctor Who . She is a one @-@ off companion of the Tenth Doctor who appears in the episode " Voyage of the Damned " , which was first broadcast in the UK on 25 December 2007 . Minogue 's casting in the role was a major coup for Doctor Who , her fame attracting much publicity for " Voyage of the Damned " . Subsequently , much of the episode 's success in terms of viewing figures was attributed to Minogue 's appearance in the role .
= = Conception = =
Russell T Davies announced that Astrid Peth would be the next companion after Martha Jones ( played by Freema Agyeman ) on 14 August 2007 . Astrid 's surname , Peth , was confirmed in the Christmas edition of Radio Times . Davies has stated that the character was always going to be a " one @-@ off " even before Minogue was cast and that Astrid would demonstrate " a whole new take – again – on what a companion can be " . The name Astrid Peth generated some speculation before the episode 's broadcast over the findings that Astrid is an anagram of TARDIS , and that Peth means thing in Welsh . However , the episode established no such connection . On Doctor Who Confidential , Minogue describes Astrid as a " dreamer " and that meeting with the Doctor rekindles Astrid 's desire to explore . Later in his book A Writer 's Tale Davies discussed with co @-@ author Benjamin Cook how he had originally named the character " Peth " in a treatment but it bugged him , he later renamed her to " Astrid " giving the reason that it " ... sounds more spacey , more like a futuristing [ sic ] Doctor 's companion " .
= = Character history = =
Astrid appears in the episode " Voyage of the Damned " . She is introduced aboard the starship Titanic as a waitress from the planet Sto with a dream of seeing the stars . Meeting the Tenth Doctor aboard Titanic , she quickly befriends him . She accompanies the Doctor ( David Tennant ) on a trip organised by Titanic 's resident historian , Mr Copper ( Clive Swift ) , teleporting with some Titanic passengers down to Earth where she and the Doctor meet Wilfred Mott ( Bernard Cribbins ) . Upon their return to the ship , she and the Doctor discover the plan of Max Capricorn ( George Costigan ) to destroy the Titanic , its passengers and the nearby people of Earth with his villainous angelic robots , the Host . As they attempt to save the ship , Astrid grows increasingly fond of the Doctor , kissing him as part of what she assures is an " old tradition " on Sto . In the episode 's climax , Astrid sacrifices herself to save the Doctor from Capricorn by driving Capricorn off a platform with a forklift truck and both appear to fall to their deaths . Later , realising Astrid was still wearing a teleporter bracelet , the Doctor attempts to recall her atoms in an attempt to resurrect her , but there is insufficient power aboard the damaged Titanic to do so . Astrid reappears spectral and bewildered , as the Doctor gives her a goodbye kiss before freeing her sentient atoms ( described as " stardust " ) to roam space as energy .
In " Journey 's End " , Davros taunts the Doctor about the countless people who have died for him . A clip from " Voyage of the Damned " featuring Astrid is shown as part of a montage .
= = Casting = =
The BBC officially announced that Minogue was to feature as Astrid in the episode " Voyage of the Damned " on 3 July 2007 . The official announcement followed rumours regarding Minogue 's casting having already circulated in the press , although the episode 's writer Russell T Davies had denied these rumours in in @-@ house BBC publication Ariel in an attempt to keep the news secret for longer . Furthermore , Minogue herself had confirmed that she would be appearing in the episode in InStyle magazine , whilst the London paper Standard Lite published a photograph of Minogue 's creative director Will Baker carrying a ' to do list ' with a note about a Doctor Who script on it , thus indicating that Minogue would be in the episode . Minogue had also been sighted filming for Doctor Who by members of the public before the official announcement of her casting . Baker , a long @-@ term Doctor Who fan , was largely responsible for Minogue 's casting by setting up a meeting between her , Davies and Julie Gardner . Davies has claimed that Minogue was keen to appear on Doctor Who to relaunch her acting career .
= = Publicity and promotion = =
Minogue posed with a Dalek in an exclusive photo shoot for Doctor Who Magazine promoting " Voyage of the Damned " . The shoot paid homage to actress Katy Manning 's ( who portrayed Jo Grant ) famous nude photo shoot with a Dalek . Tenth Doctor actor David Tennant interviewed Minogue about her role as Astrid Peth on BBC Radio 2 in X @-@ Amining Kylie first broadcast on 27 November 2007 . Lengthier discussion about her involvement in " Voyage of the Damned " was included in the extended repeat of X @-@ Amining Kylie , entitled Re @-@ X @-@ Amining Kylie , broadcast on Boxing Day 2007 . It was leaked to The Sun and other media outlets that Astrid would kiss the Doctor .
= = Reception = =
The episode was seen by 13 @.@ 8 million watching at its peak , according to consolidated ratings , when it was first broadcast on Christmas Day on BBC One . The ratings success of " Voyage of the Damned " has been partially and fully attributed to Minogue 's casting in the role of Astrid . Younger viewers who were fans of pop star Kylie were left distraught by Astrid 's death and had to be convinced that Kylie was not dead in real life .
Although reviewer Jane Simon would have liked to have seen more of the character and it has been asserted that her appearance in the episode has helped her make " a full return to the limelight " , Minogue 's appearance was not universally praised . Gareth McLean , a TV writer for The Guardian , described Minogue as " not that good ... she 's blank and insipid " . McLean wrote :
There 's no chemistry between Astrid and the Doctor , she delivers her lines with a real lack of conviction and thus we never really believe in Astrid as a character . Where Catherine Tate 's Donna in last year 's special was overbearing , Kylie Minogue 's Astrid is hardly there at all . It does make you wonder why casting Kylie was regarded as a coup . She 's a pop star – of course she 's going to say yes to being beamed into millions of homes in the run @-@ up to Christmas . She 's got a duff album to sell . In truth , Kylie should be grateful to [ Doctor Who ] .
David Belcher of The Herald wrote that Minogue looked too old to play a waitress . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian claimed Kylie 's performance was " disappointing " and did not live up to those of Freema Agyeman or Billie Piper in Doctor Who . Jim Shelley of The Mirror stated that Minogue did not " look vivacious enough to be worth all the fuss " . Conversely , Paddy Shennan of the Liverpool Echo accused the makers of cynically including shots of Minogue 's cleavage and legs . Tim Teeman of the Times Online described Astrid as " gutsy " , but commented on Minogue 's " older " appearance and likened her " breathy delivery " to her performance as Charlene Mitchell in Neighbours . In 2012 , Will Salmon of SFX named Astrid 's demise as one of the five worst companion departures , writing that her death circumstance was " a bit daft " and her starlight farewell was a " laughably mawkish scene " .
Billie Piper , who portrayed former companion Rose Tyler , commented that it was a " great idea " to cast Minogue , and was disappointed to miss meeting and befriending her on the set of Doctor Who as Tennant had done . The Sun 's selection of top TV babes of 2007 included Minogue as Astrid Peth as well as Agyeman for her Martha Jones Doctor Who role and Piper for her role as Belle de Jour in Secret Diary of a Call Girl . In reference to Minogue 's appearance in " Voyage of the Damned " , actor John Barrowman , who portrays companion Captain Jack Harkness , suggested he would love for Kylie 's sister , Dannii to appear in Doctor Who spin @-@ off series Torchwood .
= = Merchandise = =
Character Options has produced an action figure of Astrid for inclusion in a " Voyage of Damned " action figure box set .
= = Possible return = =
Despite Davies stating that the companion in " Voyage of the Damned " was " always going to [ be ] a one @-@ off ... little knowing that it would be Kylie Minogue " , he has since stated that he would cast Minogue again " like that " . In 2008 The Daily Express quoted Minogue as saying there had been talk that her character could be reintroduced at a later date . Davies refused to comment when Doctor Who Magazine asked him about the rumours regarding Minogue 's return to Doctor Who .
= Kantian ethics =
Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory ascribed to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant . The theory , developed as a result of Enlightenment rationalism , is based on the view that the only intrinsically good thing is a good will ; an action can only be good if its maxim – the principle behind it – is duty to the moral law . Central to Kant 's construction of the moral law is the categorical imperative , which acts on all people , regardless of their interests or desires . Kant formulated the categorical imperative in various ways . His principle of universalisability requires that , for an action to be permissible , it must be possible to apply it to all people without a contradiction occurring . His formulation of humanity as an end in itself requires that humans are never treated merely as a means to an end , but always also as ends in themselves . The formulation of autonomy concludes that rational agents are bound to the moral law by their own will , while Kant 's concept of the Kingdom of Ends requires that people act as if the principles of their actions establish a law for a hypothetical kingdom . Kant also distinguished between perfect and imperfect duties . A perfect duty , such as the duty not to lie , always holds true ; an imperfect duty , such as the duty to give to charity , can be made flexible and applied in particular time and place .
American philosopher Louis Pojman has cited Pietism , political philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , the modern debate between rationalism and empiricism , and the influence of natural law as influences on the development of Kant 's ethics . Other philosophers have argued that Kant 's parents and his teacher , Martin Knutzen , influenced his ethics . Those influenced by Kantian ethics include philosopher Jürgen Habermas , political philosopher John Rawls , and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan . German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel criticised Kant for not providing specific enough detail in his moral theory to affect decision @-@ making and for denying human nature . German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer argued that ethics should attempt to describe how people behave and criticised Kant for being prescriptive . Michael Stocker has argued that acting out of duty can diminish other moral motivations such as friendship , while Marcia Baron has defended the theory by arguing that duty does not diminish other motivations . The Catholic Church has criticised Kant 's ethics as contradictory and regards Christian ethics as more compatible with virtue ethics .
The claim that all humans are due dignity and respect as autonomous agents means that medical professionals should be happy for their treatments to be performed upon anyone , and that patients must never be treated merely as useful for society . Kant 's approach to sexual ethics emerged from his view that humans should never be used merely as a means to an end , leading him to regard sexual activity as degrading and to condemn certain specific sexual practices . Feminist philosophers have used Kantian ethics to condemn practices such as prostitution and pornography because they do not treat women as ends . Kant also believed that , because animals do not possess rationality , we cannot have duties to them except indirect duties not to develop immoral dispositions through cruelty towards them . Kant used the example of lying as an application of his ethics : because there is a perfect duty to tell the truth , we must never lie , even if it seems that lying would bring about better consequences than telling the truth .
= = Outline = =
Although all of Kant 's work develops his ethical theory , it is most clearly defined in Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals , Critique of Practical Reason and Metaphysics of Morals . As part of the Enlightenment tradition , Kant based his ethical theory on the belief that reason should be used to determine how people ought to act . He did not attempt to prescribe specific action , but instructed that reason should be used to determine how to behave .
= = = Good will and duty = = =
In his combined works , Kant constructed the basis for an ethical law from the concept of duty . Kant began his ethical theory by arguing that the only virtue that can be unqualifiedly good is a good will . No other virtue has this status because every other virtue can be used to achieve immoral ends ( the virtue of loyalty is not good if one is loyal to an evil person , for example ) . The good will is unique in that it is always good and maintains its moral value even when it fails to achieve its moral intentions . Kant regarded the good will as a single moral principle which freely chooses to use the other virtues for moral ends .
For Kant a good will is a broader conception than a will which acts from duty . A will which acts from duty is distinguishable as a will which overcomes hindrances in order to keep the moral law . A dutiful will is thus a special case of a good will which becomes visible in adverse conditions . Kant argues that only acts performed with regard to duty have moral worth . This is not to say that acts performed merely in accordance with duty are worthless ( these still deserve approval and encouragement ) , but that special esteem is given to acts which are performed out of duty .
Kant 's conception of duty does not entail that people perform their duties grudgingly . Although duty often constrains people and prompts them to act against their inclinations , it still comes from an agent 's volition : they desire to keep the moral law . Thus , when an agent performs an action from duty it is because the rational incentives matter to them more than their opposing inclinations . Kant wished to move beyond the conception morality as externally imposed duties and present an ethics of autonomy , when rational agents freely recognise the claims reason makes upon them .
= = = = Perfect and imperfect duties = = = =
Applying the categorical imperative , duties arise because failure to fulfil them would either result in a contradiction in conception or in a contradiction in the will . The former are classified as perfect duties , the latter as imperfect . A perfect duty always holds true — there is a perfect duty to tell the truth , so we must never lie . An imperfect duty allows flexibility — beneficence is an imperfect duty because we are not obliged to be completely beneficent at all times , but may choose the times and places in which we are . Kant believed that perfect duties are more important than imperfect duties : if a conflict between duties arises , the perfect duty must be followed .
= = = Categorical Imperative = = =
Main Article : Categorical Imperative
The primary formulation of Kant 's ethics is the categorical imperative , from which he derived four further formulations . Kant made a distinction between categorical and hypothetical imperatives . A hypothetical imperative is one we must obey if we want to satisfy our desires : ' go to the doctor ' is a hypothetical imperative because we are only obliged to obey it if we want to get well . A categorical imperative binds us regardless of our desires : everyone has a duty to not lie , regardless of circumstances and even if it is in our interest to do so . These imperatives are morally binding because they are based on reason , rather than contingent facts about an agent . Unlike hypothetical imperatives , which bind us insofar as we are part of a group or society which we owe duties to , we cannot opt out of the categorical imperative because we cannot opt out of being rational agents . We owe a duty to rationality by virtue of being rational agents ; therefore , rational moral principles apply to all rational agents at all times .
= = = = Universalizability = = = =
Kant 's first formulation of the Categorical Imperative is that of universalizability :
Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law .
When someone acts , it is according to a rule , or maxim . For Kant , an act is only permissible if one is willing for the maxim that allows the action to be a universal law by which everyone acts . Maxims fail this test if they produce either a contradiction in conception or a contradiction in the will when universalized . A contradiction in conception happens when , if a maxim were to be universalized , it ceases to make sense because the " ... maxim would necessarily destroy itself as soon as it was made a universal law . " For example , if the maxim ' It is permissible to break promises ' was universalized , no one would trust any promises made , so the idea of a promise would become meaningless ; the maxim would be self @-@ contradictory because , when universalized , promises cease to be meaningful . The maxim is not moral because it is logically impossible to universalize — we could not conceive of a world where this maxim was universalized . A maxim can also be immoral if it creates a contradiction in the will when universalized . This does not mean a logical contradiction , but that universalizing the maxim leads to a state of affairs that no rational being would desire . For example , Driver argues that the maxim ' I will not give to charity ' produces a contradiction in the will when universalized because a world where no one gives to charity would be undesirable for the person who acts by that maxim .
Kant believed that morality is the objective law of reason : just as objective physical laws necessitate physical actions ( apples fall down because of gravity , for example ) , objective rational laws necessitate rational actions . He thus believed that a perfectly rational being must also be perfectly moral because a perfectly rational being subjectively finds it necessary to do what is rationally necessary . Because humans are not perfectly rational ( they partly act by instinct ) , Kant believed that humans must conform their subjective will with objective rational laws , which he called conformity obligation . Kant argued that the objective law of reason is a priori , existing externally from rational being . Just as physical laws exist prior to physical beings , rational laws ( morality ) exist prior to rational beings . Therefore , according to Kant , rational morality is universal and cannot change depending on circumstance .
= = = = Humanity as an end in itself = = = =
Kant 's second formulation of the Categorical Imperative is to treat humanity as an end in itself :
Act in such a way that you treat humanity , whether in your own person or in the person of another , always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means .
Kant argued that rational beings can never be treated merely as means to ends ; they must always also be treated as ends themselves , requiring that their own reasoned motives must be equally respected . This derives from Kant 's claim that reason motivates morality : it demands that we respect reason as a motive in all beings , including other people . A rational being cannot rationally consent to being used merely as a means to an end , so they must always be treated as an end . Kant justified this by arguing that moral obligation is a rational necessity : that which is rationally willed is morally right . Because all rational agents rationally will themselves to be an end and never merely a means , it is morally obligatory that they are treated as such . This does not mean that we can never treat a human as a means to an end , but that when we do , we also treat him as an end in himself .
= = = = Formula of autonomy = = = =
Kant 's Formula of Autonomy expresses the idea that an agent is obliged to follow the Categorical Imperative because of their rational will , rather than any outside influence . Kant believed that any moral law motivated by the desire to fulfill some other interest would deny the Categorical Imperative , leading him to argue that the moral law must only arise from a rational will . This principle requires people to recognize the right of others to act autonomously and means that , as moral laws must be universalisable , what is required of one person is required of all .
= = = = Kingdom of Ends = = = =
Another formulation of Kant 's Categorical Imperative is the Kingdom of Ends :
A rational being must always regard himself as giving laws either as member or as sovereign in a kingdom of ends which is rendered possible by the freedom of will .
This formulation requires that actions be considered as if their maxim is to provide a law for a hypothetical Kingdom of Ends . Accordingly , people have an obligation to act upon principles that a community of rational agents would accept as laws . In such a community , each individual would only accept maxims that can govern every member of the community without treating any member merely as a means to an end . Although the Kingdom of Ends is an ideal — the actions of other people and events of nature ensure that actions with good intentions sometimes result in harm — we are still required to act categorically , as legislators of this ideal kingdom .
= = Influences on Kantian ethics = =
Philosopher Louis Pojman has suggested four strong influences on Kant 's ethics . The first is the Lutheran sect Pietism , to which Kant 's parents subscribed . Pietism emphasised honesty and moral living over doctrinal belief , more concerned with feeling than rationality . Kant believed that rationality is required , but that it should be concerned with morality and good will . Second is the political philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , whose work , The Social Contract , influenced Kant 's view on the fundamental worth of human beings . Pojman also cites contemporary ethical debates as influential to the development of Kant 's ethics . Kant favoured rationalism over empiricism , which meant he viewed morality as a form of knowledge , rather than something based on human desire . Natural law ( the belief that the moral law is determined by nature ) and intuitionism ( the belief that humans have intuitive awareness of objective moral truths ) were , according to Pojman , also influential for Kant .
Biographer of Kant , Manfred Kuhn , suggested that the values Kant 's parents held , of " hard work , honesty , cleanliness , and independence ” , set him an example and influenced him more than their Pietism did . In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Michael Rohlf suggests that Kant was influenced by his teacher , Martin Knutzen , himself influenced by the work of Christian Wolff and John Locke , and who introduced Kant to the work of English physicist Isaac Newton .
= = Significance of Kantian ethics = =
= = = Influenced by Kantian ethics = = =
= = = = Jürgen Habermas = = = =
German philosopher Jürgen Habermas has proposed a theory of discourse ethics that he claims is a descendant of Kantian ethics . He proposes that action should be based on communication between those involved , in which their interests and intentions are discussed so they can be understood by all . Rejecting any form of coercion or manipulation , Habermas believes that agreement between the parties is crucial for a moral decision to be reached . Like Kantian ethics , discourse ethics is a cognitive ethical theory , in that it supposes that truth and falsity can be attributed to ethical propositions . It also formulates a rule by which ethical actions can be determined and proposes that ethical actions should be universalisable , in a similar way to Kant 's ethics .
Habermas argues that his ethical theory is an improvement on Kant 's ethics . He rejects the dualistic framework of Kant 's ethics . Kant distinguished between the phenomena world , which can be sensed and experienced by humans , and the noumena , or spiritual world , which is inaccessible to humans . This dichotomy was necessary for Kant because it could explain the autonomy of a human agent : although a human is bound in the phenomenal world , their actions are free in the intelligible world . For Habermas , morality arises from discourse , which is made necessary by their rationality and needs , rather than their freedom .
= = = = John Rawls = = = =
The social contract theory of political philosopher John Rawls , developed in his work A Theory of Justice , was influenced by Kant 's ethics . Rawls argued that a just society would be fair . To achieve this fairness , he proposed a hypothetical moment prior to the existence of a society , at which the society is ordered : this is the original position . This should take place from behind a veil of ignorance , where no one knows what their own position in society will be , preventing people from being biased by their own interests and ensuring a fair result . Rawls ' theory of justice rests on the belief that individuals are free , equal , and moral ; he regarded all human beings as possessing some degree of reasonableness and rationality , which he saw as the constituents of morality and entitling their possessors to equal justice . Rawls dismissed much of Kant 's dualism , arguing that the structure of Kantian ethics , once reformulated , is clearer without it — he described this as one of the goals of A Theory of Justice .
= = = = Jacques Lacan = = = =
French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan linked psychoanalysis with Kantian ethics in his works The Ethics of Psychoanalysis and Kant avec Sade and compared Kant with the Marquis de Sade . Lacan argued that Sade 's maxim of jouissance — the pursuit of sexual pleasure or enjoyment — is morally acceptable by Kant 's criteria because it can be universalised . He proposed that , while Kant presented human freedom as critical to the moral law , Sade further argued that human freedom is only fully realised through the maxim of jouissance .
= = = Contemporary Kantian ethicists = = =
= = = = Onora O 'Neill = = = =
Philosopher Onora O 'Neill , who studied under John Rawls at Oxford University , is a contemporary Kantian ethicist who supports a Kantian approach to issues of social justice . O 'Neill argues that a successful Kantian account of social justice must not rely on any unwarranted idealisations or assumption . She notes that philosophers have previously charged Kant with idealising humans as autonomous beings , without any social context or life goals , though maintains that Kant 's ethics can be read without such an idealisation . O 'Neill prefers Kant 's conception of reason as practical and available to be used by humans , rather than as principles attached to every human being . Conceiving of reason as a tool to make decisions with means that the only thing able to restrain the principles we adopt is that they could be adopted by all . If we cannot will that everyone adopts a certain principle , then we cannot give them reasons to adopt it . To use reason , and to reason with other people , we must reject those principles that cannot be universally adopted . In this way , O 'Neill reached Kant 's formulation of universalisability without adopting an idealistic view of human autonomy . This model of universalisability does not require that we adopt all universalisable principles , but merely prohibits us from adopting those that are not .
From this model of Kantian ethics , O 'Neill begins to develop a theory of justice . She argues that the rejection of certain principles , such as deception and coercion , provides a starting point for basic conceptions of justice , which she argues are more determinate for human beings that the more abstract principles of equality or liberty . Nevertheless , she concedes that these principles may seem to be excessively demanding : there are many actions and institutions that do rely on non @-@ universalisable principles , such as injury .
= = = = Marcia Baron = = = =
In his paper The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories , philosopher Michael Stocker challenges Kantian ethics ( and all modern ethical theories ) by arguing that actions from duty lack certain moral value . He gives the example of Smith , who visits his friend in hospital out of duty , rather than because of the friendship ; he argues that this visit seems morally lacking because it is motivated by the wrong thing . Marcia Baron has attempted to defend Kantian ethics on this point . After presenting a number of reasons that we might find acting out of duty objectionable , she argues that these problems only arise when people misconstrue what their duty is . Acting out of duty is not intrinsically wrong , but immoral consequences can occur when people misunderstand what they are duty @-@ bound to do . Duty need not be seen as cold and impersonal : one may have a duty to cultivate their character or improve their personal relationships . Baron further argues that duty should be construed as a secondary motive — that is , a motive that regulates and sets conditions on what may be done , rather the prompts specific actions . She argues that , seen this way , duty neither reveals a deficiency in one 's natural inclinations to act , nor undermines the motives and feelings that are essential to friendship . For Baron , being governed by duty does not mean that duty is always the primary motivation to act ; rather , it entails that considerations of duty are always action @-@ guiding . A responsible moral agent should take an interest in moral questions , such as questions of character . These should guide moral agents to act from duty .
= = = Critics of Kantian ethics = = =
= = = = G. W. F Hegel = = = =
German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel presented two main criticisms of Kantian ethics . He first argued that Kantian ethics provides no specific information about what people should do because Kant 's moral law is solely a principle of non @-@ contradiction . He argued that Kant 's ethics lack any content and so cannot constitute a supreme principle of morality . To illustrate this point , Hegel and his followers have presented a number of cases in which the Formula of Universal Law either provides no meaningful answer or gives an obviously wrong answer . Hegel used Kant 's example of being trusted with another man 's money to argue that Kant 's Formula of Universal Law cannot determine whether a social system of property is a morally good thing , because either answer can entail contradictions . He also used the example of helping the poor : if everyone helped the poor , there would be no poor left to help , so beneficence would be impossible if universalised , making it immoral according to Kant 's model . Hegel 's second criticism was that Kant 's ethics forces humans into an internal conflict between reason and desire . For Hegel , it is unnatural for humans to suppress their desire and subordinate it to reason . This means that , by not addressing the tension between self @-@ interest and morality , Kant 's ethics cannot give humans any reason to be moral .
= = = = Arthur Schopenhauer = = = =
German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer criticised Kant 's belief that ethics should concern what ought to be done , insisting that the scope of ethics should be to attempt to explain and interpret what actually happens . Whereas Kant presented an idealised version of what ought to be done in a perfect world , Schopenhaur argued that ethics should instead be practical and arrive at conclusions that could work in the real world , capable of being presented as a solution to the world 's problems . Schopenhauer drew a parallel with aesthetics , arguing that in both cases prescriptive rules are not the most important part of the discipline . Because he believed that virtue cannot be taught — a person is either virtuous or is not — he cast the proper place of morality as restraining and guiding people 's behaviour , rather than presenting unattainable universal laws .
= = = = Friedrich Nietzsche = = = =
Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche criticised all contemporary moral systems , with a special focus on Christian and Kantian ethics . He argued that all modern ethical systems share two problematic characteristics : first , they make a metaphysical claim about the nature of humanity , which must be accepted for the system to have any normative force ; and second , the system benefits the interests of certain people , often over those of others . Although Nietzsche 's primary objection is not that metaphysical claims about humanity are untenable ( he also objected to ethical theories that do not make such claims ) , his two main targets — Kantianism and Christianity — do make metaphysical claims , which therefore feature prominently in Nietzsche 's criticism .
Nietzsche rejected fundamental components of Kant 's ethics , particularly his argument that morality , God and immorality can be shown through reason . Nietzsche cast suspicion on the use of moral intuition , which Kant used as the foundation of his morality , arguing that it has no normative force in ethics . He further attempted to undermine key concepts in Kant 's moral psychology , such as the will and pure reason . Like Kant , Nietzsche developed a concept of autonomy ; however , he rejected Kant 's idea that valuing our own autonomy requires us to respect the autonomy of others . A naturalist reading of Nietzsche 's moral psychology stands contrary to Kant 's conception of reason and desire . Under the Kantian model , reason is a fundamentally different motive to desire because it has the capacity to stand back from a situation and make an independent decision . Nietzsche conceives of the self as a social structure of all our different drives and motivations ; thus , when it seems that our intellect has made a decision against our drives , it is actually just an alternative drive taking dominance over another . This is in direct contrast with Kant 's view of the intellect as opposed to instinct ; instead , it is just another instinct . There is thus no self capable of standing back and making a decision ; the decision the self makes is simply determined by the strongest drive . Kantian commentators have argued that Nietzsche 's practical philosophy requires the existence of a self capable of standing back in the Kantian sense . For an individual to create values of their own , which is a key idea in Nietzsche 's philosophy , they must be able to conceive of themselves as a unified agent . Even if the agent is influenced by their drives , he must regard them as his own , which undermines Nietzsche 's conception of autonomy .
= = = = John Stuart Mill = = = =
Utilitarian philosopher John Stuart Mill criticised Kant for not realising that moral laws are justified by a moral intuition based on utilitarian principles ( that the greatest good for the greatest number ought to be sought ) . Mill argued that Kant 's ethics could not explain why certain actions are wrong without appealing to utilitarianism . As basis for morality , Mill believed that his principle of utility has a stronger intuitive grounding than Kant 's reliance on reason , and can better explain why certain actions are right or wrong .
= = = = Virtue ethics = = = =
Virtue ethics is a form of ethical theory which emphasises the character of an agent , rather than specific acts ; many of its proponents have criticised Kant 's deontological approach to ethics . Elizabeth Anscombe criticised modern ethical theories , including Kantian ethics , for their obsession with law and obligation . As well as arguing that theories which rely on a universal moral law are too rigid , Anscombe suggested that , because a moral law implies a moral lawgiver , they are irrelevant in modern secular society . In his work After Virtue , Alasdair MacIntyre criticises Kant 's formulation of universalisability , arguing that various trivial and immoral maxims can pass the test , such as " Keep all your promises throughout your entire life except one " . He further challenges Kant 's formulation of humanity as an ends in itself by arguing that Kant provided no reason to treat others as means : the maxim " Let everyone except me be treated as a means " , though seemingly immoral , can be universalised . Bernard Williams argues that , by abstracting persons from character , Kant misreprents persons and morality and Philippa Foot identified Kant as one of a select group of philosophers responsible for the neglect of virtue by analytic philosophy .
= = = = Catholic Church = = = =
The Catholic Church has criticised Kantian ethics for its apparent contradiction , arguing that humans being co @-@ legislators of morality contradicts the claim that morality is a priori . If something is universally a priori ( i.e. , existing unchangingly prior to experience ) , then it cannot also be in part dependent upon humans , who have not always existed
The theory of the categorical imperative is , moreover , inconsistent . According to it the human will is the highest lawgiving authority , and yet subject to precepts enjoined on it .
Roman Catholic priest Servais Pinckaers criticised the modern desire for ethics to be autonomous and free from the authorities such as the Church , a development he partially attributed to thinkers such as Kant . Pinckaers saw this as potentially threatening to the legitimacy of the Magisterium , but maintained that the link between the gospel and the moral law , and the shortcomings of human reason , leave a place for the moral authority of the Church . Pinckaers regarded Christian ethics as closer to the virtue ethics of Aristotle than Kant 's ethics . He presented virtue ethics as freedom for excellence , which regards freedom as acting in accordance with nature to develop one 's virtues . Initially , this requires following rules — but the intention is that the agent develop virtuously , and regard acting morally as a joy . This is in contrast with freedom of indifference , which Pinckaers attributes to William Ockham and likens to Kant . On this view , freedom is set against nature : free actions are those not determined by passions or emotions . There is no development or progress in an agent 's virtue , merely the forming of habit . This is closer to Kant 's view of ethics , because Kant 's conception of autonomy requires that an agent is not merely guided by their emotions , and is set in contrast with Pinckaer 's conception of Christian ethics .
= = Applications = =
= = = Medical ethics = = =
Kant believed that the shared ability of humans to reason should be the basis of morality , and that it is the ability to reason that makes humans morally significant . He therefore believed that all humans should have the right to common dignity and respect . Margaret Eaton argues that , according to Kant 's ethics , a medical professional must be happy for their own practices to be used by and on anyone , even if they were the patient themselves . For example , a researcher who wished to perform tests on patients without their knowledge must be happy for all researchers to do so . She also argues that Kant 's requirement of autonomy would mean that a patient must be able to make a fully informed decision about treatment , making it immoral to perform tests on unknowing patients . Medical research should be motivated out of respect for the patient , so they must be informed of all facts , even if this would be likely to dissuade the patient . Jeremy Sugarman has argued that Kant 's formulation of autonomy requires that patients are never used merely for the benefit of society , but are always treated as rational people with their own goals . Aaron Hinkley notes that a Kantian account of autonomy requires respect for choices that are arrived at rationally , not for choices which are arrived at by idiosyncratic or non @-@ rational means . He argues that there may be some difference between what a purely rational agent would choose and what a patient actually chooses , the difference being the result of non @-@ rational idiosyncrasies . Although a Kantian physician ought not to lie to or coerce a patient , Hinkley suggests that some form of paternalism - such as through withholding information which may prompt a non @-@ rational response - could be acceptable .
In her work How Kantian Ethics Should Treat Pregnancy and Abortion , Susan Feldman argues that abortion should be defended according to Kantian ethics . She proposed that a woman should be treated as a dignified autonomous person , with control over their body , as Kant suggested . She believes that the free choice of women would be paramount in Kantian ethics , requiring abortion to be the mother 's decision . Dean Harris has noted that , if Kantian ethics is to be used in the discussion of abortion , it must be decided whether a fetus is an autonomous person . Kantian ethicist Carl Cohen argues that the potential to be rational or participation in a generally rational species is the relevant distinction between humans and inanimate objects or irrational animals . Cohen believes that even when humans are not rational because of age ( such as babies or fetuses ) or mental disability , agents are still morally obligated to treat them as an ends in themselves , equivalent to a rational adult such as a mother seeking an abortion .
= = = Sexual ethics = = =
Kant viewed humans as being subject to the animalistic desires of self @-@ preservation , species @-@ preservation , and the preservation of enjoyment . He argued that humans have a duty to avoid maxims that harm or degrade themselves , including suicide , sexual degradation , and drunkenness . This led Kant to regard sexual intercourse as degrading because it reduces humans to an object of pleasure . He admitted sex only within marriage , which he regarded as " a merely animal union " . He believed that masturbation is worse than suicide , reducing a person 's status to below that of an animal ; he argued that rape should be punished with castration and that bestiality requires expulsion from society . Feminist philosopher Catharine MacKinnon has argued that many contemporary practices would be deemed immoral by Kant 's standards because they dehumanise women . Sexual harassment , prostitution and pornography , she argues , objectify women and do not meet Kant 's standard of human autonomy . Commercial sex has been criticised for turning both parties into objects ( and thus using them as a means to an end ) ; mutual consent is problematic because in consenting , people choose to objectify themselves . Alan Soble has noted that more liberal Kantian ethicists believe that , depending on other contextual factors , the consent of women can vindicate their participation in pornography and prostitution .
= = = Animal ethics = = =
Because Kant viewed rationality as the basis for being a moral patient — one due moral consideration — he believed that animals have no moral rights . Animals , according to Kant , are not rational , thus one cannot behave immorally towards them . Although he did not believe we have any duties towards animals , Kant did believe being cruel to them was wrong because our behaviour might influence our attitudes towards human beings : if we become accustomed to harming animals , then we are more likely to see harming humans as acceptable .
Ethicist Tom Regan rejects Kant 's assessment of the moral worth of animals on three main points : First , he rejects Kant 's claim that animals are not self @-@ conscious . He then challenges Kant 's claim that animals have no intrinsic moral worth because they cannot make moral judgement . Regan argues that , if a being 's moral worth is determined by its ability to make a moral judgement , then we must regard humans who are incapable of moral thought as being equally undue moral consideration . Regan finally argues that Kant 's assertion that animals exist merely as a means to an ends is unsupported ; the fact that animals have a life that can go well or badly suggests that , like humans , they have their own ends .
= = = Lying = = =
Kant believed that the Categorical Imperative provides us with the maxim that we ought not to lie in any circumstances , even if we are trying to bring about good consequences , such as lying to a murderer to prevent them from finding their intended victim . Kant argued that , because we cannot fully know what the consequences of any action will be , the result might be unexpectedly harmful . Therefore , we ought to act to avoid the known wrong — lying — rather than to avoid a potential wrong . If there are harmful consequences , we are blameless because we acted according to our duty . Driver argues that this might not be a problem if we choose to formulate our maxims differently : the maxim ' I will lie to save an innocent life ' can be universalised . However , this new maxim may still treat the murderer as a means to an end , which we have a duty to avoid doing . Thus we may still be required to tell the truth to the murderer in Kant 's example .
= Electric Company ( football ) =
The Electric Company was the nickname of the offensive line of the Buffalo Bills during the mid @-@ 1970s that helped running back O.J. Simpson establish numerous National Football League ( NFL ) all @-@ time records and earn numerous statistical titles . The nickname is sometimes more loosely used to refer to the Electric Company Offense for the Bills offensive unit or the Electric Company Buffalo Bills for the teams of this era .
During these years , Simpson established NFL records for single @-@ season rushing yards ( 1973 ) , single @-@ season yards from scrimmage ( 1973 ) , single @-@ season rushing yards per game ( 1973 ) , single @-@ season touchdowns ( 1975 ) , single @-@ season 200 @-@ yard games ( 1973 ) , consecutive 100 @-@ yard games ( 1972 – 73 ) , single @-@ game rushing yards ( 1973 & 1976 ) and career 200 @-@ rushing yard games . His single @-@ season rushing yards per game and career 200 @-@ yard rushing games records still stand . Simpson was selected to the Pro Bowl team and as an All @-@ Pro performer each year between 1972 and 1976 . He won the rushing title in four of those five seasons . During this time period , Simpson became the only running back to twice have 200 @-@ yard rushing efforts in back @-@ to @-@ back games . Simpson was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame for his exploits .
Although the Buffalo Bills had winning records during the 1973 , 1974 and 1975 seasons , only the 1974 Buffalo Bills made the NFL playoffs during the 8 @-@ team format era . However , in the 1974 – 75 NFL playoffs they were eliminated by the eventual Super Bowl IX champion 1974 Pittsburgh Steelers .
= = Members = =
Pro Football Hall of Famer Joe DeLamielleure played right offensive guard and was selected to the Pro Bowl for the 1975 Buffalo Bills – 1979 Buffalo Bills ( and the 1980 Cleveland Browns ) and was All @-@ Pro the first three of those seasons .
College Football Hall of Famer Reggie McKenzie , who was the left guard , was selected to the All @-@ Pro team following the 1973 NFL season and played for the Bills from 1972 – 1982 .
Paul Seymour had been a member of the 1972 College Football All @-@ America Team as an offensive tackle for the Michigan Wolverines after having played two season at tight end . He returned to the tight end position as a professional and became the team 's starting tight end for five seasons starting in 1973 .
Dave Foley started at left tackle during all of Simpson 's five consecutive Pro Bowl years and remained with the team through the 1977 season . Foley was selected to the 1974 Pro Bowl team .
Mike Montler started half the games at center in 1973 and remained the starter through the 1976 season . Right tackle Donnie Green was drafted by the Bills in the 1971 NFL Draft and remained with the Bills through 1977 .
Lou Saban was coach of the team from 1972 through part of the 1976 season , when he gave way to Jim Ringo who was the offensive line coach for the Bills .
Other members of the Electric Company included center Bruce Jarvis who started 8 games in 1973 , but suffered a career @-@ ending knee injury that season . During Simpson 's first All @-@ Pro season and first rushing title in 1972 , before DeLamielleure was drafted in the 1973 NFL Draft , Bob Penchion and Dick Hart were listed at right guard . Jan White was listed at tight end before Seymour was drafted in the same 1973 draft . Also in 1972 , Remi Prudhomme and John Matlock were listed at center . The beginning of the Electric Company era is often considered to be 1973 . That year the Bills moved to Rich Stadium and broke a skid of six consecutive losing seasons , and Simpson started breaking records .
When the nickname is expanded to include the whole offense , quarterback Joe Ferguson who was part of the Bills ' 1973 NFL Draft class along with DeLamielleure and Seymour is also considered to be a member . Fullback Jim Braxton , who became the starter in 1972 , is also mentioned as part of the Electric Company . Even wide receivers Bob Chandler and J.D. Hill are associated with the Electric Company .
= = Records and titles = =
Simpson 's single @-@ season rushing yards ( 2003 set in 1973 ) and single @-@ season yards from scrimmage ( 2243 set in 1973 ) records were eclipsed in Eric Dickerson 's 1984 season , but have not been eclipsed on a yards per game basis yet because they were set in 14 games . Simpson 's 1975 single @-@ seasons touchdowns record ( 23 set in 14 games ) lasted until John Riggins posted 24 in 1983 in 16 games . However , the first person to post more touchdowns per game was Priest Holmes who totaled 27 in 2003 . On September 16 , 1973 , Simpson broke Willie Ellison 's 247 @-@ yard single game record with a 250 @-@ yard effort against the New York Jets . On November 25 , 1976 , Simpson broke his own single @-@ game rushing yards record by posting 273 yards . Walter Payton then recorded a 275 @-@ yard effort less than a year later on November 20 , 1977 . Simpson 's six career 200 @-@ yard games remains an NFL record . Earl Campbell and Ricky Williams have also posted back @-@ to @-@ back 200 @-@ yard games , but unlike Simpson they each only have done so once . When Simpson rushed for 100 yards in each of the first five games of the 1973 season it gave him seven consecutive 100 @-@ yard games , which was an NFL record . That record has been broken several times including back @-@ to @-@ back seasons when Payton took the record to 9 in 1985 and Marcus Allen increased it to 11 in 1986 . Finally in 1997 , Barry Sanders posted 14 consecutive 100 @-@ yard efforts .
O.J. Simpson 200 @-@ yard rushing game career log
Simpson earned the NFL rushing titles in 1972 , 1973 , 1975 and 1976 . He led the league in total touchdowns and total points scored in 1975 , and he led in rushing touchdowns in both 1973 and 1975 . He led the league in yards from scrimmage in 1973 , 1975 and 1976 and in all @-@ purpose yards in 1973 and 1976 . Also in 1972 , 1973 and 1975 he had the longest run in the NFL for the year , including a career @-@ high 94 @-@ yard run in 1972 .
= = Background = =
The nickname for the offensive line was a reference to O.J. " Juice " Simpson . The offensive line earned its nickname for its ability to " turn on the juice , " which was a metaphor for unleashing Simpson , who at the time was the best running back in the National Football League and the first running back to eclipse 2000 yards ' rushing in a single season . Simpson gave the offensive line its nickname .
= Italian ironclad Sicilia =
Sicilia was the second of three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclad battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The ship , named for the island of Sicily , was laid down in Venice in November 1884 , launched in July 1891 , and completed in May 1895 . She was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and had a top speed of 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) , though this high speed came at the cost of armor protection .
Sicilia spent the first decade of her career in the Active Squadron of the Italian fleet . Thereafter , she was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , and by 1911 , she was part of the Training Division . She took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , where she escorted convoys to North Africa and supported Italian forces ashore by bombarding Ottoman troops . She was thereafter used as a depot ship for the new dreadnought battleship Giulio Cesare . During World War I , she continued in service as a depot ship , and later in the war she was converted into a repair ship . Sicilia was stricken in 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Sicilia was 127 @.@ 6 meters ( 419 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 23 @.@ 44 m ( 76 @.@ 9 ft ) and an average draft of 8 @.@ 83 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 058 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 852 long tons ; 14 @,@ 394 short tons ) normally and up to 14 @,@ 842 t ( 14 @,@ 608 long tons ; 16 @,@ 361 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eighteen coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 20 @.@ 1 knots ( 37 @.@ 2 km / h ; 23 @.@ 1 mph ) at 19 @,@ 131 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 266 kW ) . Specific figures for her cruising radius have not survived , but the ships of her class could steam for 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 to 11 @,@ 100 km ; 4 @,@ 600 to 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 736 officers and men .
Sicilia was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the ship . She carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns placed singly in shielded mounts atop the upper deck , with four on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) guns in casemates in the upper deck , eight on each broadside . These were supported by twenty 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ cal. guns and ten 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water launchers . The ship was lightly armored for her size . She was protected by belt armor that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick , an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick , and her conning tower was armored with 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) of steel plate . The turrets had 4 in thick faces and the supporting barbettes had 13 @.@ 75 in ( 349 mm ) thick steel .
= = Service history = =
Sicilia was named after the island of Sicily . She was built by the Venetian Arsenal in Venice . Her keel was laid down on 3 November 1884 , and her completed hull was launched on 6 July 1891 . At her launching ceremony , the new ship was christened by Queen Margherita . Fitting @-@ out work was completed on 4 May 1895 , after which the ship entered service with the Italian fleet . Sicilia took part in an international naval demonstration in 1897 off Crete during a period of tension between Greece and the Ottoman Empire that culminated in the Greco @-@ Turkish War . At the time , Sicilia was the flagship of the 1st Division , which also included her two sister ships , the protected cruisers Giovanni Bausan and Vesuvio , and the torpedo cruiser Euridice . By 1899 , Sicilia had been assigned to the 2nd Division , which also included the ironclads Affondatore and Castelfidardo , and the torpedo cruisers Partenope and Urania .
For 1903 , the Active Squadron was on active service for seven months , with the rest of the year spent with reduced crews . In 1904 – 05 , Sicilia and her sisters were still in service with the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for nine months of the year , with three months in reduced commission . The following year , the ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with the three Ruggiero di Lauria @-@ class ironclads and the ironclad Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . Sicilia was still in the Reserve Squadron in 1908 , along with her two sisters and the two Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships . By this time , the Reserve Squadron was kept in service for seven months of the year .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . At the time , Sicilia and her two sisters were assigned to the Training Division , along with the old armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , with Sicilia serving as the flagship of Rear Admiral Raffaele Borea Ricci D 'Olmo . On 3 – 4 October , Sicilia and her sisters were tasked with bombarding Fort Sultanje , which was protecting the western approach to Tripoli . The ships used their 6 @-@ inch guns to attack the fort to preserve their stock of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells . By the morning of the 4th , the ships ' gunfire had silenced the guns in the fort , allowing landing forces to go ashore and capture the city . These included a contingent led by Sicilia 's captain . The ships of the Training Division thereafter alternated between Tripoli and Khoms to support the Italian garrisons in the two cities ; this included repulsing a major Ottoman attack on Tripoli over 23 – 26 October , where Sicilia and Sardegna supported the Italian left flank against concerted Ottoman assaults . In November , Sicilia , Re Umberto , the torpedo cruiser Partenope , the destroyer Fulmine , and the torpedo boat Cassiopea bombarded the oasis at Taguira , though no Turkish forces were present . The Italians then sent a garrison to protect the oasis .
By December , the three ships were stationed in Tripoli , where they were replaced by the old ironclads Italia and Lepanto . Sicilia and her sisters arrived back in La Spezia , where they had their ammunition and supplies replenished . In May 1912 , the Training Division patrolled the coast , but saw no action . The following month , Sicilia and her sisters , along with six torpedo boats , escorted a convoy carrying an infantry brigade to Buscheifa , one of the last ports in Libya still under Ottoman control . The Italian force arrived off the town on 14 June and made a landing ; after taking the city , the Italian forces then moved on to Misrata . Sicilia and the rest of the ships continued supporting the advance until the Italians had secured the city on 20 July . The Training Division then returned to Italy , where they joined the escort for another convoy on 3 August , this time to Zuara , the last port in Ottoman hands . The ships covered the landing two miles east of Zuara two days later , which was joined by supporting attacks from the west and south . With the capture of the city , Italy now controlled the entire Libyan coast . On 14 October the Ottomans agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war .
= = = Later career = = =
She became a depot ship for the new dreadnought battleship Giulio Cesare at Taranto , which was then nearing completion . Sicilia was stricken on 9 July 1914 and slated to be scrapped , but the Regia Marina decided to retain the ship after World War I broke out at the end of the month . On 16 August , the ship was disarmed and returned to service as a depot ship in Taranto for ammunition and sailors . Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Later in the war , Sicilia was converted into a repair ship . The ship was stricken again in 1923 and thereafter broken up for scrap .
= 2015 Eneco Tour =
The 2015 Eneco Tour was a road cycling stage race that took place in the Netherlands and Belgium between 10 and 16 August 2015 . It was the 11th edition of the Eneco Tour stage race and was the twenty @-@ first race of the 2015 UCI World Tour .
The Eneco Tour is an unusual race in the cycling season : it primarily favours classics riders rather than climbers . The first three stages of the race were suitable for sprinters ; the fourth stage was an individual time trial ; and the final three stages were suitable for the classics riders . Elia Viviani ( Team Sky ) won the first stage and was the first rider to wear the leader 's jersey . Jesper Asselman ( Team Roompot ) took over the lead after the second stage due to time bonuses , before losing it in the time trial to Jos van Emden ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . Wilco Kelderman ( also LottoNL – Jumbo ) took the lead after the fifth stage , but lost it to Tim Wellens ( Lotto – Soudal ) the following day . Wellens defended his lead on the final stage to win his second successive Eneco Tour ; he had been the defending champion after victory in 2014 . Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) was second , with Kelderman third .
The points classification was won by André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) and the combativity award by Gijs Van Hoecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . Lotto – Soudal also won the team classification .
= = Teams = =
The 17 UCI World Tour teams were automatically entitled and obliged to start the race ; three UCI Professional Continental teams were invited as wildcards to form a twenty @-@ team peloton . Each team entered eight riders to form a 160 @-@ rider peloton ; one rider , BMC Racing Team 's Daniel Oss , withdrew before the race due to a fall in training , so 159 riders started the race .
= = Schedule = =
The first three stages of the race were flat road stages , with no classified climbs . All of these stages were expected to suit the sprinters , though crosswinds had the potential to make the stages more difficult . The decisive section of the race was expect to start with the individual time trial on stage 4 . The final three stages of the race were expected to suit classics riders : the fifth and sixth stages were hilly stages in the style of the Ardennes classics , while the final stage used roads that feature in the cobbled classics . One change to the regulations in 2015 was the introduction of a " golden kilometre " , a series of three intermediate sprints on each road stage approximately 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) before the finish . The first three riders across each of these sprint points won bonus seconds in the general classification . This replicated the system from the 2015 Tour of Belgium , where the golden kilometre system had played a part in the victory of Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Most World Tour stage races are won by strong climbers . The Eneco Tour is unusual because the favourites for overall victory were classics riders — those who perform strongly in the Ardennes classics and the cobbled classics that feature in the early part of the cycling season .
The defending champion was Tim Wellens ( Lotto – Soudal ) , who won the 2014 Eneco Tour in the penultimate stage . He was one of the favourites again , although Cycling Weekly predicted that he would be given less freedom to attack as the defending champion . One other former winner of the race took part in 2015 : Lars Boom ( Astana ) had won in 2012 . He was another strong favourite in 2015 , especially as the race included a longer time trial than other recent editions of the race . Other favourites included Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who was third in 2012 , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) , who was in strong form after coming close to victory in the Clásica de San Sebastián , Philippe Gilbert ( also BMC ) and Wilco Kelderman ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) .
The first three stages of the race were flat and therefore particularly suitable for sprinters . Prominent sprinters taking part in the race included André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Giacomo Nizzolo ( Trek Factory Racing ) , Elia Viviani ( Team Sky ) , Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) and Edward Theuns ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
10 August 2015 – Bolsward to Bolsward , 183 @.@ 5 km ( 114 @.@ 0 mi )
The first stage was a 183 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 114 @.@ 0 mi ) flat stage in the Netherlands , starting and finishing in Bolsward . The race began with a large loop south of the town , through Sneek and then north along the coast from Oudemirdum , then returning to Bolsward . After the first time across the finish line , the race turned north for a shorter loop , through Franeker and then south along the coast from Harlingen , before returning to Bolsward for the second time across the finish line . There were then two laps of a 20 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) finishing circuit . The stage contained no climbs .
The day 's early breakaway was formed by Nathan Haas ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , Frederik Veuchelen ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) , Laurens De Vreese ( Astana ) , Jesper Asselman ( Team Roompot ) , Nico Denz ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , and David Boucher ( FDJ ) . The racing conditions were fairly easy , as there were no crosswinds . The breakaway 's lead was over seven minutes at one point , but this was quickly closed down by the peloton and reduced to three minutes with 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) remaining . There were three intermediate sprints in the space of 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , described as a " golden kilometre " , which were won by Denz , Asselman and de Vreese respectively . The breakaway was then caught and Team Sky and Lotto – Soudal drove the peloton towards the finish line . Sky 's Andy Fenn was leading out his teammate Elia Viviani and , with 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) remaining , Viviani was able to follow the wheel of André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) . Greipel opened his sprint with a long distance to the finish line and Viviani was able to follow him and then come past him to take the stage victory . Danny van Poppel ( Trek Factory Racing ) finished second and Jean @-@ Pierre Drucker ( BMC Racing Team ) third , with Greipel in fourth place .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
11 August 2015 – Breda to Breda , 180 km ( 110 mi )
The second stage of the race started in the south of the Netherlands , starting and finishing in Breda . The course was 180 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 112 @.@ 3 mi ) in length and , like the first stage , was entirely flat . The stage began with a loop to the south of Breda , around Ulvenhout , then crossed the finish line to begin a much larger loop . This second loop took the riders north to Wagenberg , then south @-@ west to Bosschenhoofd and south @-@ east to Meer , where the Tour entered Belgium for the first time . Here the route turned north again , passing to the east of Ulvenhout and returning to cross the finish line for the second time . The final part of the stage was two laps of a finishing circuit to the east of Breda ; these laps included the golden kilometre .
The early breakaway was formed by two riders , Gijs Van Hoecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) and , for the second day running , Jesper Asselman . The two riders briefly had a lead of seven minutes , but this was controlled by Team Sky , especially Ian Stannard . Asselman allowed Van Hoecke to win the two early sprints for the combativity jersey and , in return , was allowed to win all three sprints in the golden kilometre . The two riders had a two @-@ minute advantage at this point . In the main peloton , Philippe Gilbert and Andriy Hryvko ( Astana ) competed for the remaining one @-@ second bonuses : Gilbert won the first and third ; Hryvko won the second . Asselman and Van Hoecke were then caught by the peloton — led by Lotto – Soudal — with 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining . Despite several crashes in the final kilometres of the stage , the peloton came to the finish together . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step attempted to lead out Tom Boonen as they entered the final 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , but Lotto @-@ Soudal were able to bring Greipel to the front to open his sprint with 150 metres ( 490 ft ) to the finish line . He finished comfortably ahead of Guarnieri , with Boonen in third .
Asselman finished in 78th place on the stage , in the same time as Greipel . As a result of the bonus seconds won in the golden kilometre , he moved into the overall lead of the race . Greipel was in second place , five seconds behind and on the same time as Elia Viviani . This was the first time that any rider from Team Roompot had worn a leader 's jersey in a UCI race .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
12 August 2015 – Beveren to Ardooie , 171 @.@ 9 km ( 106 @.@ 8 mi )
The third stage of the race took place entirely in Belgium . It was a 171 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometre ( 106 @.@ 8 mi ) course that contained no classified climbs ; it was the final flat stage of the race . The route began in Beveren with a circuit around the municipality . The course then took the riders west as far as Bassevelde , before turning south @-@ west towards Ardooie . After the riders crossed the finish line for the first time , they began two laps of a finishing circuit around the town ; these included the golden kilometre .
The breakaway was formed by three riders early in the race . These were David Boucher ( FDJ ) , Edward Theuns ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) and Frederik Veuchelen ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) . They built a lead that reached four minutes , but were always under control by the peloton . Team Roompot did a lot of the work at the front of the peloton controlling the breakaway . With 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) remaining , Gorka Izagirre ( Movistar Team ) and Hugo Houle ( AG2R La Mondiale ) touched wheels and crashed after a sharp corner . Houle continued , but Izagirre was forced to abandon the race and was taken to hospital in an ambulance following a blow to his head on a traffic signal . Theuns won all three of the golden kilometre sprints ; the nine bonus seconds moved him up to fifth place overall at the end of the stage . The breakaway was caught with 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) remaining and , apart from a brief attack from Nathan Haas ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , the peloton came to the finish together .
The peloton was led first by Giant – Alpecin and then by Lotto – Soudal and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . The peloton split slightly due to Etixx – Quick @-@ Step 's work . Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) was the first to start sprinting . Tom Boonen , however , was able to follow him , despite clashing wheels at one point , and came past in the final metres to take the stage victory . Démare was second with Viviani third . Boonen moved up into second place overall following the stage , one second behind Asselman and on the same time as Viviani .
After the stage , Boucher was thrown out of the race by his team . He had recently been told that his contract would not be renewed and had disobeyed team orders not to go in the day 's breakaway .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
13 August 2015 – Hoogerheide to Hoogerheide , 13 @.@ 9 km ( 8 @.@ 6 mi ) ( ITT )
Stage 4 was a 13 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 6 mi ) individual time trial around Hoogerheide in the Netherlands . The course was fairly flat , with a slight downhill section towards the start and a gentle uphill section towards the finish , the Rijzendeweg .
An early leading time was set by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , with a time of 16 ' 40 " and an average speed of 49 @.@ 99 km / h ( 31 @.@ 06 mph ) . Soon afterwards , however , that time was beaten by Jos van Emden ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . Van Emden was seven seconds quicker than Malori and was the first rider to complete the course at an average speed of over 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) . The only other rider to come close to Van Emden 's time was his teammate Wilco Kelderman , who finished the course five seconds behind to take second place . Van Emden won the stage , the first WorldTour victory of the year for LottoNL – Jumbo . Van Emden also moved into the overall lead of the race .
Several other contenders for overall victory finished the course in good times . These included BMC 's Greg Van Avermaet and Philippe Gilbert and Astana 's Lars Boom . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step 's riders were less successful , however . Their best @-@ placed rider was Julian Alaphillippe , 41 seconds behind Van Emden . Niki Terpstra , who had been considered a favourite for the overall victory , suffered mechanical problems , changed bikes twice and finished 1 ' 26 " back .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
14 August 2015 – Riemst to Sittard @-@ Geleen , 179 @.@ 6 km ( 111 @.@ 6 mi )
The fifth stage of the race was the first hilly stage , with 23 categorised climbs . Many of these climbs ( known as hellingen ) feature in the Amstel Gold Race . It began in Riemst in the Belgian province of Limburg . The riders completed one and a half laps of a circuit of the town ; this included the first climb of the day , the Muizenberg . The course then left the town to the east , crossing the Halembaye , before crossing the border into the Dutch province of Limburg . As the route continued to the east , the riders climbed the Heiweg , the Bergenhuizen , the Camerig and the Schuttebergsweg . The route then turned to the north , though it frequently turned back on itself to take in the various climbs . These included the Mamelisserweg , the Gulperbergweg , the Eyserbosweg , the Hulsberg , the Schanternelsweg , the Fromberg and the Sweikhuizerberg . After this , the route entered two and a half laps of a finishing circuit around Sittard @-@ Geleen . On the two complete laps , the riders climbed the Windraak , the Kollenberg , the Sittarderweg and the Weg langs Stammen . The golden kilometre came on the first lap between the last two of these climbs . After the two complete laps , the riders climbed the Windraak once more , before finishing in Sittard @-@ Geleen .
The breakaway was formed after 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) by Dylan van Baarle ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Johan Le Bon ( FDJ ) . Van Baarle was the better placed of the riders , 29 seconds behind Van Emden , with Le Bon ten seconds further behind . LottoNL – Jumbo controlled the peloton on behalf of Van Emden , assisted by Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . Van Baarle and Le Bon had a lead of five minutes at one point ; this was reduced to three and a half minutes with 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) remaining . The breakaway riders did not contest the bonus seconds in the golden kilometre , though Van Avermaet and Gilbert took the remaining seconds in the main peloton . A heavy thunderstorm started as the riders entered the finishing circuit and disrupted the chasing group , with no team taking responsibility for the chase ; Le Bon and van Baarle had a lead of over two minutes as they entered the final lap . Lars Petter Nordhaug ( Team Sky ) and Lars Boom ( Astana ) both put in brief attacks but soon sat up . The lead was reduced to just over a minute with 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining ; at this point , as the riders crossed the Weg langs Stammen , André Greipel put in an attack and was joined by Wellens , Kelderman , Giant – Alpecin 's Georg Preidler and Orica – GreenEDGE 's Magnus Cort to form a chase group .
The five @-@ man chase group did not work well together , with only Greipel and Wellens consistently working at the front of the group . Kelderman put in a brief surge on the final climb of the Windraak to reduce van Baarle and Le Bon 's lead , but the group was not able to bring the leading pair back . Van Baarle and Le Bon worked together until the final 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , when Le Bon attacked in the slipstream of one of the motorbikes following the race . Van Baarle continued chasing but , with both riders exhausted from their efforts through the day , he was unable properly to regain contact . Le Bon was able to hold on in the sprint to take the stage victory , with Van Baarle finishing second on the same time . Cort won the sprint for third , with Wellens and Kelderman on the same time . Kelderman took over the race lead , one second ahead of Le Bon , with Van Emden dropping to fourth .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
15 August 2015 – Heerlen to Houffalize , 208 @.@ 6 km ( 129 @.@ 6 mi )
The sixth stage was another hilly stage , with 14 climbs coming in 208 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 129 @.@ 6 mi ) . The race started in the Netherlands , in Heerlen , with a circuit that included the climb of the Bergseweg . The route left the town to the south , crossing the Mamelisserweg and the Schuttebergsweg before entering Belgium . The route continued to the south as it entered the Ardennes . The riders climbed the Col de Spitzberg , the Côte la Firme Libert and the Côte de Wanneranval on the way to the finishing town of Houffalize . The course first climbed the Côte Saint @-@ Roch ; this climb is part of the Liège – Bastogne – Liège course and is 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length with an average gradient of 11 % . The route loops around to the south of the town before entering two laps of a finishing circuit . The circuit crossed the Côte Saint @-@ Roch again , then the Rue Bois des Moines , the Côte d 'Achouffe and the Côte Petite Mormont , before finishing in Houffalize . The significant difference from previous year 's editions of the Eneco Tour was the absence of La Redoute from the finish .
The day 's early breakaway was formed by Jan Polanc ( Lampre – Merida ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) , Nikias Arndt ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Sébastien Turgot ( AG2R La Mondiale ) and Jérôme Baugnies ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) . Though they had a four @-@ minute lead at one stage , they were caught as the race entered the finishing circuit . Andrey Amador ( Movistar Team ) was the first to attack from the peloton , with numerous other attacks following , and a new , eight @-@ man leading group was formed . This did not initially include Kelderman , the race leader , but he was able to rejoin
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the lead group as it grew to nineteen riders . Brändle attacked again and briefly led the race , but he was caught by work from Van Avermaet . Simon Geschke ( Giant – Alpecin ) attacked and was joined by Michael Rogers ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . Wellens soon attacked from the group behind ; he caught and passed Geschke and Rogers on the Côte Saint @-@ Roch , then won nine seconds in the sprints in the golden kilometre . Van Avermaet attacked from the main group ; he too passed Geschke and Rogers to take second place in all three sprints and win six seconds .
Kelderman was once again dropped from the main group and was then again able to rejoin it , but the group was not able to chase Wellens down . Geschke and Van Avermaet rode together , while Jan Bakelants ( AG2R La Mondiale ) and Tom @-@ Jelte Slagter ( Cannondale – Garmin ) attacked from the main group . Wellens 's lead extended during the downhill run into Houffalize ; he won the stage by 49 seconds ahead of Van Avermaet , with Geschke third . Wellens moved into the overall lead , 1 ' 03 " ahead of Van Avermaet , with Kelderman dropping to third .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
16 August 2015 – Sint @-@ Pieters @-@ Leeuw to Geraardsbergen , 193 @.@ 8 km ( 120 @.@ 4 mi )
The final stage of the race took place entirely in Belgium . It was a 193 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 120 @.@ 4 mi ) route that started in Sint @-@ Pieters @-@ Leeuw on the outskirts of Brussels and ended in Geraardsbergen in the area of East Flanders known as the Flemish Ardennes . The principal feature of stage 6 was the series of cobbled climbs . The stage began with a circuit in Sint @-@ Pieters @-@ Leeuw , then headed west . The first climb was the Pelikaanberg , but this was the only climb in the first 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) of racing . The final 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) included 16 climbs . The first of these , the Mont , came as the route turned north towards Oudenaarde and was followed by the Kanarieberg and the Edelareberg . Here the riders turned to the east and crossed a series of climbs also used in the Tour of Flanders : the Leberg , the Berendries and the Valkenberg . The riders then crossed the Tenbosse before entering the two and a half laps of the finishing circuit . This included four climbs : the Denderoordberg , the Muur van Geraardsbergen ( the final climb in the Tour of Flanders until 2012 ) , the Bosberg and the Okerzelerstraat . After two complete laps , the route finished halfway up the Muur van Geraardsbergen .
There was a fourteen @-@ rider breakaway that formed at the beginning of the day 's racing . This group never had a large advantage and broke up on the first ascent of the Muur . The lead group after the climb was formed of three men : Manuel Quinziato ( BMC Racing Team ) , Björn Leukemans ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) and Yves Lampaert ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Attacks came from the main group and eventually a ten @-@ man chasing group was formed . The leading three riders kept a lead of approximately a minute as riders came and went from the chasing group ; the chasers were caught by the main peloton ( led by Lotto – Soudal ) with approximately 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the finish line .
Quinziato , the weakest climber of the three leading riders , attacked at the summit of the Denderoordberg , the penultimate climb of the day , quickly dropping Lampaert . Leukemans attempted to hold Quinziato 's wheel , but was dropped on the flat . Quinziato soon had half a minute 's lead and entered the base of the Muur alone . He had more difficulty on the climb , however : as Leukemans and Lampaert reached the cobbles , they quickly began to catch him . Quinziato eventually crossed the line with just a few seconds to spare . This was the second professional victory of his career , nine years after his first , which had come in the 2006 Eneco Tour . Wellens finished in a large group 42 seconds back and sealed his overall victory in the race .
= = Classification leadership table = =
There were four principal classifications in the race . The first of these was the general classification , calculated by adding up the time each rider took to ride each stage . Time bonuses were applied for winning stages ( 10 , 6 and 4 seconds to the first three riders ) and for the three " golden kilometre " sprints on each stage . At each of these sprints , the first three riders were given 3- , 2- and 1 @-@ second bonuses respectively . The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification . The rider leading the classification won a white jersey .
There was also a points classification . On each road stage the riders were awarded points for finishing in the top 10 places , with other points awarded for intermediate sprints . The rider with the most accumulated points was the leader of the classification and won the red jersey . The combativity classification was based solely on points won at the intermediate sprints ; the leading rider won the green jersey . The final stage was a team classification : on each stage the times of the best three riders on each team were added up . The team with the lowest cumulative time over the seven stages won the team classification .
= LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman =
LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman is a Pacific steam locomotive built in 1923 for the London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) at Doncaster Works to a design of Nigel Gresley . It was employed on long @-@ distance express East Coast Main Line trains by the LNER and its successors , British Railways Eastern and North @-@ Eastern Regions , notably on the London to Edinburgh Flying Scotsman train service after which it was named .
The locomotive set two world records for steam traction , becoming the first steam locomotive to be officially authenticated at reaching 100 miles per hour ( 160 @.@ 9 km / h ) on 30 November 1934 , and then setting a record for the longest non @-@ stop run by a steam locomotive when it ran 422 miles ( 679 km ) on 8 August 1989 while in Australia .
Retired from regular service in 1963 after covering 2 @.@ 08 million miles , Flying Scotsman gained considerable fame in preservation under the ownership of , successively , Alan Pegler , William McAlpine , Tony Marchington , and finally the National Railway Museum ( NRM ) . As well as hauling enthusiast specials in the United Kingdom , the locomotive toured extensively in the United States and Canada from 1969 until 1973 and Australia in 1988 / 89 . Flying Scotsman has been described as the world 's most famous steam locomotive .
= = History = =
The locomotive was completed in 1923 , construction having been started under the auspices of the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) . It was built as an A1 , initially carrying the GNR number 1472 , because the LNER had not yet decided on a system @-@ wide numbering scheme .
Flying Scotsman was something of a flagship locomotive for the LNER . It represented the company at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1924 and 1925 . Before this event , in February 1924 it acquired its name and the new number of 4472 . From then on it was commonly used for promotional purposes .
With suitably modified valve gear , this locomotive was one of five Gresley Pacifics selected to haul the prestigious non @-@ stop Flying Scotsman train service from London to Edinburgh , hauling the inaugural train on 1 May 1928 . For this the locomotives ran with a new version of the large eight @-@ wheel tender which held nine long tons of coal . This and the usual facility for water replenishment from the water trough system enabled them to travel the 392 miles ( 631 km ) from London to Edinburgh in eight hours non @-@ stop .
The tender included a corridor connection and tunnel through the water tank giving access to the locomotive cab from the train so that the driver and fireman could be changed without stopping the train . The following year the locomotive appeared in the film The Flying Scotsman .
While the Great Western Railway locomotive City of Truro had previously been unofficially timed at running in excess of 100 mph ( 160 @.@ 9 km / h ) , 4472 became the first steam locomotive to be officially authenticated at this speed on 30 November 1934 , driven by Bill Sparshatt and running a light test train . It earned a place in the land speed record for railed vehicles ; the publicity @-@ conscious LNER made much of the fact .
The locomotive ran with its corridor tender between April 1928 and October 1936 , after which it reverted to the original type ; in July 1938 it was paired with a streamlined non @-@ corridor tender , and ran with this type until withdrawal . On 22 August 1928 an improved version of this Pacific type , classified A3 , appeared ; older A1 locomotives were later rebuilt to conform . On 25 April 1945 , A1 @-@ class locomotives not yet rebuilt were reclassified A10 to make way for newer Thompson and Peppercorn Pacifics . Flying Scotsman emerged from Doncaster Works on 4 January 1947 as an A3 , having received a boiler with the long " banjo " dome of the type it carries today . By this time it had been renumbered twice : under Edward Thompson 's comprehensive renumbering scheme for the LNER , it became No. 502 in January 1946 ; in May the same year , under an amendment to that plan , it become No. 103 . Following nationalisation of the railways on 1 January 1948 , almost all of the LNER locomotive numbers were increased by 60000 ; No. 103 became 60103 in December 1948 .
Between 5 June 1950 and 4 July 1954 , and between 26 December 1954 and 1 September 1957 , under British Railways ownership , it was allocated to Leicester Central shed on the Great Central Railway , running Nottingham Victoria to London Marylebone services via Leicester Central .
All A3 Pacifics were subsequently fitted with a double Kylchap chimney to improve performance and economy . This caused soft exhaust and smoke drift that tended to obscure the driver 's forward vision ; the remedy was found in the German @-@ type smoke deflectors fitted from 1960 , which somewhat changed the locomotives ' appearance .
= = Preservation = =
In 1962 , British Railways announced that it would scrap Flying Scotsman . Number 60103 ended service with its last scheduled run on 14 January 1963 . Proposed to be saved by a group called " Save Our Scotsman " , they were unable to raise the required £ 3 @,@ 000 , the scrap value of the locomotive .
= = = Alan Pegler = = =
Alan Pegler , who first saw the locomotive at the British Empire Exhibition in 1924 , in 1961 received £ 70 @,@ 000 for his share holding when Northern Rubber was sold to Pegler 's Valves , a company started by his grandfather . When Flying Scotsman was due to be scrapped Pegler stepped in and bought it outright , with the political support of Prime Minister Harold Wilson . He spent large amounts of money over the next few years having the locomotive restored at Doncaster Works as closely as possible to its LNER condition : the smoke deflectors were removed ; the double chimney was replaced by a single chimney ; and the tender was replaced by one of the corridor type with which the locomotive had run between 1928 and 1936 . It was also repainted in LNER livery . Pegler then persuaded the British Railways Board to let him run enthusiasts ' specials ; it was at the time the only steam locomotive running on mainline British Railways . It worked a number of rail tours , including a non @-@ stop London to Edinburgh run in 1968 , the year steam traction officially ended on BR . In the meantime , watering facilities for steam locomotives were disappearing , so in September 1966 Pegler purchased a second corridor tender which was adapted as an auxiliary water tank ; retaining its through gangway , this was coupled behind the normal tender .
Pegler had a contract permitting him to run his locomotive on BR until 1972 . Following overhaul in the winter of 1968 – 69 Harold Wilson 's government agreed to support Pegler running the locomotive in the United States and Canada to support British exports . To comply with local railway regulations it was fitted with : a cowcatcher , bell , buckeye couplings , American @-@ style whistle , air brakes , and high @-@ intensity headlamp . Starting in Boston , Massachusetts , the tour ran into immediate problems , with some states increasing costs by requiring diesel @-@ headed @-@ haulage through them , seeing the locomotive as a fire hazard . However , the train ran from Boston to New York , Washington and Dallas in 1969 ; from Texas to Wisconsin and finishing in Montreal in 1970 ; and from Toronto to San Francisco in 1971 — a total of 15 @,@ 400 miles ( 24 @,@ 800 km ) .
Government financial support for the tour was withdrawn by Prime Minister Edward Heath 's Conservative government in 1970 , but Pegler decided to return for the 1970 season . By the end of that season 's tour , the money had run out and Pegler was £ 132 @,@ 000 in debt , with the locomotive in storage at the US Army Sharpe Depot to keep it away from unpaid creditors . Pegler worked his passage home from San Francisco to England on a P & O cruise ship in 1971 , giving lectures about trains and travel ; he was declared bankrupt in the High Court in 1972 .
= = = William McAlpine = = =
Fears then arose for the engine 's future , the speculation being that it might remain in the US or even be broken up . After Alan Bloom made a personal phone call to him in January 1973 , William McAlpine stepped in and bought the locomotive for £ 25 @,@ 000 direct from the finance company in San Francisco docks . After its return to the UK via the Panama Canal in February 1973 , McAlpine paid for the locomotive 's restoration at Derby Works . Trial runs took place on the Paignton and Dartmouth Steam Railway in summer 1973 , after which it was transferred to Steamtown ( Carnforth ) , from where it steamed on various tours . In December 1977 ' Flying Scotsman ' entered the Vickers Engineering Works , Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , for heavy repairs , including an unused replacement boiler .
In October 1988 Flying Scotsman arrived in Australia to take part in the country 's bicentenary celebrations as a central attraction in the Aus Steam ' 88 festival . The event organisers had been interested in having LNER A4 No 4468 Mallard visit , however due to the 50th anniversary of 4468 's world record high speed run it was unavailable and 4472 was recommended as its replacement . During the course of the next year Flying Scotsman travelled more than 45 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 28 @,@ 000 mi ) over Australian rails , concluding with a return transcontinental run from Sydney to Perth via Alice Springs in which it became the first steam locomotive to travel on the recently built standard gauge Central Australia Railway . Other highlights included Flying Scotsman double @-@ heading with New South Wales Government Railways Pacific locomotive 3801 , a triple @-@ parallel run alongside broad gauge Victorian Railways R class locomotives , and parallel runs alongside South Australian Railways locomotives 520 and 621 . Its visit to Perth saw a reunion with GWR 4073 Class Pendennis Castle , which had been exhibited alongside Flying Scotsman at the 1924 British Empire Exhibition . On 8 August 1989 Flying Scotsman set another record en route to Alice Springs from Melbourne , travelling 679 kilometres ( 422 mi ) from Parkes to Broken Hill non @-@ stop , the longest such run by a steam locomotive ever recorded . The same journey also saw Flying Scotsman set its own haulage record when it took a 735 @-@ ton train over the 490 @-@ mile ( 790 km ) leg between Tarcoola and Alice Springs .
Flying Scotsman returned to Britain in 1990 and continued working on the main line until its mainline certificate expired in 1993 . 4472 then toured preserved railways . To raise funds for its upcoming overhaul it was returned to BR condition with the refitting of the German style smoke deflectors and double chimney , and repainting in BR Brunswick green . By 1995 it was in pieces at Southall Railway Centre in West London , owned by a consortium that included McAlpine as well as music guru and railway enthusiast Pete Waterman .
= = = Tony Marchington = = =
Facing an uncertain future owing to the cost of restoration and refurbishment necessary to meet the stringent engineering standards required for main line operation , salvation came in 1996 when Dr Tony Marchington , already well known in the vintage movement , bought the locomotive , and had it restored over three years to running condition at a cost of £ 1 million , a restoration which , at the time , was recognised as the most extensive in the locomotive 's history . Marchington 's time with the Flying Scotsman was documented in a documentary , the Channel 4 programme A Steamy Affair : The Story of Flying Scotsman .
With Flying Scotsman 's regular use both on the VSOE Pullman and with other events on the main line , in 2002 , Marchington proposed a business plan , which included the construction of a " Flying Scotsman Village " in Edinburgh , to create revenue from associated branding . After floating on OFEX as Flying Scotsman plc in the same year , in 2003 Edinburgh City Council turned down the village plans , and in September 2003 Marchington was declared bankrupt . At the company 's AGM in October 2003 , CEO Peter Butler announced losses of £ 474 @,@ 619 , and with a £ 1 @.@ 5 million overdraft at Barclays Bank and stated that the company only had enough cash to trade until April 2004 . The company 's shares were suspended from OFEX on 3 November 2003 after it had failed to declare interim results .
= = = National Railway Museum = = =
With the locomotive effectively placed up for sale , after a national campaign it was bought in April 2004 by the National Railway Museum in York , and it is now part of the museum 's National Collection . After 12 months of interim running repairs , it ran for a while to raise funds for its 10 @-@ year restoration .
= = = Overhaul 2006 – 2016 = = =
In January 2006 , Flying Scotsman entered the National Railway Museum 's workshops for a major overhaul to return it to Gresley 's original specification and to renew its boiler certificate ; originally planned to be completed by mid @-@ 2010 if sufficient funds were raised , but late discovery of additional problems meant it would not be completed on time . In October 2012 , the museum published a report examining the reasons for the delay and additional cost . The locomotive was moved in October 2013 to Bury for work to return it to running condition no earlier than summer 2015 . On 29 April 2015 , Flying Scotsman 's boiler left the National Railway Museum to be reunited with the rest of the locomotive at Riley & Son in Bury .
The bay in which the locomotive was being refurbished was on view to visitors to the NRM but the engine was rapidly dismantled to such an extent that the running plate was the only component recognisable to the casual observer . Early in 2009 it emerged that the overhaul would see the loco reunited with the last remaining genuine A3 boiler ( acquired at the same time as the locomotive as a spare ) . The A4 boiler that the loco had used since the early 1980s was sold to Jeremy Hosking for potential use on his locomotive , LNER Class A4 4464 Bittern .
= = = Return to service = = =
The overhaul was completed in January 2016 and testing began on the East Lancashire Railway on 8 January 2016 . Flying Scotsman was originally going to haul its inaugural mainline train called the Winter Cumbrian Mountain Express from Manchester Victoria to Carlisle on 23 January , but it was not ready due to faulty brakes . The first mainline run , pulling the Winter Cumbrian Mountain Express from Carnforth to Carlisle , took place on 6 February . An inaugural journey from London King 's Cross to York in traditional green livery ran on 25 February . Flying Scotsman will be making special tours throughout the UK in 2016 .
= = Debate over restoration = =
In 2011 , the National Railway Museum announced that Flying Scotsman will be painted in LNER war time black livery when it undergoes steam tests and commissioning runs , with the letters " N E " on the sides of its tender , number " 103 " on one side of the cab and " 502 " on the other – the numbers it was given under the LNER 's renumbering system . The locomotive remained in black for the NRM 's Flying Scotsman Preview event on 28 – 30 May 2011 . During the museum 's Railfest event on 2 – 10 June 2012 , Flying Scotsman was kept in front of Mallard in a siding in its black livery . A report on the restoration was published , in redacted form , on 7 March 2013 . On 23 January 2015 , the NRM announced that the smoke deflectors and double chimney will be retained , including a return to its BR green livery , to keep it as historically accurate as possible as No. 60103 .
= = In popular culture = =
Because of the LNER 's emphasis on using the locomotive for publicity purposes , and then its eventful preservation history , including two international forays , it is one of the UK 's most recognised locomotives . One of its first film appearances was in the 1929 film The Flying Scotsman , which featured an entire sequence set aboard the locomotive .
In 1985 , Flying Scotsman appeared in a witty British Rail TV advert .
Flying Scotsman was featured in The Railway Series books by the Rev. W. Awdry . The locomotive visited the fictional Island of Sodor in the book Enterprising Engines to visit its only remaining brother : Gordon . At this time it had two tenders , and this was a key feature of the plot of one of the stories , " Tenders for Henry " . When the story was filmed for the television series Thomas & Friends , renamed as " Tender Engines " only Flying Scotsman 's two tenders and his cab roof were seen outside a shed . He originally was intended to have a larger role in this episode , but because of budgetary constraints , the modelling crew could not afford to build the entire engine . The engine makes a full appearance in Thomas & Friends : The Great Race , where he is voiced by Rufus Jones in all English @-@ speaking regions .
Flying Scotsman appeared in the 2000 film 102 Dalmatians preparing to haul the Orient Express .
The locomotive was the first choice for the Top Gear Race to the North , but due to an overhaul was unable to attend , so the position went to LNER Peppercorn Class A1 60163 Tornado instead .
A model of the Flying Scotsman appeared in Episode 6 and " The Great Train Race " episodes of James May 's Toy Stories . It was James May 's personal childhood model and was chosen by him to complete a world record for the longest model railway . The train was meant to travel 7 miles from Barnstaple to Bideford , in North Devon and it failed early in the trip in Episode 6 but managed to complete it in " The Great Train Race " which took place on 16 April 2011 .
One of the specially produced £ 5 coins for the 2012 Summer Olympics featured an engraving of the Flying Scotsman on the back .
Flying Scotsman is included as a locomotive in the PC simulation game Microsoft Train Simulator .
= History of public relations =
Most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of the public relations ( PR ) profession . However , academics have found early forms of public influence and communications management in ancient civilizations , during the settling of the New World and during the movement to abolish slavery in England . Basil Clark is considered the founder of public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of Editorial Services in 1924 , though academic Noel Turnball believes PR was founded in Britain first by evangelicals and Victorian reformers .
Propaganda was used by the United States , the United Kingdom , Germany and others to rally for domestic support and demonize enemies during the World Wars , which led to more sophisticated commercial publicity efforts as public relations talent entered the private sector . Most historians believe public relations became established first in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays , then spread internationally . Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to Europe when they created European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall plan .
The second half of the twentieth century is considered the professional development building era of public relations . Trade associations , PR news magazines , international PR agencies , and academic principles for the profession were established . In the early 2000s , press release services began offering social media press releases . The Cluetrain Manifesto , which predicted the impact of social media in 1999 , was controversial in its time , but by 2006 , the effect of social media and new internet technologies became broadly accepted .
= = Ancient origins = =
Although the term " public relations " was not yet developed , academics like James E. Grunig and Scott Cutlip identified early forms of public influence and communications management in ancient civilizations . According to Edward Bernays , one of the pioneers of PR , " The three main elements of public relations are practically as old as society : informing people , persuading people , or integrating people with people . " Scott Cutlip said historic events have been defined as PR retrospectively , " a decision with which many may quarrel . "
A clay tablet found in ancient Iraq that promoted more advanced agricultural techniques is sometimes considered the first known example of public relations . Babylonian , Egyptian and Persian leaders created pyramids , obelisks and statues to promote their divine right to lead . Additionally , claims of magic or religious authority were used to persuade the public of a king or pharaoh 's right to rule .
Ancient Greek philosophers such as Isocrates , Plato and Aristotle created early theories in rhetoric and persuasion . In Greece there were advocates for hire called " sophists " . Plato and others said sophists were dishonest and misled the public , while the book " Public Relations as Communication Management " said they were " largely an ethical lot " that " used the principles of persuasive communication . " In Egypt court advisers consulted pharaohs to speak honestly and scribes documented a pharaoh 's deeds . In Rome Julius Caesar wrote the first campaign biography promoting his military successes . He also commissioned newsletters and poems to support his political position . In medieval Europe , craftsmen organized into guilds that managed their collective reputation . In England , Lord Chancellors acted as mediators between rulers and subjects .
Pope Urban II 's recruitment for the crusades is also sometimes referred to as a public relations effort . Pope Gregory XV founded the term " propaganda " when he created Congregatio de Propaganda ( " congregation for propagating the faith " ) , which used trained missionaries to spread Christianity . The term did not carry negative connotations until it was associated with government publicity around World War II . In the early 1200s , the Magna Carta was created as a result of Stephen Langton lobbying English barons to insist King John recognize the authority of the church .
= = Antecedents = =
Explorers like Magellan , Columbus and Raleigh used exaggerated claims of grandeur to entice settlers to come to the New World . For example , in 1598 , a desolate swampy area of Virginia was described by Captain Arthur Barlowe as follows : " The soil is the most plentiful , sweet , fruitful and wholesome of all the world . " When colonists wrote back to Europe about the hardships of colonizing Virginia , including the death toll caused by conflicts with Indians , pamphlets with anonymous authors were circulated to reassure potential settlers and rebuke criticisms .
The first newsletter and the first daily newspaper were founded in Germany in 1609 and 1615 respectively . Cardinal Richelieu of France had pamphlets made that supported his policies and attacked his political opposition . The government also created a publicity bureau called Information and Propaganda and a weekly newspaper originally controlled by the French government , The Gazette . In the mid @-@ 1600s both sides of the English Civil War conflict used pamphlets to attack or defend the monarchy respectively . Poet John Milton wrote anonymous pamphlets advocating for ideas such as liberalizing divorce , the establishment of a republic and the importance of free speech . A then @-@ anonymous pamphlet in 1738 by Maria Theresa of the Austrian Empire was influential in criticizing the freemasons and advocating for an alliance between the British , Dutch and Austrian governments .
In 1641 , Harvard University sent three preachers to England to raise money for missionary activities among the Indians . To support the fund @-@ raising , the University produced one of the earliest fund @-@ raising brochures , New England 's First Fruits . An early version of the press release was used when King 's College ( now Columbia University ) , sent out an announcement of its 1758 graduation ceremonies and several newspapers printed the information . Princeton was the first university to make it a routine practice of supplying newspapers with information about activities at the college .
According to Noel Turnball , a professor from RMIT University , more systematic forms of PR began as the public started organizing for social and political movements . The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was established in England in 1787 . It published books , posters and hosted public lectures in England advocating against slavery . Industries that relied on slavery attempted to persuade the middle @-@ class that it was necessary and that slaves had humane living conditions . The Slave Trade was abolished in 1807 . In the US , the movement to abolish slavery began in 1833 with the establishment of the American Anti @-@ Slavery Society , using tactics adopted from the British abolitionist movement . According to Edward Bernays , the US abolitionist movement used " every available device of communication , appeal and action , " such as petitions , pamphlets , political lobbying , local societies , and boycotts . The South responded by defending slavery on the basis of economics , religion and the constitution . In some cases propaganda promoting the abolition of slavery was forbidden in The South and abolitionists were killed or jailed . Public relations also played a role in abolitionist movements in France , Australia and in Europe .
The Boston Tea Party has been called a " public relations event " or pseudo event in that it was a staged event intended to influence the public . Pamphlets such as Common Sense ( 1775 – 76 ) and The American Crisis ( 1776 to 1783 ) were used to spread anti @-@ British propaganda in the United States , as well as the slogan " taxation without representation is tyranny . " After the revolution was won , disagreements broke out regarding the United States Constitution . Supporters of the constitution sent letters now called the Federalist Papers to major news outlets , which helped persuade the public to support the constitution . Exaggerated stories of Davy Crocket and the California Gold Rush were used to persuade the public to fight the war against Mexico and to migrate west in the U.S. respectively .
Author Marvin Olasky said public relations in the 1800s was spontaneous and de @-@ centralized . In the 1920s , Americans wanted to disprove the perspective of French aristocrats that the American democracy run by " the mob " had " no sense of history , no sense of gratitude to those who had served it , and no sense of the meaning of ' virtue ' " . To combat this perception , French aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette , who helped fund the American Revolution , was invited to a tour of the United States . Each community he visited created a committee to welcome him and promote his visit . In the mid @-@ 1800s P. T. Barnum founded the American Museum and the Barnum and Bailey Circus . He became well known for publicizing his circus using manipulative techniques . For example , he announced that his museum would exhibit a 161 @-@ year @-@ old woman , who had been Washington 's nurse , then produced an elderly woman and a forged birth certificate .
Early environmental campaigning groups like the Coal Abatement Society and the Congo Reform Association were formed in the late 1800s . In the late 1800s many of the now @-@ standard practices of media relations , such as conducting interviews and press conferences emerged . Industrial firms began to promote their public image . The German steel and armaments company Krupp created the first corporate press department in 1870 to write articles , brochures and other communications advertising the firm . The first US corporate PR department was established in 1889 by Westinghouse Corporation . " The first public relations department was created by the inventor and industrialist George Westinghouse in 1889 when he hired two men to publicize his pet project , alternating current ( AC ) electricity . " Some scholars believe that the first appearance of the term " public relations " was in the 1897 Year Book of Railway Literature .
= = Origins as a profession = =
The book Today 's Public Relations : An Introduction says that , although experts disagree on public relations ' origins , many identify the early 1900s as its beginning as a paid profession . According to Barbara Diggs @-@ Brown , an academic with the American University School of Communication , the PR field anchors its work in historical events in order to improve its perceived validity , but it didn 't begin as a professional field until around 1900 . Scott Cutlip said , " we somewhat arbitrarily place the beginnings of the public relations vocation with the establishment of The Publicity Bureau in Boston in mid @-@ 1900 . " He explains that the origins of PR cannot be pinpointed to an exact date , because it developed over time through a series of events . Most textbooks on public relations say that it was first developed in the United States , before expanding globally ; however , Jacquie L 'Etang , an academic from the United Kingdom , said it was developed in the UK and the US simultaneously . Noel Turnball claims it began as a professional field in the 18th and 19th century with British evangelicals and Victorian reformers . According to academic Betteke Van Ruler , PR activities didn 't begin in Continental Europe as a professional field until the 1920s .
According to academic Stuart Ewen , most PR efforts in the US at the time were " damage control " . According to Goldman , from around 1903 to 1909 " many newspapers and virtually all mass @-@ circulation magazines featured detailed , indignant articles describing how some industry fleeced its stockholders , overcharged the public or corrupted politics . " The public became abruptly more critical of big business . The anti @-@ corporate and pro @-@ reform sentiment of the Progressive Era was reflected in newspapers , which were dramatically increasing in circulation as the cost of paper decreased . Public relations was founded , in part , to defend corporate interests against sensational and hyper @-@ critical news articles . It was also influential in promoting consumerism after the emergence of mass production .
= = = Early pioneers = = =
The Publicity Bureau was the first PR agency and was founded by former Boston journalists , including Ivy Lee . Ivy Lee is sometimes called the father of PR and was influential in establishing it as a professional practice . In 1906 , Lee published a Declaration of Principles , which said that PR work should be done in the open , should be accurate and cover topics of public interest . According to historian Eric Goldman , the declaration of principles marked the beginning of an emphasis on informing , rather than misleading , the public . Ivy Lee is also credited with developing the modern press release and the " two @-@ way @-@ street " philosophy of both listening to and communicating with the public . In 1906 , Lee helped facilitate the Pennsylvania Railroad 's first positive media coverage after inviting press to the scene of a railroad accident , despite objections from executives . At the time , secrecy about corporate operations was common practice . Lee 's work was often identified as spin or propaganda . In 1913 and 1914 , the mining union was blaming the Ludlow Massacre , where on @-@ strike miners and their families were killed by state militia , on the Rockefeller family and their coal mining operation , The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company . On the Rockefeller family 's behalf , Lee published bulletins called " Facts Concerning the Struggle in Colorado for Industrial Freedom , " which contained false and misleading information . Lee warned that the Rockefellers were losing public support and developed a strategy that Junior followed to repair it . It was necessary for Junior to overcome his shyness , go personally to Colorado to meet with the miners and their families , inspect the conditions of the homes and the factories , attend social events , and especially to listen closely to the grievances . This was novel advice , and attracted widespread media attention , which opened the way to resolve the conflict , and present a more humanized versions of the Rockefellers . In response the labor press said Lee " twisted the facts " and called him a " paid liar , " a " hired slanderer , " and a " poisoner of public opinion . " By 1917 , Bethlehem Steel company announced it would start a publicity campaign against perceived errors about them . The Y.M.C.A. opened a new press secretary . AT & T and others also started their first publicity programs .
Edward Bernays , a nephew of Sigmund Freud , is also sometimes referred to as the father of PR and the profession 's first theorist for his work in the 1920s . He took the approach that audiences had to be carefully understood and persuaded to see things from the client 's perspective . He wrote the first textbook on PR and taught the first college course at New York University in 1923 . Bernays also first introduced the practice of using front groups in order to protect tobacco interests . In the 1930s he started the first vocational course in PR . Bernays was influenced by Freud 's theories about the subconscious . He authored several books , including Crystallizing Public Opinion ( 1923 ) , Propaganda ( 1928 ) , and The Engineering of Consent ( 1947 ) . He saw PR as an " applied social science " that uses insights from psychology , sociology , and other disciplines to scientifically manage and manipulate the thinking and behavior of an irrational and " herdlike " public .
In 1929 , Edward Bernays helped the Lucky Strike cigarette brand increase its sales among the female demographic . Research showed that women were reluctant to carry a pack of Lucky Strike cigarettes , because the brand 's green color scheme clashed with popular fashion choices . Bernays persuaded fashion designers , charity events , interior designers and others to popularize the color green . He also positioned cigarettes as Torches of Freedom that represent rebellion against the norms of a male @-@ dominated society .
According to Ruth Edgett from Syracuse University , Lee and Bernays both had " initial and spectacular successes in raising PR from the art of the snake oil salesman to the calling for a true communicator . " However , " late in their careers , both Lee and Bernays took on clients with clearly reprehensible values , thus exposing themselves and their work to public criticism . " Walter Lippmann was also a contributor to early PR theory , for his work on the books Public Opinion ( 1922 ) and The Phantom Public ( 1925 ) . He coined the term " manufacture of consent , " which is based on the idea that the public 's consent must be coaxed by experts to support a democratic society .
Former journalist Basil Clarke is considered the founder of PR in the UK . He founded the UK 's first PR agency , Editorial Services , in 1924 . He also authored the world 's first code of ethics for the field in 1929 . Clarke wrote that PR , " must look true and it must look complete and candid or its ' credit ' is gone " . He suggested that the selection of which facts are disseminated by PR campaigns could be used to persuade the public .
Arthur W. Page is sometimes considered to be the father of " corporate public relations " for his work with the American Telephone and Telegraph Company ( AT & T ) from 1927 to 1946 . The company was experiencing resistance from the public to its monopolization efforts . In the early 1900s , AT & T had assessed that 90 percent of its press coverage was negative , which was reduced to 60 percent by changing its business practices and disseminating information to the press . According to business historian John Brooks , Page positioned the company as a public utility and increased the public 's appreciation for the its contributions to society . Stuart Ewen said AT & T used its advertising dollars with newspapers to manipulate its coverage and had their PR team write feature stories that were published as if they were written by independent journalists .
= = = Early campaigns = = =
Edward Clarke and Bessie Tyler were influential in growing the Ku Klux Clan to four million members over three years using publicity techniques in the early 1920s . In 1926 the Empire Marketing Board was formed by the British government in part to encourage a preference for goods produced in Britain . It folded in 1933 due to government cuts . In 1932 , a pamphlet " The Projection of England " advocated for the importance of England managing its reputation domestically and abroad . The Ministry of Information was established in the UK in 1937 .
Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were the first Presidents to emphasize the use of publicity . In the 1930s Roosevelt used the media to promote The New Deal and to blame corporations for the country 's economic problems . This led companies to recruit their own publicists to defend themselves . Roosevelt 's anti @-@ trust efforts led corporations to attempt to persuade the public and lawmakers " that bigger [ corporations ] was not necessarily more evil . " Wilson used the media to promote his government reform program , The New Freedom . He formed the Committee on Public Information .
In the 1930s , the National Association of Manufacturers was one of the first to create a major campaign promoting capitalism and pro @-@ business viewpoints . It lobbied against unions , The New Deal and the 8 @-@ hour work @-@ day . NAM tried mostly unsuccessfully to convince the public that the interests of the public were aligned with corporate interests and to create an association between commerce and democratic principles . During the Second World War , Coca Cola promised that " every man in uniform gets a bottle of Coca @-@ Cola for five cents , wherever he is and whatever it costs the company . " The company persuaded politicians that it was crucial to the war @-@ effort and was exempted from sugar rationing . During the European Recovery Program PR became more established in Europe as US @-@ based companies with PR departments created European subsidiaries .
In 1938 , amid concerns regarding dropping diamond prices and sales volume , De Beers and its advertising agency N.W. Ayers adopted a strategy to " strengthen the association in the public 's mind of diamonds with romance , " whereas " the larger and finer the diamond , the greater the expression of love . " This became known as one of America 's " lexicon of great campaigns " for successfully persuading the public to purchase expensive luxury items during a time of financial stress through psychological manipulation . It also led to the development of the slogan " A diamond is forever " in 1947 and was influential in how diamonds were marketed thereafter . After World War I the first signs of public relations as a profession began in France and became more established through the Marshall Plan .
= = Wartime propaganda = =
= = = World War I = = =
The first organized , large @-@ scale propaganda campaigns were during World War I. Germany created the German Information Bureau to create pamphlets , books and other communications that were intended to support the justness of their cause , to encourage voluntary recruitment , to demonize the enemy and persuade America to remain neutral in the conflict . In response to learning about Germany 's propaganda , the British created a war propaganda agency called the Wellington House in September 1914 . Atrocity stories , both real and alleged , were used to incite hatred for the enemy , especially after the " Rape of Belgium " in 1915 . France created a propaganda agency in 1914 . Publicity in Australia led to a lift in the government 's ban on military drafts . Austria @-@ Hungary used propaganda tactics to attack the credibility of Italy 's leadership and its motives for war . Italy in @-@ turn created the Padua Commission in 1918 , which led Allied propaganda against Austria @-@ Hungary .
One week after the United States declared war on Germany in 1917 , US President Woodrow Wilson established the US propaganda agency , the Committee on Public Information ( Creel Commission ) , as an alternative to demands for media censorship by the US army and navy . The CPI spread positive messages to present an upbeat image about the war and denied fraudulent atrocities made up to incite anger for the enemy . The CPI recruited about 75 @,@ 000 " Four Minute Men , " volunteers who spoke about the war at social events for four minutes .
As a result of World War I propaganda , there was a shift in PR theory from a focus on factual argumentation to one of emotional appeals and the psychology of the crowd . The term " propaganda " which was originally associated with religion and the church , became a more widely known concept .
= = = World War II = = =
Propaganda did not develop a negative connotation until it was used in Nazi propaganda for World War II . Even though Germany 's World War I propaganda was considered more advanced than that of other nations , Adolf Hitler said that propaganda had been under @-@ utilized and claimed that superior British propaganda was the main reason for losing the war . Nazi Germany created the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in March 1933 , just after Nazis took power . The Nazi party took editorial control over newspapers , created their own news organizations and established Nazi @-@ controlled news organizations in conquered regions . The Nazi party used posters , films , books and public speakers among other tactics .
According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , broadcasting became the most important medium for propaganda throughout the war . Posters were also used domestically and leaflets were dropped behind enemy lines by air @-@ ship . In regions conquered by Germany , citizens could be punished by death for listening to foreign broadcasts . Britain had four organizations involved in propaganda and was methodical about understanding its audiences in different countries . US propaganda focused on fighting for freedom and the connection between war efforts and industrial production . Soviet posters also focused on industrial production .
In countries where citizens are subordinate to the government , aggressive propaganda campaigns continued during peace @-@ time , while liberal democratic nations primarily use propaganda techniques to support war efforts .
= = Professional development = =
According to historian Eric Goldman , by the 1940s public relations was being taught at universities and was a professional occupation relied on in a similar way as lawyers and doctors . However , it failed to obtain complete recognition as a profession due in part to a history of deceit . Author Marvin Olasky said in 1987 that the reputation of the profession was getting worse , while Robert L. Heath from the University of Houston said in 1991 that it was progressing toward " true professional status . " Academic J. A. R. Pimlott said it had achieved " quasi @-@ professionalism . " Heath said despite the field 's newfound professionalism and ethics , its reputation was still effected by a history of exploitive behavior .
The number of media outlets increased and PR talent from wartime propaganda entered the private sector . The practice of public relations became ubiquitous to reach political , activist and corporate objectives . The development of the press into a more real @-@ time media also led to heightened scrutiny of public relations activities and those they represent . For example , Richard Nixon was criticized for " doubletalk " and " stonewalling " in his PR office 's responses to the Watergate scandal .
Trade associations were formed first in the U.S. in 1947 with the Public Relations Society of America ( PRSA ) , followed by the Institute of Public Relations ( now the Chartered Institute of Public Relations ) in London in 1948 . Similar trade associations were created in Australia , Europe , South Africa , Italy and Singapore . The International Association of Public Relations was founded in 1955 . The Institute for Public Relations held its first conference in 1949 and that same year the first British book on PR , " Public Relations and publicity " was published by J.H. Brebner . The International Association of Business Communicators was founded in 1970 . Betsy Ann Plank is called " the first lady of public relations " for becoming the first female president of the PRSA in 1973 .
Two of today 's largest PR firms , Edelman and Burson @-@ Marsteller , were founded in 1952 and 1953 respectively . Daniel Edelman created the first media tour in the 1950s by touring the country with " the Toni Twins , " where one had used a professional salon and the other had used Toni 's home @-@ care products . It was also during this period that trade magazines like PR Week , Ragans and PRNews were founded . John Hill , founder of Hill & Knowlton , is known as the first international PR pioneer . Hill & Knowlton was the first major U.S. firm to create a strong international network in the 1960s and 1970s . Both Edelman and Burson @-@ Marsteller followed Hill & Knowlton by establishing operations in London in the 1960s and all three began competing internationally in Asia , Europe and other regions . Jacques Coup de Frejac was influential in persuading U.S. and UK companies to also extend their PR efforts into the French market and for convincing French businesses to engage in PR activities . In the early 2000s , PR in Latin America began developing at a pace " on par with industrialized nations . "
According to The Global Public Relations Handbook , public relations evolved from a series of " press agents or publicists " to a manner of theory and practice in the 1980s . Research was published in academic journals like Public Relations Review and the Journal of Public Relations Research . This led to an industry consensus to categorize PR work into a four @-@ step process : research , planning , communication and action .
= = Social and digital = =
During the 1990s specialties for communicating to certain audiences and within certain market segments emerged , such as investor relations or technology PR . New internet technology and social media websites effected PR strategies and tactics . In April 1999 , four managers from IBM , Sun Microsystems , National Public Radio and Linux Journal created " The Cluetrain Manifesto . " The Manifesto established 95 theses about the way social media and internet technologies were going to change business . It concluded that markets had become " smarter and faster than most companies , " because stakeholders were getting information from each other . The Manifesto " created a storm " with strong detractors and supporters . That same year , Seth Godin published a book on permission marketing , which advocated against advertising and in favor of marketing that is useful and educational . While initially controversial , by 2006 it became commonly accepted that social media had an important role in public relations .
Press releases , which were mostly unchanged for more than a century , began to integrate digital features . BusinessWire introduced the " Smart News Release , " which incorporated audio , video and images , in 1997 . This was followed by the MultiVu multimedia release from PRNewswire in 2001 . The Social Media Release was created by Todd Defren from Shift Communications in 2006 in response to a blog written by journalist and blogger Tom Foremski titled " Die ! Press release ! Die ! Die ! Die ! " Incorporating digital and social features became a norm among wire services , and companies started routinely making company announcements on their corporate blog .
According to The New York Times , corporate communications shifted from a monologue to two @-@ way conversational communications and new media also made it " easier for consumers to learn about the mix @-@ ups and blunders " of PR . For example , after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , BP tried to deflect blame to other parties , claim the spill was not as significant as it was and focused on the science , while human interest stories related to the damage were emerging . In 2011 , Facebook tried to covertly spread privacy concerns about competitor Google 's Social Circles . Chapstick created a communications crisis after allegedly , repeatedly deleting negative comments on its Facebook page . During the Iraq War , it was exposed that the US created false radio personalities to spread pro @-@ American information and paid Iraqi newspapers to write articles written by American troops .
= Minority Report ( film ) =
Minority Report is a 2002 American science fiction action mystery @-@ thriller film directed by Steven Spielberg and loosely based on the short story of the same name by Philip K. Dick . It is set primarily in Washington , D.C. , and Northern Virginia in the year 2054 , where " PreCrime " , a specialized police department , apprehends criminals based on foreknowledge provided by three psychics called " precogs " . The cast includes Tom Cruise as Chief of PreCrime John Anderton , Colin Farrell as Department of Justice agent Danny Witwer , Samantha Morton as the senior precog Agatha , and Max von Sydow as Anderton 's superior Lamar Burgess . The film combines elements of tech noir , whodunit , thriller and science fiction genres , as well as a traditional chase film , as the main protagonist is accused of a crime he has not committed and becomes a fugitive .
Spielberg has characterized the story as " fifty percent character and fifty percent very complicated storytelling with layers and layers of murder mystery and plot " . The film 's central theme is the question of free will versus determinism . It examines whether free will can exist if the future is set and known in advance . Other themes include the role of preventive government in protecting its citizenry , the role of media in a future state where technological advancements make its presence nearly boundless , the potential legality of an infallible prosecutor , and Spielberg 's repeated theme of broken families .
The film was first optioned in 1992 as a sequel to another Dick adaptation , Total Recall , and started its development in 1997 , after a script by Jon Cohen reached Spielberg and Cruise . Production suffered many delays due to Cruise 's Mission : Impossible II and Spielberg 's A.I. running over schedule , eventually starting in March 2001 . During pre @-@ production , Spielberg consulted numerous scientists in an attempt to present a more plausible future world than that seen in other science fiction films , and some of the technology designs in the film have proven prescient . Minority Report has a unique visual style . It uses high contrast to create dark colors and shadows , much like a film noir picture . The film 's overlit shots feature desaturated colors which were achieved by bleach @-@ bypassing the film 's negative in post @-@ production .
Minority Report was one of the best reviewed films of 2002 . It received praise for its writing , visuals and themes , but earned some criticism for its ending which was considered inconsistent with the tone of the rest of the movie . The film was nominated for and won several awards . It received an Academy Award nomination for Best Sound Editing , and eleven Saturn Award nominations , including Best Actor , Best Supporting Actor , and Saturn Award for Best Music , winning Best Science Fiction Film , Best Direction , Best Writing , and Best Supporting Actress . The film was a commercial success , earning over $ 358 million worldwide against an overall budget of $ 142 million ( including advertising ) . Over four million DVDs were sold in its first few months of home release .
= = Plot = =
In April 2054 , Washington , D.C. ' s PreCrime police stops murderers before they act , reducing the murder rate to zero . Murders are predicted using three mutated humans , called " Precogs " , who " previsualize " crimes by receiving visions of the future . Would @-@ be murderers are imprisoned in their own happy virtual reality . The Federal government is on the verge of adopting the controversial program .
Since the disappearance of his son Sean , PreCrime Captain John Anderton has separated from his wife Lara and becomes a drug addict . While United States Department of Justice agent Danny Witwer is auditing the program , the Precogs generate a new prediction , saying Anderton will murder a man named Leo Crow in 36 hours . Anderton does not know Crow , but flees the area as Witwer begins a manhunt . Anderton seeks the advice of Dr. Iris Hineman , the creator of PreCrime technology . She reveals that sometimes , one of the Precogs , usually Agatha , has a different vision than the other two , a " minority report " of a possible alternate future ; this has been kept a secret as it would damage the system 's credibility . Anderton resolves to recover the minority report to prove his innocence .
Anderton goes to a black market doctor for a risky eye transplant so as to avoid the city @-@ wide optical recognition system . He returns to PreCrime and kidnaps Agatha , shutting down the system , as the Precogs operate as a group mind . Anderton takes Agatha to a hacker to extract the minority report of Leo Crow , but none exists ; instead , Agatha shows him an image of the murder of Ann Lively , a woman who was drowned by a hooded figure in 2049 .
Anderton and Agatha go to Crow 's apartment as the 36 @-@ hour time nears , finding numerous photos of children , including Sean 's . Crow arrives and Anderton prepares to kill him , accusing him to be a serial child killer . Agatha talks Anderton out of shooting Crow by telling him that he has the ability to choose his future now that he is aware of it . Crow however begs to be killed , having been hired to plant the photos and be killed in exchange for his family 's financial well being . Crow grabs Anderton 's gun and pushes the trigger , killing himself . Anderton and Agatha flee to Lara 's house outside the city for refuge . There they learn Lively was Agatha 's drug @-@ addicted mother who sold her to PreCrime . Lively had sobered up and attempted to reclaim Agatha , but was murdered . Anderton realizes he is being targeted for knowing about Lively 's existence and her connection to Agatha .
Witwer , studying Crow 's death , suspects Anderton is being framed . He examines the footage of Lively 's murder and finds there were two attempts on her life , the first having been stopped by PreCrime but the second , occurring minutes later , having succeeded . Witwer reports this to the director and founder of PreCrime , Lamar Burgess , but Burgess responds by killing Witwer using Anderton 's gun . With the Precogs still offline , the murder is not detected .
Lara calls Burgess to reveal that Anderton is with her , and Anderton is captured , accused of both murders , and fitted with the brain device that puts him permanently into a dreamlike sleep . As his body is deposited into the prison , the warden tells him , " that all your dreams come true . ”
Agatha is reconnected to the PreCrime system . While attempting to comfort Lara , Burgess accidentally reveals himself as Lively 's murderer . Lara frees Anderton from stasis , and Anderton exposes Burgess at a PreCrime celebratory banquet by playing the full video of Agatha 's vision of Burgess killing Lively . A new report is generated at PreCrime : Burgess will kill Anderton . Burgess corners Anderton , and explains that as he could not afford to let Lively take Agatha back without impacting PreCrime , he arranged to kill Lively following an actual attempt on her life , so that the murder would appear as an echo to the technician within PreCrime and be ignored . Anderton points out Burgess 's dilemma : If Burgess kills Anderton , he will be imprisoned for life , but PreCrime will be validated ; if he spares Anderton , PreCrime will be discredited and shut down . Anderton reveals the ultimate flaw of the system : once people are aware of their future , they are able to change it . Burgess shoots himself .
After Burgess 's death , the PreCrime system is shut down and all prisoners pardoned . Anderton and Lara are soon to have a new child together . The Precogs are sent to an isolated island to live their lives in peace .
= = Cast = =
Tom Cruise as Chief John Anderton
Max von Sydow as Director Lamar Burgess
Colin Farrell as Danny Witwer
Samantha Morton as Agatha Lively
Michael and Matthew Dickman as Arthur and Dashiell " Dash " Arkadin , the precog twins
Neal McDonough as Gordon " Fletch " Fletcher
Steve Harris as Jad
Patrick Kilpatrick as Knott
Jessica Capshaw as Evanna
Lois Smith as Dr. Iris Hineman
Kathryn Morris as Lara Anderton
Peter Stormare as Dr. Solomon P. Eddie
Mike Binder as Leo Crow
Tim Blake Nelson as Gideon
Daniel London as Norbert " Wally " Wallace
Jessica Harper as Ann Lively ( unaccredited cameo )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Dick 's story was first optioned by producer and writer Gary Goldman in 1992 . He created the initial script for the film with Ron Shusett and Robert Goethals ( uncredited ) . It was supposed to be a sequel to the 1990 Dick adaptation Total Recall , which starred Arnold Schwarzenegger . Novelist Jon Cohen was hired in 1997 to adapt the story for a potential film version that would have been directed by Dutch filmmaker Jan de Bont . Meanwhile , Cruise and Spielberg , who met and became friends on the set of Cruise 's film Risky Business in 1983 , had been looking to collaborate for ten years . Spielberg was set to direct Cruise in Rain Man , but left to make Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade . Cruise read Cohen 's script , and passed it onto Spielberg , who felt it needed some work . Spielberg was not directly involved in the writing of the script ; however , he was allowed to decide whether the picture 's screenplay was ready to be filmed . When Cohen submitted an acceptable revision , he called Cruise and said , " Yeah , I 'll do this version of the script . " In that version , Witwer creates a false disk which shows Anderton killing him . When Anderton sees the clip , his belief in the infallibility of the precogs ' visions convinces him it is true , therefore the precogs have a vision of him killing Witwer . At the end , Anderton shoots Witwer and one of the brother precogs finishes him off , because Witwer had slain his twin . Spielberg was attracted to the story because as both a mystery and a movie set 50 years in the future , it allowed him to do " a blending of genres " which intrigued him .
In 1998 , the pair joined Minority Report and announced the production as a joint venture of Spielberg 's DreamWorks and Amblin Entertainment , 20th Century Fox , Cruise 's Cruise / Wagner Productions , and De Bont 's production company , Blue Tulip . Spielberg however stated that despite being credited , De Bont never became involved with the film . Cruise and Spielberg , at the latter 's insistence , reportedly agreed to each take 15 % of the gross instead of any money up front to try to keep the film 's budget under $ 100 million . Spielberg said he had done the same with name actors in the past to great success : " Tom Hanks took no cash for Saving Private Ryan but he made a lot of money on his profit participation . " He made this agreement a prerequisite :
I haven 't worked with many movie stars — 80 per cent of my films don 't have movie stars — and I 've told them if they want to work with me I want them to gamble along with me . I haven 't taken a salary in 18 years for a movie , so if my film makes no money I get no money . They should be prepared to do the same .
Production was delayed for several years ; the original plan was to begin filming after Cruise 's Mission : Impossible II was finished . However , that film ran over schedule , which also allowed Spielberg time to bring in screenwriter Scott Frank to rework Cohen 's screenplay . John August did an uncredited draft to polish the script , and Frank Darabont was also invited to rewrite , but was by then busy with The Majestic . The film closely follows Frank 's final script ( written May 16 , 2001 ) , and contains much of Cohen 's third draft ( May 24 , 1997 ) . Frank removed the character of Senator Malcolm from Cohen 's screenplay , and inserted Burgess , who became the " bad guy " . He also rewrote Witwer from a villain to a " good guy " , as he was in the short story . In contrast to Spielberg 's next science fiction picture , War of the Worlds , which he called " 100 percent character " driven , Spielberg said the story for Minority Report became " fifty percent character and fifty percent very complicated storytelling with layers and layers of murder mystery and plot . " According to film scholar Warren Buckland , " It appears that ... Cohen and ... Frank did not see " the " Goldman and Schusett screenplay ; instead ; they worked on their own adaptation . " Goldman and Schusett however claimed the pair used a lot of material from their script , so the issue went through the Writer 's Guild arbitration process . They won a partial victory ; they were not given writing credits , but were listed as executive producers . The film was delayed again so Spielberg could finish A.I. after the death of his friend Stanley Kubrick . When Spielberg originally signed on to direct , he planned to have an entirely different supporting cast . He offered the role of Witwer to Matt Damon , Iris Hineman to Meryl Streep , Burgess to Ian McKellen , Agatha to Cate Blanchett , and Lara to Jenna Elfman . However , Streep declined the role , Damon opted out , and the other roles were recast due to the delays .
= = = Technology = = =
After E.T. , Spielberg started to consult experts , and put more scientific research into his science fiction films . In 1999 , he invited fifteen experts convened by the Global Business Network , its chairman , Peter Schwartz , and its co @-@ founder Stewart Brand to a hotel in Santa Monica , California for a three @-@ day " think tank " . One of them was urbanist , futurist , and journalist Joel Garreau . He wanted to consult with the group to create a plausible " future reality " for the year 2054 as opposed to a more traditional " science fiction " setting . Dubbed the " think tank summit " , the experts included architect Peter Calthorpe , Douglas Coupland , computer scientist Neil Gershenfeld , biomedical researcher Shaun Jones , computer scientist Jaron Lanier , and former Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) architecture dean William J. Mitchell . Production designer Alex McDowell kept what was nicknamed the " 2054 bible " , an 80 @-@ page guide created in preproduction which listed all the decided upon aspects of the future world : architectural , socio @-@ economical , political , and technological . While the discussions did not change key elements in the film 's action sequences , they were influential in the creation of some of the more utopian aspects of the film , though John Underkoffler , the science and technology advisor for the film , described it as " much grayer and more ambiguous " than what was envisioned in 1999 . John Underkoffler , who designed most of Anderton 's interface after Spielberg told him to make it " like conducting an orchestra " , said " it would be hard to identify anything [ in the movie ] that had no grounding in reality . " McDowell teamed up with architect Greg Lynn to work on some of the technical aspects of the production design . Lynn praised his work , saying that " [ a ] lot of those things Alex cooked up for Minority Report , like the 3 @-@ D screens , have become real . " Spielberg described his ideas for the film 's technology to Roger Ebert before the movie 's release :
I wanted all the toys to come true someday . I want there to be a transportation system that doesn 't emit toxins into the atmosphere . And the newspaper that updates itself ...
The Internet is watching us now . If they want to . They can see what sites you visit . In the future , television will be watching us , and customizing itself to what it knows about us . The thrilling thing is , that will make us feel we 're part of the medium . The scary thing is , we 'll lose our right to privacy . An ad will appear in the air around us , talking directly to us .
News sources have noted the future technologies depicted in the film were prescient . The Guardian published a piece titled " Why Minority Report was spot on " in June 2010 , and the following month Fast Company examined seven crime fighting technologies in the film similar to ones then appearing . It summarized that " the police state imagined in the Tom Cruise flick feels a bit more real every day . " Other major media outlets such as The Wall Street Journal have published articles dedicated to this phenomenon , and National Public Radio ( NPR ) published an August 2010 podcast which analyzed the film 's accuracy in predicting future technologies . Companies like Hewlett @-@ Packard ( HP ) have announced they were motivated to do research by the film ; in HP 's case to develop cloud computing .
= = = = Technologies from the film later realized include = = = =
Multi @-@ touch interfaces similar to Anderton 's , put out by Apple 's iPhone ( 2007 ) , Microsoft ( 2007 ) , Obscura Digital ( 2008 ) , MIT ( 2009 ) , Intel ( 2009 ) , and Microsoft again , this time for their Xbox 360 ( 2010 ) . A company representative , at the 2007 premiere of the Apple iPhone , promised it " will feel like Minority Report . " When Microsoft released the Kinect motion sensing camera add @-@ on for their Xbox 360 gaming console in 2010 , the Kinect 's technology allowed several programmers , including students at MIT , to create Minority Report @-@ inspired user interfaces .
Retina scanners , by a Manhattan company named Global Rainmakers Incorporated ( GRI ) ( 2010 ) . GRI disputed the notion that its technology could be the threat to privacy it is in the film . " Minority Report is one possible outcome , " a corporate official told Fast Company . " I don 't think that 's our company 's aim , but I think what we 're going to see is an environment well beyond what you see in that movie — minus the precogs , of course . " The company is installing hundreds of the scanners in Bank of America locations in Charlotte , North Carolina , and has a contract to install them on several United States Air Force bases .
= = = = Those in development include = = = =
Insect robots , similar to the film 's spyder robots , by the United States Military . These insects will be capable of reconnoitre missions in dangerous areas not fit for soldiers , such as " occupied houses " . They serve the same purpose in the film . According to the developer , BAE Systems , the " goal is to develop technologies that will give our soldiers another set of eyes and ears for use in urban environments and complex terrain ; places where they cannot go or where it would be too dangerous . "
Facial recognition advertising billboards , being developed by the Japanese company NEC . These billboards will theoretically be able to recognize passers @-@ by via facial recognition , call them by name , and deliver customer specific advertisements . Thus far the billboards can recognize age and gender , and deliver demographically appropriate adverts , but cannot discern individuals . According to The Daily Telegraph , the billboards will " behave like those in ... Minority Report ... in which Cruise 's character is confronted with digital signs that call out his name as he walks through a futuristic shopping mall . " IBM is developing similar billboards which plan to deliver customized adverts to individuals who carry identity tags . Like NEC , the company feels they will not be obtrusive as their billboards will only advertise products which a customer is interested in . Advertisers are embracing these billboards as they figure to reduce costs by lowering the number of adverts wasted on uninterested consumers .
Crime prediction software , developed by a professor from the University of Pennsylvania ( 2010 ) . The software , which was detailed in a Daily Mail article titled " The real Minority Report " upon its announcement , " collates a range of variables then uses an algorithm to work out who is at the highest chance of offending . " As in the film , the program was announced for a trial run in Washington D.C. , which , if successful , will lead to a national rollout .
Electronic paper , development announced by Xerox ( 2002 ) , MIT ( 2005 ) , Germany ( 2006 ) , media conglomerate Hearst Corporation ( 2008 ) , and LG ; a South Korean electronics manufacturer ( 2010 ) . Xerox has been trying to develop something similar to e @-@ paper since before the film was released in theaters . In 2005 , when The Washington Post asked the chief executive of MIT 's spin @-@ off handling their research when " the Minority Report newspaper " would be released , he predicted " around 2015 " . In 2006 PC World announced in an article titled : " German Researchers Say ' Minority Report ' Transparent Screens Possible " , German researchers thought they would be available in two years . Tech Watch 's 2008 article , " ' Minority Report ' e @-@ newspaper on the way " , noted that Hearst was " pushing large amounts of cash into " the technology . In discussing the LG announcement , CNET commented that " [ i ] f you thought electronic newspapers were the stuff of science fiction , you 're quite right . They first featured in the film Minority Report , released in 2002 . "
Augmented reality with hand control developed by Keytree Limited allowing users to perform the iconic gestures from the film . This development combines AR , hand tracking face recognition and the ability to work in virtual space all pioneered in this film .
= = = Filming = = =
Minority Report was the first film to have an entirely digital production design . Termed " previz " , as an abbreviation of previsualization ( a term borrowed from the film 's narrative ) , production designer Alex McDowell said the system allowed them to use Photoshop in place of painters , and employ 3 @-@ D animation programs ( Maya and XSI ) to create a simulated set , which could be filled with digital actors then used to block out shots in advance . The technology also allowed the tie @-@ in video game and special effects companies to cull data from the previs system before the film was finished , which they used to establish parameters for their visuals . When Spielberg quickly became a fan , McDowell said " [ i ] t became pretty clear that [ he ] wouldn 't read an illustration as a finished piece , but if you did it in Photoshop and created a photorealistic environment he focused differently on it . " Filming took place from March 22 to July 18 , 2001 , in Washington , D.C. , Virginia , and Los Angeles . Film locations included the Ronald Reagan Building ( as PreCrime headquarters ) and Georgetown . The skyline of Rosslyn , Virginia is visible when Anderton flies across the Potomac River . During production , Spielberg made regular appearances on a video @-@ only webcam based in the craft services truck , both alone and with Tom Cruise ; together they conferenced publicly with Ron Howard and Russell Crowe via a similar webcam on the set of " A Beautiful Mind " in New York .
The location of the small , uncharted island in the last shot of the film is Butter island off North Haven , Maine in the Penobscot Bay .
Although it takes place in an imagined future world of advanced technology , Minority Report attempts to embody a more " realistic " depiction of the future . Spielberg decided that to be more credible , the setting had to keep both elements of the present and ones which specialists expected would be forthcoming . Thus Washington , D.C. as depicted in the movie keeps well @-@ known buildings such as the Capitol and the Washington Monument , as well as a section of modern buildings on the other side of the Potomac River . Production designer Alex McDowell was hired based on his work in Fight Club and his storyboards for a film version of Fahrenheit 451 which would have starred Mel Gibson . McDowell studied modern architecture , and his sets contain many curves , circular shapes , and reflective materials . Costume designer Deborah L. Scott decided to make the clothes worn by the characters as simple as possible , so as not to make the depiction of the future seem dated .
The stunt crew was the same one used in Cruise 's Mission : Impossible II , and was responsible for complex action scenes . These included the auto factory chase scene , filmed in a real facility using props such as a welding robot , and the fight between Anderton and the jetpack @-@ clad officers , filmed in an alley set built on the Warner Bros. studio lot . Industrial Light & Magic did most of the special effects , and DreamWorks @-@ owned PDI was responsible for the Spyder robots . The company Pixel Liberation Front did previsualization animatics . The holographic projections and the prison facility were filmed by several roving cameras which surrounded the actors , and the scene where Anderton gets off his car and runs along the Maglev vehicles was filmed on stationary props , which were later replaced by computer @-@ generated vehicles .
= = = Storyline differences = = =
The Philip K. Dick story only gives you a springboard that really doesn 't have a second or third act . Most of the movie is not in the Philip K. Dick story – to the chagrin of the Philip K. Dick fans , I 'm sure .
Like most film adaptations of Dick 's works , many aspects of his story were changed in their transition to film , such as the addition of Lamar Burgess and the change in setting from New York City to Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and Northern Virginia . The character of John Anderton was changed from a balding and out @-@ of @-@ shape old man to an athletic officer in his 40s to fit its portrayer and the film 's action scenes . The film adds two stories of tragic families ; Anderton 's , and that of the three pre @-@ cogs . In the short story , Anderton is married with no children , while in the film , he is the divorced father of a kidnapped son , who is most likely deceased . Although it is implied , but unclear in the film whether Agatha is related to the twin pre @-@ cogs , her family was shattered when Burgess murdered her mother , Anne Lively . The precogs were intellectually disabled and deformed individuals in the story , but in the film , they are the genetically mutated offspring of drug addicts . Anderton 's future murder and the reasons for the conspiracy were changed from a general who wants to discredit PreCrime to regain some military funding , to a man who murdered a precog 's mother to preserve PreCrime . The subsequent murders and plot developed from this change . The film 's ending also differs from the short story 's . In Dick 's story , Anderton prevents the closure of the PreCrime division , however , in the movie Anderton successfully brings about the end of the organization . Other aspects were updated to include current technology . For instance in the story , Anderton uses a punch card machine to interpret the precogs ' visions ; in the movie , he uses a virtual reality interface .
= = = Themes = = =
= = = = Free will versus determinism = = = =
The main theme of Minority Report is the classic philosophical debate of free will versus determinism . One of the main questions the film raises is whether the future is set or whether free will can alter the future . As critic C.A. Wolski commented , " At the outset , Minority Report ... promises to mine some deep subject matter , to do with : do we possess free will or are we predestined to our fate ? " However , there is also the added question of whether the precogs ' visions are correct . As reviewer James Berardinelli asked , " is the Precogs ' vision accurate , or has it in some way been tampered with ? Perhaps Anderton isn 't actually going to kill , but has been set up by a clever and knowledgeable criminal who wants him out of the way . " The precog Agatha also states that since Anderton knows his future , he can change it . However , the film also indicates that Anderton 's knowledge of the future may actually be the factor that causes Leo Crow 's death . Berardinelli describes this as the main paradox regarding free will vs. determinism in the film , " [ h ] ere 's the biggest one of all : Is it possible that the act of accusing someone of a murder could begin a chain of events that leads to the slaying . In Anderton 's situation , he runs because he is accused . The only reason he ends up in circumstances where he might be forced to kill is because he is a hunted man . Take away the accusation , and there would be no question of him committing a criminal act . The prediction drives the act – a self @-@ fulfilling prophecy . You can see the vicious circle , and it 's delicious ( if a little maddening ) to ponder . " Film scholar Dean A. Kowalski argues that in this scenario free will still exists , as the perpetrators control their actions , and the precogs ' visions are but the facts that resulted from their choices .
The central theme of the movie is discussed in the film 's fourth scene . Witwer discusses the PreCrime system with the division 's staff . He believes that its main " legalistic drawback " is that it " arrests individuals who have broken no laws . " Jad responds , " But they will ! " When Anderton later arrives upon this discussion , he acknowledges the paradox Witwer raises ; that the precogs prevent an event accepted as fact , but one which will never happen . To show him that people regularly use predetermination , Anderton picks up a wooden ball and rolls it toward Witwer , who catches it before it lands on the ground . When asked why he caught the ball , Witwer says " Because it was going to fall . " Anderton replies , " But it didn 't . " Then confidently tells him , " The fact that you prevented it from happening doesn 't change the fact that it was going to happen . " Kowalski feels this example is faulty in the sense that the ball has no free will ; it merely acts according to the laws of physics , but he acknowledges that if an individual were to have freely chosen to commit murder , then it would hold . Film scholar Stephen Mulhall points out that unlike the laws of physics which have a series of scientifically testable causal laws , Anderton merely has the visions of the precogs , whose psychic abilities are not fully explained by science .
Another quandary is that if the precogs ' visions are infallible then the future cannot be otherwise , while if they are incorrect people will be punished for crimes they will never commit . Kowalski contends that the precogs only attain knowledge of what he calls the " conditional future " . He cites as evidence two examples : the scene where Agatha steers Anderton through the mall by foreseeing dangerous events and helping him circumnavigate them , and a later scene where she tells Anderton and his ex @-@ wife what would have happened to their child if he had lived . In the first example , Agatha knows what Anderton will freely choose to do when presented with specific facts so she provides them to him , and , in the second , she knows what will have happened to the Andertons ' son based on specific scenarios throughout his life , in which she can see what he would have freely chosen to do , and what selections various people in his life would have freely made . According to Kowalski , the PreCrime unit therefore removes individuals from precise situations where they would freely choose to become a murderer . Philosophy professor Michael Huemer adds that he believes " the only way the otherwise predetermined future seen by the precogs can be averted , we are led to believe , is by the influence of the precogs themselves , " and that since there was no minority report ( i.e. ; no possibility of an alternative fate ) for Anderton , the only way he can change the future is by knowing the precogs ' visions .
= = = = Political and legal = = = =
Spielberg said that the arrest of criminals before they have a chance to commit their crimes in the movie had some real world background in post 9 / 11 America , commenting that " [ w ] e ’ re giving up some of our freedom so that the government can protect us . " The future world in Minority Report of retinal scans , robotic human inspectors , and intrusive , individualized , public advertising arrived in American theaters as the country was debating how much governmental intrusion into personal matters was necessary to ensure safety of its citizens . Spielberg said he would be against a PreCrime system if it were ever possible , as he believes that if it did exist , those in control of it would undoubtedly abuse its powers . Kowalski questions what the benevolent precogs in the film could become in the hands of those who trained their skills for political intrigue . Science fiction scholar Gary Westfahl asserts that in a political context , PreCrime may be seen " a metaphor for racial profiling , and one could view the liberation of the precogs as the end of a form of slavery . "
Kowalski feels the isolation of the precogs ensures that they see their visions merely as facts , and removes them from having to justify them . The precogs ' ignorance of the results of their visions prevents them from knowing the effectiveness of the program . He feels the PreCrime officers are thus more qualified to evaluate their efficacy " than the precogs themselves . " In the December 2003 edition of the academic journal Film Criticism , scholar Mark Garrett Cooper moved past that point by asserting that not only have the precogs " yet to fully understand " their visions , but that the process by which the images are interpreted makes it so that no one individual could understand them without the use of the apparatus . The machinery is so effective and precise according to Cooper however , that the " omnipresent system effectively makes capture more certain than the crime . " When the system targets the hero [ Cruise ] , instead of fleeing , he remains in the vicinity in the belief that the system will , in its inexorable logic , correct itself . The apparatus is considered so infallible according to Cooper that the hero knows once he is cleared by it , his life can immediately return to normal . In this respect , Cooper feels that " far from indicting a security state , the film legitimates one " .
The film presents a legal system where the PreCrime office gathers the images from the minds of the precogs , then organizes them into a coherent order for display in front of a set of judges . The judges appear via video feeds , analyze the images , and according to Cooper they view the images , listen to Anderton rattle off " a string of legalistic verbiage " , then give it a " pro forma ratification . " Thus the accused is never present , is not allowed a defense , and is convicted before he is aware he is on trial . The program is marketed in a similar basic fashion , as in its tag line : " It works . " Cooper says that in a typical American courtroom drama , the audience is treated as if it were the jury , but in this system , instead of desiring the hero be proven innocent , the audience seeks to have the guilt transferred from Anderton to Burgess . But to do so Anderton has to disprove the system , which he does by proving the existence of the minority report . This renders the PreCrime justice system inoperable , as if there is doubt related not merely to the gathering of the images , or their ability to be interpreted , but their ability to be correct even in perfect circumstances , then the system of infallible guilt can not exist .
= = = = Media = = = =
Spielberg conceived of the idea of a future world permeated with intrusive capitalism and government surveillance after everyone at the " think tank summit " told him that " the right of privacy is a diminishing commodity " which will soon be thrown " right out the window " . According to film critic J. Hoberman , Minority Report " visualizes ( as well as demonstrates ) a future where the unconscious has been thoroughly colonized . " When the movie first appeared in theaters a common source of reviewers ' complaints was the film 's product placement , which they found intrusive . The personalized advertising is disconcerting partly because of the invasion of privacy , but also , argues Cooper , because it is cold , impersonalized , and insincere . Film scholar Martin Hall says that the purpose of the ads Anderton runs into are " encouraging him to buy certain products and , by extension , affirm his place in society . "
Cooper feels Minority Report emphasizes the future importance of the control over imagery . According to him , the images captured from the precogs ' visions in the film bestow power on those who control their processing . He says the film warns viewers that those who control images must be carefully overseen so as to prevent the abuse of power , and that the film presents " governance as a problem of image arrangement " . Cooper says the quandary arises when the film intimates that there will be no way to escape the media industry 's omnipotence in the future , while at the same time defending " the need for image manipulating institutions " . He feels that this logically raises another issue in that the same concern could be leveled towards image @-@ makers such as DreamWorks , and he says the " film 's virtue lies in provoking this question " . He notes that the film 's tranquil ending concludes with the Andertons looking out into a peaceful exterior with only rain visible , and the precogs reading in their isolated , idyllic farm , and both families apparently free of electronic surveillance .
= = = = Self @-@ perception = = = =
In his analysis of the movie in the academic journal Rhizomes , scholar Martin Hall discusses the self @-@ perception people develop based on the views of those outside of themselves . The academic notes that when a child first comprehends the function of a mirror , they begin to develop the understanding that their perception of themselves is not self @-@ contained , and learn that they are what they see in the mirror . He contrasts this to when Anderton discovers the precogs ' vision of his future self . Anderton becomes flustered while interpreting the images which show him about to commit murder . According to Hall , he begins " searching for whatever possible versions of this representation are available to him , other than the one that represents him as a murderer . " He literally becomes obsessed with himself , seeking to resolve these images which put him at " discordance with his own reality " . Hall says that he is sorting through the images so feverishly because he is convinced once they are sorted properly and understood , they will not show him to be the murderer , as he is convinced that he is not one . Previously , at peace with himself , Hall says Anderton cannot accept the image he sees in the precogs ' visions . Unable to reconcile the two , Hall says he is forced to decide that " it is likely that errors have occurred " in the PreCrime system . Agatha enters a similar period of self @-@ examination when she has visions of her mother 's death , and is informed they are merely " echoes " , i.e. a faulty image in her memory .
When he escapes the building and enters the mall , Hall feels he is disturbed by ads calling to him by name not only because they will give away his presence , but also because they remind him of his lost place in society , and he begins " to see through the false consciousness his ( illusory ) previous position as fixed subject had allowed him . " Spielberg said Anderton is being punished for his previous callous unconcern for anything but the effectiveness of the PreCrime program . " He 's dirtied by the fact that he doesn 't spend much time thinking about the moral consequences . It 's just like a sporting event almost — and then suddenly that whole sporting event makes him the soccer ball . " Hall says that his doubts about his own future lead him to examine his previous life to better understand himself . He runs through his role in the PreCrime system , and his son 's disappearance " to reconstruct his past " . After Leo Crow in fact kills himself , Anderton becomes healed , and later has " recreated himself as the subject he was previously through the knowledge that he is not a killer . " Although he has satisfactorily repaired his self @-@ image , Hall notes that Anderton is not the same person , as he no longer believes in the PreCrime system . Hall says that Burgess 's final quandary ; namely his desire to keep PreCrime running , but his inability to bring himself to kill Anderton to accomplish that task , and his desire to live , drives him to see his only suitable action to be suicide .
= = = = Broken family = = = =
Minority Report continues Spielberg 's tradition of depicting broken families , which he has said is motivated by his parents ' divorce when he was a child . In Dick 's short story , Anderton is a childless , married man whose main motives are self @-@ preservation and preventing the disassembly of the PreCrime division . While he is also trying to save himself in the movie , his greater concern is uncovering the story behind his son 's disappearance . Spielberg would later transform his next science fiction film , War of the Worlds , from a story about a single man to one about a divorced father concerned with protecting his children . Buckland notes that the two tragic parent @-@ child relationships in the picture ( Agatha and Anne Lively , John and Sean Anderton ) have a common element . The movie has four shots of them submerged in water . Agatha 's face is shown in a close up shot , taken from directly above her , when she is submerged in her photon milk , nutrient bath . When photos of her mother 's submerged corpse are shown to her , the emphasized photograph is a similar image of her face taken from directly above . Anderton and his son are shown together in a pool flashback scene in which they have a contest to see who can hold their breath longest . John is underwater when his son is taken , and later in the apartment he is shown lying motionless , immersed in a filled bathtub , in a manner Buckland finds similar to the shots of Agatha and Anne . Buckland notes that co @-@ screenwriter Frank introduced the water theme , as he wrote Agatha and her mother 's back stories while adding the bathtub scene .
= = Music = =
The score was composed and conducted by John Williams and orchestrated by John Neufeld , with vocals by Deborah Dietrich . Williams normally enters Spielberg productions at an early stage , well before the movie starts shooting . For Minority Report however , his entry was delayed due to his work on Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones , and he joined the film when it was nearly completed , leaving him scant production time . The soundtrack takes inspiration from Bernard Herrmann 's work . Williams decided not to focus on the science fiction elements , and made a score suitable for film noir . He included traditional noir elements such as a female singer in the Anne Lively scenes , but the " sentimental scenes " , which Williams considered unusual for that genre , led to soothing themes for Anderton 's ex @-@ wife Lara and son Sean . The track " Sean 's Theme " is described as the only one " instantly recognizable as one of Williams ' " by music critic Andrew Granade . Spielberg typified it as " a black and white score " and said , " I think Johnny Williams does a really nice bit of homage to Benny Herrmann . "
In an interview which appeared in The New York Times , Williams said that the choices for many of the pieces of classical music were made by the studio . He also said that while he did not know why certain pieces were chosen , Franz Schubert 's Symphony No. 8 ( commonly known as the Unfinished Symphony ) , which features prominently in the film , was most likely included because Anderton was a big fan of classical music in the script . Some of the other choices , such as Gideon 's playing of Jesu , Joy of Man 's Desiring by Bach on an organ in the subterranean prison , were also in the screenplay , and he figured that " [ t ] hey are some writer 's conception of what this character might have listened to . " Williams did choose the minuet from a Haydn string quartet ( Op. 64 , No. 1 ) which plays on the radio in the scene where Dr. Hineman is gardening in her greenhouse . He said he picked the piece because " [ i ] t seemed to me to be the kind of thing a woman like this would play on the radio . " The New York Times characterized the score as " evocative " and said it was " thoroughly modern " while also being " interlaced with striking snippets of masterworks . " The piece heard when Anderton is shown entering his apartment and he tells his computer system " I 'm home " is the 2nd movement of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's Symphony No. 6 in B minor , known as the " Pathetique " Symphony .
= = Ending = =
The most commonly criticized element of the film is its ending . The film has a more traditional " happy ending " which contradicts the tone of the rest of the picture . This has led to speculation that this ending is the product of John 's imagination , caused by hallucinations from his forced coma after he is incarcerated . As one observer mused , " The conclusion of Minority Report strikes me as a joke Spielberg played on his detractors — an act of perfectly measured deviltry . "
One critic theorized , " ... [ r ] ather than end this Brazil @-@ ian sci @-@ fi dystopia with the equivalent of that film 's shot of its lobotomized hero , which puts the lie to the immediately previous scene of his imagined liberation , Spielberg tries to pass off the exact same ending but without the rimshot , just to see if the audience is paying attention . " Film scholars Nigel Morris and Jason P. Vest point to a line in the film as possible evidence of this . After Anderton is captured , Gideon tells him that , " It 's actually kind of a rush . They say you have visions . That your life flashes before your eyes . That all your dreams come true . " While Vest considers the blissful dream ending a possibility , he questions why Anderton did not imagine his son as having returned .
Buckland expressed disappointment in the ending , but blamed Frank . He felt that given the water theme , and closely tied together tragic parent @-@ child theme , Anderton should have ended the film by taking Agatha in his care if Spielberg wanted a happy ending . Especially since " Anderton kidnaps Agatha from the precog pool just as his son was kidnapped from a swimming pool " and because Anderton could act as a " substitute parent for Agatha , and Agatha ... a substitute child for Anderton . " This opportunity is missed however , when the precogs are sent to the remote island , and Anderton reunites with his wife ; an ending which Buckland finds more " forced " than the " more authentic " path he feels he noticed .
= = Style = =
Minority Report is a futuristic film which portrays elements of a both dystopian and utopian future . The movie renders a much more detailed view of its future world than the book , and contains new technologies not in Dick 's story . From a stylistic standpoint , Minority Report resembles Spielberg 's previous film A.I. , but also incorporates elements of film noir . Spielberg said that he " wanted to give the movie a noir feel . So I threw myself a film festival . Asphalt Jungle . Key Largo . The Maltese Falcon . " The picture was deliberately overlit , and the negative was bleach @-@ bypassed during post @-@ production . The scene in which Anderton is dreaming about his son 's kidnapping at the pool is the only one shot in " normal " color . Bleach @-@ bypassing gave the film a distinctive look ; it desaturated the film 's colors , to the point that it nearly resembles a black @-@ and @-@ white movie , yet the blacks and shadows have a high contrast like a film noir picture . The color was reduced by " about 40 % " to achieve the " washed @-@ out " appearance . Elvis Mitchell , formerly of The New York Times , commented that " [ t ] he picture looks as if it were shot on chrome , caught on the fleeing bumper of a late ' 70s car . "
Cinematographer Janusz Kamiński shot the movie with high @-@ speed film , which Spielberg preferred to the then @-@ emerging digital video format . The movie 's camera work is very mobile , alternating between handheld and Steadicam shots , which are " exaggerated by the use of wide angle lenses and the occasional low camera angle " to increase the perception of movement according to film scholar Warren Buckland . Kamiński said that he never used a lens longer than 27mm , and alternated between 17 , 21 , and 27mm lenses , as Spielberg liked to " keep the actors as close to the camera as possible " . He also said , " We staged a lot of scenes in wide shots that have a lot of things happening with the frame . " The duo also used several long takes to focus on the emotions of the actors , rather than employing numerous cuts . Spielberg eschewed the typical " shot reverse shot " cinematography technique used when filming characters ' interactions in favor of the long takes , which were shot by a mobile , probing camera . McDowell relied on colorless chrome and glass objects of curved and circular shapes in his set designs , which , aided by the " low @-@ key contrastive lighting " , populated the film with shadows , creating a " futuristic film noir atmosphere " .
Buckland describes the film 's 14 minute opening sequence as the " most abstract and complex of any Spielberg film . " The first scene is a distorted precog vision of a murder , presented out of context . The speed of the film is sped up , slowed , and even reversed , and the movie " jumps about in time and space " by intercutting the images in no discernible order . When it ends , it becomes clear that the scene was presented through Agatha 's eyes , and that this is how previsions appear to her . Fellow scholar Nigel Morris called this scene a " trailer " , because it foreshadows the plot and establishes the type of " tone , generic expectations , and enigmas " that will be used in the film . The visions of the pre @-@ cogs are presented in a fragmented series of clips using a " squishy lens " device , which distorts the images , blurring their edges and creating ripples across them . They were created by a two @-@ man production team , hired by Spielberg , who chose the " layered , dreamlike imagery " based on some comments from cognitive psychologists the pair consulted . In the opening 's next scene , Anderton is " scrubbing the images " , by standing like a composer ( as Spielberg terms it ) , and manipulating them , while Jad assists him . Next the family involved in the murder in Agatha 's vision is shown interacting , which establishes that the opening scene was a prevision . The picture then cuts back to Anderton and the precogs ' images , before alternating between the three . The opening is self @-@ contained , and according to Buckland acts merely as a setup for numerous elements of the story . It lasts 14 minutes , includes 171 shots , and has an average shot length of five seconds as opposed to the 6 @.@ 5 second average for the entire film . The opening 's five @-@ second average is attained despite " very fast cutting " in the beginning and ending , because the middle has longer takes , which reach 20 seconds in some instances . Spielberg also continues his tradition of " heavily diffused backlighting " for much in the interior shots .
= = Release = =
Spielberg typically keeps the plot points of his films closely guarded before their release , and Minority Report was no different . He said he had to remove some scenes , and a few " F @-@ words " to get the film 's PG @-@ 13 rating . Following the disappointing box office results of Spielberg 's A.I. , the marketing campaign for Minority Report downplayed his role in the movie and sold the film as a Cruise action thriller .
Tom Rothman , chairman of the film 's co @-@ financier Fox Filmed Entertainment , described the film 's marketing strategy thus : " How are we marketing it ? It 's Cruise and Spielberg . What else do we need to do ? " The strategy made sense ; coming into the film , Spielberg had made 20 films which grossed a domestic total of $ 2 @.@ 8 billion , while Cruise 's resume featured 23 films and $ 2 billion in domestic revenues . With their combined 30 % take of the film 's box office though , sources such as BusinessWeek 's Ron Grover predicted the studios would have a hard time making the money needed to break even . Despite the outward optimism , as a more adult @-@ oriented , darker film than typical blockbusters , the studio held different box office expectations for the movie than they would a more family friendly film . Entertainment Weekly projected the film would gross $ 40 million domestic in its opening weekend , and Variety predicted that the high concept storyline would not appeal to children and would render it a " commercial extra @-@ base hit rather than a home run . "
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Minority Report 's world premiere took place in New York City on June 19 , 2002 . An online " popcorn cam " broadcast live from inside the premiere . Cruise attended the London premiere the following week , and mingled with thousands of adoring fans as he walked through the city 's Leicester
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parliamentary law , and sheer willpower , even though he was often unable to prevail . " In his 1997 biography of Stevens , though , he took a position similar to McKitrick 's : that Stevens was a relatively marginal figure , with his influence often limited by his extremism . Trefousse believed that Brodie went too far both in deeming Stevens 's clubfoot responsible for so much about him , and in giving full credence to the Stevens @-@ Smith relationship : both those things cannot now be determined with certainty .
Steven Spielberg 's 2012 film Lincoln , in which Stevens was played by Tommy Lee Jones , brought new public interest in Stevens . Jones 's character is portrayed as the central figure among the radicals , responsible in large part for the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment . Historian Matthew Pinsker notes that Stevens is referred to only four times in Doris Kearns Goodwin 's Team of Rivals on which scriptwriter Tony Kushner based the film 's screenplay ; other radicals were folded into the character . Stevens is depicted as unable to moderate his views for the sake of gaining passage of the amendment until after he is urged to do so by the ever @-@ compromising Lincoln . According to Aaron Bady in his article about the film and how it portrays the radicals , " he 's the uncle everyone is embarrassed of , even if they love him too much to say so . He 's not a leader , he 's a liability , one whose shining heroic moment will be when he keeps silent about what he really believes . " The film depicts a Stevens – Smith sexual relationship ; Pinsker comments that " it may well have been true that they were lovers , but by injecting this issue into the movie , the filmmakers risk leaving the impression for some viewers that the ' secret ' reason for Stevens 's egalitarianism was his desire to legitimize his romance across racial lines . "
= = = Historiography = = =
Jolly , James A. " The Historical Reputation of Thaddeus Stevens , " Journal of the Lancaster County Historical Society ( 1970 ) 74 : 33 – 71
Pickens , Donald K. " The Republican Synthesis and Thaddeus Stevens , " Civil War History ( 1985 ) 31 : 57 – 73 ; argues that Stevens was totally committed to Republicanism and capitalism in terms of self @-@ improvement , the advance of society , equal distribution of land , and economic liberty for all ; to achieve that he had to destroy slavery and the aristocracy .
= Oslo Commuter Rail =
Oslo Commuter Rail ( Norwegian : NSB Lokaltog Østlandet ) is a commuter rail centered in Oslo , Norway , connecting the capital to six counties in Eastern Norway . The system is operated by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and its subsidiary NSB Gjøvikbanen , using Class 69 and Class 72 electric multiple units ( EMU ) . The network spans eight routes and 128 stations , with Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) as the central hub . The trains run on 553 kilometers ( 344 mi ) of electrified mainline railway owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . Deficits are financed by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications , although the network also has a ticketing cooperation with Ruter , the public transport authority in Oslo and Akershus . The network is the longest commuter rail network in the Nordic countries , and among top ten in Europe .
The commuter rail operates mainly within Greater Oslo and two of the lines only provide services within the urban area . Six of the lines span beyond the urban area , reaching the counties of Østfold , Hedmark , Oppland and Buskerud . The system is also an airport rail link to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . West of Oslo , the system uses the Drammen , Asker , Spikkestad and Sørland lines , north of Oslo it uses the Gjøvik Line , east of Oslo it uses the Trunk , Gardermoen and Kongsvinger lines and south of Oslo it follows the Østfold and Eastern Østfold lines .
The system 's predecessors date back to the opening of the Trunk Line in 1854 . By 1902 , all the routes used by the present commuter rail had been taken into service . Electrification started in 1922 , and Class 62 EMUs were introduced in 1931 , followed by Class 65 units in 1936 and Class 67 in 1953 . Electrification was completed in 1963 . In 1980 , the Drammen Line was connected to the rest of the system and all trains started operating to the new Oslo S. The high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line opened in 1998 . In 2013 , new Stadler FLIRT units were taken into traffic , and the Asker Line was completed just before . By 2018 , the Follo Line is scheduled to open .
= = Network = =
The Oslo Commuter Rail runs entirely on mainline railways owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The commuter rail uses ten lines , utilizing a line length of 553 kilometers ( 344 mi ) . The lines are all electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC and consists of 128 stations . The Asker , Drammen , Gardermoen and Østfold lines , and part of the Trunk Line , have double track , accounting for 204 kilometers ( 127 mi ) , while the rest of the network has single track .
Oslo S is the central hub of the commuter rail . Located in the central business district of Oslo , all lines either terminate at , or run through the station . From Oslo S , there are four main corridors . All trains running through the West Corridor continue along either the North , South or East Corridor . Because there are more services in the latter three , some of these terminate at Oslo S.
= = = West = = =
Along the West Corridor , the Drammen Line runs straight into the Oslo Tunnel , which starts directly beneath Oslo S. Trains run through Nationaltheatret , Norway 's second @-@ largest station , while in the tunnel . Just after surfacing , trains halt at Skøyen . Four of the routes see their trains terminate at Skøyen , while the remaining four continue onwards to Lysaker . After Lysaker , Line 400 continues stopping at all nine stations serving suburbs in Bærum and Asker , before reaching Asker Station , which serves as the terminus for most Line 400 services . For Line 400 , Asker is 35 minutes and 24 kilometers ( 15 mi ) from Oslo S.
Lines 440 , 450 and 550 only call at Sandvika before Asker , and use the Asker Line between the two stations . After Asker Station , Line 550 branches off along the Spikkestad Line and calls at seven stations in Asker and Røyken before terminating at Spikkestad Station . Spikkestad is 44 minutes and 37 kilometers ( 23 mi ) from Oslo S. Lines 440 and 450 , and some Line 400 trains , continue through the Lieråsen Tunnel and make two more stops before reaching Drammen . Drammen is 39 minutes and 42 kilometers ( 26 mi ) from Oslo S. Only Line 450 continues , along the Sørland Line , calling at seven stops in Eiker and Kongsberg before terminating at Kongsberg Station . Kongsberg is 1 hour and 20 minutes , and 89 kilometers ( 55 mi ) from Oslo S.
= = = East = = =
Along the East Corridor , Line 400 follows the Trunk Line and makes eleven stops serving suburban areas in Oslo , Lørenskog and Skedsmo before reaching Lillestrøm Station , where the line terminates . For Line 400 , Lillestrøm is located 29 minutes and 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) from Oslo S. Lines 440 , 450 and 460 use the Gardermoen Line and the Romerike Tunnel to run directly to Lillestrøm . From there , lines 440 and 450 run along the Trunk Line , making four and two stops , respectively . After Kløfta Station , Line 440 continues along the Trunk Line , making three more stops until terminating at Dal Station . Dal is 34 minutes and 57 kilometers ( 35 mi ) from Oslo S. Line 450 switches to the Gardermoen Line , and calls at Oslo Airport Station and Eidsvoll Verk Station before terminating at Eidsvoll Station . Eidsvoll is 51 minutes and 64 kilometers ( 40 mi ) from Oslo S. Line 460 branches from Lillestrøm and operates along the Kongsvinger Line . It calls at eleven stations and enters Hedmark before Årnes Station , where most trains terminate . Årnes is 53 minutes and 58 kilometers ( 36 mi ) from Oslo S. A limited number of trains make express services to Årnes , then call at up to five more stations before reaching Kongsvinger Station , which is 1 hour and 10 minutes , and 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) from Oslo S. Several of these Kongsvinger trains are actually Swedish inter @-@ city trains to Karlstad and two per day to Stockholm . These trains act like local trains in Norway and get financial support for that , needed to make them profitable .
= = = South = = =
Along the South Corridor , three lines follow the Østfold Line . Line 500 makes 12 stops before terminating at Ski Station , which is 31 minutes and 24 kilometers ( 15 mi ) from Oslo S. Line 550 and 560 make only one stop each , at Kolbotn and Holmlia , respectively , before Ski . Southwards , Line 550 follows the Western Østfold Line with four intermediate stops before Moss , which is 49 minutes and 60 kilometers ( 37 mi ) from Oslo S. Line 560 runs along the Eastern Østfold Line with 11 intermediate stops before Mysen Station , which is 1 hour and 5 minutes and 63 kilometers ( 39 mi ) from Oslo S. A limited number of services continue with two more stops before terminating at Rakkestad Station , which is 1 hour and 21 minutes , and 68 kilometers ( 42 mi ) from Oslo S.
= = = North = = =
North of Oslo , NSB Gjøvikbanen operates along the Gjøvik Line . Trains operate either to Hakadal Station , Jaren Station or Gjøvik Station . The line is the only one to enter Oppland and calls at 23 stations north of Oslo S. Hakadal is 43 minutes and 32 kilometers ( 20 mi ) from Oslo S , while Jaren is 1 hour and 25 minutes , and 72 kilometers ( 45 mi ) from Oslo S. Gjøvik is the station furthest from Oslo , located 123 kilometers ( 76 mi ) and 1 hour and 55 minutes away .
From December 2012 , only the stretch between Oslo and Jaren are considered part of the commuter rail network , with 1 @-@ 2 local trains per hour per direction . Additionally , regional trains go to Gjøvik once per two hours , skipping 7 of the 11 stops closest to Oslo .
= = Service = =
Seven of the lines are operated by the Norwegian State Railways , owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications , while the Gjøvik Line is operated by the NSB @-@ owned NSB Gjøvikbanen . The operating deficit is covered by the state for NSB 's lines , while NSB Gjøvikbanen 's routes are financed by a public service obligation . The trains have two sections , manned and unmanned . Validated ticket @-@ holders can travel in the unmanned section , which have orange doors . Manned sections , with gray doors , have a conductor and allow passengers to purchase tickets . Tickets are available at ticket machines at stations ; if bought inboard , there is a 20 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) surcharge .
Two of the lines , 400 and 500 , are designated as providing inner services . These operate along the Drammen Line to Asker , along the Trunk Line to Lillestrøm and the Østfold Line to Ski , stopping at all stations . The six other line , which make up the outer services , only make occasional stops on these sections . The inner services operate with a normal headway of 30 minutes , with 15 minutes offered in one direction during rush hour . In late evening and parts of the weekend , this is further reduced to 60 minutes . NSB 's outer routes operate with a normal headway of 60 minutes , with rush @-@ hour services offered at 30 @-@ minute intervals and late evening service provided every 120 minutes . Services between Årnes and Kongsvinger is limited to five daily services , and from Mysen to Rakkestad with four daily services . The Gjøvik Line runs with a 40 @-@ minute headway , with three different stopping patterns . One calls at all stations until Hakadal , one calls at most stations until Jaren , while one is an express service that runs the line 's full length to Gjøvik .
Within Oslo and Akershus , NSB has an agreement with the public transport authority Ruter to use their fares and ticketing system to ease transfer between the commuter rail and other forms of public transport . Ruter makes use of a zone system , including a single @-@ zone fare within Oslo . From 2010 , the contactless ticket system Flexus is being introduced . In Oslo , there is transfer to the Oslo Metro at Oslo S ( to Jernbanetorget ) , at Nationaltheatret and at Grefsen ( to Storo ) . Transfer to the Oslo Tramway is possible from Oslo S , Nationaltheatret , Skøyen and Grefsen . At Moss , there is transfer to the Moss – Horten Ferry . Line 450 provides connection to Norway 's main international airport , Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .
= = Rolling stock = =
NSB Class 69 is a series of 88 two and three @-@ car electric multiple units built by Strømmens Værksted between 1970 and 1993 . A motor car has a power output of 1 @,@ 188 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 593 hp ) , allowing a speed of 130 kilometers per hour ( 81 mph ) . Each car is 24 @.@ 85 meters ( 81 @.@ 5 ft ) long , with motor cars weighing 64 @.@ 0 to 53 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 63 @.@ 0 to 53 @.@ 0 long tons ; 70 @.@ 5 to 59 @.@ 4 short tons ) and end cars weighing down to 28 @.@ 8 tonnes ( 28 @.@ 3 long tons ; 31 @.@ 7 short tons ) . Typical seating capacity is 96 passengers in the motor cars and 112 passengers in the end cars . The class was delivered in four versions , named A through D. After the initial delivery of fifteen 69As in 1970 and 1971 , twenty 69Bs were delivered in 1974 and 1975 . These were designed to operate on longer sections and were equipped with only one door per car . This turned out to extend stopping time too much , and the C and D versions were delivered with two doors per car . From 1975 to 1977 , NSB took delivery of fourteen 69Cs and from 1983 to 1993 thirty @-@ nine 69Ds . The latter is distinguishable because of its different front . NSB operates both two- and three @-@ car sets , and up to three units can be run in multiple , allowing NSB to operate any train length from two to nine cars . Eighty @-@ two units remain in service , although some of those are used on the Bergen Commuter Rail and the Arendal Line .
NSB Class 72 is a series of 36 four @-@ car electric multiple units built by AnsaldoBreda . The units are permanently coupled together using Jacobs bogies . Each unit has a power output of 2 @,@ 550 kilowatts ( 3 @,@ 420 hp ) , allowing a top speed of 160 kilometers per hour ( 99 mph ) . The trains are 85 @.@ 57 metres ( 280 @.@ 7 ft ) long and weigh 156 tonnes ( 154 long tons ; 172 short tons ) , and have seating for 310 passengers and one toilet . The trains have better accessibility than Class 69 and unlike their predecessors are equipped with an electronic public information system . Some of the 36 units are used on the Jæren Commuter Rail .
42 new electric multiple units called Class 75 were delivered 2013 @-@ 2015 . Similar units called Class 74 adopted for regional rail were delivered in 2012 @-@ 2013 .
= = = Retired = = =
NSB Class 62 was a series of four multiple units built in 1931 and 1933 by Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk and Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri ( NEBB ) . The units had a power output of 344 kilowatts ( 461 hp ) , giving a top speed of 70 kilometers per hour ( 43 mph ) . The motor cars were built in wood , were 20 @.@ 60 meters ( 67 @.@ 6 ft ) long , weighed 43 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 42 @.@ 5 long tons ; 47 @.@ 6 short tons ) and seated 73 passengers . They ran mostly on the Drammen Line and were in service around Oslo from 1931 to 1953 .
NSB Class 65 and NSB Class 67 were two similar series of electric multiple units , all built by Skabo and NEBB . Class 65 was delivered in three versions , named A through C. Class A and B were rebuilt passenger wagons . Fouteen units of Class 65A were built from 1936 to 1939 and had a wooden body . Thirteen units of Class 65B were delivered in 1941 and 1942 and was built with a steel frame . They were 22 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) longer than the A @-@ series . Twenty @-@ two Class 65C units were built from 1949 to 1952 . From 1949 to 1950 , 17 middle and end cars were delivered for the Class 65 units . Class 67 was a series of 18 units built from 1953 to 1955 . They had a slightly more advanced technological system , but were otherwise often run mixed with Class 65 units . The Class 65 motor cars had a power output of 464 kilowatts ( 622 hp ) and a top speed of 70 kilometers per hour ( 43 mph ) . They were 20 @.@ 70 meters ( 67 @.@ 9 ft ) long , weighed 42 @.@ 5 to 46 @.@ 6 tonnes ( 41 @.@ 8 to 45 @.@ 9 long tons ; 46 @.@ 8 to 51 @.@ 4 short tons ) and had a seating capacity for 66 passengers . Class 65 remained in service until 1993 and Class 67 until 1995 .
Many NSB Class 69 units were taken out from traffic in 2013 @-@ 2015 , replaced by Class 75 units .
= = History = =
The first part of what is now the Oslo Commuter Rail was the Trunk Line , which opened on 1 September 1854 between Oslo East Station ( Oslo Ø , located at the same place as the current Oslo S ) , and Eidsvoll . The line was at first private , although it was nationalized in 1926 . On 3 October 1862 , the Kongsvinger Line opened from Lillestrøm to Kongsvinger . The Østfold Line opened from Oslo Ø to Moss and onwards to Halden on 2 January 1879 , followed by the Eastern Østfold Line from Ski via Mysen to Sarpsborg on 24 November 1882 .
West of Oslo , the first part of the current commuter rail was the Randsfjord Line ( parts of which have since become part of the Sørland Line ) , which opened on 15 November 1866 between Drammen and Vikersund . The Sørland Line from Hokksund to Kongsberg opened on 10 November 1871 and connected to the Randsfjord Line . On 7 October 1872 , the Drammen Line opened from Oslo West Station ( Oslo V ) to Drammen . This line , along with the section from Drammen to Kongsberg , were built with 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow gauge and did not connect to the main station of Oslo Ø . The Gjøvik Line opened from Grefsen to Jaren on 20 December 1900 , and from Oslo Ø to Grefsen and from Jaren to Gjøvik on 28 November 1902 .
In 1903 and 1904 , the Trunk Line was upgraded to double track . The section from Drammen to Kongsberg was converted to standard gauge on 1 November 1909 . Between 1917 and 1920 , dual gauge was laid between Oslo V and Drammen , and from 13 November 1922 , the Drammen Line was entirely operated with standard gauge . The first electrification of NSB 's lines was put into service on 26 October 1922 on the Drammen Line between Oslo V and Brakerøya . The section from Oslo V to Sandvika was upgraded to double track on 26 November 1922 . From 1922 , NSB introduced El 1 @-@ hauled passenger trains on the Drammen Line , and later other lines .
The next electrification occurred on the Trunk Line from Oslo Ø to Lillestrøm on 1 September 1927 , the Randsfjord Line from Drammen to Kongsberg on 10 April 1929 and the Drammen Line from Drammen to Brakerøya on 6 May 1930 . El 5 locomotives were acquired for the Trunk Line . Electric multiple units were put into service in 1931 , with the delivery of four Class 62 units on the route from Oslo V to Sandvika . These proved not to be sufficiently powerful for the large traffic and were later moved to less used services from Oslo V to Asker or Heggedal . The class remained on the commuter rail service until 1953 .
From 1936 , NSB took delivery of Class 65 multiple units , replacing El 1 as the primary hauler on the electrified commuter rail network . Class 65 were the first that were optimized for local traffic , with wide doors and turnable seats . NSB took delivery of 49 units until 1952 , although they were also used outside the commuter rail network . The Østfold Line was upgraded to double track and put into service in four sections : from Bekkelaget to Ljan on 1 June 1924 , from Oslo Ø to Bekkelaget on 15 May 1929 , from Ljan to Kolbotn on 15 December 1936 and from Kolbotn to Ski on 14 May 1939 . The Østfold Line was also the next line to be electrified , which opened in sections between 1936 and 1940 . NSB took into use El 8 locomotives on the line .
On 15 June 1953 , the Trunk Line from Lillestrøm to Eidsvoll took electrification into use . Further upgrades on the Drammen Line installing double track were put into service on 24 July 1953 from Billingstad to Hvalstad , on 29 November 1955 from Hvalstad to Asker and on 9 November 1958 from Sandvika to Billingstad . Between 1953 and 1955 , NSB took delivery of 18 Class 67 multiple units . While visually similar to Class 65 , they had improved technology and reliability . On 1 February 1961 , the Gjøvik Line from Oslo Ø to Tøyen was put into service with double track and the line from Oslo Ø to Jaren put into service as electrified . Double track from Tøyen to Grefsen opened on 27 May 1962 and the sections from Jaren to Gjøvik was electrified in 1963 .
In the 1960s , NSB found the need for a new generation of trains . Class 69 was built in aluminum and were longer , allowing for more passengers per car . They had a maximum speed of 130 kilometres per hour ( 81 mph ) ; this had a significant cost impact , as it allowed not only faster travel time , but allowed the services from Oslo Ø to Lillestrøm and Ski to run fast enough to dispense with one third of the previous number of units . Combined with the increased size , NSB could replace three three @-@ car trains with two two @-@ car trains . At the same time , some smaller stops were terminated to allow faster travel time . Eighty @-@ eight units were delivered in four series between 1970 and 1993 , with later series having a three @-@ car configuration . On 3 June 1973 , the 10 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 6 @.@ 6 mi ) long Lieråsen Tunnel opened , shortening the Drammen Line by 11 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) . The 13 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) long section from Asker to Spikkestad was kept as a branch line , and named the Spikkestad Line , while the section from Spikkestad to Brakerøya was removed .
The Oslo Tunnel opened on 30 May 1980 , connecting the Drammen Line to Oslo Ø . Initially , only the Lillestrøm – Drammen / Spikkestad lines used the tunnel , in addition to some services from Eidsvoll and Årnes to Skøyen . At the same time , Oslo Ø was rebuilt to the 19 @-@ platform Oslo S , which was put into service on 26 November 1986 . Oslo V was closed on 27 May 1989 .
In 1993 , NSB received a large delivery of middle cars for the majority of the Class 69 units , allowing NSB to operate them as three @-@ car trains . Between 1992 and 1996 , a new , upgraded double track was put into service between Ski and Moss . The section is capable of speeds from 160 to 200 kilometres per hour ( 99 to 124 mph ) . The Gardermoen Line opened as Norway 's first high @-@ speed line on 8 October 1998 . The line runs parallel to the Trunk Line from Oslo S to Eidsvoll , via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen — which opened the same day . The section from Oslo S to Lillestrøm , consisting mainly of the Romerike Tunnel , was delayed because of leaks in the tunnel , and opened on 22 August 1999 . In 1997 , NSB ordered 36 Class 72 multiple units to supplement and replace existing material . They were pained green and branded as part of the NSB Puls scheme , which was quickly abandoned . The four @-@ car units were taken into service in 2002 .
The ministry decided in the early 2000s to make the services on the Gjøvik Line subject to public service obligations , as a trial to privatize operation of all passenger train services in Norway . In the tender , NSB 's subsidiary , NSB Anbud ( since renamed NSB Gjøvikbanen ) won the ten @-@ year contract , after having underbid Veolia Transport Norge and DSB . Nine Class 69 trains were upgraded and designated 69G and will operate until 2015 on the Gjøvik Line . Because of a cabinet change in 2005 , the PSO contracting was terminated . On 27 August 2005 , the Asker Line opened between Sandvika and Asker , allowing trains to bypass the many local stations at 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) .
In 2011 , the Asker Line from Lysaker to Sandvika , and a new Lysaker Station opened . This increased the capacity and regularity along the Drammen Line . The opening of four tracks at Lysaker will allow NSB to run all local trains that previously have run to Skøyen all the way to Lysaker . The closed Høvik Station will be used to turn trains . The Oslo Tunnel remains the bottleneck west of Oslo , so no more trains can run westwards , although more will be able to continue past Skøyen .
In 2008 , NSB ordered 50 Stadler FLIRT multiple units , to be designated Class 74 and 75 , and later 16 more Class 75 . 42 of these , class 75 , have a commuter train configuration . NSB holds an option for an additional 84 units . The trains have a maximum speed of 200 kilometers per hour ( 120 mph ) and a faster acceleration than the older classes . The combination of the Asker Line and more rolling stock allows NSB to operate a more aggressive service after a major restructuring of the lines in 2012 . In particular , there are between five and seven @-@ minute headway on the sections between Asker and Lillestrøm , and a twenty @-@ minute headway to Oslo Airport and Eidsvoll .
= = Future = =
The next larger railway construction around Oslo is scheduled to be the Follo Line , which will connect Oslo Central Station directly with Ski . The 22 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) long line is planned to be built nearly entirely in a single tunnel and will allow speeds at 200 kilometers per hour ( 120 mph ) . It will allow higher speeds and capacity southwards for the lines to Moss and Rakkestad , as well as regional trains to Østfold and Sweden . The line is scheduled for completion in 2018 . Parliament has passed the Ringerike Line , which would run from Sandvika to Hønefoss Station on the Bergen Line . While mainly proposed as a shortening of the Bergen Line , the line would double up as a commuter train line , allowing Hønefoss and Ringerike significantly faster public transport to the capital area . The line would be 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) long and allow speeds of 200 kilometers per hour ( 120 mph ) . However , no financing has been secured for the project .
= Action of 19 February 1801 =
The Action of 19 February 1801 was a minor naval battle fought off Ceuta in Spanish North Africa in February 1801 between frigates of the French and Royal Navies during the French Revolutionary Wars . The engagement formed part of a series of actions fought to prevent the French from resupplying their garrison in Egypt , which had been trapped there without significant reinforcement since the defeat of the French Mediterranean Fleet at the Battle of the Nile two and a half years earlier . The leader of the Egyptian expedition , General Napoleon Bonaparte , had returned to France in 1799 and promised aid to the troops left behind , prompting several expeditions to the region carrying reinforcements .
The frigate Africaine had been sent from Rochefort early in 1801 with more than 400 soldiers for the Egyptian garrison , and by February had reached the Mediterranean Sea , Commodore Saulnier seeking to pass along the North African coast to avoid patrolling Royal Navy warships . On the afternoon of 19 February however the overladen French warship was discovered by the British HMS Phoebe and rapidly chased down and brought to action . In an engagement lasting two hours , the French ship was reduced to a wallowing wreck as broadsides from Phoebe tore through the hull , rigging and the soldiers packed on the decks : by the time Africaine surrendered , 200 men were dead and another 143 wounded . The captured ship was brought into the base at Port Mahon in Minorca and subsequently served in the Royal Navy .
= = Background = =
In 1798 a large French expeditionary force under General Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt , then under the nominal control of the Ottoman Empire , in an extension of the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars . The fleet that had convoyed the French army was anchored in Aboukir Bay near Alexandria , and was discovered there by a British fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson on 1 August . In the ensuing Battle of the Nile the French Mediterranean Fleet was almost totally destroyed , preventing the French forces in Egypt from maintaining regular reinforcement and communication from France and ending the possibility of a wholesale evacuation of the French army . Following an unsuccessful campaign in Syria , Bonaparte returned to France without his army , eventually seizing control of the French government during the events of 18 Brumaire .
By 1801 , the troops in Egypt were in an increasingly desperate situation : supplies were low , reinforcement from France almost non @-@ existent and disease was rife . In addition they were subject to constant attack by Ottoman and irregular Egyptian forces , culminating in the assassination of General Jean Baptiste Kléber . Bonaparte , conscious of his promises to send reinforcements to the beleaguered army in Egypt , planned a series of expeditions to the region to restore morale and numbers to the expeditionary force , drawn from troops and naval units available on the French Atlantic coast . The largest force consisted of 5 @,@ 000 soldiers and nine ships under Rear @-@ Admiral Honoré Ganteaume and sailed from Brest in January 1801 , but this squadron had been preceded by two frigates from Rochefort , Africaine and Régénérée .
Each of the frigates carried , in addition to their regular complement , approximately 400 soldiers and large quantities of muskets , cannon and ammunition to reinforce the Egyptian garrison . The ships had an uneventful passage southwards , separating before entering the Mediterranean and taking different routes towards Egypt . Africaine , under the command of Commodore Saulnier who had previously fought at the Nile and in the Action of 31 March 1800 as captain of the ship of the line Guillaume Tell , had elected to travel along the North African coast to avoid British patrols in open waters , and by 19 February was passing the Spanish North African town of Ceuta , 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) east of Gibraltar . Africaine was a large modern 40 @-@ gun frigate with 715 men aboard but the huge quantity of supplies made the vessel slow and unresponsive and vulnerable to attack by a more agile opponent . Also sailing off Ceuta on the afternoon of 19 February was the 36 @-@ gun British frigate HMS Phoebe under the command of Captain Robert Barlow . Phoebe , carrying 239 men aboard ( 22 below the required complement ) , was operating from the British base at Port Mahon on Minorca on a routine patrol between there and Gibraltar , and had just passed Ceuta to the south on the last leg of the journey when at 16 : 00 the lookout sighted Africaine .
= = Battle = =
Barlow immediately turned to investigate the strange sail , steering southwards directly at the lumbering vessel . Saulnier was seemingly unwilling to attempt any manoeuvere in the face of the enemy , as Africaine continued to hold the original course without deviation . By 19 : 30 it was inevitable that Phoebe would intercept Africaine and Saulnier shortened sail , slowing his frigate to meet the threat . Barlow was still unsure of the identity of the stranger and fired a shot over Africaine as a warning to its captain to identify his ship . Saulnier responded by turning to port and firing a broadside directly at Phoebe . It was poorly aimed however and mostly scattered into the sea without effect . At this , Barlow pulled Phoebe into a parallel position to Africaine and unleashed a much more devastating broadside from close range . The two frigates then began an exchange of fire at close range .
The effect of Phoebe 's broadsides on the overladen French frigate were disastrous : for two hours Africaine limped northwards with Phoebe pouring fire into the French ship without significant reply . Even as they were cut down by cannon fire , French soldiers continued to climb out of the hold and join the combat on deck , their musketry useless at the range between the ships and the press of bodies obstructing the French sailors from working their guns effectively . Saulnier was killed , Général de division Edme Desfourneaux badly wounded and many of their subordinates including all of the naval lieutenants , made casualties ; almost all of the rigging had been torn away , most of the guns smashed from their mounts and the decks literally heaped with dead bodies . Even the orlop , usually the safest part of a ship and therefore where the ships medical facilities were located , came under heavy fire and three surgeons were killed while standing at the operating table . Eventually the senior surviving officer , Captain Jean @-@ Jacques Magendie , who had suffered a severe head wound , authorised the colours to be struck at 21 : 30 , approximately 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) east of Gibraltar , thereby surrendering the ship . Phoebe by contrast was only lightly damaged , with the principle injury being to the masts : both ships might have been dismasted had there been any strong wind rather than a deep calm during the evening . Only one man , Seaman Samuel Hayes , had been killed and just 12 wounded including the first lieutenant .
= = Aftermath = =
Barlow took possession of the battered French vessel and set his men to making hasty repairs before the weather could worsen . The first task was dealing with the dead and wounded on the French ship : Magadie reported in the immediate aftermath that 200 men had been killed and 143 were seriously wounded or dying , figures that Barlow considered to be understated . When repairs were complete , Barlow turned his ships towards nearby Gibraltar , but in the face of a westerly breeze progress was slow and after fours days he abandoned the attempt and turned back to Minorca , concerned for the state of the wounded men and the large number of prisoners of war aboard both vessels . However , the wind dropped when the ships were off the Southern coast of Majorca and Phoebe and Africaine did not reach Port Mahon until 5 March . The action was highly praised by the station commander Captain Manley Dixon , who stated in a letter to the Admiralty dated 10 March 1801 " that more Skill or effective Gunnery were never displayed in any Combat than in the present Instance " .
Barlow was subsequently knighted for his success , and moved from Phoebe to the frigate HMS Concorde , a highly desirable warship noted for its speed , before moving to the ship of the line HMS Triumph later in the year . His wounded first lieutenant , John Wentworth Holland , was promoted to commander and the other officers and the enlisted men were all highly praised in the official dispatch . Africaine was purchased by the Royal Navy and briefly renamed Amelia before reverting to Africaine . The ship had a long career in British service during the Napoleonic Wars , participating in numerous actions including the controversial Action of 13 September 1810 during the Mauritius campaign . Nearly five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by the clasp " PHOEBE 19 FEBY . 1801 " , attached to the Naval General Service Medal which was awarded upon application to all British participants from Phoebe still living in 1847 . Régénérée had an uninterrupted passage to Egypt , arriving on 1 March , one day before the British Expeditionary Force initiated a close blockade of the coast . Régénérée proved to be the only major French warship to reach the garrison after Ganteaume 's squadron was repeatedly driven back in its efforts . Without supplies and reinforcements the French army in Egypt could not effectively resist the major British invasion of the country in March 1801 and after a brief campaign was forced to capitulate at Alexandria in August .
Historical analysis of the battle has praised Barlow 's conduct : his tactics of refusing to allow the French ship to come alongside and board his vessel , thereby turning the French superiority in numbers into a disadvantage was commended by William James , and historian Tom Wareham has noted that the standing British practice of firing into enemy hulls rather than at the rigging as practiced by the French gave Barlow an advantage against the crowded decks of Africaine . Saulnier too has been praised for his efforts to avoid combat with his ship so overladen and for the subsequent valour with which his crew and their passengers fought so fiercely for two hours against mounting odds and in the face of " truly dreadful " casualties , although he was also subject to criticism in France when it emerged that he had removed the quoins from his guns in an effort to force his men to fire at the British rigging rather than the hull : Bonaparte ordered that in future his ships intended " not to dismast the enemy , but to do him as much harm as possible . "
= 1923 FA Cup Final =
The 1923 FA Cup Final was an association football match between Bolton Wanderers and West Ham United on 28 April 1923 at the original Wembley Stadium in London . The showpiece match of English football 's primary cup competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( better known as the FA Cup ) , it was the first football match to be played at Wembley Stadium . King George V was in attendance to present the trophy to the winning team .
Each team had progressed through five rounds to reach the final . Bolton Wanderers won 1 – 0 in every round from the third onwards , and David Jack scored the lone goal each time . West Ham United faced opposition from the Second Division or lower in each round , the first time this had occurred since the introduction of multiple divisions in the Football League . West Ham took three attempts to defeat Southampton in the fourth round but then easily defeated Derby County in the semi @-@ final , scoring five goals .
The final was preceded by chaotic scenes as vast crowds surged into the stadium , far exceeding its official capacity of approximately 125 @,@ 000 . A crowd estimated at up to 300 @,@ 000 gained entrance and the terraces overflowed , with the result that spectators found their way into the area around the pitch and even onto the playing area itself . Mounted policemen , including one on a light @-@ coloured horse which became the defining image of the day , had to be brought in to clear the crowds from the pitch and allow the match to take place . The match began 45 minutes late as crowds stood around the perimeter of the pitch . Although West Ham started strongly , Bolton proved the dominant team for most of the match and won 2 – 0 . David Jack scored a goal two minutes after the start of the match and Jack Smith added a controversial second goal during the second half . The pre @-@ match events prompted discussion in the House of Commons and led to the introduction of safety measures for future finals . The match is often referred to as the " White Horse Final " and is commemorated by the White Horse Bridge at the new Wembley Stadium .
= = Route to the final = =
Bolton Wanderers and West Ham United were playing in the First Division and Second Division respectively , and both entered the competition at the first round stage , under the tournament format in place at the time . Bolton had appeared in the final twice before , in 1894 and 1904 , but West Ham , who had only joined The Football League in 1919 , had never previously progressed further than the quarter finals . In the first round , Bolton defeated Norwich City of the Third Division South , in the process recording the club 's first away win in the competition since a second round victory over Manchester City in the 1904 – 05 season . After a home win over Leeds United in the second round , Bolton faced one of the First Division 's top teams , Huddersfield Town , in the third round . The initial match at Huddersfield 's Leeds Road ground ended in a draw , necessitating a replay which Bolton won 1 – 0 . In the fourth round Bolton defeated Charlton Athletic by a single goal , and in the semi @-@ final beat Sheffield United by the same score in a match played at Old Trafford , home of Manchester United . Although ticket prices were considered to be extremely high , a crowd of 72 @,@ 000 attended the match , a new record for an FA Cup semi @-@ final . In every match from the third round onwards , Bolton 's single goal was scored by David Jack , which gave him a reputation for having single @-@ handedly steered his team into the final .
In contrast to Bolton 's defensive style , West Ham 's cup run was characterised by fast @-@ moving , attacking play , which won them many admirers . The London @-@ based club began the competition away to fellow Second Division team Hull City and won 3 – 2 . In the second round they were held to a draw by Brighton & Hove Albion of the Third Division South , but won the replay 1 – 0 at home . The " Hammers " defeated another Third Division South team , Plymouth Argyle , in the third round , but found the fourth round tough going against Southampton . The first match at West Ham 's home , the Boleyn Ground , ended in a 1 – 1 draw , as did the replay at The Dell in Southampton . A second replay was held at Villa Park in Birmingham , home of Aston Villa , and finally produced a winner , as West Ham won 1 – 0 with a goal from Billy Brown . The goal came in the 70th minute , with a " clever free kick " past the " startled " Herbert Lock in the Saints ' goal . In the semi @-@ finals , West Ham took on Derby County at Stamford Bridge , home of Chelsea , and won 5 – 2 . Brown scored two more goals and Billy Moore also scored twice . All five of the teams that West Ham defeated on their way to Wembley played in the Second Division or lower . This made West Ham the first team since the introduction of multiple divisions in The Football League to reach the FA Cup final without facing opposition from the top division .
= = Build @-@ up = =
The match was the first event of any kind to take place at Wembley Stadium , which had not been due to open until 1924 but was completed ahead of schedule . After sub @-@ capacity crowds had attended the first three finals after the First World War at Stamford Bridge , The Football Association ( The FA ) was unconvinced that the match could fill the large capacity of the new stadium and undertook a major advertising campaign , for fans to attend . Despite these fears , the new national stadium , which had been advertised as the greatest venue of its kind and had an unprecedented capacity of 125 @,@ 000 , proved to be a great lure and drew a large number of casual observers . The fact that a London @-@ based team was competing meant that many football fans from all parts of the city chose to attend . The morning newspapers on the day of the match reported that around 5 @,@ 000 fans were travelling from Bolton and that they were expected to be joined by " at least 115 @,@ 000 enthusiasts from London and other parts of the country " . The easy accessibility of the stadium by public transport and the fine weather were also factors which contributed to the enormous crowd .
The gates were opened at 11 : 30 am as advertised , three and a half hours before the match was due to begin , and until 1 : 00 pm the flow of people into the stadium was orderly . By 1 : 00 pm , however , a vast number of people were pouring into the stadium , and after an inspection by the stadium authorities , the decision was made to close the gates at 1 : 45 pm . Spectator William Rose said later that Olympic Way was " seething with people " and that " the nearer I got to the stadium the worse it got , by the time I got there the turnstiles had been closed " . Although the information was relayed to various railway stations , thousands of people continued to arrive and mass outside the gates . Organisation within the stadium was poor , and in his report on the match the correspondent for the Daily Mail described the stewarding as " useless " and stated that officials in and around the stadium " seemed to know nothing " . Fans were not directed to any specific area , and the tiers in the lower half of the stadium filled up much faster than those higher up . As the crowds outside the stadium continued to grow , local police stations were mobilised , but by the time officers arrived the crowd was too large for them to take any effective form of action . At 2 : 15 pm , the crowds outside the stadium rushed at the barriers and forced their way in . Spectators in the lower tiers had to climb the fences to escape the crush and overflowed onto the pitch itself . Spectator Terry Hickey said later that " To put it mildly , the whole thing was a bloody shambles " . The crowd was officially reported as 126 @,@ 047 , but estimates of the actual number of fans in attendance range from 150 @,@ 000 to over 300 @,@ 000 . The FA refunded 10 % of the total gate money to fans who had pre @-@ purchased tickets but were unable to reach their assigned seats . The roads around the stadium were blocked and the Bolton players were forced to abandon their coach a mile from the stadium and make their way through the crowds . The Times stated that at one point it seemed impossible that the match would ever be able to start , but that when King George V arrived , the mood of the crowd changed . After enthusiastically singing " God Save The King " , the crowd began to assist the authorities in clearing the playing area .
Eventually mounted policemen were brought in to try to clear the crowds from the pitch , including PC George Scorey , who was mounted on a horse named " Billie " ( some sources spell the name " Billy " ) . PC Scorey had not actually been on duty that day but answered a call for emergency assistance as the throng of spectators in the stadium grew . Billie the horse was actually grey , but appeared white in the primitive black and white newsreel footage of the era . Contrary to what is sometimes claimed , other horses were also involved , but the " white " horse , as the most visible in the news footage , became the defining image of the day . Officials later stated that the match would never have been able to start without the actions of PC Scorey . When asked about his actions in an interview with the BBC some years later , Scorey said :
As my horse picked his way onto the field , I saw nothing but a sea of heads . I thought , " We can 't do it . It 's impossible . " But I happened to see an opening near one of the goals and the horse was very good – easing them back with his nose and tail until we got a goal @-@ line cleared . I told them in front to join hands and heave and they went back step by step until we reached the line . Then they sat down and we went on like that ... it was mainly due to the horse . Perhaps because he was white he commanded more attention . But more than that , he seemed to understand what was required of him . The other helpful thing was the good nature of the crowd .
Eventually the police , assisted by appeals from the players for the crowd to calm , were able to manoeuvre the spectators to just beyond the touchline , and the game began approximately 45 minutes late , while fans stood around the perimeter of the pitch .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Both teams employed the 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 5 formation typical of the era : two full @-@ backs , three half @-@ backs , comprising one centre @-@ half and two wing @-@ halves , and five forwards , comprising two outside @-@ forwards , two inside @-@ forwards and a centre @-@ forward . West Ham 's game plan initially centred on the two fast @-@ moving outside @-@ forwards Dick Richards and Jimmy Ruffell , but Bolton set out from the start to keep the two players contained , rushing at them whenever they got the ball . After just two minutes West Ham half @-@ back Jack Tresadern became entangled in the crowd after taking a throw @-@ in and was unable to return to the pitch immediately . This gave Bolton 's David Jack the opportunity to shoot for goal . His shot beat West Ham goalkeeper Ted Hufton to give Bolton the lead , and hit a spectator who was standing pressed against the goal net , knocking him unconscious . Three minutes later Vic Watson received the ball a few yards in front of the Bolton goal but his shot flew over the crossbar . Eleven minutes into the game the crowd surged forward once again and a large number of fans encroached onto the pitch , leading to the suspension of play while the mounted police again cleared the playing area . A number of fans required first aid from members of the British Red Cross while the players looked on and awaited the resumption of play . Policemen patrolled the perimeter of the pitch to keep it clear for the linesmen , after play was resumed .
Soon after play restarted , West Ham 's Dick Richards eluded two Bolton defenders and shot for goal . Bolton goalkeeper Dick Pym fumbled the ball but managed to kick it clear before it crossed the goal @-@ line . Bolton continued to dominate the match , and were only prevented from scoring again by a strong performance from West Ham full @-@ back Billy Henderson . When West Ham attacked , however , Bolton were able to quickly switch to a strongly defensive formation , as players changed positions to form a line of five half @-@ backs . This stifled West Ham 's attacking style of play and ensured that the Bolton goal was not seriously threatened , and the score remained 1 – 0 to Bolton until half @-@ time . Due to the crowds that surrounded the pitch , the players were unable to reach the dressing @-@ rooms and instead remained on the pitch for five minutes before starting the second half .
West Ham began the second half as the stronger team , and Vic Watson received the ball in a good goalscoring position but mis @-@ hit his shot . Eight minutes into the second half , Bolton added a second goal in controversial circumstances . Outside @-@ forward Ted Vizard played the ball into a central position and Jack Smith hit the ball past Hufton . West Ham 's players claimed that the ball had not entered the goal but rebounded into play from the goalpost , but referee D. H. Asson overruled them , stating that in his view the ball had entered the goal but then rebounded off a spectator . West Ham also claimed that Bolton had received an unfair advantage , as a Bolton fan at pitchside had kicked the ball towards Vizard , but Asson disregarded these claims as well and confirmed Bolton 's second goal . At this point the crowd began to sense that Bolton would emerge victorious and many began heading towards the exits . Neither team had any more serious chances to score , and the remainder of the match was largely a stalemate with little inspired play . Late in the game , West Ham captain George Kay attempted to persuade Asson to abandon the match , but Bolton captain Joe Smith reportedly replied " We 're doing fine , ref , we 'll play until dark to finish the match if necessary " . The score remained 2 – 0 to Bolton until the final whistle . The King presented the FA Cup trophy to Joe Smith and then left the stadium to cheers from the crowd . West Ham trainer Charlie Paynter attributed his team 's defeat to the damage the pitch had suffered before kick @-@ off , saying " It was that white horse thumping its big feet into the pitch that made it hopeless . Our wingers were tumbling all over the place , tripping up in great ruts and holes " .
= = = Details = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Although around 900 spectators were treated for slight injuries , only 22 were taken to hospital and ten of those were quickly discharged . Two policemen were also injured during the match . The chaotic scenes at the match prompted discussion in the House of Commons , where Home Secretary William Bridgeman paid tribute to the actions of the police and the general behaviour of the crowd . During the debate Oswald Mosley was chastised by the Speaker of the House for characterising the fans present at the stadium as hooligans . Bridgeman was asked to consider opening a public inquiry , but ultimately concluded that the police had dealt successfully with the incident , and that he was happy for the stadium authorities and the police to decide on a plan to prevent similar events from happening again .
A committee examined the stadium a month after the match , and made several recommendations to the stadium authorities . Their proposals included the replacement of the turnstiles with more up @-@ to @-@ date models , the erection of extra gates and railings , and the division of the terraces into self @-@ contained sections , each with its own entrance . In addition , the pre @-@ purchasing of tickets was made compulsory for all future finals , eliminating the possibility that excessive numbers of fans would arrive in the hope of being able to pay at the turnstile . The gross gate money for the match was £ 27 @,@ 776 . After the deduction of the stadium authorities ' costs , the Football Association and each of the two clubs took £ 6 @,@ 365 , although the refunds to fans unable to reach their assigned seats were deducted from the FA 's share .
After the match the players and officials attended a dinner at which former Prime Minister David Lloyd George proposed the toast . The Bolton players returned home by train and were greeted at Moses Gate railway station by the chairman of Farnworth District Council before going on to a reception hosted by the Mayor . The club presented each of the victorious players with a gold watch . The players from both teams received gold commemorative medals . In 2005 the medal presented to West Ham 's George Kay was sold at auction for £ 4 @,@ 560 , and tickets and programmes from the match have also been star lots at auctions .
= = = Legacy = = =
The image of Billie the white horse remains famous within English football lore , and the match is often referred to as " The White Horse Final " . Billie 's rider , George Scorey , was rewarded by the Football Association with free tickets to subsequent finals , but he had no interest in football and chose not to attend .
In 2005 , a public poll chose that the new footbridge near the rebuilt Wembley Stadium would be named the White Horse Bridge . The executive director of the London Development Agency , which organised the poll , stated that the choice of name was appropriate given that the bridge , like the horse , would improve safety for fans at Wembley . Scottish newspaper the Daily Record claimed that fans of the national team of Scotland had voted in large numbers so as to prevent a former England player or manager being honoured , and also because " White Horse " is also the name of a brand of whisky . In 2007 a play drawn from the reactions of a group of Bolton residents to the events of the final was staged at the Octagon Theatre , Bolton .
= History of the Oslo Tramway and Metro =
The history of the Oslo Tramway and Oslo Metro in Oslo ( Kristiania until 1925 ) , Norway , starts in 1875 , when Kristiania Sporveisselskab ( KSS ) opened two horsecar lines through the city centre . In 1894 , Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei ( KES ) built the first electric street tramways , which ran west from the city centre . Within six years , all tramways were electric . The city council established Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie ( KKS ) in 1899 , which built three lines before it was sold to KSS six years later . Both KSS and KES were taken over by the municipality in 1924 , becoming Oslo Sporveier . The company gradually expanded the city tram network , which reached its peak length in 1939 .
The Holmenkollen Line was the first light rail line , which opened in 1898 and ran west of the city . Later light rail lines in the west were the Røa Line ( opened in 1912 ) , the Lilleaker Line ( 1919 ) , the Sognsvann Line ( 1934 ) and the Kolsås Line ( 1942 ) . From 1928 , they ran to the city centre via the Common Tunnel . East of the city , the Ekeberg Line opened in 1917 , followed by the Østensjø Line ( opened in 1926 ) and the Lambertseter Line ( 1957 ) . The light rail lines were built by three private companies , Holmenkolbanen , Ekebergbanen and Bærumsbanen . By 1975 , all had been bought by Oslo Sporveier .
The Oslo Metro opened in 1966 , consisting of a line through the Common Tunnel to Jernbanetorget and the upgraded Lambertseter light rail line . The same year the Grorud Line opened . The next year the Østensjø Line was connected , and in 1970 the Furuset Line opened . The city council decided to close the tramways in 1960 , and several lines were closed until the decision was revoked in 1977 . In 1987 , the Common Tunnel was completed . From 1993 , the western lines were upgraded and connected to the Metro , allowing Metro trains to run through the city centre . The Metro 's Ring Line was completed in 2006 .
= = Street trams = =
= = = Horsecars = = =
The first attempt to introduce horsecar operations in Oslo ( at the time called Christiania ) were in 1868 , when the engineer Jens Theodor Pauldan Vogt and the architect Paul Due applied for a concession . The application was rejected because the city council felt that the streets were too narrow . They made a second application in April 1874 , and this time permission was granted . On 26 August 1874 , Vogt and Due established Christiania Sporveisselskab ( " Christiania Tramway Company " ) . Twenty @-@ two 4 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 13 ft ) long cars were delivered from the United States manufacturer John Stephenson Company , arriving in Christiania on 31 August 1875 . The official opening took place on 6 October 1875 . In 1879 , the city and company changed the spelling of the name " Christiania " to " Kristiania " .
The system initially had four standard gauge , single tracked lines , which had passing loops to allow trams to pass . Three originated at Stortorvet : the Gamlebyen Line , running east to Gamlebyen ( now Old Oslo , but then called just Oslo ) ; the Vestbanen Line , which ran west to Vestbanen station ( Oslo West station ) ; and the Ullevål Hageby Line , which ran west to Homansbyen , where the depot was located . In addition , there was a short connecting line between the Ullevål Hageby Line and the Vestbanen Line , but it was closed on 19 October 1875 . The two lines that connected to the station only ran services that corresponded with train arrivals and departures ; the other two lines had fixed fifteen @-@ minute headway — decreasing to ten minutes from 22 June 1876 . During the winter of 1875 and 1876 , the company attempted to use sleds instead of wagons . They took delivery of seventeen units , but these were not as suitable as the wagons and the company instead chose to salt the rail tracks .
Profits were made immediately , and in 1877 an additional seven cars were delivered . The following year , a new line from Stortorvet to Grünerløkka was built — the start of the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line — along with a new depot . The Gamlebyen Line was extended to St Halvards plass on 2 December 1878 , the Grünerløkka Line to Thorvald Meyers gate on 12 April 1879 and the Vestbanen Line to Munkedamsveien on 5 May 1879 . The following year , the lines were merged to two through services : Homansbyen – Oslo and Vestbanen – Grünerløkka . After this , the company concentrated its investments into rebuilding the system to double track . Between 1887 and 1892 , the company took delivery of 14 additional cars from Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk , the same length as the Stephenson cars . The last horsecar delivery was 15 cars from Falkenried in 1897 , which were designed so they could be converted to electric tram trailers . They were 6 @.@ 6 metres ( 22 ft ) long and remained in service until 1939 . In 1880 , Kristiania Sporveisselskab registered a ridership of 1 @,@ 499 @,@ 000 passengers .
= = = Electrification = = =
The horsecar system was more expensive to operate than electric trams , and Christiania ( later Kristiania ) Elektriske Sporvei ( " Kristiania Electric Tramway " ) was founded to establish an electric tram service . The initiative came from the engineers H. E. Heyerdahl , A. Fenger @-@ Krog and consul L. Samson . KSS immediately attempted to buy the company , but the purchase failed . On 2 March 1894 , the Briskeby Line opened , which ran westwards from the Østbanen station ( Oslo East station ) via the city centre and Briskeby to Majorstuen , using a 600 volt supply . At the same time , a branch line opened from the Briskeby Line at Slottsparken , heading further west to Skillebekk . At first a shuttle service was provided on the branch line , but by April a through service was offered to Østbanen station . The branch line was extended to Nobels gate on 31 December 1894 , to Thune in 1901 and to Skøyen station on 21 June 1903 and is now known as the Skøyen Line .
The last street line built by KES was the Frogner Line , which opened in 1902 from Solli plass on the Skøyen Line to Frogner plass . It was extended to Majorstuen , where the depot was located , on 15 May 1914 . From 1909 , KES introduced numbered services , with the Briskeby Line numbered 1 , the Frogner Line numbered 2 and the Skøyen Line numbered 3 . KES bought 78 motorized cars and 66 unmotorized trailers ; of which 20 cars were later rebuilt to trailers . The main manufacturers were Herbrand , Falkenried and Skabo , who delivering a continual stream of stock to the company until 1914 . From then until 1925 , there was sufficient rolling stock that only ten more vehicles were delivered .
KSS decided to convert its lines to electric traction as well . The first electric trams ran on 29 September 1899 , and the conversion was completed by 15 January 1900 . At the time of electrification , KSS had 57 horsecars ; 38 of these were later converted to trailers , while 19 were decommissioned . The John Stephenson and Skabo trailers were taken out of service in 1917 – 18 , and sixteen of these were sold to the Bergen Tramway and Trondheim Tramway — the latter rebuilding them to meter gauge . One of the original Stephenson cars has been preserved at the Oslo Tramway Museum .
The Vestbanen Line was extended west from Vestbanen station towards Skillebekk in two stages , on 21 December 1898 and again on 23 June 1899 . The Gamlebyen Line was extended further east on 17 November 1899 to Oslo Hospital . The Vålerenga Line , which ran east from the city centre , opened on 3 May 1900 , and the Kampen Line , which ran parallel but further north , on 6 June 1900 . The first street line out of Kristiania into Aker was opened in three stages as an extension of the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line : on 29 September 1899 to Torshov , on 2 October 1901 to Sandaker and , finally , to Grefsen Station on 28 November 1902 . For the electrification , KSS ordered 47 new trams from Falkenried and Waggonfabrik Linke @-@ Hoffmann ; these remained in service until 1967 . In 1900 , the tramway had a ridership of almost 17 million passengers , or 75 trips per inhabitant .
= = = First municipal trams = = =
Since both tram companies were profitable , the city council decided to start another service — Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie ( KKS , " Kristiania Municipal Tramways " ) — the first municipally owned tram operator in Norway . Sagene Ring was the first line , which opened on 24 November 1899 from Sagene to Akersgata , where there was a connection onwards to Østbanen station using KES tracks . On 26 January 1901 , a connection line was built from Tollbugaten to Kirkeristen in the city centre to avoid running on KES tracks .
A second KKS line was opened on 27 March 1900 , from Nybrua , located on the KSS 's Grünerløkka – Torshov Line , via Trondheimsveien to Rodeløkka . Named the Rodeløkka Line , the southern section would later become part of the Sinsen Line . From Nybrua to the city centre , KSS track was used . The depot was located at Rodeløkka . A third line opened on 28 August 1900 , from Tollbugaten in the city centre southwards to Festningsbryggen at Vippetangen — the Vippetangen Line . Again , KSS track was needed to connect the line into the city centre . Twenty cars and twelve trailers were bought from Busch with electric components delivered from Schuk — stock that remained in service until 1967 . The company failed to make any profits , and was sold to KSS in 1905 .
= = = Consolidation = = =
After the take @-@ over in 1905 , KSS was operating seven routes : Homansbyen – Oslo , Homansbyen – Sannergata , Munkedamsveien – Sannergata – Grefsen , Munkedamsveien – Vålerenga , Sagene – St. Hanshaugen – Kampen , St. Hanshaugen – Rodeløkka and Stortorvet – Vippetangen . KSS extended the Vippetangen Line on 8 November 1905 , and opened an extension from Homansbyen to Adamstuen on 24 September 1909 . KSS and KES agreed to link their two networks , and a connecting line opened on 1 May 1912 between Homansbyen and Rosenborg station on KES 's Line 1 . An extension of the Vestbanen Line to Skillebekk was finished on 2 November 1911 .
This expansion caused the need for more rolling stock , and KSS took delivery of 42 trams from Falkenried and Skabo between 1912 and 1914 . At 10 @.@ 5 metres ( 34 ft ) long they were somewhat longer than the other trams . The new lines allowed the two companies to operate on each other 's lines , and they introduced a common numbering scheme for the services . Several of the lines were serviced by two numbered routes , a system that remains in use today . From 1912 , a number of additional connections were built between the KES and KSS networks , and the two companies started cooperating on certain lines . From 1921 to 1923 , KSS bought an additional 22 trams from Hannoversche Waggonfabrik , Brill and Busch , commonly referred to as the HaWa Class . KSS had an annual ridership of almost 60 million in 1922 .
= = Light rail = =
= = = Holmenkolbanen = = =
Holmenkolbanen ( " The Holmenkollen Line " ) opened the city 's first suburban light rail line , the Holmenkollen Line , in 1898 . It ran 6 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) from Majorstuen station northwestwards via 12 stations to Besserud station . Like all the later light rail lines , these were electric trams with a grade @-@ separated right @-@ of @-@ way and proper stations instead of tram stops . Unlike the other suburban tram lines that were built later , the Holmenkollen Line was not extended into the city using on @-@ street tracks . Instead , passengers had to change at Majorstuen station to KES streetcars . In 1909 , the Holmenkollen Line started using 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) wide suburban stock , when it replaced its original 1898 Class trams with 1909 Class stock . The 2 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) long Smestad Line opened in 1912 as a two station branch line from Majorstuen to Smestad station south of the Holmenkollen Line . In 1916 , the Holmenkollen Line was extended 5 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) from Besserud northwards to Tryvann with six new stations . The last part , from Frognerseteren station to Tryvann , which was single track and used for freight was demolished in 1939 .
In 1912 , Holmenkolbanen started construction of a 2 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) long tunnel from Majorstuen station to Nationaltheatret station , with an intermediate Valkyrie Plass station . This was the first part of the Common Tunnel and was blasted through the rock beneath the city . The extension was planned to give the two suburban lines access to the central business district of Oslo , but high construction costs and difficult geological conditions prevented the extension from opening until 1928 . The tunneling caused the company financial difficulties , resulting in the Smestad Line being sold to Akersbanerne , owned by Aker Municipality . In 1922 , Holmenkolbanen started building the Sognsvann Line , although it took twelve years to complete it . The 6 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) long line ran north from Majorstuen station to Sognsvann station with 11 new stations . The Smestad Line was extended 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) to Røa station in 1935 with six new stations and was renamed Røa Line .
= = = Ekeberg Line = = =
The Ekebergbanen ( " The Ekeberg Line " ) was incorporated in 1913 , and the following year construction started on the single tracked Ekeberg Line . It opened on 11 June 1917 , running 6 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 mi ) southwards from Oslo Hospital station via six other stations to Sæter station . The company had made an agreement with KSS to use the Gamlebyen Line to Stortorvet , but chose to electrify the Ekeberg Line using 1 @,@ 200 volts . In 1924 , Ekebergbanen started operating adjacent bus lines , the first in Oslo . On 30 September 1931 , the 1 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) long Simensbråten Line was opened with three stations as a branch from Jomfrubråten station to Simensbråten station . It was operated as a shuttle service outside rush hour ; during peak hours a direct service was provided to Stortorvet . Part of the main line was double @-@ tracked from Sjømannskolen station to Kastellet station in 1931 , to Bråten station in 1940 and to Sæter station in 1946 . The line was extended from Sæter to Ljabru station on 17 September 1941 , but the extension remained single track until 1967 .
= = = Lilleaker Line = = =
The success of the light rail lines tempted KES to extend the Skøyen Line west from Skøyen as a suburban line . The Lilleaker Line opened to Lilleaker station on 9 May 1919 , to Avløs station in 1924 and to Kolsås station in 1930 . The section west of Jar station is located in the municipality of Bærum in Akershus . A new branch section from Jar station to Sørbyhaugen station opened in 1942 , connecting the Jar — Kolsås Line to Nationaltheatret station . The Jar — Kolsås Line was upgraded and the stock was replaced with wider suburban trams . Kolsås station is 16 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 4 mi ) from Nationaltheatret station .
= = = Akersbanerne = = =
Before its 1948 merger with the city of Oslo , Aker was a municipality which surrounded Oslo on all sides . Akersbanerne ( " The Aker Lines " ) was founded on 7 June 1917 by Aker Municipality to coordinate the construction of a new light rail line from Kristiania to new suburbs in Aker . The company planned to build several lines from the ends of the street tramways and extend them on grade @-@ separated rights @-@ of @-@ way . Construction of the Østensjø Line started in 1922 and opened from Vålerenga eastwards to Bryn on 18 December 1923 , and to Oppsal on 10 January 1926 . For the first three years , street trams operated by KSS , and later Oslo Sporveier , ran the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) route to Bryn . After the full line opened , spanning another 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) , Akersbanerne could not reach agreement with Oslo Sporveier , owned by Oslo Municipality . It was not until 1937 that direct services to the city centre were provided via the Vålerenga Line .
= = Second World War = =
The tramways of Oslo experienced a higher ridership and several sabotage actions during the Second World War . During the " April Days of 1940 " , rumour had it that Oslo was going to be bombed , and the tram service was therefore stopped for half an hour that day . Later , on 19 December 1943 , an explosion at the ammunition supply at Filipstad caused a total stop of tramway service from 14 : 30 a.m. A small explosion accident also took place at Vålerenga Depot in December 1944 . On 31 December 1944 , a tram was hit by an airbomb at Drammensveien ( now Henrik Ibsens gate ) next to the Palace Park , where all passengers but the conductor were killed .
Due to a low supply of petrol , bus traffic was replaced by electric tramways during the war . The trams experienced therefore an increase in ridership , from 64 million passengers per year in 1939 to 151 million in 1944 . The three lines of Holmenkolbanen had together a ridership of 9 @.@ 5 billion in 1939 , 10 @.@ 9 billions in 1940 , 21 billions in 1943 and at the peak 22 @.@ 6 billion passengers in 1945 . In addition to the regular tram passenger services , Oslo Sporveier started to transport goods across the city in tram wagons .
The leadership of the tramway was transferred to the German occupiers , who printed tickets and signs with Nazi emblems on them . If a passenger " demonstrated " by changing
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his seat when seated next to a German officer , he was expelled at the next stop .
Except from damage to the rail tracks at Frøen caused by a bomb , the Oslo Metro experienced no sabotage actions .
= = Municipalization = =
The city had granted concessions to the two private tram companies until 1924 , after which the city could expropriate the companies . Both companies were well run and highly profitable , and on 1 May 1924 , KSS and KES were merged and taken over by the city council , which gave the new company the name Kristiania Sporveier ( " Kristiania Tramways " ) . The municipality owned 51 per cent . On 1 January 1925 , the city changed its name to Oslo , with the company 's name also changing . The light rail lines operated by Holmenkolbanen and Ekebergbanen were not taken over , nor was the Lilleaker Line operated by KES ; the city council did not want to take over tram lines in Aker . The Lilleaker Line operations of KES were transferred to the private company Bærumsbanen ( " The Bærum Line " ) .
After the take @-@ over , Oslo Sporveier immediately started expanding the tram network . On 4 May 1924 , the Korsvoll Line was opened as a branch of the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line from Torshov northwestwards to Bjølsen . On 1 August 1925 , the Ullevål Hageby Line was extended from Adamstuen further north to Ullevål Hageby . The Kjelsås Line opened on 25 September 1934 and ran from Storo on the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line northwards to Kjelsås station . By 1934 , the municipality had gained full ownership of Oslo Sporveier . The new company also decided to increase the permitted car width to 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , allowing wider suburban trams to run in the city streets . During the 1930s , Oslo Sporveier decided it needed more rolling stock , and cooperated with Strømmens Værksted to create the Gullfisk ( " Goldfish " ) class . Forty @-@ six units were delivered from 1937 to 1940 . Built with an aluminium chassis , they were quick and light , with a distinct streamlined shape , making their back ends look like a goldfish tail . On 1939 , the Sinsen Line was extended from Carl Berners plass northwards to Sinsen . At this point the city had its most extensive tram network .
Holmenkolbanen had built @-@ up large debts in building the underground section to Nationaltheatret , including large amounts of compensation to house @-@ owners who had their buildings damaged during construction . To finance their debt , the Akersbanerne @-@ owned Smestad Line was transferred to Holmenkolbanen on 16 November 1933 , with Akersbanerene taking over the majority of shares in Holmenkolbanen . The latter remained listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange . From 4 January 1937 , Bærumsbanen took over the operation of trams on the Østensjø Line , though the ownership of the line remained with Akersbanerne . Oslo Sporveier started operating trolleybus lines from 1939 . On 1 October 1944 , Oslo Sporveier bought Bærumsbanen and took over the operation of the Lillaker and Østensjø Lines . On 1 January 1948 , the municipalities of Oslo and Aker merged , and on 31 May 1949 , the two municipally @-@ owned companies , Oslo Sporveier and Akersbanerne , merged , taking the name of Oslo Sporveier . The following year , Oslo Sporveier took over Ekebergbanen . In 1975 , Oslo Sporveier bought all but a few of the shares in Holmenkolbanen , and at the same time took over operation of all the suburban lines .
= = = Partial closing = = =
The Oslo Tramway had a ridership of 108 million passengers in 1948 . On 17 January 1949 , the Korsvoll Line became the first tram line to be closed. followed by the Rodeløkka Line on 6 February . The latter reopened following a new route on 2 January 1955 . In 1960 , with the deregulation of the sale of cars , cheap diesel and the decision to build the metro , the city council decided to close the tram and the trolleybus networks . Tracks would be kept and trams would run until they would be naturally retired . However , no major investments would be made in the lines or rolling stock . Within a year , the Kampen , Rodeløkka , Vippetangen , Simensbråten and Vestbanen Lines were closed , as were trolleybus lines 18 and 24 . The remaining two trolleybus routes were closed in 1968 . On 24 June 1968 , Vålerenga Line was closed .
However , no further tram lines were closed . In 1969 , the site of the turning loop at Sinsen needed to be moved to allow the construction of the Sinsen Interchange . Instead of closing the line , Oslo Sporveier chose to build a new loop at Muselunden at Sinsen . The Ekeberg Line was scheduled to close in 1972 , because a new line needed to be built to allow passage during the construction of Oslo Central Station , which would replace the Østbanen . After heavy protests from Ekeberg residents , Oslo Sporveier chose to build a loop in Vognmannsgata in the city centre .
= = Metro = =
The city established the Metro Office on 15 September 1949 , with the first plans launched in 1951 . In 1954 , the city council decided to build the metro network with four branches in eastern Oslo ; two would run on each side of the Grorud Valley , while two would run southwards through Nordstrand . These areas had all been chosen as new suburbs for Oslo , and needed a good public transport system to be put in place quickly . The system was to feature improvements over the light rail lines : a third rail power supply , cab signaling with automatic train protection , stations long enough for six @-@ car trains and level crossings replaced by bridges and underpasses — specifications christened " metro standard " by Oslo Sporveier .
The Østensjø Line would be converted to metro standard , and three new lines would be built . The Lambertseter Line opened as a light rail line from Brynseng station , where it connected to the Vålerenga Line , to Bergkrystallen station on 28 April 1957 . Originally it had overhead wires , low platforms and was served using trams . The Ekeberg Line would remain a tramway . The Lambertseter Line served the area located between the Ekeberg and Østensjø Lines . The Østensjø Line was extended to Bøler station in 1958 .
The Metro took delivery of T1000 trains from Strømmens Verksted . From 1964 to 1978 , 162 cars were delivered for the eastern network . The metro opened on 22 May 1966 , when the Common Tunnel opened from Brynseng station to Jernbanetorget station in the city centre , located beside the Østbanen . The same day , the Lambertseter Line was reopened after it had been upgraded to metro standard . On 16 October 1966 , the then 9 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 7 mi ) and twelve station long Grorud Line , which ran northeast on the northern hillside of the Grorud Valley , opened to Grorud station . The Lambertseter Line was connected to the system in 1967 , when the line was extended to Skullerud station .
The Furuset Line runs on the southern hillside of the Grorud Valley . It opened to Haugerud station in 1970 , and was extended to Trosterud station in 1974 . The same year , the Grorud Line was extended to Vestli station , which is 14 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) from Jernbanetorget . By 1981 , the Furuset Line had reached Ellingsrudåsen station , which is 11 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) from Jernbanetorget . The western light rail lines took delivery of 33 T1300 train cars from 1978 to 1981 , with an additional 16 converted from the existing T1000 cars . The T1300 cars differed in that they could run on both third rail and overhead wires . Although not connected to the metro , the western lines were gradually becoming more like the metro , although they retained overhead wires , a different signaling system and shorter platforms .
= = = Common Tunnel = = =
The western lines terminated at an underground station on the west side of the city centre , while the metro terminated at an underground station at the east side of the city centre . The two termini were located 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) apart . Sentrum station , located in the heart of the city centre , 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) east of Jernbanetorget , opened along with the extension of the metro tunnel in 1977 . Water leaks exceeding the drainage capacity forced the station to be closed between 1983 and 1987 . When it reopened , the western light rail tunnel had been extended to it , and the station was renamed Stortinget . Because of incompatible signalling and power equipment , it was not possible for trains to run through the whole tunnel . In 1993 , the western part of the Common Tunnel and the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard , followed by the Røa Line two years later . Trains on the Holmenkollen and Kolsås Line needed both pantographs and third rail shoes to operate , using the former on the outer parts of the line and the latter in the tunnel . They switched to overhead wire at Frøen station and Montebello station , respectively . In 1994 , six two @-@ car T2000 trains were delivered for the Holmenkollen Line to meet the need for more rolling stock . Additional orders of the class were originally planned to replace the older stock , but the T2000 trains proved unreliable and no further order was made .
In 2003 , the section of the Kolsås Line in Bærum closed due to disagreements between the two counties of Oslo and Akershus on how much Akershus should pay to purchase services from Oslo Sporveier . After a year of replacement buses , the line was reopened , only to be closed again in 2006 for an upgrade to metro standard . Disagreements between the two counties means the upgrade will be done separately on the two sides of the municipal boundary , with the Oslo side opening first . By 2010 , the upgraded part had reached Bjørnsletta station in Oslo . In 2003 , the Ring Line opened from Ullevål Stadion station on the Sognsvann Line to Storo station . The line will create a loop , which will connect to neighbourhoods such as Nydalen and Bjerke north of the city centre . In July 2004 , construction caused a tunnel to collapse on the Grorud Line — the system 's busiest — forcing a shutdown of this line until December and creating havoc on the overloaded replacement buses . The ring was completed onwards to Carl Berners plass on the Grorud Line via Sinsen in 2006 . In 2007 , the system started taking delivery of the new MX3000 trains , which replaced all the old stock . By 2010 , all T1000 , T1300 and T2000 trains had been retired . In 2010 , the Holmenkollen Line reopened with metro standard , after it had been closed for renovation for a year .
= = Revival of the tramway = =
In 1977 , the city council changed their decision to close down the tramway . The main reason was the 1973 oil crisis , which had made it cheaper to run hydroelectric @-@ powered trams than diesel @-@ powered buses . After no investment on the tramway for seventeen years , new stock had to be bought , and Oslo Sporveier opted to buy seven used M @-@ 23 units from the Gothenburg Tramway in Sweden . In addition , twenty @-@ five SL79 articulated trams were delivered in 1982 and 1983 , followed by a further fifteen in 1989 and 1990 . Oslo Sporveier merged with Holmenkolbanen in 1991 , and with Ekebergbanen in 1993 .
During the 1990s , a number of expansions were made to the tram network . The disused line from Storo via the depot at Grefsen to Sinsen opened for revenue traffic in 1993 . In 1995 , the Vika Line was constructed to access Aker Brygge , a new waterfront neighbourhood is the southwestern part of the city centre , and in 1999 , the Ullevål Hageby Line was extended to the new Rikshospitalet . For these new lines , 32 SL95 low @-@ floor trams were delivered from 1996 to 2004 , replacing all but the SL79 units . The voltage was increased from 600 to 750 volts on 4 June 2000 , once all non @-@ articulated trams had been retired .
In 2002 , Oslo Sporveier announced that it would close the Ekeberg , Sinsen , Briskeby and Kjelsås Lines to reduce costs . Only the Kjelsås Line was actually closed and replaced by buses , which occurred 21 November 2002 . After local protests , and a compromise in the city council , the Kjelsås Line was reopened on 22 November 2004 .
On 1 July 2003 , Oslo Sporveier was reorganized with the operation of the trams transferred to Oslo Sporvognsdrift ( " Oslo Tram Operations " ) and the operation of the Metro to Oslo T @-@ banedrift ( " Oslo Metro Operations " ) . Another reorganization was made on 1 July 2006 , when Oslo Sporveier was demerged into two companies . The Oslo Public Transport Administration , which kept the Oslo Sporveier brand name , was made responsible for purchasing and the marketing of the public transport system . The ownership and maintenance of the tracks and stations was transferred to Kollektivtransportproduksjon ( " Public Transport Production " ) . The latter also became the parent of the operating companies , who retained the actual running of the trams and metro trains . The brand name Oslo Sporveier was discontinued on 1 January 2008 , when Ruter was created as a merger between the Oslo Public Transport Administration and Stor @-@ Oslo Lokaltrafikk ( " Greater Oslo Local Traffic " ) — which had been responsible for public transport in Akershus .
= = Preservation = =
In 1966 , the Oslo Tramway Museum was founded to preserve the tramway and trolleybus vehicles . The museum is run by a 450 @-@ member non @-@ profit organization Lokaltrafikkhistorisk Forening ( LTF , " Local Traffic History Association " ) . It was founded as a reaction to the aftermath of the closing of the Bergen Tramway , where only a single tram was preserved , and where volunteers realized that a similar lack of preservation could happen in Oslo . As of 2004 , the museum had 56 rail vehicles , 31 buses and seven other vehicles , including four trolleybuses . It has a museum with 25 trams and 10 buses on display at Majorstuen , as well as a full heritage tramway , including Slemdal station , which is under construction at Vinterbro .
= = Future plans = =
Oslo Package 3 is a political agreement between all the major projects on what to spend public funding for transport in Oslo and Akershus on . The agreement was made in 2007 , and consists of 53 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , which will be shared between investments in road infrastructure , public transport infrastructure , and operating subsidies for Ruter . Financing comes from the state , the counties and from toll roads . The agreement states the major investments which are planned during a 20 @-@ year period . In addition , the previous agreement , Oslo Package 2 , still has funding for some smaller projects .
An upgrade of the Kolsås Line to metro standard started in 2006 , and is estimated to finish by 2014 . In the Common Tunnel , a new Homansbyen Station is planned between Majorstuen and Nationaltheatret . The Grorud Line is planned be connected to the Ring Line via the Løren Line , allowing trains to run directly from Grorud to the Ring via a station at Løren . An extension has been proposed for the Furuset Line to Lørenskog , which would give stations at Visperud , Lørenskog Centre and a new terminus at Akershus University Hospital ( Ahus ) . The travel time from Ahus to Jernbanetorget would be 27 minutes .
The Fjord City urban redevelopment project that is converting the Bjørvika and Vippetangen areas in the centre of Oslo , will include a gradual building of tramways through them . The Ekeberg Line will be moved to run on the south side of the Central Station through Bjørvika . A new line may also be built from Aker Brygge around Vippetangen to Bjørvika . A similar redevelopment project at Fornebu in Bærum involves plans for building the Fornebu Line as an extension of the Lilleaker Line from Furulund via Lysaker Station to Fornebu . The line was previously planned as a people mover , but the solution was unsuccessful , and planning now focuses on building a tramway instead . An extension of the Sinsen Line to Tonsenhagen is planned .
= My Name Is My Name =
My Name Is My Name is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Pusha T ( who is one half of the hip hop duo Clipse ) . It was released on October 7 , 2013 , by GOOD Music and Def Jam Recordings . While leading up to the album 's announcement , Pusha T released the mixtape Fear of God and the EP Fear of God II : Let Us Pray during 2011 , along with collaborating on the GOOD Music 's compilation album Cruel Summer ( released in 2012 ) . In 2013 , he also released another mixtape Wrath of Caine . The album 's production was handled primarily by Kanye West , along with several producers , including Pharrell Williams , The @-@ Dream , Hudson Mohawke , Sebastian Sartor , Don Cannon , Swizz Beatz , Rico Beats , Mano and Nottz , It also features guest appearances from Rick Ross , Young Jeezy , 2 Chainz , Big Sean , Future , Pharrell Williams , Chris Brown and Kendrick Lamar , among others .
The album was met with universal acclaim from music critics and was positioned highly on many " Best Albums of 2013 " lists by major publications . The album also fared well commercially debuting at number 4 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 74 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . As of November 20 , 2013 , the album has sold 122 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album was promoted by five singles ; " Pain " featuring Future , " Numbers on the Boards " , " Sweet Serenade " featuring Chris Brown , " Let Me Love You " featuring Kelly Rowland , and " Nosetalgia " featuring Kendrick Lamar , along with the promotional single " Who I Am " featuring 2 Chainz and Big Sean .
= = Background = =
After establishing his solo career , while signing a deal to GOOD Music in September 2010 , Pusha T released his first solo project , a mixtape , titled Fear of God ( 2011 ) . Following the release of his mixtape , he released his first extended play , a sequel to the mixtape , titled Fear of God II : Let Us Pray ( 2011 ) . After the release of his EP , Pusha T started working on his debut album , and at the time it have included the production from Kanye West , The Neptunes , Bangladesh , Ryan Leslie and Alex da Kid . After continued to working on his first full @-@ length album , which was originally set to be released in 2012 , it was pushed back due to his participation in GOOD Music 's first compilation album Cruel Summer ( 2012 ) .
In July 2012 , Pusha T told MTV that while he was putting together his solo album , he was heavily influenced by Keanu Reeves and Al Pacino 's 1997 film The Devil 's Advocate . " This album was based off the movie ' Devil 's Advocate ' . Not theme @-@ wise at all , but just in the feel of the album . ' Devil 's Advocate ' is a very dark movie , but at the same time , visually , it 's beautiful . The album is based off of that because I speak about the harsh realities of street life but there 's a lot of glitz and glamour that comes along with that . If you just look at it at face value , you might think , ' It sounds a bit like he 's glorifying [ street life ] ' , but when you get tuned into the record , you realize that you get both sides of it . "
In 2012 , in an interview , Pusha T spoke on the inspiration behind the album title . " Basically , I tried to pick a title that embodied who I am as an artist . I wanted people to understand like Pusha is everything that I really , really am . Actually , there is a line in ' Pain ' where I say " My name is my name , " that line comes from Marlo Stanfield from the series The Wire . It was one of the more prominent catch phrases that he said at the end of that series . He was basically saying , I am who I am , I stand on my name I live this . I really felt that embodied my presence in the rap game . " Pusha T announced the new title of his album in November 2012 , along with Spin reporting that his album had been pushed back until 2013 . On March 19 , 2013 Pusha T said that the album would include 13 songs and that he had already finished 11 of those songs .
= = Recording and production = =
On April 13 , 2013 , during at the 2013 's Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , Pusha T announced that he would be going to Paris later this week , just to put on some final touches on the album , afterwards he would announce a release date . In June 2013 , Pusha T had been set to turn in the album to Def Jam for mastering , however , Kanye West was shortly given by him with three new beats , in which resulted him to go back to the studio to continued recording . In early stages in the recording process , he began working on the album with Kanye West , Symbolyc One , The Neptunes , Bangladesh , and Ryan Leslie . Since then , he has confirmed that he was working with The @-@ Dream , Just Blaze , No I.D. , Nottz , Don Cannon , Nashiem Myrick , Carlos Brody ( of The Hitmen ) , DJ Mano , Swizz Beatz , Rico Beats , Travi $ Scott , Hudson Mohawke , Young Chop , and Sham , amongst others on the album 's production . On August 4 , 2013 he announced that the song he wants to be the album 's intro is produced by Joaquin Phoenix . On August 22 , 2013 , Pusha T appeared on MTV 's RapFix and told Sway Calloway that the bulk of the album 's production would be handled by Kanye West , while confirming production by Pharrell , Swizz Beatz , The @-@ Dream , Nottz , and Don Cannon to be featured on the album .
Pusha T has announced leading up to the album that the guest appearances are included from Rick Ross , Kanye West , The @-@ Dream , Future , Young Jeezy , 2 Chainz , Big Sean , Chris Brown , Kendrick Lamar , and The Re @-@ Up Gang . He also said he was looking to get a couple more cleared up . In early January , Pusha stated that fellow Clipse member No Malice could appear on the album , however , in July , he confirmed that Malice would not be featured on the album . He also said his dream collaboration for the album would be with Jay @-@ Z. In an August 22 , 2013 , appearance on MTV 's RapFix he confirmed that additional guest appearances , that had yet to be revealed would come from Ab @-@ Liva , Kelly Rowland , and Pharrell .
= = Release and promotion = =
While performing in Vancouver , Canada , it was reported that Pusha T announced that he would be releasing , for promotional purposes , a mixtape , titled Wrath of Caine by the end of 2012 . However , it would have to be pushed back to 2013 . Pusha T described the tape as street @-@ oriented music intended for his longtime fans .
" Wrath of Caine is basically just me catering to my core . It 's all about just street Hip Hop , street music " he said . " It 's just something that I like to do . It 's something that I feel like has no boundaries , no parameters . I can do what I really , really want to do … [ my approach to the mixtape is ] not about more of a creative [ decision ] , I just think it 's about more of what I want to hear for myself and what my fans want to hear . They want to hear lyrics , they want to hear street [ music ] … it 's just the whole street life perspective . "
On December 5 , 2012 , the first song released from the mixtape , " Blocka " , which features guest vocals by Popcaan and GOOD Music 's Travi $ Scott . The reggae @-@ inspired track was produced by Young Chop . The music video was released on December 10 , 2012 . The second song was , " Millions " , which features guest vocals from a fellow rapper Rick Ross . The mixtape cover was revealed on January 15 , 2013 . The mixtape was released for free download on January 28 , 2013 . The mixtape also features guest appearances from French Montana , Wale , Kevin Gates , Troy Ave and Andrea Martin , also it included the production from Kanye West , Young Chop , Harry Fraud , The Neptunes , Jake One , ! llmind and B ! nk , among others .
The album was included on multiple " Most Anticipated Albums of 2013 " lists including eighth by Complex Magazine and ninth by XXL Magazine . In January 2013 , Pusha T announced that his album will be releasing at the end of quarter one of 2013 . During the red carpet for the 55th Grammy Awards , Pusha T announced that his album would have to be pushed back till May 2013 . On April 29 , Pusha T announced through his Twitter page that the album would be released on July 16 , 2013 . In July 2013 , he confirmed that the album would be pushed back , and then on August 22 , he confirmed that the album would be released on October 8 , 2013 .
On August 30 , 2013 , Kanye West unveiled the simplistic standard and deluxe edition album covers via his Twitter account . On September 21 , 2013 , Pusha T released snippets for the standard edition tracks . On September 27 , 2013 , Pusha T released the music video for the intro track " King Push " . On October 2 , 2013 , after a few days of being credited as a co @-@ producer of " King Push " , Joaquin Phoenix denied having assist in producing the song . He said , " While it was widely reported that Pusha T used my beat and that I produced his song , I can 't take any credit . A friend 's son played me his music , and all I did was make an introduction to Kanye 's camp . " On October 3 , 2013 , during an interview with Rap @-@ Up , Pusha T revealed that it was actually the son of Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich who produced the song , saying " Joaquin Phoenix gave the beat to ' Ye , so when I got the beat from ' Ye , it was , Yo , Joaquin gave me this beat . So me , I 'm just like , OK , I know Joaquin 's into music and you know the whole thing , so I 'm like , Oh , damn . I believe it is the son of Lars Ulrich from Metallica . I hope I 'm not wrong this time . It was mistaken because it came from Joaquin . " On October 1 , 2013 , the album was released for free streaming via MySpace .
Starting April 24 , 2013 , Pusha T and fellow Def Jam rapper Fabolous begun the Life is So Exciting Tour in Providence , Rhode Island . The tour features 28 shows and ended on June 1 , 2013 . The tour was in promotion of My Name Is My Name and Fabolous ' sixth studio album Loso 's Way 2 : Rise to Power . On December 9 , 2013 , it was revealed that Pusha T would be co @-@ headlining the 2 Good 2 Be T.R.U. Tour with 2 Chainz , a North American tour to begin on February 4 , 2014 , in Boston , Massachusetts and end on March 24 , 2014 , in Washington DC . The tour will also feature August Alsina and Cap1 as opening acts .
= = Singles = =
On October 9 , 2012 , Pusha T released " Pain " featuring Future , as the first single from the album . On October 10 , 2013 , the music video was released for " Pain " featuring Future . The first promotional single released from the album would be " Millions " which features Rick Ross . The song originally appeared on his mixtape Wrath of Caine , however Pusha also released the song for retail sale on January 29 , 2013 . The music video for " Millions " was released on February 10 , 2013 . At the 55th Grammy Awards he announced the song would be featured on his album . On March 8 , 2013 , in an interview with DJ Semtex , Pusha T said that " Millions " would not be featured on the album after all . Moreover , Pusha T confirmed a further collaboration with Rick Ross .
On April 29 , 2013 Rolling Stone gave his following single " Numbers on the Boards " 4 out of 5 stars , stating " The star is Kanye West 's beat , a contusive bass blur with percussion that 's like bamboo sticks on a busted radiator . The result is near @-@ perfect no @-@ bullshit hip @-@ hop . " On May 9 , 2013 , the music video was released for " Numbers on the Boards " which featured cameo appearances from Kanye West and Chief Keef . The video was shot in Paris . The Kanye West and Don Cannon @-@ produced song was then released as the album 's second single the following day .
In March 2013 , during an interview Hot 107 @.@ 9 , he announced that his next single is " Who I Am " featuring Kanye West . On June 11 , Pusha T announced that " Who I Am " would be released in two days on June 13 , 2013 . The final version of the single featured 2 Chainz and Big Sean , however Kanye West still provided the production of the track . However , the song did not end up receiving an official retail release , instead becoming the album 's second promotional single .
On August 30 , 2013 , Pusha T premiered the audio to the album 's third single , " Sweet Serenade " featuring Chris Brown . After during a Twitter Q & A , he would reveal the song was produced by Swizz Beatz . It would then be released for retail digital download on September 4 , 2013 . The music video was released for " Sweet Serenade " on October 7 , 2013 .
On September 16 , 2013 , Def Jam released the single artwork , and announced that " Nosetalgia " featuring Kendrick Lamar would be released soon . Later that same day the song would be premiered via Def Jam 's website . The song produced by Nottz , features both artists rapping about their experiences and effects of cocaine on their childhoods . On the following day , it has been released to the DJs , as the album 's third promotional single , and then be released for pre @-@ order with the album on iTunes . On October 3 , 2013 , the music video was released for " Nosetalgia " featuring Kendrick Lamar . " Nosetalgia " was officially released as a single in the United Kingdom on February 3 , 2014 , serving as the fifth overall single from the album .
" Let Me Love You " features guest vocals by Kelly Rowland , impacted urban contemporary radio on November 12 , 2013 , as the album 's fourth single .
= = = Other songs = = =
On the following day , the music video for the Rick Ross featuring " Hold On " was released . On January 17 , 2014 , the music video was released for " Suicide " featuring Ab @-@ Liva .
= = Commercial performance = =
My Name Is My Name debuted at number 4 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 74 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . In its second week the album dropped to number 14 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 20 @,@ 000 more copies . In its third week , the album dropped to twelve more places , selling 10 @,@ 000 more copies in the United States . As of November 2015 , the album has sold 182 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Internationally , the album peaked at number 56 on the UK Albums Chart , number 36 in the Netherlands , and number 98 in Switzerland . It also charted in other countries such as France and Belgium .
= = Critical response = =
My Name Is My Name was met with universal acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 81 , based on 27 reviews . Mike Powell of Rolling Stone stated , " He 's still a witty , quietly vicious rapper , capable of tearing apart spare street tracks like " Nosetalgia " and " Numbers on the Board " while barely raising his voice . But set in the more commercial contexts of Kelly Rowland features and the @-@ Dream 's fluorescent R & B , he can sound like a fish out of some pretty expensive water . Who Pusha was is gone , but who he is still sometimes unclear . " David Jeffries of AllMusic said , " With Pusha 's pen at full force and his performance a proper combination of cold and tense , the album is as if Clipse 's Hell Hath No Fury were atom @-@ smashed into something more artful and unstable . My Name Is My Name is a remarkable and vital solo debut . " Jesse Cataldo , writing for Slant Magazine , said , " Yet despite its pedigree , the album puts too much overall emphasis on guest spots and not enough on establishing a distinctive identity for the rapper . Full of retrograde lyrical conceits , seemingly at odds with its futuristic backdrops , My Name Is My Name is a reminder that Pusha T hasn 't changed , and his stubborn reliance on maintaining his brand is probably not the wisest strategy in today 's shifting hip @-@ hop climate . " Jon Hadusek of Consequence of Sound stated , " A few poor production choices and uneven sequencing do slow the album , but it shows flashes of real brilliance . The best tracks here are produced by Kanye and Pharrell , and they 're concentrated at the beginning and end . The smattering in the middle of the tracklist is handled by host of collaborators , not all of them effectively complimenting Pusha 's rawness . While not the defining statement it could ’ ve been , My Name Is My Name shows different sides of Pusha T as he becomes a more multidimensional rapper . "
Jabbari Weekes of Exclaim ! said , " A majority of My Name Is My Name 's sounds are wrapped in minimalistic saran wrap that allows Pusha T 's cold delivery to flourish , with more abstract drug references than a paranoid dealer over a tapped phone line . " Reed Jackson , writing for XXL , stated , " Certain songs , like the trap house anthem " No Regrets " or the early @-@ 2000s @-@ sounding " Let Me Love You , " are entertaining , but don ’ t have the inventiveness or excitement of the album ’ s other tracks . With MNIMN standing at a lean 12 songs , these missteps are hard to gloss over . Regardless , Pusha T accomplishes a lot here , crafting a record that is big in concept but is still rooted in the longstanding hip @-@ hop tradition that lyricism is king . " Brandon Soderberg of Spin said , " Don 't tell King Push , but My Name Is My Name bears a weird resemblance to Drake 's Nothing Was the Same : Here is another deeply considered collection of top @-@ shelf beats and uncompromising @-@ though @-@ still @-@ pop @-@ enough raps that justifies the fairly awful personalities driving it , which , depending on your tolerance for wounded narcissism and a complete lack of insight , is either fascinating or frustrating . "
Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times stated , " The album ’ s haunting highlight -- and one of the best hip @-@ hop tracks of the year — is the last one . Called " S.N.I.T.C.H. , " it thrives on understated tension as Pusha and guest vocalist Pharrell recount an interaction with an old friend who had decided to become a police informant . It 's the perfect conclusion to a consistently surprising hip @-@ hop album . " Lauren Martin of Fact gave the album three and a half stars out of five , saying " In short , on My Name Is My Name , Pusha doesn ’ t really give much away about his past , present or future , and it 's a disconcerting thought for an album posited as a vanguard for a more " real " presentation of rap . " Russ Bengtson of Complex said , " it 's a never @-@ hit @-@ skip album made by a 36 @-@ year @-@ old rapper with more hunger than most 15 years his junior . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Closing out the year , My Name Is My Name was named to multiple " Best Albums of the Year " lists . It was ranked at number 33 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 50 best albums of 2013 . They commented saying , " The cockier half of the Clipse didn 't choose to go solo — he had to after his brother found God . Pusha , in turn , found Kanye West , whose stark and twisted production helped make My Name Is My Name feel like a more lyrically focused companion piece to his own Yeezus . It 's the year 's sharpest hit of street philosophy . " Complex named it the third best album of 2013 . They elaborated saying , " everything clicks because of the way it was calculated . The songs benefit from their respective placement beside each other , each track a background for the next . In that way , it brings the Pusha T fan up to speed with what he 's evolved into , without leaving them in unfamiliar territory . If you were the reluctant " we want that old Pusha T " fan , then it fed you the teaspoon of updated classic with the medicine of his reinvention — and by the end , you appreciated both sides . " Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly named it the eighth best album of 2013 saying , " With these beats — private @-@ stash stuff from the likes of his label boss Kanye West and Pharrell Williams — he could sell fire in hell . In fact , Pusha plumbs his emotional depths , breaking down his parents ' divorce after 35 years of marriage and his conflicted feelings about his brother . " Exclaim ! named it the second best hip hop album of 2013 . XXL named it the fourth best album of 2013 . They commented saying , " Song for song , it 's tough to put any album in the same category as Pusha 's proper solo debut . In the space of a trim 46 minutes , Push coaxed the best verse of Rick Ross ' year on " Hold On , " made Kendrick Lamar get dark and grim on " Nosetalgia " and even rapped over a beat that seemed impossible to make into a hip @-@ hop track on " King Push , " all while keeping his lyricism at the absolute highest level . The worst song on this album could find its way onto a top ten list . If this is what a post @-@ Yeezus world sounds like , sign us up immediately . "
Spin positioned it at number 46 on their list of the best 50 albums of 2013 . They said , " Push is in fighting form , incorporating a mature point of view on his drug @-@ dealer past while rapping with the confidence of a man who knows the game is his to lose . " NME positioned it at number 48 on their list of the 50 best albums of year . They said , My Name Is My Name was the moment Clipse member Pusha T finally hit the home run he promised for so long . The beats snapped hard , the guests including Kendrick Lamar , Rick Ross and 2 Chainz glittered and the overall vibe was dirty but triumphant . " Paste ranked it number 34 on their list of the 50 best albums of 2013 saying , " each bar has the ferociousness of a lion smelling the scent of fresh blood . Among his contemporaries , Pusha T is the sharp @-@ witted wordsmith who makes you feel like you ’ re listening to a master at work , devilishly cooking up something as pure and addictive as he possibly can . " It was named the third best hip hop album of 2013 by PopMatters . They commented saying , " My Name Is My Name is easily one of the most impressive displays of lyricism of the year and contains some of 2013 's best verses , as Pusha shows off his versatility ..... The production is minimalistic and intelligently doesn 't overshadow Pusha 's performance . The beats are big and full of bass , giving life to the album and forming a unique theme , with a reunion with Pharrell triggering a nice blast of nostalgia ..... My Name Is My Name has substance , style , and passion , and no doubt is an album that will still be appreciated a decade from now . " Consequence of Sound positioned it at number 44 on their list of the 50 best albums of the year .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
Track listing and credits from album booklet .
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
" Hold On " features uncredited vocals from Kanye West .
Sample credits
" Numbers on the Boards " contains samples of " Shake Your Booty " , written and performed by Bunny Sigler ; samples of " Intro : A Million and One Questions / Rhyme No More " , written by Jay @-@ Z and Chris Martin performed by the former ; and samples of " Pots and Pans " , written and performed by Anthony King and John Matthews , as included on the Luke Vibert compilation Nuggets .
" Hold On " contains samples of " Ghet @-@ To @-@ Funk " , written by W. Norman performed by Duralcha .
" Let Me Love You " contains samples of " Audition " , written by Jeppe Thybo and Nick Johnsen performed by The Robotboys .
" Who I Am " contains samples of " U.F.O " , written by R. Scroggins performed by ESG ; and samples of " LGOYH " , written and performed by Kwes .
" Nosetalgia " contains samples of " The Bridge Is Over " , written by Scott La Rock and Lawrence Parker performed by Boogie Down Productions ; samples of " ( If Loving You Is Wrong ) I Don 't Want to Be Right " , written by Homer Banks , Carl Hampton and Raymond Jackson performed by Bobby Bland ; and samples of " Do You Like Scratchin ' " , written by Trevor Horn and Malcolm McLaren performed by Malcolm McLaren .
" Pain " contains samples of " My Name Is Anthony Gonsalves " , written by Laxmikant – Pyarelal and Anand Bakshi performed by Kishore Kumar .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
= New York State Route 175 =
New York State Route 175 ( NY 175 ) is a west – east state highway located in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . The 15 @.@ 46 @-@ mile ( 24 @.@ 88 km ) route begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) east of the village of Skaneateles and passes through the village of Marcellus before ending at a junction with US 11 in Syracuse . The highway was designated in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
The section of NY 175 from the town of Marcellus to the end of the NY 173 concurrency is part of the Seneca Turnpike , which was established in 1800 and dissolved in 1852 . This portion of the Seneca Turnpike was instrumental in the development of the villages of Skaneateles and Marcellus . When designated in 1930 , NY 175 was on a rural stretch of highway connecting Marcellus to Onondaga , and brought about an increase in population and development along its route .
= = Route description = =
= = = Skaneateles to Marcellus = = =
In the west , NY 175 begins at an intersection with US 20 in the town of Skaneateles . The highway heads towards the northeast as Lee Mulroy Road , passing by farmlands and fields as well as several residences . As NY 175 heads to the northeast into the town of Marcellus , it intersects with three county roads . This section of the route is parallel to two other unsigned county roads , located to the northwest and to the southeast .
As the highway heads towards the village of Marcellus , it begins edging closer to NY 174 . The area becomes slightly more residential as the roads merge and become concurrent . The southern terminus of unsigned County Route 73 ( CR 73 , named South Street Road ) is also at the intersection with NY 174 . About 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of this junction , NY 175 crosses over West Nine Mile Creek on a bridge inventoried by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) as NY 175X . The bridge was built in 1962 and is maintained by Onondaga County , as is the rest of NY 175 west of NY 174 .
NY 174 and NY 175 begin to curve to the northeast as they become parallel with another unsigned county road ( CR 150 ) , passing Marcellus County Park along the way . The roads remain as such until an intersection where the county road ends and the two state routes split . In downtown Marcellus , the terrain is flat , with residential homes and commercial businesses surrounding the road . At the split , NY 174 heads to the west through the main street of the village , while NY 175 heads eastward towards Syracuse .
= = = Marcellus to Onondaga = = =
NY 175 heads eastward out of Marcellus along the West Seneca Turnpike . At the intersection with Frank Gay Road ( CR 243 ) , NY 175 passes a golf course and country club . The highway continues eastward into the hamlet of Wellington Corner , before heading towards Onondaga . There is a suburban area here , where NY 175 intersects with a county road . The highway then leaves Wellington Corner after the intersection .
After exiting Wellington Corner , NY 175 enters another hamlet called Cards Corners . There are a few businesses in this hamlet , with NY 175 and nearby Cedarvale Road being the major roads . The highway then enters a large forested area , at times surrounded by trees . NY 175 continues northeast , passing by several more businesses and soon crosses into the town of Onondaga . In Onondaga , the route passes by the Gen. Orrin Hutchinson House and the Onondaga Community College , intersecting with two consecutive county roads along the way before joining with NY 173 . The two roads are concurrent for about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) , after which NY 173 heads east towards Manlius while NY 175 heads northeast towards the city of Syracuse .
= = = Onondaga to Syracuse = = =
After leaving NY 173 and the Seneca Turnpike , the highway heads to the northeast through the town of Onondaga as South Avenue . NY 175 passes the Community General Hospital of Greater Syracuse and intersects with a county road before entering the Syracuse city limits . At this point , maintenance of the route shifts from NYSDOT to the city of Syracuse . In Syracuse , NY 175 runs along the western edge of Saint Agnes Cemetery to an intersection with NY 80 at the cemetery 's north end . Much of the next area is both residential and commercial in nature , leaving the fields and forests that the route had previously followed behind .
It intersects a number of city streets as it heads to the northeast , traversing several mixed @-@ use blocks before crossing over Onondaga Creek , a north – south waterway that passes through most of Syracuse . On the northeast bank of the creek , NY 175 turns east onto West Kennedy Street , a short connector between the creek and US 11 . The route continues for three more blocks along the mostly residential street to US 11 , where the east end of West Kennedy Street also marks the east end of NY 175 .
= = History = =
The section of NY 175 from downtown Marcellus to NY 173 in Onondaga was built along the historical Seneca Turnpike . The turnpike was originally the Genesee Road which began in the city of Utica and ended in the city of Canandaigua . Genesee Road was approved by the state legislature in 1794 , and construction began in sections from Utica to Canandaigua . In 1800 , the road was renamed to " Seneca Turnpike " when a law was passed to establish a maintenance company . At 157 miles ( 253 km ) , the turnpike was the longest in the state at the time .
Soon after settlement of the village of Skaneateles began , the Seneca Turnpike route which originally bypassed the village to the north was relocated southward to go through the growing settlement . The Seneca Turnpike Company closed its doors in 1852 . Modern NY 175 does not follow either the original alignment or the relocated alignment , but rather the length of a former trolley line that went from Skaneateles to Syracuse via Marcellus and Onondaga . This trolley line parallels the relocated alignment .
When the NY 175 designation was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at an intersection with US 20 in the village of Skaneateles and utilized the relocated Seneca Turnpike alignment ( New Seneca Turnpike ) between Skaneateles and Marcellus . This road is now designated but not signed as CR 41 by Onondaga County . A 31 @-@ mile ( 50 km ) alternate route of US 20 between Skaneateles and Cazenovia by way of Marcellus was designated as NY 20N c . 1938 . The new route utilized pre @-@ existing numbered highways , including NY 175 from NY 174 in Marcellus to NY 173 in Onondaga . The NY 20N designation was removed c . 1962 , as was the nearby NY 20SY , another alternate route of US 20 that served downtown Syracuse .
In the 1930s , the western terminus of NY 175 was relocated eastward to NY 174 in downtown Marcellus . The configuration of NY 175 remained unchanged until the early 1960s when the route was re @-@ extended westward over the New Seneca Turnpike to its original terminus in Skaneateles . The section of NY 175 west of Marcellus was realigned in the early 1980s to follow Lee Mulroy Road and NY 174 between US 20 and Marcellus . Ownership and maintenance of the former alignment of NY 175 on the New Seneca Turnpike was eventually transferred to Onondaga County , which designated the highway as CR 41 . Additionally , the modern alignment of NY 175 on Lee Mulroy Road is maintained by Onondaga County and co @-@ designated as CR 73 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
= Adrian Cole ( RAAF officer ) =
Air Vice Marshal Adrian Lindley Trevor Cole , CBE , DSO , MC , DFC ( 19 June 1895 – 14 February 1966 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Joining the army at the outbreak of World War I , he transferred to the Australian Flying Corps in 1916 and flew with No. 1 Squadron in the Middle East and No. 2 Squadron on the Western Front . He became an ace , credited with victories over ten enemy aircraft , and earned the Military Cross and the Distinguished Flying Cross . In 1921 , he was a founding member of the RAAF .
" King " Cole rose to the position of Air Member for Supply in 1933 and gained promotion to group captain in 1935 . The following year he was appointed the first commanding officer of Headquarters RAAF Station Richmond . During World War II , he led North @-@ Western Area Command in Darwin , Northern Territory , and held a series of overseas posts in North Africa , England , Northern Ireland , and Ceylon . As Forward Air Controller during the Dieppe Raid in 1942 , he was wounded in action and awarded the Distinguished Service Order . Cole served on corporate boards of directors following his retirement from the RAAF in 1946 . He died in 1966 at the age of seventy .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Adrian Cole was born in Glen Iris , a suburb of Melbourne , to barrister and doctor Robert Cole and his wife Helen ( née Hake ) . He was educated at Geelong Grammar School and Melbourne Grammar School , where he was a member of the cadet corps . When World War I broke out in August 1914 , Cole gained a commission in the Australian Military Forces , serving with the 55th ( Collingwood ) Infantry Regiment . He resigned his commission to join the Australian Imperial Force on 28 January 1916 , intending to become a pilot in the Australian Flying Corps .
= = = Middle East = = =
Posted to No. 1 Squadron ( also known until 1918 as No. 67 Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ) , Cole departed Melbourne aboard HMAT A67 Orsova on 16 March 1916 , bound for Egypt . He was commissioned a second lieutenant in June and began his pilot training in August . By the beginning of 1917 , he was flying reconnaissance and scouting missions in Sinai and Palestine . He took part in an early example of Allied air @-@ sea cooperation on 25 February , directing French naval fire against the coastal town of Jaffa by radio from his B.E.2 biplane . On 20 April , Cole and fellow squadron member Lieutenant Roy Maxwell Drummond attacked six enemy aircraft that were threatening to bomb Allied cavalry , scattering their formation and chasing them back to their own lines . Both airmen were awarded the Military Cross for their actions ; Cole 's citation was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 16 August 1917 :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . With another officer he attacked and disorganised six enemy machines that were about to attack our cavalry with bombs . The engagement was continued until all six machines were forced to return to their lines . His skill and courage on all occasions have been worthy of the greatest praise .
The day after the action that earned him the Military Cross , Cole was flying a Martinsyde G.100 " Elephant " over Tel el Sheria when he was hit by ground fire and forced to crash land behind enemy lines ; after setting his aircraft alight he was picked up and rescued by Captain Richard Williams . On 26 June , following an eight @-@ plane raid on Turkish Fourth Army headquarters in Jerusalem , Cole and another pilot suffered engine seizures while undertaking a similar rescue of a downed comrade ; all three airmen were forced to walk through no man 's land before being picked up by an Australian Light Horse patrol .
= = = Western Front = = =
Promoted to captain in August 1917 , Cole was posted to France as a flight commander with No. 2 Squadron AFC ( also known until 1918 as No. 68 Squadron RFC ) . Flying S.E.5 fighters on the Western Front , he was credited with destroying or sending out of control ten enemy aircraft between July and October 1918 , making him an ace . In a single sortie over the Lys Valley on 19 August , Cole shot down two German fighters and narrowly avoided being shot down himself immediately afterwards , when he was attacked by five Fokker Triplanes that were being pursued by Allied Bristol Fighters . On 24 September , he led into battle a patrol of fifteen S.E.5s that destroyed or damaged eight German fighters over Haubourdin and Pérenchies , claiming one Pfalz D.III for himself .
Cole was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions on 7 October 1918 , when he led No. 2 Squadron through " a tornado of anti @-@ aircraft fire " in a major assault on transport infrastructure in Lille . During the raid he successfully bombed a goods engine and a troop train , and put several anti @-@ aircraft batteries out of action , before leading his formation back to base at low level . The announcement and accompanying citation for his decoration was gazetted on 8 February 1919 :
On 7th October this officer carried out a most successful flying raid on enemy railway lines and stations . The success of the attack was largely owing to his cool and determined leadership , and our freedom from casualties was mainly due to the methodical manner in which he collected and reorganised the machines after the raid . He himself displayed marked initiative and courage in attacking troops and other objectives . Since May Capt. Cole has destroyed four hostile machines .
= = Between the wars = =
Returning to Australia in February 1919 , Cole briefly spent time as a civilian before accepting a commission in the Australian Air Corps , the short @-@ lived successor to the Australian Flying Corps , in January 1920 . On 17 June , accompanied by Captain Hippolyte De La Rue , he flew a DH.9 to a height of 27 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) , setting an Australian altitude record that stood for more than ten years . He transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force as a flight lieutenant in March 1921 , becoming one of its original twenty @-@ one officers . On 30 November , he married his cousin Katherine Cole in St Peter 's Chapel at Melbourne Grammar School ; the couple would have two sons and two daughters . Squadron Leader Cole was posted to England in 1923 – 24 to attend RAF Staff College , Andover , returning to Australia in 1925 to become Director of Personnel and Training . Promoted to wing commander , he was in charge of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , from 1926 to 1929 . The first Citizens Air Force ( reserve ) pilots ' course took place during Cole 's tenure at No. 1 FTS ; although twenty @-@ four accidents occurred , injuries were minor , leading him to remark at the graduation ceremony that the students were either made of India rubber or had learned how to crash " moderately safely " .
Cole held command of RAAF Station Laverton from 1929 until his appointment as Air Member for Supply ( AMS ) in January 1933 . The AMS occupied a seat on the Air Board , which was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff and was collectively responsible for control and administration of the RAAF . In March 1932 , Cole accepted an invitation from the Lord Mayor of Melbourne to serve as Deputy Chairman of the 1934 MacRobertson Air Race from England to Australia , to celebrate Melbourne 's Centenary . Provision of the RAAF 's radio facilities and technicians was considered a boon for contestants , though Cole later recorded that his role involved " twenty months ' hard work , without pay ... with loads of scurrilous and other criticism " . Promoted to group captain in January 1935 , he became the inaugural commanding officer ( CO ) of Headquarters RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , on 20 April 1936 . The new headquarters , which had been formed from elements of two of the base 's lodger units , No. 3 Squadron and No. 2 Aircraft Depot , supplanted an earlier arrangement where the CO of No. 3 Squadron had doubled as the station commander . Cole was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Coronation Honours of 11 May 1937 , and attended the Imperial Defence College in London the following year . He returned to RAAF Station Laverton as CO in February 1939 , taking over from Group Captain Henry Wrigley .
= = World War II = =
As part of the RAAF 's reorganisation following the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , No. 2 Group was formed in Sydney on 20 November , with Cole in command . The group controlled Air Force units in New South Wales . Cole was raised to temporary air commodore in December , and took charge of Central Area Command , which supplanted No. 2 Group , when it was established in the new year . In September 1941 , he was sent to North Africa as Officer Commanding No. 235 Wing RAF of the Desert Air Force , where he helped establish a new anti @-@ submarine warfare unit , No. 459 Squadron RAAF . Posted to England with Headquarters No. 11 Group in May 1942 , he served as Forward Air Controller of the Dieppe Raid on 19 August , responsible for co @-@ ordinating Allied air cover off the French coast aboard HMS Calpe . In doing so , he was seriously wounded in the jaw and upper body when German fighters strafed the ship ; he required plastic surgery and spent several weeks recuperating . His gallantry during the action earned him the Distinguished Service Order , the announcement being published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 2 October 1942 . The same month , he was made Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) RAF Northern Ireland , with the acting rank of air vice marshal , though the command was described in the official history of Australia in the war as a " backwater " .
In May 1943 , Cole returned to Australia , taking over as AOC North @-@ Western Area Command from Air Commodore Frank Bladin in July . Based in Darwin , Northern Territory , he was responsible for regional air defence , reconnaissance , protection of Allied shipping and , later , offensive operations in the New Guinea campaign . Cole found the command in " good shape " but considered its air defence capability inadequate , recommending augmentation by long @-@ range fighters such as the P @-@ 38 Lightning . He nevertheless had to make do with the three squadrons of Spitfires already on his strength , and the possibility of calling on the USAAF 's Fifth Air Force for reinforcements as necessary . During August and September , he reduced regular reconnaissance missions to " increase bombing activity to the limit " , following a request from General Douglas MacArthur to provide all available support for Allied assaults on Lae – Nadzab . North @-@ Western Area B @-@ 24 Liberators , Hudsons , Beaufighters and Catalinas carried out raids to destroy Japanese bases and aircraft , and divert enemy forces from Allied columns . Through March and April 1944 , Cole had thirteen squadrons under his control , and was supporting amphibious operations against Hollandia and Aitape . In May , he directed bombing from North @-@ Western Area on Surabaya as part of Operation Transom .
Cole handed over North @-@ Western Area to Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth in September 1944 . He took up an appointment as Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) in October , but was removed soon afterwards following an incident at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , received an anonymous letter alleging that Cole had become drunk and lost control at a mess meeting on 8 November . Investigating the matter , Jones was unable to establish whether or not Cole had been drunk but was satisfied that he had not behaved appropriately , and issued him a warning without charging or otherwise disciplining him . Under pressure from the Federal government , Jones dismissed Cole from the position of AMP and posted him to Ceylon in January 1945 as RAAF Liaison Officer to South East Asia Command . Cole served in this role until the end of the war , taking part in negotiations for the Japanese capitulation and acting as Australia 's senior representative at the formal surrender ceremony in Singapore on 12 September 1945 .
= = Retirement and legacy = =
Cole was summarily retired from the RAAF in 1946 , along with several other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , primarily to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers . In an earlier minute to the Minister for Air , Arthur Drakeford , regarding post @-@ war command prospects , Air Vice Marshal Jones had assessed Cole as having failed to display " certain of those qualities expected to be possessed by senior officers of such rank " . In any case , his role overseas was redundant . Cole , for his part , later wrote to the Melbourne Herald that he considered the RAAF 's administration during World War II to be " weak " , and that as a consequence he felt " a lot happier to serve most of the War with the Royal Air Force " .
Ranked substantive air commodore and honorary air vice marshal , Cole was officially discharged from the RAAF on 17 April 1946 . He resented being forcibly retired , and stood for election as the Liberal Party candidate for Drakeford 's seat , the Victorian Division of Maribyrnong , in the federal election that year . Cole stated that his candidacy was " an endeavour to bring some sense and stability to Government administration " but was unsuccessful , and Drakeford retained the seat . Cole subsequently served as a director with Pacific Insurance and Guinea Airways . He died in Melbourne of chronic respiratory disease on 14 February 1966 . Survived by his wife and four children , he was buried in Camperdown Cemetery , Victoria , following a funeral at RAAF Base Laverton .
Cole Street and the Cole Street Conservation Precinct at Point Cook Base , RAAF Williams , are named for Adrian Cole . His decorations were held by the Naval and Military Club , Melbourne , where he had been a long @-@ standing member . In July 2009 , following the club 's dissolution , the medals were to be auctioned along with other memorabilia . This action was challenged by Cole 's family , who argued that his decorations were only on loan to the club , and should be donated to the Australian War Memorial ( AWM ) . As the Supreme Court of Victoria deliberated on the case , the parties involved negotiated a settlement whereby Cole 's medals would be transferred to the AWM .
= Shemanski Fountain =
Shemanski Fountain , also known as Rebecca at the Well , is an outdoor fountain with a bronze sculpture , located in the South Park Blocks of downtown Portland , Oregon , in the United States . The sandstone fountain was designed in 1925 , completed in 1926 , and named after Joseph Shemanski , a Polish immigrant and businessman who gave it to the city . Carl L. Linde designed the trefoil , which features a statue designed by Oliver Laurence Barrett . The sculpture , which was added to the fountain in 1928 , depicts the biblical personage Rebecca . Shemanski Fountain includes two drinking platforms with three basins each , with one platform intended for use by dogs .
The fountain underwent major renovations between 1987 and 1988 and in 2004 . It has been vandalized on several occasions and has been used as a reference point for gatherings . It has also has been included in public art guides and walking tours of Portland . According to " cultureNOW " , the statue Rebecca at the Well is part of the City of Portland and Multnomah County Public Art Collection courtesy of the Regional Arts & Culture Council — the agency that maintains the sculpture . The fountain surrounding the statue , often considered part of the artwork , is maintained by the Portland Water Bureau with assistance from the Regional Arts & Culture Council .
= = Description = =
Shemanski Fountain was designed by Carl L. Linde in 1925 , and is located behind the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall between Main Street and Salmon Street in Shemanski Park , part of the South Park Blocks of downtown Portland , Oregon . It was gifted to Portland by Joseph Shemanski ( 1869 – 1951 ) , a Polish immigrant who became a successful businessman after founding Eastern Outfitting Co . , to " express in small measure gratitude " for what the city offered to him . The fountain is triangular and cast from Oregon sandstone . The Italianesque trefoil supports two drinking platforms with three basins each , with one platform intended for use by dogs . Inara Verzemnieks of The Oregonian described the fountain 's lower water basins as " cute little bowl @-@ sized pools at the base " for the purpose of serving pets " who did not have a place to cool off " . Thayne Logan , a designer who worked for Linde , said that Shemanski " wanted something for the little animals " . Logan also said that the fountain 's original design called for granite , but it was constructed of cast stone because of that material 's popularity at the time . According to the Regional Arts & Culture Council , the fountain is 144 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high and has a diameter of 224 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) . An inscription around the top of the fountain reads : " To the People of / The City of Portland / By Joseph Shemanski " . Other inscriptions include " O. Barrett SC ' 27 Cal . Br . Foundry , L.A " and a signed Founder 's mark . The bottom of the fountain is decorated with busts of females . It is maintained by the Portland Water Bureau with assistance from the Regional Arts & Culture Council .
The fountain 's original design included a large planter , but following its construction Shemanski hired Oliver Laurence Barrett to create a bronze statue to replace the vase . Barrett , an arts professor at the University of Oregon , designed Rebecca at the Well , though his reasons for depicting the Biblical personage Rebecca fetching water are unknown . According to Portland Parks & Recreation , which operates the South Park Blocks , he chose Rebecca for " her hospitality to strangers and kindness to animals " . The bureau has also said that Rebecca was chosen because of her offers to draw water for Abraham . The statue , which depicts Rebecca holding a jug on her right shoulder , was added to the fountain in 1928 . Rebecca at the Well measures 42 inches ( 110 cm ) x 18 inches ( 46 cm ) × 14 inches ( 36 cm ) and is maintained by the Regional Arts & Culture Council .
= = History = =
Shemanski petitioned the City Council to let him gift the fountain , which began operating on September 3 , 1926 . In 1987 , the fountain 's plumbing was repaired and a new base was poured as part of a renovation of the South Park Blocks . That same year , Logan and two other men — David L. Lipman and Jeff Wolfstone , grandson and great @-@ grandson of Shemanski , respectively — approached the Portland Bureau of Parks and Recreation , advocating for the fountain 's restoration . During the renovation process , the fountain was thoroughly cleaned , had missing pieces such as finials and urns replaced and chipped corners repaired , and was coated with a sealant to protect it from the elements and graffiti . In July 1988 , the fountain re @-@ opened following nearly a year of reconditioning . A dedication ceremony to mark the restoration was held on the afternoon of July 18 . One park designer with the Park Bureau said , " the water will be turned on for the first time that anybody can remember . " Lipman , Logan and Wolfstone attended the ceremony . Logan , aged 88 , was the only surviving person who participated in the fountain 's design and construction . The men offered funds for part of the renovation and the purchase of a bronze plaque that includes the original rendering done by Logan and describes the fountain 's history and recent work . Costs for the plaque and renovation totaled $ 14 @,@ 000 .
The fountain and sculpture were surveyed by the Smithsonian 's Save Outdoor Sculpture ! program in 1993 . Lee Lacey advocated for a 2004 restoration of the fountain ; his lobbying efforts , among other accomplishments , earned him the Downtown Neighborhood Association 's inaugural First Neighbor Award in 2005 . The restoration was completed by conservator Marie Laibinis @-@ Craft and Pioneer Waterproofing . In 2008 , The Oregonian reported that the fountain was " completely dry " .
According to The Oregonian , the fountain and statue " commemorates kindness " ; however it has been vandalized on several occasions . In 1988 , three brass bowls were removed from the recently renovated fountain . In 2007 , the statue of Rebecca was pushed off its base , resulting in nearly $ 10 @,@ 000 in damage . In 2008 , one of the fountain 's three brass nozzles was stolen . In December 2011 , when Occupy Portland protesters were camping at Shemanski Park , a cup of coffee was drawn on the statue using a marker or paint .
The fountain has been used as a reference point for gatherings . In 2001 , following the September 11 attacks , a peace shrine consisting of flowers , " scrawled words " and candles was erected at the fountain . In 2003 , People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals displayed photographs of slaughterhouses next to those of Nazi extermination camps by the fountain . In 2006 , a PDX AIDS Day Promise Vigil was held in conjunction with World AIDS Day at the site . In 2010 , 600 Catholic women and their supporters gathered at the site for the first " One Spirit – One Call " event , which brought focus to their role within the Church . Shemanski Fountain was chosen at the gathering site for its depiction of Rebecca .
= = Reception = =
AOL Travel said that Rebecca is depicted " with motion and grace " . Shemanski Fountain has been included in public art guides and walking tours of fountains in downtown Portland . In 1988 , The Oregonian 's Suzanne Richards referred to Shemanski Fountain as " one of the city 's favorite fountains " . In 2006 , Bonnie Darves of The Oregonian included the fountain in her walking tour of Portland landmarks , and said it is " worth getting wet for " .
= 2008 Orange Bowl =
The 2008 FedEx Orange Bowl was a post @-@ season college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Kansas Jayhawks on January 3 , 2008 , at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens , Florida . Spread bettors favored Virginia Tech by three points , but in a game dominated by defensive and special teams play , Kansas defeated Virginia Tech 24 – 21 . The game was part of the 2007 – 2008 Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) of the 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season and was the concluding game of the season for both teams . This 74th edition of the Orange Bowl was televised in the United States on FOX and was watched by more than eight million viewers .
The game between the fifth @-@ ranked ACC champion Virginia Tech Hokies and the eighth @-@ ranked Kansas Jayhawks from the Big 12 Conference ( Big 12 ) was played at neutral @-@ site Dolphins Stadium . Tech served as the home team in the contest . Virginia Tech automatically qualified for the Orange Bowl by virtue of the ACC 's tie @-@ in with the bowl , while Orange Bowl selected Kansas over West Virginia — which had been upset by then 4 – 7 Pittsburgh — and conference rival Missouri . Two weeks after Kansas 's selection , controversy erupted when a deal was revealed to put 4th @-@ ranked Oklahoma against Virginia Tech . The deal was vetoed by BCS commissioners , and the selection of Kansas was upheld .
The game marked the first time the Jayhawks had been to the Orange Bowl since the 1969 Orange Bowl and was their first bowl game since the 2005 Fort Worth Bowl , when they defeated Houston 41 – 13 . Virginia Tech last played in the Orange Bowl game in December 1996 , losing to Nebraska 21 – 41 . The 2008 Orange Bowl was Virginia Tech 's 15th consecutive season with a bowl game , a streak dating to the 1993 Independence Bowl .
Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing completed 20 of his 37 passes for 227 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . On the opposite side of the ball , Virginia Tech quarterback Sean Glennon finished the game 13 for 28 passing , earning 160 yards , one touchdown and two interceptions . Kansas cornerback Aqib Talib , whose 60 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown gave Kansas its first lead of the game , won the game 's Most Valuable Player award . After the game , Talib was one of several players from both teams to announce an intention to enter the 2008 NFL Draft .
= = Team selection = =
As champions of the Atlantic Coast Conference , Virginia Tech was awarded an automatic bid to the Orange Bowl game . The automatic ACC bid was the result of an off @-@ season deal following the inaugural ACC Championship Game which granted the winner of the ACC Championship Game an automatic bid to the Orange Bowl unless it was ranked high enough in the Bowl Championship Series standings to play in the National Championship Game .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies began their 2007 football season with emotion and remembrance . As Virginia Tech recovered from the worst school shooting in American history , football served as a way to help the university community emotionally heal . The opening game of the season , on September 1 , 2007 , was against East Carolina University and featured numerous remembrance ceremonies and commemorations . Buoyed by the emotion of the day , the Hokies earned a 17 – 7 victory . Their next game would not be as easy . One week later , Virginia Tech traveled to Baton Rouge , Louisiana to face the No. 2 Louisiana State University Tigers . The Tigers were widely regarded in pre @-@ season polls as favorites to play in the National Championship Game and overwhelmed the Hokies in front of a home crowd , 48 – 7 .
In the wake of the Hokies 's defeat , Virginia Tech chose to start a new quarterback and a new offensive plan . Behind freshman Tyrod Taylor , the Hokies rolled to five straight victories , including a win over No. 22 Clemson by 18 points . During the winning streak , Sean Glennon , who had started at quarterback for the Hokies during the first two games of the season , returned to alternate possessions with Taylor in an unusual two @-@ quarterback system . On October 25 , the Hokies had a chance to make up for their early @-@ season loss to LSU when they faced No. 2 Boston College on a Thursday night in Blacksburg , Virginia . Though the Hokies dominated for most of the game , Boston College quarterback Matt Ryan managed a late @-@ game comeback to win the game 14 – 10 with 11 seconds remaining .
With four consecutive victories after the loss , including a win over then @-@ No. 16 Virginia , the Hokies won the Coastal division and secured a bid to the 2007 ACC Championship Game in Jacksonville , Florida . There , they faced a rematch with Boston College , champions of the Atlantic Division . As in the previous matchup , defense dominated , but unlike in the earlier matchup , Matt Ryan was unable to seize the victory . Two fourth @-@ quarter interceptions by Virginia Tech sealed the Hokie win and an automatic bid to the Orange Bowl game .
= = = Kansas = = =
Kansas began its 2007 football season unregarded and without much consideration from the national media . In the opening Associated Press football poll of the 2007 season , Kansas did not receive a single vote . From their opening game of the year , however , the Jayhawks began to impress voters with their offensive efficiency . Against Mid @-@ American Conference Champion Central Michigan University , Kansas scored 52 points while only allowing a single touchdown .
Over the next three games , Kansas outscored its opponents 162 – 16 . As Kansas 's Big 12 schedule began , the Jayhawks ' winning ways continued , as they proved themselves against legitimate competition . On October 6 , Kansas traveled to Manhattan , Kansas , home of then @-@ ranked No. 24 Kansas State University for the opening game of its Big 12 schedule . In front of 50 @,@ 924 hostile fans , Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing struggled for the first time in the season . Late in the fourth quarter , Reesing threw a ball that bounced off the facemask of wide receiver Dexton Fields before being intercepted . The interception set up a Kansas State touchdown that put Kansas into a 24 – 21 hole with seven and a half minutes remaining . Reesing and the Jayhawks struck back quickly , however , and scored a 30 @-@ yard touchdown to take the lead for good .
With the win , Kansas broke into the rankings of the top 25 college football teams in the country for the first time since 1996 , entering the AP Poll at No. 20 . Over the next six weeks , Kansas continued to find ways to win . Traditional Jayhawk rivals such as Nebraska , Oklahoma State , and Texas A & M were defeated during the course of the season , and Kansas climbed the national rankings . By the 13th week of the season , the stage had been set for an epic game against Kansas 's traditional rival , Missouri .
Due to prior agreement , the 2007 edition of the Border War was held in Kansas City , Missouri , at Arrowhead Stadium , home of the National Football League 's Kansas City Chiefs . In front of over 80 @,@ 000 fans , No. 4 Missouri defeated No. 2 Kansas 36 – 28 to hand the Jayhawks their first loss of the season . Missouri , with the win , earned a trip to the Big 12 Championship Game . In that game , Oklahoma defeated Missouri 38 – 17 to earn an automatic bid to the 2008 Fiesta Bowl . Because the loss gave Missouri its second of the year , Kansas , which lost to the Tigers , was selected as an at @-@ large pick by the BCS and earned a trip to the Orange Bowl .
= = = Controversy = = =
Although Virginia Tech 's selection via automatic bid was relatively quiet , Kansas ' selection caused a great deal of controversy . Kansas had lost to Big 12 runner @-@ up Missouri and had a lower Bowl Championship Poll ranking than the Tigers . Some believed that Missouri should have been selected ahead of Kansas because they had defeated Kansas and because they had played in the Big 12 Championship Game . According to BCS officials , however , Missouri 's two losses were more of a detriment than Kansas 's one loss and subsequent championship game absence .
Pundits and fans who opposed Kansas ' selection pointed to the Jayhawks ' strength of schedule , which at one point during the season was as low as 109th out of 119 Division I teams . By the time of the BCS selection , however , Kansas 's strength of schedule had climbed by a small amount , reaching 88th in the Sagarin rankings and 74th in the CBS rankings . The final rankings rated Kansas ' schedule as more difficult than Hawaii , which was also selected to play in the BCS . Aggravating the situation was the fact that Kansas and Missouri had one of the most intense rivalries in college football . Known as the Border War , the roots of the rivalry dated to the years before the American Civil War .
Two weeks after the selection of Kansas , yet another controversy arose when it was revealed that Big 12 and ACC officials had worked out an agreement to feature an Oklahoma / Virginia Tech matchup in the Orange Bowl in the hours leading up to the final selection . Oklahoma , which initiated the proposal , requested that it face the highest @-@ ranked BCS opponent then available , which would have been Virginia Tech ( ranked 3rd in the BCS ) . Normally , Oklahoma , the 2007 Big 12 Champion , would have played in the Fiesta Bowl , which holds the automatic rights to the Big 12 Champion 's BCS bid . A little @-@ known clause in the Bowl Championship Series contract , however , allows for the commissioners of the BCS to override that bid if the automatically selected team had played in the game the previous year , or to create a more interesting matchup . Oklahoma had played in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl and seemed a perfect candidate for execution of the clause . Representatives from the Orange and Fiesta bowls reportedly worked out a deal to swap Oklahoma and Kansas and Dan Beebe , the commissioner from the Big 12 , presented the plan to the BCS committee . The remaining BCS commissioners rejected the request ( with only the Big 12 , ACC and Big East commissioners in favor ) and honored the original selection of Kansas for the Orange Bowl and forced Oklahoma to accept its automatic Fiesta Bowl Bid . The release of this plan upset many fans at both schools and across the country , who perceived that an ( 4 ) Oklahoma- ( 3 ) Virginia Tech matchup would have been superior to a ( 8 ) Kansas- ( 3 ) Virginia Tech game . Ironically , while Oklahoma @-@ Virginia Tech was perceived as a better match @-@ up due to their high rankings , both teams went on to be upset by the lower ranked team with Oklahoma losing 48 @-@ 28 to ( 9 ) West Virginia .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Most pre @-@ game media and popular coverage of the 2008 Orange Bowl focused on the matchup between Kansas 's No. 2 scoring offense and Virginia Tech 's No. 2 scoring defense . Outside factors , such as coaching , previous experience , and fan support were also considered in pre @-@ game analysis of the matchup . Outside story lines included Virginia Tech 's recovery from the Virginia Tech Massacre , recovery from late @-@ season losses suffered by each team ( against Missouri for Kansas and against Boston College for Virginia Tech ) .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
= = = = Kansas = = = =
Heading into the Orange Bowl , Kansas was ranked second in the nation in scoring ( 44 @.@ 3 ) and sixth in yards per game ( 491 ) . Kansas scored 40 or more points eight times during the 2007 season and scored 50 points five times . Kansas 's ground game was led by running back Brandon McAnderson , who averaged 87 @.@ 5 yards per game during the 2007 season and earned 1 @,@ 050 yards and 16 touchdowns in the season leading to the Orange Bowl . Through the air , Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing earned the 11th @-@ highest passer rating in the country , averaging a 152 @.@ 41 quarterback rating in 2007 . Reesing completed 62 @.@ 6 % of his passes during the 2007 season , earning 3 @,@ 259 yards , 32 touchdowns , and just six interceptions . Reesing 's favorite receiver was Marcus Henry , who was ranked No. 29 in the country for passing yardage , averaging over 82 receiving yards per game . During 2007 , Henry earned 994 yards and nine touchdowns . On the offensive line , the Jayhawks were led by All @-@ American left tackle Anthony Collins , who finished as a finalist for the Outland Trophy , awarded to college football 's best offensive lineman . Because of the Jayhawks ' effectiveness on offense , they punted the ball just 46 times during the 2007 season , the seventh @-@ lowest total in Division I.
= = = = Virginia Tech = = = =
Virginia Tech featured an unusual two @-@ quarterback system on offense , as quarterbacks Sean Glennon and Tyrod Taylor shared time behind center . Though unusual , the system was successful in leading the Hokies to their second ACC Championship in four years . During the 2007 regular season , Glennon threw for 1 @,@ 636 yards and 11 touchdowns , completing 63 percent of his passes . Taylor , meanwhile , passed for 916 yards and five touchdowns while also rushing for 431 yards . Some pundits predicted that Kansas might have difficulty with Taylor 's mobility , as his style of play was similar to that of Missouri 's Chase Daniel , who gave Kansas its sole loss of the 2007 season . On the other end of the Virginia Tech aerial offense was a corps of capable receivers , led by senior wide receivers Eddie Royal and Josh Morgan . Morgan was the fifth @-@ ranked receiver in Virginia Tech history , having earned 1 @,@ 787 receiving yards . Royal was sixth , having earned 1 @,@ 767 yards . Two of Tech 's other receivers , Josh Hyman and Justin Harper , recorded 1 @,@ 138 and 1 @,@ 274 receiving yards each , marking the first time in Virginia Tech history that the Hokies had four different thousand @-@ yard career receivers on the same team . On the ground , the Hokies were led by running back Branden Ore , who rushed for 876 yards and eight touchdowns during the regular season . One week before the Orange Bowl , Tech coaches revealed that Ore would be suspended for the first quarter of the game against Kansas as punishment for showing up late to the Hokies ' final pre @-@ bowl practice . Ore was replaced by sophomore rusher Kenny Lewis Jr .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
= = = = Virginia Tech = = = =
Virginia Tech finished the season ranked second nationally in points allowed per game ( 15 @.@ 5 ) and fourth nationally in yardage allowed ( 293 ) . The Hokies didn 't allow a fourth @-@ quarter point in the five games after giving up 14 fourth @-@ quarter points to Boston College in Blacksburg . One key player in the Virginia Tech defense was linebacker Xavier Adibi , who had scored his third career defensive touchdown in the ACC Championship Game against Boston College . Adibi , together with fellow linebacker Vince Hall , made up " the best LB duo in the country , " according to ESPN commentator Chris Spielman . Hall 's effectiveness had , however , been limited in the 2007 season by a broken wrist suffered against Clemson . Hall missed four games with the injury , but returned to play the final three contests of the season for Virginia Tech and promised to be featured heavily in the 2008 Orange Bowl . Backing up the Virginia Tech linebackers was a strong backfield , which had produced 12 NFL draft picks in the nine years preceding the 2007 season . Primary among the backfield players were cornerbacks Victor Harris and Brandon Flowers , who Sports Illustrated.com called " maybe the best cornerback duo in the country " .
= = = = Kansas = = = =
Kansas , meanwhile , was less @-@ highly regarded on defense and came into the 2008 Orange Bowl ranked 57th nationally in pass defense . On the ground , however , Kansas was ranked far higher — sixth in the nation . In addition , Kansas only allowed an average of 16 points per game , good enough for to be ranked fourth nationally . A key portion of that run defense was defensive tackle James McClinton , who was named the Big 12 's Defensive Lineman of the Year and earned second @-@ team All @-@ America honors . McClinton finished the 2007 regular season with 10 @.@ 5 tackles for loss and promised more of the same for the Orange Bowl . The team captain of the Jayhawk defense , meanwhile , was All @-@ American cornerback Aqib Talib . Talib was also a threat on offense , catching eight passes , including four touchdowns , during the regular season .
= = Game summary = =
The 2008 Orange Bowl kicked off at 8 : 30 p.m. EST at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens , Florida . The official attendance for the game was listed as 74 @,@ 111 ( the eighth consecutive Orange Bowl sellout ) , but actual attendance was lower , and several upper @-@ deck sections of the stadium were sparsely filled . Approximately 15 million viewers watched the game , earning the broadcast a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 . The broadcast of the 2008 Orange Bowl was the only BCS bowl game to show a rise in television viewers over the previous season 's broadcast , as the 2007 Orange Bowl had only earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 0 . The pre @-@ game show featured several high school marching bands , and the national anthem was sung by American Idol runner @-@ up Katharine McPhee .
The coin toss featured former Virginia Tech star Bruce Smith , while Kansas was represented by Gale Sayers . Kansas won the toss and elected to defer its choice until the second half . Virginia Tech chose to receive the ball to start the game . Kansas would receive the ball to begin the second half . At kickoff , the air temperature was unseasonably cold for Miami at 57 ° F ( 14 ° C ) , and the skies were cloudy with intermittent rain .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech 's Eddie Royal fielded the opening kickoff from Kansas kicker Scott Webb , returning it 59 yards to the 41 @-@ yard line of Kansas . The return gave the Virginia Tech offense excellent field position to begin the game . Tech quarterback Sean Glennon connected on an 11 @-@ yard pass to Justin Harper for a first down on the opening play of the game , but Kansas ' defense stiffened on subsequent plays . After Virginia Tech 's Tyrod Taylor entered the game at quarterback , Kansas sacked Taylor twice , pushing Virginia Tech 19 yards backward , out of field goal range . Because of the sacks , Virginia Tech was forced to punt the ball away without scoring any points .
The punt was downed in the end zone for a touchback , and Kansas began its first offensive possession of the game at its 20 @-@ yard line . Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing proved remarkably effective , completing six of his eight passes during the drive and rushing for five yards on a quarterback scramble . Reesing drove Kansas ' offense into Virginia Tech territory , but after Tech 's Orion Martin sacked Reesing , Kansas was unable to gain another first down and kicker Scott Webb was sent into the game to attempt a 44 @-@ yard field goal . Webb 's kick sailed wide of the uprights , however , and the game remained scoreless with 6 : 44 remaining in the first quarter .
After the missed field goal , Virginia Tech took over on offense at its own 27 @-@ yard line . Running back Kenny Lewis , Jr . , replacing the suspended Branden Ore , ran for a first down , and Tyrod Taylor connected on an 11 @-@ yard pass to Eddie Royal for another first down . Now inside Kansas territory , Taylor attempted another pass . Kansas All @-@ American cornerback Aqib Talib jumped between Taylor 's throw and the receiver , intercepting the ball . Talib returned the interception 60 yards to the end zone for a Kansas touchdown — the first points of the game . An extra point kick by Scott Webb made the score 7 – 0 Kansas with 5 : 15 remaining in the quarter .
High @-@ stepping into the endzone , Aqib Talib committed a 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty , which was enforced on the post @-@ score kickoff . The penalty , coupled with a good kick return by Virginia Tech , gave the Hokies excellent field position for their third possession of the game . Quarterback Sean Glennon capitalized on that field position , connecting on a 24 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Justin Harper . The catch pushed Virginia Tech inside Kansas territory and seemingly set up the Hokie offense for their first score of the game . After two plays for no gain and a five @-@ yard loss when Glennon was sacked by James Holt , Virginia Tech was forced to attempt a 49 @-@ yard field goal . Jud Dunlevy 's kick fell short , however , and Virginia Tech was denied a score . Kansas recovered the short kick , which landed in the end zone , and returned the ball 39 yards . Despite the momentum earned by the missed kick , Kansas went three plays without gaining a first down and was forced to punt the ball away . Virginia Tech recovered the ball at its 15 @-@ yard line and ran two plays before time ran out in the first quarter .
At the end of the first quarter , Kansas had kept Virginia Tech scoreless while capitalizing on a 60 @-@ yard interception return by Aqib Talib for the game 's only points , a 7 – 0 lead .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Virginia Tech began the second quarter in possession of the ball and facing a third @-@ and @-@ five from its own 20 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , quarterback Sean Glennon threw for the first down , but was intercepted at the 37 @-@ yard line by Kansas ' Chris Harris . After the interception , Kansas had the ball at the Virginia Tech 31 @-@ yard line . Todd Reesing connected on a first @-@ down pass to Derek Fine , and running back Brandon McAnderson contributed several short rushes . The Kansas offense failed to gain a second first down after the interception , however , and kicker Scott Webb was again called upon to attempt a field goal , this time from 32 yards away . Unlike his first kick , the second sailed through the uprights for three points . With 12 minutes remaining in the second quarter , Kansas extended its lead to 10 – 0 .
Virginia Tech recovered the post @-@ field goal kickoff at its own 31 @-@ yard line , and Branden Ore , having entered the game after his one @-@ quarter suspension , advanced the ball three yards . Quarterback Tyrod Taylor also advanced the ball five yards on a scramble , but failed to gain a first down . The Hokies were forced to punt the ball away , and Kansas recovered the kick at its 41 @-@ yard line . With good field position and momentum granted by the interception and field goal , Kansas moved the ball quickly . Todd Reesing was sacked by Nekos Brown and Xavier Adibi , but connected to Jake Sharp for 20 yards on two passes , advancing the ball deep into Virginia Tech territory . Passes to Marcus Henry and Dezmon Briscoe advanced Kansas 21 more yards into Hokie territory , and Brandon McAnderson rushed for five yards on the ground . Capping the Kansas drive was a 13 @-@ yard toss by Reesing to Henry for a touchdown . The score , which came with 7 : 03 remaining in the first half , gave Kansas a 17 – 0 lead , its largest of the game .
Virginia Tech recovered the post @-@ touchdown kickoff desperately needing to score before halftime . Kansas had played strongly on defense throughout the first half , and the game 's momentum was firmly behind the Jayhawks , who had capitalized on two Virginia Tech turnovers . Sean Glennon completed a three @-@ yard pass to Josh Morgan to begin the drive , but it was running back Branden Ore who did the vast majority of the work during the Hokies ' final offensive drive of the first half . After Glennon 's pass , Ore rushed the ball on six straight plays , picking up 33 yards and two first downs on the way . After that , Glennon contributed a five @-@ yard run of his own , which was aided by a 15 @-@ yard facemask penalty against Kansas . Branden Ore received the ball again , rushing on five consecutive plays , culminating in a one @-@ yard run for a touchdown . The score came with just 1 : 03 left in the half , giving Virginia Tech its first points of the game and narrowing Kansas ' lead to 17 – 7 .
Kansas received Virginia Tech 's kickoff , and the Hokies attempted to give themselves another chance at offense by calling timeouts after Kansas rushed the ball . The timeouts stopped the clock , but Kansas managed to earn a first down and run out the clock after Tech used its allotted three timeouts . Heading into halftime , Kansas still had the lead and the momentum , but a Virginia Tech touchdown had cut the Jayhawks ' lead to just 10 points , 17 – 7 .
= = = Halftime show = = =
The halftime show of the 2008 Orange Bowl was headlined by American blues rock band ZZ Top , who played their song Sharp Dressed Man . The band was a favorite of Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing , who expressed regrets prior to the game that he would not be able to listen to the performance . The Master of Ceremonies for the show was local disc jockey DJ Irie , who orchestrated a cheering contest between fans of Virginia Tech and Kansas . Irie became the first DJ to perform in the halftime show of a bowl game in 2005 when he played during halftime at the 2005 Orange Bowl . Also featured during the halftime show were a group of high school marching bands , who played Stevie Ray Vaughan 's Crossfire while ZZ Top 's stage was disassembled . Following the halftime show , the FOX truck broadcasting the game experienced a power outage . As Fox crews worked to get the power restored , the second half was delayed by three minutes .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Kansas , which had won the pre @-@ game coin toss , received the ball to open the second half . Todd Reesing initially began where he had left off in the first half , completing a pass to Dexton Fields for 12 yards and a first down . On subsequent plays , however , Virginia Tech showed some of the defensive prowess that had been promoted heavily heading into the game . Aqib Talib was tackled for a loss of six yards after catching a pass . Reesing was sacked under heavy pressure from the Tech defense . On third down , a Reesing pass was nearly intercepted by Cody Grimm , who knocked it down to force a Kansas punt . On the subsequent return , Virginia Tech earned its first big play of the game . Eddie Royal , who had returned every one of Virginia Tech 's first @-@ half kicks , received the ball and lateraled it to Justin Harper , who returned it 84 yards for a touchdown . The score cut Kansas ' lead to just three points with 11 : 35 remaining in the third quarter .
With the game 's momentum now firmly in their favor , the Virginia Tech defense stopped Kansas ' offense on three straight plays , forcing another Kansas punt . The kick traveled 62 yards and was recovered at the Virginia Tech 18 @-@ yard line . Virginia Tech 's offense , despite the poor field position , moved quickly , partly due to a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty against Kansas . Sean Glennon completed a controversial 37 @-@ yard pass to tight end Greg Boone to drive the Hokies deep into Kansas territory . Initially , the pass appeared to have been intercepted by a Kansas defender , but subsequent replays revealed that Boone had wrested possession of the ball away from the defender . Three rushes deep inside the Kansas red zone netted the Hokies just nine more yards , setting up a fourth @-@ and @-@ one scenario for the Virginia Tech offense . Rather than risk a failed fourth @-@ down conversion , Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer sent in kicker Jud Dunlevy to attempt a 25 @-@ yard field goal . During the kick , however , Kansas defender Joe Mortensen rushed through the Virginia Tech line and blocked the kick , denying the Hokies three points and preserving a 17 – 14 Kansas lead with 6 : 31 remaining in the quarter .
The block neutralized all the Virginia Tech momentum that had been gained with the punt @-@ return touchdown and kept Kansas in the lead . After the block , however , Kansas failed to gain a first down on offense . Though forced to punt the ball away , punter Kyle Tucker 's 42 @-@ yard kick was helped by a 10 @-@ yard illegal blocking penalty against Virginia Tech that pinned the Hokies at their own 25 @-@ yard line . Branden Ore picked up a first down with two rushes , but the Tech offense failed to gain another first down and the Hokies were forced to punt the ball again .
Kansas took over at its own 12 @-@ yard line after the punt . On the first play of the drive , Reesing completed a 37 @-@ yard pass to Dexton Fields , putting the ball near midfield . Three straight incomplete passes later , Kansas faced a fourth @-@ and @-@ ten and a punt . Instead of punting the ball away , however , Kansas elected to try a risky fake punt @-@ pass . Instead of snapping the ball to the punter , the ball was snapped to running back Brandon McAnderson , who threw the ball 22 yards downfield to Micah Brown for a first down . On the very next play , Reesing , having returned to the field , connected on a 28 @-@ yard pass to Dexton Fields , who was pushed out of bounds just short of the goal line . With a first @-@ and @-@ goal from inside the one @-@ yard line , a Kansas touchdown seemed inevitable . On the first play inside the red zone , however , Kansas fumbled the ball . Though the ball was recovered by a Kansas player , the play lost four yards . On the next play , Kansas committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty . The personal foul was followed by a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty , and Kansas was pushed entirely outside the Virginia Tech red zone . In an effort to push back , Reesing threw a pass deep downfield . Instead of being completed , however , the ball was intercepted by Virginia Tech 's D.J. Parker . With 39 seconds left in the quarter , Virginia Tech had stopped Kansas from gaining a point despite the Jayhawks penetrating inside the Virginia Tech one @-@ yard line .
As the quarter came to an end , the Hokies gained two quick first downs and advanced the ball 26 yards , seemingly having regained the momentum lost with the blocked kick . With one quarter remaining in the game , however , Kansas still had a three @-@ point lead , 17 – 14 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The first few plays of the fourth quarter failed to live up to the promise that had been shown in the third for the Hokies . Two incomplete passes and one that gained just two yards forced Virginia Tech to punt the ball away with 13 : 49 remaining in the quarter . After taking over at its 33 @-@ yard line , Kansas had no more success on offense than did Virginia Tech . After three straight plays with no gain , Kansas was forced to punt the ball away as well . A 58 @-@ yard kick by Kyle Tucker pinned Virginia Tech inside its 10 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies were unable to advance the ball much beyond the ten @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass and a two @-@ yard run by Branden Ore were all the offense managed before Sean Glennon threw a 20 @-@ yard interception to the Jayhawks ' Justin Thornton . Thornton returned the ball 30 yards to the Virginia Tech two @-@ yard line , and on Kansas ' first play after the interception , Todd Reesing ran two yards for the touchdown . The score gave the Jayhawks a 24 – 14 lead with just 10 : 57 remaining .
After the Kansas kickoff , Virginia Tech took over at its 33 @-@ yard line . Needing a score , the Hokies committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty before quarterback Sean Glennon was sacked by Kansas ' Mike Rivera . The two plays pushed the Virginia Tech offense back , preventing them from gaining a first down . Forced to punt the ball away , Virginia Tech had to play defense as Kansas took over at its 28 @-@ yard line . Secure in their lead , Kansas elected to run the ball in an effort to keep the clock moving and bring the game to an end more quickly . Brandon McAnderson broke free for 28 yards on the first play of the drive , and Jake Sharp contributed another first down on the ground before the Hokie defense stopped Kansas on an attempt to earn a first down on a fourth @-@ and @-@ two deep inside Virginia Tech territory .
Having stopped Kansas on fourth down , Virginia Tech took over on offense at its 22 @-@ yard line . With just 5 : 51 remaining in the game , the Hokies badly needed to score quickly and get a defensive stop in order to have a chance to win . The Hokies advanced on the first aspect of that requirement as Sean Glennon converted several first downs through the air . Kansas allowed no play over nine yards until late in the drive , forcing Virginia Tech to use up valuable time . On the last play of the drive , Sean Glennon connected on a 20 @-@ yard strike to Justin Harper for a touchdown . The score cut Kansas ' lead to just three points , but with just three minutes remaining in the game , Virginia Tech 's comeback would only be complete if the Hokies could recover a difficult onside kick .
Jud Dunlevy kicked the ball , which traveled the regulation 10 yards , but was recovered by Kansas . The Hokies , despite failing to recover the onside kick , still had a chance for another offensive possession if they stopped Kansas ' offense short of a first down . Because the Hokies had two timeouts remaining , they could stop the clock after two Kansas plays , thus preserving time for a Virginia Tech offensive drive . An 11 @-@ yard pass by Todd Reesing netted Kansas a first down , however , and subsequent runs by the Jayhawks allowed Kansas to run out the clock despite the Virginia Tech timeouts . Kansas preserved its lead by kneeling on the ball inside the Virginia Tech 5 @-@ yard line on the final plays of the game , and the 24 – 21 victory was celebrated as time ran out .
= = Final statistics = =
Kansas ' Aqib Talib was named the game 's Most Valuable Player . Talib 's 60 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown was the Orange Bowl 's first since the 1968 Orange Bowl , when Oklahoma 's Bob Stephenson performed the same feat . When he appeared on stage on the field after the game to receive his award , Talib exclaimed , " I felt like Deion ! " , a reference to former NFL star Deion Sanders .
The two teams finished with extremely similar statistical totals , as befitting a close game . The two teams were within 38 total yards of each other ; Kansas had 344 yards and Virginia Tech had 306 . That relative closeness was reflected in the teams ' first @-@ down totals as well . Virginia Tech earned 20 first downs : 10 rushing , eight passing , and two via penalty . Kansas , meanwhile , earned 19 first downs : five rushing , 13 passing , and one via penalty .
Over two @-@ thirds of Kansas ' offense came through the air as the Jayhawks racked up 249 net passing yards . The Hokies , meanwhile , earned almost half their offense on the ground . The end result of the varying offensive strategies was much the same , however . Kansas successfully converted six of its 17 third @-@ down attempts , while Virginia Tech converted seven of its 17 attempts . The time of possession was one key stat in favor of Kansas , as Kansas controlled the ball for 33 : 47 , over 7 minutes more than Virginia Tech 's possession time of 26 : 13 .
The difference in the game came from special teams and turnovers . Virginia Tech turned the ball over three times , while Kansas turned the ball over just once . Kansas converted its three takeaways into 17 points , giving the Jayhawks an enormous advantage on the scoreboard . Virginia Tech failed to convert its sole turnover recovery into any points .
= = = Virginia Tech statistical recap = = =
On offense , the Hokies largely kept up with the Jayhawks , despite a losing effort . The two @-@ quarterback system that had been heavily promoted heading into the game was largely abandoned in the first quarter after freshman Tyrod Taylor was sacked on his first two plays and threw an interception that was returned for a touchdown during his second time on the field . After those two abortive first @-@ quarter appearances , and a single play at the beginning of the second quarter , Taylor did not re @-@ enter the game until a single play halfway through the fourth quarter . With Taylor largely removed from the game , junior Sean Glennon was left to fill the gaps . Glennon had a solid , if unspectacular , game , completing 13 of his 28 passes for 160 yards and a touchdown . Glennon did struggle at times against the Jayhawks ' defense , however , throwing two interceptions that resulted in 10 Kansas points .
With Glennon behind center , the Virginia Tech offense utilized several different wide receivers in the passing game . Eight different players caught at least one pass , and the leading receiver , Justin Harper , hauled in four catches for 64 yards and a touchdown . Receiver Josh Morgan , meanwhile , caught three passes , bringing him to 122 receptions for his career , passing Antonio Freeman for second place all @-@ time at Virginia Tech . Ernest Wilford remains first in the Virginia Tech record book , with 126 receptions .
The Hokies were slightly more effective rushing the ball . In the ground game , seven different players carried the ball at least once , netting 135 rushing yards . Branden Ore finished the game with 116 yards , leading all rushers on both teams . That total put him just eight yards short of his second @-@ straight 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard season . Ore 's total is even more impressive when one considers that he had been suspended for the entire first quarter of the game , his place taken by backup rusher Kenny Lewis , Jr . Lewis finished the game with four carries for 22 yards , and did not see much action after Ore entered the game at the beginning of the second quarter .
On special teams , the Hokies had several highs and lows . Justin Harper 's 84 @-@ yard punt @-@ return touchdown sparked a Virginia Tech rally that brought the Hokies within striking distance , but failures on special teams also ended the rally and turned the momentum of the game against Virginia Tech . Kicker Jud Dunlevy had been the third @-@ most accurate kicker in the nation heading into the Orange Bowl , having hit 21 of his 24 field goal attempts during the season . He only needed two field goals to break Tech 's record for most field goals in the season , set at 22 by Shayne Graham in 1998 . Though Dunlevy had two chances for field goals , one fell short and the other was blocked .
On defense , the Hokies were led by linebacker Vince Hall , who recorded seven solo tackles , one assisted tackle , and one pass break @-@ up . Hokies ' defender Orion Martin also had a big game , recording six solo tackles , one assisted tackle , and two sacks of Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing . Two other defensive players recorded one sack apiece , and D.J. Parker recorded the Hokies ' sole interception on defense .
= = = Kansas statistical recap = = =
On offense , the Jayhawks recorded a total of 344 yards , 249 of which came through the air . Quarterback Todd Reesing was the key contributor to the Kansas aerial attack , completing 20 of his 37 passes for 227 yards and just one interception . The only other Kansas player to record passing yards was running back Brandon McAnderson , who threw a 22 @-@ yard first @-@ down pass during a fake punt . Though under pressure for much of the game — Reesing was sacked four times — Kansas continued to maintain an effective pass attack throughout the game .
Eight different receivers caught at least one pass , with Dexton Fields leading all receivers in the game with seven catches for 101 yards . Both totals were the highest marks recorded in the game by either team . Fields was also the recipient of a play that tied for the longest pass play of the game , a 37 @-@ yard toss from Reesing halfway through the third quarter . Cornerback and game MVP Aqib Talib came into the game as a receiver several times , but because his appearance in the game was such an unusual occurrence , the Virginia Tech defense was able to zero in on him and prevent him from catching the ball .
The Jayhawks ' ground game was less effective than their pass offense , but still had success against a tough Virginia Tech defense . Running back Brandon McAnderson , Kansas ' leading rusher , finished the game with 15 carries for 75 yards . Backup running back Jake Sharp rushed nine times for 33 yards , including several key first @-@ down runs .
As successful as Kansas ' offense was , it was the Jayhawks ' special teams ( beating Virginia Tech coach Frank Beamer at his own game ) that earned them the victory . Kansas blocked one Virginia Tech field goal , and caused Tech kicker Jud Dunlevy to miss another short . Kansas punter Kyle Tucker did an excellent job pinning Virginia Tech deep in its own end of the field , kicking the ball five times for a total of 250 yards , averaging 50 yards a punt . His longest punt , a 62 @-@ yard kick , was one of three punts that were downed inside Tech 's 20 @-@ yard line .
The Kansas defense , which had been ill @-@ regarded heading into the game , performed well , as MVP Aqib Talib finished the game with five tackles in addition to the interception that he returned for a touchdown . The Jayhawks ' leading tackler was Mike Rivera , who earned 12 tackles , including one sack of quarterback Sean Glennon . Altogether , the Jayhawks sacked Virginia Tech 's quarterbacks five times , including two sacks on the opening drive of the game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Kansas ' victory in the 2008 Orange Bowl had far @-@ reaching effects for both Virginia Tech and Kansas as well as college football teams around the country . The victory allowed Kansas to finish its 2007 season with a final record of 12 – 1 , while the loss brought Virginia Tech to a final record of 11 – 3 . The game itself provided tens of millions of dollars of economic impact for the South Florida region , which attracted tens of thousands of visitors from both Virginia and Kansas . In Kansas , bars and liquor stores benefited from the game , as Jayhawks ' fans stocked up on food and alcohol for the game .
A bet on the game between the governors of Kansas and Virginia was resolved when Virginia Governor Tim Kaine sent a Virginia smoked ham to the Kansas state capitol . Had Virginia Tech won , Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius would have sent Kaine an assortment of Kansas beef .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Hokies ' loss to Kansas lowered its bowl winning percentage since 1993 to 40 percent . In the 15 bowl games played between the 1993 Independence Bowl and the 2008 Orange Bowl , the Hokies amassed a record of six wins and nine losses . Despite the loss to the Jayhawks and the loss of several graduating players , Virginia Tech was a popular pick to repeat as ACC champions heading into the off @-@ season . The seniors who graduated following the Orange Bowl game were the winningest team in Virginia Tech history , becoming one of just three teams in Division I to win at least 10 games each of the previous four years . Junior Sean Glennon 's second consecutive failure to win a bowl game , however , re @-@ opened the question of whether he or Tyrod Taylor would be the Hokies ' starter at quarterback in 2008 .
= = = Kansas = = =
Kansas ' victory over Virginia Tech was the Jayhawks ' fifth bowl victory and was the 11th bowl game in the history of the Kansas Jayhawks football team . Because of the unexpected nature of the Jayhawks ' success , some pundits proclaimed the 2008 Orange Bowl as ranking among the greatest Kansas sports victories of all time . The game paid $ 17 million to Kansas and the Big 12 Conference and helped to boost the Kansas football team 's national profile among potential recruits . In addition , the bowl appearance assisted the Kansas Athletic Department 's fundraising efforts .
= = = 2008 NFL Draft = = =
The 2008 Orange Bowl provided an excellent national platform for players from both Kansas and Virginia Tech to impress National Football League scouts prior to the 2008 NFL Draft , held April 26 and April 27 , 2008 . Virginia Tech cornerback Brandon Flowers was one of the first Orange Bowl participants to announce his intent to enter the draft following the game . Flowers , a redshirt junior , finished the season with five interceptions .
Two Kansas players announced that they would leave early for the NFL . Aqib Talib , the game 's MVP , and All @-@ American Anthony Collins announced they would enter the 2008 draft , capitalizing on their successful season .
In total , eight Virginia Tech players would be drafted that year , along with four Kansas players .
= Keith Ballard =
Keith Galen Ballard ( born November 26 , 1982 ) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman who previously played in the National Hockey League with the Phoenix Coyotes , Florida Panthers , Vancouver Canucks and the Minnesota Wild . He played college hockey for the Minnesota Golden Gophers of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association ( WCHA ) for three seasons . After his freshman year , he was selected 11th overall by the Buffalo Sabres in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . Before he made his NHL debut , he was traded twice – initially to the Colorado Avalanche , then to the Phoenix Coyotes . He played his professional rookie season in 2004 – 05 with the Coyotes ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Utah Grizzlies , then debuted with Phoenix the following season . After three years , he was traded to the Florida Panthers , where he spent two seasons before being dealt to Vancouver at the 2010 NHL Entry Draft . Internationally , Ballard has represented the United States in four World Championships , winning bronze in 2004 . He has also played in two junior tournaments – the 2000 IIHF World U18 Championships and 2002 World Junior Championships .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and college ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
Ballard played two seasons at the junior level in the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) , initially with the United States National Development Team in 1999 – 00 , then the Omaha Lancers the following season . He recorded 51 points over 56 games in 2000 – 01 . With a league @-@ leading 22 goals among defensemen , he earned First Team All @-@ Star honors and a selection to the 2001 USHL All @-@ Star Game . In the post @-@ season , he helped the Lancers win the Clark Cup as league champions , scoring seven points in 10 playoff games .
In 2001 – 02 , he began a three @-@ year tenure of college hockey with the Minnesota Golden Gophers of the WCHA , a conference within the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) . He joined a defensive corps in Minnesota that included future NHL players Jordan Leopold and Paul Martin . Ballard was a much @-@ anticipated freshman and was named the WCHA 's pre @-@ season rookie of the year . Making his collegiate debut on October 5 , 2001 , he notched two assists against the North Dakota Fighting Sioux . Ballard started his rookie campaign on a six @-@ game point streak that included two goals and four assists . Recording 10 goals and 23 points over 41 games total as a freshman , he earned WCHA All @-@ Rookie Team honors . In the first round of the subsequent WCHA playoffs , he scored the series @-@ clinching goal in overtime to eliminate North Dakota . The Golden Gophers advanced to the 2002 NCAA Championships , where they captured their first of back @-@ to @-@ back national titles . Ballard scored the first goal of the NCAA final against the Maine Black Bears , helping Minnesota to a 4 – 3 win in overtime .
The following year , Ballard recorded a college career @-@ high 41 points over 45 games , fourth among NCAA defensemen and third in team scoring . He was named a WCHA All @-@ Academic and University of Minnesota Scholar Athlete for combined performance with the Golden Gophers and in classes . He helped the Golden Gophers to the Broadmoor Trophy as WCHA playoff champions and earned WCHA Final Five All @-@ Tournament Team honors after recording two assists and a + 4 rating in the final two games of the post @-@ season . The Gophers then defeated the New Hampshire Wildcats in the 2003 NCAA Final by a 5 – 1 score to repeat as national champions . Ballard received NCAA West Regional All @-@ Star honors for his efforts during the tournament .
Ballard was named an alternate captain in his third year and produced 11 goals and 36 points over 37 games . His 0 @.@ 97 points @-@ per @-@ game average ranked second among NCAA defensemen , while his five game winning goals were second among all WCHA players and fifth in the NCAA . Ballard served as captain in place of Grant Potulny when the latter was sidelined with injury . Ballard was also sidelined for seven games during the campaign himself with a knee injury . He was voted by his teammates as Minnesota 's most valuable player and received WCHA First All @-@ Star Team , WCHA All @-@ Tournament Team and NCAA West First All @-@ Star Team honors . Ballard was also one of 10 finalists for the Hobey Baker Award , given to the NCAA 's top men 's ice hockey player ( it was awarded to Junior Lessard of the Minnesota @-@ Duluth Bulldogs ) . The Golden Gophers failed to defend their national championship , however , losing their regional final to Minnesota @-@ Duluth .
Ballard left the Golden Gophers seventh all @-@ time among team defensemen with 33 goals . He was also the 74th player in team history to notch 100 points , which also ranked him 11th among defensemen .
= = = Phoenix Coyotes ( 2004 – 08 ) = = =
Ballard was selected in the first round , 11th overall , by the Buffalo Sabres in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . The choice was seen as a surprise by draft observers , as he was projected to be a late first @-@ round to second @-@ round pick . Ballard himself professed the early selection to be unexpected , saying he was ready to be drafted between the 20th and 40th positions . Scouting reports listed him as a puck @-@ rushing offensive defenceman with comparisons to Phil Housley . Before making his NHL debut , he was traded twice . He was initially dealt by Buffalo to the Colorado Avalanche on July 3 , 2003 , for Steven Reinprecht . The following year , he was traded again to the Phoenix Coyotes , along with defenseman Derek Morris , for forward Chris Gratton , defenseman Ossi Väänänen and a second @-@ round selection in the 2005 draft .
Ballard signed with Phoenix a year later to an entry @-@ level contract worth an annual $ 1 @.@ 2 million over three years , including bonuses . With his NHL contract , he decided to forgo his senior year of college hockey . The decision was spurred by his performance at the 2004 World Championships with Team USA , competing with NHL veterans . Ballard indicated that he would only leave the University of Minnesota if he was offered the maximum allowable contract for a rookie , as designated by the collective bargaining agreement of the time , which he received .
Due to the NHL lockout , he made his professional debut in the AHL with the Coyotes ' minor league affiliate , the Utah Grizzlies in 2004 – 05 . He notched two goals and 20 points over 60 games in his professional rookie campaign . As NHL resumed play the following season , Ballard played his first game with the Coyotes on October 5 , 2005 , against the Vancouver Canucks . He scored his first NHL goal in his debut , beating goaltender Dan Cloutier . Ballard finished with 8 goals and 39 points as a rookie ; both remain career highs . He led all NHL defensemen in shorthanded goals with three . Ballard was sidelined for 13 games in his second NHL season due to a bone fracture in his hand , suffered while blocking a shot during a game on October 9 , 2006 . He went on to record 27 points in 69 games . In the off @-@ season , he was re @-@ signed on August 29 , 2007 , to a two @-@ year contract . In 2007 – 08 , Ballard recorded a career @-@ low 21 points .
= = = Florida Panthers ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =
During the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , he was dealt , along with defenseman Nick Boynton and a second @-@ round pick in the draft , to the Florida Panthers in exchange for forward Olli Jokinen . Upon trading for Ballard , Florida head coach Jacques Martin heralded him as the club 's number @-@ two defenseman , behind Jay Bouwmeester . Prior to the 2008 – 09 season , Ballard signed a six @-@ year , $ 25 @.@ 2 million contract extension with the Panthers . The deal came with a season remaining on his existing contract , previously signed with the Coyotes .
Ballard went on to tally 34 points during his first campaign with Florida in 2008 – 09 . The following season , on November 30 , 2009 , Ballard was involved in an on @-@ ice incident that injured his own teammate , goaltender Tomáš Vokoun . After being on the ice for a goal during a game against the Atlanta Thrashers , Ballard aimed to smash his stick against the post and mistakenly hit Vokoun in the mask . Vokoun was taken from the ice on a stretcher and suffered a cut on his ear that required stitches ; he missed two games before returning to the lineup . Ballard , who apologized to Vokoun following the game , was not disciplined by the Panthers or NHL . He went on to match his career @-@ high eight goals and added 20 assists for 28 points in his second season with the Panthers . He also ranked third in the league in blocked shots with 201 . Ballard had played parts of the season with a hip injury . After completing the campaign , he underwent the second hip surgery of his career in May 2010 to repair a stress fracture and remove a cyst .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2010 – 13 ) = = =
On June 25 , 2010 , during the 2010 NHL Entry Draft , Ballard was traded to the Vancouver Canucks along with Victor Oreskovich , for Michael Grabner , Steve Bernier , and Vancouver 's first round pick , the 25th overall selection , used to select Quinton Howden . After spending two months of the off @-@ season on crutches while recovering from surgery , he reported to the Canucks ' training camp , but struggled in the pre @-@ season . Four games into the regular season , he suffered a concussion after being hit into the boards by Los Angeles Kings forward Brad Richardson on October 16 , 2010 . He was subsequently sidelined for five games . Upon returning to the lineup , however , his play continued to struggle . Averaging 13 minutes of ice time a game , he was eventually taken out of the lineup for four games in November by Canucks head coach Alain Vigneault . It marked the first time in his career he was a healthy scratch . After being re @-@ insterted into the lineup , he scored his first goal as a Canuck in a 6 – 1 win against the San Jose Sharks on November 26 . Several months later , Ballard suffered a sprained medial collateral ligament ( MCL ) in his right knee during a game against the Ottawa Senators on February 7 , 2011 . The injury resulted from opposing forward Milan Michalek tripping him from behind , which Canucks general manager Mike Gillis pointed out did not occur anywhere near the puck , alluding to the play as illegal and disrespectable . Ballard finished his first regular season with career lows in games played ( 65 ) , goals ( 2 ) , assists ( 5 ) , points ( 7 ) and average ice time per game ( 15 minutes and 14 seconds ) . His individual struggles came amidst a franchise record season for the Canucks , who won the Presidents ' Trophy as the NHL 's regular season champion for the first time in team history . Entering the playoffs as the first seed in the West , the Canucks advanced past the Chicago Blackhawks , Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks to qualify for the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . Facing the Boston Bruins , Vancouver lost the Stanley Cup in Game 7 . Over the team '
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s 25 playoff games , Ballard dressed for 10 . Playing only one game of the final two rounds , he dropped in the depth chart behind Aaron Rome and rookie Chris Tanev .
Ballard continued to be used as a third @-@ pairing defenceman in his second season with Vancouver . He missed five contests in November and December 2011 due to a back injury , before sustaining a season @-@ ending concussion on February 5 , 2012 . Initially undetected , the injury was caused by two separate hits during a game against the Colorado Avalanche . He remained in the lineup for the following contest before being diagnosed with the injury . His season ended with 1 goal and 7 points over 47 games . His third season with the Canucks was shortened by the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout . When the season started Ballard was again on the Canucks third pairing with Tanev . Early in the season the two were the Canucks ' most consistent pairing . An injury to Kevin Bieksa allowed Andrew Alberts to get into the line @-@ up and split the Ballard @-@ Tanev paring . After Bieksa 's return it was Ballard who was removed from the line @-@ up becoming a healthy scratch . In late March Vancouver suffered several injuries up front to help fill the void Ballard returned to the line @-@ up as a forward . He played three games before suffering a broken foot . Though he was healthy by the playoffs Vancouver opted to play Alberts and rookie Frank Corrado in the first round lost to San Jose . He finished the year playing in 36 games and recording two assists .
= = = Minnesota Wild ( 2013 – 15 ) = = =
With the salary cap decreasing in the off @-@ season Vancouver needed to unload salary . Ballard had two years remaining on his contract with an annual value $ 4 @.@ 2 million . The Canucks tried to trade Ballard in an attempt to avoid using a compliance buyout on him . When that failed the team placed him on waivers . He cleared waivers before Vancouver ultimately bought him out . Two days after becoming a free agent he signed a two @-@ year $ 3 million contract with the Minnesota Wild .
In his second season with the Wild Ballard was hit by the New York Islanders ' Matt Martin after making a pass . The hit was delivered as Ballard turned away from Martin . Ballard 's head struck a glass partition and as he fell his head bounced off the ice . He lay on the ice for a few minutes before being able to leave the ice on his own . Ballard suffered a concussion and multiple facial fractures as a result . He was taken to Regions Hospital for evaluation and observation and released the next day . There was no penalty or suspension in result of the hit .
As a free agent in the off @-@ season , Ballard was still suffering from post @-@ concussion syndrome and opted to end his professional career to pursue studies in sport science at the University of Minnesota .
= = International play = =
Ballard made his international debut with Team USA at the 2000 IIHF World U18 Championships in Switzerland . He was named to the squad while playing in the National Under @-@ 18 Development Program for the 1999 – 2000 season . He contributed a goal and an assist in six games , as the United States finished in eighth place . Two years later , Ballard was named to the under @-@ 20 squad for the 2001 World Junior Championships in the Czech Republic . He played in seven games , recording a goal and an assist . The United States lost in the quarterfinal to Russia and went on to place in fifth after defeating Sweden 3 – 2 in a consolation match .
Following his third year with the Minnesota Golden Gophers , Ballard debuted with the United States men 's team for the 2004 World Championships in the Czech Republic . He was named to the squad after forward Scott Gomez withdrew himself due to personal reasons . As the lone NCAA player on the national squad , he helped the United States to a bronze medal finish . His lone goal of the tournament and first career goal in men 's international competition came during a 7 – 1 round @-@ robin win against Ukraine .
Three years later , Ballard began a three @-@ year stretch of consecutive appearances at the World Championships . He recorded an international career @-@ high three assists at the 2007 tournament in Russia , as the United States were eliminated in a 5 – 4 shootout loss to Finland in the quarterfinal . Competing in Quebec City and Halifax , Canada , the following year , Ballard recorded two assists in five games while ranking seventh among team defensemen in average ice time per game . The United States finished in sixth place , losing in the quarterfinal to Finland . Ballard made his second bronze medal game appearance with the United States at the 2009 IIHF World Championship in Switzerland , but lost to Sweden by a 4 – 2 score . He contributed a goal and two assists in nine games while ranking second on the squad in plus @-@ minus with a + 3 rating and sixth among team defensemen in average ice time per game .
= = Playing style = =
Ballard is a two @-@ way defenseman , capable of contributing both offensively and defensively . Known for his hard hitting , specifically with hip checks , he led his club in hits during his first five years in the NHL . He is also proficient in shot @-@ blocking . Offensively , Ballard is noted as a quick and smooth skater , making him able to start plays from the defensive zone . At the 2012 Canucks SuperSkills Competition , he won the fastest skater segment by circling the rink in 13 @.@ 440 seconds . He has a reputation as a player with intensity and a competitive edge .
= = Personal life = =
Ballard was born in Baudette , Minnesota , to parents Steve and Joanne . He has a sister , Jessie . His family runs a fishing resort at Lake of the Woods in Minnesota , founded by Ballard 's grandparents in 1961 .
Ballard left home following his sophomore year of high school to pursue his hockey career with the U.S. National Development Team in Ann Arbor , Michigan . During his time with the Omaha Lancers , he graduated from Millard North High School in Omaha , Nebraska . He was a multi @-@ sport athlete during high school , having earned an All @-@ Conference selection as a fullback and linebacker playing football and finishing as Conference championship runner @-@ up as a golfer .
Ballard and his wife have a daughter who was born in May 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= Matt Smith ( actor ) =
Matthew Robert " Matt " Smith ( born 28 October 1982 ) is an English actor . He is best known for his role as the Eleventh Doctor in the BBC science fiction series Doctor Who , for which he received a BAFTA Award nomination in 2011 .
Smith initially aspired to be a professional footballer , but spondylolysis forced him out of the sport . After joining the National Youth Theatre and studying Drama and Creative Writing at the University of East Anglia , he became an actor in 2003 , performing in plays like Murder in the Cathedral , Fresh Kills , The History Boys , and On the Shore of the Wide World in London theatres . Extending his repertoire into West End theatre , he has since performed in the stage adaptation of Swimming with Sharks with Christian Slater , followed a year later by a critically acclaimed performance as Henry in That Face .
Before his role in Doctor Who , Smith 's first television role came in 2006 as Jim Taylor in the BBC adaptations of Philip Pullman 's The Ruby in the Smoke and The Shadow in the North , while his first major role in television came as Danny in the 2007 BBC series Party Animals . Smith , who was announced as the eleventh incarnation of the Doctor in January 2009 , is the youngest person to play the character in the British television series . He left the series at the end of the 2013 Christmas Day special , " The Time of the Doctor " . He portrayed both the physical embodiment and a holographic version of Skynet in the Terminator Genisys ( 2015 ) and is expected to return if sequels are made .
= = Early life = =
Smith was born and raised in Northampton , the son of David and Lynne Smith . He attended Northampton School for Boys . He had planned to be a professional football player , having played for the youth teams of Northampton Town , Nottingham Forest , and Leicester City . After a serious back injury ruined this career , his drama teacher introduced him to acting by signing him up as the tenth juror in an adaptation of Twelve Angry Men without his consent . Although he took part in the play , he refused to attend a drama festival for which his teacher had also signed him up , as he saw himself as a football player and did not view acting as socially acceptable . His drama teacher persisted , and eventually persuaded him to join the National Youth Theatre in London .
After leaving school , Smith studied drama and creative writing at the University of East Anglia , graduating in 2005 . His first theatre roles as part of the National Youth Theatre were Thomas Becket in Murder in the Cathedral and Bassoon in The Master and Margarita . His role in the latter earned him an agent and his first professional jobs , Fresh Kills and On the Shore of the Wide World . His new professional roles led him to seek an agreement with his university so that he could graduate without attending lectures in his final year .
= = Career = =
= = = Television = = =
Smith 's first television role was as Jim Taylor in the BBC adaptations of the Sally Lockhart quartet books The Ruby in the Smoke and The Shadow in the North . His first major television role came in the television series Party Animals , a BBC television drama series about fictional parliamentary advisors and researchers in Westminster . In Party Animals , Smith portrays Danny Foster , a parliamentary researcher to Jo Porter ( Raquel Cassidy ) , a Labour politician and junior Home Office minister . At 26 years old , Danny is described as an intelligent but timid " politics geek " who should have moved on from researching at his age . Within the series ' narrative , he attempts to balance his affections for Kirsty MacKenzie ( Andrea Riseborough ) , his intern , while trying to prevent Porter 's imminent decline .
In an interview in 2007 , Smith discussed his character 's motivations . He summarised Danny as having a romantic outlook of the political world while being cynical elsewhere . The character was drawn into politics by his father and his own political drive . He defended his character 's age by characterising him as being loyal to Porter , instead of being incompetent . He talked about his character 's emotional and intellectual maturity : emotionally , he lacks confidence around women — most notably seen with his unrequited love towards Kirsty — but Smith portrays Danny as a caring and sensitive but " wry , sarcastic , [ and ] witty " romantic ; and intellectually , Danny is portrayed as attentive and possessing a strong work ethic .
= = = = Doctor Who = = = =
Smith was revealed as the Eleventh Doctor in the British science @-@ fiction television series Doctor Who in January 2009 to replace David Tennant , who announced his departure in October 2008 . Smith was a relatively unknown actor compared to the actors then speculated about possibly taking on the role , who included Paterson Joseph , David Morrissey , Sean Pertwee , James Nesbitt , Russell Tovey , Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones , Chiwetel Ejiofor , Robert Carlyle , and Billie Piper . Smith was first named as a possible successor less than a day before he was announced as the Eleventh Doctor , on edition of 3 January 2009 of BBC Breakfast , among the names speculated about . His obscurity prompted the news headline " Doctor Who ? " , a riff on the show 's title .
Smith was one of the earliest actors to audition for the role , performing on the first day . The production team , consisting of the incoming producer , Steven Moffat , and BBC Wales Head of Drama and executive producer , Piers Wenger , immediately singled him out based on his performance . Smith additionally auditioned for the role of John Watson in the Moffat @-@ created Sherlock , undergoing auditions at the same time ; he was unsuccessful , as Moffat believed his eccentric acting style was closer to Holmes , whose role had already been given to Benedict Cumberbatch . At 26 years old , Smith was three years younger than Peter Davison was at the time of his casting as the Doctor in 1981 , and younger than any other actor suggested for the role . After three weeks of auditions , Moffat and Wenger agreed that it had " always been Matt " and approached him to accept the role . The BBC were cautious about casting him because they felt that a 26 @-@ year @-@ old could not play the Doctor adequately ; Wenger shared the same sentiment but thought Smith had proven his acting quality in Party Animals , which Wenger thought highlighted Smith 's " mercurial qualities " . Some fans of the show believed that Smith was inexperienced and too young for the role , while others supported him by citing his demonstrated acting ability . For his performance in his first series he was nominated in the Outstanding Drama Performance Category of the National Television Awards . Smith is the first Doctor to be nominated for a BAFTA for Best Actor .
Smith has said of his character : " The Doctor is excited and fascinated by the tiniest of things . By everything . By every single thing . That 's what 's wonderful about him as a character . It 's why children like him , I think . Because he doesn 't dismiss anything . He 's not cynical . He 's open to every single facet of the universe . " In June 2010 , Smith appeared on stage with Orbital , and performed with them a version of the Doctor Who theme , at the Glastonbury Festival . Smith hosted the Doctor Who Prom at the Royal Albert Hall on 24 – 25 July 2010 . On the morning of 26 May 2012 , Smith carried the Olympic torch in Cardiff , an activity which was noted by Doctor Who fans for its resemblance to a 2006 episode of the show in which the Doctor carried the torch . On 1 June 2013 , the BBC announced that Smith would be leaving Doctor Who at the end of the 2013 Christmas special .
= = = Film = = =
Smith appeared in a deleted scene of the 2007 film In Bruges , playing a younger version of Ralph Fiennes ' character . He starred in the 2009 short film Together and the 2010 film Womb . In February 2013 , it was reported that Smith had signed up to appear in Ryan Gosling 's directorial debut Lost River . Smith 's directorial debut , the short film Cargese , was aired on Sky Arts in May 2013 . Smith had a supporting role , as the embodiment of Skynet , in Terminator Genisys ( 2015 ) ; he is set to have more screen time in the sixth and seventh films in the series . On 20 November 2014 , it was announced that Smith will star in the action @-@ thriller film Patient Zero ..
= = = Theatre = = =
During Smith 's tenure in On the Shore of the Wide World , the play transferred to the Royal National Theatre in London . After finishing the play , he took on the role of Lockwood , a pupil in the Alan Bennett play The History Boys . After The History Boys , he would act in the teen play Burn / Chatroom / Citizenship and Swimming with Sharks ; the latter being his West End début , with Christian Slater . In 2007 , Smith appeared as Henry in the critically acclaimed Polly Stenham play That Face at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs in Chelsea . The play transferred to the Duke of York 's Theatre in the West End in 2008 and became Smith 's second role there . That Face focuses primarily upon alcohol and drug addiction in an upper @-@ middle @-@ class family after the paternal figure in the family leaves . As Henry , Smith portrayed an aspiring artist who left school to take care of his mother . To prepare for the role , the cast interviewed alcoholics and their families . Smith discussed his character 's relationship with his mother in an interview with the Evening Standard .
The thing I find tricky to get my head round is why doesn 't he just leave ? An awful lot of it is codependency . [ ... ] With Henry there 's a real belief — or denial maybe — that he can change his mother . When she is finally pulled away from him to go to rehab , his identity collapses . His sacrifice has been for nothing .
The entire cast of the play was nominated for the 2008 Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in an Affiliate Theatre , and Smith won the Evening Standard 's award for " best newcomer " for his role . Upon its transfer to the West End , Smith 's performance as Henry was highlighted as one of the positive aspects of the play by critics for the Evening Standard , Daily Express , The Guardian , and The Times .
On 7 October 2013 , it was announced Smith would portray Patrick Bateman in the musical adaption of American Psycho at London 's Almeida Theatre . The show began its run in December 2013 .
= = = Public image = = =
In 2015 , Smith was named one of GQ 's 50 Best @-@ Dressed British Men .
= = Personal life = =
Smith is an atheist , and an avid supporter of Blackburn Rovers . He has cited his favourite band , Radiohead , as an inspiration . His sister , Laura Jayne , was one of the dancers featured in the music video for the 2004 Eric Prydz song " Call on Me " .
Smith dated model Daisy Lowe for 18 months . They broke up in November 2011 . In 2015 , it was confirmed that he is dating actress Lily James .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Stage = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= The Playwright 's Love =
The Playwright 's Love is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a poor playwright named John Russell who is approached by a poor dying woman . Upon her death , John takes guardianship of her daughter named Grace . A decade passes and Grace becomes a young woman as John struggles with his love for her . Then , a suitor approaches Grace and is denied because she loves John . When John learns of this , he proposes to her and is accepted . Released on July 19 , 1910 , the film received positive reception by film critics . One reviewer noted the similarity to other productions and another reviewer said the film recalled The Prince Chap . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 23 , 1910 . It states : " John Russell , an unsuccessful playwright , is in straitened circumstances , but is generous despite his poverty . When a poor woman falls exhausted at his doorway he takes her in , and after her death he cares for her child . This kind of action seems to bring him luck , for a play that he had been unable to dispose of is sold for a good sum and he starts on the high road to prosperity . Ten years later when the girl is grown to womanhood , John finds that he is deeply in love with his ward , but does not betray his passion , believing that it is hopeless . His eyes are opened , however , by Will , who is in love with Grace , and is told by her when she refuses him that she loves John . When John hears this he promptly proposes and is as promptly accepted by the girl . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The New York Dramatic Mirror points out the plot of the film resembles a popular stage production The Prince Chap from several years ago . The plot of the play bear striking familiarities to the Thanhouser production . The play focuses on William Peyton , a sculptor , who takes in a young girl , Claudia , at the request of her dying mother . Claudia grows into a young woman , rejects her suitor , and concludes with Claudia and Peyton deciding to marry . Another mention of this film in The Morning Telegraph stated , " This story has been told many times in pictures , excepting in this film the character is a playwright . " The film director and the cameraman are unknown , but the " Thanhouser Kid " Marie Eline is the only known credit in the cast . Eline plays the role of the young orphan Grace . Other members cast may have included the other leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming . A surviving film still shows the playwright in the process of trimming his cuffs with scissors before an interview , leaving hope that another credit may be attributed to the lost film .
Despite the lack of production details , the quality of the Thanhouser films in general stood out amongst the Independent producers . An editorial by " The Spectator " in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " The editorial warned that American audiences were not subject to be entertained by the novelty of moving images and cautioned the Independents that there was distinct danger in quantity over quality . The editorial was written by Frank E. Woods of the American Biograph Company , a Licensed company , and like the publication itself had a considerable slant to the Licensed companies .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 950 feet long , was released on July 22 , 1910 . The film had known showings in Indiana , and Maryland . The film was advertised , possibly in error , as simply Playwright 's Love and A Playwright 's Love . The film received numerous reviews in the trade publications and most were positive . The Moving Picture News review was positive and stated , " Love knows neither creed nor class , and when the unsuccessful playwright falls in love with the daughter of a woman whom he had taken a charitable interest in at the time of her death , the fact is not to be wondered at . He plays a noble part and is rewarded as the film reaches it [ s ] final scene . The story is rich in feeling and sympathy , the settings are touching and appropriate and the photography is pretty good . " Another review in the publication agreed that the film was another high @-@ quality Thanhouser release . The Moving Picture World spared only a brief summary of the film with a simple approval for the romantic story . The New York Dramatic Mirror found another reason that the film was worth seeing - the absence of a villain .
= Time Gal =
Time Gal ( Japanese : タイムギャル , Hepburn : Taimu Gyaru ) is an interactive movie video game developed and published by Taito , and originally released in Japan for the arcades in 1985 . It is an action game which uses full motion video ( FMV ) to display the on @-@ screen action . The player must correctly choose the on @-@ screen character 's actions to progress the story . The pre @-@ recorded animation for the game was produced by Toei Animation .
The game is set in a fictional future where time travel is possible . The protagonist , Reika , travels to different time periods in search of a criminal , Luda , from her time . After successfully tracking down Luda , Reika prevents his plans to alter the past .
Time Gal was inspired by the success of earlier laserdisc video games , most notably the 1983 title Dragon 's Lair , which also used pre @-@ recorded animation . The game was later ported to the Sega / Mega @-@ CD for a worldwide release , and also to the LaserActive in Japan . The home console versions received a mixed reception .
= = Gameplay = =
Time Gal is a FMV @-@ based game which uses pre @-@ recorded animation rather than sprites to display the on @-@ screen action . Gameplay is divided into levels , referred to as time periods . The game begins in 4001 AD with the theft of a time travel device . The thief , Luda , steals the device to take over the world by changing history . Reika , the protagonist also known as Time Gal , uses her own time travel device to pursue him ; she travels to different time periods , such as 70 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 BC , 44 BC , 1588 AD , and 2010 AD , in search of Luda . Each time period is a scenario which presents a series of threats that must be avoided or confronted . Successfully navigating the sequences allows the player to progress to another period .
The player uses a joystick and button to input commands , though home versions use a game controller with a directional pad . As the game progresses , visual cues — highlighted portions of the background or foreground — will appear on the screen to help survive the dangers that occur throughout the stage ; more difficult settings omit the visual cues . Depending on the location of the cue , the player will input one of four directions ( up , down , left and right ) or an attack ( shoot the target with a laser gun ) . Inputting the correct command will either avoid or neutralize the threats and progress the game , while incorrect choices result in the character 's death . Reika dying too many times results in a game over . Specific moments in the game involve Reika stopping time . During these moments , players are presented with a list of three options and have seven seconds to choose the one which will save the character .
= = Development = =
The game uses LaserDisc technology to stream pre @-@ recorded animation , which was produced by Japanese studio Toei Animation . The game features raster graphics on a CRT monitor and amplified monaural sound . The protagonist 's appearance was derived from the main character , Lum , from the Japanese manga and anime series Urusei Yatsura . Several factors prevented an overseas release : a decline in the popularity of laserdisc arcade games in the mid @-@ 80s , the expensive price of laserdisc technology , and difficulty to translate . Reika was voiced by Yuriko Yamamoto .
= = Release = =
Since its release original release to the arcades in Japan in 1985 , Time Gal has been ported to different home formats . It was first released exclusively in Japan by Nippon Victor on the Video High Density format ; it could be played on Microsoft 's MSX via a Sony laserdisc player . The release of Sega 's Mega @-@ CD console in 1991 spawned numerous games that took advantage of the CD technology to introduce interactive FMVs . Among the new titles , Time Gal was one of several older laserdisc @-@ based games that were ported to the system . Renovation Products acquired the rights to publish Time Gal on the Mega @-@ CD , with Wolf Team handling development . They released it , along with similar games , as part of their " Action @-@ Reaction " series . It was first released in Japan in November 1992 , and in North America and Europe the next year .
American press coverage of the Japanese release prompted video game enthusiasts to contact Renovations about a Western release . The number of requests persuaded Renovation 's president , Hide Irie , to announce a release in the USA . In addition to being dubbed in English , a few death scenes in the US version were censored . The Mega @-@ CD version uses a smaller color palette than the original , includes a video gallery which requires passwords to view each level 's animation sequences , and features a new opening and ending theme by Shinji Tamura and Motoi Sakuraba respectively . Time Gal was ported to the PlayStation in 1996 as a compilation with Ninja Hayate , another laserdisc arcade game developed by Taito . This release lacks the Mega @-@ CD version 's additional content , but features a more accurate reproduction of the animation . The compilation was also released on the Sega Saturn the following year . The game can also be played on the Pioneer LaserActive via the Sega Mega @-@ LD module . The LaserActive version is the rarest home release of Time Gal , as well as one of the most expensive on the system among collectors .
= = Reception and legacy = =
GamePro magazine noted that " Japanese players ate it up " when it first released in Japanese arcades . However , GameSetWatch 's Todd Ciolek believed it was released too late in the life of LaserDisc games , and that players " were getting tired " of the genre 's gameplay . He further commented that , despite its gameplay , it was unique and charming . GamePro 's reviewer referred to the arcade game as a " lost , laserdisc treasure " , and was enthusiastic about its Mega @-@ CD release . He called the death sequences " hilarious " and felt they reduced the tediousness of dying . MEGA magazine rated the Mega @-@ CD version the number five CD game , commenting that though it lacked difficulty , it was a good showcase of the system . Prior to its Mega @-@ CD release , Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the use of CD technology and felt it would be followed by titles with similar gameplay .
Critics praised Time Gal 's visuals . GameFan magazine , in praising Wolfteam 's port of the game , complimented the Mega @-@ CD version 's graphics and short load times . GamePro said the animation is " great , with bright , vivid colors , and fast @-@ paced , exciting movement " and praised the " funny gameplay " and " nonstop action " . Shawn Sackenheim of AllGame complimented the animation , calling it " high quality " , but criticized the Mega @-@ CD graphics , calling them " downgraded " . He commented that , though Time Gal offered a good thrill , it lacked replay value . Author Andy Slaven commented that , though the animation is nice , it can 't really be enjoyed while playing . Ciolek echoed similar statements , saying it is more enjoyable to watch than to play . He further commented that the game is frustrating and rigid when compared to more contemporary standards . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's group of reviewers praised the Mega @-@ CD version 's graphics quality . Three of the four reviewers lauded the gameplay , specifically the challenge and format . The other reviewer stated he didn 't care for this type of game , referring to the gameplay as " nothing more than memorizing " .
Author Masaru Takeuchi attributes the origin of the quick time event game mechanic to laserdisc games like Dragon 's Lair and Time Gal . IGN 's Levi Buchanan listed FMV games like Time Gal as one of the reasons behind the Mega @-@ CD 's commercial failure , citing them as a waste of the system 's capabilities . Ciolek referred to the protagonist as one of the first human heroines in the industry . He further added that Reika was an appealing lead character that Taito could have easily turned into a mascot and featured in other games and media . The character was later included in Alfa System 's shooting game Castle of Shikigami III — Taito published the arcade version in Japan . In the game , Reika features similar attacks and personality but the character 's visual design was updated . Reika 's most recent appearance was in the Elevator Action remake Elevator Action Deluxe as one of the few free Taito DLCs .
= Four Quartets =
Four Quartets is a set of four poems written by T. S. Eliot that were published individually over a six @-@ year period . The first poem , Burnt Norton , was written and published with a collection of his early works following the production of Eliot 's play Murder in the Cathedral . After a few years , Eliot composed the other three poems , East Coker , The Dry Salvages , and Little Gidding , which were written during World War II and the air @-@ raids on Great Britain . The poems were not collected until Eliot 's New York publisher printed them together in 1943 . They were first published as a series in Great Britain in 1941 to 1942 towards the end of Eliot 's poetic career .
Four Quartets are four interlinked meditations with the common theme being man 's relationship with time , the universe , and the divine . In describing his understanding of the divine within the poems , Eliot blends his Anglo @-@ Catholicism with mystical , philosophical and poetic works from both Eastern and Western religious and cultural traditions , with references to the Bhagavad @-@ Gita and the Pre @-@ Socratics as well as St. John of the Cross and Julian of Norwich .
Although many critics find the Four Quartets to be Eliot 's great last work , some of Eliot 's contemporary critics , including George Orwell , were dissatisfied with Eliot 's overt religiosity . Later critics disagreed with Orwell 's claims about the poems and argued instead that the religious themes made the poem stronger . Overall , reviews of the poem within Great Britain were favourable while reviews in the United States were split between those who liked Eliot 's later style and others who felt he had abandoned positive aspects of his earlier poetry .
= = Background = =
While working on his play Murder in the Cathedral , Eliot came up with the idea for a poem that was structured similarly to The Waste Land . The resulting poem , Burnt Norton , named after a manor house , was published in Eliot 's 1936 edition of Collected Poems 1909 – 1935 . Eliot decided to create another poem similar to Burnt Norton but with a different location in mind . This second poem , East Coker , was finished and published by Easter 1940 . ( Eliot visited East Coker in 1937 and his ashes now repose there at St. Michael 's Church . )
As Eliot was finishing his second poem , World War II began to disrupt his life and he spent more time lecturing across Great Britain and helping out during the war when he could . It was during this time that Eliot began working on The Dry Salvages , the third poem , which was put together near the end of 1940 . This poem was published in February 1941 and Eliot immediately began to plot out his fourth poem , Little Gidding . Eliot 's health declined and he stayed in Shamley Green to recuperate . His illness and the war disrupted his ability to write and he became dissatisfied with each draft . He believed that the problem with the poem was with himself and that he had started the poem too soon and written it too quickly . By September 1941 , he stopped writing and focused on his lecturing . It was not until September 1942 that Eliot finished the last poem and it was finally published .
While writing East Coker Eliot thought of creating a " quartet " of poems that would reflect the idea of the four elements and , loosely , the four seasons . As the first four parts of The Waste Land has been associated with one of the four classical elements so has each of the constituent poems of Four Quartets : air ( BN , ) earth ( EC , ) water ( DS , ) and fire ( LG . ) However , there is little support for the poems matching with individual seasons . Eliot described what he meant by " quartet " in a 3 September 1942 letter to John Hayward :
... these poems are all in a particular set form which I have elaborated , and the word " quartet " does seem to me to start people on the right track for understanding them ( " sonata " in any case is too musical ) . It suggests to me the notion of making a poem by weaving in together three or four superficially unrelated themes : the " poem " being the degree of success in making a new whole out of them .
The Four Quartets was first published as a series in New York in 1943 and London in 1944 . The original title was supposed to be the Kensington Quartets after his time in Kensington . The poems were kept as a separate entity in the United States until they were collected in 1952 as Eliot 's Complete Poems and Plays , and in the United Kingdom until 1963 as part of Eliot 's Complete Poems 1909 – 62 . The delay in collecting the Four Quartets with the rest of Eliot 's poetry separated them from his other work , even though they were the result of a development from his earlier poems .
= = = World War II = = =
The outbreak of World War II , in 1939 , pushed Eliot further into the belief that there was something worth defending in society and that Germany had to be stopped . There is little mention of the war in Eliot 's writing except in a few pieces , like " Defence of the Islands " . The war became central to Little Gidding as Eliot adds in aspects of his own experience while serving as a watchman at the Faber building during the London blitz . The Four Quartets were favoured as giving hope during the war and also for a later religious revival movement . By Little Gidding , WWII is not just the present time but connected also to the English Civil War .
= = Poems = =
Each poem has five sections . The later poems connect to the earlier sections with Little Gidding synthesising the themes of the earlier poems within its sections . Within Eliot 's own poetry , the five sections connect to The Waste Land . This allowed Eliot to structure his larger poems , which he had difficulty with .
According to C.K. Stead , the structure is based on :
The movement of time , in which brief moments of eternity are caught .
Worldly experience , leading on to dissatisfaction .
Purgation in the world , divesting the soul of the love of created things .
A lyric prayer for , or affirmation of the need of , intercession .
The problems of attaining artistic wholeness which becomes analogue for , and merge into , the problems of achieving spiritual health .
These points can be applied to the structure of The Waste Land , though there is not necessarily a fulfilment of these but merely a longing or discussion of them .
= = = Burnt Norton = = =
The poem begins with two epigraphs taken from the fragments of Heraclitus :
τοῦ λόγου δὲ ἐόντος ξυνοῦ ζώουσιν οἱ πολλοί
ὡς ἰδίαν ἔχοντες φρόνησιν
I. p . 77 . Fr . 2 .
ὁδὸς ἄνω κάτω μία καὶ ὡυτή
I. p . 89 Fr . 60 .
The first may be translated , " Though wisdom is common , the many live as if they have wisdom of their own " ; the second , " the way upward and the way downward is one and the same . "
The concept and origin of Burnt Norton is connected to Eliot 's play Murder in the Cathedral . The poem discusses the idea of time and the concept that only the present moment really matters because the past cannot be changed and the future is unknown .
In Part I , this meditative poem begins with the narrator trying to focus on the present moment while walking through a garden , focusing on images and sounds like the bird , the roses , clouds , and an empty pool . In Part II , the narrator 's meditation leads him / her to reach " the still point " in which he doesn 't try to get anywhere or to experience place and / or time , instead experiencing " a grace of sense . " In Part III , the meditation experience becomes darker as night comes on , and by Part IV , it is night and " Time and the bell have buried the day . " In Part V , the narrator reaches a contemplative end to his / her meditation , initially contemplating the arts ( " Words " and " music " ) as they relate to time . The narrator focuses particularly on the poet 's art of manipulating " Words [ which ] strain , / Crack and sometimes break , under the burden [ of time ] , under the tension , slip , slide , perish , decay with imprecision , [ and ] will not stay in place , / Will not stay still . " By comparison , the narrator concludes that " Love is itself unmoving , / Only the cause and end of movement , / Timeless , and undesiring . " For this reason , this spiritual experience of " Love " is the form of consciousness that most interests the narrator ( presumably more than the creative act of writing poetry ) .
= = = East Coker = = =
Eliot started writing East Coker in 1939 , and modelled the poem after Burnt Norton as a way to focus his thoughts . The poem served as a sort of opposite to the popular idea that The Waste Land served as an expression of disillusionment after World War I , though Eliot never accepted this interpretation . The poem focuses on life , death , and continuity between the two . Humans are seen as disorderly and science is viewed as unable to save mankind from its flaws . Instead , science and reason lead mankind to warfare , and humanity needs to become humble in order to escape the cycle of destruction . To be saved , people must recognize Christ as their savior as well as their need for redemption .
= = = The Dry Salvages = = =
Eliot began writing The Dry Salvages at the end of 1940 during air @-@ raids on London , and managed to finish the poem quickly . The poem included many personal images connecting to Eliot 's childhood , and emphasised the image of water and sailing as a metaphor for humanity . According to the poem , there is a connection to all of mankind within each man . If we just accept drifting upon the sea , then we will end up broken upon rocks . We are restrained by time , but the Annunciation gave mankind hope that it will be able to escape . This hope is not part of the present . What we must do is understand the patterns found within the past in order to see that there is meaning to be found . This meaning allows one to experience eternity through moments of revelation .
= = = Little Gidding = = =
Little Gidding was started after The Dry Salvages but was delayed because of Eliot 's declining health and his dissatisfaction with early drafts of the poem . Eliot was unable to finish the poem until September 1942 . Like the three previous poems of the Four Quartets , the central theme is time and humanity 's place within it . Each generation is seemingly united and the poem describes a unification within Western civilisation . When discussing World War II , the poem states that humanity is given a choice between the bombing of London or the Holy Spirit . God 's love allows mankind to redeem themselves and escape the living hell through purgation by fire ; he drew the affirmative coda " All shall be well " from medieval mystic Julian of Norwich . The end of the poem describes how Eliot has attempted to help the world as a poet , and he parallels his work in language with working on the soul or working on society .
= = Motifs = =
Eliot believed that even if a poem can mean different things to each reader , the " absolute " meaning of the poem needs to be discovered . The central meaning of the Four Quartets is to connect to European literary tradition in addition to its Christian themes . It also seeks to unite with European literature to form a unity , especially in Eliot 's creation of a " familiar compound ghost " who is supposed to connect to those like Stéphane Mallarmé , Edgar Allan Poe , Jonathan Swift , and William Butler Yeats .
= = = Time = = =
Time is viewed as unredeemable and problematic , whereas eternity is beautiful and true . Living under time 's influence is a problem . Within Burnt Norton section 3 , people trapped in time are similar to those stuck in between life and death in Inferno Canto Three . When Eliot deals with the past in The Dry Salvages , he emphasises its importance to combat the influence of evolution as encouraging people to forget the past and care only about the present and the future . The present is capable of always reminding one of the past . These moments also rely on the idea of Krishna in the Bhagavad @-@ Gita that death can come at any moment , and that the divine will is more important than considering the future .
The Jesuit critic William F. Lynch , who believed that salvation happens within time and not outside of it , explained what Eliot was attempting to do in the Four Quartets when he wrote : " it is hard to say no to the impression , if I may use a mixture of my own symbols and his , that the Christian imagination is finally limited to the element of fire , to the day of Pentecost , to the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the disciples . The revelation of eternity and time is of an intersection ... It seems not unseemly to suppose that Eliot 's imagination ( and is this not a theology ? ) is alive with points of intersection and of descent . " He continued with a focus on how time operated within the poem : " He seems to place our faith , our hope , and our love , not in the flux of time but in the points of time . I am sure his mind is interested in the line and time of Christ , whose Spirit is his total flux . But I am not so sure about his imagination . Is it or is it not an imagination which is saved from time 's nausea or terror by points of intersection ? ... There seems little doubt that Eliot is attracted above all by the image and the goal of immobility , and that in everything he seeks for approximations to this goal in the human order . " Lynch went on to point out that this understanding of time includes Asian influences .
Throughout the poems , the end becomes the beginning and things constantly repeat . This use of circular time is similar to the way Dante uses time in his Divine Comedy – Little Gidding ends with a rose garden image that is the same as the garden beginning Burnt Norton . The repetition of time affects memory and how one can travel through their own past to find permanency and the divine . Memory within the poem is similar to how St. Augustine discussed it , in that memory allows one to understand words and life . The only way to discover eternity is through memory , understanding the past , and transcending beyond time . Likewise , in the Augustinian view that Eliot shares , timeless words are connected to Christ as the Logos and how Christ calls upon mankind to join him in salvation .
= = = Music = = =
The title Four Quartets connects to music , which appears also in Eliot 's poems " Preludes " , " Rhapsody on a Windy Night " , and " A Song for Simeon " along with a 1942 lecture called " The Music of Poetry " . Some critics have suggested that there were various classical works that Eliot focused on while writing the pieces . In particular , within literary criticism there is an emphasis on Beethoven serving as a model , although these claims rarely have much substance . The purpose of the quartet was to have multiple themes that intertwined with each other . Each section , as in the musical image , would be distinct even though they share the same performance . East Coker and The Dry Salvages are written in such a way as to make the poems continuous and create a " double @-@ quartet " .
Eliot focused on sounds or " auditory imagination " , as he called it . He doesn 't always keep to this device , especially when he is more concerned with thematic development . He did fix many of these passages in revision .
= = = Dante and Christianity = = =
Critics have compared Eliot to Yeats . Yeats believed that we live in a cyclical type of world , saying , " If it be true that God is a circle whose centre is everywhere , the saint goes to the centre , the poet and the artist to the ring where everything comes round again . " Eliot believed that such a system is stuck within time . Eliot was influenced by Yeats 's reading of Dante . This appears in Eliot 's Ash @-@ Wednesday by changing Yeats 's " desire for absolution " away from a humanistic approach . When Eliot wrote about personal topics , he tended to use Dante as a reference point . He also relied on Dante 's imagery : the idea of the " refining fire " in the Four Quartets and in The Waste Land comes from Purgatorio and the celestial rose and fire imagery of Paradiso makes its way into the series .
If The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock , Gerontion , The Waste Land , and The Hollow Men are Eliot 's Inferno , Ash @-@ Wednesday seems to be Purgatorio , and the Four Quartets seems to be Paradiso . The Four Quartets abandons time , as per Dante 's conception of the Empyrean , and allows for opposites to co @-@ exist together . As such , people are able to experience God directly as long as they know that they cannot fully understand or comprehend him . Eliot tries to create a new system , according to Denis Donoghue , in which he is able to describe a Christianity that is not restricted by previous views that have fallen out of favour in modern society or contradicted by science . Eliot reasoned that he is not supposed to preach a theological system as a poet , but expose the reader to the ideas of religion . As Eliot stated in 1947 : " if we learn to read poetry properly , the poet never persuades us to believe anything " and " What we learn from Dante , or the Bhagavad @-@ Gita , or any other religious poetry is what it feels like to believe that religion . "
According to Russell Kirk , " Nor is it possible to appreciate Eliot — whether or not one agrees with him — if one comes to Four Quartets with ideological blinders . Ideology , it must be remembered , is the attempt to supplant religious dogmas by political and scientistic dogmas . If one 's first premise is that religion must be a snare and a delusion , for instance , then it follows that Eliot becomes an enemy to be assaulted , rather than a pilgrim whose journal one may admire @-@ even if one does not believe in the goal of that quest . "
= = = Krishna = = =
Eliot 's poetry is filled with religious images beyond those common to Christianity : the Four Quartets brings in Hindu stories with a particular emphasis on the Bhagavad @-@ Gita of the Mahabharata . Eliot went so far as to mark where he alludes to Hindu stories in his editions of the Mahabharata by including a page added which compared battle scenes with The Dry Salvages .
= = Critical responses = =
Reviews were favourable for each poem . The completed set received divided reviews in the United States while it was received overall favourably by the British . The American critics liked the poetry but many did not appreciate the religious content of the work or that Eliot abandoned philosophical aspects of his earlier poetry . The British response was connected to Eliot 's nationalistic spirit , and the work was received as a series of poems intended to help the nation during difficult times . Santwana Haldar went so far as to assert that the " Four Quartets has been universally appreciated as the crown of Eliot 's achievement in religious poetry , one that appeals to all including those who do not share Orthodox Christian creed . "
George Orwell believed just the opposite . He argued : " It is clear that something has departed , some kind of current has been switched off , the later verse does not contain the earlier , even if it is claimed as an improvement upon it [ ... ] He does not really feel his faith , but merely assents to it for complex reasons . It does not in itself give him any fresh literary impulse . " Years later , Russell Kirk wrote , " I cannot agree with Orwell that Eliot gave no more than a melancholy assent to doctrines now quite unbelievable . Over the past quarter of a century , most serious critics — whether or not they find Christian faith impossible — have found in the Quartets the greatest twentieth @-@ century achievements in the poetry of philosophy and religion . " Like Orwell , Stead also noticed a difference between the Four Quartets and Eliot 's earlier poetry , but he disagreed with Orwell 's conclusion : " Four Quartets is an attempt to bring into a more exact balance the will and the creative imagination ; it attempts to harness the creative imagination which in all Eliot 's earlier poetry ran its own course , edited but not consciously directed . The achievement is of a high order , but the best qualities of Four Quartets are inevitably different from those of The Waste Land .
Early American reviewers were divided on discussing the theological aspects of the Four Quartets . F. R. Leavis , in Scrutiny ( Summer 1942 ) , analysed the first three poems and discussed how the verse " makes its explorations into the concrete realities of experience below the conceptual currency " instead of their Christian themes . Muriel Bradbrook , in Theology ( March 1943 ) , did the opposite of F. R. Leavis and emphasised how Eliot captured Christian experience in general and how it relates to literature . D. W. Harding , in the Spring 1943 issue of Scrutiny discussed the Pentecostal image but would not discuss how it would relate to Eliot 's Christianity . Although he appreciated Eliot 's work , Paul Goodman believed that the despair found within the poem meant that Eliot could not be a Christian poet . John Fletcher felt that Eliot 's understanding of salvation could not help the real world whereas Louis Untermeyer believed that not everyone would understand the poems .
Many critics have emphasised the importance of the religious themes in the poem . Vincent Bucklet stated that the Four Quartets " presuppose certain values as necessary for their very structure as poems yet devote that structure to questioning their meaning and relevance . The whole work is , in fact , the most authentic example I know in modern poetry of a satisfying religio @-@ poetic meditation . We sense throughout it is not merely a building @-@ up of an intricate poetic form on the foundation of experiences already over and done with , but a constant energy , an ever @-@ present activity , of thinking and feeling . " In his analysis of approaches regarding apocalypse and religious in British poetry , M H Abrams claimed , " Even after a quarter @-@ century , T. S. Eliot 's Four Quartets has not lost its status as a strikingly ' modern ' poem ; its evolving meditations , however , merely play complex variations upon the design and motifs of Romantic representation of the poets educational progress . "
Late 20th century and early 21st century critics continued the religious emphasis . Craig Raine pointed out : " Undeniably , Four Quartets has its faults — for instance , the elementary tautology of ' anxious worried women ' in section I of The Dry Salvages . But the passages documenting in undeniable detail ' the moment in and out of time ' are the most successful attempts at the mystical in poetry since Wordsworth 's spots of time in The Prelude — themselves a refiguration of the mystical . " Michael Bell argued for the universality within the poems religious dimension and claimed that the poems " were genuinely of their time in that , while speaking of religious faith , they did not assume it in the reader . " John Cooper , in regard to the poem 's place within the historical context of World War II , described the aspects of the series appeal : " Four Quartets spoke about the spirit in the midst of this new crisis and , not surprisingly , there were many readers who would not only allow the poem to carry them with it , but who also hungered for it . "
In a more secular appreciation , one of Eliot 's biographers , the critic Peter Ackroyd , has stated that " the most striking characteristic of The Four Quartets is the way in which these sequences are very carefully structured . They echo and re @-@ echo each other , and one sequence in each poem , as it were , echoes its companion sequence in the next poem . . . The Four Quartets are poems about a nation and about a culture which is very severely under threat , and in a sense , you could describe The Four Quartets as a poem of memory , but not the memory of one individual but the memory of a whole civilization . "
= Johann Peter Hebel =
Johann Peter Hebel ( 10 May 1760 – 22 September 1826 ) was a German short story writer , dialectal poet , evangelical theologian and pedagogue , most famous for a collection of Alemannic lyric poems ( Allemannische Gedichte ) and one of German tales ( Schatzkästlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes – Treasure Chest of the Family Friend from the Rhine ) .
Born in Basel , Hebel entered primary school in 1766 and joined a Latin school three years later ; he visited the schools in Basel during summer and in Hausen and Schopfheim respectively in the nearby Wiesental during winter . After the death of his mother in 1773 , he remained at school , graduating with the help of friends from the Gymnasium illustre of Karlsruhe in 1778 and going on to study theology . He became a home tutor , an assistant preacher , an assistant teacher , a subdeacon and , in 1798 , a professor and court deacon .
Hebel was interested in botany , natural history and other subjects . His literary work began with Allemannische Gedichte , which is perhaps the most popular work written in Alemannic . He had success with his calendar stories in the Badischer Landkalender , and later with Rheinländischer Hausfreund ( Rhenish family friend ) , but a dispute between Catholics forced him to resign as editor of the calendar . In his last years he devoted himself increasingly to religion , becoming a prelate in 1819 , but his wish to become a parish priest was never fulfilled . His last works were biblical stories for young readers , which served as textbooks until 1855 . Hebel died 1826 in Schwetzingen . Goethe , Tolstoy , Gottfried Keller , Hermann Hesse and other writers have praised his works .
= = Early life = =
Johann Peter Hebel was born on 10 May 1760 in Basel , where his parents were employed in a patrician household during the summer . He spent half of his childhood in Basel and the other half in the village of Hausen im Wiesental , where his father worked as a weaver during the winters . As he wrote in an autobiographical sketch , " there I learned early on what it meant to be poor and rich ... to have nothing and to have everything , to be happy with the happy people and to be sad with those who cried " . Memories of both places had a deep influence on his literary work . Hebel 's father , who had moved to southern Baden from the Hunsrück area , died of typhus early in 1761 , as did his younger sister , who was only a few weeks old . Hebel went to primary school in Hausen in 1766 , and in 1769 went on to the Latin school in Schopfheim , where his teacher was the theologian August Gottlieb Preuschen . During the summer months he went to a parish school in Basel , and later to the prestigious cathedral school ( Gymnasium am Münsterplatz ) . His mother died when he was thirteen .
In 1774 , with financial help from friends , Hebel joined the Gymnasium illustre in Karlsruhe ( now the Bismarck @-@ Gymnasium ) , where he graduated in 1778 . After studying theology in Erlangen from 1778 to 1780 , he became a home tutor and assistant preacher in Hertingen , Bad Bellingen , and was appointed Präzeptoratsvikar ( assistant teacher ) in 1783 at the Pädagogium in Lörrach , now called the Hebel @-@ Gymnasium in his honour . He became friends with the headmaster , Tobias Günttert , and through him met Gustave Fecht , Günttert 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , with whom he had a long @-@ lasting , platonic relationship and to whom he sent numerous letters . Hebel remained unmarried all his life , although in later years he adored the actress Henriette Hendel @-@ Schütz . In 1791 he returned to Karlsruhe to take up a position as a deacon at the Karlsruhe Gymnasium , but was instead only named a " subdeacon " . Apart from teaching , Hebel occasionally preached at court , where he enjoyed great popularity .
= = Later life = =
In 1798 Hebel became a professor and court deacon . He taught several other subjects in the Gymnasium , among them botany and natural history . He took a broad interest in botany ; he maintained a herbarium and rearranged the botanical terms and diagnoses in Flora badensis alsatica , written by his friend , botanist Karl Christian Gmelin . In his honour , Gmelin named a plant Hebelia allemannica , though it was later renamed Tofieldia calyculata . Hebel became an honorary member of the mineralogical society in Jena in 1799 , and three years later a corresponding member of the " Vaterländischen Gesellschaft der Ärzte und Naturforscher in Schwaben " . In his youth he enjoyed the works of Klopstock and Jung @-@ Stilling . Later he especially liked Jean Paul and Johann Heinrich Voß .
Hebel lived in Karlsruhe until his death , but made occasional journeys to other regions . His wish to become a parish priest in Wiesental was never fulfilled , though he wrote an inaugural sermon for a rural parish in 1820 . In this sermon he wrote , " to live and die as a pastor in a peaceful country town , among honest people , has always been my sole wish , up to this hour ; it was what I wished for in the happiest and in the darkest moments of my life " . Instead , he was " led higher and higher by an invisible hand , ever further away from my modest goals " . In 1805 he was offered the Lutheran parish of Freiburg im Breisgau , but he declined it at the behest of Charles Frederick , Grand Duke of Baden . He was rewarded in 1808 with his appointment as director of the Gymnasium in Karlsruhe . In 1819 he became a prelate of the Lutheran regional church , a leading position that brought with it a seat in the Upper House of the Parliament ( Ständeversammlung ) of Baden . As a member of parliament he devoted himself mainly to education , the church and social policy . He later gave a speech at the consecration of the statehouse in Karlsruhe . Even though the Lutheran and Reformed regional churches of Baden merged in 1821 with strong support from his side , into today 's Evangelische Landeskirche in Baden , his position as the prelate of the unified Protestant church was not endangered .
Hebel 's health deteriorated after 1815 . In 1826 he travelled to Heidelberg and Mannheim to oversee school exams , and he died on 22 September 1826 in nearby Schwetzingen . His grave is there . Johannes Bähr succeeded him as prelate in the regional church of Baden .
= = Writings = =
= = = Allemannische Gedichte = = =
Apart from a few early attempts , Hebel 's began his literary work near the end of the 18th century . After returning to Karlsruhe from a trip to Wiesental in 1799 , he began to write Allemannische Gedichte , inspired by a longing for his home . ( Allemannische is the spelling he used ; normally it has just one " l " . ) The 32 poems " for friends of the rural way of life " were written in Alemannic , the local dialect of Wiesental . Hebel could not find a Basel publisher willing to produce the book in Alemannic , and the collection was only published in 1803 by Philip Macklot in Karlsruhe , after Hebel and his friends managed to collect enough advance subscriptions . The first edition was published anonymously , possibly because Hebel was concerned about getting a rustic image .
In Allemannische Gedichte , Hebel depicts the local life and customs of his homeland , with topics ranging from a description of the river Wiese , through praise of the Breisgau area , to his work in the ironworks in Hausen . Perhaps the most famous poem is " Die Vergänglichkeit " , a poem about death , in which the father ( Alemannic : Ätti ) tells his son ( Bueb ) a story based on Rötteln Castle , about how a glorious town like Basel will decline – and likewise the whole world . Hebel also included his experience of his mother 's death : the conversation between Ätti and Bueb takes place in a cart on the street between Steinen and Brombach , where Hebel 's mother had died .
Allemannische Gedichte was very successful , and a new edition was published a year later , this time crediting the author . When Hebel read the poems aloud to margrave Charles Frederick , the duke praised them , and Hebel noticed his exact local knowledge : " I am surprised how the margrave knew all the villages , every small place , every shrub and hedge from Utzenfeld to Lörrach , and could always say : this is this , and yes , that 's how it is . " In the following decades , further editions were released in Aarau , Vienna and Reutlingen . Famous poets such as Jean Paul ( 1803 ) and Goethe ( 1804 ) wrote reviews of the poems . Hebel was elated at this success and wrote in a letter : " In certain moments I feel all proud inside , and as if drunk with happiness , that I could make our otherwise despised and ridiculed language so classical and give it such artistic fame " .
= = = Calendar stories = = =
Hebel 's second famous work is his calendar stories , which he wrote from 1803 on for the Badische Landkalender and especially from 1807 for its successor , the Rheinländischer Hausfreund . This old Lutheran calendar was selling poorly in the early 19th century , and Hebel was a member of the commission appointed to suggest improvements . After several discussions , Hebel finally became editor of the new calendar , which was first released in 1807 . One of the biggest improvements was to have more text , featuring " instructive news and funny stories " . Hebel wrote about 30 of these stories each year , and they were highly successful . The Schatzkästlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes was issued in 1811 as a collection of the most interesting of these stories . Further editions followed in 1816 and 1827 . The calendar stories included news , short stories , anecdotes , comical stories and modified fairy tales . They were intended both to entertain and to provide moral education . The best @-@ known of Hebel 's calendar stories are " Unverhofftes Wiedersehen " ( unexpected reunion ) and " Kannitverstan " ( I cannot understand ) . The philosopher Ernst Bloch called the first " the most beautiful story of the world " . There was a dispute in 1815 , as Hebel 's calendar story " Der fromme Rat " ( pious advice ) , issued in 1814 , was partially criticised by Catholics as being offensive , leading to its removal from the calendar . There he portrays a Catholic who prays to heaven instead of to the cross @-@ bearing priest ; the change can be viewed as a conversion of the Catholic to Protestantism . Hebel rounded off his story with the words : " The family friend knows to praise and venerate that , although he has never prayed to a rosary , else he would not write to the Lutheran calendar . " Subsequently , Hebel resigned as editor and wrote far fewer calendar stories , except in 1819 , when he wrote more than ever to make that year 's issue of the Rheinländischer Hausfreund possible .
= = = Bible stories = = =
After the calendar stories , Hebel wrote Biblische Geschichten ( Bible stories ) , a new school book for evangelical religious education . His criteria were that it should be clearly written and tell biblical stories in an exciting narrative style aimed at children from ten to fourteen . It took five years to write and was completed and released in 1824 . It was used as a textbook until 1855 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Hebel 's admirers include Goethe , Gottfried Keller and Tolstoy . Goethe , who tried to write a poem ( the " Schweizerlied " , Swiss song ) in Alemannic himself , praised the Allemannische Gedichte highly . According to him , Hebel " countrified the universe in the most naive , graceful fashion " . But on the question of whether he would translate Hebel 's works , Goethe said : " Such a great poet should be only read in the original ! One just needs to learn this language ! " The Brothers Grimm also admired Hebel , and he met Jacob Grimm in Karlsruhe in 1814 .
Hebel 's work reflects the links between popular culture and deeper ideas . August Vilmar , for example , praised Hebel 's " Vergänglichkeit " ( transience ) , saying that it gives the folk @-@ like foreground a background not found in other poets who wrote folk idylls . Vilmar further emphasises Hebel 's description of nature by the river Wiese , the poem " Sonntagsfrühe " , and especially the stories of the Schatzkästlein : " In their mood , their deep and genuine feeling , the liveliness of their imagery , the stories are unsurpassable , and worth a whole cart @-@ load of novels " . Theodor Heuss praised Hebel 's use of the native Alemannic language , not only for parody and vulgarity , but also to make it " a true tool of the poetic craft " , and according to Heuss he created a work that " resonates with the durable , the valid , the eternal , the eternally human " .
Later authors appreciated Hebel 's work too . Hermann Hesse once commented , " As far as I know , in no literary history do we yet read that Hebel was the greatest German novelist , as great as Keller and more confident and purer and mightier in effect than Goethe . " Theodor W. Adorno lauded his essay Die Juden as " one of the most beautiful German prose plays in defence of the Jews " . In Die gerettete Zunge , Geschichte einer Jugend , Elias Canetti described the influence that Hebel 's Schatzkästlein had on him : " I never wrote a book , but that I did not secretly aspire to his style , and I began by writing everything in shorthand , the knowledge of which I owe to him alone . " Marcel Reich @-@ Ranicki wrote , " Hebel 's stories are among the most beautiful in the German language " , and included the " Schatzkästlein " and " Die Rose " in his Kanon Deutscher Literatur . The first was also listed in the ZEIT @-@ Bibliothek der 100 Bücher .
The Johann @-@ Peter @-@ Hebel @-@ Preis was endowed in 1936 in honour of Hebel . The 10 @,@ 000 @-@ euro prize is awarded every two years to writers , translators , essayists , media representatives or scientists from the German district of Baden @-@ Württemberg who write in Alemannic or are connected with Hebel . The prizegiving ceremony takes place in Hausen im Wiesental , which is also home to the Hebelfest every 10 May . The community of Hausen also awards the annual Johann @-@ Peter @-@ Hebel @-@ Plakette to personalities from the Upper Rhine .
The Lörracher Pädagogium was renamed the Hebel @-@ Gymnasium in 1926 . Several Gymnasien in Pforzheim and Schwetzingen were named after him . Basic schools , in Essen , Berlin and especially Südbaden bear his name , as do numerous German streets . Monuments to Hebel are found in the Karlsruhe Palace , in Basel , Hausen and in the Hebelpark Lörrach . The Hebelbund Lörrach , Müllheim and the Basler Hebelstiftung are dedicated to his life and work .
= Cardiff Arms Park =
Cardiff Arms Park ( Welsh : Parc yr Arfau Caerdydd ) , also known as The Arms Park and the BT Sport Cardiff Arms Park for sponsorship reasons from September 2014 , is situated in the centre of Cardiff , Wales . It is primarily known as a rugby union stadium , but it also has a bowling green . The Arms Park was host to the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in 1958 , and hosted four games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup , including the third @-@ place play @-@ off . The Arms Park also hosted the inaugural Heineken Cup final of 1995 – 96 and the following year in 1996 – 97 .
The history of the rugby ground begins with the first stands appearing for spectators in the ground in 1881 – 1882 . Originally the Arms Park had a cricket ground to the north and a rugby union stadium to the south . By 1969 , the cricket ground had been demolished to make way for the present day rugby ground to the north and a second rugby stadium to the south , called the National Stadium . The National Stadium , which was used by Wales national rugby union team , was officially opened on 7 April 1984 , however in 1997 it was demolished to make way for the Millennium Stadium in 1999 , which hosted the 1999 Rugby World Cup and became the national stadium of Wales . The rugby ground has remained the home of the semi @-@ professional Cardiff RFC yet the professional Cardiff Blues regional rugby union team moved to the Cardiff City Stadium in 2009 , but returned three years later .
The site is owned by Cardiff Athletic Club and has been host to many sports , apart from rugby union and cricket ; they include athletics , association football , greyhound racing , tennis , British baseball and boxing . The site also has a bowling green to the north of the rugby ground , which is used by Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club , which is the bowls section of the Cardiff Athletic Club . The National Stadium also hosted many music concerts including Michael Jackson , David Bowie , Bon Jovi , The Rolling Stones and U2 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history of the site = = =
The Cardiff Arms Park site was originally called the Great Park , a swampy meadow behind the Cardiff Arms Hotel . The hotel was built by Sir Thomas Morgan , during the reign of Charles I. Cardiff Arms Park was named after this hotel . From 1803 , the Cardiff Arms Hotel and the Park had become the property of the Bute family . The Arms Park soon became a popular place for sporting events , and by 1848 , Cardiff Cricket Club was using the site for its cricket matches . However , by 1878 , Cardiff Arms Hotel had been demolished .
The 3rd Marquess of Bute stipulated that the ground could only be used for " recreational purposes " . At that time Cardiff Arms Park had a cricket ground to the north and a rugby union ground to the south . 1881 – 2 saw the first stands for spectators ; they held 300 spectators and cost £ 50 . The architect was Archibald Leitch , famous for designing Ibrox Stadium and Old Trafford , amongst others . In 1890 , new standing areas were constructed along the entire length of the ground , with additional stands erected in 1896 .
= = = 1912 redevelopment = = =
By 1912 , the Cardiff Football Ground , as it was then known , had a new south stand and temporary stands on the north , east and west ends of the ground . The south stand was covered , while the north terrace was initially without a roof . The improvements were partly funded by the Welsh Rugby Union ( WRU ) . The opening ceremony took place on 5 October 1912 , with a match between Newport RFC and Cardiff RFC . The new ground was opened by Lord Ninian Crichton @-@ Stuart . This new development increased the ground capacity to 43 @,@ 000 and much improved the facilities at the ground compared to the earlier stands .
In 1922 John Crichton @-@ Stuart , 4th Marquess of Bute , had sold the entire site and it was bought by the Cardiff Arms Park Company Limited for £ 30 @,@ 000 , it was then leased to the Cardiff Athletic Club ( cricket and rugby sections ) for 99 years at a cost of £ 200 per annum .
= = = North and South Stand redevelopments = = =
During 1934 the cricket pavilion had been demolished to make way for the new North Stand , which was built on the rugby union ground , costing around £ 20 @,@ 000 . However , in 1941 the new North Stand and part of the west terracing had been badly damaged in the Blitz by the Luftwaffe during the Second World War .
At a general meeting of the WRU in June 1953 , they made a decision , " That until such time as the facilities at Swansea were improved , all international matches be played at Cardiff " . At the same time , plans were made for a new South Stand , which was estimated to cost £ 60 @,@ 000 , however the tender price came out at £ 90 @,@ 000 , a compromise was made , and it was decided to build a new upper South Stand costing £ 64 @,@ 000 instead , with the Cardiff Athletic Club contributing £ 15 @,@ 000 and the remainder coming from the WRU . The new South Stand opened in 1956 , in time for the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games . This brought the overall capacity of the Arms Park up to 60 @,@ 000 , of which 12 @,@ 800 spectators were seated and the remainder standing .
The Arms Park hosted the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games , which was used for the athletics events , but this event caused damage to the drainage system , so much so , that other rugby unions ( England , Scotland and Ireland ) complained after the Games about the state of the pitch . On 4 December 1960 , due to torrential rain , the River Taff burst its banks with the Arms Park pitch being left under 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water . The Development Committee was set up to resolve these issues on a permanent basis . They looked at various sites in Cardiff , but they all proved to be unsatisfactory . They also could not agree a solution with the Cardiff Athletic Club , so they purchased about 80 acres ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land at Island Farm in Bridgend , which was previously used as a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp . It is best known for being the camp where the biggest escape attempt was made by German prisoners of war in Great Britain during the Second World War . Due to problems including transport issues Glamorgan County Council never gave outline planning permission for the proposals and by June 1964 the scheme was abandoned . At that stage , the cricket ground to the north was still being used by Glamorgan County Cricket Club , and the rugby union ground to the south was used by the national Wales team and Cardiff RFC .
By 7 October 1966 , the first floodlit game was held at Cardiff Arms Park , a game in which Cardiff RFC beat the Barbarians by 12 points to 8 .
= = = National Stadium redevelopment = = =
The National Stadium , which was also known as the Welsh National Rugby Ground , was designed by Osborne V Webb & Partners and built by G A Williamson & Associates of Porthcawl and Andrew Scott & Company of Port Talbot .
After agreement from the Cardiff Athletic Club , the freehold of the south ground was transferred solely to the WRU in July 1968 . Work could then begin on the new National Stadium . Glamorgan County Cricket Club would move to Sophia Gardens and the cricket ground to the north would be demolished and a new rugby union stadium built for Cardiff RFC , who would move out of the south ground , allowing the National Stadium to be built , for the sole use of the national rugby union team .
On 17 October 1970 , the new North Stand and the Cardiff RFC ground was completed , the North Stand cost just over £ 1 million . The West Stand was opened in 1977 and the new East Terrace was completed by March 1980 . By the time the final South Stand had been completed and the Stadium officially opened on 7 April 1984 , the South Stand had cost £ 4 @.@ 5 million . At the start of the project , the total cost was estimated at £ 2 @.@ 25 million , although by time it was finished in 1984 , it had risen by nearly four times that amount .
Both stadia had approximately east @-@ west alignment : the rugby ground to the north ( Castle Street ) end ; the National Stadium to the south ( Wood Street ) end . The original capacity was 65 @,@ 000 but this had to be reduced in later years to 53 @,@ 000 for safety reasons . 11 @,@ 000 of these were on the East Terrace and the conversion to all @-@ seater stadium would have reduced the stadium capacity still further to 47 @,@ 500 . This capacity would have been much less than Twickenham and the other major rugby venues and also less than the demand for tickets to major events .
A world record crowd of 56 @,@ 000 for a rugby union club match watched Llanelli RFC beat Neath RFC by 28 points to 13 points in the final of the Schweppes Cup ( WRU Challenge Cup ) on 7 May 1988 . The first evening game to be played under floodlights was held on 4 September 1991 at 8 @.@ 00 pm , between Wales and France . The last international match to be held at the National Stadium was between Wales and England on 15 March 1997 , and the last ever match that was held at the National Stadium was on 26 April 1997 between Cardiff and Swansea , Cardiff won the SWALEC Cup ( WRU Challenge Cup ) by 33 points to 26 points .
= = = Millennium Stadium = = =
In 1997 , just thirteen years after the National Stadium had opened , it was considered too small and did not have the facilities required of the time and it was demolished and a new stadium , the Millennium Stadium , was built in its place ( completed to a north @-@ south alignment and opened in June 1999 ) . This would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site . Although the Millennium Stadium is on roughly two thirds of the National Stadium , Cardiff Arms Park site , it is currently no longer using the Arms Park name . The official website confuses the issue as well , one part states that " The Millennium Stadium is located on Westgate Street in Cardiff ; next to the Cardiff Arms Park " . whereas another section specifically refers to the stadium as " The Millennium Stadium , on the Cardiff Arms Park "
= = = Proposed redevelopment = = =
An agreement in principle was reached in December 2015 between the landlord of the stadium site ( Cardiff Athletic Club ) and its tenant ( Cardiff Blues ) to give the club a 150 @-@ year lease on the stadium site . This could see the redevelopment of the Arms Park , including a new 15 @,@ 000 seater stadium at 90 degrees to the existing stadium costing between £ 20 million and £ 30 million and surrounded by new offices and apartments .
More detailed negotiations will begin with a final approval expected early in 2016 . If the final agreement goes ahead , Cardiff Athletic Club would receive an upfront payment of approximately £ 8 million . As part of the agreement , the bowls section would have to vacate its current site at the Arms Park and move to a new facility . At present Cardiff Blues pay Cardiff Athletic Club rent of around £ 115 @,@ 000 per annum , however this would nearly double to around £ 200 @,@ 000 .
= = Rugby ground = =
Only the rugby ground and the Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club now use the name Cardiff Arms Park . The rugby ground has two main stands , the North Stand and the South Stand . Both the Stands have terracing below seating . The other stands in the ground are the Westgate Street end ( currently known as the Coastal Cottages Family Stand ) , which has rows of seating below executive boxes , plus the club shop , and the River Taff end ( the Barry Nelmes Suite , named after Barry Nelmes , the former Cardiff RFC captain ) , which has 26 executive boxes . The rugby ground has two main entrances , the south entrance , and the Gwyn Nicholls Memorial Gates ( Angel Hotel entrance ) , which was unveiled on 26 December 1949 in honour of the Welsh international rugby player Gwyn Nicholls . The Cardiff Athletic Clubhouse is situated in the corner of the ground between the South Stand and the Westgate Street end .
The South Stand of the rugby ground formed a complete unit with the North Stand of the National Stadium . Now the same structure of the South Stand of the rugby ground is also physically attached to the North Stand of the Millennium Stadium . This section is known colloquially as Glanmor 's Gap , after Glanmor Griffiths , former chair and President of the WRU . This came about because the WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the Millennium Stadium , and the National Lottery Commission would not provide any additional funds to be used for the construction of a new ground for Cardiff RFC . The Millennium Stadium was therefore built with the old reinforced concrete structure of the National Stadium ( North Stand ) and the new steel Millennium Stadium structure built around it .
There was doubt about the future of the Arms Park after 2010 following the move of the Cardiff Blues to the Cardiff City Stadium . Cardiff RFC Ltd , the company that runs Cardiff Blues and Cardiff RFC , still has a 15 @-@ year lease on the Arms Park , but talks are underway to release the rugby club from the terms of the lease , to enable the Millennium Stadium to be redeveloped with a new North Stand and adjoining convention centre . However , it still has the original requirement on the lease , that the land will only be used for " recreational purposes " , as stipulated by the Bute family . But the Arms Park site is a prime piece of real estate in the centre of Cardiff , which means that it may be difficult to sell the land to property developers . The estimated value of the whole Arms Park site could be at least £ 25 million , although with the " recreational use " requirement , its actual value could be a lot less than that figure . A decision by Cardiff Athletic Club on the future of the Arms Park has yet to be made . In 2011 , the Cardiff Blues regional rugby union team made a £ 6 million bid for the Arms Park , later the WRU made an increased bid of £ 10 million for the site . Both bids were rejected by the trustees of the Cardiff Athletic Club . However , in 2012 Cardiff Blues announced that they would be making a permanent return to Cardiff Arms Park following declining attendances at the Cardiff City Stadium . In the 2013 off @-@ season , the pitch at the Arms Park will be replaced with an artificial FieldTurf surface in time for the start of the 2013 – 14 season . This change is intended to prevent any adverse weather conditions from affecting the rugby .
= = Bowling green = =
Cardiff Arms Park is best known as a rugby union stadium , but Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club ( CABC ) was established in 1923 , and ever since then , the club has used the Arms Park as its bowling green . The bowls club is a section of the Cardiff Athletic Club and shares many of the facilities of the Cardiff Arms Park athletics centre .
The Les Spence Memorial Gates were erected in memory of the former Cardiff RFU player , who captained the team in 1936 @-@ 37 . He was born in 1907 and became chairman of the Cardiff RFU and president of the WRU between 1973 and 1974 . He was awarded an MBE and died in 1988 .
The Club has produced two Welsh international bowlers ; Mr. C Standfast in 1937 and Mr. B Hawkins who represented Wales in the 1982 World Pairs and captained Wales in 1982 and 1984 .
= = Usage = =
= = = Association football = = =
The Riverside Football Club , founded in 1899 , played some matches at the Arms Park until 1910 , when they moved to Ninian Park , and later became Cardiff City Football Club .
On 31 May 1989 , Wales played its first international game against West Germany at the National Stadium in a World Cup qualifying match , which ended goalless . It was also the first ever international football match held in Great Britain that was watched by all @-@ seater spectators .
The adjoining Cardiff Rugby Club ground has also been used for Association Football . In July 1995 , Ton Pentre played two Intertoto Cup games there , against Heerenveen ( Netherlands ) and Uniao Leiria ( Portugal ) as their own ground was not suitable . The Heerenveen game - the first ever soccer match to be played there - kicked off at 6pm on Saturday 1 July 1995 and resulted in the Dutch side winning 7 @-@ 0 . The Wales U @-@ 21 team have also played a home game there in the late 1990s .
= = = Athletics = = =
In 1958 , the British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Cardiff . The event was ( to date ) the biggest sporting event ever held in Wales ; however , it would not have been possible without the financial support given by the WRU and the Cardiff Athletic Club . Both the opening and closing ceremonies took place at Cardiff Arms Park , plus all the track and field events , on what had been the greyhound track . It would turn out to be the last time that South Africa would participate in the Games until 1994 . South Africa withdrew from the Commonwealth Games in 1961 .
= = = Baseball & British baseball = = =
Baseball was established early on in Cardiff , and one of the earliest of games to be held at the Arms Park was on 18 May 1918 . It was a charity match in aid of the Prisoner of War Fund between Welsh and American teams of the U.S. Beaufort & U.S. Jupiter . British baseball matches have also regularly taken place at the Arms Park and hosted the annual England versus Wales international game every four years . The games are now usually held at Roath Park .
= = = Boxing = = =
The first boxing contest held at the Arms Park was on 24 January 1914 , when Bombadier Billy Wells beat Gaston Pigot by a knockout in the first round of a 20 round contest . Boxing contests were held later on 14 June 1943 , 12 August 1944 , 4 October 1951 and 10 September 1952 .
Around 25 @,@ 000 spectators watched international boxing on 1 October 1993 , at the National Stadium with a World Boxing Council ( WBC ) Heavyweight title bout between Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno . It was the first time that two British @-@ born boxers had fought for the world heavyweight title . Lewis beat Bruno by a technical knockout in the 7th round , in what was called the " Battle of Britain " . On 30 September 1995 , Steve Robinson the World Boxing Organization ( WBO ) World Featherweight Champion , lost against Prince Naseem Hamed at the rugby ground in 8 rounds .
= = = Cricket = = =
In 1819 Cardiff Cricket Club was formed , by 1848 they had moved to their new home at the Arms Park . Glamorgan Cricket Club , at the time not a first @-@ class county , played their first match at Cardiff Arms Park in June 1869 , against Monmouthshire Cricket Club . They played their first @-@ ever County Championship match there in 1921 , competing there every season ( except while first @-@ class cricket was suspended during the Second World War ) , their last match being against Somerset County Cricket Club in August 1966 . Cardiff Cricket Club played their final game at the ground against Lydney Cricket Club on 17 September 1966 . Both Cardiff Cricket Club and Glamorgan then moved to a new ground at Sophia Gardens on the opposite bank of the River Taff to the Arms Park , following work on the creation of a national rugby stadium , later named the National Stadium .
The first first @-@ class cricket match actually to be held on the ground was between West of England and East of England , on 20 June 1910 . In all more than 240 first @-@ class cricket matches were played at Cardiff Arms Park .
Only one List A game was ever played at the ground , and this was only the second match of its type : Glamorgan 's Gillette Cup fixture against Somerset on 22 May 1963 . Except for the aforementioned 1910 game , the only major match not to involve Glamorgan was a Test Trial in July 1932 , which was badly affected by the weather and saw play on only one of the scheduled three days .
= = = Greyhound racing = = =
To help pay for the upkeep of the site , a greyhound track was built in 1927 . The first meeting was held on 7 April 1928 . The Arms Park ( Cardiff ) Greyhound Racing Company Limited signed a 50 @-@ year lease in 1937 , with Cardiff Athletic Club – the owners of the Arms Park – having no rights to break the agreement or to review the rental until 50 years expired . A neighbouring track , the White City closed in 1939 and the Welsh Greyhound Derby was transferred to the Arms Park from White City , Cardiff in 1945 . This was one of the three races that formed the triple crown along with the English Greyhound Derby and Scottish Greyhound Derby . The track continued to host the race annually . In 1958 the entire surface required relaying after the Commonwealth Games had finished . In 1971 the Welsh Greyhound Derby was given ' classic ' status . In 1977 the Cardiff City Council announced that a revamp of the Arms Park site would not include greyhound racing . The Welsh Rugby Union required the Arms Park track to extend terracing at the National Stadium . The last Welsh Greyhound Derby was on 9 July and the last meeting was held on 30 July . 1 @,@ 128 greyhound fans saw Lillyput Queen , owned by Cardiff butcher Malcolm Davies and trained by Freddie Goodman , win the last race . Cardiff City Council had taken less than ten minutes to reject a plan to switch greyhound racing to nearby Maindy Stadium .
= = = Rugby union = = =
In 1876 , the Cardiff RFC was formed and soon after they also used the park . On 12 April 18
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on January 11 that he will stay with Baltimore .
The Bears went to Seattle on January 2 to interview Quinn , and the following day , interviewed Gase in Denver . Bowles was interviewed on January 8 , while Austin and Marrone were interviewed five days later . On January 14 , former Broncos ' head coach John Fox , who had been released on January 12 , was interviewed . Two days after his interview , Fox was hired , signing a four @-@ year contract .
Looking for an offensive coordinator , the Bears requested an interview with Titans tight ends coach Mike Mularkey , but were denied . The Bears also showed interest in San Francisco 49ers quarterback coach Geep Chryst and former Kansas head coach Charlie Weis for the OC position . Gase was selected for the OC role on January 21 . Defensively , 49ers DC Vic Fangio was hired on January 20 , and brought 49ers defensive backs coach Ed Donatell to serve the same position , replacing Jon Hoke . At the NFL Scouting Combine , the Bears announced that they would be switching to a base 3 – 4 defense in 2015 , a defensive scheme that Fangio had operated in San Francisco . Four of Fox 's assistants with the Broncos were brought to Chicago : Broncos special teams coordinator Jeff Rodgers was hired on January 19 , replacing Joe DeCamillis ; the next day , assistant defensive backs coach Sam Garnes , offensive line coach Dave Magazu and assistant special teams coach Derius Swinton II were hired for the same positions they had served in Denver . The same day , defensive coordinator Mel Tucker , DeCamillis , tight ends coach Andy Bischoff , linebackers coach Reggie Herring and assistant special teams coach Dwayne Stukes were all officially released . To replace Cavanaugh and Herring , respectively , the Browns ' Dowell Loggains and Atlanta Falcons ' Glenn Pires were hired . Saints ' assistant offensive line coach Frank Smith succeeded Bischoff at the tight ends coach spot after being hired on January 22 . Three days later , defensive line coach Paul Pasqualoni left the Bears to join the Houston Texans , and Broncos DL coach Jay Rodgers was hired . Two days later , Bears assistant DL coach Clint Hurtt was reassigned to outside linebackers . On February 10 , Ohio State running backs coach Stan Drayton joined the Bears to serve the same position . The next day , North Shore Senior High School assistant football coach and former NFL player Ben Wilkerson was hired as assistant OL coach , while incumbent OL coach Pat Meyer was not retained .
On January 21 , strength and conditioning coach Mike Clark was fired . The next day , the Broncos ' Jason George was hired to take his place . Broncos offensive quality control coach Bo Hardegree was hired as an offensive assistant on January 24 . Three days later , Chicago offensive quality control coaches Carson Walch and Brendan Nugent were fired . On February 4 , Central Michigan director of strength and conditioning Rick Perry was hired as an assistant strength coach . On February 10 , the team announced they would not retain defensive quality control coach Chris Harris .
= = = Roster changes = = =
The Bears entered the new league year with 23 free agents , three of whom were exclusive rights free agents . The NFL 's deadline to apply the franchise tag to players was on March 2 , though the Bears did not tag any players . Free agency officially began on March 10 .
= = = = Acquisitions = = = =
The first signing of 2015 was on January 28 , when the Bears signed Toronto Argonauts receiver John Chiles to a reserve / future contract .
On the second day of free agency , the Bears signed Ravens linebacker Pernell McPhee to a five @-@ year deal worth $ 38 @.@ 75 million with $ 15 @.@ 5 million guaranteed , and New York Giants safety Antrel Rolle ( $ 11 @.@ 25 million , $ 5 million guaranteed ) , and San Diego Chargers receiver Eddie Royal ( $ 15 million , $ 10 million guaranteed ) to three @-@ year deals .
Afterwards , the Bears began signing players to one @-@ year deals . On March 16 , Vikings offensive lineman Vladimir Ducasse agreed to a contract ; two days later , Chiefs long @-@ snapper Thomas Gafford was signed . From March 24 – 27 , the Bears added four defenders : defensive ends Jarvis Jenkins ( Redskins ) and Ray McDonald ( 49ers ) on March 24 , Tampa Bay Buccaneers linebacker Mason Foster on March 25 , and Jacksonville Jaguars cornerback Alan Ball on March 27 . On March 31 , Falcons running back Jacquizz Rodgers joined the team . The first signing of April occurred on the first day , when Cardinals linebacker Sam Acho was acquired , and the next day , former Broncos center Will Montgomery was signed . Later in the month , on April 23 , Falcons tight end Bear Pascoe was signed . June 's first acquisition was also a one @-@ year signing , when the team signed Tracy Porter on June 8 .
On April 30 , Chiefs safety Malcolm Bronson was signed to a two @-@ year deal . On May 11 , the Bears signed quarterback Pat Devlin , linebacker Kyle Woestmann and defensive tackle Terry Williams to three @-@ year contracts . The next day , New York Jets tight end Chris Pantale was claimed off waivers . On June 18 , safety Sherrod Martin and running back Daniel Thomas agreed to contracts of one year . Two days before the start of training camp , on July 27 , the team signed Arizona Rattlers receiver / returner A. J. Cruz , while former Cardinals defensive lineman David Carter was acquired the next day .
= = = = Departures = = = =
On March 6 , the Bears agreed to trade receiver Brandon Marshall to the Jets for a fifth @-@ round draft pick ; the trade did not become official until the start of free agency .
Defensive tackle Stephen Paea was the first of the Bears ' free agents to leave the team , signing with the Redskins on March 10 . Two days later , safety Chris Conte joined the Buccaneers . On April 9 , cornerback Charles Tillman was signed by the Panthers . On May 13 , 14 and 17 , linebacker Darryl Sharpton , cornerback Danny McCray and receiver Josh Morgan departed the Bears to sign with the Cardinals , Cowboys and Saints , respectively .
On April 2 , safety Anthony Walters and center Roberto Garza , who had been the team 's longest @-@ tenured player , were released after ten seasons . On May 11 , linebacker Khaseem Greene and defensive lineman Austen Lane were released , and eleven days later , newly acquired defensive tackle Ray McDonald was released after being accused of domestic violence and child endangerment . On June 18 , Pat Devlin and tight end Jacob Maxwell were released , as was Jonathan Brown ten days later .
= = = 2015 NFL draft = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ draft = = = =
On March 26 , NFL.com analyst Lance Zierlein wrote that the Bears ' five biggest needs entering the draft were at outside linebacker , nose tackle , offensive line , safety , and wide receiver . The general consensus regarding the Bears ' seventh @-@ overall pick was to select an edge rusher like Vic Beasley ( Clemson ) , Dante Fowler ( Florida ) , Shane Ray ( Missouri ) and Randy Gregory ( Nebraska ) , though WBBM @-@ TV 's Greg Gabriel believed the Bears should trade down from the pick , with players like Arik Armstead ( Oregon ) , Danny Shelton ( Washington ) , Eddie Goldman ( Florida State ) , Jordan Phillips ( Oklahoma ) and Malcom Brown ( Texas ) being fits for the Bears ' new 3 – 4 defense if the Bears were to trade down to a spot between 10th and 20th . Another suggested position to draft with the first @-@ rounder was wide receiver , particularly Alabama 's Amari Cooper , who , despite not being considered " a true need , a talent like his would be tough to pass up here . " A defensive position considered for the pick was nose tackle ; Sports Illustrated writer Andy Staples believed a 3 – 4 defense should focus on NT , and as a result , the Bears should draft Shelton , followed by a linebacker in later rounds , such as Eric Kendricks ( UCLA ) , Benardrick McKinney ( Mississippi State ) , Stephone Anthony ( Clemson ) and Paul Dawson ( TCU ) in the second round , and afterwards , draft a running back like Buck Allen ( USC ) or Mike Davis ( South Carolina ) .
Prior to the draft , the Bears met with 37 players ; 25 had private visits , 6 met at the NFL Scouting Combine , 4 met at their college 's Pro Days , 3 had meetings at the Senior Bowl and the East – West Shrine Game . Iowa State 's David Irving was the only player to have a workout with the team . The team held a local Pro Day on April 7 , which featured players from the Chicago area , including : Northwestern quarterback Trevor Siemian , safety Ibraheim Campbell and receiver Kyle Prater , quarterbacks Taylor Graham ( Hawaii ) , Chandler Whitmer ( Connecticut ) and Matt Behrendt ( Wisconsin @-@ Whitewater ) , safety Corey Cooper ( Nebraska ) , offensive lineman Arthur Ray Jr . ( Michigan State ) and tight ends Matt LaCosse ( Illinois ) , James O 'Shaughnessy ( Illinois State ) and E.J. Bibbs ( Iowa State ) .
= = = = Draft class = = = =
The Bears attempted to trade quarterback Jay Cutler to the Titans for their # 2 overall pick , but Tennessee was not interested . Eventually , the Bears drafted West Virginia receiver Kevin White with the seventh @-@ overall pick ; considered the top receiver in the 2015 draft class by NFL.com analyst Mike Mayock , White caught 109 passes for 1 @,@ 447 yards and 10 touchdowns in 2014 . In the second round , Florida State defensive lineman Eddie Goldman was selected ; considered a first @-@ round prospect who had fallen due to his toughness , the 2014 Associated Press All @-@ American recorded 35 tackles , four sacks and eight tackles for loss in his final college season . With their third @-@ rounder , Oregon center Hroniss Grasu was drafted ; the 2013 and 2014 Rimington Trophy finalist , the Bears were convinced by guard Kyle Long to draft his former Oregon teammate . With White and Grasu 's selections , this marked the first time since 2008 that the Bears drafted at least two offensive players with their first three picks . In the fourth round , Michigan State running back Jeremy Langford was selected ; during his time with Michigan State , he recorded 2 @,@ 967 rushing yards and 40 touchdowns on 577 carries , while also recording 18 games with 100 + rushing yards , the third @-@ most in school history . He holds the Spartans ' record for the most consecutive Big Ten Conference games with 100 rushing yards with 15 , ending his college career with 16 . The Bears drafted their second defensive player in the fifth round , Penn State safety Adrian Amos ; having started 38 consecutive games for the Nittany Lions , Amos recorded 42 tackles and three interceptions in 2014 , with career totals of 149 tackles , seven interceptions , three sacks and nine tackles for loss . The Bears ' final pick of the draft was in the sixth round , drafting TCU tackle Tayo Fabuluje ; the 2012 Big 12 Conference Newcomer of the Year , he skipped football in 2013 due to family issues before returning in 2014 to help TCU win the Big 12 title .
Each of the draft class members agreed to four @-@ year deals with the Bears . Langford , Amos and Fabuluje were the first to sign , doing so on May 5 . The following day , White and Goldman were signed . Grasu was the last player to sign a contract , agreeing to a deal on May 8 .
Notes
The Bears traded their original 2015 fifth @-@ round selection ( No. 143 overall ) along with their 2014 fifth @-@ round selection to the Denver Broncos in exchange for the Broncos ' 2014 fourth- and seventh @-@ round selections .
The Bears traded wide receiver Brandon Marshall and their seventh @-@ round selection ( No. 224 overall ) to the New York Jets in exchange for the Jets ' fifth @-@ round selection ( No. 142 overall ) .
= = = = Undrafted free agents = = = =
After the draft , on May 3 , the Bears signed 15 undrafted free agents . On offense , six players were signed : ECU quarterback Shane Carden , who completed 63 @.@ 5 percent of his passes for 4 @,@ 736 yards , 30 touchdowns and 10 interceptions in 2014 ; Coastal Carolina guard Chad Hamilton , who was named to first @-@ team All @-@ Big South Conference in 2013 and 2014 ; Arkansas tackle Cameron Jefferson , who was an honorable mention for the All @-@ Mountain West Conference team while playing for UNLV ; Illinois State receiver Cameron Meredith , who led the Redbirds with 66 receptions for 1 @,@ 061 yards and nine touchdowns in 2014 ; Baylor receiver and punt returner Levi Norwood , who holds the school record for the most punt return touchdowns with two in 2013 , while also catching 128 passes for 1 @,@ 626 yards and 11 touchdowns ; and Alabama tight end Brian Vogler , who recorded 17 catches for 125 yards and two touchdowns in four years .
Defensively , seven players were signed : TCU linebacker Jonathan Anderson , who recorded 30 tackles and 4 @.@ 5 tackles @-@ for @-@ loss in 2014 ; Rice cornerback Bryce Callahan , who recorded 145 tackles , 13 interceptions ( second @-@ most in school history ) , 14 tackles @-@ for @-@ loss , two sacks , two forced fumbles and a fumble recovery in 47 college games , including a career @-@ best 43 tackles in 2014 ; East Central cornerback Qumain Black , a 2013 first @-@ team All @-@ Great American Conference member during his time at Northeastern Oklahoma A & M College , who had 25 tackles and an interception with East Central in 2014 ; UCF cornerback Jacoby Glenn , who recorded 48 tackles and seven picks in 2014 , and was named second @-@ team All @-@ American ( UCF 's first All @-@ American since 2007 ) and American Athletic Conference Co @-@ Defensive Player of the Year ; UCLA safety Anthony Jefferson , who led the Bruins with eight pass breakups while ranking third with 72 tackles , awarding him a spot on the second @-@ team All @-@ Pac @-@ 12 Conference roster ; Miami defensive end Olsen Pierre , who recorded 96 tackles , nine tackles @-@ for @-@ loss , 2 @.@ 5 sacks , two forced fumbles , a fumble recovery and six pass breakups in 44 college games ; and Washington linebacker John Timu , who recorded 108 tackles , two interceptions , and two touchdowns in 2014 . Chicago also signed two special @-@ teamers : Toledo kicker Jeremiah Detmer , the 2013 Mid @-@ American Conference Special Teams Player of the Year , who had an 84 @.@ 4 conversion percentage during his career ; and Old Dominion long snapper Rick Lovato , who didn 't miss a game in college . However , Detmer was released on June 18 .
= = = Offseason activities = = =
The Bears held a voluntary offseason program on April 13 , with the players focusing on strength and conditioning . Due to having a new head coach , a voluntary veteran minicamp was held on April 28 – 30 . A rookie minicamp was held on May 8 – 10 , while ten organized team activities were scheduled , three of which were open to the media ( May 27 , June 3 , June 10 ) . Finally , a mandatory full @-@ squad minicamp was held on June 16 – 18 .
Players reported to Training Camp in Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais on July 29 , though practice officially began the following day . The camp lasted until August 16 , though no practices were held on August 4 , 9 and 12 – 14 .
During the timespan of Training Camp prior to the first game of the preseason , various transactions occurred . On the first day of camp , rookie Chad Hamilton retired , and on July 31 , Tyler Moore was signed to a three @-@ year contract to take his place . On August 5 , tight end Brian Vogler was released . Six days later , guard Ryan Groy was traded to the New England Patriots for linebacker Matthew Wells .
= = Preseason = =
= = = Transactions = = =
= = = Schedule = = =
The Bears preseason schedule was released on April 9 . The team opened the preseason at home against the Miami Dolphins , who had defeated the Bears in their meeting in 2014 , followed by visiting two 2014 playoff teams in the Indianapolis Colts and Cincinnati ; the Bears had last faced the two teams in the season openers of 2012 and 2013 , respectively . Chicago ended the preseason hosting annual preseason opponent Cleveland Browns , who the Bears had lost to in the 2014 preseason game .
= = = Game summaries = = =
The Bears struggled early in the preseason @-@ opening game , starting with the Dolphins scoring on the opening drive with Ryan Tannehill 's two @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jarvis Landry , concluding a 14 @-@ play , 85 @-@ yard drive . On the first offensive play , tackle Jordan Mills was penalized for a false start , and after four plays , the Bears punted ; Chicago would not score until early in the second quarter with Robbie Gould 's 48 @-@ yard field goal . The Dolphins responded to the field goal with Caleb Sturgis ' 31 @-@ yard field goal later in the quarter . With 1 : 02 left in the first half , backup quarterback Jimmy Clausen attempted to lead a two @-@ minute drill , and the offense reached the Dolphins ' 16 @-@ yard line , but with no timeouts and wide receiver Josh Bellamy being unable to get out of bounds , the clock ran out . Early in the second half , cornerback Sherrick McManis pulled the ball away from Mike Gillislee , and recovered at the Dolphins ' 37 , which led to Gould 's 23 @-@ yard field goal ; after Miami punted , Gould narrowed the margin by one point with a 21 @-@ yard kick . On the Dolphins ' next play , McLeod Bethel @-@ Thompson was intercepted by linebacker John Timu ; seven plays later , runningback Ka 'Deem Carey scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run to give the Bears the lead , followed by Clausen 's two @-@ point conversion pass to wide receiver A. J. Cruz . In the fourth quarter , Bethel @-@ Thompson was intercepted by linebacker Sam Acho on the Miami 13 , which led to Gould kicking a 27 @-@ yard field goal ; later in the quarter , the Bears increased their lead with runningback Senorise Perry 's 54 @-@ yard touchdown run , making the score 27 – 10 . After the Dolphins turned the ball over on downs and the Bears punted , the game concluded with Miami 's Josh Freeman being intercepted by defensive back Malcolm Bronson .
Against the Colts , the Bears led early with Gould 's 50 @-@ yard and 38 @-@ yard field goals , and both teams traded the lead with each of their next scores in the half : Indianapolis scored on Andrew Luck 's 5 @-@ yard touchdown run and eventual two @-@ point conversion pass to Andre Johnson , which Chicago responded with Gould 's 25 @-@ yarder , though the Colts ended the half with the 11 – 9 lead via Adam Vinatieri 's 25 @-@ yard kick . During the first half , the Bears had a first quarter 12 @-@ yard touchdown scramble by Cutler nullified by lineman Kyle Long 's holding penalty . The game 's lone two interceptions occurred during the second quarter on consecutive drives : Indianapolis quarterback Matt Hasselbeck 's pass for Donte Moncrief was intercepted by Terrance Mitchell , and Clausen 's pass for tight end Dante Rosario was underthrown , being intercepted by Sheldon Prince . The Bears reclaimed the lead on their first possession of the second half with Clausen 's 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bellamy , which was established after Jeremy Langford 's 46 @-@ yard run . On the Colts ' next driver , Hasselbeck was sacked by Acho , leading to defensive tackle Eddie Goldman recovering the ensuing fumble . The margin was increased on the fifth play of the Bears ' next drive , with Langford scoring on a two @-@ yard run .
Chicago 's top four receivers , Alshon Jeffery , Eddie Royal , Marquess Wilson and Kevin White , were not active for the game in Cincinnati . During the game , Perry , Clausen , cornerback Tracy Porter , wide receiver John Chiles and linebacker Jon Bostic also suffered injuries . Penalties were a concern for the Bears , who committed 12 for 117 yards ; the offense also struggled on converting third downs , with only two of eleven successful . On defense , the Bears allowed the Bengals to score three unanswered touchdowns : in the first quarter with Andy Dalton 's one @-@ yard run , and in the second with A. J. McCarron 's touchdown pass to Marvin Jones and Jeremy Hill 's one @-@ yard run . It would not be until the final six seconds of the half that the Bears scored , with Gould 's 34 @-@ yard field goal . The first @-@ team offense left the game during the third quarter , with all but one drive having ended in a punt , and on four of those drives , the unit failed to record a first down . Halfway through the final quarter , the Bears were able to make the score 21 – 10 after Ify Umodu blocked Kevin Huber 's punt and returned it for an eight @-@ yard touchdown .
Chicago scored first in the second quarter of the preseason @-@ ending game against Cleveland with David Fales ' 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Marc Mariani , after capitalizing on linebacker Lamarr Houston forcing Darius Jennings to fumble and Mitchell recovered . On the Browns ' next drive , the Bears ' linebacker Jonathan Anderson sacked Thad Lewis , leading to another fumble , this time recovered by defensive lineman Cornelius Washington ; however , Gould missed a 43 @-@ yard field goal . In the third quarter , Fales was able to throw an 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Umodu after escaping Tank Carder 's blitz . Later in the quarter , Sherrod Martin intercepted Lewis and scored on the ensuing 25 @-@ yard return . With 5 : 35 remaining in the game , Gould scored the final points of the game with a 28 @-@ yard field goal , as the Bears recorded the team 's first preseason shutout since 1994 . By the end of the game , the defense excelled , with seven sacks , three turnovers forced and limiting the Browns to 2 @.@ 7 yards per play . The Bears concluded the preseason with a 3 – 1 record , while also not allowing a score in the second half across the four games ; turnover @-@ wise , the Bears forced ten , while allowing only one .
= = Regular season = =
= = = Transactions = = =
= = = Schedule = = =
The regular season schedule was released on April 21 . Aside from the standard six games against NFC North teams , the Bears also played the AFC West and NFC West teams , along with the two last @-@ place finishing NFC East ( Washington ) and NFC South ( Tampa Bay ) teams . The Bears ' opponents had a combined record of 136 – 120 ( .531 ) , making their schedule the 13th @-@ strongest in the league .
= = = Game summaries = = =
= = = = Week 1 : vs. Green Bay Packers = = = =
The Bears opened the season hosting rival Green Bay Packers , the 191st meeting in the two teams ' history and the third season opener in which both teams played each other in Chicago ; the Bears held a 93 – 91 – 6 all @-@ time lead , and also led the series in season opener record with 17 – 12 – 2 . However , the Packers had won nine of the last ten games between the two , including the last game , a 55 – 14 victory at Lambeau Field . WBBM @-@ TV analyst Jeff Joniak believed the Bears would have to run to gain an advantage against the Packers ; when Chicago played Green Bay in week four last season , the latter had the 30th @-@ ranked run defense , and allowed 235 rushing yards in that game . Additionally , the offense had to avoid drives that required long yardage , as the Bears had scored 74 points outside of the red zone ( the 29th @-@ best in the league ) , while also protecting quarterback Jay Cutler from linebackers Julius Peppers and Clay Matthews III . On defense , the new 3 – 4 defense faced a fast @-@ paced Green Bay offense featuring quarterback Aaron Rodgers and tailback Eddie Lacy . The Rodgers @-@ led Packers , who led the NFC North in touchdowns with 58 , along with having the highest average yards per play ( 6 @.@ 17 ) in the NFL in 2014 , also provided a challenge for the Bears defensive backs ; blitzing Rodgers was also a liability , as he had a league @-@ best 130 @.@ 4 rating with 15 touchdowns and one interception against the blitz . However , the Packers did not have receiver Jordy Nelson , who had caught 13 touchdowns in 2014 , as he had suffered an ACL tear during the preseason. quarteback David Fales , cornerback Tracy Porter , runningback Ka 'Deem Carey , linebacker Jon Bostic , center Hroniss Grasu , tackle Tayo Fabuluje and receiver Cameron Meredith were inactive for the game .
The Packers won the coin toss , and elected to defer , meaning the Bears started the game with the ball . On the first possession of the game , the Bears offense reached as far as the Packers ' eight @-@ yard line , but ended with Robbie Gould kicking a 28 @-@ yard field goal . After the Packers punted , the Bears came close to allowing a turnover when Cutler was sacked by Peppers and fumbled , though the call was reversed . The next four drives of the game ended in scores for both teams : the Packers scored with Rodgers ' 13 @-@ yard touchdown pass to James Jones , followed by the Bears reclaiming the lead in the second quarter with Matt Forte 's one @-@ yard touchdown run ; the next two possessions concluded with field goals : Mason Crosby tied the game with a 37 @-@ yarder , though the Bears ended the first half with the 13 – 10 lead with Gould 's 50 @-@ yarder . Prior to Forte 's touchdown run , Gould had kicked a 27 @-@ yard field goal , but Sam Shields was offsides on the play , giving the Bears a 4th and 1 , which the Bears capitalized with via Forte 's one @-@ yard run . The Bears then had two potential touchdowns nullified by Forte dropping a pass , and receiver Alshon Jeffery 's touchdown was canceled by tackle Jermon Bushrod 's holding penalty . The Packers also had a potential touchdown hurt by a penalty , as Rodgers had an eight @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jones voided by holding penalties . In the second half , the Packers scored quickly with Jones ' one @-@ yard touchdown catch . The Bears responded with Gould 's 44 @-@ yard field goal , but the Packers eventually scored again via Randall Cobb 's five @-@ yard touchdown catch . On Chicago 's following drive , the offense drove to Green Bay 's six @-@ yard line to set up a first and goal situation . While Forte 's four @-@ yard run brought the Bears to the two , Cutler 's passes to Eddie Royal , Jeffery and Royal again fell incomplete , leading to the Bears turning the ball over on downs . The Packers punted again , but the Bears failed to score when Cutler was intercepted by Matthews ; the turnover set up Lacy 's two @-@ yard touchdown run to increase the score to 31 – 16 with 1 : 55 left in the game . With 34 seconds left , the Bears scored with Cutler 's 24 @-@ yard touchdown pass to tight end Martellus Bennett , narrowing the margin to eight points . However , Green Bay 's Davante Adams recovered the onside kick , and the Packers ran out the clock to end the game .
Gould 's first field goal of the game allowed him to set the franchise record for the most field goals with 244 , breaking a tie with Kevin Butler . Forte recorded 184 rushing yards in the game , the most by a Bears running back in a loss since Walter Payton 's 175 yards in a 1984 loss to the Packers .
= = = = Week 2 : vs. Arizona Cardinals = = = =
Chicago hosted Arizona in week two , the 92nd meeting all @-@ time ; the Bears , who possessed a 58 – 27 – 6 record against the Cardinals entering the game , won the most recent meeting in 2012 28 – 13 , though Arizona won the last game at Soldier Field in 2009 41 – 21 . The Bears faced a 3 – 4 defense for the second consecutive week , and the Cardinals had a blitz @-@ heavy defense . To attack it , Jeff Joniak wrote Matt Forte would have to be utilized . When passing , the Bears had to be wary of left @-@ side cornerback Patrick Peterson ; in 2014 , Arizona 's opponents only threw passes of at least ten yards to that side 29 times , the fifth @-@ lowest in the NFL . As a result , teams attempted to throw ti the right , with 51 deep passes , though only 29 @.@ 4 percent were completed , the sixth @-@ lowest in the league . Defensively , the Bears had to provide pressure to Carson Palmer , who had excelled in the season opener against the Saints with a three @-@ touchdown game , against a line that allowed no sacks in week one , while also focusing on challenging the speed of the Arizona receivers. lineman Ego Ferguson , Ka 'Deem Carey , Hroniss Grasu , Jon Bostic , Tayo Fabuluje were inactive for the game .
The Cardinals won the toss and decided to receive . On the opening kickoff , David Johnson returned it 108 yards for a touchdown . After both teams exchanged punts , receiver Josh Bellamy caught a 48 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Cutler , his first career touchdown reception . On the Cardinals ' ensuing drive , the Bears forced fourth down after Palmer 's pass to Johnson went out of bounds , but was reversed after it was determined he had a knee and elbow inbounds . Two plays later , Arizona gained 42 yards on Palmer 's pass to John Brown , added with a defensive pass interference penalty on corner Kyle Fuller , placing the offense at the Bears ' 11 @-@ yard line . After two plays , Palmer threw a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jaron Brown . On Chicago 's next drive , runningback Jeremy Langford scored on a one @-@ yard dive . However , the Cardinals scored two touchdowns in 52 seconds : after Larry Fitzgerald 's eight @-@ yard touchdown reception , Tony Jefferson intercepted Cutler , scoring on the 26 @-@ yard return . Cutler tried to dive to tackle Jefferson , but landed on his right shoulder and suffered a hamstring injury ; Jimmy Clausen replaced Cutler for the rest of the game . Despite losing Cutler , the Bears were able to score three points with Robbie Gould 's 40 @-@ yard field goal , and got the ball back on the next drive with linebacker Jared Allen intercepting Palmer 's pass intended for J. J. Nelson on the first play ; however , the Bears had to settle for Gould 's 23 @-@ yard field goal . In the third quarter , Clausen 's pass for Marquess Wilson was intercepted by Patrick Peterson , with the Cardinals capitalizing on the turnover with Palmer 's 28 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Fitzgerald . After the Bears punted , Arizona increased the score with Johnson 's 13 @-@ yard touchdown run . Gould eventually kicked a 51 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 42 – 23 , but Fitzgerald caught another touchdown pass , this time of nine yards , to widen the margin by 25 points , though Chandler Catanzaro 's extra point was wide left .
The Bears fell to 0 – 2 for the first time since 2003 , while the 48 points allowed were the most at home in team history .
= = = = Week 3 : at Seattle Seahawks = = = =
The Bears ' first away game of the season occurred in Seattle , who led the all @-@ time series 10 – 6 , including the last three regular season games . However , the Bears had won the last game in Seattle in 2009 25 – 19 . The Bears offense , not featuring Jay Cutler nor Alshon Jeffery , faced a defense led by Kam Chancellor , who returned to the Seahawks after a holdout . Without Chancellor for the first two games of the season , the defense had allowed quarterbacks to complete 72 percent of their passes with a passer rating of 116 @.@ 4 . Jeff Joniak believed that to counter the Legion of Boom , the Bears had to balance the rushing and passing attacks , while watching for a blitz that pressured Aaron Rodgers 19 times in week two . On defense , the Bears had to watch for quarterback Russell Wilson , though he had struggled with pressure in the first two games , being sacked a total of eight times . Additionally , the run defense had to be aware of a running game led by Marshawn Lynch ; the corps had averaged 121 @.@ 5 yards per game . On special teams , the Bears had to stop speedy rookie receiver Tyler Lockett , who had scored on a punt return earlier in the season . Asides from Cutler and Jeffery , Jon Bostic , defensive tackle Brandon Dunn , Tayo Fabuluje , Hroniss Grasu and linebacker Willie Young were inactive .
The Seahawks won the coin toss and kicked off . Before the Bears ' first offensive play , they were penalized for delay of game , and eventually punted . After both teams each traded punts once , Seattle 's Richard Sherman utilized a trick punt return , similar to one the Bears had utilized with Devin Hester and Johnny Knox in the past , to record a 64 @-@ yard return to the Bears ' 19 @-@ yard line . Seattle eventually scored first with Steven Hauschka 's 31 @-@ yard field goal . Five drives ( all of which ended in punts for both teams ) later , the Seahawks ended the first half with Hauschka 's 21 @-@ yarder . Prior to the Seahawks ' last drive , controversy over the Bears ' last punt arose : after Pat O 'Donnell punted , the ball started to bounce out of bounds , but it hit Seahawks linebacker Brock Coyle in the leg , making it available to recover , with defensive back Sherrick McManis taking advantage . However , the officials ruled the punt as downed by McManis , which led to John Fox challenging the call , though it stood . The Bears special teams struggles continued in the second half , when Lockett returned the opening kickoff 105 yards for the touchdown . The Seahawks increased the score with another touchdown later in the third quarter via Jimmy Graham 's 30 @-@ yard touchdown catch from Wilson , followed by 45- and 48 @-@ yard field goals by Hauschka in the fourth quarter to make the final score 26 – 0 .
The Bears were shutout for the first time in 194 games ( a 15 – 0 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in week 17 , 2002 ) , which was then the sixth @-@ longest streak in the league . After three games , the Bears had allowed 105 total points , the most since the 2003 season , when they allowed 111 . Additionally , the Bears punted on all ten drives in the game , the first time since the data was first compiled in 1980 . Despite the hardships , the defense improved , allowing only one touchdown after allowing five against the Cardinals ; additionally , having the game as one of two teams without a sack , the Bears recorded four against Seattle , two each by defensive end Jarvis Jenkins and linebacker Pernell McPhee .
= = = = Week 4 : vs. Oakland Raiders = = = =
Returning to Soldier Field for week four , the Bears hosted the Oakland Raiders , who held a 7 – 6 all @-@ time lead entering the game . This was the first game between the two at Soldier Field since 2003 , where the Bears won 24 – 21 , and the first since 2011 , when the Raiders won 25 – 20 in Oakland . The Bears offense faced a defense led by defensive end Khalil Mack , while the secondary is guided by 39 @-@ year old Charles Woodson , who possessed 61 career interceptions , and had sealed the Raiders ' win the previous week against the Browns . However , the Raiders had struggled against tight ends , allowing five catches of at least 25 yards , with a total of 20 catches for 298 yards and five touchdowns across the first three games . On defense , Chicago was against quarterback Derek Carr , who led the Raiders offense to 74 combined points in the last two games , along with rookie receiver Amari Cooper , who had 20 receptions entering the game , while also recording a 68 @-@ yard touchdown in week two . Jeff Joniak wrote that the Bears had to prevent the Raiders from gaining yardage after touching the ball ; the Raiders were seventh in yards after the catch , while Latavius Murray – who had recorded 139 rushing yards in week three , was ranked fourth in the league in rushing yards and was leading the AFC in yards per carry with 4 @.@ 8 – ranked fifth in yards after contact . Cooper had 177 yards after the catch , the second @-@ most in the league among wide receivers , while 53 @.@ 7 percent of Carr 's passing yards occurred due to these plays . In comparison , the Bears allowed the fewest yards after contact . David Fales , punter Patrick O ’ Donnell , Alshon Jeffery , Ka ’ Deem Carey , Hroniss Grasu , tackle Jermon Bushrod and nose tackle Jeremiah Ratliff were inactive .
The Raiders won the coin toss and deferred in the second half . The Bears managed to record an 80 @-@ yard drive to score on the opening possession via Jay Cutler 's seven @-@ yard touchdown pass to Eddie Royal . During the drive , lineman Charles Leno landed on center Will Montgomery 's leg , injuring the latter and prompting Matt Slauson to replace him . Robbie Gould 's extra point was blocked , and his struggles continued with the following kickoff when his squib kick bounced out of bounds . After the game 's four next drives culminated with punts , the Raiders scored on Carr 's 26 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cooper ; despite initially being ruled out of bounds , the Raiders challenged the call and the ruling was overturned . On the Bears ' next series , Slauson botched the snap to Cutler , and the Raiders ' Dan Williams recovered . Oakland capitalized on the takeaway with Roy Helu scoring on a four @-@ yard touchdown reception , though the Bears responded with Cutler taking advantage of an open Martellus Bennett to score on a five @-@ yard touchdown . On Oakland 's next drive , Carr 's swing pass to Murray was deflected and landed towards Pernell McPhee , intercepting the pass ; Gould eventually kicked a 19 @-@ yard field goal . In the second half , the Raiders punted on the first drive , though they reclaimed the ball after Stacy McGee recovered Matt Forte 's fumble . Oakland eventually took the lead with Sebastian Janikowski 's 29 @-@ yard field goal . Gould eventually gave the Bears the lead back with Gould 's 54 @-@ yard kick , and reclaimed possession of the ball with Murray dropping a pitch and Sam Acho recovered . However , the Bears gave the ball back when Cutler 's pass for Bennett fell short and was intercepted by Woodson , leading to Janikowski 's 41 @-@ yard field goal .
With 2 : 05 left in the game , Cutler began leading a two @-@ minute drill : after a six @-@ yard run by Forte , followed by a sack by Mack and incomplete pass to Josh Bellamy to bring up fourth down , Cutler successfully converted with a seven @-@ yard pass to Bennett , who beat Keenan Lambert . Cutler 's next pass to Marquess Wilson fell incomplete , and Forte 's seven @-@ yard run led to another third @-@ down situation , which led to Cutler 's first @-@ down conversion of seven yards to Wilson with 56 seconds left . On the next set of downs , Cutler 's pass for receiver Cameron Meredith was overthrown , though a 12 @-@ yard pass to Royal allowed the offense to enter Oakland territory , where the Bears elected to use a timeout with 40 seconds remaining . The offense entered field goal range with Cutler 's nine @-@ yard pass to Wilson , followed by a two @-@ yard run by Forte . With seven seconds left , the Bears used another timeout , and allowed Gould to attempt the 49 @-@ yard field goal ; Gould successfully converted the field goal with two seconds remaining on the clock to give the Bears the 22 – 20 lead . In an last @-@ second attempt to score , the Raiders attempted lateral passes on the kickoff return , but were penalized for an illegal lateral in the early stages of the play , and the Bears eventually recovered to clinch the win .
Gould was later named the NFC Special Teams Player of the Week , his third ST POTW honor and tying him with kickers Jeff Jaeger and Paul Edinger for the most in team history . The field goal was Gould 's eleventh career game @-@ winner . Forte ran for 91 yards in the game to increase his career rushing yards total to 8 @,@ 071 , becoming the 14th player in NFL history to record 8 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 500 career rushing and receiving yards , respectively , while becoming the second @-@ fastest player to achieve the milestone with 111 games . The win would be the only home win for the Bears all season , finishing the year with a horrific 1 – 7 home record . The Bears would finish 3 – 13 at home in both 2014 and 2015 combined .
= = = = Week 5 : at Kansas City Chiefs = = = =
For the fifth game of the season , the Bears visited Kansas City , who trailed the Bears 5 – 6 in the all @-@ time series ; the game was the first in Kansas City since 2003 , which the Chiefs won 31 – 3 . Entering the game , the Bears were plagued by injuries , with 16 players listed on the injury report : Jermon Bushrod ( concussion ) was ruled out , safety Antrel Rolle ( ankle ) was doubtful , and 13 others were questionable . Jeff Joniak wrote that the offense had to be cautious of Bob Sutton 's 3 – 4 defense , particularly the front five guided by linebacking duo Tamba Hali and Justin Houston . However , the pass rush only had nine sacks in 2015 . To combat the defense , the Chiefs ' cornerbacks had to be targeted , particularly Jamell Fleming and rookie Marcus Peters , who was targeted the most among cornerbacks in the NFL and four touchdowns , respectively . Additionally , the Chiefs had allowed 15 touchdowns , the most in the NFL , and in the red zone , was ranked the worst in the league . Also , the Chiefs pass defense allowed eleven passing touchdowns and 295 @.@ 5 passing yards per game ( ranked 28th in the league ) , while recording only two interceptions . The Bears defense , which had recorded six sacks in the last two games , faced an offensive line that allowed a league @-@ high 19 sacks . Despite the struggles on the OL , Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith had receivers like Jeremy Maclin , who had recorded 148 receiving yards in the previous game , though Smith had a 49 @.@ 5 completion percentage to receivers , one of the worst in the league . In the rushing attack , the Chiefs had running back Jamaal Charles , who was tied with Matt Forte for the most rushes of ten yards or more in the NFL with eleven ; however , Charles had fumbled 26 times in his career , including twice in 2015 . On special teams , facing former Bears ST coordinator Dave Toub , the Kansas City return unit was led by Knile Davis ( kickoffs ) and De 'Anthony Thomas ( punts ) ; Davis ranked fourth in the NFL in KR yards , while Thomas was tied for seventh in PR yards . The Bears ' coverage unit took on Pro Bowl punter Dustin Colquitt , who was ranked fourth in gross punt average and third in net average , while allowing only 51 yards on the return , along with kicker Cairo Santos led the league in field goals . Bushrod , Rolle , Alshon Jeffery , Eddie Royal , David Fales , guard Patrick Omameh and defensive end Will Sutton were inactive .
The Chiefs won the toss and deferred until the second half . After the Bears and Chiefs ' first drives ended with punts , the Bears ' next possession started at their own nine @-@ yard line after an 18 @-@ yard punt return by Marc Mariani was nullified by Jeremy Langford 's holding penalty . Three plays into the drive , Chiefs Jaye Howard and Allen Bailey sacked Jay Cutler in the endzone , leading to a fumble that was recovered by Ramik Wilson and gave the Chiefs the touchdown . After getting the ball back , the Bears were able to score three points late in the first quarter with Robbie Gould 's 44 @-@ yard field goal . The Chiefs eventually punted again , and the Bears were again pinned inside their own five @-@ yard line ; the drive stalled , and Pat O 'Donnell punted from the endzone . Despite playing a team with offensive line struggles , the Bears failed to employ a pass rush during the Chiefs ' next drive , and once they did on third down , Smith threw a pass to Thomas , who scored on the 19 @-@ yard play . Kansas City increased the margin to 17 – 3 with nine seconds left in the second quarter , with Santos ' 35 @-@ yard field goal ; Cutler kneeled to end the first half . On the Chiefs ' first drive of the second half , the offense reached the Bears ' nine @-@ yard line , but Santos ' field goal was blocked by Pernell McPhee , allowing the Bears to take over at their own 17 . The first play of the Bears ' drive was a ten @-@ yard run by Forte for a first down , marking the Bears ' first since the opening quarter , and the series concluded with Gould 's 30 @-@ yard field goal . The next four drives of the game ended with punts , while one of the series , held by the Bears , concluded with a turnover on downs .
With 7 : 51 left in the game and down 17 – 6 , Cutler attempted to lead another comeback for the second consecutive game . The first drive lasted eleven plays and 88 yards , concluding with Cutler throwing a 22 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Marquess Wilson in the corner of the left endzone . The Bears attempted to go for two , but Cutler 's pass for Mariani was ruled out ; after a challenge , the ruling was upheld . The Chiefs eventually punted again , with the Bears starting their next drive on their own 33 . Cutler led the offense on an eight @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive , concluding with a seven @-@ yard touchdown pass to Forte despite dropping the snap . However , the Bears failed the two @-@ point conversion . The Chiefs started their final drive on their own 33 with eleven seconds left in the game . Smith reached the Bears ' 48 with a pass to Maclin , and on the next play , threw a nine @-@ yard pass to Maclin . However , Maclin juggled the pass while going out of bounds . As a result , with two seconds left , the Chiefs elected to try a NFL record 66 @-@ yard field goal . However , Santos ' kick fell short , giving the Bears the 18 – 17 win .
This was Chicago 's first victory at Arrowhead since 1993 where the Bears won 18 – 17 . Two team records were set during the game . After converting his second field goal of the game , Gould became the leader of the most points in franchise history with 1 @,@ 168 points , surpassing Kevin Butler . The win was Cutler 's 46th with the Bears , tying Jim McMahon for the most in team history .
= = = = Week 6 : at Detroit Lions = = = =
The second NFC North game of the season took place in Detroit , when the Bears played the winless Lions . Although the Bears led the all @-@ time series 96 – 69 – 5 , the Lions had won the last four meetings . The Bears ' offensive players had success against Detroit in the past : in 12 career games against the Lions , Jay Cutler threw for 2 @,@ 669 yards , 17 touchdowns , seven interceptions and an 89 @.@ 9 passer rating , while Matt Forte ( in 14 games ) had 1 @,@ 066 rushing yards , six rushing touchdowns and four touchdown receptions , his most against any opponent . A potential weakness that Forte and the Bears rushing attack could exploit was the Lions ' run defense ; with the departures of defensive linemen Ndamukong Suh and Nick Fairley , the run defense , which had allowed a league @-@ low 69 @.@ 3 rushing yards per game in 2014 , regressed in 2015 , allowing 126 @.@ 6 yards per game ( ranked 27th in the league ) . The Lions pass defense also suffered during the season : the Lions allowed quarterbacks to complete 78 percent of passes and a league @-@ high combined 128 @.@ 7 passer rating , while also allowing the second @-@ most plays of 20 yards or more , with 25 . To take advantage of this , the Bears saw the returns of Alshon Jeffery , Eddie Royal and Martellus Bennett from injuries . As for the Bears defense , they faced an offense that recorded 4 @.@ 9 yards per play , ranked 29th in the NFL . Lions quarterback Matthew Stafford had also struggled , having an average of 6 @.@ 2 yards per pass , the worst in his six @-@ year career , and had been benched in the Lions ' week five game against Arizona . Detroit running backs also struggled , averaging only 2 @.@ 8 yards per carry . As a whole , the Lions offense led the league in turnovers with 15 . On special teams , the Lions led the league in kickoff returns of at least 20 yards , with running back Ameer Abdullah leading the NFL in the same category with nine . Terrence Mitchell , Antrel Rolle , runningback Antone Smith , linebacker Shea McClellin , tackle Nick Becton , Jermon Bushrod and nose tackle Bruce Gaston were inactive .
The Bears won the toss and deferred . The Lions ' opening drive concluded with a touchdown when Lance Moore beat Sherrick McManis to score on a 20 @-@ yard touchdown . Chicago retaliated with ten unanswered points via Robbie Gould 's 27 @-@ yard field goal and Jeremy Langford 's one @-@ yard touchdown run , the latter occurring in the second quarter . The Lions reclaimed the lead with Stafford 's eight @-@ yard touchdown pass to Tim Wright , though the Bears managed to score three points with Gould 's 23 @-@ yard kick . Late in the first half , the Lions reached the Bears ' two @-@ yard line , where Stafford threw a pass to Golden Tate ; as he crossed the goal line , he was stripped by Kyle Fuller , with the pass being intercepted by Jonathan Anderson and ruled a touchback . However , referee Walt Coleman ruled the play as a touchdown , stating that Tate " took three steps and broke the plane . " On Chicago 's first drive of the second half , the offense , aided by Cutler 's 46 @-@ yard pass to Marquess Wilson , reached the Detroit five , but Cutler 's pass for Jeffery in the endzone was intercepted by Rashean Mathis . The Bears nearly regained the ball on the Lions ' ensuing possession when Sam Acho stripped Abdullah , but Abdullah managed to recover . Eventually , the Lions punted , and when the Bears also punted on the next possession , T. J. Jones muffed it , and Josh Bellamy recovered . Gould later kicked a 38 @-@ yard field goal . On the Lions ' next series , the Bears defense struggled , allowing Stafford to complete passes of 42 and 16 yards to Tate and Theo Riddick , respectively , followed by a 22 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Tate , though it was nullified by Calvin Johnson 's holding penalty . The Bears were forced to punt again , but Pat O 'Donnell 's punt hit Corey Fuller in the leg and safety Chris Prosinski recovered . In the fourth quarter , the Bears scored on Cutler 's 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jeffery , and regained possession quickly when Stafford 's toss to Riddick deflected off of his hand and Anderson intercepted it . The Bears gained the lead with Forte 's two @-@ yard run , followed by Cutler 's two @-@ point conversion pass to Forte . However , the Lions took the lead with their next two scores : Matt Prater 's 32 @-@ yard field goal and Stafford 's six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Johnson . With 21 seconds left in the fourth quarter , the Bears drove 69 yards to the Lions ' 11 , where Gould tied the game with a 29 @-@ yard kick . In overtime , the first four drives ended with punts , and on the fifth , Prater kicked a 27 @-@ yard field goal to claim the 37 – 34 win .
The game featured three controversial officiating calls . Regarding the second quarter Tate touchdown , Fox NFL commentator Ronde Barber and Fox rules analyst Mike Pereira believed Tate had not controlled the ball while falling to the turf . On the contrary , NFL Vice President of Officiating Dean Blandino stated that Tate " controlled the pass right at the goal line . This is not a receiver who is going to the ground . He is taking his third step , he had demonstrated possession , had become a runner . " Late in the fourth quarter , Pernell McPhee was penalized for roughing the passer when it appeared that he had been pushed into Stafford . During the Lions ' game @-@ winning drive in overtime , Willie Young was held , but no penalty was called . Due to the NFL 's policies on criticizing officials , Cutler did not comment , while John Fox stated , " We ’ re not allowed to talk about officials . "
= = = = Week 7 : Bye week = = = =
The Bears entered the bye week with a 2 – 4 record , third in the division . To comply with the NFL 's collective bargaining agreement , which required at least four straight off @-@ days off for players on byes , the Bears only held practices on Tuesday and Wednesday .
Entering the bye , the Bears had the seventh @-@ best third down conversion percentage with 43 @.@ 68 , while having 118 first downs converted , one more than that of teams that the Bears had played .
On October 22 , Jeremiah Ratliff , who had been suspended for the first three games of the 2015 season , was released . Outside the Bears ' training facility , he and Ryan Pace had " an animated exchange " , forcing security to escort Ratliff out and Lake Forest police to report to the area ; no police intervention occurred . Ratliff had reported to Halas Hall in poor condition , and when he was requested to leave and a relative to pick him up , he was " belligerent and insubordinate " . To replace Ratliff , the Bears signed Jaguar Ziggy Hood later in the day .
= = = = Week 8 : vs. Minnesota Vikings = = = =
The Bears returned from the bye week by hosting the 4 – 2 Minnesota Vikings . In their rivalry , the Vikings led the all @-@ time series 55 – 51 – 2 , the Vikings winning the last game 13 – 9 , though the Vikings had not beaten the Bears at Soldier Field since 2007 . Jeff Joniak wrote that the offense had to protect Jay Cutler ; the Vikings defense sacked Matthew Stafford seven times in week seven , with a total of 17 in 2015 . In eleven career games against Minnesota , Cutler excelled , throwing 23 touchdowns and 13 interceptions , with an 8 @-@ 3 record . A player that Joniak believed Cutler could attack is cornerback Xavier Rhodes , who allowed four passing touchdowns and a league @-@ worst ten penalties . Additionally , the running backs could target a defense that allowed six yards per carry , one of the worst in the NFL . On defense , the Bears had to watch for Adrian Peterson , who averaged 88 rushing yards per game , including two consecutive games with at least 120 yards in each . Another player was quarterback Teddy Bridgewater , who completed 25 passes to eleven players in week seven , while watching for the speed of the Minnesota receiving corps . Despite such successes , as a whole , the Vikings offense was averaging 325 @.@ 5 yards per game , the third @-@ least in the league . In the red zone , the Vikings scored touchdowns on 42 @.@ 11 percent of their drives , among the worst in the NFL . Terrance Mitchell , Shea McClellin , Hroniss Grasu , Jermon Bushrod , Bruce Gaston , Ka 'Deem Carey and Cameron Meredith were inactive .
The Bears won the coin toss and deferred until the second half . The Bears special teams unit struggled , with returner Marc Mariani muffing the return on both of the Vikings ' first two punts . Despite this , the Bears took the lead with Robbie Gould 's 55 @-@ yard field goal . However , Minnesota scored on Marcus Sherels 's 65 @-@ yard punt return touchdown , the third return touchdown allowed by the Bears in 2015 . Despite this , Sherels muffed his return on the ensuing punt ; Blair Walsh eventually kicked a 43 @-@ yard field goal in the second quarter to make the score 10 – 3 . After the game 's next three drives ended in punts ( twice by the Bears ) , the first turnover of the game occurred when Kyle Fuller intercepted Bridgewater 's pass for Stefon Diggs . The Bears capitalized on the takeaway with Cutler 's 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery , who jumped over Rhodes to make the catch in the left corner of the endzone . In the third quarter , the Bears reclaimed the lead with Gould 's 33 @-@ yard field goal , and after the Vikings punted , had the chance to increase the margin to six points on Gould 's 51 @-@ yard attempt . However , Gould 's kick went wide left , his first miss of the season and ending a 17 @-@ kick streak . Minnesota took advantage by tying the game via Walsh 's 48 @-@ yard field goal . The game 's next two possessions ended with touchdowns for both teams : the Bears scored with Cutler , whose targets ( Jeffery and Mariani ) were unavailable , running four yards and colliding with safety Harrison Smith at the goal line for the touchdown . Afterwards , the Vikings tied the score with Bridgewater throwing a pass to Diggs , who escaped Sherrick McManis to score on the 40 @-@ yard play . With 1 : 49 left in the game , the Bears ' next drive ended with a punt to the Vikings ' 22 @-@ yard line . However , aided by Bridgewater 's 35 @-@ yard pass to Charles Johnson , Walsh kicked a 36 @-@ yard field goal as time expired to seal the win .
On Cutler 's touchdown pass to Jeffery , he tied Sid Luckman for the most touchdown passes in Bears history with 137 . Defensively , Pernell McPhee recorded his fifth sack during the game , and he became the first Bears player since Brian Urlacher in 2000 to have at least five sacks and one interception in the first seven games . During the second half , Matt Forte suffered a knee injury , and along with Eddie Royal , were missed the following week 's game . The loss of Forte had been crucial for the Bears , as he had been responsible for 32 percent of yards gained in 2015 , the most among running backs .
= = = = Week 9 : at San Diego Chargers = = = =
On Monday Night Football , the Bears traveled west to face the 2 – 6 San Diego Chargers . The two teams last met in 2011 at Soldier Field , the Bears winning 31 – 20 , though their last meeting in San Diego was in 2007 , which the Chargers won 14 – 3 , and the last MNF game in San Diego was a Chargers 20 – 7 victory in 1984 ; in eleven games , the Bears led the series 6 – 5 . Jeff Joniak wrote that the Bears offense could capitalize on a defense that allowed the most yards after the catch in the NFL . Additionally , offenses often started drives at 32 @-@ yard line , ranked 31st in the league , while the Chargers also had the least points off turnovers with seven . The Chargers were also allowing 6 @.@ 34 yards per play , the second @-@ worst in the NFL . To attack , the offense would balance passes that focused on favorable receiver / cornerback matchups and run with Jeremy Langford , who was making his first career start with Matt Forte out . Defensively , the Bears faced an offense struggling with injuries , particularly at the line : of the five positions , four have seen two or more players starting . However , quarterback Philip Rivers excelled despite the injuries , having thrown for 18 touchdowns and 7 @.@ 9 yards per pass , both of which were among the highest in the NFL ; Rivers ' performance had also enabled him to be in position to overtake Peyton Manning 's single @-@ season passing yards record . The Chargers had the top @-@ ranked offense in the NFL , and also ranked first in yardage after the catch . Another offensive player that the Bears faced was tight end Antonio Gates , who led the league in career touchdowns with 101 . However , the San Diego running game was struggling , with 3 @.@ 6 rushing yards per play , which ranked 30th in the league . Special teams @-@ wise , both teams were among the worst in the NFL : the Chargers were ranked 30th in average return yardage allowed , while the Bears were 31st ; the former also allowed a league @-@ high ten returns of 30 – 39 yards . For the Chargers ' punt return unit , they had only one yard in 2015 . San Diego also had league @-@ worsts in starting yard line after kickoffs with 19 @.@ 3 yards , drives starting within their own 20 @-@ yard line ( 11 ) and average starting area ( 21 ) . Forte , receiver Eddie Royal , safety Harold Jones @-@ Quartey , Shea McClellin , Hroniss Grasu , Tayo Fabuluje and defensive lineman Ziggy Hood were inactive .
The Chargers won the coin toss and elected to kick off . Despite reaching the Chargers ' 28 @-@ yard line , two scoring opportunities were denied with Jason Verrett deflecting Jay Cutler 's pass for Alshon Jeffery and Robbie Gould 's field goal sailing wide left . Afterwards , the Chargers scored with Danny Woodhead 's 14 @-@ yard touchdown catch from Rivers . On the Bears ' next possession , the offense entered Charger territory again , reaching as far as the 10 @-@ yard line , where Cutler was sack @-@ stripped by Melvin Ingram , with the ball being recovered by Eric Weddle , though the Chargers failed to capitalize and punted . After the Bears punted as well , they reclaimed the ball when Tracy Porter stripped Dontrelle Inman and linebacker Christian Jones recovered . However , after two plays , Verrett intercepted Cutler 's pass for Jeffery , returning it 68 yards for the touchdown ; the Chargers eventually missed the extra point , making the score 13 – 0 . On the next drive , Cutler threw a one @-@ yard touchdown pass to Martellus Bennett . After both teams exchanged punts , the Chargers scored the final points of the first half with Josh Lambo 's 31 @-@ yard field goal . In the second half , after the Chargers punted , Gould 's 34 @-@ yard field goal attempt hit the left upright . San Diego punted again , and the Bears engineered a 93 @-@ yard drive that culminated with Langford scoring on a one @-@ yard run . The Chargers increased the margin to five points with Lambo kicking a 22 @-@ yard field goal . Guiding an 80 @-@ yard drive , Cutler threw a 25 @-@ yard pass to tight end Zach Miller , who caught the pass with one hand as he scored the go @-@ ahead touchdown . Afterwards , Langford scored on the two @-@ point conversion . The Chargers ' final drive fell apart with plays like Lamarr Houston 's two sacks , and on 4th down and 23 , Rivers ' deep pass fell incomplete . With 1 : 09 left in the game , Cutler kneeled three times to end the game .
With Cutler 's touchdown to Bennett , he overtook Sid Luckman for the most passing touchdowns in franchise history with 138 . Additionally , his final touchdown marked his twelfth fourth quarter touchdown , the most in the league . Miller 's touchdown catch was his first since the 2011 season .
= = = = Week 10 : at St. Louis Rams = = = =
Week 10 's game was on the road in St. Louis , where the Bears played the 4 – 4 Rams . Historically , the two teams have played each other often , with the Rams joining the Cardinals as the most common opponent outside of the NFC North ; the Bears held the series lead 52 – 36 – 3 , though the Rams won the last game in 2013 42 – 21 . Chicago 's offense faced a defense with a stingy pass rush that featured 14 players with at least .5 sacks and eight with at least two . The rush had the second @-@ most sacks in the league with 27 , while Robert Quinn , despite missing the previous week 's game with a knee injury , led the Rams with five . The Rams blitzed often , with six sacks on first down and five on second and third , with the combined 16 sacks on blitzes being the most in the league . The St. Louis secondary starred Janoris Jenkins and Trumaine Johnson , who broke up a combined 18 passes and allowed only two touchdowns in 2015 . As a unit , the Rams defense allowed no touchdowns in the last ten quarters , while also having the second @-@ best scoring defense in the NFL with 13 @.@ 8 points per game , while also being one of three teams to force at least 70 negative plays . Jeff Joniak wrote that the Bears had to excel on third down ; the Bears ' 30th @-@ ranked third down offense took on a defense that was ranked fifth in the category . For the Bears defense , rookie running back Todd Gurley was a target ; in his first four games , he averaged 141 rushing yards on 22 attempts , and by week ten , had the fourth @-@ most rushing yards in the league and a league @-@ high 5 @.@ 6 yards per carry . Additionally , the defense had to pressure quarterback Nick Foles : in the red zone , he completed only 47 percent of his passes with two interceptions ; on third down situations , he completed only 46 percent with four interceptions ; when blitzed , he completed 54 percent with five sacks , though he also has five touchdowns . Like the Bears , the Rams ' third @-@ down offense struggled , being ranked last in third down conversions with 23 @.@ 8 percent . Special teams @-@ wise , the punt unit had to stop Tavon Austin , who scored one of the NFL 's eight punt return touchdowns in 2015 . To get to Austin , punter Pat O 'Donnell 's hang time of 4 @.@ 56 seconds ( third @-@ best in the NFL ) could allow the unit 's gunners to reach him . In contrast , the Rams kick return team was struggling , being ranked 30th with nine starts after kickoffs within their own 20 @-@ yard line , while also ranking 23rd in kick return yards with 22 @.@ 4 . Rams kicker / punter duo of Greg Zuerlein and Johnny Hekker are among the best in the NFL : Hekker had a gross punt average of 48 yards , one of seven punters to do so , while also being ranked fourth in net average with 43 @.@ 3 ; Zuerlein had kicked a 61 @-@ yard field goal against the Vikings in week nine , but was missing a league @-@ high seven field goals , including two that were blocked . Eddie Royal , Matt Forte , return man Deonte Thompson , Harold Jones @-@ Quartey , Hroniss Grasu , Ziggy Hood and Pernell McPhee were inactive .
The Bears won the coin toss and elected to kick off . The Rams scored on the opening possession with Gurley 's six @-@ yard touchdown run , but the Bears tied the score on a two @-@ play drive ; after Jeremy Langford was stopped for a one @-@ yard loss , Jay Cutler threw a short pass to Zach Miller , who managed to break free and score on the 87 @-@ yard play . The next drive for the Rams saw the offense go three @-@ and @-@ out , but on the punt return , Marc Mariani was quickly hit by Bradley Marquez and fumbled , with the ball being recovered by St. Louis ' Maurice Alexander . On the first play since the turnover , Austin scored on a 17 @-@ yard reverse , but the touchdown was nullified by Greg Robinson 's holding penalty ; the Rams eventually had to settle for Zuerlein 's 26 @-@ yard field goal . After the Bears punted , they regained possession on the first play of the Rams ' next drive , when Shea McClellin stripped Tre Mason and recovered the ball . Robbie Gould eventually kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal to tie the score at the end of the first quarter . The Rams punted on their next drive , and the Bears took the lead with Cutler throwing a two @-@ yard touchdown pass to Miller . St. Louis later punted again , and Chicago 's next series started at their own 14 @-@ yard line due to cornerback Alan Ball 's holding penalty on the punt return . After Langford 's three @-@ yard run , Cutler held off a blitzing defense to throw a screen pass to Langford , who scored on the 83 @-@ yard play . The two teams exchanged punts for the remainder of the half ; the first three drives of the second half also ended in punts . Afterwards , the two teams traded field goals , Zuerlein 's being 38 yards and Gould 's being 33 yards . On St. Louis ' next drive , the team elected to try a fake punt , but Hekker 's pass to Cody Davis fell short . The Bears increased the lead to 17 points with Gould 's 36 @-@ yard field goal , and after the Rams ' turned the ball over on downs again , scored on Langford 's six @-@ yard touchdown run . The next two drives ended with turnovers for both teams : Willie Young intercepted Foles , but runningback Ka 'Deem Carey fumbled after being hit by Rodney McLeod , with the fumble being recovered by Aaron Donald . With 2 : 23 left in the game , the Rams reached the Bears ' 28 @-@ yard line before time expired .
Miller 's first touchdown was the longest catch by a tight end since Byron Chamberlain 's 88 @-@ yard play in 1999 and the longest touchdown reception by a Bear since Matt Forte 's 89 @-@ yard score in 2010 . With the score and Langford 's 83 @-@ yard touchdown , the Bears became the first team since the 2006 Buffalo Bills to score multiple touchdowns of at least 80 yards in a game .
= = = = Week 11 : vs. Denver Broncos = = = =
John Fox , joined by coordinators Adam Gase and Jeff Rodgers and quarterback Jay Cutler , faced their former team in the Denver Broncos for week eleven . It would also be the coldest game the Bears would play in 2015 . In 14 games , the two teams split the series , though the Broncos won the most recent game in 2011 13 – 10 . In the last game at Soldier Field , the Bears won 37 – 34 . The offense took on one of the league 's top defenses , Denver 's pass rush leading the NFL in sacks with 32 , with twelve players with at least .5 sacks . The Broncos defense was allowing the fewest average yards with 277 @.@ 3 , while also allowing the third @-@ least points per game with 18 @.@ 7 . Despite DeMarcus Ware being out with a back injury , the Broncos still had Von Miller , who had more than five sacks in 2015 . For the Bears , despite Alshon Jeffery and Eddie Royal 's injuries , Martellus Bennett and Zach Miller could still play a role . If passing , Cutler had to watch for defensive lineman Malik Jackson , who had four pass breakups in the previous four games . When the Bears decide to run , they faced a run defense that led the league in multiple categories , including sack percentage . The Broncos offense was without Peyton Manning , and in his place was Brock Osweiler . Osweiler , who had 305 career passing yards , had only played in garbage time during his NFL career , but fits Gary Kubiak 's West Coast offense . Jeff Joniak believed with Osweiler , the Broncos ' plays , which consisted of 64 percent passes , would decrease , though tight ends Owen Daniels and Vernon Davis could be targeted more often . Meanwhile , Denver 's rushing attack was struggling during the season , with an average of 86 rushing yards per game , 29th @-@ ranked in the NFL .
The Broncos won the coin toss and deferred until the second half . After the Bears punted , Osweiler threw a pass to Demaryius Thomas , who escaped Chris Prosinski to score on the 48 @-@ yard play . After both teams exchanged punts , the Bears scored their first points of the game in the second quarter with Robbie Gould 's 46 @-@ yard field goal , and narrowed the margin to one point when Gould scored on a 37 @-@ yard kick . Denver and Chicago traded punts again , but the former scored with Brandon McManus ' 24 @-@ yard field goal as time expired in the second quarter to make the score 10 – 6 . The first three drives of the second half ended with punts , though the first turnover of the game occurred on the next series , when Cutler 's pass for receiver Marquess Wilson was intercepted by Danny Trevathan . However , the Broncos failed to capitalize when Ronnie Hillman was tripped by Osweiler 's feet on fourth down . Afterwards , aided by two consecutive 29 @-@ yard plays ( via Brandon Marshall 's defensive pass interference , followed by Wilson 's 29 @-@ yard catch ) , the Bears reached the Broncos ' 19 @-@ yard line , where Gould eventually kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal . The Broncos later increased their lead by eight when Osweiler threw a ten @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cody Latimer . On the Bears ' next series , Cutler capitalized on a late hit by T. J. Ward and a 40 @-@ yard pass to Wilson to reach the Broncos ' seven @-@ yard line . Despite reaching as far as the four , the Bears turned the ball over on downs with three consecutive incomplete passes . Although Denver punted again and the Chicago offense reaching the Broncos ' 33 @-@ yard line , Cutler was hit from behind by Marshall while throwing , and the ball was intercepted by Malik Jackson . The Broncos were forced to punt again , and with 1 : 25 left in the game , the Bears drove 65 yards , where Jeremy Langford scored on a two @-@ yard run . However , Langford was stopped short on the two @-@ point conversion , and on the onside kick , Thomas recovered . Osweiler kneeled once to end the game .
The Bears ended the game with no penalties for the first time since 1995 against the Philadelphia Eagles and becoming the 24th team to do so in the last 15 years ; the Bears also became the first team to accomplish the feat in a loss since the 2013 Packers ' loss to the Bears in week nine . The defense recorded five sacks , the team 's most in 2015 .
= = = = Week 12 : at Green Bay Packers = = = =
Thanksgiving Day game
The second game of 2015 against the Packers was held on Thanksgiving Day in Green Bay . The two teams , in their 190th meeting , had never played each other on the holiday ; in Thanksgiving games , the Bears were 16 – 15 – 2 , while the Packers were 14 – 19 – 2 . Chicago 's offense took on a defense that ranked second in the league in first quarter points allowed with 1 @.@ 9 , along with a defense that recorded six sacks in week eleven against Minnesota . Jeff Joniak added that the offense had to improve its red zone performance ; against Denver , the Bears failed to score on three of the four trips to the red zone , leading to a 41 @.@ 2 percent touchdown efficiency in 2015 ; in ten games , the Bears were only able to score 14 touchdowns within the 20 @-@ yard line . On the other side , Joniak stated the defense had to stop the Packers offense early ; since 2014 , the Packers had outscored opponents 151 – 27 at Lambeau , while also leading the league in first quarter points with an average of 7 @.@ 6 . Aaron Rodgers had thrown eight first quarter touchdown passes ( the most in the NFL ) in 2015 , while the Packers had a league @-@ best + 57 scoring differential . Meanwhile , the Bears defense had allowed nine touchdowns in the first , though the defense had not given up a touchdown in the third quarter . Joniak also wrote that the Bears had to " match and surpass the emotion " on a night that featured Brett Favre 's jersey retirement " with their most physical , error @-@ free and consistent performance " . Eddie Royal , Ka 'Deem Carey , Martellus Bennett , Antrel Rolle , cornerback Jacoby Glenn , Nick Becton and Will Sutton were inactive .
The Bears won the toss and deferred . The first four drives of the game ended without scores , as the Packers turned the ball over on downs during their first drive and the ensuing series were punts . On the next drive , Tracy Porter intercepted Rodgers , but was penalized for illegal contact , and the play was nullified . Afterwards , Rodgers threw a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Lacy . The Bears ' woes continued with the following kickoff , when Marc Mariani and Deonte Thompson collided while attempting to catch the kick and the latter had to kneel in the endzone for the touchback . The next four possessions led to punts ; on Green Bay 's next drive , Lacy recorded a 15 @-@ yard run , but was hit from behind by Chris Prosinski and fumbled , with the ball being recovered by Lamarr Houston . Chicago took advantage of the takeaway when Jay Cutler threw a three @-@ yard touchdown pass to Zach Miller . However , on the next kickoff , nickelback Bryce Callahan missed a tackle and allowed Jeff Janis to record a 64 @-@ yard return ; the Packers eventually converted it into a 22 @-@ yard field goal . Assisted by a 37 @-@ yard kickoff return by Thompson , the Bears offense scored with Cutler 's 20 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Marquess Wilson , but the play was overturned after he was downed at the one . Afterwards , Jeremy Langford 's one @-@ yard run gave the Bears the 14 – 10 lead . Mason Crosby kicked a 50 @-@ yard field goal to end the half . The third quarter featured no scores , though the Bears ' last drive of the quarter ( which lasted into the final quarter ) ended with Robbie Gould 's 21 @-@ yard field goal to extend the lead by four points . After two further punts , Rodgers ' slant pass for Davante Adams was intercepted by Porter . However , the Bears were unable to capitalize , and punted . With 2 : 23 left in the game , the Packers drove from their own 20 @-@ yard line to the Bears ' eight . Rodgers ' passes to James Jones , Richard Rodgers and Adams all fell incomplete , and Cutler kneeled once to seal the win .
With the win , the Bears won their third consecutive away game for the first time since 2012 . Over the last four games , the Bears allowed less than 20 points in each , also last accomplished in 2012 . The game averaged 27 @.@ 8 million viewers , the most @-@ watched Thanksgiving primetime game in NFL history and the second @-@ highest viewed regular season game for NBC .
= = = = Week 13 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = = =
The 3 – 8 San Francisco 49ers visited Soldier Field in week thirteen ; in 63 all @-@ time meetings , the 49ers held the lead 32 – 30 – 1 , though the Bears won the last game in 2014 28 – 20 . The Bears offense took on a defense featuring linebackers NaVorro Bowman , Aaron Lynch and Ahmad Brooks , who had a combined 12 @.@ 5 sacks in 2015 , including 6 @.@ 5 by Lynch . Alshon Jeffery provided a size advantage over cornerbacks Tramaine Brock and Kenneth Acker , the duo having a combined 90 tackles , six interceptions , and 14 pass breakups . As a unit , the 49ers defense had struggled , allowing an average of 400 yards , 8 @.@ 13 yards per pass ( 29th overall ) , 17 touchdown passes and a 100 @.@ 5 opponent quarterback rating ( also 29th @-@ ranked ) . Despite these troubles , the 49ers had held the Cardinals , who had the league 's best scoring offense , to just 19 points in week twelve . As for the Bears defense , the 29th @-@ ranked rushing defense took on a running attack without Carlos Hyde . 49ers quarterback Blaine Gabbert had been improving , throwing for 318 yards against Arizona , while his top receiver Anquan Boldin had recorded 44 catches for 558 yards , 28 of which resulted in first downs . However , the San Francisco offense had the fewest points in the NFL with 152 , a league @-@ low 14 combined touchdowns , and a worst @-@ ranked 31 plays of at least 20 yards . Meanwhile , the Bears had allowed an average of 17 points per game in the last five , the fourth @-@ fewest in the league . Marquess Wilson , Eddie Royal , Antrel Rolle , Nick Becton , Jacoby Glenn , Antone Smith and Bruce Gaston were inactive .
The Bears won the coin toss and elected to defer . The 49ers went three @-@ and @-@ out and punted ; on the return , the Bears behaved as if Marc Mariani was returning on one side of the field , though Bryce Callahan actually returned it , and scored on the 65 @-@ yard play . However , a holding penalty on linebacker LaRoy Reynolds nullified the play . The Bears eventually scored a field goal with Robbie Gould 's 40 @-@ yard kick . After the 49ers punted again , the Bears scored another field goal , this one being 51 yards . San Francisco subsequently punted , but scored on the second play of the Bears ' next drive when Jimmie Ward intercepted Jay Cutler 's screen pass for Alshon Jeffery and returned it 29 yards for the touchdown ; the score remained tied after defensive tackle Eddie Goldman blocked the extra point . Chicago 's next drive lasted into the second quarter , where Matt Forte took advantage of two consecutive 14 @-@ yard plays to score on a five @-@ yard run . The 49ers scored on their drive with Shaun Draughn 's one @-@ yard touchdown run to tie the score . The first half ended with both teams tied 13 – 13 . The Bears received the ball to start the third quarter , but failed to score when new long snapper Patrick Scales ' snap was low and Gould missed the 40 @-@ yard kick . The next seven drives all ended in punts ; the trend was broken when Ka 'Deem Carey scored on a four @-@ yard run , followed by San Francisco retaliating with Gabbert scoring on a 44 @-@ yard run . On the ensuing kickoff , Deonte Thompson 's return went 74 yards to reach the 49ers ' 28 @-@ yard line . On the drive , the Bears ran on each play , forcing the 49ers to use all three timeouts . With two seconds left , Gould 's 36 @-@ yard field goal sailed wide left , resulting in overtime . The 49ers won the coin toss but punted , though the Bears were also forced to punt . On the first play of the next series , Gabbert threw a 71 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Torrey Smith to seal the win .
= = = = Week 14 : vs. Washington Redskins = = = =
The fourteenth week of the season featured a game between 5 – 7 teams as the Washington Redskins visited Soldier Field . In 48 games , the Redskins led the series 24 – 23 – 1 and had won the last five meetings . The Chicago offense took on a Washington defense that excelled against passers , being ranked tenth in the category ; Dashon Goldson led all defensive backs in tackles with 95 , while Bashaud Breeland led the team in passes defended with 13 . The Redskins defensive rush , which had 20 sacks in 2015 , was led by Ryan Kerrigan , who has 6 @.@ 5 . Despite such performances , the Redskins rush defense was ranked 29th in yards per carry with 4 @.@ 64 and 25th in average rushing yards at 124 @.@ 2 . Jeff Joniak writes that the Bears could exploit this with the three @-@ man rushing attack of Matt Forte , Jeremy Langford , and Ka 'Deem Carey . On defense , the Bears faced a Kirk Cousins @-@ led offense that focuses on quick passes ; Cousins completed a league @-@ high 68 @.@ 6 percent of his passes , with 7 @.@ 1 yards per pass . One of Cousins ' main targets was tight end Jordan Reed , who scored six touchdowns and led the Redskins in yards after the catch . Rankings @-@ wise , the pass attack was ranked 17th in the league in passing yards per game and 16th for yards per play . Joniak states that the Bears had to force turnovers , and an area was on third down , as five of Cousins ' interceptions had been on third down .
The Bears won the coin toss and elected to defer . Washington recorded a 15 @-@ play , 80 @-@ yard drive en route to scoring on Alfred Morris ' one @-@ yard touchdown run . After the Bears punted , the Redskins scored again with Cousins ' fake read option leading to a three @-@ yard touchdown run in the second quarter . Chicago 's woes continued when the offense began the next drive on their own seven @-@ yard line , and despite reaching the Washington 49 , Jay Cutler was strip @-@ sacked by Trent Murphy , who recovered the fumble . The Redskins failed to capitalize on the turnover and punted ; the following two drives also ended with punts . With 52 seconds left in the first half , the Bears took over at their own 42 , and managed to score with 18 seconds left when Cutler threw a 20 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery . Cousins kneeled once to end the half . After the Bears punted on the first drive of the second half , Cousins threw a five @-@ yard touchdown pass to Reed . The Bears responded with Cutler 's nine @-@ yard touchdown pass to Zach Miller , who managed to escape DeAngelo Hall and made contact with Goldson as he reached the endzone . The score was the Bears ' first third quarter touchdown of 2015 . Afterwards , Cousins ' pass for Pierre Garcon was intercepted by Kyle Fuller , and the Bears took advantage with Forte 's seven @-@ yard touchdown run to tie the score . Dustin Hopkins gave the Redskins the 24 – 21 lead on the first drive of the final quarter with a 47 @-@ yard field goal . Five drives later , the Bears attempted a 50 @-@ yard field goal with 1 : 40 left in the game . However , Robbie Gould 's kick sailed wide left , and the Redskins ran the ball three times to end the game .
= = = = Week 15 : at Minnesota Vikings = = = =
The second game of the Bears @-@ Vikings rivalry took place in Minneapolis and was the third game at TCF Bank Stadium ; the Bears won the first game in 2010 while the Vikings won in 2014 . To succeed against the Vikings , Jeff Joniak writes that the Bears had to excel at the start of the game ; offensively , the Bears had a first quarter scoring differential of -48 , 31st in the league , while scoring only twice on game @-@ opening possessions . In the third quarter , the Bears scored a league @-@ worst 32 points ; in comparison , the Vikings defense had allowed only one touchdown on opening drives and a league @-@ low 37 points in the third quarter . The defense took on a Vikings offense spearheaded by Adrian Peterson , whose 1 @,@ 251 yards led the league . On special teams , the Vikings led the league in post @-@ kickoff starting position , while being ranked third in returns of at least 20 yards with 26 and first in returns of at least 40 yards with five . Additionally , kickoff returner Cordarrelle Patterson led the league in return average with 31 @.@ 1 yards . Christian Jones , Cameron Meredith , Bryce Callahan , Nick Becton , Tayo Fabuluje , Jacoby Glenn and Antone Smith were inactive .
The Vikings won the toss and deferred . Despite a 49 @-@ yard kick return by Deonte Thompson , the Bears ' struggles began quickly , with the drive stalling after a holding penalty on Hroniss Grasu and a sack . Afterwards , the Vikings scored on their first drive when Stefon Diggs beat Tracy Porter to score on a 15 @-@ yard touchdown . The Vikings increased the score with Blair Walsh 's 53 @-@ yard field goal in the second quarter . After the next two drives ended with punts , Alshon Jeffery caught a ten @-@ yard touchdown pass from Jay Cutler to draw the Bears within three points . On the following series , the Vikings responded when Teddy Bridgewater escaped a blitz to throw a pass to Jerick McMcKinnon , who beat Shea McClellin to score on the 17 @-@ yard play . To start the second half , the Bears attempted an onside kick , and Sherrick McManis recovered . However , after three plays , Brian Robison sacked and stripped Jay Cutler , recovering the fumble ; Minnesota took advantage with Stefon Diggs beating Alan Ball to score on the 33 @-@ yard touchdown . The Bears decreased the margin to two touchdowns when Robbie Gould kicked a 51 @-@ yard field goal ; the next three consecutive drives concluded with punts . Afterwards , Cutler 's screen pass to Matt Forte was intercepted by Justin Trattou , and the Vikings capitalized on the turnover with Bridgewater 's 12 @-@ yard touchdown run , though the Bears retaliated with Cutler 's four @-@ yard touchdown pass to Forte . The Bears attempted another onside kick , but failed , and the Vikings later scored again on Zach Line 's four @-@ yard touchdown . With 1 : 50 left in the game , the Bears drove as far as the Vikings ' 28 @-@ yard line , but time expired .
The loss dropped the Bears to 5 – 9 and officially eliminated them from playoff contention . Cutler 's touchdown pass to Jeffery was his 200th career touchdown pass , while the onside kick attempted at the start of the third quarter was Gould 's first successful kick in his eleven @-@ year career with the Bears .
= = = = Week 16 : at Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = = =
The final road game of the season took place in week sixteen , when the Bears visited the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . In 55 all @-@ time meetings , the Bears led the series 37 – 18 , while also winning the most recent game in 2014 21 – 13 and the last game in Raymond James Stadium in 2005 by a score of 13 – 10 . Jeff Joniak writes that the offense , taking on a defense guided by former Bears head coach Lovie Smith , had to " be patient " , a philosophy that teams had used during Smith 's tenure in Chicago ; Smith 's defenses force offenses to work with long series , followed by forcing a turnover . In 2015 , the Bucs defense recorded 22 fumbles , 11 interceptions and 33 sacks , 7 @.@ 5 of which are by defensive tackle Gerald McCoy . Another player that the Bucs defense featured was linebacker Lavonte David , who recorded 12 pass breakups , three interceptions , two sacks and a forced fumble in 2015 . Tampa 's defense also excelled in the run and passing games ; in the former , the Bucs allowed the second @-@ fewest average yards per carry with 3 @.@ 3 , while being ranked fifth in yards allowed after the catch . The Bucs also ranked eighth in yards per play . However , opposing quarterbacks were completing a league @-@ high 69 @.@ 2 percent of passes , while also throwing for a total of 28 touchdowns . The Bucs defense was also without linebacker Kwon Alexander , who ranked second in the team in tackles with 93 , as he was suspended for drug use . On defense , the Bears took on rookie Jameis Winston , who recorded 3 @,@ 422 passing yards and 20 touchdown passes in 2015 . However , the Bucs receiving corps had 29 drops and a 7 @.@ 9 drop percentage , the second @-@ highest in the NFL . Chicago 's run defense faced Doug Martin , who had averaged 5 @.@ 1 yards per carry , 1 @,@ 305 rushing yards and a league @-@ best 2 @.@ 4 yards per carry after contact . Alshon Jeffery , Bryce Callahan , Jacoby Glenn , Shea McClellin , Nick Becton , Tayo Fabuluje and Bruce Gaston were inactive .
The Bucs won the coin toss and deferred . The Bears opened the game with a hurry @-@ up offense and gained a first down , but were eventually forced to punt . Tampa Bay also later punted , but regained the ball at the Bears ' four @-@ yard line after a blocked punt ; Jeremiah George escaped LaRoy Reynolds to block Pat O 'Donnell 's punt and Howard Jones recovered . The Bucs converted the play into a four @-@ yard touchdown run by Martin . Both teams later punted on their next drives , Jay Cutler 's screen pass was deflected and intercepted by William Gholston , who returned the pick to the Bears ' 15 @-@ yard line , but Jacquies Smith 's facemask penalty nullified the play . Afterwards , Ka 'Deem Carey scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run to tie the score . On Tampa 's next drive , Martin was stripped by Harold Jones @-@ Quartey , and the fumble was recovered by John Timu ; the takeaway led to Robbie Gould 's 26 @-@ yard field goal . The Bucs were later forced to punt again with two minutes left in the first half , and the Bears offense drove 40 yards to the nine , where Gould kicked a 27 @-@ yard field goal with eight seconds left . Winston kneeled to end the half . On the first drive of the second half , the Bucs scored when Winston threw a 50 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Charles Sims , who took advantage of Tracy Porter to score . Although the Bears punted on their next drive , they regained possession after Christian Jones and Lamarr Houston 's blitz forced Winston to throw to Charles Sims , where Jones @-@ Quartey pulled the ball away.The Bears eventually punted , but got the ball back when Pernell McPhee stripped Martin , with the fumble being recovered by Timu . On the first play of the fourth quarter , Cutler 's play @-@ action pass to Carey resulted in a one @-@ yard touchdown . The Bucs punted on their next series , and Gould kicked a 50 @-@ yard field goal to increase the score to 23 – 14 ; Connor Barth later missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal wide left , leading to Gould 's 39 @-@ yard field goal . With one second left in the game , Winston threw a 43 @-@ yard touchdown pas to Austin Seferian @-@ Jenkins , and on the ensuing onside kick , Cameron Meredith recovered as time expired .
With the win , the Bears officially improved upon their 5 – 11 record from 2014 . The three turnovers forced in the game was a best for the defense , while also tying the total in the last five games .
= = = = Week 17 : vs. Detroit Lions = = = =
The Bears ended the regular season at home against the Lions ; in Chicago , the Bears led the series 50 – 26 – 3 . Jeff Joniak writes that the Bears offense had to hold off the blitz ; in 2015 , the Lions had 38 sacks , including 13 @.@ 5 by defensive end Ezekiel Ansah , and ranked fourth in sack percentage , while recording the second @-@ most negative plays in the NFL . In comparison , the Bears had the fewest negative plays in the league . Despite the frequency to blitz , the Lions only had eight sacks when doing so . Through the air , the Lions pass defense struggled , allowing a 30th @-@ ranked passer rating of 101 @.@ 7 and 30 touchdown passes while recording only interceptions . To excel , the Bears had to maintain the ball , as they were ranked sixth in the NFL in time of possession . On defense , the Bears took on a Lions offense that had improved under offensive coordinator Jim Bob Cooter after Joe Lombardi 's firing , going from 18 @.@ 6 points per game to 26 @.@ 4 under Cooter . With Matthew Stafford , the Lions were one of eleven teams with over 4 @,@ 000 yards , while also being ranked in the top ten with 30 touchdown passes . However , Stafford was sacked 40 times , while the rushing attack averaged only 84 @.@ 5 yards per game and 3 @.@ 8 yards per carry . Eddie Royal , Zach Miller , Hroniss Grasu , Jarvis Jenkins , Jacoby Glenn , Tayo Fabuluje and Terry Williams were inactive .
The Bears won the toss and elected to defer . On the first drive of the game , the Lions scored first when Harold Jones @-@ Quartey slipped while covering and Stafford threw a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass to Tim Wright . The Bears offense reached the Lions ' five @-@ yard line on their first possession , but Jay Cutler 's pass to Cameron Meredith deflected off Nevin Lawson 's helmet and was intercepted by James Ihedigbo . However , two consecutive sacks forced the Lions to punt . In the second quarter , after the Bears punted , Matt Prater attempted a 54 @-@ yard field goal , but missed wide right . The Bears eventually punted again , and the Lions reached the Bears ' 35 @-@ yard line , but on 4th and 3 , Stafford 's pass for Calvin Johnson fell incomplete . Three plays later , the Lions regained possession of the ball when Ansah hit Cutler 's arm as he threw to Marc Mariani , the pass being intercepted by Tahir Whitehead . Detroit converted the turnover into Prater 's 59 @-@ yard field goal to end the first half . The Bears scored on their first drive of the second half with Robbie Gould 's 49 @-@ yard field goal , and after Detroit punted , tied the score with Cutler 's 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Josh Bellamy . Although the Lions scored with Stafford 's 36 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Johnson , the Bears retaliated with Cutler 's 23 @-@ yard score to Matt Forte ; Detroit eventually responded with a one @-@ yard touchdown by Eric Ebron . The Bears narrowed the score to 24 – 20 when Gould kicked a 34 @-@ yard field goal . The Lions punted again , and the Bears took over with 3 : 35 left in the game . Despite reaching the Lions ' 37 @-@ yard line , Cutler was hit by Ansah while throwing to Deonte Thompson and was intercepted by Glover Quin . With less than two minutes left in the game , the Bears held the Lions to 3rd and 5 , but Stafford 's six @-@ yard pass to Johnson gave the Lions a first down , where Stafford kneeled thrice to end the game .
Cutler threw multiple interceptions in a game for the first time in 2015 , ending the game with three . Adding the two field goals from the game , Gould ended the season with 33 field goals , breaking his 2006 record for the most in franchise history by one .
= = Standings = =
= = = Division = = =
= = = Conference = = =
= = Statistics = =
In comparison to their 2014 counterpart , the 2015 Bears were more competitive in games ; in 2014 , three of the worst losses were by 48 , 28 and 21 points , while six of the 2015 team 's losses were by less than a touchdown , two of which ended in overtime . The Bears ended the season 5 – 3 in away games , but won only once at home , the worst home record in team history . Additionally , the Bears were swept at home by division opponents for the first time since the NFL realignment in 2002 .
The Bears struggled with injuries during the season ; only four players started all sixteen games : Kyle Long , Matt Slauson , Adrian Amos and Kyle Fuller . In each of the sixteen games , there was a different starting lineup .
The offense improved from 2014 , progressing from 21st overall to 18th . The unit also recorded 5 @,@ 514 total net yards and 344 @.@ 6 per game . The passing attack improved from 28th in yards per play to 12th . On third down , Chicago ranked sixth in efficiency after converting 42 @.@ 5 percent into first downs . With 21 turnovers allowed ( 13th in the NFL ) , the Bears had the fewest since the introduction of the 16 @-@ game schedule in 1978 . Also , the Bears were able to score at least 30 points twice , after not doing so in 2014 . In the first and third quarters , the Bears scored only 41 and 45 points , respectively , but scored 125 and 124 in the second and fourth . However , with 20 @.@ 9 points per game , the Bears ranked 23rd in the NFL in the category , while also scoring only 24 touchdowns on 50 red zone attempts for a 48 percent red zone efficiency , 27th in the league .
The Bears defense vastly improved in comparison to the previous two seasons ; after allowing the two most points in franchise history in 2013 ( 478 ) and 2014 ( 442 ) , the 2015 defense allowed 397 , which ranked 20th in the league . The defense gained 26 places in the pass defense category to end the season fourth in the ranking . While the unit also allowed only 225 passing yards per game , the number is skewed due to opposing offenses ' frequency to run the ball ; Bears opponents passed 512 , the fourth @-@ least in the NFL . Yardage @-@ wise , the defense allowed an average of 345 @.@ 1 , gaining 16 spots to finish 14th . Statistically , the Bears allowed 7 @.@ 5 yards per pass and a 62 @.@ 9 completion percentage , 20th- and 14th @-@ ranked in the league , respectively . The pass defense also allowed a passer rating of 99 @.@ 2 passer rating ( 26th ) , 31 touchdowns ( 25th ) , while recording only eight interceptions , the second @-@ least in the NFL . In total , the Bears forced only 17 turnovers ( 28th @-@ ranked ) , failing to record one in seven games , and twice in only two games . In the red zone , the Bears allowed 27 touchdowns and 14 field goals on 45 attempts ( 60 percent ) , which ranked 21st in the league . Meanwhile , the pass rush recorded 35 sacks ( 22nd in the NFL ) , 20 of which occurred in the last seven games of the year , the seventh @-@ most in the league .
= = = Position reviews = = =
= = = = Offense = = = =
Despite his receiving unit being plagued by injuries , Jay Cutler ended the season with 3 @,@ 629 passing yards , 21 touchdowns , 11 interceptions and career highs in passer rating ( 92 @.@ 3 ) and completion percentage ( 64 @.@ 4 ) . The eleven interceptions were the lowest in his career and resulted in an interception percentage of 2 @.@ 3 , the lowest in a season when he has started at least 12 games . The 21 touchdowns were his second @-@ most since 2011 and the 3 @,@ 629 yards were the third @-@ most in his career . On third down , Cutler had a 103 @.@ 2 passer rating ( fourth in the NFL ) after completing 91 of 141 passes for 1 @,@ 242 yards , seven touchdowns and two interceptions . With five lost fumbles , Cutler had a total of sixteen turnovers in 2015 , eight fewer than in 2014 . In his lone start against the Seahawks , Jimmy Clausen completed 9 of 17 passes for 63 yards , and including sacks , recorded 48 net passing yards , the second time since the 1990 season that the Bears had less than 50 net yards passing . The Bears ended the year with 228 @.@ 9 passing yards per game , ranked 23rd in the league . The quarterbacking group ended the season with a combined 63 @.@ 9 completion percentage and 2 @.@ 3 interception percentage , both of which ranked third in team history , along with 3 @,@ 843 gross passing yards and a 42 @.@ 5 third down percentage ( fourth ) , 3 @,@ 660 net passing yards ( fifth ) , along with 5 @,@ 514 total net yards and a 89 @.@ 7 passer rating ( sixth ) .
Spearheaded by the running back trio of Matt Forte , Jeremy Langford and Ka
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Paris , where he worked as foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star . He became friends with and was influenced by modernist writers such as F. Scott Fitzgerald , Ford Madox Ford , James Joyce , Ezra Pound and Gertrude Stein . The year 1923 saw his first published work , a slim volume titled Three Stories and Ten Poems , followed the next year by another collection of short vignettes , in our time ( without capitals ) . Hoping to have in our time published in New York , in 1924 he began writing stories to add to the volume with " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " planned as the final piece . He started writing the story in May of that year but did not finish until September as he spent the summer helping Ezra Pound and Ford Madox Ford launch the journal the transatlantic review .
" Big Two @-@ Hearted River " has strong autobiographical elements . During World War I , Hemingway signed on as a member of the Red Cross at age 19 , and was sent to the Italian Front at Fossalta as an ambulance driver . On his first day there , he helped to retrieve the remains of female workers killed in a munitions factory explosion , about which he later wrote in Death in the Afternoon : " I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments " . A few days later , on July 8 , 1918 , he was severely wounded when a mortar bomb exploded between his legs . He was sent to a hospital in Milan where he recuperated for six months ; after his return home , he went on a week @-@ long fishing and camping trip in September 1919 with two high school friends to the backcountry near Seney in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula — a trip that became the inspiration for " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " . The manuscript shows the use of plural pronouns , suggesting that in an early version more characters were included , but by publication any mention of his friends or the townspeople had been removed — leaving Nick alone in the woods .
When Hemingway asked her opinion of the draft in October 1925 , Stein advised him to cut an 11 @-@ page section of stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness reminiscences written from Nick 's point of view . Hemingway took her advice , reworked the ending , and wrote to his editor : " I have discovered that the last eleven pages of the last story in the book are crap " . Biographer James Mellow writes that at this early stage in his career Hemingway had not developed his talent enough to fully and capably integrate self @-@ reflections in his writing ; Mellow also believes the deleted passage might have been a " tour @-@ de @-@ force " had it been written at a more mature period in Hemingway 's development .
In January 1925 , while wintering in Schruns , Austria , waiting for a response from query letters written to friends and publishers in America , Hemingway submitted the story to be published in his friend Ernest Walsh 's newly established literary magazine This Quarter . Walsh bought it for 1 @,@ 000 French francs , the highest payment Hemingway had yet received for a piece of fiction . On October 5 , 1925 , the expanded edition of In Our Time ( with conventional capitalization in the title ) was published by Boni & Liveright in New York . The last story in the volume was the two @-@ part " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " . The piece was later included in Hemingway 's collection The Fifth Column and the First Forty @-@ Nine Stories published in October 1938 , and in two collections of short stories published after his death , The Nick Adams Stories ( 1972 ) and The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway : The Finca Vigía Edition ( 1987 ) .
= = Plot = =
Part one
The story opens with Nick arriving by train at Seney , Michigan , to find that a fire has devastated the town , leaving " nothing but the rails and the burned @-@ over country . " While following a road leading away from the town , he stops on a bridge where he observes trout in the river below . After , he hikes up a hill and rests at a burned stump . While smoking a cigarette , he discovers an ash @-@ blackened grasshopper crawling on his sock , and detaches it . His first spoken words in the story are " Go on , hopper .... Fly away somewhere . "
Later in the day he relaxes in a glade of tall pines and falls asleep . When he wakes , he hikes the last mile to the edge of the river where he sees the trout feeding in the evening light " making circles all down the surface of the water as though it were starting to rain . " He pitches his tent , unpacks his supplies , cooks his dinner , fills his water bucket , heats a pot of coffee , and kills a mosquito before falling asleep .
Part two
Early the next morning , Nick fills a jar with 50 dew @-@ heavy grasshoppers found under a log he names a " grasshopper lodging @-@ house " , eats breakfast , drinks sweetened coffee and makes a sliced onion sandwich . After checking and assembling his fly fishing rod and tying on damp leader line , he walks to the river with a net hanging from his belt , a sack over his shoulder and the jar of grasshoppers dangling around his neck . Wading in the water , he fishes the shallows ; he lands a trout that " was mottled with clear , water @-@ over @-@ gravel color " that he releases . Moving into a pool of deeper water , he hooks a large trout , " as broad as a salmon " , which he loses . After a rest , he moves away from the pool to the more shallow center of the river and catches two trout that he stows in his sack . Sitting on a log , smoking a cigarette and eating his onion sandwich , he thinks about fishing the deep water of the swamp , but decides to wait for another day . At the log in the river , he kills , guts and cleans the two trout before returning to camp .
= = Themes = =
= = = War = = =
Hemingway saw World War I as the " central fact of our time " . " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " hints at both widespread physical devastation and Nick 's personal war and post @-@ war experience , but neither of these central facts are directly mentioned . Hemingway scholar Joseph Flora makes the observation that Hemingway portrays Nick 's character coping " more meaningfully than he had ever done before , with the issues of life and death " . Biographer Phillip Young sees the story as basically concerned with a description of a young man " trying desperately to keep from going out of his mind . " Nick returns wounded , and introduces a character type Hemingway used again in his later stories and novels . The theme of an unspecified wound is introduced , a device that was to culminate in Jake Barnes ' character in The Sun Also Rises . Hemingway scholar William Adair suggests that Nick 's war experience was different , and perhaps more traumatic than Hemingway 's own , writing that Nick 's unspecified wound should not be confused or automatically identified with Hemingway 's wound .
Although Hemingway 's best fiction such as " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " perhaps originated from the " dark thoughts " about the wounding , Jackson Benson believes that autobiographical details are employed as framing devices to make observations on life in general and not just Nick 's own experiences . He writes that Hemingway created " what if " scenarios from real situations in his early fiction , which he projected onto a fictional character — " What if I were wounded and made crazy ? " the character asks himself . Benson goes on to write that " much of Hemingway 's fiction is dream @-@ like — his early fiction , his best , has often been compared to a compulsive nightmare , as in the recurring imagery of In Our Time . "
Adair views the river setting as a fictional representation of the Piave River near Fossalta , the site of Hemingway 's mortar wound . Hemingway may have taken the idea of the swamp from the terrain in the battle of Portogrande — a battle that Hemingway wrote about in a 1922 newspaper story , saying of it : " Austrians and Italians attacked and counter @-@ attacked waist deep in swamp water " . Furthermore , Adair suggests that Hemingway 's own wounding is reflected in the scene where Nick loses a fish — the " biggest one I ever had " — with descriptive imagery such as shoes " squelchy " with water , suggestive of Hemingway 's recollection of " feeling as if his boots were filled with warm water ( blood ) after his wounding . "
Writing in A Moveable Feast , Hemingway remembered " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " , recalling when he " sat in a corner with the afternoon light coming in over my shoulder and wrote in the notebook .... When I stopped writing I did not want to leave the river where I could see the trout in the pool , its surface pushing and swelling smooth against the resistance of the log @-@ driven piles of the bridge . The story was about coming back from the war but there was no mention of the war in it . "
= = = Nature = = =
Hemingway 's stories typically position nature as a source of refuge and rebirth . His characters are often shown retreating to the country in search of regeneration . Nature acts as the setting for hunters ' or fishermen 's existential moment of transcendence — especially at the moment when prey is killed . In Big Two @-@ Hearted River , Nick walks away from a ruined town , and enters the woods to hike toward the river , unharmed by the fire . His journey is motivated by absolution ; the river is described as two @-@ hearted because it gives life in the form of food ( fish ) and offers redemption . In the woods , Nick stops in a grove of trees that is described as chapel @-@ like , a description that echoes Stephen Crane 's The Red Badge of Courage in which Henry Fleming flees to a chapel @-@ like grove of trees . In the grove Nick sleeps well for the first time since the war , and there he begins the healing process . The next morning he goes to the river , wading into the water to fish . At first the strength of the current frightens him , and for some moments he has difficulty controlling himself .
Hemingway 's descriptions of the Michigan landscape , which would have been familiar to him as in his youth he summered at the family 's Walloon Lake cottage in Northern Michigan , are presented in a vague and dreamlike manner . Ronald Berman sees Hemingway 's treatment of landscape as like a painter 's canvas on which he presents Nick 's state of mind . The descriptions of the river 's water have been compared to American transcendentalist writer Henry David Thoreau 's descriptions of the pond in Walden . Biographer Meyers sees the story as a blend of American primitivism and sophistication ; Nick evidences a sense of loss which is " not simply grace under pressure — but under siege " . Nature is perceived as good and civilization as bad — a pervasive theme in American literature , found in such American classics as Mark Twain 's 19th @-@ century Huckleberry Finn and in William Faulkner 's 20th @-@ century Go Down , Moses .
According to Hemingway scholar Susan Beegel , Hemingway is fundamentally an American nature writer . She attributes it to his upbringing : his mother believed avidly in the early 20th @-@ century " back to nature " movement , and his father was a physician who taught science to his son , taking him to Agassiz Movement meetings as a young boy . Hemingway 's affinity with nature is reflected most strongly in " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " , in broad strokes whereby he has Nick traveling deep into the American back @-@ country to find solace , and in small details such as his Agassiz " object oriented " descriptions of the grasshoppers .
= = Style = =
= = = Iceberg theory = = =
Hemingway was inspired by Ezra Pound 's writings and applied the principles of imagism to his own work . Pound 's influence can be seen in the stripped @-@ down , minimalist style characteristic in Hemingway 's early fiction . Betraying his admiration for the older writer , he admitted that Pound " taught [ me ] more about how to write and how not to write than any son of a bitch alive " . He also learned from James Joyce , who further instilled the idea of stripped down economic prose . Hemingway 's short stories from the 1920s adhere to Pound 's tight definition of imagism ; biographer Carlos Baker writes that in his short stories Hemingway tried to learn how to " get the most from the least , [ to ] prune language , [ to ] multiply intensities , [ to ] tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth " . Hemingway adapted this style into a technique he called his iceberg theory : as Baker describes it , the hard facts float above water while the supporting structure , including the symbolism , operates out of sight .
The iceberg theory has been termed the " theory of omission " . Hemingway believed a writer could convey an object or concept while writing about something entirely different . In " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " he elaborates on the mundane activities Nick carries out . The story is filled with seemingly trivial detail : Nick gathers grasshoppers , brews coffee , catches and loses a large trout . In this climactic event , however , the excitement and tension becomes so strong that Nick betrays his inner thoughts and he takes a break .
While Hemingway painstakingly describes seemingly extraneous minutiae from Nick 's fishing trip , he avoids or barely hints at the driving force of the work : the emotional turmoil wrought on Nick by his return home from a catastrophic war . Hemingway has said he believes this avoidance made the heart and thrust of the story all the more acute , writing " ' Big Two @-@ Hearted River ' is about a boy beat to the wide coming home from the war .... beat to the wide was an earlier and possibly more severe form of beat , since those who had been were unable to comment on this condition and could not suffer that it be mentioned in their presence . So the war , all mention of the war , anything about the war is omitted . " Flora believes that in " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " the concept of the iceberg theory is more evident than in any other piece written by Hemingway .
Paul Smith believes Hemingway was still only experimenting stylistically during In Our Time . He maintains that Hemingway 's later minimalist style can be seen here , but not so much from tight editing as from Hemingway 's first approach , his desire to emulate his influences . Hemingway 's sentences " began life as scrawny little things , and then grew to their proper size through a process of accretion . " He avoided complicated syntax to reflect Nick 's wish that the fishing trip be uncomplicated . An analysis of the text shows that about 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences — a childlike syntax without subordination — and that repetition is often substituted for subordinate thoughts . Furthermore , the repetition creates prose with a " rhythmic , ritualistic effect " that emphasizes important points . The length of the paragraphs varies with short paragraphs intensifying the action . Benson writes that in " Indian Camp " and " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " Hemingway 's prose was sharper and more abstract than in other stories , and that by employing simple sentences and diction — techniques he learned writing for newspapers — the prose is timeless with an almost mythic quality .
= = = Cézanne = = =
Hemingway greatly admired Cézanne and early in his career crafted his prose in a way that would resonate with that painter 's work . He said in a 1949 interview that " Cézanne is my painter after the early painters .... I can make a landscape like Mr. Paul Cézanne , I learned how ... by walking through the Luxembourg Museum a thousand times . " Hemingway wanted the structure of " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " to resemble a Cézanne — with a detailed foreground set against a vaguely described background . In a letter to Stein from August 1924 , he wrote , " I have finished two long stories ... and finished the long one I worked on before I went to Spain where I am doing the country like Cézanne and having a hell of a time and sometimes getting it a little bit . It is about 100 pages long and nothing happens and the country is swell . I made it all up " .
His description of the river and the countryside betray the influence of the Post @-@ Impressionist style . Hemingway was heavily influenced by the modernists . He often visited the Musée du Luxembourg , where he saw the three Cézanne paintings L 'Estaque , Cour d 'une ferme and Les Peupliers . A series of Cézanne watercolors were exhibited at Berheim @-@ Jeune Gallery before he began writing the story . Hemingway wrote in A Moveable Feast that he had been " learning something from the painting of Cézanne that made writing simple true sentences far from enough to make the stories have the dimensions that I was trying to put in them . "
Comparing " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " to Cézanne 's paintings , Berman observes that Hemingway established a " representation of form , space and light " , and that the dense descriptive passages give " light and form .... overwhelmingly visual , intensely concerned with spatiality " , while in the middle ground , " We sense [ the trees ] through vertical forms and dark colors only " . Like Cézanne paintings , Hemingway 's landscapes are vague and do not represent any specific place : Seney burned in 1891 , not in 1919 ; the hill Nick climbs does not exist ; and the east branch of the Fox River , where he camps , is not a day 's hike from the town .
Kenneth Johnston believes Hemingway 's use of symbolism is a substitute for paint and brushstrokes . He views the description of the town after the fire , and the railroad tracks , as words " slash [ ed ] across the landscape " , with a physicality similar to a Cézanne landscape . The minutely detailed passages of the campsite and Nick 's mundane activities fill the story 's foreground , while the forest and menacing swamp , relegated to the background , are described vaguely and only in passing . The river acts as a barrier between the foreground and background , and is present as deep in places , shallow in others , with currents that are either slow or fast . Berman says Nick is shown as a figure in a painting — seen in the foreground at the campsite and at a distance from the murky background of the swamp .
= = = Symbolism = = =
Nick is incapable of self @-@ reflection and unable to cope with pain . Hemingway conveys this through symbolism and a series of objective correlatives ( tangible objects ) , which allow the reader insight to the character 's motivations . For example , on his arrival in Seney he literally falls off the train , shocked at the sight of the burned town , but on a deeper level in shock from his war experience . Leaving behind the burnt landscape , Nick climbs a hill in the heat , and surveys the town 's damage . The burning and heat symbolize his memory of war @-@ torn Italy , but he hopes for regrowth : " It could not all be burned . He knew that " . At the top of the hill , he takes a break , smokes a cigarette , and speaks for the first time . Flora suggests that speaking symbolizes his humanity , lost in the war , which he is beginning to regain .
Beyond the town the bridge over the river still exists and the river symbolizes time and timelessness , healing and the natural cycle of life and death . Nick is on a journey , perhaps he sees it as a religious quest given the Christian symbolism of the fish . From the town , a road leads into pristine back @-@ country . It crosses a bridge under which the trout hold steady against the current , just as Nick needs to hold steady . From the bridge he glimpses a kingfisher taking wing , a bird Johnston points out symbolizes " halcyon days , peace and tranquility " . A large uprooted tree symbolizes the protagonist himself uprooted by war , and that his fragility is symbolized by the trout he releases carefully so as not to damage its protective slime coat . The campsite symbolizes safety , set deep in a pine grove and described in soothing greens ; beyond three dead trees in the background looms the swamp where he will not venture .
His tent is portrayed as a less dark place than the emptiness outside , and becomes a place of safety and sanctuary . Conversely , the swamp is described in themes that convey it as shrouded in mist at night , and a place Nick deliberately tries not to think about . When he wakes in the morning , regenerated by sleep , he feels stronger and the swamp seems less threatening .
= = Reception = =
In our time was published as part of Pound 's modernist series by Three Mountains Press , Paris in 1924 . The work was well received by critics ; Edmund Wilson described the writing as " of the first distinction " , and in the 1940s he again wrote of " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " , " along with the mottled trout ... the boy from the American Middle West fishes up a nice little masterpiece . " When the story was published in the United States , critics asserted Hemingway had reinvigorated the short story by his use of declarative sentences and his crisp style . In 1952 , reviewing The Old Man and the Sea — for which Hemingway would win the Pulitzer Prize and the Nobel Prize in Literature — The New York Times said of " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " that it was one of the " best and happiest of his early short stories " .
Carlos Baker views the stories of In Our Time as a remarkable achievement for a young writer . Joseph Flora described " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " as " unquestionably the most brilliant of the collection In Our Time " . The piece has become one of Hemingway 's most anthologized stories , and one of a handful subject to serious literary criticism since its publication , and belongs in the canon of 20th @-@ century American literature . Beegel writes that it is considered " among the best " American short stories , along with Stephen Crane 's " The Open Boat " , Nathaniel Hawthorne 's " Young Goodman Brown " and Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Fall of the House of Usher " .
According to Benson , despite Pound and Joyce 's influence , Hemingway " carried the new form into the position of dominant influence " for much of the 20th century . Unlike other modernist writers , who wrote of man cut off from the past , Hemingway placed his narratives in the present and hence became " the true modernist " .
= The Heart of a Woman =
The Heart of a Woman ( 1981 ) is an autobiography by American writer Maya Angelou . The book is the fourth installment in Angelou 's series of seven autobiographies . The Heart of a Woman recounts events in Angelou 's life between 1957 and 1962 and follows her travels to California , New York City , Cairo , and Ghana as she raises her teenage son , becomes a published author , becomes active in the US civil rights movement , and becomes romantically involved with a South African freedom fighter . One of the most important themes of The Heart of a Woman is motherhood , as Angelou continues to raise her teenage son . The book ends with Angelou 's son leaving for college and Angelou looking forward to newfound independence and freedom .
Like Angelou 's previous volumes , the book has been described as autobiographical fiction , though most critics , as well as Angelou , have characterized it as autobiography . Although most critics consider Angelou 's first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings more favorably , The Heart of a Woman has received positive reviews . It was chosen as an Oprah 's Book Club selection in 1997 .
Critic Mary Jane Lupton says it has " a narrative structure unsurpassed in American autobiography " and that it is Angelou 's " most introspective " autobiography . The title is taken from a poem by Harlem Renaissance poet Georgia Douglas Johnson , which connects Angelou with other female African @-@ American writers . African @-@ American literature critic Lyman B. Hagen states , " Faithful to the ongoing themes of survival , sense of self , and continuing education , The Heart of a Woman moves its central figures to a point of full personhood " . The book follows Angelou to several places in the US and Africa , but the most important journey she describes is " a voyage into the self " .
= = Background = =
The Heart of a Woman , published in 1981 , is the fourth installment of Maya Angelou 's series of seven autobiographies . The success of her previous autobiographies and the publication of three volumes of poetry had brought Angelou a considerable amount of fame by 1981 . And Still I Rise , her third volume of poetry , was published in 1978 and reinforced Angelou 's success as a writer . Her first volume of poetry , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize .
Writer Julian Mayfield states that Angelou 's work set a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole . Angelou had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women through the writing of her life stories . It made her , as scholar Joanne Braxton stated , " without a doubt ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books . Writer Hilton Als calls her a pioneer of self @-@ exposure , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . While Angelou was composing her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute . Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to " tell the truth as a writer " and to " be honest about it " .
In 1957 , the year The Heart of a Woman opens , Angelou had appeared in an off @-@ Broadway revue that inspired her first film , Calypso Heat Wave , in which Angelou sang and performed her own compositions , something she does not mention in the book . Also in 1957 and not discussed in the book , her first album , Miss Calypso , was released ; it was reissued as a CD in 1995 . According to Als , Angelou sang and performed calypso music because it was popular at the time , and not to develop as an artist . As described in The Heart of a Woman , Angelou eventually gave up performing in favor of a career as a writer and poet . According to Chuck Foster , who wrote the liner notes in Miss Calypso 's 1995 reissue , her calypso music career is " given short shrift " and dismissed in the book .
= = = Title = = =
The heart of a woman goes forth with the dawn ,
As a lone bird , soft winging , so restlessly on ,
Afar o 'er life 's turrets and vales does it roam
In the wake of those echoes the heart calls home .
The heart of a woman falls back with the night ,
And enters some alien cage in its plight ,
And tries to forget it has dreamed of the stars
While it breaks , breaks , breaks on the sheltering bars .
- — " The Heart of a Woman " , by Georgia Douglas Johnson
Angelou takes the title of her fourth autobiography from a poem by Georgia Douglas Johnson , a Harlem Renaissance writer . Critic Lyman B. Hagan states that although the title is " less striking or oblique than titles of her preceding books " , it is appropriate because Johnson 's poem mentions a caged bird and provides a connection to Angelou 's first autobiography , whose title was taken from a poem by Paul Lawrence Dunbar . The title suggests Angelou 's painful loneliness and exposes a spiritual dilemma also present in her first volume . Johnson 's use of the metaphor is different from Dunbar 's because her bird is a female whose isolation is sexual rather than racial . The caged bird may also refer to Angelou after her failed marriage , but writer Mary Jane Lupton says that " the Maya Angelou of The Heart of a Woman is too strong and too self @-@ determined to be kept in a cage " .
The Heart of a Woman is the first time Angelou identifies with another female African @-@ American writer . Her early literary influences were men , including James Weldon Johnson , Paul Lawrence Dunbar , and Shakespeare . Angelou has stated that she always admired women writers like Anne Spencer , Jessie Fauset , Nella Larsen , and Zora Neale Hurston . Her choice of title for this book is an acknowledgment of her legacy as a Black woman writer .
= = Plot summary = =
The events described in The Heart of a Woman take place between 1957 and 1962 , beginning shortly after the end of Angelou 's previous autobiography , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas . Angelou and her teenage son Guy have moved into a houseboat commune in Sausalito . After a year , they move to a rented house near San Francisco . Singer Billie Holiday visits Angelou and her son there and Holiday sings " Strange Fruit " , her famous song about the lynching of Black men , to Guy . Holiday tells Angelou , " You 're going to be famous . But it won 't be for singing . " In 1959 , Angelou and Guy move to New York City . The transition is difficult for Guy , and Angelou is forced to protect him from a gang leader . No longer satisfied with performing in nightclubs , she dedicates herself to acting , writing , political organizing , and her son . Her friend , novelist John Killens , invites her to join the Harlem Writers Guild . She meets other important African @-@ American artists and writers , including James Baldwin , who would become her mentor . She becomes a published writer for the first time .
Angelou becomes more politically active and participates in African @-@ American and African protest rallies , including helping to organize a sit @-@ in at the United Nations following the death of Zaire 's prime minister , Patrice Lumumba . She meets Malcolm X and is struck by his good looks and magnetism . After hearing Martin Luther King , Jr. speak , she and her friend activist Godfrey Cambridge are inspired to produce a successful fundraising event for King 's Southern Christian Leadership Conference ( SCLC ) called Cabaret For Freedom . King names her coordinator of SCLC 's office in New York . She performs in Jean Genet 's play , The Blacks , with Roscoe Lee Brown , James Earl Jones , and Cicely Tyson .
In 1961 , Angelou meets South African freedom fighter Vusumzi Make . Angelou and Make never marry , but she and Guy move with Make to London and Cairo , where she acts as his political wife while he was in exile . Their relationship is full of cultural conflicts ; he expects her to be a subservient African wife , and she yearns for the freedom of a working woman . She learns that Make is too friendly with other women and is irresponsible with money , so she accepts a position as assistant editor at the Arab Observer . Their relationship is examined by their community of friends , and Angelou and Make eventually separate . Angelou accepts a job in Liberia , and she and Guy travel to Accra , where he has been accepted to attend college . Guy is seriously injured in an automobile accident , so she begins working at the University of Ghana and remains there while he recuperates . The Heart of a Woman ends with Guy leaving for college and Angelou remarking to herself , " At last , I 'll be able to eat the whole breast of a roast chicken by myself . "
= = Genre = =
All seven of Angelou 's installments of her life story are in the tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . Starting with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou challenges the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Angelou said in 1989 that she is the only serious writer to choose autobiography to express herself , but she reports not one person 's story , but the collective 's . Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe writes that Angelou is representative of the convention in African @-@ American autobiography as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people . Her use of devices common in fictional writing , such as dialog , characterization and thematic development has led some reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction .
All of Angelou 's autobiographies conform to the autobiography 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . In a 1983 interview with literature critic Claudia Tate , Angelou calls her books autobiographies , and later acknowledges that she follows the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying ' I ' meaning ' we ' " . Lupton compares The Heart of a Woman with other autobiographies , and states that for the first time in Angelou 's series , she is able to present herself as a model for successful living . However , Angelou 's " woman 's heart " — her perspective as a woman with concerns about her self @-@ esteem and the conflicts with her lovers and her son — is what makes her autobiography different . Angelou 's feelings as described in The Heart of a Woman , which Lupton calls Angelou 's " most introspective " book , are what dictates the book 's form .
Angelou recognizes that there are fictional aspects to all her books , which differentiate her work from more traditional " truthful " autobiographies . Her approach parallels the conventions of many African @-@ American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US , when truth was often censored for purposes of self @-@ protection . Lyman B. Hagen places Angelou in the tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but insists that she has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form . In a 1998 interview with journalist George Plimpton , Angelou discusses her writing process , and " the sometimes slippery notion of truth in nonfiction " and memoirs . When asked if she changed the truth to improve her story , she states , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about . " Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories . Hagen states , " One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work " , and that Angelou uses aspects of fiction writing to make her depictions of events and people more interesting . Angelou 's long @-@ time editor , Robert Loomis said that she could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader .
The Heart of a Woman is similar to Angelou 's previous volumes because it is narrated from the intimate point of view of a woman and a mother , but by this time , she is able to refer to events that occurred in her past books . Angelou has become a serial autobiographer , something Lupton calls " a narrative structure unsurpassed in American autobiography " . Angelou successfully draws upon her previous works , and is able to build upon the themes she has already explored ; for example , Angelou threatens the gang leader who has been threatening her son , a powerful incident when considered in light of Angelou 's rape in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings . Lupton calls Angelou 's violent behavior an " unconscious effort to rewrite her own history " .
= = Style = =
Angelou does not begin to create her own narrative until The Heart of a Woman , which depends less upon the conventions of fiction than her previous books . For example , there is less dialog and fewer dramatic episodes . The Heart of a Woman is more uplifting than its predecessors due to Angelou 's resolution of her conflict between her duties as a mother and her success as a performer .
Angelou perfects the use of the vignette in The Heart of a Woman to present her acquaintances and close associates . Two of her most developed vignettes in this book are of Billie Holiday and Malcolm X. The vignettes of those she knew well , like Vusumki Make , also present her interactions and relationships . Hagen writes that although " frank talk seemed to be almost requisite for a commercially successful book " in the early 1980s , Angelou values monogamy , fidelity , and commitment in her relationships .
For the only time in this series , Angelou describes her son 's accident in detail at both the end of this book and the beginning of her next one , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes , a technique that centralizes the two books , connects them with each other , creates a strong , emotional link between them , and repeats Angelou 's pattern of ending each book on a positive note . In this book , Angelou ends with a hopeful look to the future as her son attains his independence and she looks forward to hers . Hagen writes , " Faithful to the ongoing themes of survival , sense of self , and continuing education , The Heart of a Woman moves its central figures to a point of full personhood . "
= = Themes = =
= = = Race = = =
Race , like in the rest of the series , is a central theme in The Heart of a Woman . The book opens with Angelou and Guy living in an experimental commune with white people , trying to participate in the new openness between Blacks and whites . She is not completely comfortable with the arrangement ; Angelou never names her roommates , even though " naming " has been an important theme in her books thus far . For the most part , Angelou is able to get along well with whites , but she occasionally encounters prejudice , as when she needs help from white friends to rent a home in a segregated neighborhood . Hagen calls Angelou 's descriptions of whites and the hopes for eventual equality in this book " optimistic " . Angelou continues her indictment of white power structure and her protests against racial injustice .
Angelou becomes more politicized and develops a new sense of Black identity . Even Angelou 's decision to leave show business is political . She sees herself as a social and cultural historian of her time , and of the civil rights and Black literary movement of the late 1950s and early 1960s . She becomes more attracted to the causes of Black militants in the US and in Africa , to the point of entering into a relationship with a significant militant , and becomes more committed to activism . During this time , she becomes an active political protester , but she does not think of herself in that way . She places the focus upon herself and uses the autobiographical form to demonstrate how the civil rights movement influenced her . According to Hagen , Angelou 's contributions to civil rights as a fundraiser and SCLC organizer were successful and " eminently effective " .
= = = Journey = = =
Travel is a common theme in American autobiography as a whole ; McPherson writes that it is something of a national myth to Americans as a people . This is also the case for African @-@ American autobiography , which has its roots in the slave narrative . The Heart of a Woman has three primary settings — the San Francisco Bay Area , New York , and Egypt — and two secondary ones — London and Accra .
Like all of Angelou 's books , the structure of The Heart of a Woman is based on a journey . Angelou emphasizes the theme of movement by opening her book with a spiritual ( " The ole ark 's a moverin ' " ) , which McPherson calls " the theme song of the United States in 1957 " . This spiritual , which contains a reference to Noah 's ark , presents Angelou as a type of Noah and demonstrates her spirituality . Angelou mentions Alan Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac 's 1951 novel On the Road , thus connecting her own journey and uncertainty about the future with the journeys of literary figures . Even though Angelou travels to Africa for a relationship , she makes a connection with the continent . Lupton states , " Africa is the site of her growth " . Angelou 's time in Africa makes her more aware of her African roots as she searches for the past of her ancestors . Although Angelou journeys to many places in the book , the most important journey she describes is " a voyage into the self " .
= = = Writing = = =
Angelou 's primary role in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas was stage performer , but in The Heart of a Woman she changes from someone who uses others ' method of expression — the songs and dances of the African , Caribbean , and African American oral tradition — to a writer . Angelou makes this decision for political reasons as she becomes more involved with the civil rights movement , and so that she can care for her son . For the first time in Angelou 's autobiographies , she begins to think of herself as a writer and recounts her literary development . Angelou begins to identify with other Black women writers for the first time in The Heart of a Woman . She has been influenced by several writers since her childhood , but this is the first time she mentions female authors . Up to this point , her identification has been with male writers ; her new affiliations with female writers is due to her emerging feminism .
Angelou 's concept of herself as an artist changed after her encounter with Billie Holiday . Up to that point , Angelou 's career was more about fame than about art ; Als states , " Developing her artistry was not the point " . Als also says that Angelou 's busy career , instead of revealing her ambition , shows " a woman who is only moderately talented and perpetually unable to understand who she is " . Angelou , in spite of the mistakes of her youth , needed the approval and acceptance of others , and observes that Holiday was able to perceive this . Holiday tells her , " You 're going to be famous . But it won 't be for singing . "
Angelou had begun to write sketches , songs and short stories , and shows her work to her friend John Killens , who invites her to New York City to develop her writing skills . She joins the Harlem Writers Guild , and receives feedback from other African @-@ American authors such as Killens , Rosa Guy , and Caribbean writer Paule Marshall , who would eventually make significant contributions to African @-@ American literature . Angelou dedicates herself to improving her craft , forcing herself to understand the technical aspects of writing . Lupton writes , " Readers can actually envision in this volume the distinguished artist who becomes the Maya Angelou of the 1990s " .
= = = Motherhood = = =
Motherhood , a theme throughout Angelou 's autobiographies , becomes more complex in The Heart of a Woman . Although Guy struggles with the developmentally appropriate process of adolescent separation from his mother , they remain close . Many years of experience as a mother , and her success as a writer , actress , and activist , enable Angelou to behave more competently and with more maturity , professionally and as a mother . Her self @-@ assurance becomes a major part of her personality . Her past conflict between her professional and personal lives are resolved , and she fulfills her promise to Guy she made to him at the end of her previous autobiography that they would never be separated again . Lupton writes that Angelou resolves this conflict by subordinating her needs to her child 's .
Lupton also writes that motherhood is important in Angelou 's books , as is " the motif of the responsible mother " . Angelou 's commitment to care for her son is revealed in her confrontation with the street gang leader who has threatened Guy . In this episode , which Lupton considers the most dramatic in the book , Angelou has become a powerful mother . Angelou is no longer torn by self @-@ doubt , but is now a strong and aggressive Black mother . Angelou has become what Joanne M. Braxton calls the " outraged mother " , which represents the Black mother 's strength and dedication found throughout slave narratives . Lupton also writes that Angelou has become a reincarnation of her grandmother , a central figure in Caged Bird .
By the end of The Heart of a Woman , Angelou is alone ; for example , after Guy recuperates from the car accident , he leaves her to attend college . The final word in the book is the negative " myself " , a word that signifies Angelou 's new @-@ found freedom and independence . Angelou has become truly herself and is no longer defined as someone 's wife or mother . Scholar Wallis Tinnie calls this moment one of " illusive transcendence " and " a scene of hope and completion " . For the first time in many years , Angelou will be able to eat a chicken breast alone , something that is valued throughout her books . Lupton calls this thought " perfectly formed " . Tinnie states that The Heart of a Woman 's " lonely aching " hearkens back to the poem that inspired the book 's title .
= = Critical reception and sales = =
Critics gave The Heart of a Woman positive reviews , praising its professional qualities . The American Library Association 's Choice Magazine says that although Caged Bird was the best of Angelou 's autobiographies , " every book since has been very much worth the reading and pondering " . Janet B. Blundell writes that the book was " lively , revealing , and worth the reading " , but also found it " too chatty and anecdotal " . Hagen responded to this criticism by stating that all of Angelou 's books consist of episodes connected by theme and character . Sheree Crute , writing for Ms. , appreciated the episodic nature of Angelou 's writing and praised her for her " wonderfully unaffected story telling skills " . Cudjoe called it " the most political segment of Angelou 's autobiographical statement " .
In 1993 , Angelou recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration ; in the following week , sales of her works , including The Heart of a Woman , rose by 300 – 600 percent . Bantam Books printed 400 @,@ 000 copies of her books to meet demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , marking a 1 @,@ 200 percent increase . In 1997 , Angelou 's friend Oprah Winfrey named The Heart of a Woman as a selection in her book club , making it a bestseller and increasing its total printing to over one million copies , sixteen years after its publication .
= Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D =
Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D ( also known as Justice League 3D – The Ride ) is an Interactive Dark Ride created by the Sally Corporation that is located at Warner Bros. Movie World on the Gold Coast , Australia . It opened on 22 September 2012 and requires riders to shoot their laser blasters at targets in order to defeat an alien threat . The ride is touted as the world 's first Justice League @-@ themed ride and the first ride of its type to feature 3D projections . Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D has been well received with many praising the ride 's special effects and immersive theming .
= = History = =
= = = Rumours and official announcement = = =
In September 2011 , Warner Bros. Movie World announced that Batman Adventure – The Ride 2 would be closed on 15 October 2011 and would be replaced by a new attraction . On 3 October 2011 , the chairman and CEO of Sally Corporation , John Wood , stated the following in an interview for NewsParcs :
Wood 's statement led to speculation that the new ride might be manufactured by Sally Corporation . On 22 February 2012 , Warner Bros. Movie World officially announced via their Facebook page that it would be launching two DC Comics @-@ based attractions in 2012 . The following day , a billboard advertising the ride was installed outside the defunct Batman ride . This was followed in May 2012 with a recruitment poster featuring Superman . Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D was officially announced by Warner Bros. Movie World on 25 May 2012 . On 5 June 2012 , the Gold Coast Bulletin reported that the ride would be manufactured by Sally Corporation and would cost A $ 9 million . On 25 June 2012 , Sally Corporation distributed a press release about the ride , resulting in worldwide media attention .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
Construction began for Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D in September 2011 . By April 2012 , the previous ride had been completely cleared , with the availability of an empty show building to accommodate the new ride . In June 2012 , Warner Bros. Movie World released some images from inside the attraction , mid @-@ way through its construction . On 3 September 2012 , the park unveiled the Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D 's Hall of Justice façade , which replaced the Wayne Manor façade from the former Batman attraction .
On 21 September 2012 , Warner Bros. Movie World announced via Facebook that Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D would open the following day in time for the school holidays .
= = Ride = =
= = = Overview = = =
DC Comics characters such as Batman , Superman , The Flash , Green Lantern , Supergirl , Wonder Woman , Cyborg and Starro are involved in the Justice League attraction . The attraction is part of a DC Comics superhero hub within Warner Bros. Movie World . Other attractions within the hub include Superman Escape ( 2005 ) , Batwing Spaceshot ( 2006 ) , Green Lantern Coaster ( 2011 ) and Arkham Asylum - Shock Therapy ( April 2012 ) .
Although the ride has been primarily manufactured and designed by Sally Corporation , a number of other companies were also involved , including Warner Bros. , Alterface , Threshold Animation Studios , Bertazzon Rides , Bose Corporation , Techni @-@ Lux , RealD , MSI Design and Sculpt Studios .
= = = Experience = = =
The queue for the ride begins outside the Hall of Justice area . Inside the entrance , several portable television screens inform guests that an alien attack on the Earth is underway and that they are required to defeat the alien threat . Riders pass under a scanning device as they enter the Cyborg 's test lab , which also serves as the load and unload station . Riders are provided with a pair of RealD 3D glasses before boarding their tactical assault vehicle and entering the battle .
The main section of the ride consists of guests using the laser blasters ( mounted to the vehicles ) to shoot at over 250 Starro spores . Riders earn points for shooting the aliens and the scores are shown on a panel situated on the vehicles , as well as on a leaderboard at the completion of the ride . The 20 themed cars are guided along a 197 @-@ metre ( 646 ft ) guide rail track . Eight 3D screens and 16 animatronic characters complete the ride .
= = Reception = =
Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D has been well received . Prior to the opening of the attraction , Tanya Westthorp of the Gold Coast Bulletin experienced a preview of the ride and stated afterwards that " the unbelievably real 3D effects and sound , wind and heat blasts and falling walls made for an extremely immersive experience " . Richard Wilson of Parkz commended the ride for its engaging theming and immersive storyline , but described Bertazzon 's ride system as the biggest disappointment . Wilson concluded by stating , " Justice League adds a new dimension to Warner Bros. Movie World that has been sorely missing " .
Based on the reception of the ride at Warner Bros. Movie World , Sally Corporation have expressed interest in transferring the concept to other parks around the world including those in the United States . It wasn 't until 2014 when Six Flags officially announced Justice League : Battle for Metropolis would be added in 2015 to Six Flags Over Texas and Six Flags St. Louis . Noticeable differences between Justice League : Alien Invasion 3D and Justice League : Battle for Metropolis include a motion @-@ based ride system by Oceaneering International and the involvement of additional DC Comics villains including Lex Luthor and The Joker .
= Grotrian @-@ Steinweg =
Grotrian @-@ Steinweg , known as Grotrian in the US , is a German manufacturer of luxury pianos . The company is based in Braunschweig , Germany , commonly known as Brunswick in English . Grotrian @-@ Steinweg makes premium grand pianos and upright pianos .
Grotrian @-@ Steinweg 's history dates back to 1835 when the first Steinweg piano factory was built by Heinrich Engelhard Steinweg ( later known as Henry Steinway after his emigration to the US where he founded Steinway & Sons ) . In 1856 , Friedrich Grotrian became a partner ; in 1865 his son Wilhelm Grotrian and two associates bought the factory and the right to market their pianos as successors to the Steinweg brand . Ensuing generations of Grotrian family members led the company to become one of the finest piano manufacturers in Germany . Grotrian @-@ Steinweg pianos were preferred by some famous pianists , and they received accolades at the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . Grotrian @-@ Steinweg operated an orchestra and a concert hall , and established sales rooms in a half dozen major cities in Germany , and by 1920 , in London as well . At its peak in the late 1920s , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg employed 1 @,@ 000 people and made 3 @,@ 000 pianos per year .
Economic depression in the 1930s and war in the 1940s caused Grotrian @-@ Steinweg to decline severely and then lose its factory completely . The family rebuilt the factory and re @-@ established its reputation for quality work . In the 1950s , an annual piano @-@ playing competition was founded by the company , to identify promising young piano students .
Grotrian @-@ Steinweg sought to expand into the US in the mid @-@ 1960s . Steinway & Sons sued to prevent them from using the Steinweg name , resulting in a 1975 decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . The case set a precedent in describing " initial interest confusion " : that the brand Grotrian @-@ Steinweg could cause piano buyers to temporarily confuse its brand with the brand Steinway & Sons . The court ordered Grotrian @-@ Steinweg to stop selling pianos in the US under the " Steinweg " name . Afterward , the company formed a business entity named Grotrian Piano Company , through which it sells pianos in North America .
= = 19th century = =
On 13 January 1803 , Georg Friedrich Karl Grotrian , called Friedrich , was born in Schöningen , Germany . He settled in Moscow to sell pianos , beginning around 1830 . He joined a partnership in a small piano making firm based in Saint Petersburg , and included these pianos among the various instruments he sold in his successful Moscow music shop .
In Germany , Heinrich Engelhard Steinweg ( 1797 – 1871 ) started making pianos in 1835 from his house in Seesen at the edge of the Harz mountains ; a source of fine beech and spruce wood for the instruments . Among the pianos that Steinweg produced in his first year was a square piano designed by and built for Friedrick Grotrian . ( This instrument is now in the Braunschweig museum . ) H.E. Steinweg entered three of his pianos in a state fair in 1839 , two of them square pianos , but his grand piano brought wide notice . In 1850 , H.E. Steinweg took most of his large family to New York City , leaving the piano factory to his eldest son C.F. Theodor Steinweg ( 1825 – 1889 ) who stayed behind to run it under his own name . Meanwhile , in New York City , the Steinweg family Americanized their surname to Steinway and in 1853 they founded the piano manufacturer Steinway & Sons .
Soon after taking ownership of his father 's old factory , C.F. Theodor Steinweg moved it to Wolfenbüttel near Braunschweig . Here he met Friedrich Grotrian who was traveling for business . In 1854 , Friedrich Grotrian received the Müller @-@ Mühlenbein pharmacy as an inheritance from an uncle , so he moved back to Germany to manage it . He joined C.F. Theodor Steinweg 's piano company as a partner in 1856 .
In 1857 , C.F. Theodor Steinweg and Grotrian moved the piano factory to Braunschweig , setting up shop in a former mayor 's mansion at 48 Bohlweg Street in the inner , medieval part of the city . The company employed about 25 people at this time . Friedrich Grotrian died on 11 December 1860 , leaving his share of the company to his son Wilhelm ( 1843 – 1917 ) . In 1865 , C.F. Theodor Steinweg was needed by his family in New York to help manage Steinway & Sons after his brothers Henry and Charles died . Wilhelm Grotrian joined with two of the piano workmen — Adolph Helfferich and H.D.W. Schulz — to buy out C.F. Theodor Steinweg 's share of the building . The new partnership paid for the right to use the trademark " C.F. Th . Steinweg Nachf . " , meaning " successor to C.F. Theodor Steinweg " . ( Nachf. is an abbreviation for Nachfolger which is German for successor . ) The company name became " Grotrian , Helfferich , Schulz , Th . Steinweg Nachf . " Wilhelm Grotrian raised two sons in the 1870s : Wilhelm " Willi " Grotrian Jr ( 1868 – 1931 ) and Kurt Grotrian ( 1870 – 1929 ) .
In New York City , C.F. Theodor Steinweg ( H.E. Steinweg 's son ) changed his name to C.F. Theodore Steinway , and served as the leader and chief technician of Steinway & Sons for fifteen years . He did not like living in the US , so he kept his home in Braunschweig and traveled back and forth as needed . In 1880 he stopped traveling overseas and started a new Steinway & Sons piano factory in Hamburg , competing with his father 's old firm , now called Grotrian @-@ Steinweg , in making pianos for European customers . After establishing the business , Steinway retired to Braunschweig for his last years . He died in 1889 , leaving his collection of pianos to the city 's museum . The Hamburg factory proved successful in competing against Grotrian @-@ Steinweg — both companies were known for producing premium pianos .
In the 1880s , Willi Grotrian studied piano making with Wm . Knabe & Co. in Baltimore , Maryland , and with Pleyel , Wolff et Cie in Paris , France . Kurt Grotrian also studied with piano makers in other countries . Their father Wilhelm Grotrian Sr took Willi with him to Chicago in 1893 ; there , at the World 's Columbian Exposition , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg won an award for fine quality . Pianists Eugen d 'Albert , Ignacy Jan Paderewski and Clara Schumann expressed a preference for Grotrian @-@ Steinweg pianos . Grotrian @-@ Steinweg was counted among the top German piano manufacturers along with Bechstein , Blüthner , Feurich , Ibach , Lipp and the Hamburg division of Steinway . In 1895 , Wilhelm Grotrian Sr made his two sons partners in the business . He told them : " Lads , build good pianos and the rest will take care of itself . " Willi Grotrian methodically set about to improve the systems and standards by which the Grotrian @-@ Steinweg company produced pianos . The Grotrian @-@ Steinweg brand was well known for being of the highest quality : the company was named purveyor to some 30 " Kaisers , Kings and royal houses " . The owners Franz Wilhelm Grotrian , Willi Grotrian and Kurt Grotrian were awarded an imperial and royal warrant of appointment to the court of Austria @-@ Hungary .
= = 20th century = =
In Braunschweig , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg grew to a workforce of 550 by 1913 , producing about 1 @,@ 600 pianos annually . The Grotrian @-@ Steinweg Orchestra was active in Leipzig under the baton of young conductor Hermann Scherchen . Grotrian @-@ dedicated salesrooms were operating in Leipzig , Hanover , Königsberg , Düsseldorf and Berlin .
During World War I , Kurt Grotrian left the factory to serve in the German Army . He was soon wounded and taken prisoner of war . The elder Wilhelm Grotrian died in 1917 . Willi Grotrian , his son , led the company but it was greatly reduced in manpower and in orders for pianos . After the war , the company resumed as before , expanding sales in 1920 by establishing a London shop under the brand name Grotrian @-@ Steinweg . The workforce increased to 1 @,@ 000 . In 1924 , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg built an unusual piano for microtonal music composer Ivan Wyschnegradsky . The piano had three manuals , and strings tuned a quarter tone apart . By 1927 , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg was making about 3 @,@ 000 pianos annually . This number dropped significantly in the 1930s during the Great Depression ; fewer than 500 pianos were made in 1931 , and the workforce was reduced to less than 200 .
Kurt Grotrian had become seriously ill in the late 1920s , and in 1928 he made his two sons Erwin ( 1899 – 1990 ) and Helmut ( 1900 – 1977 ) shareholders . In 1929 , Kurt Grotrian died of complications from his old war wound . Willi Grotrian died in 1931 .
In World War II , the Grotrian @-@ Steinweg factory ( like many others in Germany ) was ordered to switch to fabricating parts for aircraft . The factory was destroyed in 1944 by the bombing of Braunschweig , as was the founder 's mansion in the center of town . Afterward , Erwin and Helmut rebuilt the factory . By 1948 , production had resumed ; composer and pianist Wilhelm Kempff went on record as an admirer of the " sonority and exquisite execution " of the post @-@ war work .
= = = Piano performance competition = = =
In 1954 , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg initiated a piano @-@ playing competition known as Grotrian @-@ Steinweg Klavierspielwettbewerb , featuring young pianists from music schools . The competition took place in the Braunschweig location of the Hertie department store , with audience applause used as the gauge to determine the winner . In 1968 , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg entered into talks with the German National Music Council and the Hannover University of Music to increase the scale of the competition . It increased in odd years to encompass a national and international scope . Pianists such as Ragna Schirmer and Lars Vogt gained notice as winners of the competition .
= = = Trademark conflict = = =
The first trademark friction between the two piano manufacturers occurred in 1895 when Steinway & Sons sued to stop Grotrian @-@ Steinweg from using the name " Steinweg " on its pianos . Steinway lost the case , but in January 1919 , Willi and Kurt Grotrian decided to change the family surname to Grotrian @-@ Steinweg in order to protect the trademark of the family business , in the hope of preventing further lawsuits . In 1925 , the company established a sales presence in the US as a Delaware corporation called Grotrian @-@ Steinweg Company . Over the next three years , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg sold only 15 pianos in the US , in addition to a few sold by an independent dealer in New York City . Upon discovering the sales in 1928 , Steinway & Sons complained to the distributor and to Grotrian @-@ Steinweg , but in 1929 Grotrian @-@ Steinweg sent 47 pianos to the US . A family representative of Steinway went to Germany to discuss the problem directly with the Grotrian @-@ Steinweg family . Arriving at a private agreement , the two family leaders smoked a " peace cigar " and Grotrian @-@ Steinweg subsequently stopped using the names " Steinweg " and " Grotrian @-@ Steinweg " in the US . In 1930 the Delaware corporation was dissolved , and in the next three years exports from Grotrian @-@ Steinweg to the US decreased then halted completely . In 1950 , Grotrian @-@ Steinweg relinquished its old 1926 trademark application , which had never been published .
In 1961 , Knut Grotrian @-@ Steinweg ( b . 1935 ) joined the company . In 1966 , the company formed a contract with Wurlitzer to sell Grotrian @-@ Steinweg pianos in the US , and the Steinway company brought suit in New York . The case lasted nine years , winding its way through trial courts and district courts , presenting the litigants ' counterclaims and appeals . In 1975 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit heard the arguments in Grotrian , Helfferich , Schulz , Th . Steinweg Nachf. v. Steingway & Sons . Grotrian @-@ Steinweg , the plaintiff , argued that their brand was long established , predating Steinway 's in Germany . Steinway & Sons , defendant , counterclaimed that their brand , well known and strongly positive in the US , was weakened by consumers ' confusion as to whether the pianos were related . The court affirmed the lower court 's ruling in favor of the defendant that piano buyers would be misled in their " initial interest " in the two piano brands ; " a potential Steinway buyer may satisfy himself that the less expensive Grotrian @-@ Steinweg is at least as good , if not better , than a Steinway . " The court felt that Grotrian @-@ Steinweg — a brand not very well known in the US — was unfairly given an extra measure of credibility based on the strong reputation that Steinway & Sons had built up . Even though premium piano buyers were understood to be sophisticated and knowledgeable , and would not be confused at the time of purchase about which manufacturer produced which piano , the court held that a " subliminal confusion " might be present at the initial attraction to the Grotrian @-@ Steinweg brand . The company was forbidden to sell pianos in the US under the name " Steinweg " after 1977 . Accordingly , in 1976 Grotrian @-@ Steinweg formed a subsidiary brand for selling pianos in North America : Grotrian Piano Company GmbH .
The case was the first instance of a court defining the concept now known as " initial interest confusion " . District Judge Lloyd Francis MacMahon wrote : " Misled into an initial interest , a potential Steinway buyer may satisfy himself that the less expensive Grotrian @-@ Steinweg is at least as good , if not better , than a Steinway . " MacMahon 's idea about the " initial interest " confusion was confirmed by Appeals Court Judge William H. Timbers , writing , " such initial confusion works an injury to Steinway . "
The English @-@ language section of Grotrian 's website does not have any reference to the surname " Steinweg " , unlike the French- , German- and Russian @-@ language versions . This is likely a result of the lawsuit and a wish to minimize liability .
= = Current operations = =
In 1974 , the Grotrian @-@ Steinweg family built a new factory in northwest Braunschweig on Grotrian @-@ Steinweg Street , very near Bundesautobahn 2 , a major east – west highway . After Helmut and Erwin Grotrian @-@ Steinweg supervised the construction they retired , leaving Helmut 's son Knut in charge . This factory is the current location of Grotrian @-@ Steinweg production . In 1999 , Knut Grotrian @-@ Steinweg stepped down from active supervision of the company , and put day @-@ to @-@ day control in the hands of Burkhard Stein , an industrial manager and piano builder . As of 2012 , the Grotrian @-@ Steinweg company is owned by the daughters of Erwin Grotrian , with sixth @-@ generation Jobst Grotrian ( b . 1969 ) , Knut 's son , a shareholder . Annually , the company produces about 500 upright pianos in six sizes and 100 grand pianos in five sizes . Some 20 concert grands are made per year — each one requiring 8 months of manufacture . In 2010 , the company issued a special 175 @-@ year anniversary model , a 46 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 118 cm ) upright called Composé Exclusif , of which 50 were produced .
Modern Grotrian @-@ Steinweg pianos were said by Larry Fine in 2011 to be among the " highest quality " , on par with Hamburg @-@ built Steinways , Faziolis and Bösendorfers ; higher quality than New York @-@ built Steinways .
= = Admirers = =
The following pianists and composers have expressed admiration for Grotrian @-@ Steinweg pianos :
= M @-@ 247 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 247 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan , connecting M @-@ 13 to the Bay City Recreation Area , entirely within Bangor Township . As a state trunkline , M @-@ 247 runs north from M @-@ 13 before turning to access the park , a distance of 3 @.@ 036 miles ( 4 @.@ 886 km ) . The highway carries just over 6 @,@ 000 vehicles a day on average . The roadway has been part of the state trunkline highway system since the 1920s , and from 1961 until 1998 , it was the highest non @-@ Interstate highway in the state . Before it was given the M @-@ 247 designation , the roadway has been a part of M @-@ 111 and M @-@ 47 .
= = Route description = =
Starting at its southern terminus at M @-@ 13 , M @-@ 247 follows Euclid Avenue north about 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) , crossing the Kawkawlin River . When it meets Beaver Road , M @-@ 247 turns east leading directly into the state park and ends at its entrance . The entire roadway passes through suburban Bay City near the Saginaw Bay . None of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a system of regionally important highways .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) measures the traffic volumes on its highways using a calculation called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This value is an expression of the number of vehicles that use a section of roadway on any average day of the year . When the department surveyed M @-@ 247 in 2009 , the southernmost section near M @-@ 13 carried 6 @,@ 135 vehicles ; the remainder carried 6 @,@ 224 vehicles . As a subset of these figures , 190 commercial vehicles used the trunkline on average . This was an overall increase from 2008 when the sections carried 5 @,@ 031 and 5 @,@ 573 vehicles respectively , but a decrease from the 214 commercial vehicles .
= = History = =
By 1929 , the first highway designation along the current M @-@ 247 was assigned . That first number was M @-@ 111 , which lasted until 1937 when all of M @-@ 111 became part of M @-@ 47 . In early 1961 , the roadway changed numbers once more . This time M @-@ 47 was realigned to a former section of US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) , and the connection to the state park was assigned the M @-@ 247 designation . This was the highest highway number in the state , excluding Interstates , until the 1998 designation of M @-@ 553 in the Upper Peninsula .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Bangor Township , Bay County .
= Ramones =
The Ramones were an American punk rock band that formed in the New York City neighborhood of Forest Hills , Queens , in 1974 . They are often cited as the first band to define the punk rock sound . Despite achieving only limited commercial success , the band was a major influence on the 1970s punk movement in both the United States and United Kingdom .
All of the band members adopted pseudonyms ending with the surname " Ramone " , although none of them were related . They performed 2 @,@ 263 concerts , touring virtually nonstop for 22 years . In 1996 , after a tour with the Lollapalooza music festival , the band played a farewell concert and disbanded . By 2014 , all four of the band 's original members — lead singer Joey Ramone ( 1951 – 2001 ) , guitarist Johnny Ramone ( 1948 – 2004 ) , bassist Dee Dee Ramone ( 1951 – 2002 ) and drummer Tommy Ramone ( 1949 – 2014 ) — had died .
Recognition of the band 's importance built over the years , and they are now mentioned in many assessments of all @-@ time great rock music , such as the Rolling Stone list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " and VH1 's " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " . In 2002 , the Ramones were ranked the second @-@ greatest band of all time by Spin magazine , trailing only the Beatles . On March 18 , 2002 , the original four members and Tommy 's replacement on drums , Marky Ramone , were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . In 2011 , the group was awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award .
= = History = =
= = = Formation : 1974 – 75 = = =
The original members of the band met in and around the middle @-@ class neighborhood of Forest Hills in the New York City borough of Queens . John Cummings and Thomas Erdelyi had both been in a high @-@ school garage band from 1965 to 1967 known as the Tangerine Puppets . They became friends with Douglas Colvin , who had recently moved to the area from Germany , and Jeffrey Hyman , who was the initial lead singer of the glam rock band Sniper , founded in 1972 .
The Ramones began taking shape in early 1974 when Cummings and Colvin invited Hyman to join them in a band . The initial line @-@ up featured Colvin on lead vocals , rhythm and bass guitars , Cummings on lead guitar , and Hyman on drums . Hyman soon switched from drums to vocals . Colvin was the first to adopt the name " Ramone " , calling himself Dee Dee Ramone . He was inspired by Paul McCartney 's use of the pseudonym Paul Ramon during his Silver Beetles days . Dee Dee convinced the other members to take on the name and came up with the idea of calling the band the Ramones . Hyman and Cummings became Joey and Johnny Ramone , respectively .
A friend of the band , Monte A. Melnick ( later their tour manager ) , helped to arrange rehearsal time for them at Manhattan 's Performance Studios , where he worked . Johnny 's former bandmate Erdelyi was set to become their manager . Soon after the band was formed , Dee Dee realized that he could not sing and play his bass guitar simultaneously ; with Erdelyi 's encouragement , Joey became the band 's new lead singer . Dee Dee would continue , however , to count off each song 's tempo with his signature rapid @-@ fire shout of " 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 ! " Joey soon similarly realized that he could not sing and play drums simultaneously and left the position of drummer . While auditioning prospective replacements , Erdelyi would often take to the drums and demonstrate how to play the songs . It became apparent that he was able to perform the group 's music better than anyone else , and he joined the band as Tommy Ramone .
The Ramones played before an audience for the first time on March 30 , 1974 , at Performance Studios . The songs they played were very fast and very short ; most clocked in at under two minutes . Around this time , a new music scene was emerging in New York centered on two clubs in downtown Manhattan — Max 's Kansas City and , more famously , CBGB ( usually referred to as CBGB 's ) . The Ramones made their CBGB debut on August 16 , 1974 . Legs McNeil , who cofounded Punk magazine the following year , later described the impact of that performance : " They were all wearing these black leather jackets . And they counted off this song ... and it was just this wall of noise ... They looked so striking . These guys were not hippies . This was something completely new . "
The band swiftly became regulars at the club , playing there seventy @-@ four times by the end of the year . After garnering considerable attention for their performances — which averaged about seventeen minutes from beginning to end — the group was signed to a recording contract in late 1975 by Seymour Stein of Sire Records . After they were seen by Sire A & R man Craig Leon he brought the band to the attention of the label . Stein 's wife , Linda Stein , saw the band play at Mothers ; she would later co @-@ manage them along with Danny Fields . By this time , the Ramones were recognized as leaders of the new scene that was increasingly being referred to as " punk " . The group 's unusual frontman had a lot to do with their impact . As Dee Dee explained , " All the other singers [ in New York ] were copying David Johansen [ of the New York Dolls ] , who was copying Mick Jagger ... But Joey was unique , totally unique . "
= = = Spearheading punk : 1976 – 77 = = =
The Ramones recorded their debut album , Ramones , in April 1976 . Of the fourteen songs on the album , the longest , " I Don 't Wanna Go Down to the Basement " , barely surpassed two and a half minutes . While the songwriting credits were shared by the entire band , Dee Dee was the primary writer . The Ramones album was produced by Sire 's Craig Leon , with Tommy as associate producer , on an extremely low budget of about $ 6 @,@ 400 and released in April . The now iconic front cover photograph of the band was taken by Roberta Bayley , a photographer for Punk magazine . Punk , which was largely responsible for codifying the term for the scene emerging around CBGB , ran a cover story on the Ramones in its third issue , the same month as the record 's release .
The Ramones ' debut LP was greeted by rock critics with glowing reviews . The Village Voice 's Robert Christgau wrote , " I love this record — love it — even though I know these boys flirt with images of brutality ( Nazi especially ) ... For me , it blows everything else off the radio " . In Rolling Stone , Paul Nelson described it as " constructed almost entirely of rhythm tracks of an exhilarating intensity rock & roll has not experienced since its earliest days . " Characterizing the band as " authentic American primitives whose work has to be heard to be understood " , he declared , " It is time popular music followed the other arts in honoring its primitives . " Newsday 's Wayne Robbins simply anointed the Ramones as " the best young rock ' n ' roll band in the known universe . "
However , despite Sire 's high hopes for it , Ramones was not a commercial success , reaching only number 111 on the Billboard album chart . The two singles issued from the album , " Blitzkrieg Bop " and " I Wanna Be Your Boyfriend " , failed to chart . At the band 's first major performance outside of New York , a June date in Youngstown , Ohio , approximately ten people showed up . It wasn 't until they made a brief tour of England that they began to see the fruits of their labor ; a performance at the Roundhouse in London on 4 July 1976 , second @-@ billed to the Flamin ' Groovies , organized by Linda Stein , was a resounding success . T @-@ Rex leader Marc Bolan was in attendance at the Roundhouse show and was invited on stage . Their Roundhouse appearance and a club date the following night — where the band met members of the Sex Pistols and the Clash — helped galvanize the burgeoning UK punk rock scene . The Flamin ' Groovies / Ramones double bill was successfully reprised at the Roxy Theatre in Los Angeles the following month , fueling the punk scene there as well . The Ramones were becoming an increasingly popular live act — a Toronto performance in September energized yet another growing punk scene .
Their next two albums , Leave Home and Rocket to Russia , were released in 1977 . Both were produced by Tommy and Tony Bongiovi , the second cousin of Jon Bon Jovi . Leave Home met with even less chart success than Ramones , though it did include " Pinhead " , which became one of the band 's signature songs with its chanted refrain of " Gabba gabba hey ! " Leave Home also included a fast @-@ paced cover of the oldie " California Sun " , written by Henry Glover & Morris Levy , and originally recorded by Joe Jones . Rocket to Russia was the band 's highest @-@ charting album to date , reaching number 49 on the Billboard 200 . In Rolling Stone , critic Dave Marsh called it " the best American rock & roll of the year " . The album also featured the first Ramones single to enter the Billboard charts ( albeit only as high as number 81 ) : " Sheena Is a Punk Rocker " . The follow @-@ up single , " Rockaway Beach " , reached number 66 — the highest any Ramones single would ever reach in America . On December 31 , 1977 the Ramones recorded It 's Alive , a live concert double album , at the Rainbow Theatre , London , which was released in April 1979 ( the title is a reference to the 1974 horror film of the same name ) .
= = = Recordings turn more pop : 1978 – 83 = = =
Tommy , tired of touring , left the band in early 1978 . He continued as the Ramones ' record producer under his birth name of Erdelyi . His position as drummer was filled by Marc Bell , who had been a member of the early 1970s hard rock band Dust , Wayne County and the Backstreet Boys , and the pioneering punk group Richard Hell & the Voidoids . Bell became Marky Ramone . Later that year , the band released their fourth studio album , and first with Marky , Road to Ruin . The album , co @-@ produced by Tommy with Ed Stasium , included some new sounds such as acoustic guitar , several ballads , and the band 's first two recorded songs longer than three minutes . It failed to reach the Billboard Top 100 . However , " I Wanna Be Sedated " , which appeared both on the album and as a single , would become one of the band 's best @-@ known songs . The artwork on the album 's cover was done by Punk magazine cofounder John Holmstrom .
After the band 's movie debut in Roger Corman 's Rock ' n ' Roll High School ( 1979 ) , renowned producer Phil Spector became interested in the Ramones and produced their 1980 album End of the Century . During the recording sessions in Los Angeles , Spector held Johnny at gunpoint , forcing him to repeatedly play a riff . Though it was to be the highest @-@ charting album in the band 's history — reaching number 44 in the United States and number 14 in Great Britain — Johnny made clear that he favored the band 's more aggressive punk material : " End of the Century was just watered @-@ down Ramones . It 's not the real Ramones . " This stance was also conveyed by the title and track selection of the compilation album Johnny later oversaw , Loud , Fast Ramones : Their Toughest Hits . Despite these reservations , Johnny did concede that some of Spector 's work with the band had merit , saying " It really worked when he got to a slower song like ' Danny Says ' — the production really worked tremendously . ' Rock ' N ' Roll Radio ' is really good . For the harder stuff , it didn 't work as well . " The syrupy , string @-@ laden Ronettes cover " Baby , I Love You " released as a single , became the band 's biggest hit in Great Britain , reaching number 8 on the charts .
Pleasant Dreams , the band 's sixth album , was released in 1981 . It continued the trend established by End of the Century , taking the band further from the raw punk sound of its early records . As described by Trouser Press , the album , produced by Graham Gouldman of UK pop act 10cc , moved the Ramones " away from their pioneering minimalism into heavy metal territory " . Johnny would contend in retrospect that this direction was a record company decision , a continued futile attempt to get airplay on American radio . While Pleasant Dreams reached number 58 on the U.S. chart , its two singles failed to register at all .
Subterranean Jungle , produced by Ritchie Cordell and Glen Kolotkin , was released in 1983 . According to Trouser Press , it brought the band " back to where they once belonged : junky ' 60s pop adjusted for current tastes " , which among other things meant " easing off the breakneck rhythm that was once Ramones dogma . " Billy Rogers , who had performed with Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers , played drums on the album 's second single , a cover of the Chambers Brothers ' " Time Has Come Today " . Subterranean Jungle peaked at number 83 in the United States — it would be the last album by the band to crack the Billboard Top 100 . In 2002 , Rhino Records released a new version of it with seven bonus tracks .
= = = Shuffling members : 1983 – 89 = = =
After the release of Subterranean Jungle , Marky was fired from the band due to his alcoholism . He was replaced by Richard Reinhardt , who adopted the name Richie Ramone . Joey Ramone remarked that " [ Richie ] saved the band as far as I 'm concerned . He 's the greatest thing to happen to the Ramones . He put the spirit back in the band . " Richie is the only Ramones drummer to sing lead vocals on Ramones songs , including " ( You ) Can 't Say Anything Nice " as well as the unreleased " Elevator Operator " . Joey Ramone commented , " Richie 's very talented and he 's very diverse ... He really strengthened the band a hundred percent because he sings backing tracks , he sings lead , and he sings with Dee Dee 's stuff . In the past , it was always just me singing for the most part . " Richie was also the only drummer to be the sole composer of Ramones songs including their hit " Somebody Put Something in My Drink " as well as " Smash You " , " Humankind " , " I 'm Not Jesus " , " I Know Better Now " and " ( You ) Can 't Say Anything Nice " . Joey Ramone supported Richie 's songwriting contributions : " I encouraged Richie to write songs . I figured it would make him feel more a part of the group , because we never let anybody else write our songs . " Richie 's composition , " Somebody Put Something in My Drink " , remained a staple in the Ramones set list until their last show in 1996 and was included in the album Loud , Fast Ramones : Their Toughest Hits . The eight song bonus disc , The Ramones Smash You : Live ' 85 , is also named after Richie 's composition " Smash You " .
The first album the Ramones recorded with Richie was Too Tough to Die in 1984 , with Tommy Erdelyi and Ed Stasium returning as producers . The album marked a shift to something like the band 's original sound . In the description of Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine , the " rhythms are back up to jackhammer speed and the songs are down to short , terse statements . "
The band 's main release of 1985 was the British single " Bonzo Goes to Bitburg " ; though it was available in the United States only as an import , it was played widely on American college radio . The song was written , primarily by Joey , in protest of Ronald Reagan 's visit to a German military cemetery , which included graves of Waffen SS soldiers . Retitled " My Brain Is Hanging Upside Down ( Bonzo Goes to Bitburg ) " , the song appeared on the band 's ninth studio album , Animal Boy ( 1986 ) . Produced by Jean Beauvoir , formerly a member of the Plasmatics , the album was characterized by a Rolling Stone reviewer as " nonstop primal fuzz pop " . Making it his pick for " album of the week " , New York Times critic Jon Pareles wrote that the Ramones " speak up for outcasts and disturbed individuals " .
The following year the band recorded their last album with Richie , Halfway to Sanity , produced by Daniel Rey . Richie left in August 1987 , upset that after being in the band for five years , the other members would still not give him a share of the money they made selling T @-@ shirts . Richie was replaced by Clem Burke from Blondie , which was disbanded at the time . According to Johnny , the performances with Burke — who adopted the name Elvis Ramone — were a disaster . He was fired after two performances because his drumming could not keep up with the rest of the band . Marky , now clean and sober , returned .
Dee Dee left the band as they began recording their eleventh studio album , 1989 's Brain Drain ; the bass parts were done by Daniel Rey and the Dictators ' Andy Shernoff ; co @-@ produced by Beauvoir , Rey , and Bill Laswell . He was replaced by Christopher Joseph Ward ( C.J. Ramone ) , who performed with the band until they disbanded . Dee Dee initially pursued a brief career as a rapper under the name Dee Dee King . He quickly returned to punk rock and formed several bands , in much the same vein as the Ramones , for whom he also continued to write songs .
= = = Final years : 1990 – 96 = = =
After more than a decade and a half at Sire Records , the Ramones moved to a new label , Radioactive Records . Their first album for the label was 1992 's Mondo Bizarro , which reunited them with producer Ed Stasium . Acid Eaters , consisting entirely of cover songs , came out the following year . In 1993 the Ramones were featured in the animated television series The Simpsons , providing music and voices for animated versions of themselves in the episode " Rosebud " . Executive producer David Mirkin described the Ramones as " gigantic , obsessive Simpsons fans . "
In 1995 the Ramones released ¡ Adios Amigos ! , their fourteenth studio album , and announced that they planned to disband if it was not successful . Its sales were unremarkable , garnering it just two weeks on the lower end of the Billboard chart . The band spent late 1995 on what was promoted as a farewell tour . However , they accepted an offer to appear in the sixth Lollapalooza festival , which toured around the United States during the following summer . After the Lollapalooza tour 's conclusion , the Ramones played their final show on August 6 , 1996 , at the Palace in Hollywood . A recording of the concert was later released on video and CD as We 're Outta Here ! In addition to a reappearance by Dee Dee , the show featured several guests including Motörhead 's Lemmy , Pearl Jam 's Eddie Vedder , Soundgarden 's Chris Cornell , and Rancid 's Tim Armstrong and Lars Frederiksen .
= = = Aftermath and deaths = = =
On July 20 , 1999 Dee Dee , Johnny , Joey , Tommy , Marky , and C.J. appeared together at the Virgin Megastore in New York City for an autograph signing . This was the last occasion on which the original four members of the group appeared together . Joey , who had been diagnosed with lymphoma in 1995 , died of the illness on 15 April 2001 , in New York .
Session drummer Billy Rogers , who performed on " Time Has Come Today " from Subterranean Jungle , died from complications due to pneumonia on August 7 , 2001 .
On March 18 , 2002 the Ramones were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , which specifically named Dee Dee , Johnny , Joey , Tommy , and Marky . At the ceremony , the surviving inductees spoke on behalf of the band . Johnny spoke first , thanking the band 's fans and blessing George W. Bush and his presidency . Tommy spoke next , saying how honored the band felt , but how much it would have meant for Joey . Dee Dee humorously congratulated and thanked himself , while Marky thanked Tommy for influencing his drum style . Green Day played " Teenage Lobotomy " , " Rockaway Beach " , and " Blitzkrieg Bop " as a tribute , demonstrating the Ramones ' continuing influence on later rock musicians . The ceremony was one of Dee Dee 's last public appearances ; on 5 June 2002 , two months later , he was found at his Hollywood home , dead from a heroin overdose .
On November 30 , 2003 New York City unveiled a sign designating East 2nd Street at the corner of Bowery as Joey Ramone Place . The singer lived on East 2nd for a time , and the sign is near the former Bowery site of CBGB . The documentary film End of the Century : The Story of the Ramones came out in 2004 . Johnny , who had been privately suffering from prostate cancer , died on 15 September 2004 in Los Angeles , shortly after the film 's release . On the same day as Johnny 's death , the world 's first Ramones Museum opened its doors to the public . Located in Berlin , Germany , the museum features more than 300 items of memorabilia , including a pair of stage @-@ worn jeans from Johnny , a stage @-@ worn glove from Joey , Marky 's sneakers , and C.J. ' s stage @-@ worn bass strap .
The Ramones were inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2007 . That October saw the release of a DVD set containing concert footage of the band : It 's Alive 1974 @-@ 1996 includes 118 songs from 33 performances over the span of the group 's career . In February 2011 the group was honored with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . Drummers Tommy , Marky , and Richie attended the ceremony . Marky declared , " This is amazing . I never expected this . I 'm sure Johnny , Joey , and Dee Dee would never have expected this . " Richie noted that it was the first time ever that all three drummers were under the same roof , and mused that he couldn 't " help thinking that [ Joey ] is watching us right now with a little smile on his face behind his rose @-@ colored glasses . "
Arturo Vega , creative director from their formation in 1974 until their disbanding in 1996 and often considered the fifth Ramone , died on June 8 , 2013 , at the age of 65 . The final original member , Tommy Ramone , died on July 11 , 2014 after a battle with bile duct cancer .
= = Conflicts between members = =
There were strong tensions between Joey and Johnny , which colored much of the Ramones ' career . The pair were politically antagonistic , Joey being a liberal and Johnny a conservative . Their personalities also clashed : Johnny , who spent two years in military school , lived by a strict code of self @-@ discipline , while Joey struggled with obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder and alcoholism . In the early 1980s , Johnny " stole " Joey 's girlfriend Linda Daniele ( who later became Linda Ramone ) , whom he later married . As a consequence , despite performing together for years afterward , Joey and Johnny stopped speaking to each other . Johnny did not call Joey before the latter 's death in 2001 , but said in the documentary End of the Century that he was depressed for " the whole week " after the singer died .
Despite this central conflict , Dee Dee 's bipolar disorder and repeated relapses into drug addiction also caused significant strains . Tommy left the band partly in reaction to being " physically threatened by Johnny , treated with contempt by Dee Dee , and all but ignored by Joey " . As new members joined over the years payment methods and image representation became matters of serious dispute . In 1997 , Marky and Joey got into a fight about their respective drinking habits on the Howard Stern radio show .
= = Style = =
= = = Musical style = = =
The Ramones ' loud , fast , straightforward musical style was influenced by pop music that the band members grew up listening to in the 1950s and 1960s , including classic rock groups such as the Beach Boys , the Who , the Beatles , the Kinks , Led Zeppelin and the Rolling Stones ; bubblegum acts like the 1910 Fruitgum Company and Ohio Express ; and girl groups such as the Ronettes and the Shangri @-@ Las . They also drew on the harder rock sound of the MC5 , Black Sabbath , the Stooges and the New York Dolls , both now known as seminal protopunk bands . The Ramones ' style was in part a reaction against the heavily produced , often bombastic music that dominated the pop charts in the 1970s . " We decided to start our own group because we were bored with everything we heard , " Joey once explained . " In 1974 everything was tenth @-@ generation Elton John , or overproduced , or just junk . Everything was long jams , long guitar solos ... . We missed music like it used to be . " Ira Robbins and Scott Isler of Trouser Press describe the result :
With just four chords and one manic tempo , New York 's Ramones blasted open the clogged arteries of mid- ' 70s rock , reanimating the music . Their genius was to recapture the short / simple aesthetic from which pop had strayed , adding a caustic sense of trash @-@ culture humor and minimalist rhythm guitar sound .
As leaders in the punk rock scene , the Ramones ' music has usually been identified with that label , while some have defined their characteristic style more specifically as pop punk and others as power pop . In the 1980s , the band sometimes veered into hardcore punk territory , as can be heard on Too Tough to Die .
On stage , the band adopted a focused approach directly intended to increase the audience 's concert experience . Johnny 's instructions to C.J. when preparing for his first live performances with the group were to play facing the audience , to stand with the bass slung low between spread legs , and to walk forward to the front of stage at the same time as he did . Johnny was not a fan of guitarists who performed facing their drummer , amplifier , or other band members .
= = = Visual imagery = = =
The Ramones ' art and visual imagery complemented the themes of their music and performance . The band members adopted a uniform look of long hair , leather jackets , T @-@ shirts , torn jeans , and sneakers . This fashion emphasized minimalism , which was a powerful influence on the New York punk scene of the 1970s and reflected the band 's short , simple songs . Tommy Ramone recalled that , both musically and visually , " we were influenced by comic books , movies , the Andy Warhol scene , and avant @-@ garde films . I was a big Mad Magazine fan myself . "
The band 's logo was created by New York City artist Arturo Vega together with the Ramones . Vega was a longtime friend who had allowed Joey and Dee Dee to move into his loft . Vega produced the band 's T @-@ shirts , their main source of income , basing most of the images on a black @-@ and @-@ white self @-@ portrait photograph he had taken of his American bald eagle belt buckle which had appeared on the back sleeve of the Ramones ' first album . He was inspired to create the band 's logo after a trip to Washington , D.C. :
I saw them as the ultimate all @-@ American band . To me , they reflected the American character in general — an almost childish innocent aggression ... . I thought , ' The Great Seal of the President of the United States ' would be perfect for the Ramones , with the eagle holding arrows — to symbolize strength and the aggression that would be used against whomever dares to attack us — and an olive branch , offered to those who want to be friendly . But we decided to change it a little bit . Instead of the olive branch , we had an apple tree branch , since the Ramones were American as apple pie . And since Johnny was such a baseball fanatic , we had the eagle hold a baseball bat instead of the [ Great Seal ] ' s arrows .
The scroll in the eagle 's beak originally read " Look out below " , but this was soon changed to " Hey ho let 's go " after the opening lyrics of the band 's first single , " Blitzkrieg Bop " . The arrowheads on the shield came from a design on a polyester shirt Vega had bought . The name " Ramones " was spelled out in block capitals above the logo using plastic stick @-@ on letters . Where the presidential emblem read " Seal of the President of the United States " clockwise in the border around the eagle , Vega instead placed the pseudonyms of the four band members : Johnny , Joey , Dee Dee , and Tommy . Over the years the names in the border would change as the band 's line @-@ up fluctuated .
= = Influence = =
The Ramones had a broad and lasting influence on the development of popular music . Music historian Jon Savage writes of their debut album that " it remains one of the few records that changed pop forever . " As described by Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine , " The band 's first four albums set the blueprint for punk , especially American punk and hardcore , for the next two decades . " Trouser Press 's Robbins and Isler similarly wrote that the Ramones " not only spearheaded the original new wave / punk movement , but also drew the blueprint for subsequent hardcore punk bands " . Punk journalist Phil Strongman writes , " In purely musical terms , the Ramones , in attempting to re @-@ create the excitement of pre @-@ Dolby rock , were to cast a huge shadow — they had fused a blueprint for much of the indie future . " Writing for Slate in 2001 , Douglas Wolk described the Ramones as " easily the most influential group of the last 30 years . "
The Ramones ' debut album had an outsized effect relative to its modest sales . According to Generation X bassist Tony James , " Everybody went up three gears the day they got that first Ramones album . Punk rock — that rama @-@ lama super fast stuff — is totally down to the Ramones . Bands were just playing in an MC5 groove until then . " The Ramones ' two July 1976 shows , like their debut album , are seen as having a significant impact on the style of many of the newly formed British punk acts — as one observer put it , " instantly nearly every band speeded up " . The Ramones ' first British concert , at London 's Roundhouse concert hall , was held on 4 July 1976 , the United States Bicentennial . The Sex Pistols were playing in Sheffield that evening , supported by the Clash , making their public debut . The next night , members of both bands attended the Ramones ' gig at the Dingwall 's club . Ramones manager Danny Fields recalls a conversation between Johnny Ramone and Clash bassist Paul Simonon ( which he mislocates at the Roundhouse ) : " Johnny asked him , ' What do you do ? Are you in a band ? ' Paul said , ' Well , we just rehearse . We call ourselves the Clash but we 're not good enough . ' Johnny said , ' Wait till you see us — we stink , we 're lousy , we can 't play . Just get out there and do it . ' " Another band whose members saw the Ramones perform , the Damned , played their first show two days later . The central fanzine of the early UK punk scene , Sniffin ' Glue , was named after the song " Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue " , which appeared on the debut LP .
Ramones concerts and recordings influenced many musicians central to the development of California punk as well , including Greg Ginn of Black Flag , Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys , Al Jourgensen of Ministry , Mike Ness of Social Distortion , Brett Gurewitz of Bad Religion , and members of the Descendents . Canada 's first major punk scenes — in Toronto and in British Columbia 's Victoria and Vancouver — were also heavily influenced by the Ramones . In the late 1970s , many bands emerged with musical styles deeply indebted to the band 's . There were the Lurkers from England , the Undertones from Ireland , Teenage Head from Canada , and the Zeros and the Dickies from southern California . The seminal hardcore band Bad Brains took its name from a Ramones song . The Riverdales emulated the sound of the Ramones throughout their career . Green Day frontman Billie Joe Armstrong named his son Joey in homage to Joey Ramone , and drummer Tré Cool named his daughter Ramona .
New Jersey 's horror punk / hardcore punk band the Misfits ( whose bassist Jerry Only was a longtime friend of the band ) were influenced by the " Blitzkrieg " tempo of the Ramones , infusing it into their already medium @-@ fast tempo , R & B style of punk rock .
The Ramones also influenced musicians associated with other genres , such as heavy metal . Their influence on metal gave birth to the punk @-@ metal " fusion " genre of thrash . Metallica guitarist Kirk Hammett , one of the originators of thrash guitar , has described the importance of Johnny 's rapid @-@ fire guitar playing style to his own musical development . Motörhead lead singer Lemmy , a friend of the Ramones since the late 1970s , mixed the band 's " Go Home Ann " in 1985 . The members of Motörhead later composed the song " R.A.M.O.N.E.S. " as a tribute , and Lemmy performed at the final Ramones concert in 1996 . In the realm of alternative rock , the song " 53rd and 3rd " lent its name to a British indie pop label cofounded by Stephen Pastel of the Scottish band the Pastels . Evan Dando of the Lemonheads , Dave Grohl of Nirvana and Foo Fighters , Mike Portnoy of Dream Theater , Eddie Vedder of Pearl Jam ( who introduced the band members at their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ) and the Strokes are among the many alternative rock and metal musicians who have credited the Ramones with inspiring them .
The band members were also individually influential . Johnny Ramone was named Time 's " 10 Greatest Electric @-@ Guitar Players " in 2003 . That same year , he was number 16 on the " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " list in Rolling Stone .
" We think of the Ramones as a classic , iconic band , " observed Gene Simmons . " They have one gold record to their name . They never played arenas ; couldn
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Ballard were " obvious influences " to Curtis , and Morris also remembered the singer reading T. S. Eliot . Deborah Curtis also remembered Curtis reading works by writers such as Fyodor Dostoevsky , Friedrich Nietzsche , Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , Franz Kafka , and Herman Hesse .
The band refused to explain their lyrics to the press and did not print lyrics sheets . Curtis told the fanzine Printed Noise , " We haven 't got a message really ; the lyrics are open to interpretation . They 're multidimensional . You can read into them what you like . " The other band members later admitted they paid little attention to what Curtis was writing . In a 1987 interview with Option , Morris said that they " just thought the songs were sort of sympathetic and more uplifting than depressing . But everyone 's got their own opinion . " Deborah Curtis recalled that only with the release of Closer did many who were close to the singer realise " [ h ] is intentions and feelings were all there within the lyrics " . The surviving members of the band in retrospect regret not seeing warning signs in Curtis 's lyrics . " This sounds awful but it was only after Ian died that we sat down and listened to the lyrics " , Morris said in 2007 . " You 'd find yourself thinking , ' Oh my God , I missed this one ' . Because I 'd look at Ian 's lyrics and think how clever he was putting himself in the position of someone else . I never believed he was writing about himself . Looking back , how could I have been so bleedin ' stupid ? Of course he was writing about himself . But I didn 't go in and grab him and ask , ' What 's up ? ' I have to live with that " .
= = = Live performances = = =
In contrast to the sound of their studio recordings , Joy Division typically played loudly and aggressively during live performances . The band were unhappy with Hannett 's mixing of Unknown Pleasures , which reduced the abrasiveness of their sound . According to Sumner , " the music was loud and heavy , and we felt that Martin had toned it down , especially with the guitars " . In concert , the group interacted little with the crowd ; Paul Morley wrote , " [ D ] uring a Joy Division set , outside of the songs , you 'll be lucky to hear more than two or three words . Hello and goodbye . No introductions , no promotion " . While singing , Curtis would often perform what was referred to as his " ' dead fly ' dance " , where the singer 's arms would " start flying in [ a ] semicircular , hypnotic curve " . Simon Reynolds noted that Curtis 's dancing style was reminiscent of an epileptic fit , and that he was dancing in the manner for some months before he was diagnosed with epilepsy . Live performances became problematic for Joy Division , due to Curtis 's condition . Sumner later said , " We didn 't have flashing lights , but sometimes a particular drum beat would do something to him . He 'd go off in a trance for a bit , then he 'd lose it and have a [ n epileptic ] fit . We 'd have to stop the show and carry him off to the dressing @-@ room where he 'd cry his eyes out because this appalling thing had just happened to him " .
= = Legacy = =
Despite their short career and cult status , Joy Division have exerted a wide @-@ reaching influence . John Bush of AllMusic argues that Joy Division " became the first band in the post @-@ punk movement by [ ... ] emphasizing not anger and energy but mood and expression , pointing ahead to the rise of melancholy alternative music in the ' 80s . "
The band 's dark and gloomy sound , which Martin Hannett described in 1979 as " dancing music with Gothic overtones " , presaged the gothic rock genre . While the term " gothic " originally described a " doomy atmosphere " in music of the late 1970s , the term was soon applied to specific bands like Bauhaus that followed in the wake of Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees . Standard musical fixtures of early gothic rock bands included " high @-@ pitched post @-@ Joy Division basslines usurp [ ing ] the melodic role " and " vocals that were either near operatic and Teutonic or deep , droning alloys of Jim Morrison and Ian Curtis . " Joy Division has influenced bands ranging from contemporaries U2 and the Cure to other artists such as Radiohead , Interpol , Bloc Party and Editors . In 2005 , both New Order and Joy Division were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame . The Italian psychedelic progressive rock band Twenty Four Hours , in addition to having been inspired by their name from the famous song of Joy Division , dedicated a song to the singer Ian Curtis .
Joy Division have been dramatised in two biopics . 24 Hour Party People ( 2002 ) presented a fictionalised account of the rise and fall of Factory Records , in which the band served as supporting characters . Tony Wilson said of the film , " It 's all true , it 's all not true . It 's not a fucking documentary " , and that he favoured the " myth " over the truth . The 2007 film Control , directed by Anton Corbijn , is a biography of Ian Curtis ( portrayed by Sam Riley ) that uses Deborah Curtis 's biography of her late husband , Touching from a Distance ( 1995 ) , as its basis . Control had its international premiere on the opening night of Director 's Fortnight at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival , where it was critically well received . That year Grant Gee directed the band documentary Joy Division .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Unknown Pleasures ( 1979 )
Closer ( 1980 )
= Millennium ( 2015 comic book ) =
Millennium is a five @-@ issue comic book series published by IDW Publishing from January and August 2015 , based on the television series of the same name . The series was written by Joe Harris with artwork by Colin Lorimer , and featured cover art by menton3 .
Millennium focuses on Frank Black , a former offender profiler investigating the Millennium Group , a cult @-@ like organisation which had sought to control the end of the world at the turn of the 3rd millennium . Black learns that the Group is still operating over a decade after their supposed defeat , and have recruited his estranged daughter to combat gathering demonic forces .
The first issue , released on January 21 , 2015 , saw sales of over 8000 issues , though sales figures would subsequently drop . However , the series has been reviewed positively by critics , with Lorimer 's artwork frequently singled out for praise . The complete series was collected in a trade paperback after its run was finished .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Set during the events of the season ten comic book series for The X @-@ Files , the events of Millennium see Federal Bureau of Investigation agent Fox Mulder joining the long @-@ standing crusade of offender profiler Frank Black as he combats the Millennium Group , a doomsday cult entrenched in elements of the United States law enforcement .
= = = Events = = =
Fox Mulder attends a parole hearing for Monte Propps , a serial killer he helped to apprehend in the late 1980s . Propps ' method of killing involved brainwashing his kidnapped victims until they were willing to commit suicide by drowning ; however he is now seen as a model reformee and is released . Shortly afterwards , Mulder meets with Frank Black , who warns him of the dangers of the offender 's freedom . The two visit the released man 's halfway house , arriving shortly after his parole officer ; inside they find Propps drowned in his bath . In an alley outside , they parole officer is also found dead , with the ouroboros symbol of the Millennium Group tattooed on her neck . A child in the alley momentarily speaks to Black with the voice of a demonic entity he recognises , warning of impending disaster .
Black attempts to locate further information about the Millennium Group 's activity , having believed them defeated in 1999 . He finds that his access to their old computer systems still works , and learns that they may know the whereabouts of his daughter Jordan . Spurred on by several momentary encounters with similarly demonic beings , Black returns to his home town of Seattle , Washington . As he visits the grave of his wife Catherine , he is tranquilised and apprehended by Group members . Waking in captivity , he learns that they seek his help against the same demonic forces he has been encountering — and that Jordan is now a willing initiate of the Group . She has now begun to powerfully manifest visions of the future , similar to Black 's ability to see the past through others ' eyes .
Mulder follows Black to Seattle , arriving at the abandoned ruins of Black 's old family home , where he is confronted by the powerful demon Lucy Butler . Black arrives to find Mulder struggling against her attempts to control him , and she threatens to kill them both , before Jordan arrives to intervene . Butler , now appearing in her full demonic form , is eventually banished by Jordan 's psychic abilities . Jordan leaves again , knowing that the Group will need this power , as Mulder unsuccessfully tries to persuade Black to rejoin the FBI . Watching this is a black cat , which shapeshifts into Butler 's human guise , who vows to wait " a millennium " for revenge .
= = Publication = =
Published by IDW Publishing , Millennium is a five @-@ issue limited series , acting as a spin @-@ off from the seventeenth issue of The X @-@ Files Season 10 , itself another IDW title . It is an adaptation of the 1990s television series Millennium , which featured Lance Henriksen as Frank Black . The comic series was written by Joe Harris with art by Colin Lorrimer , and saw Chris Carter , the creator of Millennium , serve as executive producer . Both Harris and Lorimer had previously worked on The X @-@ Files Season 10 . Cover art for the series was provided by menton3 .
Harris cites the success of the adaptation of The X @-@ Files for providing the impetus for a Millennium comic , noting that IDW editor @-@ in @-@ chief Chris Ryall approached him to write the latter series having seen the reception the former had been receiving . Harris himself had been a fan of the series during its initial broadcast , personally favouring its second season . He also expressed interest in possibly adapting another of Carter 's creations , Harsh Realm .
= = Release and reception = =
The first issue was released on January 21 , 2015 , and featured a variant cover by artist Paul Shipper . The issue sold 8 @,@ 505 copies in North America , making it the 197th best @-@ selling comic by units for that month . By the release of the second issue , sales had dropped to 6 @,@ 273 issues , the 263rd highest sales figure for the month . A trade paperback collection comprising all five issues was released on August 12 , 2015 .
Critical reaction to the series was positive , with review aggregator website ComicBookRoundUp giving the series a score of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , based on 20 critics ' reviews of individual issues . Reviewing the first issue for We The Nerdy , Taneisha Jane gave a score of 90 out of 100 , describing it as having " excellent storytelling that will keep you engaged " , and complimenting Lorimer 's artwork . Comic Vine 's Tony Guerrero praised Lorimer 's " creepy " artwork , but felt that the storytelling required too much foreknowledge of the television series to fully understand . He summed the issue up as being " the crossover we 've been waiting for " . Reviewing the third issue for SciFiPulse , Patrick Hayes praised the series ' use of photographic alternate covers for subscribers , and complimented the artwork and colouring throughout . Hayes rated the issue an " A " overall .
= Double ( basketball ) =
In basketball , a double is the accumulation of a double @-@ digit number total in one of five statistical categories — points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocked shots — in a game . Multiple players usually score double @-@ digit points in any given basketball game ; the double nomenclature is usually reserved for when a player has double @-@ digit totals in more than one category . A double @-@ double is the accumulation of a double @-@ digit number total in two of the five categories in a game . The most common double @-@ double combination is points @-@ rebounds , followed by points @-@ assists . Since the 1983 – 84 season , Tim Duncan leads the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) in the points @-@ rebounds combination with 840 , and John Stockton leads the points @-@ assists combination with 714 . A triple @-@ double is the accumulation of a double @-@ digit number total in three of the five categories in a game . The most common way to achieve a triple @-@ double is through points , rebounds , and assists . Oscar Robertson leads the all @-@ time NBA list with 181 and is the only player ever to average a triple @-@ double for a season . LeBron James leads the list among active players with 42 . A quadruple @-@ double is the accumulation of a double @-@ digit number total in four of the five categories in a game . This has occurred five times in the NBA . A quintuple @-@ double is the accumulation of a double @-@ digit number total in all five categories in a game . Two quintuple @-@ doubles have been recorded by high school girls , but none have occurred in college or professional games . A similar accomplishment is the five @-@ by @-@ five , which is the accumulation of at least five points , five rebounds , five assists , five steals , and five blocks in a game . In the NBA , only Hakeem Olajuwon and Andrei Kirilenko have accumulated multiple five @-@ by @-@ fives since the 1984 – 85 season .
= = Double @-@ double = =
A double @-@ double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double @-@ digit number total in two of five statistical categories — points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocked shots — in a game . The most common double @-@ double combination is points and rebounds , followed by points and assists . Double @-@ doubles are fairly common in the NBA . During the 2008 – 09 season , 69 players who were eligible for leadership in the main statistical categories recorded at least 10 double @-@ doubles during the season .
Special double @-@ doubles are rare . One such double @-@ double is called double double @-@ double ( also referred to as 20 – 20 or Double @-@ 20 ) . It occurs when a player accumulates 20 or more in two different statistical categories in a game . Another such double @-@ double is called a triple double @-@ double ( also referred to as 30 – 30 ) . The only player in NBA history to record a 40 @-@ 40 is Wilt Chamberlain , who achieved the feat 5 times in his career . Of the 5 instances , 4 were recorded in his rookie season , and the fifth was achieved the following year where he recorded 78 points and 43 rebounds in a game .
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Double @-@ double leaders ( in regular season ) = = = =
The following is a list of regular season double @-@ double leaders since the 1983 – 84 season :
= = = = Facts = = = =
Longest continuous streak of double @-@ doubles : According to the Elias Sports Bureau , Wilt Chamberlain holds the record with 227 consecutive double @-@ doubles from 1964 to 1967 . Chamberlain also holds the second and third longest continuous streaks of double @-@ doubles with 220 and 133 . This record is before the ABA – NBA merger in 1976 . The longest streak of double @-@ doubles since the merger was 53 games , achieved by Kevin Love , then of the Minnesota Timberwolves .
= = Triple @-@ double = =
A triple @-@ double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double digit number total in three of five statistical categories — points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocked shots — in a game . The most common way for a player to achieve a triple @-@ double is with points , rebounds , and assists , though on occasion players may record 10 or more steals or blocked shots in a game . The origin of the term " triple @-@ double " is unclear . Some sources claim that it was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers public relations director Bruce Jolesch in the 1980s in order to showcase Magic Johnson 's versatility , while others claim that it was coined by then Philadelphia 76ers media relations director Harvey Pollack in 1980 . The triple @-@ double became an officially recorded statistic during the 1979 – 80 season .
A triple @-@ double is seen as an indication of an excellent all @-@ around individual performance . However , the converse is not necessarily true ; a player can have an excellent all @-@ around performance while failing to achieve a triple @-@ double . In the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , they are rare , as the top players usually accumulate fewer than 10 in a season ( out of a possible 82 games in the regular NBA season ) . They are even more rare at the collegiate level ( though double @-@ doubles are much more common ) . There are two primary reasons for the relative infrequency of triple @-@ doubles at the collegiate level : the college basketball shot clock is 30 seconds , as opposed to 24 seconds in the NBA , and college games last only 40 minutes instead of 48 in the NBA . Both timing issues considerably reduce the number of possessions in a game and thus the chances for amassing large numbers in any one statistic , much less all three .
There has been occasional controversy surrounding triple @-@ doubles made when a player achieves the feat with a late rebound . Players with nine rebounds in a game have sometimes been accused of deliberately missing a shot late in the game in order to recover the rebound ; a few have even gone so far as shooting off their opponent 's basket trying to score a triple @-@ double . To deter this , NBA rules allow rebounds to be nullified if the shot is determined not to be a legitimate scoring attempt .
= = = NBA = = =
From the 1990 – 91 to the 2010 – 11 season , the NBA averaged 34 @.@ 5 triple @-@ doubles per season , roughly 1 in every 36 games .
= = = = Facts = = = =
First triple @-@ double in league history : According to the Harvey J. Pollack NBA Statistical Yearbook , Dolph Schayes ( Syracuse Nationals ) might have logged the league 's first triple @-@ double on February 8 , 1951 , versus the New York Knicks . He had 18 points , 22 rebounds and 13 assists .
Averaging a triple @-@ double in a single season : Oscar Robertson is the only player in NBA history to achieve this feat . During the 1961 – 62 season , Robertson averaged 30 @.@ 8 points , 12 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 11 @.@ 4 assists per game . Although Robertson only achieved the feat for a full season once , his cumulative stats over his first 5 seasons gave him an average of 30 @.@ 3 points , 10 @.@ 4 rebounds , and 10 @.@ 6 assists per game . Robertson is also the only player in NBA history ever to record season averages of both 10 assists and 10 rebounds per game at any period of his career .
Most triple @-@ doubles in a single season : Oscar Robertson recorded 41 triple @-@ doubles during the 1961 – 62 season . Wilt Chamberlain is in second with 31 triple @-@ doubles in the 1967 – 68 season .
Most triple @-@ doubles in NBA playoffs : Magic Johnson recorded 30 triple @-@ doubles over his career ; LeBron James currently is second in this category with 16 .
Most triple @-@ doubles in NBA Finals : Magic Johnson leads with 8 , while LeBron James currently is second in this category with 7 .
Youngest player : LeBron James ( Cleveland Cavaliers ) , aged 20 years and 20 days , logged a triple @-@ double on January 19 , 2005 , versus the Portland Trail Blazers . He had 27 points , 11 rebounds and 10 assists .
Oldest player : Karl Malone ( Los Angeles Lakers ) , aged 40 years and 127 days — the only 40 @-@ year @-@ old player to do so — logged a triple @-@ double on November 28 , 2003 , versus the San Antonio Spurs . He had 10 points , 11 rebounds and 10 assists .
Fastest triple @-@ double : Jim Tucker of the Syracuse Nationals , holds the record for the fastest triple double . On February 20 , 1955 , Tucker , in his rookie year , recorded the fastest triple @-@ double in NBA history , achieving the mark in just 17 minutes . He finished the game with 12 points , 10 rebounds and 12 assists in a 104 @-@ 84 win over the New York Knicks . Russell Westbrook has the second fastest triple @-@ double in 17 minutes 35 seconds in a 112 – 79 win on April 11 , 2016 against the Los Angeles Lakers .
Double @-@ triple @-@ double ( at least 20 of any 3 statistics ) : Wilt Chamberlain is the only player to have accomplished this ; in a February 2 , 1968 game vs. Detroit Pistons , Chamberlain tallied 22 points , 25 rebounds , and 21 assists .
Longest continuous streak of triple @-@ doubles : Wilt Chamberlain holds the record for the most consecutive triple @-@ doubles . In 1968 , from March 8 to March 20 , he recorded a triple @-@ double in nine straight games . The second longest streak is held by Oscar Robertson and Michael Jordan , both of whom recorded a triple @-@ double in seven consecutive games . Robertson 's streak occurred in the 1961 – 62 season , while Jordan 's streak went from March 25 to April 6 of 1989 .
Longest continuous streak of triple @-@ doubles versus the same team : Since 1980 , three @-@ game streaks have been accomplished six times by four players . During the 1980s , Magic Johnson ( Los Angeles Lakers ) had triple @-@ double streaks of three games each against Houston , Philadelphia , and Denver . This three @-@ game triple @-@ double streak against the same team has also been accomplished by Chris Webber ( Washington Bullets ) against Golden State during the 1990s , Jason Kidd ( New Jersey Nets ) against the Charlotte Bobcats during the 2000s ( 2008 ) , and most recently by Rajon Rondo ( Boston Celtics ) , against Atlanta during the 2010s .
Triple @-@ doubles by teammates in a regular season game : This has been accomplished only twice since 1983 – 84 . It was achieved in a January 3 , 1989 game by Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen of the Chicago Bulls vs. the Los Angeles Clippers . Jordan had 41 points , 11 assists and 10 rebounds , while Pippen had 15 points , 12 assists and 10 rebounds . It was also achieved in an April 7 , 2007 game by Vince Carter and Jason Kidd of the New Jersey Nets vs. the Washington Wizards . Carter had 46 points , 16 rebounds and 10 assists while Kidd had 10 points , 16 rebounds , and 18 assists . One other known instance occurred on March 14 , 1964 when Donnie Butcher and Ray Scott achieved it for the Detroit Pistons vs. the New York Knicks . Butcher had 19 points , 15 rebounds and 15 assists and Scott had 23 points , 20 rebounds and 11 assists .
Triple @-@ doubles by opponents in a regular season game : This has occurred only nine times since 1983 – 84 , four times involving Jason Kidd ( while playing for three different teams ) : Magic Johnson and Jeff Ruland ( Los Angeles at Washington , February 10 , 1984 )
Jason Kidd and Clyde Drexler ( Dallas at Houston , April 11 , 1995 )
Jason Kidd and Clyde Drexler ( Phoenix at Houston , March 22 , 1997 )
Gary Payton and Chris Webber ( Seattle at Sacramento , April 18 , 2000 )
Jason Kidd and Jay Williams ( New Jersey at Chicago , November 9 , 2002 )
Jason Kidd and Tracy McGrady ( New Jersey vs. Orlando , February 23 , 2003 )
Caron Butler and Baron Davis ( Washington vs. Golden State , November 23 , 2007 )
Victor Oladipo and Michael Carter @-@ Williams ( Orlando at Philadelphia , December 3 , 2013 ( 2 OT ) ) Oladipo and Carter @-@ Williams were both rookies when accomplishing the feat , marking the first and only time in NBA history that two rookies have recorded triple @-@ doubles in the same game . These were the first career triple @-@ doubles for both players . The last time that two players had recorded their first career triple @-@ doubles in the same game was when Detroit Pistons Donnie Butcher and Ray Scott did it on March 14 , 1964 ( they were not rookies ) .
Russell Westbrook and Giannis Antetokounmpo ( Oklahoma City at Milwaukee , March 6 , 2016 )
Triple @-@ doubles on Christmas Day : This has been accomplished eight times : Oscar Robertson ( Cincinnati Royals at Detroit Pistons , 1960 )
Oscar Robertson ( Cincinnati Royals vs. Los Angeles Lakers , 1961 )
Oscar Robertson ( Cincinnati Royals vs. St. Louis Hawks , 1963 )
Oscar Robertson ( Cincinnati Royals vs. Seattle SuperSonics , 1967 )
John Havlicek ( Boston Celtics at New York Knicks , 1967 )
Billy Cunningham ( Philadelphia 76ers vs. Detroit Pistons , 1970 )
LeBron James ( Miami Heat at Los Angeles Lakers , 2010 )
Russell Westbrook ( Oklahoma City Thunder at New York Knicks , 2013 )
= = = NCAA Division I = = =
Most triple @-@ doubles in a career : Kyle Collinsworth ( BYU ) with 12 — six in 2014 – 15 and six again as a senior in 2015 – 16 . Prior to the triple @-@ double being tracked as an NCAA statistic , Oscar Robertson ( Cincinnati ) had 10 — five in 1958 @-@ 59 and five in 1959 @-@ 60 .
Consecutive triple @-@ doubles in a single season : David Edwards ( Texas A & M ) , Penny Hardaway ( Memphis State ) , Tony Lee ( Robert Morris ) , Gerald Lewis ( SMU ) , Shaquille O ’ Neal ( LSU ) , and Kevin Roberson ( Vermont ) each recorded two consecutive games with a triple @-@ double.Hardaway had back @-@ to @-@ back triple @-@ doubles for Memphis State ( now Memphis ) during the 1992 – 93 season . He recorded 21 points , 15 assists , and 14 rebounds against Georgia State on January 4 , 1993 and then recorded 26 points , 12 rebounds , and 10 assists against Vanderbilt on January 6 , 1993 .
Most triple @-@ doubles in a single season : Kyle Collinsworth ( BYU ) , with six - performed twice : in the 2014 @-@ 15 season , and again in 2015 @-@ 16 .
Triple @-@ doubles in NCAA tournament history : The NCAA began keeping track of assists in 1984 , then blocks and steals in 1986 , so officially this has occurred eight times . However , many tournaments had included assists , steals and blocks in their official boxscores prior to that time , so unofficially this has occurred sixteen times . Only three pre @-@ 1986 triple @-@ doubles are included below .
Others
Kalara McFadyen of the Memphis Lady Tigers achieved perhaps the most unusual triple @-@ double in history , and she did it without scoring a point or even attempting a shot . On February 3 , 2002 , in a women 's Division I game against Charlotte , she had 12 assists , 10 steals , and 10 rebounds .
= = Quadruple @-@ double = =
A quadruple @-@ double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double digit number total in four of five statistical categories — points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocked shots — in a game . This feat is extremely rare : only four players have officially recorded a quadruple @-@ double in National Basketball Association ( NBA ) history . The first American male player above the high school level to officially record a quadruple @-@ double was Nate Thurmond , who achieved this feat in 1974 while playing for the NBA 's Chicago Bulls . The first American female player above the high school level to officially record a quadruple @-@ double was Ann Meyers , who achieved this feat in 1978 while playing for the UCLA Bruins . The first male player in NCAA Division I history to record a quadruple @-@ double was Lester Hudson in 2007 .
Note that a quadruple @-@ double ( or a triple @-@ double ) is much harder to accomplish in most leagues other than the NBA because of the greater length of NBA games — 48 minutes ( four 12 @-@ minute quarters ) , as opposed to 40 minutes under NCAA , FIBA , and WNBA rules . NCAA men 's basketball uses 20 @-@ minute halves ; the WNBA , FIBA , and ( since 2015 – 16 ) NCAA women 's basketball use 10 @-@ minute quarters .
= = = NBA = = =
Quadruple @-@ doubles have only been possible since the 1973 – 74 season , when the NBA started recording both blocked shots and steals . It is often speculated by observers that other all @-@ time greats , namely Oscar Robertson ( all time triple @-@ doubles leader with 181 ) , Wilt Chamberlain , Bill Russell or Jerry West could conceivably have had quadruple @-@ doubles . According to West 's biography at NBA.com , he reportedly recorded a quadruple @-@ double with 44 points , 12 rebounds , 10 assists and 10 blocks . Wilt Chamberlain also reportedly recorded a quadruple @-@ double in Game 1 of the 1967 Eastern Division Finals against the Boston Celtics , when he had 24 points , 32 rebounds , 13 assists and 12 blocks .
The reason why [ the quadruple @-@ double ] is such a hard thing to accomplish is because it requires a player to be completely dominant on both ends of the court without being too selfish — so he can get the assists — and without fouling out trying to block every shot or grab every rebound . A lot of guys can get the points , rebounds and assists , but it 's the defensive stuff that messes everybody up . You have to love defense to get a quadruple @-@ double . There 's no way around it .
The four players listed below are the only players who have officially recorded a quadruple @-@ double in an NBA game . Except for Thurmond , who retired before the award was established in 1983 , all of them have won NBA Defensive Player of the Year at least once .
Several others missed that mark by finishing with triple @-@ doubles and a total of 9 in a fourth statistical category ( statistical categories in which they fell short are in bold ) :
Notes
a Bird sat out the entire fourth quarter . After three quarters , head coach K. C. Jones informed Bird that he was one steal away from a quadruple @-@ double and asked if he wanted to stay in the game . Bird declined , saying that he " already did enough damage . "
b Olajuwon was credited with 9 assists in the original box score . However , after Rockets officials reviewed the game tape and discovered what they believe was an uncredited assist in the first quarter , they revised the box score , crediting Olajuwon with 10 assists and the third quadruple @-@ double in NBA history . NBA 's director of operations , Rod Thorn , requested to review the tape . After reviewing the tape , the league disallowed Olajuwon 's quadruple @-@ double and announced that his original line — with 9 assists — is official .
= = = Other men 's basketball = = =
Accurate as of December 2014
Notes
c This is the only quadruple @-@ double in French National League history .
d This is the only quadruple @-@ double in National Basketball League history .
e This is the only quadruple @-@ double in NCAA Division I men 's basketball history . The opponent , Central Baptist , plays in the NAIA .
= = = Women 's basketball = = =
Accurate as of September 2011
= = = = Other known quadruple @-@ doubles = = = =
Accurate as of March 2013
During the 2003 – 04 season , Helena Sverrisdóttir averaged a quadruple @-@ double for Haukar in the Icelandic Women 's Division II . In 16 games she averaged 37 @.@ 6 points , 13 @.@ 3 rebounds , 11 @.@ 6 assists and 10 @.@ 2 steals .
= = Quintuple @-@ double = =
A quintuple @-@ double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double @-@ digit number total in all five statistical categories — points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocked shots — -in a single game . There are only two known quintuple @-@ doubles , both at the girls ' high @-@ school level . The first was recorded by Tamika Catchings of Duncanville High School ( Duncanville , Texas ) with 25 points , 18 rebounds , 11 assists , 10 steals and 10 blocks in 1997 . The second was by Aimee Oertner of Northern Lehigh High School ( Slatington , Pennsylvania ) , who had 26 points , 20 rebounds , 10 assists , 10 steals , and 11 blocks on January 7 , 2012 .
= = Five @-@ by @-@ five = =
A five @-@ by @-@ five is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a total of five in five statistical categories — points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocks — in a single game . Statistics for steals and blocks were not kept in the NBA until the 1973 – 74 season , so NBA five @-@ by @-@ fives were only possible from that season onward . Hakeem Olajuwon ( six times ) and Andrei Kirilenko ( three times ) are the only players to have recorded multiple five @-@ by @-@ fives ( based on records since the 1984 – 85 season ) . Both are also the only players to record five @-@ by @-@ sixes ( at least six in all five statistical categories ) . Only twice has a five @-@ by @-@ five coincided with a triple @-@ double ( both by Olajuwon ) and only three times has a player recorded a five @-@ by @-@ five without registering at least a double @-@ double ( two by Kirilenko and one by Marcus Camby ) .
= = = NBA = = =
The following is a list of known five @-@ by @-@ fives . Note the list contains all five @-@ by @-@ fives since the 1984 – 85 season , as well as one before . There may be other five @-@ by @-@ fives in the NBA that occurred before the 1984 – 85 season .
= = = Facts = = =
All facts based on data since 1985 – 86 :
Greatest five @-@ by @-@ fives ( most of each stat ) : Hakeem Olajuwon , on March 10 , 1987 , became the first in NBA history to record a five @-@ by @-@ six ( at least 6 each of all five statistics : points , rebounds , assists , blocks , steals ) . It took nearly twenty years for the second official occurrence in NBA history . Andrei Kirilenko , on January 3 , 2006 , recorded a five @-@ by @-@ six against the Lakers . Though his numbers were not quite as impressive as Olajuwon 's , Kirilenko performed the feat in regulation . No one in the NBA has ever recorded a five @-@ by @-@ seven or higher . But Olajuwon was just 1 assist away in the game just mentioned , whereas Kirilenko was only 1 steal shy in his five @-@ by @-@ six .
Most five @-@ by @-@ fives in a career : Hakeem Olajuwon leads all players with 6 career five @-@ by @-@ fives . Andrei Kirilenko , with 3 , is the only other player with more than one career five @-@ by @-@ five .
Most five @-@ by @-@ fives in the same season : The record for most five @-@ by @-@ fives in a season is 2 . Olajuwon was the first to do this , in the 1993 – 94 season . Kirilenko was the second to do so in the 2003 – 04 season .
Most five @-@ by @-@ fives in the same year : Olajuwon recorded 3 five @-@ by @-@ fives in a one @-@ year span . Beside the two from the 1993 – 94 season , he had another late in the 1992 – 93 season .
Quickest pair of five @-@ by @-@ fives : Kirilenko performed a five @-@ by @-@ five on December 3 , 2003 , and completed another just a week later , on December 10 , 2003 . The second quickest five @-@ by @-@ fives were completed by Olajuwon on November 5 , 1993 and another , 55 days later , on December 30 , 1993 .
Youngest player : Kirilenko 's first NBA five @-@ by @-@ five came on December 3 , 2003 , making him the youngest to record a five @-@ by @-@ five at age 22 years , 288 days .
Oldest player : Olajuwon is the oldest player to record a five @-@ by @-@ five . His last career five @-@ by @-@ five came on December 30 , 1993 , at which time he was 30 years , 343 days old .
No player has recorded a five @-@ by @-@ five in the NBA Playoffs .
However , there have been a number of five @-@ by @-@ fours ( at least 4 points , 4 rebounds , 4 assists , 4 steals , and 4 blocks ) in the playoffs .
Hakeem Olajuwon in a record 8 games
Game 1 vs 1986 Nuggets ( 1 assist short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
Game 1 vs 1987 Blazers ( 1 steal short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
Game 4 vs 1987 Blazers ( 1 steal short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
Game 1 vs 1993 Clippers ( 1 steal short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
Game 2 vs 1994 Blazers
Game 3 vs 1994 Jazz
Game 5 vs 1994 Jazz ( 1 steal short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
Game 2 vs 1997 Wolves
Ben Wallace
Game 4 vs 2004 Bucks
Game 1 vs 2005 Sixers
Ben Wallace and Hakeem Olajuwon are the only players with multiple playoff five @-@ by @-@ fours . The following players accomplished the feat once each in the playoffs
Ralph Sampson , Game 2 vs 1986 Nuggets
Horace Grant , Game 7 vs 1992 Knicks ( the only five @-@ by @-@ four in a Game 7 )
Scottie Pippen , Game 6 vs 1992 Cavs
Michael Jordan , Game 6 vs 1995 Magic
Chris Webber , Game 4 vs 2000 Lakers ( 1 steal short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
Tim Duncan , Game 3 vs 2001 Lakers
Dwight Howard , Game 2 vs 2009 Lakers ( the only five @-@ by @-@ four in NBA Finals history )
Draymond Green , Game 4 vs 2016 Blazers ( 1 steal short of a five @-@ by @-@ five )
= = = Players with at least 5 steals and 5 blocked shots in a game = = =
This is a list of players since the 1984 – 85 NBA season who have posted totals of five or more in both steals and blocked shots , but did not record a five @-@ by @-@ five .
Ben Wallace ( four games )
Michael Jordan ( three games )
Dwight Howard ( two games )
Scottie Pippen ( playoffs )
Anthony Davis
Antonio McDyess
Markieff Morris
Dikembe Mutombo
Shaquille O 'Neal
Emeka Okafor
Bo Outlaw
Clifford Robinson
Josh Smith
Kawhi Leonard
= The Idolmaster Dearly Stars =
The Idolmaster Dearly Stars ( アイドルマスター ディアリースターズ , Aidorumasutā Diarī Sutāzu , officially stylized as THE iDOLM @ STER Dearly Stars ) is a Japanese life simulation video game developed by Microvision and published by Bandai Namco Games . It was released on September 17 , 2009 for the Nintendo DS . The game is a spin @-@ off of The Idolmaster series and its timeline coincides before the events in The Idolmaster 2 .
The gameplay in Dearly Stars is similar to previous games in the series , but with new elements and differences to the minigames . The gameplay was adjusted to allow the player the option to quickly play through the game 's story , but head director Toshihiko Kujioka also wanted to add in gameplay elements that would add another layer of challenge . The story is told from the perspective of Ai Hidaka , Eri Mizutani and Ryō Akizuki — three prospective pop idols introduced in Dearly Stars as they enter the talent agency 876 Production , and deals with their training on their way to stardom . The player has access to the three idols ' different scenarios when playing , and each one involves a branching plot line .
Development for the game began in 2008 as the first game in the franchise 's next stage called " 2nd Vision " . The development team wanted to introduce a new talent agency separate from 765 Production , the main agency in the series , to better suit the details of the story . When developing the game 's three idols , two of them were decided to be girls , but Kujioka suggested that the third idol Ryō be male instead . The game features 10 songs the idols perform , later released on several music albums . Three manga adaptations were also published by Ichijinsha . Dearly Stars sold 30 @,@ 786 copies in its first week of release in Japan , and ranked as the tenth best @-@ selling video game in Japan that week . Reviewers have praised the game , and it has been described as suitable for beginners to The Idolmaster series .
= = Gameplay = =
Dearly Stars is a life simulation game in the which the player assumes the role of one of three pop idols at a time : Ai Hidaka , Eri Mizutani or Ryō Akizuki . An idol 's statistics are divided into three categories : vocal , dance and visual image . As these increase , an idol 's overall image level will also increase . The game is largely divided into two modes : a story mode which encompasses normal gameplay , and a separate stage mode for performing songs outside of the story mode . At the start of every in @-@ game week on Monday , the player is shown current popularity trends in vocal , dance and visual image ranked first , second and third in popularity . This gives the player a guide on how to gain popularity by augmenting an idol 's statistics via the choice of song they will perform and what costumes they wear during an audition . Also on Monday , the player is first given the option to choose which costume and accessories to wear for performances , and to choose one of the available songs . Each costume , accessory and song have either a vocal , dance or visual attribute . The player can also modify the choreography and camera positioning used during performances at this time .
The player is given the option to check any available messages at the start of every in @-@ game day . This is followed by deciding on the daily schedule for Monday through Saturday from four choices : taking a lesson , doing promotional work , taking an audition , or taking the day off ; Sunday is always a day off . The lessons are in the form of three minigames which serve to increase or decrease an idol 's statistics in either vocal , dance or visual image . For example , if the vocal lesson is chosen , it will not only increase an idol 's vocal statistics , but also decrease an idol 's dance and visual statistics . Each lesson is divided into six parts , and the player is given ranked with either a letter grade from A to E or simply a " bad " rank for each part depending on how well the lesson is performed . The lessons become harder overtime the better they are performed . The lesson 's overall performance is ranked from bad , to normal , good and finally perfect .
The promotional phase of the gameplay mainly deals with the idol conversing with various other characters and doing events , some of which are necessary to progress the game . There are also times when the player is given choices that directly affect the idol . Over the course of a conversation , text progression pauses when the player is given multiple responses to choose from . Depending on which choice is made will effect how well or poorly the communication is received , which results in either bad , normal or good memories . A bad memory will decrease an idol 's enthusiasm , which is displayed at certain points throughout gameplay by a horizontal bar in the top @-@ left of the lower screen . An idol 's enthusiasm ranges from blue to yellow and finally to red as enthusiasm increases . A normal memory will reward the player with a heart point , used later during auditions . A good memory will reward the player with two heart points and increased enthusiasm . If the player chooses to take the day off , an idol 's enthusiasm will automatically increase . Days off also give the idol the chance to either stay at home , or go out into town and meet with other characters . The player can check on days off if there are any presents fans have sent the idols , which contain in @-@ game items .
When taking an audition , a judge evaluates the idol over a 30 @-@ second period . The judge 's interest level continuously decreases in 10 % increments , but this can be increased with another minigame . The heart points obtained up to the audition are used in the minigame as the number of times the player is given to successfully appeal to the judge until all the points are exhausted . For instance , three heart points indicates the player will have three chances to increase a judge 's interest level . At the end of the audition , a judge 's interest level determines if the idol passes or not . If an idol passes the audition , he or she is chosen to do a televised performance of the song previously chosen . A performance serves to increase an idol 's number of fans , which in turn can increase an idol 's rank if enough fans have been obtained for a given rank . For example , an idol starts at rank F with below 10 @,@ 000 fans , and the next level up is a rank E with between 10 @,@ 001 and 99 @,@ 999 fans . The ranks continue from D to C , B , A and finally S.
Each of the three scenarios follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and the story 's divergence mainly depends on whether an idol passes or fails an audition , though this is not always the case . Some outcomes , such as failing to pass the first audition , can lead the game to end prematurely and offer an alternate ending to the plot . An audition marks the end of a chapter , after which the story will progress onto the next stage . In the game 's stage mode , the player is able to freely customize a stand @-@ alone performance , including options for the song , costume , accessories , choreography and camera positioning . Up to 16 players can participate via Wi @-@ Fi in the stage mode by offering three types of cheers during one player 's performance . If the game is played on a Nintendo DS with a camera , such as a Nintendo DSi or a later model , the camera may be used to scan QR codes found online or in magazines to obtain in @-@ game items .
= = Plot and characters = =
Dearly Stars occurs prior to the events in The Idolmaster 2 , and revolves around characters related to the talent agency 876 Production ( 876 Pro ) , a rising studio located in a small office . The three main characters are Ai Hidaka , Eri Mizutani and Ryō Akizuki — three prospective pop idols introduced in Dearly Stars . In Ai 's story , she is an energetic girl who wants to be an idol like her mother Mai had been , but she becomes discouraged after failing to pass several idol auditions . One of the judges at her most recent audition was 765 Production 's ( 765 Pro ) Haruka Amami , who catches up with Ai in a nearby park and decides to introduce her to 876 Pro . The president of 876 Pro , Minori Ishikawa , immediately hires Ai and wants to promote her as Mai 's daughter , but Ai insists on becoming a popular idol on her own .
At the beginning of Eri 's story , she is a shy shut @-@ in who has made a name for herself online as an Internet idol under the name " Ellie " . This leads to her being contacted by freelance idol producer Reiko Ozaki , who wants to train her as a real @-@ life idol . After they meet , Eri agrees to start work as an idol . Lastly , in Ryō 's story , he is a soft @-@ spoken boy who wants to be an idol so he can be seen as a " cool " guy . He consults his cousin and 765 Pro idol Ritsuko Akizuki about it , who introduces him to 876 Pro 's manager Manami Okamoto . At 876 Pro , Ryō ends up covering for a female idol , and he does so well that the agency decides to hires him , but only if he debuts as a female idol . Ishikawa assures him that once he proves himself as a female idol , that she will help him make the transition into being a male idol . Manami is the manager for both Ai and Ryō in their respective scenarios . The rest of the story deals with the training Ai , Eri and Ryō go through on their way to stardom .
Two other idols are introduced in Dearly Stars as supporting characters . Eri is friends with Ayane Suzuki , a high @-@ ranking Internet idol known as " Cineria " whom she also chats with online . She is against Eri transitioning into being a real @-@ life idol , and seeks to take her back into being an Internet idol . In Ryō 's story appears Yumeko Sakurai , a talented idol and rival to Ryō . Throughout the story , other idols from 765 Pro also make appearances .
= = Development and release = =
Dearly Stars was primarily developed by Microvision in conjunction with Bandai Namco Games . The game was directed by Toshihiko Kujioka of Bandai Namco Games and co @-@ directed by Yoshimasa Koyama of Microvision . In 2008 , while Bandai Namco Games was in the process of developing The Idolmaster SP and downloadable content for The Idolmaster Live For You ! , Kujioka and Bandai Namco Games producer Bunkei Tanaka submitted the proposal for Dearly Stars to Yōzō Sakagami , the main producer for The Idolmaster games . It was announced in May 2009 as the first game in the franchise 's next stage called " 2nd Vision " , which was described as The Idolmaster 's next project that would further expand the series ' world .
The development team wanted to introduce a new talent agency that would be separate from 765 Pro to better suit the details of the story , such as how the idols at 876 Pro are just starting out while the idols at 765 Pro already have an establish fanbase . Tanaka would go on to say that the scenario in Dearly Stars would not have worked without having a different company president — in this case , the president of 876 Pro , Minori Ishikawa . The gameplay was adjusted to allow the player the option to quickly play through the game 's story . However , Kujioka also wanted to add in gameplay elements that would add another layer of challenge , such as the introduction of the choreography panel to make adjustments to an idol 's dance sequence or the positioning and manipulation of in @-@ game cameras . The staff also altered how the lessons and auditions operate in Dearly Stars compared to previous games in the series , which also modified the game 's degree of difficulty .
When developing the game 's three idols , the staff first decided on going with an archetypal " cheerful " girl and " slightly brooding and negative " girl . When thinking about what to do with the last idol , Kujioka suggested having the idol be male instead , and Tanaka thought this would be okay . It was also suggested that one of the 876 Pro idols be related to one of the 765 Pro idols , leading to Ritsuko Akizuki being chosen to be Ryō 's cousin . When developing the idols ' characters , creating one idol 's details resulted in equivalent changes to the other two idols . For instance , this development technique ultimately led to the image color for the idols being decided based on the idols ' surnames . The design of the characters was split between two artists : Toshiyuki Kubooka , who had been the character designer since the original arcade version of The Idolmaster , and Kiyotaka Tamiya , who designed the characters introduced in Dearly Stars .
When writing the story , the staff wanted to incorporate Hibiki Ganaha and Takane Shijō , who had already been introduced in The Idolmaster SP , but because the two games were being developed simultaneously , Hibiki 's and Takane 's role in the main story of Dearly Stars was kept to a minimum . For the dance sequences during performances , Kujioka chose to employ talent star Fumi Sakura , as opposed to professional dancers who had been used in The Idolmaster games up to that point . Kujioka wanted the dance sequences to be closer to what he calls an " idol 's aura " — a certain emotional charm that is not a part of an idol 's skill at dancing , according to him . Also , because of the idols in Dearly Stars are young and are just starting out , Kujioka told Sakura to purposefully mess up some dance portions to reflect this inexperience .
Despite The Idolmaster originally being targeted at a male audience , there were also advertisements and promotions for Dearly Stars geared towards young girls . Despite this , the game has a CERO rating of C ( ages 15 and up ) and an additional icon for " sexual " themes . The game was released in Japan on September 17 , 2009 .
= = = Music = = =
Dearly Stars features 10 songs the idols perform written and composed by a variety of songwriters . The chief music director Kōji Nakagawa told Satoru Kōsaki , the composer of the game 's theme song " Hello ! ! " , that he wanted it to be " similar to the opening theme of an anime . " It was decided beforehand who the three composers would be for the other three songs introduced in Dearly Stars — " Alive " , " Precog " ( プリコグ ) and " Dazzling World " . When discussing who would compose which song , Go Shiina said he wanted to compose the song for the game 's main idol , so he was given in charge of composing Ai 's song " Alive " . Producer Yōzō Sakagami pointed out that as a ballad , " Alive " does not seem like a typical idol song , but as noted by Nakagawa , the song is meant to reflect the fact that Ai 's mother Mai originally sang the song once she became a prominent idol . When recording Ryō 's song " Dazzling World " sung by Yuuko Sanpei , Nakagawa decided on the spot to record the song used in the game in two versions : one with a female voice and the other in a male voice . Of the 10 songs in the game , Kujioka specifically wanted to include " Kiramekirari " ( キラメキラリ ) .
The four songs introduced in Dearly Stars were released by Nippon Columbia on a four @-@ part CD series titled The Idolmaster Dream Symphony in 2009 . The first release was the single for " Hello ! ! " on September 9 . This was followed by three compilation albums , one for each of the idols : Eri 's album was released on October 14 , Ryō 's album was released on November 4 , and Ai 's album was released on December 2 .
= = Related media = =
An Internet radio show to promote Dearly Stars titled Dearly Station ( ディアリーステーション ) broadcast four main episodes and one special episode between July 11 and August 31 , 2009 on Niconico 's channel Tarukitei . A 176 @-@ page guidebook of the game titled The Idolmaster Dearly Stars Delicious Album was released on November 6 , 2009 by Enterbrain . The book contains five chapters that detail the plot and characters , gameplay system , data related to in @-@ game items and game mechanics , and interviews from the cast and development staff . Three manga adaptations were serialized in Ichijinsha 's Comic Rex between the September 2009 and March 2011 issues . They included : The Idolmaster Splash Red for Dearly Stars illustrated by Anri Sakano which deals with Ai 's story , The Idolmaster Innocent Blue for Dearly Stars illustrated by Reiichi which covers Eri 's story , and The Idolmaster Neue Green for Dearly Stars illustrated by Kōsuke Kurose which has to do with Ryō 's story . Each manga was released in three tankōbon volumes between July 9 , 2010 and July 27 , 2011 . A limited edition of each of the third manga volumes contained a different drama CD .
= = Reception = =
Dearly Stars sold 30 @,@ 786 copies in its first week of release in Japan , and ranked as the tenth best @-@ selling video game in Japan that week . The game received a score of 30 out of 40 from the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu . Critics have described Dearly Stars as suitable for beginners to the Idolmaster series for drawing out the series ' essence and reorganizing it into a simpler and easier @-@ to @-@ understand form . At the same time , Famitsu reviewer Sekai Sandai Miyokawa thinks that fans of the series will feel from Dearly Stars the growth of the 765 Pro idols and the overall growth of the series . Reviewers note that despite the change in the game 's details compared to previous games in the series , such as the change in perspective from the producer to the idol , Dearly Stars still plays like an Idolmaster game . However , another Famitsu reviewer stated that because other aspects of the gameplay in Dearly Stars are similar to previous Idolmaster games such as doing lessons and auditions , the sense of enjoyment is not that different from other games . A reviewer for Famitsu felt it was easier to empathize with an idol when the story was told from their perspective .
Despite the technical limitations of the Nintendo DS compared to other games in the series that have been developed for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation Portable , Miyokawa described the movement of the idols during performances as " better than expected , " and welcomed shots of the audience waving glow sticks . While another reviewer for 4Gamer could not deny the lower visual quality of the performances compared to previous Idolmaster games , the unexpectedly high sound quality of the songs in combination with well @-@ done dance sequences , albeit on a small screen , was considered by this reviewer as " thoroughly enjoyable . " Miyokawa also praised the additional gameplay that goes into minutely adjusting an idol 's choreography , but described it as extremely difficult to do well . However , the game 's overall degree of difficulty compared to previous Idolmaster games is described as having decreased . The songs introduced in Dearly Stars such as " Hello ! ! " have been called " wonderful " .
The introduction of Ryō as a cross @-@ dressing idol has been praised by one reviewer who called him the cutest out of the three playable idols because of both his appearance and his personality . Miyokawa suggested that Ryō may have been created to lessen any sense of awkwardness that male players would feel from playing as female idols , but upon playing his scenario , Miyokawa noted that the player is naturally able to get into the story , in part due to the comical events surrounding Ryō 's story that deal with him cross @-@ dressing .
= Suillus salmonicolor =
Suillus salmonicolor , commonly known as the slippery Jill , is a fungus in the family Suillaceae of the order Boletales . First described as a member of the genus Boletus in 1874 , the species acquired several synonyms , including Suillus pinorigidus and Suillus subluteus , before it was assigned its current binomial name in 1983 . It has not been determined with certainty whether S. salmonicolor is distinct from the species S. cothurnatus , described by Rolf Singer in 1945 . S. salmonicolor is a mycorrhizal fungus — meaning it forms a symbiotic association with the roots of plants such that both organisms benefit from the exchange of nutrients . This symbiosis occurs with various species of pine , and the fruit bodies ( or mushrooms ) of the fungus appear scattered or in groups on the ground near the trees . The fungus is found in North America ( including Hawaii ) , Asia , the Caribbean , South Africa , Australia and Central America . It has been introduced to several of those locations via transplanted trees .
The mushroom 's dingy yellow to brownish cap is rounded to flattened in shape , slimy when wet , and grows up to 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) wide . The small pores on the underside of the cap are yellow before becoming olive @-@ brown . The stem is up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick and is covered with reddish @-@ brown glandular dots . Young specimens are covered with a grayish , slimy partial veil that later ruptures and leaves a sheathlike ring on the stem . Although the mushroom is generally considered edible — especially if the slimy cap cuticle and partial veil are first peeled off — opinions about its palatability vary . Other similar Suillus species include S. acidus , S. subalutaceus , and S. intermedius .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically by American mycologist Charles Christopher Frost in 1874 as Boletus salmonicolor , based on specimens he collected in the New England area of the United States . In a 1983 publication , mycologist Roy Halling declared Boletus subluteus ( described by Charles Horton Peck in 1887 ; Ixocomus subluteus is a later combination based on this name ) and Suillus pinorigidus ( described by Wally Snell and Esther A. Dick in 1956 ) to be synonymous . Halling also reexamined Frost 's type specimen of B. salmonicolor , and considered the taxon better placed in Suillus because of its glutinous cap , dotted stem , and ring ; he formally transferred it to that genus , resulting in the combination Suillus salmonicolor . The specific epithet salmonicolor is a Latin color term meaning " pink with a dash of yellow " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " slippery Jill " .
In a 1986 publication on Suillus taxonomy and nomenclature , Mary E. Palm and Elwin L. Stewart further discussed the synonymy of S. salmonicolor , S. subluteus , and S. pinorigidus . They noted that fruit bodies of S. subluteus collected in Minnesota did not have the strong salmon colors considered characteristic of S. salmonicolor , as well as collections that had been named S. pinorigidus ; this is a morphological difference that could be sufficient to consider S. subluteus a distinct species . They explained that although the microscopic characteristics of the three taxa do not differ significantly , this is not unusual for Suillus and cannot be used as the sole proof of conspecificity . Palm and Stewart concluded that a study of specimens from various areas of their geographical ranges would be needed to fully resolve the taxonomy of these related species .
There is some disagreement in the literature about whether Suillus cothurnatus represents a different species from S. salmonicolor . The online mycological taxonomy database MycoBank lists them as synonyms , contrary to Index Fungorum . In their 2000 monograph of North American boletes , Alan Bessette and colleagues list the two taxa separately , noting that the range of S. cothurnatus is difficult to determine because of confusion with S. salmonicolor . In a molecular analyses of Suillus phylogeny , based on the internal transcribed spacer , S. salmonicolor ( as S. subluteus ) and S. intermedius clustered together very closely , indicating a high degree of genetic similarity . These analyses were based on comparing the sequence differences in a single region of ribosomal DNA ; more recent molecular analyses typically combine the analysis of several genes to increase the validity of inferences drawn .
= = Description = =
The cap of S. salmonicolor is bluntly rounded or convex to nearly flattened , reaching a diameter of 3 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) . The cap surface is sticky to slimy when moist , but becomes shiny when dry . The cap color is variable , ranging from dingy yellow to yellowish @-@ orange to ochraceous @-@ salmon , cinnamon @-@ brown or olive @-@ brown to yellow @-@ brown . The flesh is pale orange @-@ yellow to orange @-@ buff or orange , and does not stain when exposed to air . The odor and taste are not distinctive . The pore surface on the underside of the cap is yellow to dingy yellow , or yellowish orange to salmon , darkening to brownish with age ; it also does not stain when bruised . The pores are circular to angular , measuring 1 – 2 per mm and 8 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) deep . The stem is 2 @.@ 5 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , 6 – 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and either equal in width throughout or slightly enlarged in the lower portion . It is whitish to yellowish or pinkish @-@ ochre , and has reddish @-@ brown to dark brown glandular dots and smears on the surface . Glandular dots are made of clumps of pigmented cells , and , unlike reticulation or scabers ( small visible tufts of fibers that occur on the stems of other Suillus species ) , can be rubbed off with handling . The flesh is ochraceous to yellowish , often salmon @-@ orange at the base of the stem . The partial veil that protects the developing gills is initially thick , baggy , and rubbery . It often has a conspicuously thickened cottony roll of tissue at its base , and sometimes flares outward from the stem on the lower portion . It forms a gelatinous ring on the upper to middle part of the stem . The spore print is cinnamon @-@ brown to brown . The surface of the cap , when applied with a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) or ammonia solution ( chemical reagents commonly used for mushroom identification ) , will first turn a fleeting pink color , then dark red as the flesh collapses .
The spores are smooth , roughly ellipsoid in shape , inequilateral when viewed in profile , and measure 7 @.@ 6 – 10 by 3 – 3 @.@ 4 μm . They appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish in a dilute solution of KOH , and cinnamon to pale ochraceous when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia are somewhat collapsed , hyaline , and 5 – 6 μm thick . The cystidia are scattered , sometimes arranged in clusters ( especially on the gill edge ) , usually with an ochraceous @-@ brown content , but occasionally hyaline . They are club @-@ shaped to somewhat cylindric and measure 34 – 60 by 10 – 13 μm . The cuticle of the cap is an ixotrichodermium — a cellular arrangement where the outermost hyphae are gelatinous and emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These hyphae are hyaline and narrowly cylindric , measuring 1 @.@ 4 – 3 μm in diameter . The stem surface is made of scattered bundles of caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) that are brown or sometimes hyaline in KOH , club @-@ shaped to subcylindrical bundles interspersed among hyaline cells . These bundles are underlain by a layer of gelatinous , hyaline , vertically oriented and parallel hyphae that are shaped like narrow cylinders . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = = Edibility = = =
The mushroom is edible , but removal of the slimy cap cuticle and partial veil is recommended to avoid possible gastrointestinal upset ; similarly , the 1992 field guide Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America recommends the removal of the tube layer before preparation , as it can become slimy during cooking . Opinions about the quality of the mushroom vary . According to the book Boletes of North America , it is " very good " with a " lemony " flavor . A Canadian field guide is more cautious in its assessment , and suggests that one would have to be brave to consume a mushroom with such a sticky veil . Mycologist David Arora , in his Mushrooms Demystified , opines that it is not worth eating . Whatever its palatibility to humans , the mushroom serves as a habitat for larvae of mycophagous insects such as the muscid fly Mydaea discimana and the scuttle fly Megaselia lutea .
= = = Similar species = = =
Suillus intermedius , found in northeastern and northern North America , is similar in appearance to S. salmonicolor . It may be distinguished by a lighter @-@ colored cap , cream to yellowish or pale ochraceous flesh , and a ring that is neither as thick nor as wide as S. salmonicolor . It is also larger , with a cap diameter of up to 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) , and its pore surface sometimes slowly stains reddish @-@ brown when bruised . Although it has not been definitively established whether S. cothurnatus is a distinct species , several characteristics have been reported to differentiate it from S. salmonicolor : a thinner , less rubbery veil that usually lacks a thickened cottony roll at the base ; glandular dots on the stem that consist of bundles of multiseptate hyphae in a parallel arrangement ending in an even row of large , sterile cystidia ( 60 – 140 μm long ) that resemble basidia ; and small hyaline cystidia shaped like swollen bottles with narrowed bases . Other Suillus species with which S. salmonicolor might be confused include S. acidus and S. subalutaceus . Both of these species have a less well @-@ developed partial veil , and their flesh is a duller tone lacking yellow @-@ orange tints .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Suillus salmonicolor occurs in a mycorrhizal association with various species of Pinus . This is a mutualistic relationship in which the subterranean fungal mycelia creates a protective sheath around the rootlets of the tree and a network of hyphae ( the Hartig net ) that penetrates between the tree 's epidermal and cortical cells . This association helps the plant absorb water and mineral nutrients ; in exchange , the fungus receives a supply of carbohydrates produced by the plant 's photosynthesis . Two- , three- , and five @-@ needled pines have all been recorded to associate with S. salmonicolor . In North America , the fungus has been found growing with P. banksiana , P. palustris , P. resinosa , P. rigida , P. strobus and P. taeda . In Kamchatka ( in the Russian Far East ) it has been found in association with P. pumila , in the Philippines with P. kesiya , and in southern India with P. patula . The northern limit of its North American range extends to eastern Canada ( Quebec ) , and the southern limit to Nuevo León and near the village of Nabogame in Temósachi Municipality , Chihuahua , Mexico .
Suillus salmonicolor has been collected from the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean , Japan , Taiwan , and from Mpumalanga , South Africa . Because there are no native Pinus species in South Africa , the fungus is assumed to be an exotic species that has been introduced via pine plantations . It has also been introduced to Australia , where it is known from a single collection made in a plantation of Caribbean pine ( Pinus caribaea ) in Queensland ; the fungus has additionally been found growing with Caribbean pine in Belize . It is found in Hawaii under Slash Pine ( Pinus elliotii ) , including lawns where those trees are used in landscaping . S. salmonicolor is one of several ectomycorrhizal species that have " traveled the thousands of kilometers from a mainland to Hawaii in the roots and soil of introduced seedlings . "
= Soundgarden =
Soundgarden is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington , in 1984 by singer and rhythm guitarist Chris Cornell , lead guitarist Kim Thayil , and bassist Hiro Yamamoto . Matt Cameron became the band 's full @-@ time drummer in 1986 , while bassist Ben Shepherd became a permanent replacement for Yamamoto in 1990 .
Soundgarden was one of the seminal bands in the creation of grunge , a style of alternative rock that developed in Seattle , and was one of a number of grunge bands signed to the record label Sub Pop . Soundgarden was the first grunge band to sign to a major label ( A & M Records in 1988 ) , though the band did not achieve commercial success until they popularized the genre in the early 1990s with Seattle contemporaries Pearl Jam , Nirvana , and Alice in Chains .
Soundgarden achieved its biggest success with the 1994 album Superunknown , which debuted at number one on the Billboard charts and yielded the Grammy Award @-@ winning singles " Black Hole Sun " and " Spoonman " . In 1997 , the band broke up due to internal strife over its creative direction . After more than a decade of working on projects and other bands , Soundgarden reunited in 2010 and their sixth studio album , King Animal , was released two years later .
As of 2012 , Soundgarden had sold more than 10 @.@ 5 million records in the United States , and an estimated 22 @.@ 5 million worldwide . VH1 ranked Soundgarden at number 14 in their special 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early recordings ( 1984 – 1988 ) = = =
Soundgarden 's origins can be found in a band called The Shemps , which performed around Seattle in the early 1980s , and featured bassist Hiro Yamamoto and drummer and singer Chris Cornell . Following Yamamoto 's departure , the band recruited guitarist Kim Thayil as its new bassist . Thayil had moved to Seattle from Park Forest , Illinois , with Yamamoto and Bruce Pavitt , who would later start the independent record label Sub Pop . Cornell and Yamamoto stayed in contact , and after The Shemps broke up Cornell and Yamamoto started jamming together , and were eventually joined by Thayil .
Soundgarden was formed in 1984 by Cornell ( drums and vocals ) , Yamamoto ( bass ) , and Thayil ( guitar ) . The band named themselves after a wind @-@ channeling pipe sculpture , " A Sound Garden " , located on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration property at 7600 Sand Point Way next to Magnuson Park , Seattle . Cornell originally played drums while singing , but in 1985 the band enlisted Scott Sundquist to allow Cornell to concentrate on vocals . The band traveled around playing various concerts with this line @-@ up for about a year . Their first recordings were three songs that appeared on the 1986 compilation album for C / Z Records called Deep Six . It also featured songs by fellow grunge pioneers Green River , Skin Yard , Malfunkshun , The U @-@ Men , and The Melvins . In 1986 , Sundquist left the band to spend time with his family , and was replaced by Matt Cameron , the drummer from Skin Yard .
KCMU DJ Jonathan Poneman was impressed after seeing Soundgarden perform one night , later saying , " I saw this band that was everything rock music should be . " Poneman offered to fund a release by the band , so Thayil told him to team up with Bruce Pavitt . Poneman offered to contribute $ 20 @,@ 000 in funding for Sub Pop , effectively turning it into a full @-@ fledged record label . Soundgarden signed to Sub Pop , and the label released " Hunted Down " in 1987 as the band 's first single . The B @-@ side of the " Hunted Down " single , " Nothing to Say " , appeared on the KCMU compilation tape Bands That Will Make Money , which was distributed to record companies , many of whom showed interest in Soundgarden . Through Sub Pop , the band released the Screaming Life EP in 1987 , and the Fopp EP in 1988 . A combination of the two was issued as Screaming Life / Fopp in 1990 .
= = = Debut album , major label signing , and rift with audience ( 1988 – 1990 ) = = =
Though the band was being courted by major labels , in 1988 it signed to the independent label SST Records for its debut album , Ultramega OK , released on October 31 , 1988 . Cornell said that the band " made a huge mistake with Ultramega OK " since they used a producer suggested by SST who " didn 't know what was happening in Seattle . " On that album , Soundgarden demonstrates , according to Steve Huey of AllMusic , a " Stooges / MC5 @-@ meets @-@ Zeppelin / Sabbath sound . " The band 's first music video , " Flower " , was directed by Mark Miremont , and aired regularly on MTV 's 120 Minutes . Soundgarden supported Ultramega OK with a tour in the United States in the spring of 1989 and a tour in Europe , which began in May 1989 and was the band 's first overseas tour . Ultramega OK earned the band a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal Performance in 1990 .
After touring in support of Ultramega OK the band signed with A & M Records , which caused a rift between Soundgarden and its traditional audience . Thayil said , " In the beginning , our fans came from the punk rock crowd . They abandoned us when they thought we had sold out the punk tenets , getting on a major label and touring with Guns N ' Roses . There were fashion issues and social issues , and people thought we no longer belonged to their scene , to their particular sub @-@ culture . " The band subsequently began work on its first album for a major label , and personnel difficulties caused a shift in the band 's songwriting process , according to Cornell : " At the time Hiro [ Yamamoto ] had excommunicated himself from the band and there wasn 't a free @-@ flowing system as far as music went , so I ended up writing a lot of it . " On September 5 , 1989 , the band released its second album , Louder Than Love , which saw the band take " a step toward the metal mainstream , " according to Steve Huey of Allmusic , describing " a slow , grinding , detuned mountain of Sabbath / Zeppelin riffs and Chris Cornell wailing . " Because of some of the lyrics , most notably on " Hands All Over " and " Big Dumb Sex " , the band faced various retail and distribution problems upon the album 's release . Louder Than Love became the band 's first album to chart on the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 108 on the chart in 1990 .
A month before touring for Louder Than Love commenced , bassist Hiro Yamamoto , who was becoming frustrated that he wasn 't contributing much , left to go back to college . He was replaced by Jason Everman , formerly of Nirvana . The band toured North America from December 1989 to March 1990 , opening for Voivod , which was supporting their album Nothingface tour , with Faith No More and The Big F also serving as opening acts at the beginning and end of the tour . The band then went on to tour Europe . Bassist Jason Everman was fired immediately after Soundgarden completed its promotional tour for Louder Than Love in mid @-@ 1990 ; Thayil said that " Jason just didn 't work out . " Louder Than Love spawned the EP Loudest Love and the video compilation Louder Than Live , both released in 1990 .
= = = Established lineup , censorship , and rise in popularity ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = =
Bassist Ben Shepherd replaced previous bassist Jason Everman and the new line @-@ up recorded Soundgarden 's third album in 1991 . Cornell said that Shepherd brought a " fresh and creative " approach to the recording sessions , and the band as a whole said that his knowledge of music and writing skills redefined the band . The resulting album , Badmotorfinger , was released on October 8 , 1991 . Steve Huey of Allmusic said that the songwriting on Badmotorfinger " takes a quantum leap in focus and consistency . " He added , " It 's surprisingly cerebral and arty music for a band courting mainstream metal audiences . " Thayil suggested that the album 's lyrics are " like reading a novel [ about ] man 's conflict with himself and society , or the government , or his family , or the economy , or anything . " The first single from Badmotorfinger , " Jesus Christ Pose " , garnered attention when MTV decided to ban its corresponding music video in 1991 . Many listeners were outraged by the song and its video , perceiving it as anti @-@ Christian . The band received death threats while on tour in the United Kingdom in support of the album . Cornell explained that the lyrics criticize public figures who use religion ( particularly the image of Jesus Christ ) to portray themselves as being persecuted . Although overshadowed at the time of its release by the sudden popularity of Nirvana 's Nevermind , the focus of attention brought by Nevermind to the Seattle scene helped Soundgarden gain wider attention . The singles " Outshined " and " Rusty Cage " were able to find an audience at alternative rock radio and MTV . Badmotorfinger was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1992 . The album was among the 100 top selling albums of 1992 .
Following the release of Badmotorfinger , Soundgarden went on a tour in North America that ran from October 1991 to November 1991 . Afterward , the band took a slot opening for Guns N ' Roses in North America on the band 's Use Your Illusion Tour . Soundgarden was personally selected by Guns N ' Roses as its opening band . The band took a slot opening for Skid Row in North America in February 1992 on the band 's Slave to the Grind tour , and then headed to Europe for a month @-@ long headlining theater tour . The band returned for a tour in the United States and subsequently rejoined Guns N ' Roses in the summer of 1992 in Europe as part of the Use Your Illusion Tour along with fellow opening act Faith No More . Regarding the time spent opening for Guns N ' Roses , Cornell said , " It wasn 't a whole lot of fun going out in front of 40 @,@ 000 people for 35 minutes every day . Most of them hadn 't heard our songs and didn 't care about them . It was a bizarre thing . " The band would go on to play the 1992 Lollapalooza tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Pearl Jam , Ministry and the Jim Rose Circus among others . In anticipation of the band 's appearance at Lollapalooza , a limited edition of Badmotorfinger was released in 1992 with a second disc containing the EP Satanoscillatemymetallicsonatas ( a palindrome ) , featuring Soundgarden 's cover of Black Sabbath 's " Into the Void " , titled " Into the Void ( Sealth ) " , which was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1993 . The band later released the video compilation Motorvision , which was filmed at the Paramount Theatre in 1992 . The band also made an appearance in the movie Singles performing " Birth Ritual " . The song appeared on the soundtrack , as did a Cornell solo song , " Seasons " .
In 1993 , the band contributed the track " Show Me " to the AIDS @-@ Benefit Album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization .
= = = Breakthrough album and mainstream success ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
Soundgarden began working on its fourth album after touring in support of Badmotorfinger . Cornell said that while working on the album , the band members allowed each other more freedom than on past records , and Thayil observed that the band spent a lot more time working on the actual recording of the songs than on previous records . Released on March 8 , 1994 , Superunknown became the band 's breakthrough album , driven by the singles " Spoonman " , " The Day I Tried to Live " , " Black Hole Sun " , " My Wave " , and " Fell on Black Days " ; Superunknown debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart .
The songs on Superunknown captured the creativity and heaviness of the band 's earlier works , while showcasing the group 's newly evolving style . Lyrically , the album was quite dark and mysterious , and it is often interpreted to be dealing with substance abuse , suicide , and depression . Cornell was inspired by the writings of Sylvia Plath at the time . The album was also more experimental than previous releases , with some songs incorporating Middle @-@ Eastern or Indian music . J. D. Considine of Rolling Stone said Superunknown " demonstrates far greater range than many bands manage in an entire career . " He also stated , " At its best , Superunknown offers a more harrowing depiction of alienation and despair than anything on In Utero . " The music video for " Black Hole Sun " became a hit on MTV and received the award for Best Metal / Hard Rock Video at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards and in 1995 it received the Clio Award for Alternative Music Video . Soundgarden won two Grammy Awards in 1995 ; " Black Hole Sun " received the award for Best Hard Rock Performance and " Spoonman " received the award for Best Metal Performance . Superunknown was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Album in 1995 . Superunknown has been certified five times platinum in the United States and remains Soundgarden 's most successful album .
The band began touring in January 1994 in Oceania and Japan , areas where the record came out early and where the band had never toured before . This round of touring ended in February 1994 , and then in March 1994 the band moved on to Europe . They began a theater tour of the United States on May 27 , 1994 , with the opening acts Tad and Eleven . In late 1994 , after touring in support of Superunknown , doctors discovered that Cornell had severely strained his vocal cords , and Soundgarden canceled several shows to avoid causing any permanent damage . Cornell said , " I think we kinda overdid it ! We were playing five or six nights a week and my voice pretty much took a beating . Towards the end of the American tour I felt like I could still kinda sing , but I wasn 't really giving the band a fair shake . You don 't buy a ticket to see some guy croak for two hours ! That seemed like kind of a rip off . " The band would make up the dates later in 1995 . Superunknown spawned the EP Songs from the Superunknown and the CD @-@ ROM Alive in the Superunknown , both released in 1995 .
= = = Down on the Upside , internal conflicts and breakup ( 1996 – 1997 ) = = =
Following the worldwide tour in support of Superunknown , the band members began working on what would become their last studio album for over 15 years . The band chose to produce the record themselves . However , tensions within the group reportedly arose during the sessions , with Thayil and Cornell allegedly clashing over Cornell 's desire to shift away from the heavy guitar riffing that had become the band 's trademark . Cornell said , " By the time we were finished , it felt like it had been kind of hard , like it was a long , hard haul . But there was stuff we were discovering . " The band 's fifth album , Down on the Upside , was released on May 21 , 1996 . The album was notably less heavy than the group 's preceding albums , and marked a further departure from the band 's grunge roots ; Soundgarden explained at the time that it wanted to experiment with other sounds , which included acoustic instrumentation : David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said , " Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric . " The overall mood of the album 's lyrics is less dark than on previous Soundgarden albums , with Cornell describing some songs as " self @-@ affirming . " The album spawned several singles , including " Pretty Noose " , " Burden in My Hand " , and " Blow Up the Outside World " . " Pretty Noose " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1997 . Despite favorable reviews and modest sales , the album did not match the sales or praise of Superunknown .
The band took a slot on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour with Metallica , who had insisted on Soundgarden 's appearance on the tour . After Lollapalooza , the band embarked on a worldwide tour , and already @-@ existing tensions increased during that tour . When asked whether the band hated touring , Cornell replied " We really enjoy it to a point , and then it gets tedious , because it becomes repetitious . You feel like fans have paid their money and they expect you to come out and play them your songs like the first time you ever played them . That 's the point where we hate touring . " At the tour 's final stop in Honolulu , Hawaii on February 9 , 1997 , Shepherd threw his bass into the air in frustration after suffering equipment failure , and subsequently stormed off the stage . The band retreated , with Cornell returning to conclude the show with a solo encore . On April 9 , 1997 , the band announced it was disbanding . Thayil said , " It was pretty obvious from everybody 's general attitude over the course of the previous half year that there was some dissatisfaction . " Cameron later said that Soundgarden was " eaten up by the business . " Soundgarden released a greatest hits collection entitled A @-@ Sides on November 4 , 1997 . The album was composed of 17 songs , including the previously @-@ unreleased " Bleed Together " , which had been recorded during the Down on the Upside recording sessions .
= = = Post @-@ breakup activities ( 1998 – 2009 ) = = =
Cornell released a solo album in September 1999 , entitled Euphoria Morning , which featured Matt Cameron on the track " Disappearing One " . Later , in 2001 , Cornell formed the platinum @-@ selling supergroup Audioslave with Tom Morello , Tim Commerford and Brad Wilk , then @-@ former members of Rage Against the Machine , which recorded three albums ( US : Triple @-@ Platinum ) Audioslave ( 2002 ) , ( US : Platinum ) Out of Exile ( 2005 ) , and ( US : Gold ) Revelations ( 2006 ) ) . Cornell left Audioslave in early 2007 , resulting in the band 's break @-@ up . His second solo album , Carry On , was released in June 2007 and his third solo album , Scream , produced by Timbaland , was released in March 2009 , both to mixed commercial and critical success . In 2009 Cornell also provided the vocals for " Promise " on Slash 's debut solo album Slash .
Thayil joined forces with former Dead Kennedys singer Jello Biafra and former Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic and drummer Gina Mainwal for one show , performing as The No WTO Combo during the WTO ministerial conference in Seattle on December 1 , 1999 . Thayil later contributed guitar tracks to Steve Fisk 's 2001 album , 999 Levels of Undo , as well as Dave Grohl 's 2004 side @-@ project album , Probot . In 2006 , Thayil played guitar on the album Altar , the collaboration between the bands Sunn O ) ) ) and Boris .
Cameron initially turned his efforts to his side @-@ project Wellwater Conspiracy , to which both Shepherd and Thayil have contributed . He then worked briefly with The Smashing Pumpkins on the band 's 1998 album , Adore . In 1998 , he stepped in on drums for Pearl Jam 's Yield Tour following Jack Irons 's health problems , and subsequently joined Pearl Jam as an official member ; he has recorded five albums as the band 's drummer ( Binaural ( 2000 ) , Riot Act ( 2002 ) , Pearl Jam ( 2006 ) , Backspacer ( 2009 ) and Lightning Bolt ( 2013 ) . Cameron also played percussion on Geddy Lee 's album My Favourite Headache .
Shepherd was the singer on Wellwater Conspiracy 's 1997 debut studio album , Declaration of Conformity , but left the band in 1998 . He has toured with Mark Lanegan and played bass on two of Lanegan 's albums , I 'll Take Care of You ( 1999 ) and Field Songs ( 2001 ) . Shepherd and Cameron lent a hand with recording Tony Iommi 's album IOMMI ( 2000 ) ; they were part of the side @-@ project band Hater while they were members of Soundgarden and in 2005 Shepherd released the band 's long @-@ delayed second album , The 2nd .
In a July 2009 interview with Rolling Stone , Cornell shot down rumors of a reunion , saying that conversations between the band members had been limited to discussion about the release of a box set or B @-@ sides album of Soundgarden rarities , and that there had been no discussion of a reunion at all . The band 's interest in new releases emerged from a 2008 reunion regarding their shared properties , both financial and legal , where they realized Soundgarden lacked online presence such as a website or Facebook page . As Thayil summed up , " we kind of had neglected our merchandise over the last decade . " Eventually the musicians decided to create an official site handled by Pearl Jam 's Ten Club , relaunch their catalog , and according to Cameron , seek " a bunch of unreleased stuff we wanted to try to put out . ” On March 2009 , Thayil , Shepherd and Cameron got onstage during a concert by Tad Doyle in Seattle and played some Soundgarden songs . Cornell stated that the moment " sort of sparked the idea : If Matt , Kim , and Ben can get in a room , rehearse a couple songs , and play , maybe we all could do that as Soundgarden . ”
On October 6 , 2009 , all the members of Soundgarden attended Night 3 of Pearl Jam 's four @-@ night stand at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Universal City , CA . During an encore , Temple of the Dog reunited for the first time since Pearl Jam 's show at the Santa Barbara Bowl on October 28 , 2003 . Chris Cornell joined the band to sing " Hunger Strike " . It was the first public appearance of Soundgarden together since their breakup in April 1997 . Consequently , rumors of an impending reunion were circulating on the internet .
= = = Reunion , Telephantasm and King Animal ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On January 1 , 2010 , Cornell alluded to a Soundgarden reunion via his Twitter , writing : " The 12 @-@ year break is over and school is back in session . Sign up now . Knights of the Soundtable ride again ! " The message linked to a website that features a picture of the group performing live and a place for fans to enter their e @-@ mail addresses to get updates on the reunion . Entering that information unlocks an archival video for the song " Get on the Snake " , from Soundgarden 's second studio album , 1989 's Louder Than Love . On March 1 , 2010 , Soundgarden announced to the people who signed their e @-@ mail subscribers that they are re @-@ releasing an old single " Hunted Down " with the song " Nothing to Say " on a 7 @-@ inch vinyl released on April 17 only at Record Store Day . Also , they released " Spoonman " live at the Del Mar Fairgrounds in San Diego , California from 1996 . Soundgarden played its first show since 1997 on April 16 at the Showbox at the Market in the band 's hometown of Seattle . The band headlined Lollapalooza on August 8 .
Telephantasm : A Retrospective , a new Soundgarden compilation album , was packaged with initial shipments of the Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock video game and released on September 28 , 2010 , one week before the CD 's availability in stores on October 5 , 2010 . An expanded version of Telephantasm consisting of two CDs and one DVD is currently available for sale . A previously unreleased Soundgarden song — " Black Rain " — debuted on the Guitar Hero video game and appears on the compilation album . The compilation album achieved platinum certification status after its first day of retail availability . " Black Rain " hit rock radio stations on August 10 , 2010 . It became the band 's first single since 1997 . In November 2010 , Soundgarden was the second musical guest on the show Conan , making it their first television appearance in 13 years , and issued a 7 @-@ inch vinyl , " The Telephantasm " , for Black Friday Record Store Day . In March 2011 , Soundgarden released their first live album , Live on I @-@ 5 .
In February 2011 it was announced on Soundgarden 's homepage that they had started recording a new album . On March 1 , 2011 , Chris Cornell confirmed that Adam Kasper would produce the new album . Four days later , the band stated it would consist of material that was " 90 percent new " and the rest consisting of updated versions of older ideas . They also noted that they had 12 to 14 songs that were " kind of ready to go " . Although Cameron claimed the album would be released in 2011 , the recording was prolonged as Thayil said that " the more we enjoy it , the more our fans should end up enjoying it . " . Thayil also reported that some songs sound " similar in a sense to Down on the Upside " and that the album would be " picking up where we left off . There are some heavy moments , and there are some fast songs . " The next day , Cornell reported that the new album would not be released until the spring of 2012 .
In April 2011 , Soundgarden announced a summer tour consisting of four dates in July , and was also headliner for Voodoo Experience at City Park in New Orleans Halloween weekend 2011 . It was announced in March 2012 via the band 's official Facebook page that they would be including a new song on the soundtrack of the upcoming movie The Avengers , based on the franchise by Marvel Comics . The song was titled " Live to Rise " and marked the first newly recorded song that the band have released since reforming in 2010 . " Live to Rise " was released as a free download on iTunes April 17 . Also in March it was announced that Soundgarden would headline the Friday night of the Hard Rock Calling Festival the following July . In April , Soundgarden announced the release of a box set titled " Classic Album Selection " for Europe , containing all of their studio albums ( except for Ultramega OK ) and live album Live on I @-@ 5 . On May 5 , just before The Offspring began playing their set , the band appeared as a special guest at the 20th annual KROQ Weenie Roast in Irvine , California . Later that month , Soundgarden told Rolling Stone they were eyeing an October release for their new album . That June , the band appeared at Download Festival in Donington , England . The band released " Been Away Too Long " , the first single from their new album King Animal on September 27 . King Animal was released on November 13 , 2012 . The band released a video for " By Crooked Steps " , directed by Dave Grohl , in early 2013 . " Halfway There " was the third single to be released from the album .
= = = Echo of Miles ... and upcoming seventh studio album ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On November 15 , 2013 , drummer Matt Cameron announced that he would not be touring with Soundgarden in 2014 , due to prior commitments promoting Pearl Jam 's album Lightning Bolt . On March 16 , 2014 , it was announced that Soundgarden and Nine Inch Nails , along with opening act Death Grips , were going to tour together in North America . On March 27 , 2014 , former Pearl Jam drummer Matt Chamberlain replaced Cameron for live shows in South America and Europe .
On October 28 , 2014 , Soundgarden announced that they would release the 3CD compilation box set , Echo of Miles : Scattered Tracks Across the Path , on November 24 . The set is a collection of rarities , live tracks , and unreleased material spanning the group 's history . It includes previously released songs , such as " Live to Rise " , " Black Rain " , " Birth Ritual " , and others , as well as a newly recorded rendition of a song from the band 's pre @-@ Matt Cameron 1985 demo , " The Storm " , now simply titled " Storm " , which was produced by Jack Endino . One day prior to the announcement , on October 27 , the band posted a copy of " Storm " to YouTube unannounced .
Thayil had mentioned in several interviews that it was highly likely that the band would start working on material for a new album in 2015 . In August 2015 , Cornell stated that they were working on songs for the album . On January 19 , 2016 , it was announced that Soundgarden has returned to the studio to continue working on their new album .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Soundgarden were pioneers of the grunge music genre , which mixed elements of punk rock and metal into a dirty , aggressive sound . " Soundgarden are quite good ... " remarked Black Sabbath 's Tony Iommi , " It 's very much like the same sort of stuff that we would have done . " Soundgarden 's sound during the early years of the Seattle grunge scene has been described as consisting of " gnarled neo @-@ Zeppelinisms . " The influence of Led Zeppelin was evident , with Q magazine noting that Soundgarden were " in thrall to ' 70s rock , but contemptuous of the genre 's overt sexism and machismo . " According to Sub Pop , the band had " a hunky lead singer and fused Led Zeppelin and the Butthole Surfers . " The Butthole Surfers ' mix of punk , heavy metal and noise rock was a major influence on the early work of Soundgarden .
The name of the band , according to Thayil , was supposed to include the many roots of their style : that included " a virtual plethora of cutting edge rock that spans Velvet Underground , Meat Puppets and Killing Joke " . They also mentioned " Metallica ; Gothicism and sublime poetry . The almost ethereal flavour of the name betrays the brutality of the music but never pins Soundgarden in one corner " .
Black Sabbath also had a huge impact on the band 's sound , especially on the guitar riffs and tunings . Joel McIver stated : " Soundgarden are one of the bands I 've heard closest to the original Sabbath sound " . Soundgarden , like other early grunge bands , were also influenced by British post @-@ punk bands such as Gang of Four and Bauhaus which were popular in the early 1980s Seattle scene . Cornell himself said : " When Soundgarden formed we were post @-@ punk – pretty quirky . Then somehow we found this neo @-@ Sabbath psychedelic rock that fitted well with who we were " . Thayil described the band 's sound as a " Sabbath @-@ influenced punk " .
Soundgarden broadened its musical range with its later releases . By 1994 's Superunknown , the band began to incorporate more psychedelic influences into its music . As a member of Soundgarden , Cornell became known for his wide vocal range and his dark , existentialist lyrics .
Soundgarden often uses alternative tunings in its songs . Many Soundgarden songs are performed in drop D tuning , including " Jesus Christ Pose " , " Outshined " , " Spoonman " , " Black Hole Sun " and " Black Rain " . The E strings of the instruments were at times tuned even lower , such as on " Rusty Cage " , where the lower E is tuned all the way down to B. Some songs use more unorthodox tunings : " Been Away Too Long " , " My Wave " and " The Day I Tried to Live " are all in a E – E – B – B – B – B tuning and " Burden in My Hand " , " Head Down " and " Pretty Noose " in a tuning of C @-@ G @-@ C @-@ G @-@ G @-@ E " .
Soundgarden also uses unorthodox time signatures ; while such songs as " Jesus Christ Pose " , " 4th of July " , and " Blow Up the Outside World " are in typical 4 / 4 time , " Outshined " is in 7 / 4 , " My Wave " is in 5 / 4 and 4 / 4 , " He Didn 't " is in 5 / 4 and 6 / 4 , " Black Hole Sun " is in 4 / 4 and 9 / 8 , " The Day I Tried to Live " is in 15 / 8 for its verses and switches to 4 / 4 for the second half of its choruses . " Fell on Black Days " and " Somewhere " are in 6 / 4 , " Never the Machine Forever " and " Black Rain " are in 9 / 8 , " Beyond the Wheel " , " Get on the Snake " and " New Damage " are in 9 / 4 , " Face Pollution " uses 9 / 8 and 6 / 4 , " Rusty Cage " is in 4 / 4 , 7 / 4 , 9 / 8 , and 19 / 8 , " Ugly Truth " is in 4 / 4 and 6 / 8 , " Limo Wreck " alternates between 12 / 8 , 15 / 8 , 9 / 8 , and 6 / 8 , " Half " is in 5 / 8 with a measure of 11 / 16 before a 4 / 4 section , and " Spoonman " alternates between 7 / 4 verses and 4 / 4 choruses with a section in 6 / 4 .
Thayil has said that Soundgarden usually did not consider the time signature of a song until after the band had written it , and said that the use of odd meters was " a total accident . " Thayil also used the meters as an example of the band 's anti @-@ commercial stance , saying that if Soundgarden " were in the business of hit singles , we 'd at least write songs in 4 / 4 so you could dance to them . "
= = Legacy = =
Soundgarden was one of the early bands of the 1980s Seattle music scene and is regarded as being one of the originators of the genre later known as grunge . The development of the Seattle independent record label Sub Pop is tied closely to Soundgarden , since Sub Pop co @-@ founder Jonathan Poneman funded Soundgarden 's early releases , and the band 's success led to the expansion of Sub Pop as a serious record label . Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was a fan of Soundgarden 's early music , and reportedly Soundgarden 's involvement with Sub Pop influenced Cobain to sign Nirvana with the label . Soundgarden was the first grunge band to sign to a major label when the band joined the roster of A & M Records in 1989 . Soundgarden , however , did not achieve initial success , and only with successive album releases did the band meet with increased sales and wider attention . Bassist Ben Shepherd has not been receptive to the grunge label , saying in a 2013 interview " That 's just marketing . It 's called rock and roll , or it 's called punk rock or whatever . We never were Grunge , we were just a band from Seattle . " They were ranked No. 14 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock .
Regarding Soundgarden 's legacy , in a 2007 interview Cornell said ,
I think , and this is now with some distance in listening to the records , but on the outside looking in with all earnestness I think Soundgarden made the best records out of that scene . I think we were the most daring and experimental and genre pushing really and I 'm really proud of it . And I guess that 's why I have trepidation about the idea of reforming . I don 't know what it would mean . I guess I just have this image of who we were and I had probably a lot of anxiety during the period of being Soundgarden , as we all did , that it was a responsibility and it was an important band of music and we didn 't want to mess it up and we managed to not , which I felt is a great achievement .
Soundgarden has been praised for its technical musical ability and the expansion of its sound as the band 's career progressed . " Heavy yet ethereal , powerful yet always @-@ in @-@ control , Soundgarden 's music was a study in contrasts , " said Henry Wilson of Hit Parader . Wilson proclaimed the band 's music as " a brilliant display of technical proficiency tempered by heart @-@ felt emotion . " Soundgarden is one of the bands credited with the development of the genre of alternative metal , with Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stating that " Soundgarden made a place for heavy metal in alternative rock . " Ben Ratliff of Rolling Stone defined Soundgarden as the " standard @-@ bearers of stoner rock " during the 1990s . The band inspired and influenced a number of bands , such as metalcore bands like Between the Buried and Me and The Dillinger Escape Plan .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Ultramega OK ( 1988 )
Louder Than Love ( 1989 )
Badmotorfinger ( 1991 )
Superunknown ( 1994 )
Down on the Upside ( 1996 )
King Animal ( 2012 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Grammy Awards
= First @-@ person shooter =
First @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) is a video game genre centered on gun and projectile weapon @-@ based combat through a first @-@ person perspective ; that is , the player experiences the action through the eyes of the protagonist . The first @-@ person shooter shares common traits with other shooter games , which in turn fall under the heading action game . From the genre 's inception , advanced 3D or pseudo @-@ 3D graphics have challenged hardware development , and multiplayer gaming has been integral .
The first @-@ person shooter has since been traced as far back as Maze War , development of which began in 1973 , and 1974 's Spasim . After early , more playful titles like MIDI Maze in 1987 , the genre coalesced into a more wantonly violent form with 1992 's Wolfenstein 3D , which has been credited with creating the genre proper and the basic archetype upon which subsequent titles were based . One such title , and the progenitor of the genre 's wider mainstream acceptance and popularity was Doom , perhaps one of the most influential games in this genre ; for many years , the term Doom clone was used to designate this genre due to Doom 's influence . 1998 's Half @-@ Life — along with its 2004 sequel Half @-@ Life 2 — enhanced the narrative and puzzle elements . In 1999 , Half @-@ Life 's mod Counter @-@ Strike was released , and together with Doom is perhaps the most influential first @-@ person shooters . GoldenEye 007 ( 1997 ) was a landmark first @-@ person shooter for home consoles , while the Halo series heightened the console 's commercial and critical appeal as a platform for first @-@ person shooter titles . In the 21st century , the first @-@ person shooter is the most commercially viable video game genre , and has more market share of any other genre in the gaming industry . Several first @-@ person shooters have been popular games for eSports and competitive gaming competitions as well .
= = Definition = =
First @-@ person shooters are a type of three @-@ dimensional shooter game , featuring a first @-@ person point of view with which the player sees the action through the eyes of the player character . They are unlike third @-@ person shooters , in which the player can see ( usually from behind ) the character they are controlling . The primary design element is combat , mainly involving firearms .
First person @-@ shooter games are also often categorized as being distinct from light gun shooters , a similar genre with a first @-@ person perspective which use light gun peripherals , in contrast to first @-@ person shooters which use conventional input devices for movement . A more important key difference is that first @-@ person light @-@ gun shooters like Virtua Cop often feature " on @-@ rails " movement , whereas first @-@ person shooters like Doom give the player more freedom to roam .
The first @-@ person shooter may be considered a distinct genre in itself , or a type of shooter game , in turn a subgenre of the wider action game genre . Following the release of Doom in 1993 , games in this style were commonly termed " Doom clones " ; in time this term has largely been replaced by " first @-@ person shooter " . Wolfenstein 3D , released in 1992 , the year before Doom , has been credited with inventing the genre , but critics have since identified similar though less advanced games developed as far back as 1973 . There are occasional disagreements regarding the specific design elements which constitute a first @-@ person shooter . For example , Deus Ex or BioShock may be considered as first @-@ person shooters , but may also be considered role @-@ playing video games as they borrow from this genre extensively . Some commentators extend the definition to include combat flight simulators where the cockpit or vehicle takes place of the hands and weapons .
= = Game design = =
Like most shooter games , first @-@ person shooters involve an avatar , one or more ranged weapons , and a varying number of enemies . Because they take place in a 3D environment , these games tend to be somewhat more realistic than 2D shooter games , and have more accurate representations of gravity , lighting , sound and collisions . First @-@ person shooters played on personal computers are most often controlled with a combination of a keyboard and mouse . This system has been claimed as superior to that found in console games , which frequently use two analog sticks : one used for running and sidestepping , the other for looking and aiming . It is common to display the character 's hands and weaponry in the main view , with a head @-@ up display showing health , ammunition and location details . Often , it is possible to overlay a map of the surrounding area .
= = = Combat and power @-@ ups = = =
First @-@ person shooters often focus on action gameplay , with fast @-@ paced and bloody firefights , though some place a greater emphasis on narrative , problem @-@ solving and logic puzzles . In addition to shooting , melee combat may also be used extensively . In some games , melee weapons are especially powerful , a reward for the risk the player must take in maneuvering his character into close proximity to the enemy . In other situations , a melee weapon may be less effective , but necessary as a last resort . " Tactical shooters " are more realistic , and require teamwork and strategy to succeed ; the player often commands a squad of characters , which may be controlled by the game or by human teammates .
First @-@ person shooters typically give players a choice of weapons , which have a large impact on how the player will play the game . Some game designs have realistic models of actual existing or historical weapons , incorporating their rate of fire , magazine size , ammunition amount , recoil and accuracy . Other first @-@ person shooter games may incorporate imaginative variations of weapons , including future prototypes , " alien technology " scenario defined weaponry , and / or utilizing a wide array of projectiles , from industrial labor tools to laser , energy , plasma , rocket and grenade launchers or crossbows . These many variations may also be applied to the tossing animations of grenades , rocks , spears and the such . Also more unconventional modes of destruction may be employed from the viewable users hands such as flames , electricity , telekinesis or other supernatural constructions . However , designers often allow characters to carry varying multiples of weapons with little to no reduction in speed or mobility , or perhaps more realistically , a pistol or smaller device and a long rifle or even limiting the player to only one weapon at a time . There are often options to trade up , upgrade or swap out in most games . Thus , the standards of realism varies between design elements . The protagonist can generally be healed and re @-@ armed by means of items such as first aid kits , simply by walking over them . Some games allow players to accumulate experience points similar to those found in role @-@ playing games , which can unlock new weapons and abilities .
= = = Level design = = =
First @-@ person shooters may be structurally composed of levels , or use the technique of a continuous narrative in which the game never leaves the first @-@ person perspective . Others feature large sandbox environments , which are not divided into levels and can be explored freely . In first @-@ person shooters , protagonists interact with the environment to varying degrees , from basics such as using doors , to problem solving puzzles based on a variety of interactive objects . In some games , the player can damage the environment , also to varying degrees : one common device is the use of barrels containing explosive material which the player can shoot , destroying them and harming nearby enemies . Other games feature environments which are extensively destructible , allowing for additional visual effects . The game world will often make use of science fiction , historic ( particularly World War II ) or modern military themes , with such antagonists as aliens , monsters , terrorists and soldiers of various types . Games feature multiple difficulty settings ; in harder modes , enemies are tougher , more aggressive and do more damage , and power @-@ ups are limited . In easier modes , the player can succeed through reaction times alone ; on more difficult settings , it is often necessary to memorize the levels through trial and error .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
First @-@ person shooters may feature a multiplayer mode , taking place on specialized levels . Some games are designed specifically for multiplayer gaming , and have very limited single player modes in which the player competes against game @-@ controlled characters termed " bots " . Massively multiplayer online first @-@ person shooters allow thousands of players to compete at once in a persistent world . Large scale multiplayer games allow multiple squads , with leaders issuing commands and a commander controlling the team 's overall strategy . Multiplayer games have a variety of different styles of match .
The classic types are the deathmatch ( and its team @-@ based variant ) in which players score points by killing other players ' characters ; and capture the flag , in which teams attempt to penetrate the opposing base , capture a flag and return it to their own base whilst preventing the other team from doing the same . Other game modes may involve attempting to capture enemy bases or areas of the map , attempting to take hold of an object for as long as possible while evading other players , or deathmatch variations involving limited lives or in which players fight over a particularly potent power @-@ up . These match types may also be customizable , allowing the players to vary weapons , health and power @-@ ups found on the map , as well as victory criteria . Games may allow players to choose between various classes , each with its own strengths , weaknesses , equipment and roles within a team .
= = History = =
= = = Origins : 1970s to late 1980s = = =
The earliest two documented first @-@ person shooter video games are Maze War and Spasim . Maze War features on @-@ foot gameplay that evokes modern first @-@ person shooter games . Development of the game began in 1973 and its exact date of completion is unknown . Spasim had a documented debut at the University of Illinois in 1974 . The game was a rudimentary space flight simulator , which featured a first @-@ person perspective . They were distinct from modern first @-@ person shooters , involving simple tile @-@ based movement where the player could only move from square to square and turn in 90 @-@ degree increments . Spasim led to more detailed combat flight simulators and eventually to a tank simulator , developed for the U.S. Army , in the later 1970s . These games were not available to consumers , however , and it was not until 1980 that a tank video game , Battlezone , was released in arcades . A version of the game was released in 1983 for home computers and became the first successful mass @-@ market game featuring a first @-@ person viewpoint and wireframe 3D graphics , presented using a vector graphics display .
= = = Early first @-@ person shooters : 1987 – 1992 = = =
MIDI Maze , an early first @-@ person shooter released in 1987 for the Atari ST , featured maze @-@ based gameplay and character designs similar to Pac @-@ Man , but displayed in a first @-@ person perspective . Later ported to various systems - including the Game Boy and Super NES - under the title Faceball 2000 , it featured the first network multiplayer deathmatches , using a MIDI interface . It was a relatively minor game , but despite the inconvenience of connecting numerous machines together , its multiplayer mode gained a cult following : 1UP.com called it the " first multi @-@ player 3D shooter on a mainstream system " and the first " major LAN action game " .
Id Software 's Hovertank 3D pioneered ray casting technology in May 1991 to enable faster gameplay than 1980s vehicle simulators ; and six months later Catacomb 3 @-@ D introduced another advance , texture mapping , in November 1991 . The second game to use texture mapping was Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , a March 1992 action role @-@ playing game by Looking Glass Technologies that featured a first @-@ person viewpoint and an advanced graphics engine . In October 1990 , id developer John Romero learned about texture mapping from a phone call to Paul Neurath . Romero described the texture mapping technique to id programmer John Carmack , who remarked , " I can do that . " , and would feel motivated by Looking Glass 's example to do the same in Catacomb 3 @-@ D. Catacomb 3 @-@ D also introduced the display of the protagonist 's hand and weapon ( in this case , magical spells ) on the screen , whereas previously aspects of the player 's avatar were not visible . The experience of developing Ultima Underworld would make it possible for Looking Glass to create the Thief and System Shock series years later .
= = = Rise in popularity : 1992 – 1995 = = =
Wolfenstein 3D ( created by id Software and released in 1992 ) was an instant success , fueled largely by its shareware release , and has been credited with inventing the first @-@ person shooter genre . It was built on the ray casting technology pioneered in earlier games to create a revolutionary template for shooter game design , which first @-@ person shooters are still based upon today . Despite its violent themes , Wolfenstein largely escaped the controversy generated by the later Doom , although it was banned in Germany due to the use of Nazi iconography ; and the Super NES version replaced the enemy attack dogs with giant rats . Apogee Software , the publisher of Wolfenstein 3D , followed up its success with Blake Stone : Aliens of Gold in 1993 . The game was initially well @-@ received but sales rapidly declined in the wake of the success of id 's Doom , released a week later .
Doom , released as shareware in 1993 , refined Wolfenstein 3D 's template by adding improved textures , variations in height ( e.g. , stairs the player 's character could climb ) and effects such as flickering lights and patches of total darkness , creating a more believable 3D environment than Wolfenstein 3D 's more monotonous and simplistic levels . Doom allowed competitive matches between multiple players , termed " deathmatches , " and the game was responsible for the word 's subsequent entry into the video gaming lexicon . The game became so popular that its multiplayer features began to cause problems for companies whose networks were used to play the game .
Doom has been considered the most important first @-@ person shooter ever made . It was highly influential not only on subsequent shooter games but on video gaming in general , and has been available on almost every video gaming system since . Multiplayer gaming , which is now integral to the first @-@ person shooter genre , was first achieved successfully on a large scale with Doom . While its combination of gory violence , dark humor and hellish imagery garnered acclaim from critics , these attributes also generated criticism from religious groups , with other commentators labelling the game a " murder simulator . " There was further controversy when it emerged that the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre were fans of the game ; the families of several victims later unsuccessfully attempted to sue numerous video game companies - among them id Software - which the families claimed inspired the massacre .
In 1994 , Raven Software released Heretic , which used a modified version of the Doom engine that allowed for vertical aiming , an inventory system to store and select items , and gibs . On the Macintosh , Bungie 's release , in the same year , of Marathon , and its subsequent sequels , set the standard for first @-@ person shooters on that platform . Marathon pioneered or was an early adopter of several new features such as freelook , dual @-@ wielded and dual @-@ function weapons , versatile multiplayer modes ( such as King of the Hill , Kill the Man with the Ball , and cooperative play ) , friendly NPCs , and a strong emphasis on storytelling in addition to the action . Star Wars : Dark Forces was released in 1995 after LucasArts decided Star Wars would make appropriate material for a game in the style of Doom . However , Star Wars : Dark Forces added several technical features that Doom lacked , such as the ability to crouch or look up and down , Apogee 's Duke Nukem 3D , released in 1996 , was " the last of the great , sprite @-@ based shooters " winning acclaim for its humor based around stylised machismo as well as its gameplay . However , some found the game 's ( and later the whole series ' ) treatment of women to be derogatory and tasteless .
= = = Advances in 3D graphics : 1995 – 1999 = = =
In 1994 , Exact released Geograph Seal for the Japanese Sharp X68000 home computer . An obscure import title as far as the Western market was concerned , it was nonetheless " a fully 3D polygonal first @-@ person shooter " with innovative platform game mechanics and " free @-@ roaming " outdoor environments . The following year , Exact released its successor for the PlayStation console , Jumping Flash ! , which placed more emphasis on its platform elements . Descent ( released by Parallax Software in 1995 ) , a game in which the player pilots a spacecraft around caves and factory ducts , was a truly three @-@ dimensional first @-@ person shooter . It abandoned sprites and ray casting in favour of polygons and six degrees of freedom .
Shortly after the release of Duke Nukem 3D in 1996 , id Software released the much anticipated Quake . Like Doom , Quake was influential and genre @-@ defining , featuring fast @-@ paced , gory gameplay , but used 3D polygons instead of sprites . It was centered on online gaming and featured multiple match types still found in first @-@ person shooter games today . It was the first FPS game to have a following of player clans ( although the concept had existed previously in MechWarrior 2 ( Netmech ) with its Battletech lore as well as amongst MUD players ) , and would inspire popular LAN parties such as QuakeCon . The game 's popularity and use of 3D polygonal graphics also helped to expand the growing market for video card hardware ; and the additional support and encouragement for game modifications attracted players who wanted to tinker with the game and create their own modules .
Based on the James Bond film , Rare 's GoldenEye 007 was released in 1997 , and as of 2004 it was the best @-@ selling Nintendo 64 game in the United States . It was the first landmark console first @-@ person shooter and was highly acclaimed for its atmospheric single @-@ player levels and well designed multiplayer maps . It featured a sniper rifle , the ability to perform head @-@ shots , and the incorporation of stealth elements ; as well as Virtua Cop @-@ inspired features such as reloading , position @-@ dependent hit reaction animations , penalties for killing innocents , and an aiming system allowing players to aim at a precise spot on the screen .
Though not the first of its kind , Tom Clancy 's Rainbow Six started a popular trend of tactical first @-@ person shooters in 1998 . It featured a team @-@ based , realistic design and themes based around counter @-@ terrorism , requiring missions to be planned before execution and in it , a single hit was sometimes enough to kill a character . Medal of Honor , released in 1999 , started a long running proliferation of first @-@ person shooters set during World War II .
Valve 's Half @-@ Life was released in 1998 , based upon Quake 's graphics technology . Initially met with only mild anticipation , it went on to become an unprecedented commercial success . While previous first @-@ person shooters had focused on visceral gameplay with comparatively weak plots , Half @-@ Life had a strong narrative ; the game featured no cut scenes but remained in the first @-@ person perspective at all times . It featured innovations such as non @-@ enemy characters ( featured somewhat earlier in titles such as Strife ) but did not employ power @-@ ups in the traditional sense . Half @-@ Life was praised for its artificial intelligence , selection of weapons and attention to detail and " has since been recognized as one of the greatest games of all time " according to GameSpot . Its sequel Half @-@ Life 2 ( released in 2004 ) , was less influential though " arguably a more impressive game " .
Starsiege : Tribes , also released in 1998 , was a multiplayer online shooter allowing more than 32 players in a single match . It featured team @-@ based gameplay with a variety of specialized roles , and an unusual jet pack feature . The game was highly popular and later imitated by games such as the Battlefield series . Id 's Quake III Arena and Epic 's Unreal Tournament , both released in 1999 , were popular for their frenetic and accessible online multiplayer modes ; both featured very limited single player gameplay . Counter @-@ Strike was also released in 1999 , a Half @-@ Life modification with a counter @-@ terrorism theme . The game and later version Counter @-@ Strike : Source ( 2004 ) went on to become by far the most popular multiplayer first @-@ person shooter and computer game modification ever , with over 90 @,@ 000 players competing online at any one time during its peak .
= = = Online wars and return of the console : 2000 – 2006 = = =
At the E3 game show in 1999 , Bungie unveiled a real @-@ time strategy game called Halo ; at the following E3 , an overhauled third @-@ person shooter version was displayed . In 2000 , Bungie was bought by Microsoft . Halo was then revamped and released as a first @-@ person shooter ; it was one of the launch titles for the Xbox console . It was a runaway critical and commercial success , and is considered a premier console first @-@ person shooter . It featured narrative and storyline reminiscent of Bungie 's earlier Marathon series but now told largely through in @-@ game dialog and cut scenes . It also received acclaim for its characters , both the protagonist , Master Chief and its alien antagonists . The sequel , Halo 2 ( 2004 ) , brought the popularity of online @-@ gaming to the console market through the medium of Xbox Live , on which it was the most played game for almost two years .
Deus Ex , released by Ion Storm in 2000 , featured a levelling system similar to that found in role @-@ playing games ; it also had multiple narratives depending on how the player completed missions and won acclaim for its serious , artistic style . The Resident Evil games Survivor in 2000 and Dead Aim in 2003 attempted to combine the light gun and first @-@ person shooter genres along with survival horror elements . Metroid Prime , released in 2002 for the Nintendo GameCube , a highly praised console first @-@ person shooter , incorporated action adventure elements such as jumping puzzles and built on the Metroid series of 2D side @-@ scrolling platform @-@ adventures . Taking a " massive stride forward for first @-@ person games " , the game emphasised its adventure elements rather than shooting and was credited by journalist Chris Kohler with " breaking the genre free from the clutches of Doom " .
World War II Online , released in 2001 , featured a persistent and " massively multiplayer environment " , although IGN said that " the full realization of that environment is probably still a few years away . " Battlefield 1942 , another World War II shooter released in 2002 , featured large scale battles incorporating aircraft , naval vessels , land vehicles and infantry combat . In 2003 , PlanetSide allowed hundreds of players at once to compete in a persistent world , and was also promoted as the " world 's first massively multiplayer online first person shooter . " Doom 3 , released in 2004 , placed a greater emphasis on horror and frightening the player than previous games in the series and was a critically acclaimed best seller , though some commentators felt it lacked gameplay substance and innovation , putting too much emphasis on impressive graphics . In 2005 , a film based on Doom featured a sequence that emulated the viewpoint and action of the first @-@ person shooter , but was critically derided as deliberately unintelligent and gratuitously violent .
In 2005 , F.E.A.R. was acclaimed for successfully combining first @-@ person shooter gameplay with a Japanese horror atmosphere . Later in 2007 , Irrational Games ' BioShock would be acclaimed by some commentators as the best game of that year for its innovation in artistry , narrative and design , with some calling it the " spiritual successor " to Irrational 's earlier System Shock 2 .
Finally , the Crytek games Far Cry ( 2004 ) and Crysis ( 2007 ) as well as Ubisoft 's Far Cry 2 ( 2008 ) would break new ground in terms of graphics and large , open @-@ ended level design , whereas Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare ( 2007 ) , Resistance : Fall of Man ( 2006 ) and its sequel Resistance 2 ( 2008 ) presented increasingly refined linear levels and narratives , with the fast pace and linearity of the Call of Duty games bearing a resemblance to rail shooters . In 2006 , GamaSutra reported the first @-@ person shooter as one of the biggest and fastest growing video game genres in terms of revenue for publishers .
= = = 2007 – present = = =
In 2010 , researchers at Leiden University showed that playing first @-@ person shooter video games is associated with superior mental flexibility . Compared to non @-@ players , players of such games were found to require a significantly shorter reaction time while switching between complex tasks , possibly because they are required to develop a more responsive mindset to rapidly react to fast @-@ moving visual and auditory stimuli , and to shift back and forth between different sub @-@ duties . The use of motion detecting game controllers – particularly the Wii 's – " promised to make FPS controls more approachable and precise with an interface as simple as literally pointing to aim " and thus " dramatically reshape the first @-@ person shooter . " However , technical difficulties pertinent to functions other than aiming – such as maneuvering or reloading – prevented their widespread use among first @-@ person shooters . The Pointman user interface combines a motion @-@ sensitive gamepad , head tracker and sliding foot pedals to increase the precision and level of control over one 's avatar in military first @-@ person shooter games .
= Delaware Route 10 =
Delaware Route 10 ( DE 10 ) is a state highway in Kent County , Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 287 ( MD 287 ) at the Maryland border in Sandtown east to an interchange with DE 1 at the north gate of Dover Air Force Base . The route passes through the towns of Camden and Wyoming along the way . From the Maryland border to Camden , it is a two @-@ lane undivided road that passes through rural areas . DE 10 is a four @-@ lane divided highway called Lebanon Road between U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Camden and DE 1 . DE 10 has one alternate route , DE 10 Alternate ( DE 10 Alt . ) , which provides an alternate alignment between Willow Grove and Lebanon , passing through Woodside and Rising Sun .
What is now DE 10 between the Maryland border and Camden was constructed as a state highway in stages in the 1920s and early 1930s . The route was first designated by 1936 to follow its current alignment between the Maryland border and Camden and current Rising Sun Road to US 113 Alt. in Rising Sun . By 1969 , DE 10 was rerouted to follow Lebanon Road , a road completed by 1966 , to US 113 ( now DE 1 ) at Dover Air Force Base . Lebanon Road was improved into a divided highway by 1981 .
= = Route description = =
DE 10 begins at the Maryland border west of Sandtown , where it continues west into that state as MD 287 . From the state line the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Willow Grove Road through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes , passing through Sandtown . The road curves northeast and runs through Petersburg before coming to an intersection with the western terminus of DE 10 Alt . DE 10 passes the community of Willow Grove and continues northeast . The route heads through rural areas with increasing residential development and intersects DE 15 before crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line .
The road continues north into Camden and passes homes along with some businesses , becoming South Caesar Rodney Avenue at the South Street intersection . DE 10 forms the border between Wyoming to the west and Camden to the east before turning east onto East Camden Wyoming Avenue and fully entering Camden . The route continues through residential areas , intersecting US 13 Alt. in the center of Camden . On the eastern edge of Camden , the road comes to an intersection with US 13 .
Past the intersection with US 13 , DE 10 becomes Lebanon
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